Disease of Cattle

SPECIFIC DISEASES OF CATTLE
Diseases caused by viruses
Foot and mouth disease (FMD, Aphthous fever)
FMD is an acute viral and extremely contagious disease of cloven footed

animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and antelope. It is manifested by
vesicles and erosions in the muzzle, nares, mouth, feet, teats, udder and pillar
of the rumen. There are three main strains of viruses causing FMD, namely A,
O and C. Three additional strains, SAT 1, SAT 2 and SAT 3 have been
isolated from Africa and a further strain ASIA-1 from Asia and the Far East.
Transmission: Direct and indirect contact with infected animals and their
secretions including saliva, blood, urine, faeces, milk and semen, aerosol
droplet dispersion, infected animal by-products, swill containing scraps of
meat or other animal tissue and fomites and vaccines.
Antemortem findings:
Before vesicle formation:
1. Incubation is 1 - 5 days or longer

2. Morbidity: Nearly 100 %
3. Mortality: variable depending on the strain of virus and its virulence and
susceptibility of host; 50 % in young animals, 5 % in adults
4. Fever up to 41.7°C
5. Dullness
6. Lack of appetite
7. Drastic drop in milk production.
8. Uneasiness and muscle tremors
Vesicle formation:
9. Smacking and quivering of lips

10. Extensive salivation (Fig. 45) and drooling
11. Shaking of feet and lameness
The vesicles and later erosions are commonly found on the muzzle, tongue
(Fig. 46), oral cavity, teat and on the skin between and above the hoofs of the
feet. In more chronic cases in cattle the hoof become loose and the animal
may walk with characteristic “clicking” sound (Slippering).
Some strains of FMD, particularly in swine, sheep and goats cause erosions
instead of vesicles.
Postmortem findings :
1. Necrosis of heart muscle(tiger heart), usually only in young acutely

infected animals.
2. Ulcerative lesions on tongue, palate, gums, pillars of the rumen and
feet.
Judgement : In countries or in zones within a country free or nearly free of

FMD diseased or suspect animals are prohibited to be admitted in an
abattoir or slaughtered. If FMD is suspected on postmortem examination the
carcass and viscera are condemned and appropriate action recommended by
the regulatory authorities of the country must be taken. In countries where this
disease is present, the judgement should be in accordance with the current
animal health requirements, and consisted with effective public health
protection. Particular attention should be paid to secondary bacterial infections
and general findings. Sanitary measures should be taken to comply with
national animal health policy.
Remarks : Latent infections with Salmonella organisms were reported in

animals affected with FMD.
Differential diagnosis in bovine and ovine species : Vesicular stomatitis,

allergic stomatitis, feedlot glossitis, photosensitization, bluetongue, rinderpest,
infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, malignant catarrhal fever, bovine papular
stomatitis, bovine viral diarrhoea, pseudocowpox, ovine pox, contagious
ecthyma, footrot, mycotoxicosis and increased salt in concentrate.
Discussion : In order to prevent the spread of the virus in the abattoir, the
equipment and room should be disinfected with 2 % NaOH (caustic soda). In
some countries sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is used. The vehicle conveying
diseased animals should also be disinfected and abattoir personnel leaving
the abattoir should pass through a footbath with 1 % solution of NaOH.
The virus of FMD can survive in meat and meat products for a considerable
length of time. Outside the pH range of 6 – 9, viral infectivity is destroyed. A
bovine carcass matured at above +2°C produces a drop in the pH of muscle
tissue to between 5.3 – 5.7 within 24 hours of slaughter. This is caused by the
formation of sarcolactic acid. Quick freezing of the meat arrests acid
production and consequently the virus remains infective for about 6 months. In
salted meat at 4°C, the virus is still infective in bone marrow and lymph nodes
for 6 months. In blood clots in large vessels of cattle and swine, the virus is
infective for 2 months. The virus is inactivated by ultraviolet rays, acetic acid,
2 % lye and ethylene oxide. At high temperatures, the virus is only active for a
short period. 2 % NaOH solution inactivates the virus in 1 – 2 minutes. In dry
refuse in stalls, the virus remains infective for 14 days, 3 days on soil surfaces
in summer compared to 39 days in fall. It is also infective for 39 days in urine
and for 20 weeks on hay dried at 22°C. The virus can be destroyed with 0.5 %
citric or lactic acid, by cooking meat to an internal temperature of 69°C and by
pasteurization processes of milk.
Fig. 45: Excessive salivation in a cow affected with FMD.
Fig 46: FMD. Extensive areas of eroded epithelium on a bovine tongue.
Rinderpest (RP)
Rinderpest is an acute, highly contagious, fatal viral disease of cattle,

buffalo and wild ruminants manifested by inflammation, haemorrhage,
erosions of the digestive tract, wasting and often bloody diarrhoea. Some
swine species are also susceptible. Man is not susceptible to RP virus.
Transmission : Direct contact with infected animals or their excretions and

secretions and fomites. The virus appears in the blood and in secretions
before the onset of clinical signs and this may cause infection in abattoirs and
stockyards.
Antemortem findings :
1. Incubation: 3 – 10 days or longer

2. Morbidity: Up to 100 % in a susceptible herd
3. Mortality: 50 % and may reach 90 – 95 %
4. High fever (41–42°C)
5. Nasal discharge and excessive salivation
6. Punched out erosions in the mouth (Fig. 47)
7. Loss of appetite and depression
8. Abdominal pain (grunting, arched back)
9. Constipation followed by bloody diarrhoea and straining
10. Dehydration and rough hair coat
11. Marked debility
12. Abortion
13. The classical “milk fever position” in cattle
1. Punched out erosions in the oesophagus

2. Edema or emphysema of the lungs
3. Haemorrhage in the spleen, gallbladder and urinary bladder
4. Haemorrhagic or ulcerative lesions in the omasum
5. Congested abomasum filled with bloody fluid. Ulcers may also be
observed.
6. Severe congestion and haemorrhage in the intestine and enlarged and
necrotic Peyer's patches (Fig. 48)
7. Last portion of the large intestine and rectum are haemorrhagic showing
“tiger stripping” of longitudinal folds
8. Enlarged and edematous lymph nodes
9. Emaciated carcass
Judgement : The carcass derived from a feverish and debilitated animal

showing the sign of acute disease on antemortem examination should
be condemned. In the areas free of RP and in zones where final stages of
eradication exist, the animals are also condemned. In endemic zones, if acute
symptoms of the disease are not present during clinical examination, the
carcass may have limited distribution. In areas affected with outbreak which
are protected by vaccination, heat treatment of meat is suggested if
economically worthwhile. The affected organs are condemned.
Remarks : Rinderpest virus is sensitive to environmental changes and is

destroyed by heat, drying and great number of disinfectants.
Differential diagnosis : Bovine viral diarrhoea, malignant catarrhal fever,

infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, bluetongue, coccidiosis, foot and mouth
disease, vesicular and necrotic stomatitis and bovine papular stomatitis.
Vesicular diseases do not have accompanying haemorrhage and blisters
should be differentiated from erosions (ulcers) seen at RP.
Fig. 47: Rinderpest Erosions on the dental pad and the hard palate which
resemble FMD.
Fig. 48: The mucosal surface of Peyer's Patches showing necrosis and
congestion.
Vesicular stomatitis (VS)
This is a viral disease of ruminants, horses and swine characterized by

vesicular lesions of the mouth, feet and teats. VS virus has two
immunologically distinct serotypes, Indiana and New Jersey.
Transmission : In susceptible animals, contamination of pre-existing

abrasions with saliva or lesion material, by ingestion of contaminated pasture
or during milking within dairy herds. Mechanical transmission by biting
arthropods is also a possibility. The virus is isolated from mites, tropical sand
flies and mosquitos.
1. Fever
2. Mouth lesions in cattle and horses
3. Vesicles tend to disappear quickly and only papules may be seen in
cattle outbreaks.
4. Marked weight loss and cessation of lactation in dairy cows.
5. Chewing movements and profuse salivation
6. Refuse food but eagerly accept water
7. Horses rub lips on edges of mangers
8. Foot lesions occur in about 50 % cases in cattle.
9. Lameness
10. Teat lesion may occur in all species.
1. The skin and mucous membrane lesions resemble the lesions of other
vesicular diseases.
2. Secondary bacterial or fungal infections
3. Mastitis
Judgement : The carcass of an animal affected with vesicular stomatitis

is approved if the disease is not in the acute stage and secondary changes
are not present. Parts of the affected carcass and organs are condemned. A
carcass showing acute changes and systemic lesions is condemned. If VS is
not confirmed by laboratory examination, the judgement will be the same as
for the FMD.
Differential diagnosis : Foot and mouth disease, swine vesicular exanthema,

vesicular disease, bovine papular stomatitis
The mouth and muzzle lesions: Bovine viral diarrhoea, rinderpest, mycotic
stomatitis, photosensitization and Potomac valley fever in horses
Teat lesions: Cowpox, pseudo-cowpox, pseudo-lumpy skin disease and

bovine herpes mammillitis
Fig. 49: Vesicular stomatitis. Tongue lesions.
Malignant catarrhal fever (MCF)
An acute viral disease of cattle, deer, bison and buffalo characterized by

inflammation of mucous membranes of the nose, eyes, corneal opacity,
profuse nasal discharge and enlargement of lymph nodes. MCF is arbitrarily
divided into peracute, intestinal, head-eye and mild forms according to
antemortem findings. It is not communicable to man.
Transmission: Close contact between cattle and wildebeest (gnu, antelope),

by common use of drinking troughs or by direct contact between cattle and
newborn wildebeest and placenta of parturient dams. In American or
European MCF, cattle are infected from sheep.
1. Incubation: 9 – 44 days
2. Morbidity is low and mortality is high
3. Increased temperature
4. Bilateral ocular and nasal discharges
5. Dyspnea and cyanosis
6. Loss of appetite
7. Encrustation of muzzle and eczema of the perineum, scrotum and udder
8. Erosions on the lips, tongue, gums, soft and hard palate
9. Swollen reddened eyelids, corneal opacity and conjunctivitis (Fig. 50)
10. Photophobia associated with corneal opacity and blindness
11. Reluctance to swallow because of oesophageal erosions and
drooling
12. Enlarged body lymph nodes
13. Rarely, uncoordinated movements and shivering
1. Lesions are not present in acute cases

2. Crater like erosions of the nose, mouth, conjunctiva, oesophagus and
gastrointestinal tract
3. Lungs may be congested, swollen or emphysematous
4. White areas in the kidneys
5. Swollen and reddened abomasal folds
6. Intestinal edema and petechial haemorrhage
7. “Tiger striping” in the distal colon (Fig. 51)
8. Enlarged and reddened lymph nodes
9. Dehydrated and emaciated carcass
Judgement :In the early stages of the disease, when fever, emaciation and
systemic signs are lacking, the carcass of the affected animal may
be approved as inferior meat. Otherwise, when fever, emaciation and
systemic signs are present, the entire carcass and viscera are condemned.
The condemned material may be used for rendering.
Differential diagnosis : Bluetongue, rinderpest, bovine viral

diarrhoea/mucosal disease, foot and mouth disease, vesicular stomatitis
Fig. 50: Malignant catarrhal fever Early stages of corneal opacity,
conjunctivitis and the reddening of the eye lids.
Fig. 51: Malignant catarrhal fever. “Tiger striping” in the distal colon.
Rift valley fever (RVF) (see Chapter 5)
Rabies
This is an acute infectious viral disease of the central nervous system in

mammals.
Transmission : It is usually transmitted through the saliva by a bite from a

rabid animal, commonly the dog or jackal. Man is infected the same way.
Furious form
1. Incubation from 2 weeks to 6 months or longer

2. Restlessness
3. Aggressive, may attack other animals
4. Sexual excitement
5. Bellowing
6. Paralysis and death
Paralytic form
7. Sagging and swaying of the hind quarters

8. Drooling and salivation
9. The tail is held to one side
10. Tenesmus or paralysis of the anus
11. Paralysis
12. The animal falls to the ground
13. Death after 48 hours of decubitus
Postmortem findings: Possible inflammation of gastrointestinal mucosa
Judgement: In endemic areas carcasses may be approved if the animal was

bitten eight days before slaughter and within 48 hours of slaughter. The bite
area and surrounding tissue must becondemned, and prevention taken to
prevent occupational hazards.
Differential diagnosis : Indigestion, milk fever or acetonemia when first seen,

foreign body in the mouth, early infectious disease, poisoning
Discussion: In a diseased animal, the virus is found in saliva, salivary gland

and nervous tissue. Extreme caution should be instituted in abattoirs in order
to prevent occupational hazards. Abattoir personnel can contract the disease
through surface contact with infected tissue. Infection does not occur by
consumption of meat from a rabid animal.
Slaughter may be prohibited during a quarantine period of 8 months following

exposure to the disease. An animal suspected of having rabies should be
placed under a “Held tag”. The warning sign should read “The animal is not to
be handled”. Any person who was in touch with the animal should thoroughly
wash his/her hands with strong soap and/or disinfectant. If possible, the
wound should be opened to encourage bleeding in order to flush out the virus
and expose the deeper area of the wound. Tincture of iodine (up to 0.001 %
aqueous solution of iodine or ethanol 43.70%) should be further applied.
Lumpy skin disease
Acute pox viral disease of cattle manifested with sudden appearance of

nodules on the skin.
Transmission : Insect vectors by direct and indirect transmission. Seasonal
and geographic distribution.
2. Fluctuating fever
3. Diarrhoea
4. Nasal discharge and salivation
5. The first lesion appear in the perineum
6. Various sized cutaneous nodules (Fig. 52) may occur throughout the
body
7. Skin lesions may show scab formation
8. Swelling of superficial lymph nodes and limbs, and lameness
9. Infertility and abortion
10. Secondary infection may lead to joint and tendon inflammation
1. Ulcerative lesions in the mucosa of the respiratory and digestive tract

2. Reddish, haemorrhagic to whitish lesions in the lungs
3. Edema (interlobular) and nodules in the lungs (Fig. 53)
4. Heart lesion (endocardium)
5. Thrombosis of skin vessels followed by cutaneous infarction and
sloughing.
Judgement : Carcass of an animal showing mild cutaneous lesions and no

fever associated with general signs of infection is conditionally
approved pending heat treatment. The affected parts of the carcass and
organs are condemned, Carcass of an animal showing, on antemortem
examination, generalized acute infection accompanied with fever,
is condemned.
Differential diagnosis : Allergies, screw-worm myiasis, urticaria,

dermatophilosis (streptothricosis), bovine herpes dermophatic infection, cattle
grubs, vesicular disease, bovine ephemeral fever, photosensitization,
besnoitiosis (elephant skin disease), sweating weakness of calves, bovine
farcy and skin form of sporadic bovine lymphomatosis
Fig. 52: Lumpy skin disease. Various sized cutancous nodules in a severe
case of lumpy skin disease.
Fig. 53: Cut surface of the nodules in the parenchyma of the lung and
interlobular edema.
Bovine herpes dermophatic disease (BHD)
A herpes virus infection of cattle and sometimes sheep and goats manifested
by cutaneous lesions and fever.
Transmission : Biting insects, mechanical milking
Antemortem and postmortem findings :
1. Incubation: 3–7 days

2. Morbidity: High in primary infections
3. Fever
4. Cutaneous nodules. At first these are round, then later become flattened
and covered with dry scabs (Fig. 54).
5. Hairless skin is normal after the scab falls off.
6. Ulcerative lesions of the teats and udder (Fig. 55)
7. Erosions between the digits
Microscopy reveals intranuclear inclusions and giant cells in the skin.
Judgement : Carcass of an animal affected with BHD is disposed similar to

an animal affected with lumpy skin disease
Differential diagnosis : Dermatophilis infection, cowpox and pseudocowpox,

vesicular stomatitis and lumpy skin disease. The latter is differentiated from
BHD by enlarged lymph nodes.
Fig. 54: Bovine herps dermophatic disease. Dried scabs on the skin of the
neck.
Fig. 55: BHD.
Ulcerative lesions of the teats and udder.
Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR)
IBR is a highly infectious viral respiratory disease of cattle,

goats and pigs manifested by inflammation of respiratory passages and
pustular lesions on the male and female genital organs. Generally four forms
of the disease are recognized; the respiratory form, the genital form, the
enteric form and the encephalitic form.
Transmission: Respiratory droplet and nasal exudate in the respiratory form

of IBR. Obstetrical operations, coitus and licking of genitalia of affected
animals in the genital form of disease.
Respiratory form
2. Fever
3. Nasal and ocular discharge and red, swollen conjunctiva
4. Drop in milk yield
5. Breathing through the mouth and salivation (Fig. 56)
6. Hyperaemia of the nasal mucosa and necrotic areas on the nasal
septum
7. Secondary bronchopneumonia
8. Abortion
Genital form
9. Frequent urination and tail elevation

10. Edematous swelling of the vulva and pustule formation on
reddened vaginal mucosa
11. Mucoid or mucopurulent exudate in the vagina
Enteric form
12. Severe oral and stomach necrosis in new born animals

13. High mortality
The encephalitic form in calves
14. Depression
15. Excitement
16. High mortality
Postmortem findings:
1. Acute inflammation of the larynx, trachea (Fig. 57) and bronchi

2. Profuse fibrino-purulent exudate in the upper respiratory tract in severe
cases
3. Chronic ulcerative gastro-enteritis in feedlot cattle
4. Lung emphysema
5. Secondary bronchopneumonia
Judgement: Carcass of an animal affected with IBR is approved if signs of

acute infection are not present and the animal is in good body condition.
Differential diagnosis: Pneumonic pasteurellosis, bovine viral diarrhoea,

malignant catarrhal fever and calf diphtheria
Fig. 56: Breathing through the mouth and salivation in a bovine affected with
IBR.
Fig. 57: IBR. Acute inflammation of the larynx and trachea
Bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD)
This is an infectious viral disease of cattle manifested by an active erosive

stomatitis, gastroenteritis and diarrhoea.
Transmission: Direct contact with clinically sick or carrier animals, indirect

contact with feedstuffs or fomites contaminated with urine, nasal and oral
secretions or faeces and contact with aborted fetuses. Transmission through
aerosol droplet dispersion or by insect vector may also be a possibility. Virus
may persist in recovered and chronically ill cattle which are considered a
potential source of infection.
2. Fever
3. Congestion and erosions in the mucous membranes of the oral cavity
4. Depression and anorexia
5. Cough, polypnea and salivation
6. Dehydration and debilitation
7. Foul-smelling diarrhoea
8. Cessation of rumination
9. Reduced milk supply
10. Abortion in pregnant cows
11. Laminitis
12. Congenital anomalies of the brain (cerebellar ataxia) and arthritis
in young calves
1. Shallow erosions present on the entrance of the nostrils, mouth,

pharynx, larynx, oesophagus, rumen (Fig. 58), omasum, abomasum
(Fig. 59), caecum and less frequently in Peyer's patches in the small
intestine.
2. Erythema of the mucosa with submucosal haemorrhage in the
abomasum, small intestine, caecum and colon. Stripped appearance on
the caecal and colon mucosa is similar to that seen in rinderpest.
3. Cerebral hypoplasia and cataracts in calves.
Judgement: Carcass and viscera of an animal, which on antemortem

examination showed generalized signs of acute infection accompanied with
fever and/or emaciation, are condemned. Chronic cases of BVD with no
systemic involvement have a favourable judgement of carcass, viscera and
organs.
Differential diagnosis : Malignant catarrhal fever, rinderpest, blue tongue

and vesicular diseases. The latter produce vesicles which are not present in
BVD. Diseases with no oral lesion nor diarrhoea include salmonellosis,
Johne's disease and parasitism.
Fig. 58: BVD. Congestion and erosions in the ruminal mucosa.
Fig. 59: BVD. Inflammation of the abomasum (abomasitis, gastritis).
Bovine leukosis
Bovine leukosis is a persistent and malignant viral disease of the

lymphoreticular system. It occurs in all breeds and in both sexes.
Bovine leukosis is observed in two forms : a) the sporadic and b)

the enzootic form. The sporadic form is rare and occurs in cattle under three
years of age. The enzootic form is most commonly found in adult cattle,
particularly in cull cows.
Transmission: By small amounts of infected blood (e.g. infected needles,

dehorning), vertical transmission from the dam to the calf (3 – 20 % of calves
may become infected) and by colostrum or milk (less than 2 %). Insect
transmission is also a possibility; higher rates of infection were reported in the
summer.
1. Laboured breathing due to heart involvement

2. Persistent diarrhoea following infiltration of the abomasum wall by
neoplastic cells
3. Marked enlargement of several superficial lymph nodes
4. Edema of the brisket and the intermandibular region
5. Paralysis of the hind legs due to tumour compression of the spinal cord
6. Protrusion of the eye as a result of tumour invasion of the orbital cavity
7. Debilitation or emaciation
8. Pale mucosal surface
9. Bloated animal
10. Swelling of the neck when thymus is involved
11. Cutaneous nodules in the terminal stage
1. Lymph node enlargement (clay-like consistency)

2. Enlargement of spleen (splenomegaly)
3. Thin watery blood
4. Neoplastic lesions in the heart (Fig. 60), intestines (Fig. 61) (Virtually all
of the organs may be involved.)
5. Ventral edema
6. Enlarged haemolymph nodes
Judgement: Carcass of an animal affected with leukosis (lymphosarcoma)

is condemned. When a diagnosis cannot be made by postmortem findings, a
laboratory diagnosis should be performed. If lymph node hyperplasia is the
histological diagnosis, the carcass is approved for human consumption.
Depending on disease prevalence, leukosis reactors may be
totally approved orconditionally approved pending heat treatment.
Differential diagnosis : Lymphadenitis, lymphoid hyperplasia, hyperplastic

haemolymph nodes, pericarditis, enlarged spleen in septicemic conditions,
other neoplasms and parasitism.
Fig. 60: Leukosis. Neoplastic mass infiltrating the heart muscle.
Fig. 61: Leukosis. Neoplastic growths in the intestine. Both lesions were
histologically confirmed as lymphosarcoma.
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, “Mad cow disease”)
BSE is a progressive and fatal disease of adult cattle characterized by a

progressive degeneration of the central nervous system causing neurological
signs in animals. Some scientists suspect that an unusual and atypical virus-
like transmissible agent called a prion is associated with the etiology of BSE.
Prion is the term currently used in literature.
Transmission : The ingestion of protein feed supplements prepared from

sheep meat or sheep by products contaminated with scrapie virus.
1. Incubation period 2 – 8 years

2. Reduction in milk production
3. Weight loss, while maintaining good appetite
4. Behaviour changes (nervousness and aggressiveness), kicking in the
milking parlour
The progressive degeneration of the central nervous system causes
neurologic signs:
5. Apprehension, teeth grinding

6. Tremors and abnormal ear position
7. Abnormal posture and disorientation
8. Incoordination and stiff gait
9. Paresis
10. Recumbency and death
Fig. 62: BSE. Degenerative lesion in the cerebral cortex.
Diagnosis can be confirmed only on the postmortem histological examination

of brain tissue. Microscopic lesions include degenerative lesions of the
cerebral cortex (Fig. 62), medulla and central grey matter of the midbrain.
Judgement : Carcass is condemned.
Differential diagnosis : Rabies, listeriosis, bovine pseudorabies (mad itch),

other brain infections in cattle, the nervous type of acetonemia, hypocalcemia,
hypophosphatemia and hypomagnesemic tetany
Discussion : The first reported cases of this disease were in dairy cows in
1987 from different locations in the United Kingdom. The disease is now also
recognized in some other countries in and outside Europe. BSE belongs to a
group of human and animal diseases classified as transmissible spongiform
encephalopathies. Significant human diseases of this group are Kuru and
Creutzfeldt-Jacob's disease. Scrapie, which affects sheep and goats also
belongs in this group.
Researchers are trying establish if BSE and scrapie have the same causative
agent, and if the modified form of the scrapie agent is also a possible
causative agent of BSE. Prions are also the causative agents of transmissible
mink encephalopathy (TME) and of chronic wasting disease (CWD) of mule
deer and elk.
BSE affects only adult animals and the incidence within-herd is low. The
breed, gender or year and seasons are not associated with the development
of this disease, nor is contact with sheep. In order to control this disease, in
the U.K. the following actions were taken:
1. Ruminant derived protein is prohibited in all ruminant rations.

2. The consumption of milk from affected animals by humans or animals is
also prohibited.
3. Bovine brain cannot be used for human consumption.
4. The mandatory slaughter of all animals manifesting signs of BSE and
compensation awarded to the owner.
Diseases caused by Rickettsia and Mycoplasma spp.
Heartwater (Hydropericardium)
“Black dung” when affecting African cattle and buffalo
“Sheep fever” when seen in sheep
Heartwater is an acute, non contagious disease of cattle, sheep, goats,

antelopes and wild ruminants. It is caused by the rickettsial organism Cowdria
(Rickettsia) ruminantium.
Transmission: Heartwater is transmitted by various species of Amblyomma

ticks. Transstadial transmission of the organism occur in vector ticks.
Peracute form
1. Incubation 14 – 28 days
2. Fever
3. Diarrhoea
4. Convulsions and death
Acute form
5. Fever up to 41.7°C
6. Rapid breathing
7. Lack of appetite, depression and listlessness
Nervous signs include
8. Twitching of the eyelids

9. Protrusion of the tongue
10. Champing of the jaw
11. Walking in circles
12. Paddling with legs in recumbent animals
13. Opisthotonos and convulsions
1. Hydropericardium
2. Hydrothorax
3. Pulmonary edema and ascites
4. Haemorrhagic gastroenteritis
5. Enlarged liver, spleen and lymph nodes
6. Haemorrhage in the abomasum and intestine
7. Edema and haemorrhage of the brain
Judgement : Carcass of an animal affected with heartwater is condemned in

the acute stage of the disease. In a chronic case, the carcass may be
approved if adequately bled and muscles are wholesome in colour and
texture. The affected organs are condemned.
Differential diagnosis : Peracute form of heartwater should be differentiated

from anthrax. The acute nervous form of the disease is differentiated from
tetanus, rabies, cerebral trypanosomiasis, strychnine poisoning,
piroplasmosis, theileriosis, lead and organophosphate poisoning, parasitism,
arsenical poisoning and poisoning with certain plants.
Fig. 63 : Heartwater Cowdria ruminantium in bovine brain smear (arrow).
Q fever (Queensland fever, Nine mile fever, American Q fever, Australian Q

fever)
Q fever is a disease of cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, camels, fowl, dogs, cats,
pigeons and humans. It is caused by Coxiella burnetii. Q fever is an
occupational disease of livestock personnel. farmers and laboratory
personnel.
Transmission : Ticks spread infection to cattle which develop mild disease.

The faeces deposited on animal hide by ticks may be the source of infection
for humans. Q fever is also transmitted by inhalation or dust contaminated
with infected animal secreta or excreta. Healthy animals may serve as a
carrier and shed the organism in milk, urine, faeces, placenta and fetal fluids.
They harbour the infection and no clinical signs are observed. Contaminated
meat and water are further means of infection read.
field cases there are no clinical signs of this disease. In the disease produced
by the inoculation of cows via the udder the clinical signs may include:
1. Acute mastitis
3. Serous nasal and lacrimal discharge
4. Difficult breathing
5. Atony of the rumen
6. Abortion in pregnant cows
No gross lesions are reported in cattle.
Discussions : Coxiella burnetii is highly resistant and was isolated from farm
soil 6 months after the removal of animals. It may persist in the udder up to 3
years. The temperatures of milk pasteurisation (in bulk at 63°C for 30 minutes
or the common method at 72°C for 15 seconds) kill this agent in milk.
Vaccination will reduce shedding of organisms in milk.
This disease in humans has a sudden onset and is characterized by loss of

appetite, weakness and generalized malaise lasting from 1 – 2 weeks.
Pneumonia may also be present. Death may be caused by endocarditis in
older people. More severe symptoms of Q fever are noticed.
Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia
This is an acute, subacute or chronic highly infectious disease of cattle

caused by Mycoplasma mycoides var, mycoides.
Transmission : Aerosol and droplet infection from the infected animals. The
recovered animal called “lungers” act as carriers and shedders, especially
under stress.
1. Incubation: acute 10 – 14 days, chronic 3 – 6 months

2. Morbidity: 90 % in susceptible cattle
3. Mortality: 10 – 50 %
4. Fever
5. Depression
6. Lack of appetite and loss of weight
7. Coughing on exercise
8. Shallow rapid respiration, grunting and gurgling
9. Extended neck, lowered head and open mouth
10. Arched back and outward rotated elbow
11. Arthritis in young animals
1. Fibrinous inflammation of the pleura (pleuritis)

2. Straw coloured fluid in the thorax (Fig. 64)
3. Lobar pneumonia with red hepatization, marbled appearance of lung
lobules (Fig. 65) due to thickening of interlobular septae and interlobular
pulmonary edema
4. Enlarged mediastinal lymph nodes
5. Walled-off sequestra formation in chronic cases
6. Haemorrhage in the heart
7. Arthritis and tenosynovitis
Judgement : Carcass of an animal affected with contagious bovine

pleuropneumonia is condemned if the disease is associated with fever,
inadequate bleeding of carcass, serous infiltration of the brisket and
emaciation. Recovered animals showing no generalized signs of the disease
are approved and the affected organs are condemned.
Differential diagnosis : Shipping fever (Pasteurellosis). East coast fever,

foreign body pneumonia, IBR, tuberculosis, chlamidial infections and
lungworms
Fig. 64: Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. Straw coloured fluid in the
thorax and partial lung hepatization.
Fig. 65: Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. Lobar pneumonia with red

hepatization and marbled appearnce of lung lobules.
Diseases caused by bacteria
Black quarter (Black leg)
Black quarter is an acute infectious disease of cattle and sheep manifested by

severe inflammation of the muscle with high mortality. It is caused
by Clostridium chauvoei.
Transmission : The organisms of blackleg are found in the soil. During

grazing, organisms may enter the digestive tract of a susceptible
animal. Clostridium chauvoei is also found in the digestive tract of healthy
animals. In sheep the agent is transmitted through wounds at shearing,
docking and castration and during lambing in ewes.
1. High fever (41°C)
2. Lameness
3. Loss of appetite
4. Discoloured, dry or cracked skin
5. Stiff gait and reluctance to move
6. Crepitating swellings often on the hips and shoulder
7. In sheep gaseous crepitation cannot be felt before death
1. Laying on one side with affected hind leg stuck out. Commonly seen in
cattle
2. Bloating of carcass and blood stained frothy exudates from the nostrils
and anus
3. Dark red to black muscle of the loin, back or leg (Fig. 66)
4. Spongelike bubbly appearance of the muscles with a peculiar rancid
odour
5. Yellowish, gelatinous subcutaneous tissue and associated gas bubbles
6. Blood stained fluid in body cavities
Fig. 66: Black leg. Dark-red skeletal muscle of a heifer showing haemorrhage,
necrosis, edema and emphysema.
Judgement : Carcasses of animals affected with black leg should

be condemned. It is prohibited to slaughter and dress an animal diagnosed
with this disease at antemortem examination.
Differential diagnosis : Other acute Clostridial infections, lightning strike,

anthrax, bacillary haemoglobinuria, lactation tetany, extensive haemorrhage
and acute lead poisoning.
Discussion : Black leg is worldwide in distribution. Well nourished animals

are more frequently affected. It is also more commonly seen in grass fed
animals than in stall fed animals. Clostridia are soil-borne organisms which
cause disease by releasing toxins. Specific antitoxin and antibiotics are rarely
effective in the treatment of this disease. An adequate preventive vaccination
program may be the most effective method in protecting the animals from
black leg.
Botulism
Botulism is a disease manifested by progressive muscular paralysis. It is seen

in humans, animals, birds and fish and is caused by various strains
of Clostridium botulinum.
Transmission : Decomposed flesh and bones are the source of infection for
animals. Incubation period 12 – 24 hours. However, 2 hours up to 14 days
incubation period has been recorded.
In cattle and horses
1. Restlessness
2. Knuckling and incoordination
3. Paralysed tongue and drooling of saliva
4. Sternal recumbency
5. Progressive muscular paralysis from hindquarters to frontquarters, head
and neck (Fig. 67)
In sheep
6. Serous nasal discharge and salivation
7. Abdominal respiration
8. Stiffness upon walking and incoordination
9. Switching of the tail on the side
10. Limb paralysis and death
In pigs
11. Lack of appetite, refusal to drink and vomiting

12. Pupillary dilatation
13. Muscular paralysis
Postmortem findings : Foreign material in fore-stomachs or stomachs may

be suggestive of botulism.
Judgement : Total condemnation of carcass because of human hazards.
Differential diagnosis : Parturient paresis, paralytic rabies, equine

encephalomyelitis, ragwort poisoning in horses, miscellaneous plant
poisoning.
In sheep - louping ill, hypocalcemia and some cases of scrapie.
Discussion : Cl. botulinum is found in the digestive tract of herbivores. Soil

and water contamination occurs from faeces and decomposing carcasses.
The proliferation of Cl. botulinum organisms may also occur in decaying
vegetable material. Sporadic outbreaks of botulism are reported in most
countries. Outbreaks of botulism in cattle and sheep in Australia, Southern
Africa and the Gulf coast area of the United States are associated with
phosphorus deficient diets and ingestion of carrion. Cattle, sheep and rarely
swine are susceptible to this disease. Dogs and cats are resistant.
Cl. botulinum produces neurotoxin which causes functional paralysis. Seven

strains of this organism (“ A through G ”) are distinguished according to
immunological differences. The diseases caused by various strains of this
agent are frequently regarded as a separate entity owing to some of their
prominent signs. Names such as “Bulbar paralysis in cattle”, “Lamsiekte in
sheep” in South Africa (meaning lame sickness), and “Limberneck in poultry”
are often used. Cl. botulinum is often found in anaerobic conditions of deep
wounds. It produces neuroparalytic exotoxins which cause symptoms of the
disease. This organism will grow and produce toxins if the temperature is
between 10 – 50°C, pH above 4.6. water activity (AW) above 0.93 and
anaerobic conditions exist. Fresh meats are implicated with less than 10 % of
botulism outbreaks. The major sources of this organism are fish, home cured
meats, home canned vegetables and fruit. Eggs, milk and their products are
rarely the cause of an outbreak. Most frequently, raw, insufficiently cooked
foods or foods not fully salted, cured, dried or smoked are implicated.
Botulism toxins are heat labile and food suspected of having the organism
should be boiled before serving.
In man the signs of the disease are weakness, dizziness, blurred or double
vision, dilatation of pupils, dry mouth, difficulties in breathing and speech,
progressive muscular weakness, respiratory failure and death. Pneumonia
may be a complication associated with botulism in man.
Fig. 67: Botulism. Sternal recumbency. Muscular paralysis of hind and front
quarters.
Malignant edema
Malignant edema is a bacterial disease of cattle, sheep, goats, swine, horses

and poultry. It is caused by Clostridium septicum and is manifested by wound
infection. The infection is commonly soil-borne. Deep wounds associated with
trauma provide ideal condition for the growth of this agent.
1. Fever 41 – 42°C
2. Depression and weakness
3. Muscle tremor and lameness
4. Soft doughy swelling and erythema around the infection site
1. Gangrene of the skin in area of infection site

2. Foul putrid odour is frequently present
3. Gelatinous exudate in the subcutaneous and intramuscular connective
tissue
4. Subserosal haemorrhage
5. Accumulation of sero-sanguineous fluid in body cavities
6. Muscle tissue is dark-red but has little or no gas
Judgement : Carcasses of animals affected with malignant edema

are condemned.
Differential diagnosis: Blackleg. In malignant edema the muscle is not

involved and the wound site is noted. Anthrax in pigs. Subcutaneous edema in
the throat region is present.
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis is a chronic disease of many animal species and poultry caused

by bacteria of the genus Mycobacterium. It is characterized by development of
tubercles in the organs of most species. Bovine tuberculosis is caused
by Mycobacterium bovis. It is a significant zoonotic disease.
Transmission : An infected animal is the main source of transmission. The

organisms are excreted in the exhaled air and in all secretions and excretions.
Inhalation is the chief mode of entry and for calves infected milk is an
important source of infection. When infection has occurred tuberculosis may
spread: a) by primary complex (lesion at point of entry and the local lymph
node) and b) by dissemination from primary complex.
1. Low grade fever
2. Chronic intermittent hacking cough and associated pneumonia
3. Difficult breathing
4. Weakness and loss of appetite
5. Emaciation
6. Swelling superficial body lymph nodes
1. Tuberculous granuloma in the lymph nodes of the head, lungs (Fig. 68),
intestine and carcass. These have usually a well defined capsule
enclosing a caseous mass with a calcified centre. They are usually
yellow in colour in cattle, white in buffaloes and greyish white in other
animals.
2. Active lesions may have a reddened periphery and caseous mass in the
centre of a lymph node.
3. Inactive lesions may be calcified and encapsulated
4. Nodules on the pleura and peritoneum
5. Lesions in the lungs (Fig. 69), liver, spleen, kidney
6. Bronchopneumonia
7. Firmer and enlarged udder, particularly rear quarters
8. Lesions in the meninges, bone marrow and joints
The diagnosis may be confirmed by making a smear of the lesion and with
Ziehl-Neelsen. The TB bacterium is a very small red staining bacillus.
Fig. 68: Tuberculous granuloma in the mediastinal lymph nodes. M. bovis was
isolated.
Fig. 69: Lesion of tuberculosis in the lungs.
Discussion : Mycobacteria invade cattle by respiratory (90 – 95 %) and oral

routes (5–10 %). Congenital infection in the bovine fetus occurs from an
infected dam. Tuberculosis lesions can be classified as acute miliary, nodular
lesions and chronic organ tuberculosis. Young calves are infected by
ingestion of contaminated milk. The incidence of human tuberculosis caused
by Mycobacterium bovis has markedly dropped with the pasteurization of milk.
It also has dropped in areas where programs of tuberculosis eradication are in
place. Man is susceptible to the bovine type. In cattle, lesions of tuberculosis
caused by the avian type are commonly found in the mesenteric lymph nodes.
Tuberculosis in small ruminants is rare. In pigs the disease may be caused by
the bovine and avian types. Superinfection is specific in cattle.
Judgement : Carcass of an animal affected with tuberculosis requires

additional postmortem examination of the lymph nodes, joints, bones and
meninges. It is suggested that the Codex Alimentarius judgement
recommendations for cattle and buffalo carcasses be followed.
Carcasses are condemned

i. where an eradication scheme has terminated or in cases of residual
infection or re-infection
ii. in final stages of eradication - natural prevalence low
iii. during early stages in high prevalence areas
Carcass of a reactor animal without lesions may be approved for limited

distribution. If the economic situation permits, this carcass should
be condemned. Heat treatment of meat is suggested during early and final
stages of an eradication programme: in low and high prevalence areas where
one or more organs are affected, and where miliary lesions, signs of
generalization or recent haematogenous spread are not observed. If the
economical situation permits, then the carcass is condemned.
In some countries, the carcass is approved if inactive lesions (calcified and/or

encapsulated) are observed in organs and without generalization in lymph
nodes of carcass.
Differential diagnosis : Lung and lymph node abscess, pleurisy. pericarditis,

chronic contagious pleuropneumonia, actinobacillosis, mycotic and parasitic
lesions, tumours, caseous lymphadenitis Johne's disease, adrenal gland
tumour and lymphomatosis
Johne's disease (Bovine paratuberculosis)
Johne's disease is a chronic, infectious bacterial disease of adult wild and

domestic ruminants such as cattle, sheep, and goats. It is characterized by
the thickening and corrugation of the wall of the intestine, gradual weight loss
and chronic diarrhoea and is caused by Mycobacterium paratuberculosis.
Transmission : Ingestion of faeces harbouring Mycobacterium

paratuberculosis
1. The agent is persistent in soil, pasture, manure and stagnant water for
prolonged period.
2. Carrier animals, so called “faecal shedders”, are the most important
source of infection.
3. Ingestion of organism. Calves may become infected from a nursing
infected dam.
4. Transmission with semen and in-utero are minor source of infection
1. Incubation period 2 - 3 years with range from 6 months to 15 years.
2. Indifferent animal which stops eating at the end of the disease
3. Gradual and chronic weight loss and emaciation
4. Rough hair coat and dry skin
5. Non responsive diarrhoea with watery fluid faeces
6. Submandibular edema (“bottle jaw”)
7. Reduced milk production
8. Mastitis and infertility
9. Debility and death
1. Thickened and corrugated intestinal mucosa (Fig. 70)

2. Enlarged caecal lymph nodes
Judgement : Carcass of an animal affected with Johne's disease

is approved when generalized systemic signs of disease are not present. A
poor, thin and slightly moist carcass should be held in the chiller and
assessed after 24 or 48 hours. If the dryness and setting of the carcass
improves during this time it can be released. The carcass with associated
edema and emaciation iscondemned.
Differential diagnosis : Other causes of diarrhoea and weight loss,

malnutrition, chronic salmonellosis, parasitism (e.g. Ostertagiasis), winter
dysentery, Bovine Viral Diarrhoea (BVD), “hardware” disease, coccidiosis,
liver abscesses, kidney disease, inflammation of the heart and its sac, toxic
inflammation of the intestine caused by arsenic, plants and mycotoxicosis and
neoplasm.
Fig. 70 : Johne's disease. Thickened and corrugated intestinal mucosa.
Leptospirosis
Leptospirosis is an important and relatively common disease of domestic and

wild animals and humans. In cattle, it is manifested by interstitial nephritis,
anaemia and mastitis and abortion in most species. Leptospira spp. are the
causative agents.
Transmission : Animals contract the disease by eating and drinking

leptospira-contaminated urine, water, or by direct contact of broken skin or
mucous membranes with mud, vegetation or aborted fetuses of infected or
carrier animals. Recovered animals and animals with unapparent (subclinical)
leptospirosis frequently excrete billions of leptospiras in their urine for several
months or years.
Acute and subacute forms
1. Transient fever
2. Loss of appetite
3. Lactating cows may stop milking
4. Mastitis
5. Milk may be yellow, clotted and frequently blood stained
Severely affected animals
6. Jaundice and anaemia

7. Pneumonia
8. Abortion with frequent retention of the placenta (afterbirth)
Severe illness in young calves may be associated with yellowish discoloration

of mucous membranes and reddish-brown urine before death. The chronic
form has mild clinical signs and only abortion may be observed. If meningitis
occurs, the animal may show incoordination, salivation and muscular rigidity.
1. Anaemia and jaundice

2. Subserosal and submucosal haemormage
3. Ulcers and haemorrhages in the abomasal mucosa
4. Rarely pulmonary edema or emphysema
5. Interstitial nephritis (Fig. 71)
6. Septicaemia
Fig. 71 : Leptospirosis. Interstitial nephritis in a bovine.
Judgement : Carcass of an animal affected with acute leptospirosis

is condemned. A chronic and localized condition may warrant an approval of
the carcass.
Differential diagnosis : Acute and subacute forms to be differentiated from

babesiosis, anaplasmosis, rape and kale poisoning, bacillary
haemoglobinuria, post parturient haemoglobinuria and acute haemolytic
anaemia in calves. The presence of blood in the milk is a characteristic clinical
sign which will differentiate leptospirosis from other infectious diseases.
Discussion : Leptospirosis is a zoonosis and is also an occupational hazard

for farmers, veterinarians and butchers.
Human infection may occur by contamination with infected urine and urine
contents. The bacteria may be also found in milk in acute cases, however, it
does not survive for long period of time in milk. Pasteurization will also kill
leptospiras. They can survive for months in moist and humid environments,
particularly in swamps, ponds and streams or poorly drained pastures.
Brucellosis (contagious abortion, Bang's disease)
Brucellosis of cattle is an infectious, contagious disease caused by Brucella

abortus and is characterized by abortion in late pregnancy and a high rate of
infertility. B. melitensis affects goats, B. ovis sheep and B. suis swine. B.
abortus may occur in horses.
Transmission : An uninfected animal may become infected with Brucella

organisms by contaminated feed, pasture, water, milk, by an aborted fetus,
fetal membranes and uterine fluid and discharges. The disease may also be
spread by dogs, rats, flies, boots, vehicles, the milking machine and other
equipment used in the barn. The Brucella organism may be occasionally shed
in urine.
Antemortem and postmortem findings :
In cattle
1. Abortion in non vaccinated pregnant cows in the last 3 - 4 months of

pregnancy
2. Occasional inflammation of testes and epididymis
3. Swelling of scrotum (one or both sacs)
4. Edematous placenta and fetus
5. Hygromas on the knees (Fig. 72), stifles, hock and angle of the haunch,
and between the nuchal ligament and the primary thoracic spines.
In sheep
6. Fever, increased respiration and depression

7. Inferior quality of semen in rams
8. Edema and swelling of scrotum (see Fig. 163A in Chapter 5)
9. In chronic stage enlarged and hard epididymis, thickened scrotal tunics
and frequently atrophic testicles
10. Infertility in rams and abortion in ewes
Judgement: Cattle and horse carcasses affected with brucellosis

are approved (after removal of affected parts), as Brucella bacteria remain
viable for only a short period in the muscles after slaughter. In acute abortive
form (after the miscarriage), cattle carcasses are condemned. Pig, sheep,
goat and buffalo carcasses require total condemnation. Heat treatment may
be recommended in some areas for these species due to economic reasons.
Affected part of the carcass, udder, genital organs and corresponding lymph
nodes must be condemned.
Reactor animals should be carefully handled during slaughter and dressing

procedures. Gloves and goggles should be worn when known reactors are
being slaughtered and hygroma lesions should be sprayed liberally with 1 %
lactic acid at meat inspection.
Differential diagnosis: Causes of abortion in cattle, IBR, vibriosis,

leptospirosis, trichomoniasis, mycoplasma infections, mycosis, nutritional and
physiological causes.
Discussion: Brucella organisms have only a short life in the muscles of

slaughtered animals. They are destroyed by lactic acid. While slaughtering
and dressing the reactors, a hook should be used in handling the uterus and
udder. Employees in close contact with infected animals should wear gloves
and avoid accidental cuts.
In humans, brucellosis is called “Undulant Fever”. The general population is

not at risk with this disease if high levels of hygiene and sanitation are
practised. Pasteurized milk is brucella-free. Affected humans will suffer from
intermittent high fever, headache and generalized malaise.
Brucellosis is an important zoonosis in particular in rural areas in developing

countries and is an important occupational hazard for veterinarians, meat
inspectors, farmers, animal health inspectors and butchers.
Fig. 72: Brucellosis, Hygromas on the knee joints. This condition may be a
sequel to Brucella abortus infection.
Anthrax
Anthrax is a peracute disease of ruminants manifested with septicemia,

sudden death and tarry blood from the body openings of the cadaver. It is
caused by Bacillus anthracis.
Transmission: Man may contract anthrax by inhalation, ingestion and

through a wound in the skin. Biting flies have been shown to be transmitters.
The peracute and acute forms in cattle and sheep are without clinical signs.
Death may follow in the acute form after 1 – 2 hours of illness. The acute form
lasts about 48 hours.
In pigs and horses this disease is usually localized and chronic and is often
characterized by swelling around the throat and head.
Antemortem findings in pigs:
1. Incubation 1 – 2 weeks
2. Edematous swelling of the throat and neck
3. Swallowing and breathing difficulties
4. Death due to choking or toxaemia
5. Septicemia is not observed.
1. Dark-tarry blood discharge from body orifices

2. Absence of rigor mortis
3. Haemorrhage of the mucous and serous membranes, lymph nodes and
subcutaneous tissue
4. Enlarged spleen
5. Severe haemorrhagic enteritis
6. Degeneration of the liver and kidneys
7. Bloating and rapid decomposition of carcass
8. Localized lesions in the intestine of pigs (dysentery)
Diagnosis of anthrax is carried out by direct microscopic examination of
tissues and fluids (Fig. 73).
Fig. 73: Anthrax. Toluidine blue stain. Bacillus anthracis in a bovine spleen.
Anthrax bacilli in tissue seen in short chains surrounded by a common
capsule.
Judgement: Condemnation of the carcass and its parts by burning or burial. If

disposed by burial, the carcass should be buried at least 6 feet below ground.
The site should be surrounded by a foot thick layer of quicklime.
Differential diagnosis: Peracute blackquarter and septicaemic form of other

diseases. In splenic enlargement as seen in babesiosis, anaplasmosis and
leucosis, spleen consistency is firm. In anthrax, the spleen is soft and upon
incision the pulp exudes like thick blackish-red blood.
Discussion: If an animal has died from an unknown cause in an abattoir's

pen or in the stockyard, a blood smear from the tip of the ear should be
examined to eliminate anthrax as a cause of death. All measures should be
taken to prevent further contact with the carcass. The orifices of the nose,
vulva and anus should be packed with cotton swabs to eliminate further
spillage of discharge. The carcass must not be opened. Due to insufficient
oxygen supply in the closed carcass, spores of B. anthracis will not be formed
and the organism will be killed. The spilled discharge is firstly removed by
drying with sawdust and sand and is then destroyed together with the carcass.
The carcass is wrapped in thick plastic sheets and destruction is performed
under the supervision of an appropriate government official.
An open carcass facilitates exposure of B. anthracis to air and consequently,

spores are formed within a few hours. Anthrax spores are resistant to heat
and disinfectants and may survive in a suitable environment for years.
The abattoir's pen or stockyard area suspected of being in contact with an

anthrax animal should be disinfected with 10 % NaOH or 5 %
formaldehyde and cleaned. This cleaning should also include the cattle trucks
or cars used for the transportation of infected animals. All personnel that were
in contact with anthrax or that handled contaminated material, are also
subjected to decontamination. The arms and hands should be washed with
liquid soap and hot water. After they have been rinsed, they should be
immersed for about one minute, in an organic iodine solutionor 1 p.p.m.
solution of mercuric perchloride or other acceptable agents. This is followed
by a potable water rinse. Clothing of the personnel involved should also be
cleaned and thoroughly disinfected by boiling.
If the carcass is discovered on the killing floor, all operations must cease. The
carcass and its parts including hides, hooves, viscera and blood must be
condemned and destroyed. The carcasses which have been dressed by the
same abattoir employees prior to or after the affected carcass must also be
condemned and destroyed. Those carcasses which had been dressed before
the affected carcass may have a second option of being salvaged with
sterilization. They must be boiled for a minimum of 3 hours if contamination
occurred with blood splashes. If impractical, these carcasses may be used for
“canned meat” for which heat treatment is recommended.
Disinfection of equipment used for the dressing of a diseased carcass as well

as the infected abattoir area, should be done with 5 % solution of sodium
hydroxide (NaOH). This disinfectant is used because of its action on fat and
grease removal. Heat in the form of a blowtorch can be used for disinfecting
buildings.
Salmonellosis in bovine
Salmonellosis is a disease which occurs in all animals and humans. In
animals, salmonellosis is characterized clinically by one of three syndromes:
a) peracute septicemic form:, b) acute enteritisor c) chronic enteritis.
The young, old, debilitated and stressed animals are at greater risk. More then
200 antigenically different serotypes of Salmonella have been identified and
all of these possess pathogenic potential. The most frequently identified
serotypes of the organisms which cause the disease in cattle are S.
typhimurium, S. dublin, S. muenster and S. newport. Salmonellosis in
stressed animals is frequently associated with inadequate diet, irregular
feeding, water deprivation, overcrowding, parasitism, weather extremes,
pregnancy, parturition, intercurrent diseases etc. The calving complications
which may predispose the disease include abortion or early termination of
pregnancy, retained placenta, endometritis and post-parturient metabolic
conditions.
Transmission: Ingestion of feed that have been contaminated by the faeces

of infected animals, by drinking water in stagnant ponds and by the carrier
animals. In housed animals, transmission is via contaminated feedstuff
containing improperly sterilized animal by-products such as bone and meat
meal and fish meal. Casual workers, infected clothing and utensils,
transportation trucks and birds may transmit the disease to the farm. Active
carrier animals shed Salmonella organisms intermittently and without obvious
stress factors. Latent carriers with stress factors are also identified in the
transmission of salmonellosis.
Human infection is transmitted via contaminated water, raw milk and meat.
Compared to bovines, pigs and poultry are more significant sources of
infection in humans (see Chapter 4 and 7).
Peracute septicemic form
1. Occurs most frequently in colostrum deficient animals up to four months

of age.
2. Increased temperature 40.4°C – 41.5°C.
3. Depression
4. Diarrhoea and dehydration
5. Death within 24–48 hours
Approximately four weeks after the onset of diarrhoea

6. Polyarthritis
7. Meningoencephalitis
8. Necrosis of distal limbs, tails and ear
Acute enteritis
9. Common form in adult cattle in late pregnancy and early postpartum

10. High temperature of 40°C – 41°C
11. Depression and loss of appetite
12. Watery, foul smelling diarrhoea and dehydration
13. Emaciation
14. Reduced milk production and abortion
15. Death
Chronic enteritis - Preceded by acute enteric form
16. Further emaciation (poor doer), diarrhoea and dehydration

17. Fluctuating fever (35.5°C – 40.0°C)
Septicemic form
1. Absence of gross lesions in animals

2. Submucosal and subserosal haemorrhage
Acute enteritis
3. Mucoenteritis to diffuse haemorrhagic enteritis

4. Severe necrotic enteritis of ileum and large intestine caused by S.
typhimurium
5. Abomasitis in S. dublin infection
6. Enlarged, edematous and haemorrhagic lymph nodes
7. Thickened inflamed gall bladder wall
8. Fatty change of the enlarged liver
9. Subserous and epicardial haemorrhage
Chronic enteritis
10. Areas of necrosis in the wall of caecum and colon

11. Swollen mesenteric lymph nodes and spleen
12. Chronic pneumonia
In the septicemic and acute enteric forms, Salmonella organisms are present
in the blood, liver, bile, spleen, mesenteric lymph nodes and in intestinal
content. In the chronic form, bacteria is present in the intestinal lesions and
less frequently in other viscera.
Judgement: Carcass affected with Salmonellosis is condemned.
Differential diagnosis: Acute diarrhoea in calves: Diarrhoea caused by

infections (such as rotavirus, corona virus, cryptosporidiosis, E. coli),
septicemia, dietetic gastroenteritis, coccidiosis, Clostridium perfringens type C
enterotoxaemia
Acute diarrhoea in adult cattle: Bovine viral diarrhoea, coccidiosis, “grain

overload”, gastrointestinal parasitism, winter dysentery, arsenic and lead
poisoning, bracken fern poisoning and intestinal obstruction
Chronic diarrhoea of adult cattle: Johne's disease, copper deficiency and

gastrointestinal parasitism
Haemorrhagic septicemia
Haemorrhagic septicemia is a systemic disease of cattle, buffalo, pigs, yaks

and camels. It is caused by Pasteurella multocida type B of Carter. Outbreaks
of this disease are associated with environmental stresses such as wet chilly
weather and overworked, exhausted animals. It is specific type of
pasteurellosis distinct from of other forms of pasteurella infections.
Transmission: By ingestion of contaminated feedstuff.
1. Disease more severe in buffalo than in cattle

2. High fever up to 42°C
3. Salivation and difficulties in swallowing
4. Cough, and difficult breathing and associated pneumonia in later stages
5. Edematous swelling of throat, dewlap, brisket and peritoneum
6. Diarrhoea
1. Subcutaneous swellings characterized with yellowish gelatinous fluid

especially around the throat region, brisket and perineum
2. Enlarged haemorrhagic lymph nodes
3. Haemorrhage in the organs
4. Pneumonia (Fig. 74)
5. Rarely haemorrhagic gastroenteritis
6. Petechial haemorrhage in the serous membranes which are extensive
in some cases
Judgement: Carcass of an animal affected with haemorrhagic septicemia

is condemned. If the disease is diagnosed on antemortem examination, an
animal should not be allowed to enter the abattoir. Dressing of such a carcass
would create potential danger for the spread of infection to other carcasses.
Differential diagnosis: Anthrax, blackleg, acute leptospirosis, rinderpest,

other pasteurellosis, snake bite and lighting stroke.
Fig. 74: Haemorrhagic septicemia Fibrinous bronchopneumonia.
Calf diphtheria
Calf diphtheria is an acute oral infection of calves less than 3 months old. It is
caused by Fusobacterium (Sphaerophorus) necrophorum. This agent also
causes liver abscesses and “foot rot” in cattle.
Transmission: Fusobacterium necrophorum is an inhabitant of cattle's

digestive tract and the environment. Under unhygienic conditions, infection
may be spread on feeding troughs and dirty milk pails. Some of the
contributory factors for occurrence of this disease include abrasions in the oral
mucosa, animals suffering from poor nutrition and other (intercurrent) disease
present in young calves.
1. High temperature
2. Coughing
4. Difficult breathing, chewing and swallowing
5. Swollen pharyngeal region
6. Deep ulcers on the tongue, palate, and inside of cheeks
7. Pneumonia
1. Inflammation and ulceration with large masses of yellow-grey material in

the mouth, tongue, pharynx and larynx
2. Often aspiration pneumonia
Judgement: Carcass of an animal affected with local lesions is approved.

Generalized diphtheric lesions associated with pneumonia or toxaemia require
the carcass condemnation. The carcass is also condemned if lesions are
associated with emaciation.
Differential diagnosis: Vesicular diseases, neoplasms and abscesses
Actinobacillosis
Actinobacillosis is a chronic disease of cattle caused by Actinobacillus

lignieresi. It is manifested by inflammation of the tongue and less frequently
lymph nodes of the head and of even the viscera and carcass.
1. Loss of appetite
2. Salivation and chewing
3. Swollen tongue
4. Mouth erosions
5. Enlarged parotid and retropharyngeal lymph nodes
1. Enlarged tongue showing tough fibrous consistency. (“wooden

tongue”)(Fig. 75)
2. A cluster of small yellowish nodules and erosions of tongue mucosa
3. Granulomatous lesions in the lymph nodes (Fig. 76)
4. Marked thickening of the lower part of oesophagus and stomach wall
5. Raised plaques and erosions in the mucosa of rumen and reticulum
6. Liver and diaphragm lesions due to contact spread from reticulum
Typical actinobacillosis lesions in the lymph nodes and organs consist of

greenish-yellow thick creamy pus with “sulphur granules”. These are bacterial
colonies surrounded by club like structures
Judgement: Carcass of an animal affected with active progressive

inflammatory lesions of actinobacillosis in lymph nodes and lung parenchyma
is condemned. Condemned material should be sent to authorized rendering
plant. If the disease is slight and confined to lymph nodes, the head and
tongue and whole carcass are approved after the condemnation of lymph
nodes. If the tongue is diseased and no lymph nodes are involved the head
and carcass are approved. The tongue is condemned.
Differential diagnosis: Neoplasms, tuberculosis, abscesses in the lymph

nodes, foreign body, salivary cysts, fungal granulomas, chronic pneumonia
and parasites
Fig. 75: Actinobacillosis. Actinobacillosis of the tongue. The tongue is
enlarged, firm and contains numerous granulomatous lesions. It is called
“wooden tongue” because of its firmness due to diffuse proliferation of fibrous
tissue.
Fig. 76: Actinobacillosis. Multifocal, well demarcated yellow lesions in the
retropharyngeal lymph node of a bovine animal.
Actinomycosis (“Lumpy Jaw”)
Actinomycosis is a chronic granulomatous disease of cattle and pigs and

rarely in sheep and horses. It is caused by Actinomyces bovis which is an
obligatory parasite in the mucous membrane of the mouth and pharynx.
Infection occurs following injury with a sharp object or hard feed pieces to the
oral mucosa.
1. Painful swelling of the maxilla and mandible (lumpy jaw); rarely in feet.
2. Suppurative tracts in the granulation tissue breaking towards oral cavity
or skin
3. Ulceration of cheeks and gums and wart like granulations outward on
head
4. Difficult breathing and salivation
5. Loss of weight
6. Diarrhoea and bloat
1. Lesions in the mandible (Lumpy jaw) or maxilla (Fig. 77)

2. Granulomatous lesions in lower part oesophagus or anterior part of the
reticulum
3. Local peritonitis
4. Mild abomasitis and enteritis
Judgement: see Actinobacillosis
Differential diagnosis: Tooth infection, impacted food, bone injury,

neoplasms and osteomyelitis due to other causes
Fig. 77: Actinomycosis. Diffuse granulomas in maxilla and formation of green
yellow pus. “Sulphur granules” are found in the pus.
Pyelonephritis (Contagious Bovine Pyelonephritis)
Pyelonephritis is a purulent and inflammatory bacterial disease of the kidney

pelvis and parenchyma caused by Corynebacterium renale. This disease is
essentially observed in adult cows and sows. A predisposing factor for
developing a kidney infection is trauma to the bladder and urethra during
parturition.
Transmission : Infection is spread from clinically normal “carrier cows”. The

organism enters via vulva from: a) bedding contaminated with urine b) tail
swishing by “carrier cows” c) venereal transmission by infected bulls, and d)
non sterilized obstetrical instruments.
1. Persistent increased temperature (39.5°C)

2. Loss of appetite and progressive weight loss
3. Painful urination and increased frequency of urination
4. Ammoniac odour from animal
5. Acute abdominal pain (colic)
6. Ceased rumen contraction
7. Decreased milk production
1. Pyelonephritis showing enlarged, pale and greyish coloured kidney (Fig.

78) and enlarged renal lymph nodes. Purulent lesion in the medulla,
pelvis and ureters
2. Inflammation of kidney and kidney stones (uroliths, Fig. 79)
3. Enlarged renal lymph nodes
4. Uraemia
Judgement : It depends on infection of one or both kidneys and/or presence

of a urine odour. Carcass of an animal affected with pyelonephritis or nephritis
is condemned if : 1) renal insufficiency is associated with uraemia; 2) acute
infection of the kidney is accompanied with systemic changes in the organs
and lymph nodes, and/or degeneration of body tissues. Borderline cases with
uraemic odours should be kept in the chiller for 24 hours. They are subjected
to a boiling test. If a urinary odour is not present after detention, the carcass
may be approved.
Subacute or chronic kidney infections with no systemic changes allow for

a favourable judgement of carcass. Only the affected parts are condemned.
Pyelonephritis associated with kidney stones often has a favourable
judgement of the carcass.
Differential diagnosis : Enzootic haematuria in certain areas, post-parturient

haemoglobinuria, reticulitis, peritonitis, cystitis, metritis, leptospirosis, Johne's
disease, white spotted kidneys of calves, urinary obstruction, infarcts,
neoplasms and hydronephrosis
Fig. 78: Pyelonephritis (Contagoous) Bovine Pyelonephritis). Cut section of

kidney showing multifocal abscessation in the cortex and medulla.
Fig. 79: Pyelonephritis associated with urolithiasis (stones). Chemical analysis
revealed oxalate composition.
Metritis
Metritis is inflammation of the uterus. This condition is of bacterial origin. It

occurs as a result of calving problems such as retention of placenta, abortion,
twin births, abnormal labour and traumatic lesions of the uterus cervix and
vagina.
1. High fever and depression

2. Muscular weakness
3. Placental retention
4. Listlessness
5. Reddish fetid discharge from the vulva
1. Enlarged flaccid uterus showing “paint-brush” haemorrhages on the
serosal surface
2. Inflammation of the uterus with light-brown foul smelling uterine exudate
(Fig. 80)
3. Enlarged uterus containing greenish-yellow purulent exudate
(Pyometra, Fig. 81)
4. Inflamed peritoneum at the entrance of the pelvic cavity
5. The iliac, lumbar and sacral lymph nodes are enlarged
6. Degeneration of the liver, kidney and heart muscles may be present
7. Congested musculature of the carcass
8. Necrosis of abdominal fat
Judgement : Carcass of an animal affected with acute metritis

is condemned if it is associated with septicemia or toxaemia. In chronic cases,
when toxaemic signs are lacking, the carcass may beapproved if no antibiotic
residues are found.
Differential diagnosis : Recent calving
Fig. 80: Metritis. Necrotizing inflammation of the uterus with greyish-brown

foul smelling uterine exudate.
Fig. 81: Pyometra. Enlarged uterus containing greenish -yellow exudate.
Mastitis
Mastitis is inflammation of the udder caused by bacteria, fungi and yeasts.

Depending on the virulence of the agent and resistance of the udder, mastitis
is manifested in acute or chronic forms.
1. Variable temperature depending on stage of condition

2. Swollen warm, painful udder or hard enlargement involving one or all
quarters
3. Depression, loss of appetite and dehydration
4. Abnormal gait caused by rubbing of the hind leg against inflamed
quarter
5. Animal tends to lie down 6. Purulent or bloody exudate from teats or
watery pale fluid in chronic cases
1. Pale yellow granular appearance of the udder parenchyma (Fig. 82)
2. Light brown edematous udder parenchyma (Fig. 83)
3. Enlarged supramammary, iliac and lumbar lymph nodes.
4. Injection sites
Judgement : Carcass and viscera are condemned if acute or gangrenous

mastitis is associated with systemic changes. If infection has spread from the
supramammary lymph nodes via the iliac lymph nodes to the lumbar lymph
nodes, this can be taken as evidence of spread of infection from its primary
location. The condemnation of the carcass may then be warranted. A
localized condition of the udder has a favourable judgement of the carcass.
Differential diagnosis : Edema, haematoma and rupture of the suspensory

ligament
Fig. 82: Chronic mastitis. Enlarged, firm udder. Incision into the udder
parenchyma shows normal milk and pale yellow granular appearance of the
udder parenchyma.
Fig. 83: Brown red edematous udder parenchyma. The udder culture resulted
in a heavy growth of Staphylococcus aureus.
Endocarditis
Endocarditis is inflammation of the endocardium of the heart. The lesion is

most commonly seen in the valves. It may be the result
of bacteraemia caused by infection in some remote organs such as the udder,
uterus or other sites.
In cattle, the organisms most commonly associated with endocarditis

are Actinomyces pyogenes and Streptococcus spp.. Strains of Escherichia
coli are also frequently found. The lesion is most commonly found on the
valves. Portions of vegetation may become detached and released into the
blood stream as emboli which may lodge in other organs. They may be septic
or aseptic. The latter contain thrombotic material. Emboli, brought from the
right heart to the lungs by blood vessels may cause pulmonary abscesses, or
pulmonary thrombosis and the emboli brought from the left heart to the spleen
and kidneys may cause septic or aseptic infarcts in these organs. Abscesses
in the heart may also be observed.
1. Moderate fever
2. Breathing with accompanied grunt
3. Pallor of mucosae
4. Loss of condition and muscle weakness
5. Temporary fall in milk production in lactating animals
6. Jaundice and death
1. Large cauliflower-like lesions (Fig. 84) in the endocardium

2. Small wart-like and verrucose lesions in the endocardium
3. Embolic lesions in other organs including the lungs, spleen, kidneys etc.
Fig. 84: Endocarditis. Vegetative valvular endocarditis.
Judgement: Carcass of a debilitated animal is condemned for verrucose

endocarditis if it is associated with lesions in lungs, liver or kidneys. Carcass
affected with ulcerative or verrucose endocarditis with no signs of systemic
changes and negative bacteriological result may be approved after heat
treatment is applied. Endocarditis showing scar tissue is approved. The heart
iscondemned.
Differential diagnosis : Pneumonia, pericarditis, pulmonary edema,

emphysema, pleuritis, lymphoma, high altitude disease, congenial heart
disease, congenital valvular heart cysts or deformities especially in calves.
Traumatic reticuloperitonitis (TRP, hardware disease, traumatic gastritis,

traumatic reticulitis)
TRP is caused from the perforation of the reticulum by a metallic foreign body.
It is mostly seen in adult dairy cattle and can occur in beef cattle.
1. Sudden drop in milk production

2. Depression, loss of appetite and weight loss
3. Stretched head and neck
4. Reluctance to walk, arched back and tucked up abdomen
5. Scant, hard faeces, rarely covered with mucus.
6. Mild rumen bloat
7. Audible “grunt” in early stages
If mild septicemia develops the animal shows:
8. Elevated temperature (39.2 ° C - 40° C)

9. Increased heart rate
In chronic localized peritonitis, acute signs and pain lessen, temperature falls
and stomach reticulo-rumen motility may return.
1. Adhesions of rumen, reticulum and peritoneum and abscessation

2. Acute or chronic peritonitis
3. Splenic abscessation
4. Traumatic pericarditis (Fig. 85)
5. Metallic objects such as nails, pieces of wire, magnets etc. in the
reticulum
6. Lung abscessation or pneumonia
7. Septic pleuritis
8. Edema of the chest
Judgement : Viscera and carcass are condemned - a) if the animal is
affected with acute diffuse peritonitis or acute infectious pericarditis
associated with septicemia; b) carcass with traumatic pericarditis associated
with fever, large accumulation of exudate, circulatory disturbances,
degenerative changes in organs, or abnormal odour. c) carcass with chronic
traumatic reticulo-peritonitis and/or purulent pericarditis with associated
pleuritis, abscessation and edema of the chest.
Chronic adhesive localized peritonitis and chronic pericarditis without systemic

changes in well nourished animals allow a favourable judgement of the
carcass. The affected parts of the carcass and organs are condemned.
A carcass affected with infectious exudative pericarditis in a subacute stage

may be conditionally approved pending heat treatment, if bacteriological and
antibiotic residue findings are negative.
Differential diagnosis : Uterine or vaginal trauma, abomasal ulceration with

perforation, liver abscessation, pyelonephritis, ketosis, abomasal
displacement and volvulus, and “grain overload”.
Fig. 85: TRP. Cross section of the heart reveals thick fibrinous deposits that
encircled heart. Rusty nail has penetrated through the wall of the reticulum
into the pericardium in this case
Parasitic diseases
Diseases caused by helminths
Lung worms
Dictyocaulus viviparus is a lung worm in cattle causing verminous pneumonia or bronchitis, husk or
hoose. Mature lung worms live in the bronchi. During coughing the eggs are swallowed by the host.
Hatching of eggs take place in air passages or the digestive tract. Larvae are passed in the faeces. These
will survive and develop on the ground if moist and at moderate temperatures they will become invasive
in 3 – 7 days. Larvae are resistant to the cold, although their maturation will be delayed.
Upon ingestion by the primary host larvae migrate through the intestinal wall to the mesenteric lymph
nodes. From the mesenteric lymph nodes they pass via the lymphatics to the venous circulation and to
the heart. From the heart they reach the lung alveoli. Three to six weeks after infection they migrate to
bronchi where they mature and lay eggs. They survive 7 weeks in bronchi where they terminate their life
cycle.
1. Elevated temperature (40 - 41 °C)
2. Rapid shallow breathing which in later stages becomes laboured breathing
3. Nasal discharge
4. Grunting
5. Cyanosis and recumbency.
Post mortem findings :
1. Haemorrhagic inflammation of bronchi with froth
2. Lung edema and emphysema
3. Consolidation of lung parenchyma
4. Lung worms
5. Enlarged lung lymph nodes

Judgement : Carcass of animal affected with lung worms is approved if infestation is slight and no
secondary changes are observed. The lungs are condemned. The carcass is condemned if lung worm
infestation has caused pneumonia which is accompanied with emaciation or anaemia.
Differential diagnosis : Bacterial bronchopneumonia, abscess, necrobacillosis, tuberculosis,

actinobacillosis, hydatid disease and atelectasis
Fascioliasis3
Fascioliasis is caused by different liver flukes. Fasciola hepatica is the most widespread in
distribution. Fasciola gigantica in Africa and some parts of South East Asia and Fasciola magna found
namely in North America including Canada and Europe. In Zimbabwe between 30–70 % of cattle
slaughtered are infested with flukes. Usually the liver needs to be trimmed or condemned.
Fasciola hepatica (Fig. 86) is the most common of liver flukes. It is leaf shaped and measures 2.5 cm to 5
cm by 1.3 cm. It lives in the bile ducts of ruminants and other mammals.
Fasciola magna (Fig. 87) is one of the largest of flukes (10 cm by 2.5 cm) noted in the liver and rarely in
the lungs of cattle, sheep, deer, moose, elk and other cervidae in Canada. It is found in North America. It
may differentiated from Fasciola hepatica by the absence of an anterior cone like projection.
Fasciola gigantica is two or three times larger then Fasciola hepatica. It causes severe economic losses in
cattle of Africa.
Fig. 86: Numerous flukes of Fasciola hepatica observed in the bile ducts and liver parenchyma of a cow.
3
The term “fascioliasis” is commonly used to cover all liver flukes”.
Fig. 87:Young fluke of Fascioloides magna taken from a bovine liver.
Life cycle : Each adult is hermaphroditic and produces fertilized eggs which are passed in the bile and
faeces onto pasture. The eggs hatch, in the presence of water or moisture into larvae calledmiracidia. If
the miracidia find a suitable intermediate host, which is usually the aquatic snail Limnea truncatula it will
develop into sporocysts. In different parts of the world different snails act as intermediate hosts.
The sporocysts divide to form rediae. The rediae transform into cercariae which are the final larval stage
of the cycle. They leave the snail and encyst into a metacercaria. After ingestion by a herbivorous
animal, the cyst wall is digested in the duodenum and the larva crosses the small intestine wall and
peritoneal space to the liver. It penetrates the liver and makes its way to the bile ducts
and matures within a few weeks. The complete cycle of this fluke takes 3 –4 months in favourable
conditions.
1. Weight loss and emaciation
2. Fall in milk production

3. Anaemia
4. Chronic diarrhoea
5. Swelling in the mandibular area
1. Emaciated, anaemic or edematous carcass in severe chronic infestations
2. Presence of flukes in enlarged and thickened bile ducts and in the liver parenchyma
3. Hepatic abscesses and secondary bacterial infection
4. Calcification of bile ducts
5. Black parasitic material (excrement) in the liver, lungs, diaphragm and peritoneum 6.
Haemorrhagic tracts of migratory immature flukes in the lungs and liver in an acute infestation
(Fig. 88)
6. Black lymph nodes of the lungs and liver due to fluke excrement
7. Icterus due to liver damage
Fig. 88: Acute haemorrhagic tract in the bovine liver.

Judgement : Judgement depends on the extent of the fluke lesions and the condition of the carcass.
Severe infestation with associated emaciation or edema would necessitate total condemnationof the
carcass. Mild, moderate and heavy infestation without emaciation may have a favourable judgement. If
the parasitic lesions in the liver are clearly circumscribed, the liver may be salvagedafter trimming of
affected tissue. Otherwise it is condemned.
Differential diagnosis : Melanosis, melanoma, Dicrocelium dendriticum and Gigantocotyle explanatum

infections in South East Asia
Dicrocoelium dendriticum infection
Dicrocoelium dendriticum (the lancet fluke) is the smallest of the four mentioned flukes in the liver.
Life cycle : Two intermediate hosts are required for its complete cycle. The eggs excreted with faeces by
the final host are ingested by a land snail. Many species of land snail can act as intermediate hosts
where they develop into sporocysts and cercariae. Cionella lubrica is the principal first intermediate host
in North America.
The cercariae are expelled by the snail in mucus and are deposited on plants. They are further ingested
by ants of the genus Formica where they develop into metacercariae. Several species of this genus can
act as second intermediate hosts. In North America Formica fusca is the second intermediate host.
Ruminants, while grazing, may ingest these ants. The cyst wall of the metacercariae is digested
and larvae then migrate to the bile ducts where they mature. Dicrocoelium dendriticum is only slightly
pathogenic and does not produce clinical symptoms in the animal.
Postmortem findings : In cattle, sheep and swine, the lancet fluke causes moderate thickening of the
bile ducts, with slight damage to liver parenchyma. Upon close examination, the parasites can be seen in
the bile ducts.
Judgement and differential diagnosis : see Fascioliasis
Oesophagostomiasis (Pimply gut, Nodular worms)
Oesophagostomiasis is a parasitic disease of ruminants and swine. Oesophagostomum radiatum is found

in cattle, Oesophagostomum columbianum in sheep and Oesophagostomum dentatum in swine. The
larvae in these species are found in the intestine, caecum and colon. In some Southern African the
parasite may affect 5 – 10 % of cattle, sheep and pigs.
Life cycle : The larvae develop to the infective stage on pasture. They are sensitive to cold, dryness and
temperature changes. The infected larvae penetrate the intestinal mucosa and many of them become
encysted. The larvae which penetrate into deeper mucosal layers provoke an inflammatory reaction and
nodules of “pimply gut”. Further stages of development occur in the intestinal wall. It is believed that
many larvae are killed by the reaction they provoke in the intestine. When the larvae leave nodules due
to malnutrition or lower resistance of the animal, they reach the colon. In the colon they
become adults and attach themselves to the colonic mucosa where they lay eggs. A great number of
nodules disappear as gross lesions after the departure of larvae. With repeated parasitic exposure, the
host becomes immune and resistant to these larvae and local intestinal reaction becomes
granulomatous. The nodules which surround dead larvae and those which calcify after caseation, are
persistent and they protrude from the intestinal wall. This may explain why nodules are present in adult
animals and why no adult worms are observed in the intestinal lumen. In young animals which have no
immunity, adult worms are present in the lumen of the intestine and nodules are lacking. The are some
adults with both, nodules and adult worms in the intestine. O. columbianum in sheep may cause
extensive formation of nodules which may become suppurative and may rupture. This further lead to
inflammation of the peritoneum and adhesions.
1. Diarrhoea with black-green faeces which may be mixed with mucus and blood
2. Loss of condition and emaciation
3. Stiff gait
4. Young calves may show loss of appetite, diarrhoea, emaciation and anaemia.
1. Greyish white nodules ranging in size from a pinhead to a pea (Fig. 89). The nodules may contain
a greenish pasty material in younger lesions or a yellow - brown crumbly material in older
lesions.
2. Thickening of the intestinal wall
3. Local peritonitis
4. Mild inflammation of intestine in the acute stage
5. Chronic inflammation of colon in the chronic stage
Judgement : Intestines affected with nodular worms are condemned. The carcass is also condemned, if
severe infestation of this parasite is associated with emaciation and edema. Mild, moderate and heavy
infestation without emaciation may have a favourable judgement. However, intestines should always be
condemned as they cannot be used for sausage manufacture.
Fig. 89 : Oesophagostomiasis. Parasitic nodules on the intestinal mucosa (top) and serosa (bottom) in a
young bovine animal.
Cysticercosis
Bovine cysticercosis is caused by Cysticercus bovis, which is the cystic form of the human
tapeworm Taenia saginata.
Life cycle : Cysticercus bovis is the larval stage of Taenia saginata. Taenia saginata may grow from 3 – 7
m in length and lives in the intestine of man. It consists of a suckered head called scolex which is
attached to the intestine. It also consist of a neck and hundreds of proglotid segments. Mature
proglotids are filled with eggs. The proglotids break off and are excreted in the faeces where they
fragment and release the ova. Cattle become infected by grazing on ground and by the digestion of
foodstuff contaminated with human faeces. The oncosphere liberated in the intestine from the egg
penetrates the intestinal wall and through the lymphatics and blood stream reaches the skeletal muscles
and heart. In the muscles the oncosphere develops into the intermediate orcysticercus stage containing
a scolex. The sites of predilection are the masseter muscles, tongue, heart and diaphragm. In some
countries in Africa the cysticerci appear to show uniformdistribution in the musculature. If ingested by
man, the final or definite host, the scolex attaches itself to the intestinal wall and tapeworms then
develop and mature (Fig. 90).
Transmission : Infection in man occurs following consumption of raw or undercooked beef containing
viable cisticerci. Cattle become infected by ingestion of feedstuff containing ova passed from infected
humans. Cattle raised on free range become often infected through contamination of grazing with
human faeces. Infected farm workers may contaminate hay, silage, other feeds or sewage effluent.
Intrauterine infection of a bovine fetus was also recorded.
Heavy infestation in cattle may show:
1. Muscle stiffness
2. Rarely fever
1. Small white lesions (cysticerci 2 – 3 weeks after infection) in muscle tissue
2. Clear transparent bladders 5 × 10 mm (infective cysticerci, 12 – 15 weeks after infection, Fig. 91)
3. Opaque and pearl like (over 15 weeks of infection)
4. Degeneration, caseation and calcification (after 12 months or more after infection)
5. Degenerative myocarditis
Fig. 90: Life Cycle of Taenia saginata (Courtesy of G. J. Jackson, Division of Microbiology, US FDA,
Washington D. C., USA)
Judgement : Carcass and viscera of an infested animal should be differentiated with those with
“heavy” infestation and those with “light” infestation. Carcass and viscera of heavily infested animals
are condemned and those with light infestation should be treated either by boiling or freezing. The
extent of “heavy infestation” is prescribed by the controlling authority. An animal is commonly
considered heavily infected, if lesions are discovered in two of the usual inspection sites including the
masseter muscles, tongue, oesophagus, heart, diaphragm or exposed musculature and in two sites
during incisions into the shoulder and into the rounds. Generalized infection according to Canadian
regulations means 2 or 3 cysts found on each cut into the muscles of mastication, heart, diaphragm and
its pillars, and also if 2 or 3 cysts are found in muscles exposed during dressing procedures. In moderate
or light infestation consisting of a small number of dead or degenerated cysticerci, the carcass is held
depending on the existing country regulations for approximately 10 days at - 10° C.
Differential diagnosis: Hypoderma species (migration to heart), nerve sheath tumour, eosinophilic
myositis, abscess and granuloma caused by injections
Fig. 91: Caseous cysticercus. Numerous clear transparent cysts on the heart surface. 0.6 mm in diameter
in the heart muscle.
Hydatid disease (Hydatidosis, Echinococcosis)
Hydatid disease in cattle is caused by the larval stages of the 2–7 mm long tape worm Echinococcus
granulosus, which lives in the intestines of dogs and other carnivores. Several strains of E. granulosus
exist, the cattle/dog strain is primarily responsible for hydatid disease in cattle. In Africa hydatid disease
is reported more commonly in cattle that are communally owned or are raised on free range, and which
associate more intimately with the domestic dogs. Hydatidosis in domestic ruminants inflicts enormous
economic damage due to the condemnation of affected organs and lowering of the meat, milk and wool
production.
Life cycle: The infective eggs containing the oncosphere passed in the faeces are accidentally ingested by
cattle, sheep, pigs, other animals or humans which act as a intermediate hosts. After the infective eggs
are ingested by these intermediate hosts, the oncospheres in the eggs penetrate the intestine and reach
the liver, lungs and other organs including the brain and muscles to develop into hydatid cysts at the end
of about five months. These cysts measure commonly 5 – 10 cm and contain fluid. Some may reach up
to 50 cm in diameter. Others may produce daughters cysts. The diagnostic features of a hydatid cysts
are a concentrically laminated thick outer layer within which is a germinal layer. In fertile hydatids the
germinal layer is granular and has brood capsules each containing protoscoleces. When brood capsules
become detached and float free in the cysts fluid they are referred to as hydatid sand. In some animals a
fair proportion of hydatid may be sterile. The life cycle is completed when a fertile hydatid cyst is eaten
by a definitive host, the dog or the appropriate carnivore. Cattle and majority of intermediate hosts
show no clinical evidence of infection. However, in humans hydatid cysts can cause serious disease.
Antemortem findings: None of significance
Hydatid cysts as described are found in :
1. Liver (Fig. 92), heart (Fig. 93), lungs, spleen, kidneys
2. Muscle and brain
3. Any tissue including bone
Judgement: Carcass showing emaciation, edema and muscular involvement is condemned and
destroyed. Otherwise the carcass is approved. Affected viscera and any other tissue are
alsocondemned and destroyed. Burying of carcass is not sufficient, since dogs may retrieve the affected
organs.
Differential diagnosis: Retention cysts in kidneys, cysts in liver, granulomatous lesions, Cysticercus
tenuicolis and tuberculosis
Fig. 92: Hydatid cysts in bovine liver. (Courtesy Murdoch University, Perth, Australia)
Fig. 93: Hydatid cysts in bovine heart. Note the detached germinal layer.
Onchocercosis
Onchocercosis in cattle is caused nematodes of the genus Onchocerca. Several species are involved, but
the most important species is Onchocerca gibsoni which causes sub-cutaneous nodules or “worm nests”
in cattle in some countries of the Asia-Pacific region and Southern Africa.
Life cycle: The adult worm lives in the nodules and the fertilised females liberate microfilariae into the
tissue lymph spaces from where they are taken up by an insect vector which act as an intermediate
host. The common vectors are the midges of the genus Cullicoides. Other biting flies can act as
intermediate hosts. The larvae develop to the infective stage in these insect vectors. Infection of cattle
occurs when these biting flies with the infective larvae feed on them.
Antemortem findings : Careful palpation reveals sub-cutaneous nodules in the brisket and buttock
regions.
1. Firm fibrous nodules (0.5 cm - 5 cm in diameter) singly or in clusters in the regions of brisket
(Fig. 94), buttocks and thighs.
2. The nodules have tightly coiled worms.
3. The worms may be dead or calcified in order nodules.
Judgement : The affected carcasses can be passed after the nodules have been removed. In heavy
infestations the affected briskets are removed, and the tissue and the fascia around the stifle and the
brisket are stripped off before the carcasses are passed.
Differential diagnosis : Abscesses, neurofibromatosis, cysticercosis, eosinophilic myositis

Fig. 94: Firm fibrous nodules of Onchocerca gibsoni in the brisket of an ox.
Parafilariasis
Parafilaria bovicola is a filarial parasite of cattle which causes focal cutaneous haemorrhage and sub-
cutaneous lesions which are observed as bruising on a dressed carcass. The parasite occurs world wide
in countries such as France, Canada, Sweden, South Africa and Zimbabwe, as well as other parts of
Africa.
Transmission : The parasite is spread by several haematophagus species of the fly Musca.
Life cycle : During the 7 - 10 months life cycle of the worm, the fly picks up the egg off the skin surface of
infected cattle. The larvae then develop in the fly, and are transmitted to the bovine through the saliva
where they migrate subcutaneously and cause the lesions. The lesions appear like a bruise, hence the
pseudonym “false bruising”. They have a greenish tinge due to the presence of a large number of
eosinophils. The adult filaria pierces the skin and lays eggs around the periphery of the pierced hole.
Judgement : Lesions vary from mild and localized to severe and extensive. Mild and localized lesions
require trimming of the affected portions and extensive lesions may warrant a totalcondemnation of the
carcass.
Diseases caused by protozoa

Trypanosomiasis
This is a protozoan disease of animals and humans caused by parasites of the genus Trypanosoma,
which are found in blood plasma, various body tissues and fluids.
Transmission : Trypanosoma are transmitted primarily by the Glossina spp., tsetse fly, Stomoxys,
tabanid and reduviid bugs, and by venereal contact. Trypanosoma species in the insect vector undergo
one or two cycles of development.
1. Intermittent fever
2. Anaemia
3. Weight loss and weakness
4. Edema, particularly observed in the face and legs
5. Enlarged body lymph nodes
6. Haemorrhage
7. Opacity of the cornea, keratitis and photophobia
Chronic form of trypanosomiasis is sometimes manifested by progressive weakness, despite absent

parasitemia, and death.
1. Enlarged lymph nodes
2. The enlargement of spleen, liver and kidney may also occur.
3. Edematous and emaciated carcass
4. Mild icterus
Judgement : The carcass affected with trypanosomiasis or any other protozoan diseases is condemned if
an acute condition is associated with systemic body changes. Heat treatment may be recommended in
some cases if economically feasible. The carcass of recovered and reactor animals may be approved if
generalized lesions are lacking. Carcass showing borderline emaciation or slight edema should be
examined after the 24 - 48 hours in the chiller. A satisfactory setting would lead to a favourable
judgement of the carcass. The affected parts of the carcass and organs arecondemned.
Differential diagnosis : Helminthiasis, malnutrition and other chronic wasting diseases, equine infectious
anaemia, heartwater, babesiosis and anaplasmosis
Fig. 95: Trypanosomiasis. This animal shows icteric mucous membranes, weakness in leg muscles and
emaciation.
Fig. 96: An impression smear of the trypanosomes and the RBC in the capillaries.
Fig. 97: Trypanosoma vivax in blood smear.
Theileriosis (East cost fever)
East coast fever is a subacute haemoprotozoan disease of cattle caused by Theileria parva. Theileriosis is
characterized by fever, enlarged lymph nodes, dyspnea and death. In chronic cases loss of condition,
emaciation, diarrhoea, blindness, etc. can be seen.
Transmission : Vectors are ixodid ticks of the species Rhipicephalus.
1. Mortality up to 90 %
2. High temperature (up to 41 °C)
3. Difficult breathing and coughing
4. Nasal discharge, salivation and watery eyes
5. Swelling of the lymph nodes draining the area where the infected tick fed (Fig. 98)
6. Cerebral signs manifested by circling to one side, convulsions and death

Fig.98: East Coast fever (Theileriosis). Enlarged body lymph nodes.
1. Froth in nostrils and bronchi associated with pulmonary edema and emphysema
2. Swollen, edematous lungs (Fig. 99) and interstitial pneumonia
3. Enlarged and haemorrhagic lymph nodes and splenic lymphoid hypertrophy (Fig. 100)
4. Enlarged and mottled liver
5. Infarcts, thrombosis and lymphoid hypertrophy in spleen (Fig. 100)
6. White spots of lymphoid aggregates in a kidneys
7. Brownish coloration of fat
8. Haemorrhagic and rarely ulcerative enteritis
Confirmation of diagnosis is only made through detection of parasites in a Giemsa stained lymph node
biopsy smear and/or blood smear.
Judgement: Carcass and viscera of an animal affected with febrile chronic theileriosis and without
systemic lesions are approved. Carcass is condemned, if acute febrile theileriosis is accompanied with
fever and generalized lesions. The affected organs are also condemned.
Differential diagnosis: Haemorrhagic septicemia, babesiosis, malignant catarrhal fever, trypanosomiasis,

Rift Valley fever, heartwater and bovine leucosis
Fig.99: Theileriosis. Swollen edematous lungs and interstitial pneumonia.

Fig.100: Theileriosis. Infarcts, thrombosis and lymphoid hyperplasia in spleen.
Besnoitiosis
Besnoitiosis is a chronic debilitating protozoan disease of cattle and horses. It also occurs in wild animals
such as antelope, wildebeest (gnu) in Africa and caribou in Canada. The causative agent in cattle
is Besnoitia besnoiti and Besnoitia benetti in horses.
The organism is closely related the genus Toxoplasma The mode of transmission is still unknown. It is
believed that tabanids are mechanical vectors.
1. Elevated temperature
2. Increased respiration
3. Nasal discharge and lacrimation
4. Diarrhoea
5. Cysts in the skin and subcutaneous tissue and loss of hair
6. Swollen body lymph nodes

7. Severe generalized edema of the head, neck, ventral abdomen and legs
8. Chronic skin lesions show in folding and cracking
9. Decreased milk production
10. Inflammation of the testicles
1. Inflammation of the pharynx, larynx and trachea
2. Sand-like granules and cysts in the turbinates and nostrils (Fig. 101)
3. Sand-like granules in the endothelium of large vessels
4. Dermatitis
Judgement : The carcass is approved if the lesions are localized with no systemic involvement Carcass
is condemned if disseminated, generalized lesions are accompanied with emaciation.
Differential diagnosis: Lumpy skin disease, sweating sickness and ectoparasitism (mites, ticks, fungi)
Fig. 101: Besnoitiosis. Sand like granules and cysts in the nostrils of an antelope.
Anaplasmosis (gallsickness)
Anaplasmosis is a rickettsial disease characterized by severe debility, emaciation, anaemia and jaundice
and is caused by Anaplasma spp.. They are obligate intracellular parasites. Anaplasma marginale is the
causative agent in cattle and wild ruminants.
Transmission: Boophilus species of ticks transmit anaplasmosis. Mosquitoes and the horsefly are
mechanical transmitters. Transmission is also possible through injection needles.
Acute infection with A. marginale
1. High fever
2. Jaundice and anaemia demonstrated by pale mucous membranes
3. Frequent urination and constipation Chronic infection
4. Emaciation
1. Enlarged and congested spleen (splenomegaly) showing soft pulp
2. Distended gall bladder with dark tarry bile
3. Thin, watery blood, which clots poorly
4. Enlarged, icteric liver, deep orange in colour and distended bile ducts (Fig. 102)
5. Lemon yellow carcass and connective tissue of the sclera of the eye, tendons, pleura,
peritoneum, and attachments of diaphragm.
Diagnosis can only be confirmed by detecting parasites in a blood smear stained with Giemsa.
Judgement : Carcass of an animal showing acute infection should be condemned. Recovered and
“suspect” animals manifesting inconclusive signs of anaplasmosis are approved if otherwise healthy. A
mildly yellow discoloured carcass may be chilled and assessed after setting. If the discoloration has
disappeared, the carcass is approved. Animals affected with anaplasmosis could be treated under the
supervision of a government official. Guidelines for the withdrawal period for therapeutic agents should
be followed if the animals are being shipped for the slaughter.
Differential diagnosis : Icterus and anaemia of different causes, anthrax, leptospirosis, emaciation
caused by parasitism and malignant lymphoma, babesiosis.
Remarks : The access of biting insects to contaminated fresh blood should be prevented. Blood from
suspicious carcasses should not be salvaged.
Fig. 102: Anaplasmosis. Ox liver affected with disease showing distended bile ducts.
Babesiosis (Piroplasmosis, Texas fever, Red water fever, Tick fever)
Babesiosis of cattle, horses, sheep and swine is a febrile, tick borne disease caused by various species of
the protozoan genus Babesia.
Transmission : Different species of ticks in the family Ixodidae serve as vectors in different locations. The
Babesia parasites can be transmitted transstadially and transovarially within a tick species.
1. Incubation 7–10 days
2. Mortality up to 50 % or over depending on age, breed, etc.
3. High fever (41.5° C)
4. Dark reddish brown urine in the terminal stage
5. Reddened and injected mucous membranes at the early stages and later, anaemic mucous
membranes
6. Clinical signs may resemble rabies in cerebral form of babesiosis.

1. Edema and congested lungs
2. Enlarged and yellow liver and distended gall bladder with thick dark green bile.
3. Enlarged spleen
4. Anaemia and pale muscles
5. Jaundice particularly noted in the connective tissue
6. Edematous and haemorrhagic lymph nodes
7. Yellowish-orange colour of musculature (mild cases)
8. Occasionally dark kidneys with no other findings
9. Pink haemorrhage of a bovine brain (Fig. 103)
Diagnosis can only be confirmed by identification of parasite in the peripheral blood smear stained with
Giemsa (Fig. 104).
Judgement : Carcass of an animal in acute form of the disease, with associated icterus, is condemned.
An emaciated, jaundiced carcass showing yellow gelatinous fat also requires total condemnation. A mild
form of this disease showing yellow orange coloration of carcass not associated with icterus, may
be approved. The satisfactory setting of the carcass in the chiller must be considered in this approval.
Differential diagnosis : Anaplasmosis, trypanosomiasis, theileriosis, leptospirosis and bacillary

haemoglobinuria.
Fig. 103: Pink haemorrhage. Cerebral form of babesiosis caused by B. bovis. It is characterized by
formation of thrombi and emboli in brain capillaries.
Fig. 104: Babesia bigemina in American bison blood.
Sarcocystosis (Sarcosporidiosis)
Sarcocystosis is caused by the various species of the protozoan genus Sarcocystis. This is one of the most
common parasitic conditions in domestic food animals and a high percentage of cattle in various parts of
the world are infested with these parasites which are usually host specific. In cattle three species have
been recognized. They are listed in Table 1. Cattle are the intermediate hosts of Sarcocystis spp. All
Sarcocystis spp. in the intermediate hosts, the food animals, are characterised by the formation of cysts
in the muscles.
Table 1: Sarcocystis spp. in Cattle
Definitive
Species Distribution Size of cyst Pathogenicity
Host/s
S. cruzi World-wide Dog, coyote, red Microscopic, less than Most pathogenic species in cattle it
fox, racoon and 0.5mm long. can cause fever, anaemia, abortion
wolf neurologic signs and even death.
S. Probably Cat Macroscopic, up to 8mm Mildly pathogenic

hirsuta world-wide long and 1mm wide,
fusiform in shape
S. Europe Humans and Microscopic Mildly pathogenic to cattle

hominis some primates
Life cycle: All Sarcocystis species require two hosts and a pre-predator cycle to complete their life-cycle.
A herbivore, the prey, and a carnivore or omnivore, the predator are involved Sexual development occur
in the predator which is therefore a definitive host, and asexual development occurs in the prey which is
the intermediate host.
Two species, one in cattle (S. hominis) and one in pigs (S. suihominis) use humans as definitive hosts and
therefore these infections in animals are zoonoses (Fig. 105). Generally speaking dog transmitted
Sarcocystis are pathogenic and whereas cat transmitted ones are not.
The most important species in cattle is S. cruzi which has world-wide distribution and uses the dog as
the definitive host. Sexual development takes place in the dog after which infective sporocysts are
passed in the faeces. The details of development in cattle are illustrated in Fig. 106.
The buffalo is the intermediate host for two species: S. levinei which forms microscopic cysts and uses
the dog as the definitive host, and S. fusiformis which forms macroscopic spindle or globular shaped
cysts measuring 3.2cm × 8 mm and uses the cat as the definitive host. S. fusiformis cysts are seen in the
oesophagus and the skeletal musculature and is common parasite of the waterbuffalo in many parts of
the world.
Transmission : Cattle acquire infection by ingesting sporocysts contaminating feed, pasture or water.
After several generations of asexual reproduction by schizogony they form cysts in muscles. S. cruzi, the
most pathogenic species for cattle forms microscopic cysts. The definitive host, including humans
acquire the infection when they eat bovine tissues containing the viable Sarcocystis cysts. The data
provided below are for S. cruzi infestations, unless specified otherwise.
Fig. 105: Life cycle of Sarcocystis hominis (cattle) and Sarcocystis suihominis (pigs) in final host (man)
(Courtesy G.J. Jackson, Division of Microbiology, US FDA, Washington D.C., USA)
Fig. 106: Life cycle of Sarococystis cruzi in the bovine and canine (prey-predator cycle)
1. Incubation period 5 - 11 weeks
2. Fever
3. Loss of appetite
4. Excessive salivation
5. Anaemia
6. Abortion
7. Loss of hair especially at the tip of the tail
1. The cysts are microscopic and therefore are not detected on routine postmortem inspection.
They cause little tissue reaction.
2. In some cases the cysts may be associated with eosinophilic myositis (Fig. 107).
3. A histological section of bovine muscle affected with eosinophilic myositis showing massive
accumulation of eosinophiles and two microcysts of S. cruzi (Fig. 108).
4. S. hirsuta cysts may be seen as fusiform objects 8 mm × 1 mm in the oesophagus, diaphragm

and skeletal muscles of older animals especially bulls.
5. Macroscopic cysts of S. fusiformis in the skeletal muscle of buffalo (Fig. 109).
Judgement: Judgement should be made on macroscopic presence of cysts. In heavy and widespread
infestations with the visible cysts the whole carcass is condemned. In lighter infestations those parts of
the carcass which are not affected are passed for human consumption. Microscopic examination of
muscle may show as much as 70 % infestation in animals worldwide.
Differential diagnosis : Cysticercosis, toxoplasmosis, neurofibromatosis, eosinophilic myositis

Fig. 107: Sarcocystosis. Eosinophilic myositis.
Fig. 108: Histological section showing accumulation of eosinophiles and two microcysts of S. Cruzi. There
is no tissue reaction.
Fig. 109: S. Fusiformis in the skeletal musculature of buffalo.
Diseases caused by arthropod parasites
Hypoderma bovis infestation
There are two warble flies in cattle, Hypoderma bovis and Hypoderma lineatum. They have similar
cycles. During the summer the adult fly lays its eggs on the leg hair and occasionally on the body of
cattle. Within a week the larvae hatch and burrow into the skin and, for several months they travel
through the body. Hypoderma bovis migrates into the thoracic and abdominal cavities towards the
spinal canal before moving under the skin of the back. Hypoderma lineatum migrates to the
oesophageal area before reaching the dorsal area of the animal. In spring (February-May), the larvae
reach the area of the back. They burrow a breathing hole and increase in size to approximately 8 mm ×
25 mm. They are visible for a month. After this cycle, maggots fall to the ground where they develop
into flies and start the whole cycle once again (Fig. 110).
1. Swelling or eroded skin on the back
2. Larvae protruding from the skin of the back (Fig. 111)
3. Cattle may violently rush and kick the abdomen with hind legs.
4. Erected tail
5. Paralysis of the lower body and legs if the spinal cord is involved.
1. Inflamed area of subcutaneous tissue, red, green or yellow in colour, around the maggot or at
the site where the maggot lodged
2. Inflammation of the oesophagus may cause rumen bloat due to obstruction
3. Hypoderma bovis larvae (Fig. 112)
Fig. 110: Hypoderma bovis. Life cycle of warble fly in cattle
Judgement : Carcass of an animal affected with Hypoderma bovis is approved. Subcutaneous lesions
are removed.
Differential diagnosis : Cysticercus bovis cysts in oesophagus

Fig. 111: Hypoderma bovis. Larvae protruding from back in a 2 year old steer.
Fig. 112 Hypoderma bovis larvae.
Screwworm Myiasis
Screwworm Myiasis caused by larvae of the flies Cochlliomyia hominironux (New World Screwworm -
NWS) and Chrysomya bezziana (Old world screwworm - OWS), is characterized by larvae feeding on
living tissues in open wounds of any warm blooded host including humans, resulting in weight loss,
other signs of morbidity and sometimes death. The NWS is found in Central and South America including
the Caribbean region. The OWS is located in India, Southeast Asia, Tropical Africa and in the Persian Gulf
area.
Life Cycle : In the preferred temperature range (20 – 30°C) it is about 21 days. The female, which mates
only once, lays one or more batches of up to 300 eggs at the edge of any wound or break in the skin in
any warm blooded animal. Skin breaks as small as tick bites, as well as natural orifices can be sites of
oviposition. The larvae develop within 24 hours, and burrow into the living flesh, creating large, deep,
open wounds which attract further egg laying females. If unattended, these wounds are often fatal,
particularly in newborn animals where the oviposition site is usually the navel.
Antemortem Findings : A serosanguinous discharge often exudes from the infested wounds, and a
distinct odour may be detected. In some cases, the openings in the skin may be small with extensive
pockets of screwworm larvae beneath. In dogs, screwworm larvae commonly tunnel under the skin.
Screwworm infestations in anal, vaginal, and nasal orifices may be difficult to detect, even in the later
stages.
Postmortem Findings : After 5 – 7 days of infestation, a wound may be expanded to 3 cm or more in

diameter and 5 – 20 cm deep with larvae from a single screwworm egg mass. Usually by this stage,
additional screwworm flies have deposited eggs, resulting in a multiple infestation. However, after the
death the larvae leave the body due to the temperature reduction and some third stage instar larvae
may pupate in the body.
Judgement : The affected carcasses can be passed after the wounds tissues have been removed and
incinerated.
Differential diagnosis : Other blow flies as C. Macellaria and Sarcophagidae spp.
Fig. 112A: Wound of adult bovine infested by NWS.

Fig. 112B: Typical pocket like wound from screwworm larvae.
Fig. 112C: Screwworm. Life cycle

Disease of Cattle

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SPECIFIC DISEASES OF CATTLE

Diseases caused by viruses

Foot and mouth disease (FMD, Aphthous fever)

FMD is an acute viral and extremely contagious disease of cloven footed

Before vesicle formation:

1. Incubation is 1 - 5 days or longer

9. Smacking and quivering of lips

1. Necrosis of heart muscle(tiger heart), usually only in young acutely

Judgement : In countries or in zones within a country free or nearly free of

Remarks : Latent infections with Salmonella organisms were reported in

Differential diagnosis in bovine and ovine species : Vesicular stomatitis,

Rinderpest is an acute, highly contagious, fatal viral disease of cattle,

Transmission : Direct contact with infected animals or their excretions and

1. Incubation: 3 – 10 days or longer

1. Punched out erosions in the oesophagus

Judgement : The carcass derived from a feverish and debilitated animal

Remarks : Rinderpest virus is sensitive to environmental changes and is

Differential diagnosis : Bovine viral diarrhoea, malignant catarrhal fever,

Vesicular stomatitis (VS)

This is a viral disease of ruminants, horses and swine characterized by

Transmission : In susceptible animals, contamination of pre-existing

Judgement : The carcass of an animal affected with vesicular stomatitis

Differential diagnosis : Foot and mouth disease, swine vesicular exanthema,

Teat lesions: Cowpox, pseudo-cowpox, pseudo-lumpy skin disease and

Malignant catarrhal fever (MCF)

An acute viral disease of cattle, deer, bison and buffalo characterized by

Transmission: Close contact between cattle and wildebeest (gnu, antelope),

1. Lesions are not present in acute cases

Differential diagnosis : Bluetongue, rinderpest, bovine viral

Rift valley fever (RVF) (see Chapter 5)

This is an acute infectious viral disease of the central nervous system in

Transmission : It is usually transmitted through the saliva by a bite from a

1. Incubation from 2 weeks to 6 months or longer

7. Sagging and swaying of the hind quarters

Postmortem findings: Possible inflammation of gastrointestinal mucosa

Judgement: In endemic areas carcasses may be approved if the animal was

Differential diagnosis : Indigestion, milk fever or acetonemia when first seen,

Discussion: In a diseased animal, the virus is found in saliva, salivary gland

Slaughter may be prohibited during a quarantine period of 8 months following

Lumpy skin disease

Acute pox viral disease of cattle manifested with sudden appearance of

1. Ulcerative lesions in the mucosa of the respiratory and digestive tract

Judgement : Carcass of an animal showing mild cutaneous lesions and no

Differential diagnosis : Allergies, screw-worm myiasis, urticaria,

Bovine herpes dermophatic disease (BHD)

Transmission : Biting insects, mechanical milking

Antemortem and postmortem findings :

1. Incubation: 3–7 days

Judgement : Carcass of an animal affected with BHD is disposed similar to

Differential diagnosis : Dermatophilis infection, cowpox and pseudocowpox,

Ulcerative lesions of the teats and udder.

Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR)

IBR is a highly infectious viral respiratory disease of cattle,

Transmission: Respiratory droplet and nasal exudate in the respiratory form

9. Frequent urination and tail elevation

12. Severe oral and stomach necrosis in new born animals

1. Acute inflammation of the larynx, trachea (Fig. 57) and bronchi

Judgement: Carcass of an animal affected with IBR is approved if signs of