Lecture 1

Lecture
1
Portfolio Management:
Concept review
Master Batch-10
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Mean-variance analysis
Mean-variance analysis refers to the use of expected returns, variances,
and covariances of individual investments to analyze the risk-return
tradeoff of combinations (i.e., portfolios) of these assets.
The main assumptions of mean-variance analysis can be summarized as
follows:
 All investors are risk averse.
 Expected returns, variances, and covariances are known for all
assets. Investors know the future values of these parameters.
 Investors create optimal portfolios by relying solely on expected
returns, variances, and covariances
 Investors face no taxes or transaction costs.
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Two-asset Portfolio: expected return

The expected return on a portfolio is a weighted average of
the expected returns on the individual assets that are
included in the portfolio. For example, for a two-asset
portfolio:

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Two-asset Portfolio: variance

The variance of a two-asset portfolio equals:

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Two-asset Portfolio: variance

Recall correlation:
Therefore, the variance of the two-asset portfolio can be

written:

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Example:
Using the information in the following figure, calculate the

expected return and standard deviation of the two-asset
portfolio.
Characteristics for a Two-Stock Portfolio:

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Example:
wc = investment / portfolio value = $40,000 / $100,000 = 0.40
ws = investment / portfolio value = $60,000 / $100,000 = 0.60
Next, we determine the expected return on the portfolio:
E(Rp) = wcE(Rc) + wsE(Rs)
E(Rp) = (0.40)(0.11) + (0.60)(0.25) = 0.1940 = 19.40%
Then, we calculate the variance of the portfolio:
σ2p= (0.40)2(0.15)2 + (0.60)2(0.20) +
2(0.40)(0.60)(0.30)(0.15)(0.20) = 0.02232
And, finally, the standard deviation of the portfolio:
σp= 0.02232^(1/2) = 0.1494 = 14.94%

Portfolio Returns for Various Weights of Two Assets
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Expected Return and Standard Deviation
Combinations an OPENASIA company

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Three-Asset Portfolio
Just as in the two-asset case, the expected return on a portfolio of three
assets is the weighted average of the returns on the individual assets:
The standard deviation of a portfolio of three assets:

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Example:
Calculate the expected return and standard deviation of the three-
asset portfolio shown in the following figure.

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Example:

The Minimum-Variance Frontier
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A minimum-variance portfolio is one that has the smallest variance among all
portfolios with identical expected return.
The minimum-variance frontier is a graph of the expected return/variance
combinations for all minimum-variance portfolios.
Frontier Steps:
Estimation step: Estimate the expected return and variance for each individual
asset and the correlation of each pair of assets.
Optimization step: Solve for the weights that minimize the portfolio variance
subject to the following constraints:
 portfolio expected return equals a pre-specified target return,
 portfolio weights sum to 100%:
Calculation step: Calculate the expected returns and variances for all the
minimum variance portfolios determined in Step 2. The graph of the expected
return and variance combinations from Step 2 is the minimum-variance
frontier.
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Expected Return/Variance Combinations

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Expected Return/Variance Combinations

Figure 5: Minimum-Variance Frontier: Expected Return vs. Variance

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The Efficient Frontier

 Portfolios such as D and E in Figure 5 are called efficient
portfolios, which are portfolios that have:
- Minimum risk of all portfolios with the same expected
return.
- Maximum expected return for all portfolios with the
same risk.
 The efficient frontier is a plot of the expected return and risk
combinations of all efficient portfolios, all of which lie along the
upper portion of the minimum-variance frontier (from Point C
to Point G in Figure 5).

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Portfolio diversification
 Portfolio diversification refers to the strategy of reducing
risk by combining many different types of assets into a
portfolio. Portfolio variance falls as more assets are added
to the portfolio because not all asset prices move in the
same direction at the same time.
 Therefore, portfolio diversification is affected by the:
 Correlations between assets: lower correlation means greater
diversification benefits.
 Number of assets included in the portfolio: more assets mean
greater diversification benefits.

Effect of Correlation on Portfolio an OPENASIA company
Diversification
 As the correlation between two assets decreases, the
benefits of diversification increase. As the correlation
decreases, there is less tendency for stock returns to move
together.
 The separate movements of each stock serve to reduce the
volatility of a portfolio to a level that is less than the
weighted sum of its individual components (e.g., less than
w1σ1 + w2σ2).
 No diversification: if the correlation between assets equals
+1.
 The greatest diversification: if the correlation between
assets equals –1.
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Diversification Example
 The expected return, standard deviation combinations for

various portfolio percentage allocations to domestic
stocks and domestic bonds for each of the following
correlations +1, 0, and –1 is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7: ER/SD Combinations for Various Allocations
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Effects of Correlation on Portfolio Risk

Effect of Number of Assets on Portfolio an OPENASIA company
Diversification

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Equally-Weighted Portfolio Risk

 The formula for the variance of an n-asset portfolio is
very complex, but the formula is simplified dramatically
for equally-weighted portfolios (e.g., each w = 1/n):

Example: Calculating the variance for an an OPENASIA company
equally-weighted portfolio
 Consider two equally-weighted portfolios, A and B, in
which the average asset variance equals 0.15 and the
average covariance equals 0.09. Portfolio A comprises
three assets, and Portfolio B comprises 100 assets.
Calculate the variance of each portfolio.
 Answer:
 Variance for Portfolio A = [(1 / 3) × 0.15] + [(2 / 3) × 0.09] =
0.05 + 0.06 = 0.11
 Variance for Portfolio B = [(1 / 100) × 0.15] + [(99 / 100) ×
0.09] = 0.0015 + 0.0891 = 0.0906

Investment Combinations that Include an OPENASIA company
the Risk-Free Asset

 Expected return on Investment C that combines the risk-free asset and
risky Portfolio P equals:
E(RC) = wFRF + wPE(RP)
where:
wF = percentage allocated to the risk-free asset
wP = percentage allocated to Portfolio P
 Variance of the portfolio of two assets (F and P) equals:

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The Capital Allocation Line

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The Capital Allocation Line

 This linear relationship is a key result and is instrumental in
the investor’s asset allocation decisions. We will use the
capital allocation line to answer several important questions:
 Question 1: How should the investor choose which risky portfolio
among the many possible risky portfolios to combine with the risk-
free asset?
 Question 2: Given the investor’s risk tolerance (i.e., target standard
deviation), what rate of return should be expected?
 Question 3: Given the investor’s risk-return objectives, what
percentage allocation should be given to the risk-free asset and the
risky portfolio?

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Capital Allocation Line

 Question 1: How should the investor choose among the many possible
risky portfolios to combine with the risk-free asset?
The linear risk-return relationship helps the investor make this very
important decision, which can be summarized as follows: when combined
with the risk-free asset, the investor should choose the risky portfolio that
maximizes the reward-to-risk tradeoff.
The reward-to-risk ratio also

can be viewed as the
expected risk premium, E(RT)
– RF , for each unit of risk, σT ,
and is also known as the
Sharpe ratio for Portfolio T.

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 Question 2: Given the investor’s risk tolerance, what rate of return
should be expected?
 CAL function : Y = a + bX
where:
 Y = dependent variable [E(RC), the expected return on the investment
combination]
 X = independent variable (σC, the standard deviation on the investment
combination)
 a = intercept (RF , the risk-free rate)
 b = slope (the reward-to-risk ratio for the optimal risky portfolio)
Therefore, the equation for the CAL is:

Example: Calculating expected return an OPENASIA company
from the CAL

 Your firm manages a portfolio with an expected return equal to 12%
and standard deviation equal to 24%. The risk-free rate equals 6%.
One of your clients desires a portfolio standard deviation equal to
12%. Use the CAL to calculate the highest expected return for your
client.
 Answer:
 Your client has a target standard deviation equal to 12% (σC = 0.12).
Using the CAL, the expected return on an investment that combines
the optimal risky portfolio, T, and the risk-free asset, F, is:
 E(RC) = 0.06 + 0.25(0.12) = 0.09 = 9%
 Therefore, the expected rate of return commensurate with your
client’s risk tolerance equals 9%.

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 Question 3: Given the investor’s risk-return objectives, what percentage
allocation should be given to the risk-free asset and the risky portfolio?
The following example addresses this important question.
Example: Determining the appropriate Recall that the client’s portfolio SD (for
allocation to the risk-free asset and to the investment combination of Treasury
the optimal risky portfolio bills and risky Portfolio T) equals:
σC = wTσT
Your client has a target standard Therefore, if the client has a target
deviation equal to 12%. Use the data standard deviation equal to 12%:
above to determine the appropriate 0.12 = wT(0.24)
allocation to Treasury bills and to the => wT = 0.12 / 0.24 = 0.50
optimal risky portfolio that will satisfy Your client should invest 50% in Treasury
your client’s risk tolerance. bills and 50% in the optimal risky
Portfolio T

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The Capital Market Line

 The Capital Market Line (CML) is the capital allocation line
in a world in which all investors agree on the expected
returns, standard deviations, and correlations of all assets
(also known as the “homogeneous expectations”
assumption). Assuming identical expectations, there will
be only one capital allocation line, and it is called the
capital market line.
 The key conclusion of the CML can be summarized as

follows: All investors will make optimal investment
decisions by allocating between the risk-free asset and
the market portfolio.
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The Capital Market Line
The slope of the CML is often called

the market price of risk, and equals the
reward-to-risk ratio (or Sharpe ratio)

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Differences Between the CAL and the CML

 There is only one CML because it is developed assuming all
investors agree on the expected return, standard deviation, and
correlations for all assets.
 There is an unlimited number of CALs because each is
developed uniquely for each investor.
 The tangency portfolio for the CML is the market portfolio, and
there is only one market portfolio. The market portfolio uses
market value weights.
 The tangency portfolio for the CAL can differ across investors
depending on differences in investor expectations.
 The CML is a special case of the CAL.

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Security Market Line (SML)

 SML is the graph of the CAPM, representing the cross-sectional
relationship between an asset’s expected return and its systematic
risk.
 Systematic risk for any asset is measured by the asset’s beta, which
estimates the sensitivity of the asset’s rate of return to changes in
the broad market’s returns.
 The intercept and slope for the SML are determined as follows:
 Intercept equals the risk-free rate, RF .
 Slope equals the market risk premium, E(RM) – RF
 The SML equation is:

Example: Use the CAPM to calculate the an OPENASIA company
expected return on a stock

 Assume you are assigned the task of evaluating the stock of Sky-Air, Inc. To
evaluate the stock, you calculate its required return using the CAPM. The
following information is available:
 expected market risk premium: 5%
 risk-free rate: 4%
 Sky-Air beta: 1.5
 Calculate and interpret the CAPM expected return for Sky-Air.
 Answer:
 Using the CAPM, the expected return for Sky-Air is:
 E(RSA) = 0.04 + 1.5(0.05) = 0.115 = 11.5%
 If investors predict that the return will exceed 11.5%, then they should buy
Sky-Air stock. However, if investors predict that the return will be less than
11.5%, then they should sell Sky-Air stock (or short sell the stock).
Example: Use the CAPM to calculate the an OPENASIA company
expected return on a stock

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Calculating the Beta Coefficient

 It might be useful to think of beta as a measure of a stock’s
variability that is caused by market factors.
 Systematic risk is estimated by :

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Differences Between the CML and the SML

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Example: Using the SML

 A stock has a beta of 0.75 and an expected return of 13%.
The risk-free rate is 4%. Calculate the market risk
premium and the expected return on the market
portfolio.
 Answer:
 According to the SML: 0.13 = 0.04 + 0.75[E(RM) – RF].
 Therefore, the market risk premium is equal to: [E(RM) –
RF] = 0.12 = 12%.
 The expected return on the market is calculated as:
[E(RM) – 0.04] = 0.12, or E(RM) = 0.16 = 16%.

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Example: Using the Sharpe ratio

 Given a Sharpe ratio for the market portfolio of 0.40, calculate the expected
return on a stock with a standard deviation of returns of 0.50 and a
correlation with the market portfolio returns of 0.6. The risk-free rate is 5%
and the standard deviation of the market portfolio returns is 0.25.

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Calculate an adjusted beta

 The historical beta for the Compware Company equals 2.
Calculate the adjusted beta for Compware Company
using the adjusted beta formula: (1/3) + (2/3) × βt–1.
 Answer:
 The adjusted beta for Compware Company equals:
(1/3) + (2/3) × 2 = 1.67
 Notice how the adjusted beta calculation used the
historical beta estimate of 2.0 to derive a forecast beta
that moved closer to a value of 1.

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Multifactor Models
 Macroeconomic factor models assume that asset returns are explained by
surprises (or “shocks”) in macroeconomic risk factors (e.g., GDP, interest
rates, and inflation). Factor surprises are defined as the difference between
the realized value of the factor and its consensus predicted value.
 Fundamental factor models assume asset returns are explained by the returns
from multiple firm-specific factors (e.g., P/E ratio, market cap, leverage ratio,
and earnings growth rate).
 Statistical factor models use statistical methods to explain asset returns. Two
primary types of statistical factor models are used: factor analysis and
principal component models. In factor analysis, factors are portfolios that
explain covariance in asset returns. In principal component models, factors
are portfolios that explain the variance in asset returns. The major weakness
is that the statistical factors do not lend themselves well to economic
interpretation. Therefore, statistical factors are mystery factors.
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Macroeconomic Factor Models

 The following model is an example of a two-factor macroeconomic
model in which stock returns are explained by surprises in GDP
growth rates and credit quality spreads:

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Macroeconomic Factor Models

Let’s take a closer look at each of the components:
 The stock’s expected return comes from an asset pricing model.
 The “F’s” are the factor surprises, the difference between the
predicted value of the factor and the realized value.
 The “b’s” are the sensitivities of the stock to the surprises. They are
very similar to betas in the market model. The higher the sensitivity,
the larger the change in return for a given factor surprise.
 The error term is the part of the return that can’t be explained by
the model. It represents unsystematic risk related to firm-specific
events like a strike or a warehouse fire.

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Example:
 The following two-factor model is used to explain the returns for
Media Tech (MT):
RMT = E(RMT) + bMT,1FGDP + bMT,2FQS + εMT
 The expected return for Media Tech equals 10%. Over the past year,
GDP grew at a rate that was 2 percentage points higher than
originally expected, and the quality spread was 1 percentage point
lower than originally expected. Media Tech’s sensitivity to the GDP
rate factor equaled 2 and its sensitivity to the quality spread factor
equaled –0.5. Over the past year, Media Tech also experienced a 2%
company-unique surprise return (i.e., unrelated to the two macro
factors). Construct the macroeconomic factor model for Media
Tech, and calculate its return for the year.
RMT = 0.10 + 2(0.02) – 0.50(–0.01) + 0.02 = 16.5%

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Fundamental Factor Models

 Consider the following fundamental factor model:

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Standardized sensitivities
 Standardized sensitivities (bi1 and bi2). Sensitivities in most fundamental
factor models are not regression slopes. Instead, the fundamental factor
sensitivities are standardized attributes (similar to z-statistics from the
standard normal distribution). For example, the standardized P/E
sensitivity in a fundamental factor model is calculated as:

Example: Calculating a standardized an OPENASIA company
sensitivity in a fundamental factor model

 The P/E for Stock i is 15.20, the average P/E for all stocks
is 11.90, and the standard deviation of P/E ratios is 6.30.
Calculate the standardized sensitivity of Stock i to the P/E
factor.
 Answer:
 The sensitivity of Stock i to the P/E factor is:
 Therefore, the P/E ratio for the stock is 0.52 standard

deviations higher than the average stock P/E.
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Calculate the expected return for a portfolio

 Consider a portfolio allocated 75% to rent Shop and 25% to
carpets Plus. Calculate the expected return for the portfolio,
given the following macroeconomic model results:

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arbitrage pricing theory (APT)

APT refers to an asset pricing theory that assumes:
 Returns are derived from a multifactor model. Unfortunately, the
APT provides little practical guidance for the identification of the
risk factors. the lack of clarity for the risk factors is a major
weakness of the APT.
 Unsystematic risk can be completely diversified away. this implies
that unsystematic risk is not priced (has zero risk premium).
 No arbitrage opportunities exist. An arbitrage opportunity is defined
as an investment opportunity that bears no risk, no cost, and yet
provides a profit. This assumption implies that investors will
undertake infinitely large positions (long and short) to exploit any
perceived mispricing, causing asset prices to adjust immediately to
their equilibrium values.

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APT Equation
The APT describes the equilibrium relationship between expected
returns for well-diversified portfolios and their multiple sources of
systematic risk.
 Each λ stands for the expected risk premium associated with each
risk factor. each λ equals the risk premium for a portfolio (called a
pure factor portfolio).
 Each ß represents the sensitivity (also called factor “loading”) of
Portfolio P to each risk factor. Each factor in the arbitrage pricing
model is “priced,” meaning that each risk premium is statistically and
economically significant. Unlike the CAPM, the APT does not require
that one of the risk factors is the market portfolio. This is a major
advantage of the arbitrage pricing model.
Example: Calculating expected returns an OPENASIA company
from the arbitrage pricing model

 An investment firm employs a two-factor APt model. the risk-
free rate equals 5%. Determine the expected return for the
invest Fund using the following data:
 Using the two-factor APT model, the expected return for the
Invest Fund (IF) equals:

Differences Between the APT and an OPENASIA company
Multifactor Models
 APT is a cross-sectional equilibrium pricing model that
explains the variation across assets’ expected returns during a
single time period. The multifactor model is a time-series
regression that explains the variation over time in returns for
one asset.
 APT is an equilibrium-pricing model that assumes no arbitrage
opportunities. The macroeconomic multifactor models are ad
hoc (i.e., rather than being derived directly from an equilibrium
theory, the factors are identified empirically by looking for
macroeconomic variables that best fit the data).
 The intercept term in a macroeconomic factor model is the
asset’s expected return, and is derived from the APT equation.
the APT intercept is the risk-free rate.
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active risk
 Active return equals the differences in returns between a
managed portfolio and its benchmark:
active return = rP – rB
 Active risk (also known as tracking error or tracking risk)
is defined as the standard deviation of the active return:

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active risk of a portfolio

 The active risk of a portfolio can be separated into two
components:
1. Active factor risk: risk from active factor tilts attributable to
deviations of the portfolio’s factor sensitivities versus the
benchmark’s sensitivities to the same set of factors.
2. Active specific risk: risk from active asset selection attributable
to deviations of the portfolio’s individual asset weightings versus
the benchmark’s individual asset weightings, after controlling for
differences in factor sensitivities of the portfolio versus the
benchmark.

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active risk of a portfolio
 Active factor risk example: An active portfolio manager may decide to

under or overweight particular industries relative to the portfolio’s
benchmark. Therefore, the portfolio’s industry factor sensitivities will not
coincide with those of the benchmark, and, consequently, the portfolio
returns may deviate from the benchmark.
 Active specific risk example: the active portfolio manager may decide to
overweight or underweight individual stocks within specific industries.
For example, a stock’s market capitalization may comprise 1% of the
industry, but the portfolio manager may allocate 2% of industry allocation
to the stock, causing the portfolio returns to deviate from the
benchmark returns.

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Information Ratio
 Active return alone is insufficient in measuring the manager’s
performance over a series of measurement periods.
 To demonstrate a manager’s consistency in generating active
return, we utilize the information ratio in which we
standardize average active return by dividing it by its standard
deviation. in other words, the information ratio equals the
portfolio’s average active return divided by the portfolio’s
tracking risk:

Portfolio and Benchmark Returns for 12 Months
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Portfolio and Benchmark Returns for 12 Months
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 Calculate and interpret the manager’s information ratio.
 The higher the IR, the more active return the manager
earned per unit of active risk.
 An information ratio of 0.27 indicates the manager
earned about 27 basis points of active return per unit of
active risk.

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Compare and contrast APT & CAPM

 CAPM suggests that all investors should hold some combination of
the market portfolio and the risk-free asset. To adjust risk, less risk-
averse investors simply hold more of the market portfolio, and less of
the risk-free asset. The risk of the investor’s portfolio is determined
solely by the resulting portfolio beta (market risk), so the CAPM
assumes there is only one sour
 APT gives no special role to the market portfolio (i.e., of systematic
(“priced”) risk. APT states that asset returns follow a multifactor
process, thereby allowing investors to manage several risk factors,
rather than just one. Investor can identify and earn returns or hedge
risks associated with factors such as recession risk, interest rate risk,
or inflation risk.

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CAPM review
 Key assumptions of the CAPM:
 Investors can borrow and lend at the risk-free rate.
 Unlimited short selling is allowed with full access to short-sale
proceeds.
 Implications of the CAPM:
 The market portfolio lies on the efficient frontier (i.e., the
market portfolio is efficient).
 There is a linear relationship between an asset’s expected
returns and its beta.

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Lecture

2 FINANCIAL INVESTMENT 12/25/2011

Two-asset Portfolio: expected return

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Two-asset Portfolio: variance

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Two-asset Portfolio: variance

Therefore, the variance of the two-asset portfolio can be

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Using the information in the following figure, calculate the

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The standard deviation of a portfolio of three assets:

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Expected Return/Variance Combinations

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Expected Return/Variance Combinations

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The Efficient Frontier

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 The expected return, standard deviation combinations for

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Effects of Correlation on Portfolio Risk

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Equally-Weighted Portfolio Risk

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the Risk-Free Asset

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The Capital Allocation Line

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The Capital Allocation Line

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Capital Allocation Line

The reward-to-risk ratio also

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Capital Allocation Line

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from the CAL

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Capital Allocation Line

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The Capital Market Line

 The key conclusion of the CML can be summarized as

The Capital Market Line

The slope of the CML is often called

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Differences Between the CAL and the CML

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Security Market Line (SML)

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