DPP2003: IS&Ts International Conference on Digital Production Printing and Industrial Applications

Toners for
High Quality Digital Production Printing
Dinesh Tyagi
NexPress Solutions, LLC
Rochester, New York

Abstract thousands of impression of the same image. Since image

is written on the photoconductor every time, with digital
Digital revolution has affected many aspects of our daily printing it is possible to include variable data and
life. Its biggest impact can be seen in many different produce documents that are unique and do not require the
emerging communication pathways and how information time and cost associated with set-up and plate making
today is shared across the globe on routine basis. Digital that is inherent with lithography.
printing has been at the forefront of this change. Many At each step of the electrophotographic cycle, the
advances have taken place in the development of toners toner characteristics play a critical role in determining
to take advantage of digital imaging. Many diverse the final quality of the resulting print. Some of the toners
demands that have been placed on the printed matter has factors such as size, shape, chemical composition,
led to the development of specialized materials used in colorants and melt viscosity are usually optimized to
toner formulations and as well as the methods for the work with an existing process. Alternatively, these
generation of these marking particles. Selection of toner factors could be selected so that a more robust and cost
polymer(s) entails consideration for process speed, fusing effective process is the outcome. In the printing industry,
techniques, development methods, image gloss, etc. By toners are also commonly referred to as either DryInk
advancing towards smaller particle size of toners, factor or marking particles, which further illustrates the
such as cost, fusing ease, image relief and dot integrity narrowing of gap between digital printing and
can be affected to yield prints that are make them as lithography.
unique and as appealing as off-set output. There is a
move in the toner industry to exploit the manufacturing Toner & Developer Composition
advantages that are offered by chemically prepared
toners (CPT). However, a comparison between CPT and Most of the high-speed color digital printers are based on
conventional ground toners indicate that the method of a two-component system in which the toner particles are
manufacturing is far less important than the properties mixed with magnetic carrier particles. Carrier particles
that must be incorporated in toner particles for a given can be either ferrite or a magnetite. Image quality of
EP process and situation. print is not only determined by the size of the marking
toner particle but equally by the size of the carrier
Introduction particles used. The volume average diameter of typical
carriers that are used in the printing industry ranges from
With the arrival of digital age, demand for digital 20 to 200 microns. Soft carrier ferrites such as Cu-Zn
printing has also increased. But this need is accompanied ferrites are generally 40 to 60 microns and are used more
by higher expectations from digital printing. With analog commonly. In general, smaller carrier particles provide
copier, a photocopy with better print quality than original images with higher image resolution. A Scanning
was neither achievable nor expected. With the advent of Electron Micrograph of a hard ferrite that represents the
digital printing, it is possible to make each image as smallest developing particle that is currently used in
unique, and with image quality that parallels what was digital printing is shown in Figure 1.
once thought to be only possible with offset printing. The With smaller carrier particles, not only a high
trends in the development of toners for digital such definition imaging is possible, the load of toner particles
printing applications mirrors the expectations that have attached to carrier surface (usually referred to as toner
been placed on the output. There are new environmental concentration) is also increased. This ensures that
as well as health and safety issues that play a role in adequate amount of marking particles are available to
defining the toner composition along with manufacturing develop the latent image and thereby reducing the take-
techniques. out sensitivity and promoting high-speed printing.
In addition to the high image quality and consistency The toner particles consist primarily of clear resins
that has become the cornerstone of digital printing, there such as polyester or styrene-acrylate copolymer. The
are many other benefits that have come to be associated other optional additives to toners include, charge control
with digital printing. With digital printing it is possible agent, pigment(s), waxes and other specific additives.
to realize on-demand, short run and distributive printing. The toner ingredient selection determines the
With offset printing it is very cost effective to make performance as well as the appearance of the final

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output. The totality of the formulation has an impact on several different methods of CPT manufacturing are
the developer life and dictates reliability and robustness being practiced in the industry today. The first
of the digital printing device. commercially available CPTs were produced by
suspension polymerization method. In this method,
monomer droplets are dispersed in an aqueous phase.
Size of the droplets is chosen to represent the final
particle size of the toner. Any additives that need to be
incorporated in toner are dispersed in the monomer phase
prior to the polymerization of the binder.

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Energy Comsumption (kWh/Kg)

10

Figure 1. Scanning Electron Micrograph of small hard ferrite

high definition carrier particles. 0.1
1 10 100
Particle Diameter

Toner Manufacturing
Figure 2. Plot showing the increase in energy consumption as
toner particle size is reduced.
Toners are conventionally manufactured by a melt
blending operation. The ingredients of a toner
formulation are kneaded together in an extruder to Another method uses several different kinds of small
achieve a uniform dispersion of components. The emulsions of preformed vinyl polymer. These emulsion
extrudate is cooled and pulverized by impaction to particles can range from 50 to 200 nm in size. By
reduce the particles size to the desired level. Resulting controlling the conditions, different emulsions are
product is then classified using a cyclone type device to allowed to aggregate till the desired particle of the toner
remove the fine end of the particle size distribution. is achieved. This method is called emulsion aggregation
Separated toner fines are usually recycled by adding method and resulting toners are called EA toners.
them to subsequent melt extrusions. Both of the techniques described above are
Toner pulverization and classification are the most essentially limited to using vinyl type of monomers or
challenging part of the toner manufacturing process, polymers. As a results there has been an increase in the
Several advances have been made in the grinding and number of styrenic color toners that being manufactured
classification equipment that provide better toner yields today. Typically, condensation polymers such as
and sharper cut points. When particles are reduced using bisphenol A fumerate polyester are exclusively used to
impaction, the fracture mechanics dictates that increase manufacture color toners by the conventional melt
in the energy required would scales with the surface area compounding process. Polyester binders, because of their
of the particles generated. This relationship is shown in polar nature, are better suited for providing better
Figure 2 where energy used is plotted against toner pigment and charge control agent dispersion in toners.
particle size. With current manufacturing equipments, it Another reason for selecting polyesters binders is that
is often observed that toner yield is independent of toner they are mechanically tougher even at low melt
size except at very small toner particle size. When viscosity. Vinyl polymers are quite brittle at low
making 6 microns or larger toner particles, a 80 percent molecular weights that are necessary to achieve high
is quite typical. When the particle size of toner is gloss and color saturation. As a consequence, most EA
reduced to 4 microns, toner yields drop to less than 60 toners are higher in melt viscosity and provide low gloss
percent. In order to generate small toner particles at high prints than color toners for digital presses that polyester
yields, better rotor and nozzle designs need to be based and prepared by conventional processes.
investigated. Some CPT manufacturing processes are based on
Alternatively, the toners can be prepared by first dissolving a preformed polyester in a suitable
chemical means. Such toners are often referred to as solvent. The solvent is uniformly dispersed in aqueous
Chemically Prepared Toners (CPT). Such toners are medium in the presence of a stabilizer and subsequently
being preferred not only for their ability to make very removed. This approach allows any soluble binder to be
small toner particles more economically, but also used as a toner resin.
because these techniques allow toner manufacturers to All these methods of making CPT are capable of
comply with several environmental regulations. These producing small toner particles with a narrow particle
toners can be prepared by a variety of techniques and size distribution. The yield is generally very good but a

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 DPP2003: IS&Ts International Conference on Digital Production Printing and Industrial Applications

large amount of water is necessary for particle formation dwell time and fusing temperature. The reduction in
and washing. In general cost, image quality, relief and gloss is not only be limiting to appearance of a print, but
ease of fusing are the main reasons for transitioning to it also shrinks the gamut volume that can be achieved by
smaller size of the toner. However, there are other toner the process colors. This situation is made worse when
characteristics that are also affected with smaller toner fusing toners at high process speeds. In some cases
particles. They include: attempts are made to increase the image gloss by
• higher charge/mass increasing the fusing temperature or dwell time in fusing
• lower development efficiency nip or both. At the moment, an oil-free contact-fusing
• poor powder flow concept has not been satisfactorily demonstrated for
• higher pigment loading high-speed color digital printers. Some researchers,
• higher toner viscosity due at high pigment load though, have demonstrated the feasibility of certain non-
• reduced electrostatic transfer contact fusing for color images. 2

The charge/mass ratio of a toner is one single

parameter that is typically used to describe the
performance of a toner. This ratio is inversely related to 100
the particle diameter and becomes larger as toner particle
size decreases. This leads to reduction in development
efficiency and increased difficulty in transferring the
toner from the photoconductor (PC) surface to substrate.

Image Gloss
Lowering of development efficiency requires that the
10
electric potential on the PC be increased in order to
achieve required color density. Increased voltage not
only diminishes the life of the photoconductor, it also
causes electrical breakdown. It is perhaps because of
these limitations that despite their capability going
smaller, most chemically prepared toners range from 7 to 1
8 micron in mean volume average diameter. 1.00E+03 1.00E+04 1.00E+05 1.00E+06
Log Viscosity

Fusing Figure 3. Dependence of Gloss on toner viscosity at constant

fusing conditions.
For producing a high quality output, fusing is one the
most critical step in the electrophotography. Fusing
techniques determine the image gloss, color saturation,
reliability and image acceptance. The large numbers of Environment and Safety
image artifacts that are observed on some digital print
are either caused by the fusing subsystem directly or The composition of the toner particles are being
indirectly by the silicone oil that is commonly used to developed so that they meet or exceed all the old and
aid with release from fuser roller surface. The silicone oil new rules and regulations they are subjected to. The
easily contaminates the surfaces it comes in contact with trend towards chemically prepared toners in Japan is part
and quickly changes its surface energy. due to the Green Purchasing Law that was enacted in
In order to overcome some of the difficulties April 2002. Many printer manufactures have moved
associated with silicone oil, other kinds of oils are being away from Cu-Zn ferrites to more environmentally
explored. Several manufactures are making toners that friendly magnetite. Several manufacturers recommend
reduce the dependence on oil necessary for achieving proper disposal methods and some instruct users to ship
good release of image from fuser surface. In some cases, the waste to manufacturer for proper disposal. Use of
fusing concepts are completely oil free while some heavy metal based charge control agent is being phased
printers use reduced oil levels. Most of these oil-less out. Many pigments and colorants that have been
fusing toners have large amounts of release additive implicated in contributing to adverse health effects are
incorporated within the particle. Some of the adverse being replaced with those, which do not have health
effects of incorporating such addenda to toner particles concerns.
include poor powder flow and higher charge/mass. One of the biggest question that is facing the toner
One characteristic that is quite common with most of industry today is how small should the size of the
the oil-less or oil-free fusing toners is their melt marking particle be. It has been established fairly well in
elasticity. By producing toners with high elastic the literature that with smaller particles comes the risk of
modulus, propensity of the toner melt to offset onto fuser inhalation. Smaller dry toners remain airborne for lot
surface can be avoided. However, high elasticity toners longer periods and are also likely to enter the lungs.
also have higher melt viscosity and are usually produced Figure 4 shows the relationship between size of
by using either a high molecular weight or slightly cross- respirable particulates and percent respirability. This
linked polymer as toner binder. At high melt viscosity, particulate size ranges represents the fraction that can
the gloss of the image that can be produced at fixed reach the alveolar region of the lung and interfere with
temperature is reduced. In Figure 3, a relationship gas exchange3,4. In the absence of any definitive ruling
between gloss and melt viscosity is shown at a fixed and based on electrostatic of small particles and the

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 DPP2003: IS&Ts International Conference on Digital Production Printing and Industrial Applications

difficulty of pulverizing or filtering small particles, it is Acknowledgements

not likely that dry toners with mean volume distribution
5 microns or less are going to commercialized anytime The author would like to acknowledge the support of
soon. many colleagues from NexPress Solutions LLC,
Rochester and NexPress GmbH, Kiel who contributed to
this work. Author is especially grateful to Arun Chowdry
and Detlef Schulze-Hagenest for making this paper a
reality.

References
1. Edward Miskinis et al. U.S. Patent 4,546,060 (1985)
2. Domingo Rohde and Detlef Schulze-Hagenest, “Color
Radiant Fusing with Continuous and Flash Fusing”,
Proceedings of IS&T’s NIP 18: International Conference
on Digital Printing Technologies (San Diego, CA, Sept 28
– Oct 4, 2002) p. 58-64
Figure 4. British Medical Research Council penetration curve 3. http://www.safetyline.wa.gov.au/institute/level2/
for respirable particles showing 50% cut point at 5 µm. course16/lecture46/l46_02.asp
4. http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/how_do.html

Biography
Conclusions Dr. Dinesh Tyagi received his Ph.D. degree from
Virginia Tech in 1985 from the Department of Chemical
The digital printing has placed higher demands on the Engineering with a thesis entitled "Structure-Property
toners used in electrophotography. In order to satisfy the Relationships in Segmented Polymers". After one year of
many different needs from different customers, various post-doctoral position there, he joined Eastman Kodak
different types of toners are being produced that range Company as a Research Scientist where he started
from conventionally produced melt-pulverized toner to worked in the toner development area. He was promoted
chemically prepared toners. The new regulations also to Senior Research Scientist in 1989 and in 1993 he was
help define the future of the toners both in terms of appointed Research Associate. Following year he was
manufacturing processes as well as the toner size and inducted into Kodak's Distinguished Inventors Gallery.
composition. Toner formulation is paramount in enabling In 1999 he joined NexPress Solutions and has continued
many new electrophotographic processes that are more to work in the area of toners and electrophotography. He
robust and provide consistent results. has over 60 patents worldwide.

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