Journal of Archaeological Science 45 (2014) 103e111

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Journal of Archaeological Science

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

More evidence for cat taming at the Predynastic elite cemetery

of Hierakonpolis (Upper Egypt)
Wim Van Neer a, b, *, Veerle Linseele c, Renée Friedman d, Bea De Cupere a
a
Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Vautierstraat 29, B-1000 Brussels, Belgium
b
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Laboratory of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Genomics, Ch. Debériotstraat 32, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
c
Center for Archaeological Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200E, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
d
Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan, British Museum, London WC1B 3DG, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Continued excavations at the Predynastic elite cemetery HK6 at Hierakonpolis have yielded new
Received 13 January 2014 evidence for the cultural control of cats during the Naqada IC-IIB period (c. 3800e3600 BC). In the same
Received in revised form burial ground where evidence was previously found for the keeping of jungle cat (Felis chaus), a small pit
13 February 2014
was discovered containing six cats. The animals that were buried simultaneously, are a male and a
Accepted 18 February 2014
Available online 27 February 2014
female, and four kittens belonging to two different litters. The long bone measurements of the adult
individuals clearly fall in the range of Felis silvestris and outside those of F. chaus and F. margarita.
Comparison of the measurements e through the log-ratio technique e with data from the literature, as
Keywords:
Burial
well as morphological characteristics of the mandible, suggest that the animals are domestic. It is argued
Cat that these results should be used with caution, since the criteria established to distinguish wild and
Felis silvestris domestic cat in European sites may reflect differences at the subspecies level (wild Felis silvestris silvestris
Domestication versus the domestic form derived from Felis silvestris lybica). In northern Africa only F. s. lybica (wild or
domestic) occurs, thus the established criteria may not be adequate when applied to Egyptian material.
However, possible circumstantial evidence for the cultural control of the cats buried at Hierakonpolis is
provided by their ages at death which indicate a deviation from the birth pattern reported in Egyptian
wild cats.
Ó 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY license.

1. Introduction 2013), based on stable isotope evidence, it has been suggested

that small felids lived in the vicinity of humans about 5300 years
In the traditional view, the domestication of Felis silvestris ago in an early agricultural village of Quanhucun in Shaanxi,
occurred in Egypt around 4000 years ago, during the Middle China. In Egypt itself, indications for the taming of cats, prior to
Kingdom (c. 1950 BC), or on circumstantial evidence perhaps 300 the traditionally accepted date, was limited to the report of a
years earlier in the late Old Kingdom (c. 2310 BC) (Malek, 1993). possible cat skeleton near the feet of a man in a grave dating to
This has been challenged by a much earlier find from Cyprus that the Badarian period (5th millennium BC) (Brunton, 1937: 34;
demonstrates a close relationship between cats and humans Flores, 2003: 82), but the remains are unavailable for examination
around 9500 years ago (Vigne et al., 2004). The Cypriote evidence, and the identity of the animal is unconfirmed. More reliable
a cat buried in close association with a human, suggests that evidence is provided by the skeleton of a jungle cat (Felis chaus)
the domestication process may have started when humans in dated to 3700 BC (Linseele et al., 2007, 2008). This young adult,
the Levant became sedentary and their cereal storage attracted found in a group burial in the elite cemetery of the Predynastic
rodents, and in turn cats. Further, in a recent article (Hu et al., period (HK6) at Hierakonpolis, exhibits a femur and a humerus
with a healed fracture, indicating that the animal had been
tended to for several weeks prior to its sacrifice. Continued
excavation of the same graveyard has now yielded secure
* Corresponding author. Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Vautierstraat evidence for the presence of the wild cat (F. silvestris). Below the
29, B-1000 Brussels, Belgium.
find circumstances are described and the status of the cats (wild,
E-mail addresses: wvanneer@naturalsciences.be (W. Van Neer), veerle.linseele@
arts.kuleuven.be (V. Linseele), rfriedman@britishmuseum.org (R. Friedman), tamed, domestic?) is discussed on the basis of morphological,
bdecupere@naturalsciences.be (B. De Cupere). osteometric and demographic information.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.02.014
0305-4403 Ó 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Ope n a cce s s unde r CC BY lice ns e .
104 W. Van Neer et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 45 (2014) 103e111

2. The cat burial at Hierakonpolis at the centre of mortuary complexes and surrounded by smaller
graves not only of (presumably) family members and court officials,
Hierakonpolis (25
060 N, 32
460 E) is located on the west bank of but also a variety of animals, both domestic and wild. These animals
the Nile, 17 km north of the modern town of Edfu in Upper Egypt were deliberately and carefully buried whole in graves of their own,
(Fig. 1). This large Predynastic site consisted of domestic quarters, either singly or in groups usually of the same species. More rarely
industrial zones and ceremonial centres as well as cemeteries for they accompany a human burial in the grave. Animals found in
the different strata of society. Excavations in the cemetery of the conjunction with humans include dogs, baboons, goats and harte-
elite segment of the population called HK6 started in the late 1970s beest. Faunal remains representing butchered part of domestic
(Adams, 2000) and are still ongoing. The HK6 cemetery is unique in animals offered as food are also present, but are not considered
the Predynastic period for the number and variety of wild and here as buried animals (Friedman et al., 2011; Linseele et al., 2007,
domestic animal taxa it contains. Besides the traditional domestic 2008; Van Neer et al., 2004, 2014, in press). Animal graves also
species (cattle, sheep, goat, dog, donkey) a large number of wild occur in association with architectural features in the cemetery,
species have been found: anubis baboon (Papio anubis), aurochs such as enclosure walls and funerary temples. Their sacrifice and
(Bos primigenius), hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), wild donkey burial seems to have marked the boundaries of certain precincts
(Equus africanus), hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), (Friedman, 2010).
elephant (Loxodonta africana), jungle cat (Felis chaus), leopard During excavations carried out in March 2008 along the course
(Panthera pardus), crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) and ostrich of a wood-post wall (Wall B7) that runs for over 72 m at the eastern
(Struthio camelus). Recent excavations have shown that many of the edge of the cemetery, three subsurface pit features were discovered
animal graves are subsidiary to the large tombs of the human elite (Fig. 2). These contained the articulated skeletons of a juvenile
of the early Naqada II period (c. 3700e3600 BC), which were placed anubis baboon (Feature B), nine adult and subadult dogs of medium

Fig. 1. Hierakonpolis and its localities mentioned in the text.

 W. Van Neer et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 45 (2014) 103e111 105

Fig. 2. Map of the cemetery at HK6 and detailed plan of the funerary temple precinct and tomb complex investigated in 2000e2013.

size (Feature C) and six cats (Feature E). The burials were all intact, animals were fully articulated and draped along the bottom and
and because they appear in close proximity to one another are around the sides of the pit. It is likely that their arrangement was to
believed to be contemporary. No artefacts were found inside the a large extent dictated by the small size of the pit.
pits. Their position in relation to the boundary wall indicates an The cats belong to different age classes: there are two adult
association. This wall can be dated to early Naqada II based on individuals (called cat 3 and cat 6 during the excavation) and four
material deliberately incorporated in its foundations. Thus, the kittens (cats 1, 2, 4, and 5). Age determination can be undertaken
animal burial may be attributed a similar date. No material of later on the basis of the dentition combined e in the case of the two
date was found in the vicinity (Friedman, 2010). older individuals e with epiphyseal fusion data. The two older
individuals have their complete dentition (Fig. 4), meaning that
3. Description of the cat remains they were at least 7 months old (Habermehl, 1980). One of the
individuals (cat 6) has all its epiphyses fused. According to
The intact remains of six cats were found in a circular pit Habermehl (1980: 111), the last epiphyses close at around 11½
(Feature E) of about 50 cm in diameter, with a depth of 25 cm below months of age in the domestic cat. In another publication
the currently somewhat deflated ground surface (Fig. 3). The (Habermehl, 1985), he mentions that epiphyseal closure may be a
106 W. Van Neer et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 45 (2014) 103e111

Fig. 3. View of the cat burial prior to the lifting of the individuals.

few months later in the wild cat. The individual (cat 6) from Hier- The four younger individuals still have the deciduous premolars
akonpolis must have died when it was about one year of age, or in their mandibles. In two of the individuals (cats 1 and 2), the first
shortly thereafter. There is no wear visible on the teeth and the molar can be seen almost piercing through the crypt, whereas in
postcranial skeleton shows no signs of any age-related pathology. the two other specimens, only a smaller opening is visible in the
This suggests that the animal was not very old and it is likely to ramus (cats 4 and 5) (Fig. 5). In the domestic cat the lower molars
represent a prime adult. The other adult individual (cat 3) is slightly erupt between 123 and 141 days (mean 132), or between about 4
younger as shown by the epiphyseal fusion data (Table 1). A precise and 5 months of age (Habermehl, 1980: 110). This must have been
age estimate is not possible, but it is clear that this individual must the approximate age at which the juvenile animals died. The small
have been less than but close to one year. age difference between the two ‘pairs’ of cats as shown by the
dentition is also seen in the overall size of the mandibles and
postcranial elements (Tables 2 and 3). This means that all four of the
young individuals did not belong to the same litter, but are rather
from two different ones. Given the relatively small age difference
between the two litters, it can be excluded that they came from the
same female.
The measurements of the two adult specimens (Table 4)
illustrate a clear size difference that can be attributed to sexual
dimorphism. The metrical comparison of these cats with the
subadult specimen of jungle cat (F. chaus), found previously in
Tomb 12 (Linseele et al., 2007, 2008), also shows that the cats
from Feature E are much smaller and can be identified as wild cat
(F. silvestris). There is a third cat species in northern Africa,
namely the sand cat (Felis margarita), which according to Osborn
and Helmy (1980) would be of the same size as F. silvestris
(average head and body length about 45 cm). Guggisberg (1975),
however, mentions that the sand cat (45e57 cm) is clearly smaller
than the wild cat (55e65 cm). We had no skeletons of modern
Egyptian sand cat specimens at our disposal during the present
study, but the limited data from a previous study of a male and
female sand cat from Pakistan (Linseele et al., 2007) indicate that
the species is indeed smaller than F. silvestris. The postcranial
bones from the two adults from Hierakonpolis can therefore be
safely identified as F. silvestris. The sand cat is extremely rare in
Egypt (Goodman and Helmy, 1986), and for this reason it is
sometimes not even mentioned among Egyptian mammal fauna
(e.g., Malek, 1993). In the large series of cats found in the Late
period catacombs at Saqqara (1st millennium BC), only wild cat
Fig. 4. Mandibles of the adult cats. p. cor.: processus coronoideus; p.art.: processus and jungle cat are present (Callou, pers. comm.; Ginsburg, 1991).
articularis; p.ang.: processus angularis. A visual impression of the size differences between the jungle cat
 W. Van Neer et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 45 (2014) 103e111 107

Table 1 Table 2
Epiphyseal fusion data for cat 3, the youngest adult cat. The fusion times indicated Measurements (mm) of the two youngest cats. NF ¼ non fused. Measurements in
are for domestic cat (Habermehl, 1975). brackets are approximate.

Fusion state Fusion date in months Cat 4 Cat 5

Distal humerus Fused 8½ Maxilla

Proximal radius Fused 8½ alv. L. Id1-Pd4 e (21.5)
Proximal and distal femur Unfused 8½ Scapula
Tuber calcis Unfused 8½ GLP 8.1 e
Proximal ulna Fused 10 BG 5.6 e
Phalanges proximal Fused 10 Humerus NF prox.; NF dist. NF prox.; NF dist.
Proximal humerus Unfused 11½ GL shaft e 52.3
Distal radius Unfused 11½ Bd 10.8 e
Distal ulna Unfused 11½ Radius NF prox.; NF dist.
Proximal tibia Unfused 11½ GL shaft 42.3 e
Distal metacarpal and metatarsal Fused 11½ Ulna NF prox.; NF dist. NF prox.; NF dist.
GL shaft 51.4 (53)
Femur NF prox.; NF dist. NF prox.; NF dist.
GL shaft 53.1 57.1
and the male and female wild cat is illustrated on Fig. 6 for the Tibia NF prox.; NF dist. NF prox.; NF dist.
calcaneus and astragalus and on Fig. 7 for the humerus. GL shaft 54.5 57.7
Calcaneus NF
GL without tuber e 19.1
4. Discussion Astragalus
GL e 11.4
Unlike the jungle cat and the baboons interred with it in Tomb
12, which exhibited healed fractures suggesting that the animals
were held in captivity for some time, the cats from Feature E do not the Feature E cats when applying the most reliable criterion
display any pathology. When trying to establish whether the cats described for the distinction of the mandibles (Kratochvíl, 1973:
should be considered as wild, tamed or even domesticated different 20e23). The line that unites the caudal end of the processus
lines of possible evidence can be explored. Several publications deal coronoideus with the caudal end of the processus angularis cuts off
with the morphological or osteometrical differences in the cranial the processus articularis (Fig. 4). The angle that this line makes with
and postcranial skeleton of the wild and domestic cat (Kratochvíl, the ventral side of the corpus mandibulae is obtuse in the case of the
1973, 1976; O’Connor, 2007). The domestic form is suggested for female from HK6, and more or less straight in the male specimen.
Kratochvíl (1973) established that in the wild cat this angle is
mostly sharp, seldom straight.

Table 3
Measurements (mm) of the two other young cats. NF ¼ non fused. Measurements in
brackets are approximate.

Cat 1 Cat 2

Mandible
Infradentale to condyle process 42.7 49
Infradentale to angular process 41.7 e
Height of vertical ramus 16.6 e
Humerus NF prox.; NF dist.
GL 75
GL shaft 60.1
SD 4.2
Bd 14.4
Radius NF prox.; NF dist. NF prox.; NF dist.
GL shaft 55.9 63
Femur NF prox.; NF dist. NF prox.; NF dist.
GL shaft e 78.4
SD e 6.8
Bd e 16.2
Tibia NF prox.; NF dist.
GL shaft 70.5
Bp 12.8
SD 5.1
Bd 9.0
Calcaneus NF NF
GL without tuber 22.1 26.2
Astragalus
GL 11.8 14.9
Metatarsal II NF NF
GL without distal epiphysis 31.6 e
Metatarsal III NF NF
GL without distal epiphysis 33.4 38.5
Metatarsal IV NF NF
Fig. 5. Right mandible of each pair of young cats. The specimen at the left (cat 5) is the
GL without distal epiphysis 34.1 e
youngest. Behind the deciduous premolars a small opening in the ramus can be seen.
Metatarsal V NF NF
The other specimen (cat number 1) is slightly larger and has the first molar visible
GL without distal epiphysis e 38.5
through the crypt.
108 W. Van Neer et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 45 (2014) 103e111

Table 4 Table 4 (continued )

Measurements (mm) of the two adult cats, compared to those of Felis chaus from
Tomb 12 and of a female and male Felis margarita from Pakistan (Natural History Cat 3 Cat 6 Felis chaus Felis margarita
Museum Vienna, NMW 13472 & 13473). NF ¼ non fused. Measurements in brackets Female Male Tomb 12 Femaleemale
are approximate. Pakistan
Cat 3 Cat 6 Felis chaus Felis margarita Bd 4.1 e e
Pelvis
Female Male Tomb 12 Femaleemale
GL 71 81 (95) 54e66
Pakistan
LA 11.5 12.2 14.1 9.0e9.4
Skull Femur NF prox.
alv. L. I1-M1 34.1 e 46.7 & dist.
alv. L. C-M1 26.9 29.7 37.3 GL e (111) e
alv. L. P2-M1 e 22.0 27.1 GL shaft 92 e e
GL P4 10.2 10.1 15.8 DC e 9.8 e
GB P4 e 5.1 7.0 SD e e e
GL alveole C 4.7 e 8.2 Bd 16.1 18.8a (24.7) 14.5e17.5
GB alveole C e e 6.2 Tibia NF prox. NF prox.
Height of jugal arch e 10.5 e & dist.
Mandible GL e 113 (146) 84e105
Infradentale to condyle 52.3 59.8 GL without prox. 102 e 133.5
process epiphysis
Infradentale to angular 51.1 58.3 Bp 18.0 21.4 26.5 15.0e18.1
process SD 6.1 7.0 8.3 4.8e5.5
Height of vertical ramus 22.4 24.8 Bd 13.0 13.2 19.5 11.0e12.9
alv. L. I1-M1 29.4 32.3 Calcaneus NF
alv. L. C-M1 e 31.1 GL e 28.3 e
alv. L. P3-M1 17.1 20.0 GL without tuber 26.9 e 38.7
Height of mandible in e 9.2 Astragalus
front of P3 GL 14.9 16.5 19.5 11.9e14.3
Height of mandible e 10.3 Metatarsal II
behind M1 GL 47.5
Axis Bd 4.5
BFcr 16.4 Metatarsal III
LCDe 22.6 GL 51.7
Sacrum Bd 6.5
GL 26.4 Metatarsal IV
GB 29.2 GL 52.5
PL 25.2 Bd 5.5
Scapula Metatarsal V
GLP 12.1 13.0 GL 49.8
BG 8.5 8.7 Bd 4.6
Humerus Fusing prox. NF prox. a
In the femur, the distal measurement is on the left bone, whereas the two other
GL 89.5 95.1 (120) 77e99
measurements are on the right femur.
GL without proximal e e 112.5
epiphysis
Bp 14.4 16.8 21.5
Dp 17.8 19.7 26.3 O’Connor (2007) used the measurements provided by
SD 6.4 6.7 8.0 4.6e5.6 Kratochvíl (1976) for the wild and domestic cat as standards in a
Bd 16.0 17.4 22.6 14.4e16.8 study that aimed at finding osteometrical criteria to distinguish
Radius NF dist.
both forms in north European archaeofaunal assemblages. Using
GL e 94.2
GL without distal 82.4 e the log-ratio technique (Meadow, 1999), archaeological specimens
epiphysis were compared to these standards and this often allowed wild
Bp 7.4 7.7 9.6 and house cats to be differentiated. In addition to European
SD 4.7 4.5 archaeological samples, the Roman cat from Quseir (von den
Midshaft width e 5.7
Bd e 12.2
Driesch and Boessneck, 1983) was also considered and identified
Ulna NF dist. as an exceptionally large house cat, having provided several
GL 101 111 e strongly positive values when compared to the house cat standard
GL without distal 95.5 e e (O’Connor, 2007: 593e4). Using the standards calculated by
epiphysis
O’Connor (2007) for the house cat, the values for the two adult
BPC 8.5 9.7 11.4 7.1e8.2
SDO e 10.7 e cats from HK6 were calculated and those from the Quseir cat
DPA 8.3 12.3 13.5 7.8e9.7 reconsidered (Fig. 8). It appears that the Quseir cat is indeed very
Metacarpal I large compared to the house cat standard, and that the two
GL e e 14.2 HK6 specimens are smaller than the Roman cat from Quseir. The
Bd e e 6.1
Metacarpal II NF
female individual from Feature E has negative values against the
GL 26.2 e e house cat standard, except for one slightly positive value for a
Bd 4.0 e e pelvis measurement (LA). However, von den Driesch (1976) has
Metacarpal III NF defined this measurement as difficult to take. The male cat from
GL 30.3 e e
Feature E has both slightly negative and slightly positive values
Bd 4.1 e e
Metacarpal IV NF against the house cat standard. The values noted for long bone
GL 29.6 e e lengths show a weak negative value for the humerus (0.006)
Bd 3.9 e e and weak positive values for the tibia (0.006), the ulna (0.008),
Metacarpal V NF and the radius (0.009); a somewhat higher value is seen for the
GL 24.2 e e
femur (0.046). The Hierakonpolis male, in any case, is much
 W. Van Neer et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 45 (2014) 103e111 109

Fig. 6. Calcaneus and astragalus of the male and female Felis silvestris from Feature H,
compared to those of Felis chaus from Tomb 12.

smaller than the male from Quseir which was said to be domestic
because of the morphology of the skull and the mandible.
Both the morphological traits of the mandible and the osteo-
metric data suggest that the Feature E cats are domestic. However,
it remains to be verified what the exact meaning and value is of the

Fig. 8. Length and breadth measurements of the Hierakonpolis female (HK cat 3), the
Hierakonpolis male (HK cat 6) and the Quseir male against the house cat standard.

criteria used to arrive at such a conclusion. It should be remem-

bered that in the aforementioned studies a comparison was made
of modern wild cat material from the European subspecies Felis
silvestris silvestris with house cats that are the domestic form
derived from the wild cat subspecies Felis silvestris lybica that
occurs in Egypt. It is therefore possible that the differences in
morphology between the domestic form and the wild cat described
by Kratochvíl (1973) reflect the shape differences between the two
subspecies rather than changes that occurred during the process of
domestication. For that reason it would be useful to analyse a large
series of wild F. s. lybica and to compare the morphological data to
those obtained on the domestic form. Only then it will be clear
whether Kratochvíl’s (1973) criteria are adequate when dealing
with the material from Hierakonpolis or other Egyptian sites.
A large series of measurements on wild cats from Egypt would also
facilitate osteometrical studies of the kind carried out by O’Connor
(2007). Taking into account the current state of knowledge and the
fact that, compared with many other species, cats underwent little
morphological changes as a result of the domestication process, it
Fig. 7. Humerus of the male and female Felis silvestris from Feature H, compared to that may be more efficient to approach the status of the Hierakonpolis
of Felis chaus from Tomb 12. animals from another angle.
110 W. Van Neer et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 45 (2014) 103e111

At first sight it may be tempting to consider the six cats found in captivity at Hierakonpolis is known from the previous find of the
Feature E as four kittens from a single litter with their father and jungle cat in Tomb 12. Several accounts exist to demonstrate that
mother. However, it is clear from the age determinations that this is kittens of the African wild cat F. s. lybica, unlike those of European
incorrect. The young animals are in fact two pairs of kittens of wild cat F. s. silvestris, can easily be reared in captivity. Guggisberg
slightly different age, and, as already mentioned above, because of (1975) cites an example from southern Sudan in the late 19th
the small age differences they must necessarily be from two century AD, where native people captured young African wild cats
different mothers. It appears, moreover, that the female cat found which would shortly thereafter stay of their own volition and live
with them in the pit cannot be the mother of the kittens because around their huts serving as a form of pest-control. Such a scenario
she was less than one year of age when she was sacrificed. Wild cats might also apply to Hierakonpolis, although the rather small size of
are sexually mature at 9e10 months (Habermehl, 1985) and the Feature E cats is puzzling, especially when compared to the
gestation takes 56e60 days (Estes, 1991). Because the kittens from Roman cat from Quseir. Perhaps the Quseir cat was a wild specimen
Feature E were 4e5 months of age, their mother had to be at least that was tamed and the HK6 specimens should be considered
16 months old. Thus, the female cat is too young and cannot be their domestic? On the other hand, analyses of cat mummies have shown
mother. The relationship of the male individual to the kittens that Egyptian domestic cats are often larger than their present-day
cannot be established. The fact that no relationship can be proven wild relatives (Armitage and Clutton-Brock, 1981; Morrison-Scott,
between the six individuals means that the investment needed to 1952). Since this is in contrast to the expected size reduction
procure these animals must have been considerable, as it probably usually seen as a result of domestication, it has been argued that the
involved four different captures (the male, the female, and large size of those domestic cats may be due to their special status
each pair of kittens). Chances are reduced that opportunities for and the care that was taken to keep and feed them (Gautier, 1999).
successful capture occurred frequently in a short time span. It is Until more osteological data on modern African wild cat and
therefore likely that at least some of the cats were held in captivity ancient cats from Egypt become available it will be difficult to
until a quantity was obtained that was considered sufficient for the establish the precise status of the HK6 cats on that metrical basis.
intended purpose.
The ages of the kittens compared to that of the female may be 5. Conclusion
significant for establishing the status of the animals. Reproductive
data on F. s. libyca are extremely rare. In Egypt, wild cats are re- The morphology of the dentaries of the adult cats suggests that
ported to have a single litter of young per year, in AprileMay (Le they belong to the domestic form if compared to the diagnostic
Berre, 1990: 170). European wild cats (F. s. silvestris) are also criteria described by Kratochvíl (1973). The measurements of
described to have only one litter per year but with two oestrus European domestic and wild cats published by Kratochvíl (1976)
periods in the year, in spring and early autumn (Harrison Matthews, and used by O’Connor (2007) to establish standards, also point to
1941). Autumn litters have also been observed in F. s. libyca on the the domestic form. For the time being, and until wild F. s. lybica
east coast of the Caspian Sea (Heptner and Sludskii, 1992: 490) and from north Africa have been analysed from a morphological and
in southwestern Africa (Shortridge, 1934: 94). Further, African wild osteometrical point of view, these results from Hierakonpolis need
cats (F. s. cafra) in the Kalahari show no clear seasonality and might to be treated with caution. Most probably, the criteria that allow
produce in case of food abundance up to four litters a year (Herbst, wild F. s. silvestris to be distinguished from the domestic form of F. s.
2009: 92). It can be assumed from the aforementioned information lybica at European sites are in fact differences at the subspecies
that the reproductive behaviour from wild cats depends largely on level. Whether the wild and domestic form of F. s. lybica can be
environmental/climatological conditions and food availability. It is distinguished using the same criteria needs to be verified. Never-
unlikely that there was so much interannual and seasonal variation theless, it is clear that there was a close interaction between these
in food availability in the Nile Valley as described for the Kalahari. small felids and humans at Hierakonpolis during Predynastic times.
In fact, the Nile Valley itself can be considered a rather harsh, but The four young animals of 4e5 months of age were from two
stable environment with more or less predictable seasons. As the different litters, and the female of almost a year of age was too
kittens from Feature E were 4e5 months of age when they died, the young to be their mother. The adult male was over a year of age, but
adult animals buried with them should have been around 16e17 it cannot be verified if it could be related to the kittens. If all these
months of age (or 28e29 etc.) had they been born in accordance animals are supposed to be taken from the wild, four different
with the same natural reproduction cycle as reported for Egyptian captures must be accepted. It seems unlikely that sufficient
wild cats. The female individual, which was slightly younger than opportunities for successful capture would have occurred in a short
one year of age, clearly does not follow this natural pattern. This period of time prior to the sacrifice. For that reason it seems that at
discrepancy is too large to be attributed to a lack of reliability in the least some of the cats may have been kept in captivity prior to their
ageing criteria, which are derived from the domestic cat. The most burial as was clearly proven for the previously reported jungle cat
plausible explanation for the observed ages is that more than one with its healed fractures (Linseele et al., 2007, 2008). The ages at
litter per year was being produced, meaning that the HK6 cats no death moreover show that the natural reproduction cycle, with one
longer followed the natural birth pattern. This phenomenon has birth season in spring, was not followed, a phenomenon that has
been observed elsewhere in Africa where free-ranging female wild been observed in Africa among free-ranging wild cats that were
cats that are hand-reared can have two to three litters per year hand-reared by humans. Although it is difficult to establish
(Estes, 1991: 358e359). Hence, it would appear that there was whether the Hierakonpolis cats were tamed cats that were held in
some kind of relationship between man and cats at or near (voluntary or involuntary) captivity or rather free-ranging cats
Hierakonpolis. living near the settlements, it is clear that there was a close rela-
Wild cats are found today in Africa wherever rats and mice are tionship with humans that predate the oldest accepted evidence for
abundant, including near villages and towns. It is likely that in domestic cat in Egypt by almost two millennia.
Predynastic times wild cats were also attracted by the rodents that
must have lived in and near large settlements such as Hierakonp- Acknowledgements
olis. To what extent the animals from Feature E were free-ranging
or cats that were tamed and held in captivity is difficult to estab- We thank Barbara Herzig, curator of mammals of the Natural
lish. That small felids (amongst other animals) were kept in History Museum,Vienna, and Hélène Jousse for the measurements
 W. Van Neer et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 45 (2014) 103e111 111

of Felis margarita. We also acknowledge the National Geographic Hu, Y., Hu, S., Wang, W., Wu, X., Marshall, F.B., Chena, X., Houa, L., Wang, C., 2013.
Earliest evidence for commensal processes of cat domestication. Proc. Natl.
Society for funding the 2009 season of excavation at HK6. The
Acad. Sci. U. S. A.. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1311439110 published ahead of
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