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Production of ductile iron castings without feeders

Possibilities of producing ductile iron castings in green sand mould without
feeders by means of "ingate" feeding and control of the graphite
precipitation pattern by means of advanced thermal analysis.

Rudolf Val. Sillén*

* NovaCast Technologies AB, Sweden

Abstract
The paper focuses on the mechanisms behind shrinkages in cast iron and
how they can be avoided. Grey and ductile iron are unique casting alloys
due to their solidification behaviour. During solidification the alloys initially
contract when the temperature drops from the pouring temperature to the
liquidus temperature. This contraction must always be compensated for by
supply of feed metal from the gating system and often also from a feeder
(riser). The paper will demonstrate that this type of feeding can only be
functional until the amount of solid phase reaches a certain level. This
usually happens slightly after reaching the low grey eutectic temperature.
When this stage has been reached a balanced precipitation rate and
amount of graphite will make it possible to compensate for contraction of
remaining liquid and the eutectic austenite. The proper balance is crucial
as the precipitation of graphite is associated with a volume expansion,
which if too high will cause mould wall movement and increase shrinkage
tendency. Too low precipitation will lead to micro-shrinkages. The paper
describes how optimization of the gating system in many cases makes it
possible to eliminate feeders for supply of the initial feed metal. After the
low eutectic temperature is reached the contraction can be eliminated by
careful control of graphite precipitation using a combination of chemical
and adaptive thermal analysis. Through proper control of the feeding
sequences it is possible to produce certain ductile iron castings in green
sand moulds without feeders!

Key words
Feederless ductile iron, green sand

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Introduction
Shrinkages are one of the most common casting defects. The main cause
of shrinkage cavities is that all commercial alloys contract when a casting
cools from the pouring temperature to solidus. The contraction is usually
between 1-5 % depending on the type of alloy and the pouring
temperature. The main contraction occurs between the pouring
temperature and the liquidus temperature. If the contraction is not
compensated for by feed metal, either by supplying feed metal or by
forming a depression on the outer surface, a shrinkage cavity will occur.
Cast iron alloys, which solidify with a precipitation of graphite, represent a
more complex behaviour, the reason being that the dissolved carbon
partly precipitates as graphite with a lower density than the base iron. The
precipitation is therefore associated with an increase in volume, which in
some cases partly might offset the contraction of the liquid and the
austenite. By careful control of the mould filling and the precipitation of
graphite it should be possible to produce ductile iron castings in green
sand moulds without the use of feeders. In this paper we will study what
happens during solidification, as well as the mechanisms behind
shrinkages and how to avoid them.

What happens during solidification of cast iron?

When liquid metal cools off, the temperature is reduced, causing energy to
be released. The temperature represents the total amount of thermal
energy in a melt and is related to the kinetic energy of the molecules.
When a melt cools down, the thermal agitation of its molecules is reduced.
This energy is expressed as specific heat e.g. as KJ/ Kg and degree C.
When the liquid reaches a temperature called liquidus, the bond between
the atoms becomes more rigid on a macro scale level. More energy is then
released until the liquid is transformed into solid state. The energy
released at this stage is called latent heat of fusion, fusion enthalpy or just
latent heat for short. Theoretically, the temperature stays constant until the
transformation is completed. Latent heat is measured as KJ/Kg. The
temperature where the metal or a precipitated phase is completely solid is
called solidus. The precipitation of various phases in grey and ductile iron
is to a large extent dependent on factors such as nucleation that can not
be estimated using the chemical composition. In this investigation we have
therefore used advanced thermal analysis as a tool to understand and
control the progression of the solidification. Thermal analysis is based on
recording temperatures at certain time intervals during the solidification
process. Cooling curves can thereby be constructed and used to analyse
and classify an alloy. A cooling curve is a plot of the temperature as a
function of time for a sample of an alloy poured into a standardized mould
with a thermocouple, usually positioned in the center. Arrest temperatures
such as liquidus and solidus in a cooling curve, as well as cooling rates
during various phases of the solidification can be used as metallurgical
attributes to classify a melt and to correlate it to the behaviour when
poured in a mould.

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When a casting cavity has been filled with liquid cast iron the temperature
is reduced until the liquidus temperature (TL) is reached, then austenite
crystals start to form if the alloy is hypoeutectic. If the alloy is eutectic both
austenite and graphite are precipitated from the melt. If the alloy is
hypereutectic then the initial phase is graphite. The latent heat for
austenite is fairly low, about 200 KJ/kg. Therefore almost no recalescence
(R) occurs at TL. The latent heat for graphite is very high, about 3600
KJ/kg. Thus when graphite precipitates, heat is released, which causes
the temperature to increase and causes recalescence. Precipitation of
graphite is also associated with a volume expansion as the density of
graphite is about 2.2 g/cm3 versus about 6.9 for the liquid melt.
Let us study the progression of solidification using a hypereutectic alloy as
an example. The cooling curve shows what happens at each moment in
the centre of the sample cup. A typical cooling curve and its first derivative
looks as follows:

When the liquidus temperature is reached the cooling curve shows a

horizontal plateau. The length of the horizontal plateau is a function of the
time it takes for austenite to grow from the walls of the cup to the centre
where the thermocouple is located. The melt contracts first in the liquid
state and then during the crystallisation of primary austenite, which
continues until the low eutectic point (TElow) is reached. At that time the
eutectic reaction where simultaneously austenite and graphite are
precipitated has just started. The temperature increases due to release of
latent heat until the high eutectic temperature (TEhigh) is reached. The
increase in temperature is called recalescence (R). The eutectic
solidification then continues until no more liquid remains and the solidus
temperature (TS) is reached. The GRF1 factor measures the eutectic
behaviour during the second phase of eutectic. GRF2 is a marker that

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indicates the effect of the eutectic at the very end of freezing. During the
eutectic phases (S2 and S3) the liquid can expand its volume provided a
sufficient amount of eutectic graphite is precipitated. The available
amount of eutectic graphite can be estimated using the formula:

Eutectic Graphite % = Carbon% - (2.1 - 0.11*Si%) (1)

Thus if Si is 2% and C is 3.8% then the maximum amount of eutectic

carbon is about 2%. Assuming that the density for the liquid is 6.9 g/cm3
and 2.2 for graphite, the volume expansion from the graphite is about
6.2%. This expansion can, if carefully controlled, compensate for the
contraction of remaining liquid and austenite in a casting.

The solidification progression can be illustrated as follows:

The illustrations show the situation in a section through a cup used for
thermal analysis. Figure A shows the melt at position 1 when the cup has
just been filled. At position 2 the temperature has reached liquidus. The
temperature gradient is then zero due to thermal currents. The zone with
metal at the liquidus temperature is gradually reduced, which is shown in

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positions 2 to 4. Note that the temperature in the liquidus zone is constant.
Thus there is no contraction in this zone! In position 3 austenite has
started to grow inwards. In position 3+ the low eutectic temperature has
been reached at the walls and a zone which is expanding has been
created. In position 4 also secondary eutectic is formed and expanding. In
positions 5 - 7 a solid phase also appears. In a casting several of these
zones appear at the same time. If an initial amount of feed metal can be
supplied until position 3+ is reached then it is likely that the casting can be
made without any feeders.
The challenge is to be able to supply the initial need for feed metal from
the gating system and to control the nucleation and thereby the
precipitation rate of graphite so that it can balance the contraction of
austenite and remaining liquid. Accodring to the author this is possible by
means of simulation systems for optimizing gating systems and by using a
combination of chemical and advanced thermal analysis for controlling the
solidification process.

Which variables can be monitored by thermal analysis?

Thermal analysis can be
used to monitor the
metallurgical variables
that influence the
development
shrinkages. The ATAS
thermal analysis system
(developed by NovaCast
in cooperation with the
Swedish Foundry
Association) is specially
designed to monitor and
interpret cooling curve
data and predict the
potential risk for
shrinkages, as well as
other problems. The system is based on analysis of "grey" cooling curves.
The illustration shows a typical cooling curve for a hypoeutectic iron and
the “time-position” for various types of shrinkages.

Shrinkage mechanisms
In the following we have classified shrinkages in four basic types. We will
discuss how they occur and how they can be avoided. The four basic
types are Outer sunks (pull downs), Macro shrinkages, Micro shrinkages
and Porosities.

A. Outer Sunks

A1 – Definition and location

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 Outer sunks (pull downs, sinks) can be seen on the
outside of the casting, usually as a smooth
depression in the casting surface. They are normally
located on thick sections of the casting and on
surfaces located on the top of the casting during pouring. Outer sunks are
also referred to as ”pull downs” and they can occur not only on horizontal
top faces of the casting but sometimes also on vertical surfaces.

A2 – The basic mechanism behind outer sunks

The metal starts to solidify at the surface of the mould cavity and a thin
skin is formed. The temperature drops further, which causes the liquid and
the semi-liquid metal inside the casting cavity to contract further. If no feed
metal is available either from the gating system or from a feeder then
contraction will cause a negative pressure inside the cavity. In order to
equalise the pressure difference between the atmosphere and the interior
the solid outer skin will be ”pulled” inwards. The effect is that the
contraction is compensated for by a reduction of the volume of the casting.
Thus outer sunks develop at an early stage of the solidification process
before the massive eutectic freezing has commenced.

A3 – Variables that influence the creation of outer sunks

The major variables that influence the likelihood for development of outer
sunks and their effect are as follows:
1. Too high pouring temperature. The volumetric contraction is about
1.4% per 100 C for cast iron.
2. Insufficient amount of feed metal available at early stages of the
solidification. In order to be able to produce ductile iron castings in
green sand mould without feeders it is essential that feed metal can be
supplied from the pouring cup through the gating system during the
initial contraction in liquid state and until major parts of the casting
have reached a temperature close to the eutectic temperature.

B. Macro shrinkages

B1 – Definition and location

Macro shrinkages are usually found inside the
casting and close to heat centres. They appear as
larger holes, usually with rough surfaces, often
dendritic and are often larger than 5 mm. If the iron
is hypereutectic then the shrinkage might be rounded with smooth walls.
Macro shrinkages are usually not revealed unless the casting is machined
or deliberately cut through sections of heat centres. They can also appear
in or close to ingates.

B2 – The basic mechanism behind macro shrinkages

Macro shrinkages develop after the initial solidification on the surface. A
shell, that can not be deformed by the pressure difference to the

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atmosphere, has then been established. If no more feed metal is available
at that point in time then the contraction of the liquid and semi liquid metal
as well as contraction of the already solidified parts result in a cavity. Gas
dissolved in the metal might also diffuse into the shrinkage cavity.

B3 – Variables that influence the creation of macro shrinkages

Shrinkages are influenced by the behaviour both of the alloy and the
mould. The dominating variables for macro shrinkages are:

1. Insufficient supply of feed metal – too small feeder modulus or feeder

neck or feeder does not pipe due to too large ingate modulus or height
position.
2. Feeding path closed too early – wrong position of feeder. More
dendrites than usual at an early stage. Too low active carbon
equivalent (ACEL= the true carbon equivalent measured with ATAS).
For ductile iron, ACEL should be eutectic or slightly hypoeutectic and
carbon minimum 3.6%.
3. Mould hardness during solidification. Soft moulds that favour mould
wall movement. A green sand mould, hard at room temp can be soft
during solidification due to the high water level in the condensation
zone.
4. Mould weighting or clamping insufficient to stand the pressure during
solidification. Eutectic pressures up 50 kg/cm2 have been claimed!
5. Higher liquidus temperature (TL) than normal. In hypoeutectic irons this
means too much primary austenite and more difficult feeding. In
hypereutectic it means more primary graphite, which reduces the
amount of eutectic graphite.
6. Higher amount of primary austenite (S1) than normal. Too low ACEL.
7. Too high recalescence and recalescence rate causes expansion from
graphite to occur too early. (In ductile - too much late inoculation with
low ACEL).
8. Too low eutectic temperature might cause some primary carbides to
form, which reduces the amount of eutectic graphite.

B4 - How can macro shrinkages be avoided?

The remedies are basically the same as for outer sunks. However, to
avoid macro shrinkages the feed metal must be available longer than for
Outer sunks because macro defects occur at a later stage during
solidification. A solidification simulation e.g. using NovaSolid is highly
recommended to ensure that feed metal can reach critical areas and that
feed metal is available during the initial contraction period. In order to
produce ductile iron castings without feeders the active carbon equivalent
should be adjusted to the castings modulus so that the solidification is
eutectic. A low gas content in the metal is also essential.

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C. Micro shrinkages

C1 – Definition and location

Micro shrinkages are smaller cavities with irregular
surfaces, often with signs of dendrites. Sizes are
often less than 3 mm. The defects are usually
located close to heat centres in the casting. Micro
shrinkages are often referred to as porosity or
”leakage” as castings with this type of defect often leak during a pressure
test. Micro shrinkages are usually not revealed unless the casting is
machined or deliberately broken.

C2 – The basic mechanisms behind micro shrinkages

The defects occur at the latest stages of solidification. It is therefore more
difficult to solve micro shrinkage problems by changing the gating or
feeding system. Micro shrinkages are more of a metallurgical problem.
There are three basic mechanisms behind micro shrinkages:

The first and most common mechanism behind micro shrinkages is that
the contraction of the austenite (primary and eutectic) at the end of
freezing can not be fully compensated for by the precipitation of carbon
into graphite, which is associated with an increase in volume. The
precipitation pattern of graphite from the start of eutectic freezing until the
end of freezing is therefore very important.

C3 – Variables that influence the creation of micro shrinkages

1. Low mould stability which might cause mould wall movement. Too soft
moulds due to high moisture content or low compression during
moulding,.
2. Too low levels of sea coal addition in the green sand.
3. Bentonite (Calcium) with low wet compression strength in green sand.
Sodium bentonite are optimal for reducing shrinkages.
4. Insufficient weighting or clamping of moulds.
5. Too little eutectic graphite especially at the end of freezing; its
precipitation can not compensate for the shrinkage of the austenite. A
true eutectic composition is. (Note that the eutectic point is a function
of the thermal modulus!). Often a high C/Si ratio can reduce the risk for
shrinkages.
6. Too high hypereutectic composition in ductile iron. If too high then
some of the dissolved carbon will be precipitated as primary graphite
and the amount of eutectic graphite might be insufficient. Evidenced by
too many large size nodules which have been growing early in the
liquid.
7. Too much magnesium in ductile iron. Levels of Mg and RE must be
consistent with the thermal modulus of the casting. Low levels of Ce
and high levels of La (0.005 – 0.010) can be very effective in reducing
shrinkages in ductile iron.

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8. Too high amount of phases that exhibit solidus temperatures below
1100 C. e.g. Fe3P.
9. Too high recalescence and recalescence rate causes expansion too
early and consumes a high amount of the carbon so that the expansion
at the end of freezing is unsufficient.
10. Too low eutectic temperature might cause some primary carbides to
form. A low eutectic temperature also means that the contraction in
liquid state increases.
11. Too small Graphite Factor 1 (GRF1) indicating too low amounts of
eutectic graphite during the second part of the eutectic.
12. Too high Graphite Factor 2 (GRF2) indicating too little eutectic graphite
precipitation at the end of freezing.
13. Too low solidus (TS) which may induce carbides at the last portions to
freeze. Too high levels of Mg, Nb, V or similar elements tend to
segregate to the grain boundaries and form carbides that contract
during their solidification. For ductile iron TS should be above 1100 C.
14. Too high silicon will increase segregation of carbide forming elements,
which increases the tendency for micro shrinkage.

C4 - How can micro shrinkages be avoided?

The first condition is to have a hard mould. A green sand mould is
compressible, however hard at room temperature, because of the
formation of a condensation zone. In the condensation zone, which travels
from the surface of the cavity and inwards, the moisture content can be up
to 3 times higher than the initial value. This means that the bentonite layer
becomes semi-fluid and can easily be compressed. It is recommended to
use a sodium bentonite, sea coal as additive and a low moisture
Metallurgically, the most important factor is to ensure that a sufficient
amount of carbon is precipitated as graphite during solidification. It is
important that the initial growth rate is not too high. The metallurgical
factors can be influenced by selection of charge materials, charging
sequence, the melting cycle (temp/time steps) as well as type and amount
of alloying materials, inoculants and FeSiMg. It is also important to avoid
phases that are liquid below the main solidus temperature.

D. Porosities

D1 – Definition and location

Porosities are small, dispersed cavities with
irregular or rather smooth surfaces, often less than
1 mm in size. The defects are usually located close
to heat centres and in grain boundaries. They are
more dispersed than micro shrinkages. Typically, the defect is not
discovered until the casting is subjected to a leakage test with water or air.

D2 – The basic mechanism behind porosities

The defects occur at the very latest stages of solidification. Therefore it is
not possible to solve porosity problems with changes in the gating or

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 feeding system (unless a very steep temperature gradient is maintained).
Porosities are a metallurgical problem mainly depending on the chemical
composition. The main mechanism is that due to the composition of the
iron, one or more phases solidify at a lower temperature than the
austenite-graphite eutectic. In ductile iron too high magnesium levels can
cause similar problems as magnesium segregates to the rest melt and can
induce formation of carbides which contracts and creates porosity.

Production of ductile iron castings without feeders in green sand.

By applying the principles outlined in this paper the author believes that
ductile iron castings even with high modulus can be produced in green
sand mould without feeders. The first condition is that the mould is
sufficiently compressed and that that the sand properties are optimized.
The second condition is that the modulus of all parts of the gating system
must be higher than about 40% of the dominating modulus of the casting.
This ensures that most of the feed metal needed to compensate for
contraction of the metal between the pouring temperatures down to
liquidus can be supplied from the pouring cup. The third condition is that
the metal expands sufficiently during solidification in order to match the
contraction of austenite and remaining liquid phase in all parts of the
casting. The expansion that comes from precipitated graphite must not
only be sufficient in volume, the precipitation must also be balanced in
order to avoid mould wall movement and exhibit an expansion pattern until
the end of freezing. The control of the solidification progression can be
achieved by using a combination of chemical and thermal analysis of grey
samples. The essential metallurgical factors to consider are:

? ? The active carbon equivalent must be selected as a function of the

modulus of the casting. Basically the active carbon equivalent
should be eutectic. Truly hypereutectic solidification must be
avoided.
? ? The carbon/silicon ratio should be high.
? ? The nucleation level in the base iron must be sufficient so that the
low eutectic temperature is high, preferably higher than 1140 C.
? ? The recalescence must be less than 5 C.
? ? The magnesium level must be as low as possible.
? ? The graphite precipitation pattern in the final iron must be controlled
so that a sufficient amount of eutectic graphite is precipitated after
reaching the high eutectic temperature (GRF1 should be high and
GRF2 should be low). These factors usually are at their peak about
3 minutes after Mg-treatment.

rudolf.sillen@novacast.se

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