PHYSICS 101: COLLEGE PHYSICS

Lecture: 3 hours per week

Laboratory: 6 hours per week

Course Outline:
I. Measurements
a. Review of related subjects
b. Scientific Notation
c. Conversion of Units
II. Vectors
a. Definition of terms
b. Addition of Vectors
c. Methods of Adding Vectors
III. Statics
a. Equilibrant Force
b.Concurrent Forces: First Law of Equilibrium
c. Parallel Forces: Second Law of Equilibrium
d. Torque
e. Center of gravity
IV. Motion
a. Rectilinear Motion
b. Free Fall
c. Projectile Motion
d. Rotational Motion
V. Newton’s Laws of Motion
a. First, Second, and Third Law of Motion
b. Friction: Static and Kinetic
c. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
d. Rotational Motion
VI. Momentum
a. Definition of Terms
b. Relationship between Momentum, Impulse, and Force
c. Conservation of Linear Momentum
VII. Work, Energy, and Power
a. Definition of Terms
b. Gravitational Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy
c. Work – Energy Relationship
d. Conservation of Mechanical Energy
e. Power
VIII. Simple Machines
a. Kinds of Simple Machines
b. Applications
IX. Heat (Optional)
X. Simple Electricity (Optional)
XI. Density, Pressure, and Buoyant Force (Optional)

References:
1. College Physics 3rd Ed. by Abastillas, Asperilla, Magno, Roxas, and Palisoc
2. Physics for Scientist and Engineers by Serway Jewett
3. University Physics 10th Ed. by Sears, Zemansky, and Young.
4. Modern Technical Physics 6th Ed. by Arthur Beiser
5. Conceptual Physics by Paul G. Hewitt

Prepared by: Mr. Silverio S. Reyna Jr., M.A. in Physics

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 Physics 101

Chapter I: Introduction

I.1Definition:
Physics is a body of knowledge which deals with the study of matter, energy, and
their transformations.

I.2Branches of Physics
1. Mechanics deals primarily with the motion of bodies, the concept of force and its effect on the motion and
shape of the bodies. Properties of solid, liquid, and gases are also taken up in this branch of Physics. Here
we are concerned with macroscopic bodies, bodies which you can easily see, in the solid state.
2. Sound and Wave Motion deals with the transfer of energy by means of periodic disturbances through
various media.
3. Heat, also known as Thermodynamics, introduces us to the concept of temperature. Heat itself is also a
form of energy. This branch deals with thermal expansion, heat capacitance of substance, changes of state,
and heat transfer. Thermodynamics is more precisely concerned with the relationship of heat and work.
4. Electricity and Magnetism deals with the concept of electric charge, the flow of electric charges, the
concept of electric and magnetic fields and their interaction.
5. Optics is concerned with the fundamental concept of electromagnetic waves, absorption, and transmission
of light, and the phenomena of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, and polarization.
6. Modern Physics deals with the structure of atom and the nucleus, and related phenomena like
radioactivity, x–rays, nuclear fission and fusion. This branch also includes the study of fundamental
particles, lasers, and chain reactions.

Chapter 2: Review of Related Subjects

2.1.Algebra
Algebra is a generalized arithmetic in which symbols are used in placed of numbers. Algebra thus provides a
language in which general relationships can be expressed among quantities whose numerical values need not be
known in advance.
The arithmetical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division have the same meanings in
algebra. The symbols of algebra are normally letters of the alphabet. If we have two quantities a and b and add them
to give the sum c, we write

a+b=c

If we subtract b from a to give the difference d, we write

a - b = d

Multiplying a and b together to give e may be written in any of these ways:

axb=e ; ab = e ; (a)(b) = e

Whenever two quantities are written together with nothing between them, it is understood that they are to be
multiplied.
Dividing a by b to give the quotient f is usually written

a/b = f

Parentheses and brackets are used to show the order in which various operations are to be performed. Thus

(a + b) (c) /d – e = f

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Means that, in order to find f, we are first to add a and b together, then multiply their sum by c and divide by d, and
finally subtract e.

2.2.Equations
An Equation is simply a statement that a certain quantity is equal to another one. Thus

4+5=9

Which contains only numbers, is an arithmetical equation, and

3x + 12 = 24

Which contain a symbol as well, is an algebraic equation. The symbols in an algebraic equation usually cannot have
any arbitrary values if the equality is to hold. Finding the possible values of these symbols is called solving the
equation. The solution of the second equation above is

x=4

since only when x is 5 is it true that 3x + 12 = 24.

In order to solve an equation, a basic principle must be kept in mind:

“ Any operation performed on one side of an equation

must also be performed on the other side of the equation.”

An equation remains valid when the same quantity is added to or subtracted from both sides, or when the same
quantity is used to multiply or divide both sides. Other operations, for instance squaring or taking the square root,
also do not alter if the same thing is done to both sides. As an example, to solve 3x + 12 = 24, we first subtract 12
from both sides:

3x + 12 – 12 = 24 – 12
3x = 12

To complete the solution we divide both sides by 3:

3x/3 = 12/3
x = 4

Two helpful rules follow directly from the principle stated above. The first is,

“ Any term on one side of an equation may be transposed

to the other side by changing the sign.”

To verify this rule, we subtract b from each side of the equation

a+b = c

to obtain

a+b–b =c–b
a =c–b
Thus b has disappeared from the left side and – b is now on the right hand side.
The second rule is,

“A quantity which multiplies one side of an equation may be transposed ion order to divide the other side, and
vice versa.”

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To verify this rule, we divide both sides of the equation: ab = c by b. The result is

ab/b = c/b ; a = c/b

We see that b, a multiplier on the left – hand side, is now a divisor on the right – hand side.
Example. Solve the following equation for x:

4( x – 3 ) = 7

Solution.

4( x – 3 ) = 7
x – 3 = 7/4
x = 7/4 + 3 = 4.75

When each side of the equation consists of a fraction, all we need to do to remove the fraction is to cross multiply:

a/b = c/d then ad = bc

What was originally the denominator of each fraction now multiplies the numerator of the other side of the equation.
Example. Solve the following equation for y:

5( y – 2 ) = 3( y + 2 )
5y – 10 = 3y + 6
5y – 3y = 6 + 10
2y = 16
Y = 8

2.3Signed Numbers
The rules for multiplying and dividing positive and negative quantities are straightforward. First, perform the
indicated operation on the absolute value of the quantity. If the quantities are both positive or both negative, the
result is positive:

( + a ) ( + b ) = ( - a ) ( - b ) = + ab

 a a a
 
b b b
If the quantity is positive and the other negative the result is negative:
Examples:

20 x
1. ( - 6 ) ( - 3 ) = 18 2. = 4
5 x

6
3. ( 4 ) ( - 5 ) = - 20 4. = -3
2

xy
5. Find the value of z = , when x = - 12 and y = 4.
x y

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2.4.Simultaneous Equations
Sometimes a problem has two unknown quantities, not just a single one. To solve such a problem we need two
equations. For instance, the equation

2x + 1 = y

Gives one relationship between x and y, but it holds for an infinite number of pairs of x and y values. However, if x
and y must also obey the second equation

x + 2y = 12

then only when x = 2 and y = 5 will both equations be satisfied. The two equations

2x + 1 = y
x + 2y = 12
are called simultaneous equations because together they specify x and y.

Two methods can be used to solved a pair of simultaneous equations.

1. Substitution Method. We simply solve one of the equations for one of the unknowns and then to
substitute the expression for this unknown into the other equation.
2. Comparison Method. In this second method, which is sometimes easier, we first solve both equations for
one of the unknowns. Then we set the two expressions equal to each other. This gives us one equation in
one unknown which can be solved in the usual way.
Example. Solve the simultaneous equations

2x + 1 = y
x + 2y = 12
Solution. We begin by solving both equations for y:

y = 2x + 1
x
y = 12 –
2
Now we proceed as follows to find x:

y = y

2x + 1 = 12 – x /2

4x + 2 = 12 – x

5x = 10 then x = 2

With this value of x we find that y = 5

2.5. Quadratic Equations

The standard Form of a Quadratic Equation is,

ax2 + bx + c = 0

Methods of Finding the roots of a Quadratic Equation

1. By extracting the square root
2. By Completing the Square
b  b2  4ac
3. By the Use of Quadratic Formula : x =
2a

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 Physics 101

Chapter I: Introduction

Chapter 3: Measurements

Measurements – the process of measuring or being measured.

3.1. Methods of Measurements:
1. Direct Method - we simply compare the object to a certain standard unit. For example, to measure the length of
the table, we simply compare the length of the table to a standard unit of length.
2. Indirect Method – can be measured by taking first the measure of a certain object directly. For instance to find
the area of rectangular table, first, we measure the length and the width of the table directly then the area can be
computed by getting the product of its dimensions.

3.2. System of Measurement:

1. The Metric System or The Systeme International (SI)
2. The English System

3.3. Types of Quantities

1. Fundamental Quantities – these are the basic quantities and cannot be reduced further or written in terms of
other quantities. Some of the fundamental quantities are: length, mass, time, luminous intensity, and electric
charges.

Quantity Metric System English System

Length Meter(m) Foot(ft.)
Mass Kilogram(kg.) Slug
Time Seconds(s) Seconds(s)
Luminous Intensity Candela (cd)
Electric Current Ampere (A)

2. Derived Quantities – these are quantities which are a combination of two or more of fundamental
quantities. Some examples of derived quantities are: force, density, velocity, acceleration, work, momentum,
and energy.
3.4 Conversion of Units – the process of changing one unit of measurement to another unit of measurement.

Conversion Factors:
Length:
1 mile (mi) = 1.609 kilometers (km)
= 5,280 feet (ft)
1 yard (yd) = 3 ft
= 0.9144 m
1 meter (m) = 3.28 ft
1inch (in) = 2.54 centimeter (cm)

Mass
1 ton = 2205 pounds (lbs)
= 1000 kilogram (kg)
1 kg = 2.205 lbs
1lbs = 453.6 grams (g)

Volume
1 gallon (gal) = 3.785 liters (li)
1 liter = 1,000 milliliter (ml)

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 Time
1 day = 24 hours (hrs)
1 hr = 60 minutes (min)
= 3,600 seconds (s)
1 min = 60 seconds

Examples:

1) Find the equivalent of 10 mi/hr. in a) km./hr. b) m/s

Solution: a) 10 mi/hr(1.609 km/mi) = 16.09 km/hr

b) 16.09 km/hr(1,000 m/km.)(1 hr/3600 s) = 16090/3600 = 4.47 m/s

3.5. Scientific Notations – any number z can be written as a product ofb and the powers of ten. In symbols we can write
this as

Z = b x 10n where 1 ≤ b < 10

Examples: 1) 0.000000000000234 = 2.34 x 10 -13

2) 678000000000000 = 6.78 x 10 14

SI Prefixes for Powers of Ten

Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol

1024 yotta Y 10-1 deci d
1021 zetta Z 10-2 centi c
1018 Exa E 10-3 milli m
1015 peta P 10-6 micro µ
1012 tera T 10-9 nano n
109 giga G 10-12 pico p
106 mega M 10-15 femto f
103 Kilo k 10-18 atto a
102 hecto h 10-21 zepto z
101 deka da 10-24 yocto y

Example:
Find the equivalent of 3.5 x 109 mm in a) meter b) km c) Mm

Solution:

a) 3.5 x 109 millimeter = 3.5 x 109 x 10-3 m = 3.5 x 106 m = 3,500,000 m

1 𝑘𝑚
b) 3.5 x 106 m ( ) = 3.5 x 103 km = 3,500 km
103 𝑚

1 𝑀𝑚
c) 3.5 x 106 m ( ) = 3.5 Mm
106 𝑚

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 Exercise 1

Name:__________________________________ Score:_______________
Course/Yr. & sec.:________________________

I. Solve the following:

1. Find the number of feet in a) 1 kilometer b) 3/5 mile.
2. A metallic sheet has an area of 4. 80 ft2. What is its area in a) in2 b) cm2 ?

3. A block of woods has a volume of 1,800 cm3 . Express this volume in

a) in3 and b) ft3 .
4. A person has a height of 5’ 8” and a weight of 146.25 pounds. Express his height and weight in centimeter
and kilograms respectively.
5. Convert air pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch to newtons per square meter, if 1 kilogram of force is
equal to 9.8 newtons.
6. Convert 125o 45’ to a) ____ degrees b) ____ minutes
7. How many grams/cm3 are there in 1500kg/m3 ?
8. Which is longer, 150 feet, 45 meters or 50 yards?
II. Using scientific notation, solve the following,

9. (4 x 1015 ) ( 8 x 10-35 ) =

10. 6.4 x 1018 ÷ 8.0 x 10-25 =

11. 3.54 x 1019 + 3.28 x 1018 =

III. Write the following numbers in scientific notation accurate to three significant figures

12. 0.000,000,000,366,400 =

13. 43,000,000,000,000 =

IV. Find the value of the variable in the following equations.

14. 6x – 8 = x + 32

15. 2x2 – 20 = - 2

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 Chapter 4: Vectors

Definition of Terms:
1. Scalars – are quantities which are completely specified by their magnitudes only. Example of scalar quantities
are: Distance, Density, Energy, Work, and Speed
2. Vectors – are quantities which are specified completely by both their magnitude and direction. Vector
quantities can be represented well by an arrow, the length of the arrow represents the magnitude of a vector
quantity and the arrowhead shows the direction of the vector quantity. In handwriting, vector quantities are
indicated by placing arrows over their symbols – for instance A . Example of vector quantities are:
Displacement, Force, Velocity, Acceleration, and Momentum.
3. Resultant – is the algebraic sum of two or more vectors. This is also known as the Net Force. The resultant or
sum of two or more vector quantities can be calculated graphically or analytically.
Addition/Subtraction of Vectors
A. Graphical Methods
1. Triangle Method – using a convenient scale, the two given vectors are laid out such that the tail of the
second vector touches the tip of the first vector forming the two sides of the triangle. The third side or
the closing side of the triangle is the sum or resultant of the two given vectors. The resultant can be
calculated by measuring the length of the third side with a ruler and using the assumed scale convert
its length to a unit desired. The direction of the resultant can be made known by using a protractor.
Measure the angle of the resultant from the horizontal axis to the line of action of the resultant force.
Example: Using Triangle Method, find the sum or resultant of the following
vectors: A = 10N going North, B = 15N at 60o South of East.
Scale: 1 cm. = 5 N

60o
A
B
o
R

2. Parallelogram Method – using a convenient scale, the two given vectors are laid out from a common
point forming the two adjacent sides of the parallelogram, then two other lines are drawn parallel to
the two given vectors to complete the parallelogram. The resultant is the diagonal directed from the
common point of origin towards the opposite corner of the parallelogram. Measure the magnitude and
the direction of the resultant using the ruler and a protractor.
Example: Using the Parallelogram method, find the sum of the following vectors: F1 = 200N going
East and F2 = 150N at 35o North ofEast.
Scale: 1 cm. = 50N

R F2
o 35o
F1

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 3.Polygon Method – this method is just an extended triangle method and can be used to find the
resultant of two or more vectors.
Example: Given: A = 150N going North; B = 100N at 45o North of West;
C = 75N going West; D = 50N at 30o South of West.
Scale: 1 cm. = 50N
C
D
B

R A

Vectors and Net Force

Often, an object will have many forces acting on it simultaneously. Calculating the effect of each of the forces
separately can be extremely complex and difficult. However, forces are vectors, and as such, any number of force
can becombined into a single net force vector (R) from which the object’s behavior can be determined.

B. Analytical Methods
For two vectors, the following methods may be used:
1. Pythagorean Theorem – “ In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides”. In symbol,
2.
c2 = a 2 + b 2

where: c = hypotenuse a & b = legs of the right triangle

3. Trigonometric Methods:

opposite a
Sin  
hypotenuse c
c a
adjacent b
Cos  
hypotenuse c

opposite a
Tan   b
adjacent b

4. Sine Law – “ In any triangle, the ratio of any side to the sine of its
opposite angle is constant or the side of the triangle are proportional to the sine of its
opposite angle.
5. Cosine Law – “ The square of one side of the triangle is equal to the sum of
the squares of the other two sides minus twice the product of
the other two sides and the cosine of the angle between them
called the included angle”.

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 6. Component Method/Resolution of Vectors.

F
Formulas: R = F 2
  Fy 2 and  = tan-1
y

F
x
x

Where: F =general symbol used torepresents any given vector quantity

R = resultant’s magnitude
𝜃 = direction of the resultant.
Fx = Fcos  and Fy = Fsin 

F
Fy = Fsin 

Fx = Fcos 

Example:
1.The sailboat Ardent Spirit is headed due north at a forward speed of 6.0 knots(kn.). The pressure of the wind
on its sails causes the boat to move sideways to the east at 0.5 knots. A tidal current is flowing to the southwest at 3.0
knots. What is the velocity of Ardent Spirit relative to the Earth’s surface? (Hint: 1 knot = 1.152 mi/hr = 1.852 km/hr. )

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Problem Set.
1. A pedestrian moves 6.00 km. east and then 13.0 km. north. Find the magnitude and direction of the displacement
vector.
2. A surveyor measures the distance across a straight river by the following method: starting directly across from a tree
on the opposite bank, she walks 100 m along the riverbank to establish the baseline. Then she sights across to the tree.
The angle from her baseline to the tree is 35o. How wide is the river?
3. A plane flies from the base camp to lake A, 280 km away, in a direction of 20o north of east. After dropping off
supplies it flies to lake B, which is 190 km at 30o west of north from lake A. Determine the direction and distance
from lake B to the base camp.
4. A force F1 of magnitude 6 units acts at the origin in a direction 30 o above the positive x axis. A second force F2 of
magnitude 5 units acts at the origin in a direction of the positive y axis. Find the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force.
5. A dog searching for a bone walks 3.50 m south, then runs 8.20 m at an angle 30 o north of east, and finally walks 15.0
m west. Find the dog’s resultant displacement vector.
6. A vector has an x component of – 25 units and a y component of 40 units. Find the magnitude and direction of this
vector.
7. A person walks 25o north of east for 3.10 km. How far would she have to walk due north and due east to arrive at the
same location?
8. A girl delivering newspapers covers her route by traveling 3.00 blocks west, 4.00 blocks north, and then 6.00 blocks
east. a) What is her resultant displacement? b) What is the total distance she travels?
9. While exploring a cave, a spelunker starts at the entrance and moves the following distances. She goes 75 m north,
250 m east, 125 m at an angle 30o north of east, and 150 m south. Find the resultant displacement from the entrance of
the cave.
10. A novice golfer on the green takes three strokes to sink the ball. The successive displacements are 4.00 m to the
north, 2.00m northeast.
11. The three finalists in a contest are brought to the center of a large flat field. Each is given a meter stick, a compass, a
calculator, a shovel, and ( in a different order for each contestants) the following three displacements:72.4 m, 32.0o
east of north; 57.3 m, south of west; 17.8 m straight south. The three displacements leads to the point where the keys
to the new Porsche are buried. Two contestants start measuring immediately, but the winner first calculates where to
go. What does she calculate?

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 Chapter 5: Statics

Definition of Terms:
1. Statics – study of objects which are at rest or moving at uniform speed.
2. Force – it is a push or a pull exerted on a body and is a vector quantity.
3. Concurrent Forces – forces whose line of action intersects at a common point.
4. Coplanar Forces – forces whose line of action lies on the same plane.
5. Collinear Forces – forces whose line of action lies on the same line.
6. Equilibrium Position – in a state of balance or in stable position.Translational equilibrium is the state of an
object of which no net force acts on it. This means that the object is at rest or moving at constant speed in straight
line. Rotational equilibrium is a situation in which an object is not rotating, or if it is rotating at constant angular
speed about an axis.
7. Equilibrant Force - a force which, when applied together with the other forces, will
keep the body in equilibrium. It is a force equal to the resultant but acts opposite the resultant.

First Condition for Equilibrium

“ A body is in equilibrium if the vector sum of all the forces acting on the body is
zero”.

Necessary Conditions for Concurrent Forces to be in Equilibrium is

F = 0 for equilibrium.

This equation may be written as two scalar equations, namely,

F x = 0 and F y = 0 for equilibrium

Hence, for a body to be in equilibrium, the algebraic sum of the x-components and the algebraic sum of the y-
components must be both equal to zero.

Example:
The three forces: F1 = 30 N and horizontal to the right, F2 = 10 N vertically up, and F3 = 20 N and 30o above
the negative x-axis, act at a common point in a body, Find the fourth force which is required to keep the body in
equilibrium.

Solution:

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 Torque

If the forces are not concurrent, we need another condition which must be satisfied if the forces are in
equilibrium. This condition involves the vector quantity called Torque.

Torque is the turning effect on a body produced by an applied force. This Torque, or moment of the force, depends
on both the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action of the
force. The distance is the measure of the “leverage”; the greater the leverage, the greater is the turning effect produced by
the force. The torque  , is given as the product of the force and the lever arm l. Torque is expressed in Newton-meter.
 = F x lever arm = F x l
where:  = torque
F = applied force
l= lever arm or the perpendicular distance

Lever arm is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action of the force.Lever arm is
zeroif the line of force passes through the axis of rotation.

Second Condition for Equilibrium

“For a system of forces to be in equilibrium, the sum of all the torques about any axis is equal to zero” or may
also be stated as
“About any given axis, the sum of the clockwise torques is equal to the sum of the counterclockwise torques”.

 =0 for equilibrium

Torques is either clockwise or counterclockwise. In this chapter, if we consider clockwise torque as positive, then
counterclockwise torque is to be considered as negative. The opposite convention regarding signs may also be adopted.
The equation implies that the selection of axis is arbitrary. It could be passed through any point in the body or even
outside the body. However, the solution can greatly be simplified if a convenient axis is chosen. An axis passing through
the intersection of forces, or an axis through the line of action of an unknown force, is a convenient axis, since one of the
unknown forces does not appear in the moment equation.

Example.
A 10 kg body is suspended by means of a string. It is then pulled aside by a horizontal force until the string makes an
angle  = 60o with the horizontal. Find the tension in the string T, and the horizontal force F, for the equilibrium
position of the body.

Solution:

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Center of Gravity
The center of gravity is the point where the resultant of all the downward forces acts. The only point at which an object
can be supported without any tendency to rotate. At this point, the sum of the clockwise torques is equal to the sum of
the counterclockwise torques.
For symmetrical objects, the center of gravity is on its geometric center.
Examples:

a) Square b) Rectangle

c) Circle d) Triangle

For unsymmetrical objects, the center of gravity can be calculated by the following formulas,

A1 x1  A2 x2  A3 x3  ... A1 y1  A2 y2  A3 y3  ...
x = and y =
AT AT

Where: AT = total area

x = the horizontal coordinate of the center of gravity
y = the vertical coordinate of the center of gravity

Example. Find the center of gravity of the figure shown below.

15cm 15cm

12cm 16cm

16cm

18 cm

15
Exercises:
1. A 10 kg body is suspended by means of a string. Another string is attached to the bottom
of the body and a 5 kg is suspended from the lower end of the string. Find the tension in
each string.
2. A with a diameter 1 meter is free to rotate about an axis through its center. A horizontal force of 16 N to the right is
applied tangentially to the rim of its highest point, and another force of 8 N to the right is applied at the lowest point.
What is the net torque acting on the wheel
3. A weight of 100 newtons is suspended by means of a string. It is then pulled aside by a horizontal force until the string
makes an angle of 37o with the vertical. Find the tension in the string and the horizontal force for this equilibrium
position.
4. Two strings support a small 8- kg body. Find the tension in the strings if they both make 30 o with the vertical.
5. Two forces which are equal in magnitude act on a body to keep the body in equilibrium. A third force which is equal
in magnitude to each of the forces is required. What is the angle between the two forces?
6. The following three forces act on a particle: 30 N at 30 o with the x- axis, 50 N at 135o with the x- axis, and 20 N along
the negative x- axis. Find the fourth force in the particle which will keep it in equilibrium.
7 In equilibrium configuration in the figure shown below, using frictionless pulley, find the maximum value of W 2 if the
string can sustain a tension of 200 newtons before breaking.

W3

W1

W2

8. A 50 newtons block is placed on a smooth inclined plane which is 5 m long and 3 m high. a) What force parallel to the
plane and applied to the block will keep the block in equilibrium? b) What force is applied by the plane to the block?
9. Find the tension in strings AB and BC in figure 3.19 © if the figure is an equilibrium configuration.
10. A uniform bar weighing 60 newtons has a length of 4 m and is supported at its ends by strings. A load W = 200 N is
placed at some point on the bar such that it is in equilibrium when the tension in the string at the left end is 80 N. a)
Locate the position of W, and b) Find the tension in the string at the right end.
11. If the force in problem 12 required to keep the block at rest is directed horizontally (a) what is the force, and (b) what
is the force being applied by the plane surface in the block.
12. The center of gravity of a non-uniform bamboo pole of length 3 m is 1 m from its larger end and its weight is 50 N. If
it is to be supported at its midpoint, what vertical force must be applied at the smaller end of the pole to keep it in
horizontal position?
13. A non- uniform bar 2 meters long supported by means of a string tied at its midpoint. To keep the bar in a horizontal
position a downward force of 60 N must be applied at the thinner end of the bar. If the weight of the bar is 120 newtons
locate its center of gravity.
14. A meter stick of negligible weight is supported at the 20 cm point and at the 80 cm point. Loads of W and 2W are
suspended at the left and right ends respectively. The support at the 20 cm point is 120 N. Find a) the value of W and b)
at the other support.
15. Masses of 50 g, 100 g, and 200 g are placed at 30-cm, 60 cm, and 80 cm mark, respectively, of a meter stick. If the
mass of the meter stick is 300 g , locate the center of gravity of the system.
16. A uniform beam 3 m long weighs 100 N. Loads of 50 N and 150 N are placed on a beam at points which are ½ m
and 2 ½ m respectively from its left end. If the beam is kept in horizontal position by support at its two ends, find these4
reactions.

16
17. A uniform bar of weight 40 N is 4 m long. Weights of 60 N and 100 N are placed on the bar at points which are 1.5
m and 3 m, respectively, from the left end. At what point on the bar must a single bar force be applied to support it in a
horizontal position?
18. A 5 m uniform ladder weighing 120 N is placed against a smooth wall in such a way that it makes an angle of 60 o
with the horizontal. A man weighing 480 N climbs up the ladder and stays 1.3 m from its upper end, find a) the force
exerted by the wall against the ladder, and b) the horizontal and vertical components of the force exerted by the floor on
the lower end of the ladder.
19. The weight of the uniform ladder 13 feet long is 150 N. It is placed against a smooth wall so that its lower end is at a
distance of 5 feet from t5he wall. A man weighing 490 N stands on a ladder at a point 3 feet from the upper end. a) Find
the force which the ladder exerts against the wall, and b) find the horizontal and vertical components of the force exerted
by the ladder on the floor.
20. The uniform bar in the figure shown below is rigid and makes 30 o with the wall. At the upper end is attached a
horizontal rope AB, the other end of the rope being fixed at a point in the wall. A load of 300 kg is hung from the upper
end of the bar. If the mass of the bar is 100 kg, determine a) the tension in the rope b) the force at point B exerted by the
bar.
21. The uniform horizontal beam in the figure is 6 m long and weighs 100 kg and is pivoted at a point in a wall. The
other end of the beam is supported by a rope which makes 30o with the horizontal. Find, a) the tension in the rope, and
b)the vertical and horizontal component of the force exerted by the wall at the pivot.

Fig.5.2. Diagram for problems 24 and 25

22. A 60 cm square metallic sheet of uniform thickness with a small circular portion cut out from it. This portion has a
diameter of 20 cm and has its center located 20 cm from the side of the sheet. Locate the center of gravity of the
remaining portion.
23. The figure shows a uniform solid cylinder 80 cm long and 40 cm in diameter with a small spherical portion removed
from it. The diameter of this removed portion is 20 cm and its center is 20 cm from one end of the cylinder. Find the
center of gravity of the remaining portion if the center of the sphere lies on the axis of the cylinder.

17
 CHAPTER 6: MOTION

Motion – defined as a continuous change of position with respect to a certain reference point.Motion is
relative, this means that an object can be moving with respect to one body and at the same time be at
rest or be moving at different speed with respect to a second body.
Example: When you’re sitting on a bus traveling at 60 km/hr, you are moving with respect to the road
but at rest respect to the seat, walls, and floors of the bus.
Motion therefore requires a frame of reference, which is usually fixed with respect to the person
making the observation.

Mechanics, foundation of Physics, has two main branches

1. Kinematics – study of motion which deals with a description of motion only, without involving the
factors which tend to cause changes in the motion of bodies.
2. Dynamics – study of motion which includes a study of the forces and physical properties of the
bodies which affect the motion of the bodies.

Two main types of motion

Uniform Motion – both the direction and speed of the moving body remains the same. It is therefore
motion with constant velocity.
Example: When you’re riding a car at a steady speed of 60 km/hr.
Accelerated Motion – motion with changing velocity. Velocity changes when you keep
changing your direction, your speed or both your speed and direction.
Example: When you press the accelerator pedal of your car to increase its speed.

Distance and Displacement

Distance – is the length of the path traveled by a moving body. It is a scalar quantity.
Displacement – defined as the vector that starts from an objects initial position to its final position and
whose magnitude equals the distance separating the points.

Displacement (d) = Final position – Initial position

= 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

Speed – is the measure of how fast something is moving.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Speed = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

Instantaneous Speed – speed that something has at any instant. It is the speed registered by the
speedometer of a car.

Average Speed – the whole distance covered divided by the total time of travel.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
̅ )=
Average Speed( 𝒗
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Velocity – the vector quantity that represents the rate of change of displacement.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Velocity ( v) = = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

18
 Note that average speed is equal to its velocity if the object is traveling on a straight path.

Acceleration – is the change of velocity divided by the required time for that change.
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
a = = = 2
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

Instantaneous Acceleration – is the change in velocity divided by the short time needed for that change.

Equations for Motion with Constant Acceleration

1. v f  vi  at Equation 1
v f  vi
2. d ( )t Equation 2
2
at 2
3. d  vi t  Equation 3
2

(v f ) 2  (vi ) 2
4. d  Equation 4
2a

Where: v f = final velocity vi = initial velocity

a = acceleration t = time
d = displacement

NEWTON’S THREE LAWS OF MOTION

First law of Motion
“A body at rest remains at rest, and a body in motion continues to move with constant speed in a
straight line, unless acted upon by a net external force”. This law is the principle of the Law of
Inertia and applies to two different situations.
a) when a body is at rest
b) when a body is in motion
Inertia is the tendency of things to resist changes in motion. Mass is the measure of inertia of a
material object. The greater the mass of an object, the greater the inertia.
Example: when a car starts suddenly, we are thrown backward against the seats. When the car stops
suddenly, we find ourselves thrown forward.

Second Law of Motion

“ The unbalanced external force acting on a body imparts an acceleration which is proportional to the
applied force. The direction of the acceleration being the same as that of the force”.

forcenet
Acceleration (a) = = meter/(second)2
mass
Example: Much larger force is needed to accelerate a train than is needed to give a car, with a smaller
mass, the same acceleration.

Third Law of Motion

“ Whenever an object exert a force on a second object, the second object exerts an equal and opposite
force on the first”.
Example: Action = tire pushes on the road
Reaction = road pushes on tire
Even though action and reaction forces are equal and oppositely directed, they don’t cancel each

19
 other because they act on different objects.
Force is not just a push or a pull on a body. Since a force imparts an acceleration on a body, it is
the factor which causes changes in the state of rest, or state of motion of the body.

Tips in Problem Solving

1. Make a sketch of the problem showing all the external forces.
2. Mentally isolate the body being considered, that is, imagine an imaginary closed boundary
surface enclosing the body.
3. Determine the net force on each body and use this force in the equation F = mato calculate the
acceleration.
Example1. An elevator weighing 9,800 N is supported by a steel cable. a) Find the tension in the cable at rest,
when the elevator is moving up with uniform speed of 1 m/s, and when it is descending at a constant speed of 3 m/s. b)
Find the tension in the cable when the elevator is accelerated upward at 5m/s2. c) Find the tension in the cable when it is
descending with an acceleration of 5 m/s2.
Diagram of forces or Free Body Diagram of Forces

a) T b) T c) T

a=0 a = 5 m/s2 a = 5 m/s2

W = mg W = mg W = mg

The figure shows the elevator with only two external forces acting in each case, the tension (T) and the weight (w).

Solution:
a) If the elevator is at rest, or moving with uniform speed, the acceleration is zero (0). Hence, the net
force, F = T – w = 0 or T = w = 9,800 N in the three cases.
b) Since the acceleration is upward there must be a net upward force, or T must be greater than w. From
F = ma, we get

a = 5 m/s2

c) The acceleration is now downward, so the net force is also downward. This means that the weight, w
is greater than the tension T. Hence,

a = 5 m/s2

20
Example 2. A box starting from rest from the top of the frictionless plane which is 3 meters long and inclined 30o with
the horizontal. a) Find the velocity of the box as it reaches the bottom foot of the plane. b) How long does it take the box
to reach the bottom of the plane?
Solution:

Since there is no motion perpendicular to the plane, the net force along the direction is zero (0) or N = wcos30 o. Hence
the resultant of the three forces is wsin30o.
wx
Free Body Diagram of Forces w = mg
wy

Fn
3m

30o

Example 3. A 5 kg block lies on a smooth table top. A horizontal string connected to the block is passed over a small
pulley at the edge of the table, and a body of mass 8 kg is hung from the other end of the string. Find a) the tension in the
string b) acceleration of the bodies when the system is release. Neglect friction.

21
Example 4. The two masses in Atwood machine are M kg and m kg where M > m . when the system is released, Find, a)
acceleration of each body and b) tension in the string.

FREE FALL – motion of an object under the influence of gravitational pull only. Its downward speed increases at the
rate of 9.8 m/s after each second. Disregarding air friction, acceleration of objects, both light and heavy, is 9.8 m/s 2 . As
it goes up, gravity decreases its speed. When its speed becomes zero, it has reached its maximum height and starts to fall.

Time, s Speed, m/s Distance,m

0.1 0.00 0.00
0.2 0.98 0.49
0.3 1.96 0.196
0.4 2.94 0.441
0.5 3.92 0.784
0.6 4.90 1.23
0.7 5.88 1.76
0.8
0.9
1.0
2.0
3.0

Falling objects accelerate in response to the force exerted on them by Earth’s gravity. Different objects
accelerate at the same rate, regardless of their mass. This illustration shows the speed at which a ball and a cat would
be moving and the distance each would have fallen at intervals of a tenth of a second during a short fall.
Formulas for motions with constant acceleration also applies to objects in free fall. If the body starts from rest
vi  0 .
Example 1. A flower is accidentally dropped from a window sill which is 60 m above the ground. Find a) time the body
hits the ground and b) the speed upon hitting the ground. Ans. t = 35 s ; v = 34.3 m/s
Solution:

22
Example 2. A stone is thrown vertically upward with an initial velocity of 49 m/s. a) How long does it take to reach the
highest point? b) How high does the stone go? c) At what time the stone be 100 m from the ground?
Ans. a) t = 5 sec.

PROJECTILE MOTION – is the motion of an object that moves through space under the influence of Earth’s
gravitational force. It moves horizontally and vertically through air. The projectiles horizontal motion continues at
constant velocity because its horizontal acceleration is zero, while its vertical motion accelerates due to gravity (g = 9.8
m/s2 ).
Illustration:

23
Modification of Formulas

Projectile Motion
Linear Motion
Horizontal Motion (a = 0) Vertical Motion (a = g = 9.8m/s2)

Initial velocity, vi vi = vix = vo(cosθ) vi = viy = vo(sinθ)

Instantaneous velocity, vf= vi + at vx = vix vy = viy± gt

Displacement, d = vi(t) + at2/2 y = viy(t) ± gt2/2

x = vix(t)
𝑉𝑦2− 𝑉𝑖𝑦2
y=
± 2𝑔

Example1: A ball is thrown up with an initial velocity of 120 m/s and making an angle of 30 o with the horizontal. Find
a) its x and y coordinates after 2 seconds b) the highest point reached by the ball c) time for the ball to reach the highest
point d) the velocity of the ball 3 seconds after it was thrown and e) the maximum horizontal distance attained by the
ball.
Illustration;

Solution:

24
Exercises:
1. At the instant a 6 kg body is moving with a velocity of 9 m/s, a constant retarding force of 18 N is applied. How
far will the body move in 2 seconds from the instant the force is applied.
2. The initial speed of a car of mass 1,500 kg is 60 km/hr. A constant retarding force acts on the car by applying
the brakes. If the car is brought to a stop in exactly 72 seconds. Find the retarding force.
3. A box weighing 20 N is pulled vertically upward by means of a cord. Find the acceleration if the tension in the
cord is 30 N.
4. A 10 kg body is initially at rest. It is acted upon by two forces, a force of 40 N to the north and a force of 30 N
to the east. Find the velocity of the body after 1 second.
5. The displacement in meters is given by the following: x = 3t2 – t3, where t is in seconds. a) What distance does
the particle travel during the first second? b) What is the velocity of the particle at the end of the first two
seconds? c) What is the acceleration of the particle at the end of 2 seconds?
6. Starting from rest, a train is uniformly accelerated and reaches a velocity of 20 km/hr after 15 seconds. What is
its acceleration?
7. The brakes of an automobile are suddenly applied at the instant when its velocity is 20 m/s. If the
automobile comes to a stop after 5 seconds, what is its acceleration?
8. An electron which is moving with a velocity of 10 4 m/s is accelerated at 8 x 1014 m/s2 by an electric field. What
is the velocity acquired by the electron after it has traveled 1 cm.
9. To be airborne, a plane requires a speed of 128 km/hr. If it starts from rests at one end of the runway 1 km long.
a) What must be the minimum safe acceleration of the plane? b) With this acceleration, how many seconds will it
take the plane to acquire its necessary speed for takeoff at the other end of the runway?
10. A body starting from rest acquires a velocity of 60 m/s after being accelerated for 20 seconds. a) What
acceleration was imparted? b) How far did the body go during the 20 seconds?
11. In determining the height of the tower, a stone is dropped from rest at its top. Find the height if the stone hits
the ground after 8 seconds.
12. A ball is thrown up and returns to the ground after 6 seconds. a) How high did the ball go? b) With what
velocity was the ball thrown?
13. A balloon rising vertically with a velocity of 4.9 m/s releases an object from a height of 96 m. a) When will
the object hit the ground? b) Find the velocity upon hitting the ground?
14. An object is thrown vertically up from the top of the tower with an initial velocity of 29.4 m/s. Four seconds
later another object is dropped from the top of the tower. How many seconds will the two be of the same level?
15. A ball is thrown upward with a velocity of 39.2 m/s. Four seconds later, a second ball was thrown with the
same velocity. At what height will the two balls meet?
16. A flower is accidentally dropped from a window sill which is 60 m above the ground. Find, a) time for the
body to hit the ground and b) the speed upon hitting the ground.
17. A car starts from rest and is given a uniform acceleration of 2 m//s 2. Find, a) its velocity after 5 seconds and b)
distance traveled during this time.
18. A stone is thrown vertically upward with an initial velocity of 49 m/s. a) How long does it take to reach the
highest point? b) How high does the stone go? c) At what time will the stone be 100 m from the ground?
19. A ball is thrown at 20 m/s at an angle of 65o above the horizontal. The ball leaves the thrower’s hand at a
height of 1.80 m. At what height will it strike a wall 10 m away? What would the height be if vo = 30 m/s?
20. An arrow leaves a bow at 30 m/s. a)What is its maximum range? b) At what two angles could the archer point
the arrow if it is to reach a target 70 m away?
21. A shell is fired at a velocity of 300 m/s at an angle of 30 o above the horizontal. a) How far does it go? What
are its time of flight and maximum altitude? b) At what other angle could the shell have been fired to have the
same range? What would be its time of flight and maximum altitude has been in this case.

25
 Uniform Circular Motion

Instantaneous Acceleration,

𝒅𝒗 𝚫𝒗 𝒗𝟐
a= = =
𝒅𝒕 𝚫𝒕 𝒓

Central or Centripetal Force,

𝒗𝟐
C.F. = m
𝒓

The expression tells us that the force needed to keep a body in its circular path is proportional to the square of
the speed.

Period, T – is the time to make one complete revolution. For one complete revolution, the total
distance traveled is equal to the circumference. Periodis the reciprocal of the frequency.

T = 1/n

Frequency, n – the number of revolutions per unit time.

n = 1/T

Therefore in terms of T and n, the acceleration is

( 𝟐𝝅𝒓 )𝟐
𝑻 𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒓
a= =
𝒓 𝑻𝟐

a = 4π2rn2

From Newton’s third law, if we consider the centripetal force on the mass m as the action force, there must be
an equal and opposite reaction force. This is the centrifugal force and is directed away from the center of the circle. It
does not act on the body but on another body which exerts the centripetal force.

Example 1. A 50 gram body, fastened to one end of a string 0.75 m long, is made to move with uniform circular motion
at 3 revolutions per second on a smooth horizontal surface, with one end of the string as its center .Find, a) the speed of
the body and b) the tension in the string.

26
 CHAPTER 7:FRICTION

FRICTION – forces present between two surfaces which are in contact. It’s a force parallel to the surface in contact and
always acting opposite the direction of motion.

STATIC and KINETIC FRICTION

Static Friction – Equal to the value of the applied force as long as the block is still at rest. Its maximum value occurs
when motion impends, or when the block is just about to move, and this is the limiting value of static friction which
varies from zero (when no external horizontal force is being applied) to the limiting value. This limiting value is often
referred to as static friction.
Kinetic Friction – a kind of friction present when the body is already moving. The frictional force acting when the
motion is uniform is less than that at the instant the body is starting to move.
Law of friction: For a given pair of surfaces in contact, the frictional force at the start is greater than that when there is
motion. (  s > k )
Formulas:

Static Friction: (Fs) =  s N where:  s = coefficient of static friction

 k = coefficient of kinetic friction
Kinetic Friction:(Fk) = k N N = normal force, the force pressing the bodies
together and always perpendicular to the
surface in contact.

Experiments on friction reveal the following empirical laws:

1. The frictional force is independent of the apparent area of the surface in contact.
2. The force of kinetic friction is independent of the velocity.
3. The frictional force is directly proportional to the normal force.
4. The frictional force depends on the kind of surfaces that are in contact.

Example 1. A 5 kg wooden block is pulled with a uniform horizontal velocity along the floor by means of a cord which
makes an angle of 30o above the horizontal. find the tension in the cord if the coefficient of kinetic friction between the
block and the floor is 0.15.
Illustration:

Solution: The tension in the cord, T , is first resolved into horizontal and vertical components which are

Tx = Tcos30o and Ty = Tsin30o

There are only two horizontal forces, the force of friction and the horizontal component of the tension. Since there is
no acceleration, these two opposite forces must cancel each other, and must be equal, and the force of kinetic friction is

Fk = Tcos30o = 0.866T.

27
 Similarly, since there is no motion along the vertical direction, the resultant of the vertical forces must be zero, or the
normal force
Fn = mg – Tsin30o or Fn = (5kg)(9.8 m/s2) – 0.5T

Applying Fk =  k Fn, we have, 0.866T = 0.15( 49N – 0.5T )

From which we obtained: T = 7.8N

Note: For objects moving on an inclined plane. The tangent of the angle  when there is uniform velocity is numerically
equal to the coefficient of kinetic friction for the block and the plane. Acceleration depends only on the angle and not on
the weight of the block.
Tan θ = µk

Exercises:
1. A horizontal force of 25N is applied to a 20 kg block lying on a horizontal surface. Find the acceleration of the
block if the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.10.
2. The coefficient of static friction between a 20 kg block and a horizontal surface is 0.25 and the coefficient of
kinetic friction is 0.15. A cord is attached to the block, the cord making an angle of 10 o with the horizontal. a)
what tension in the cord will just start the block? b) What is the tension in the cord when the block moves with
uniform velocity?
3. A box weighing 890N is pulled along a horizontal surface by means of a cord which is at 30o above the horizontal.
If the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.20 and the box is accelerated at 0.5 m/s 2, what is the tension in the cord?
4. The coefficient of kinetic friction between a 10 kg block and a horizontal surface is 0.15. What downward force
applied at 20o with the horizontal will move the box with a constant velocity?
5. A block is thrown horizontally across a horizontal pavement with an initial velocity of 10 m/s. How far does the
block travel before coming to rest if the coefficient of kinetic friction is between the block and the pavement is
0.30?
6. At the instant a truck is traveling along a level pavement at 20 m/s, a wooden crate falls from the truck. If the crate
travels 40 m before coming to rest, what is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the crate and the road?
7. A boy pushes a box weighing 85 N along a horizontal floor with a constant force of 18 N for exactly 5 seconds
then releases the box. a) If the box started from rest, find the velocity at the instant the box is release if the
coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.10. b) How far does the box travel after the boy releases it?
8. An object of mass 4 kg is started and slides down a plane which is inclined 40 o above the horizontal with an
acceleration of 2 m/s2. What is the coefficient of friction between the two surfaces?
9. A book slides from rest from the top of an inclined plane 8 meters long which is inclined 35 o with the horizontal.
If the coefficient of friction is 0.20, Find how it will take the body to reach the bottom of the plane.
10. An object starts from rest at the top of a plane 10 meter long and inclined 30o with the horizontal. If the
coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.20, find the velocity of the object as it reaches the bottom of the plane.

28
 CHAPTER 8: WORK, ENERGY, AND POWER

1. Concept of Work
Ordinarily, by work, we mean any physical exertion or mental effort. It may also means any activity for which pay is
received.
In Physics, however, each physical quantity should have a single precise meaning. Hence, we define work in such a
way that it is easily quantified. Work is a scalar quantity although the two quantities involved in its definition, force and
displacements, are both vector quantities.
By definition, the work done on the body by the force F is the product of the force and the displacement multiplied by
the cosine of the angle between them, or representing the work W we have

W = Fdcos 

which means that the workdone is equal to the product of the displacement and the component of the force along the
direction of the displacement. Unit of work is Newton-meter or Joules. The smaller unit of work is Erg or dyne-
centimeter.
For work to be done there must be displacement. A man pushing against an unyielding wall does no work although
he gets tired. Work done by a force is positive or negative depending upon whether the angle  is obtuse or acute with
the direction of motion.
Illustration.

Example1. A 1 kg block is dragged 40 cm upward with a uniform velocity along a plane inclined 30 o with the horizontal
by a force parallel to the incline. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the object and the surface is 0.20. a) How
much work is done by the applied force? b) What is the total work done on the block by the different forces acting on
it?
Illustration.

Solution:
First resolve w into its components. Since the block has no acceleration. Resultant of all the forces parallel to the
plane is zero (o), or

F – wsin30o – Fk = 0 where: w = mg and Fk =  k Fn = 0.20(mgcos30o) = 1.69 N

29
 We have, F = 4.9N + 1.69N = 6.59N

Work done by force F isW = Fd = 6.59N(0.40m) = 2.64 Joules

Energy - it is the capacity to do work.
Kinetic Energy of the body is one-half of the product of the mass and the square of the speed. It is also the ability to
do work by virtue of its motion.
mv 2
K.E. = (Joules)
2
Work done is zero (0) if
- Velocity is uniform or constant
- There is no acceleration
- Resultant of all external forces is zero

Potential Energy – stored, inactive, or latent energy. It’s the energy possessed by an object by virtue of its position
or configuration.

P.E. = mgh = wh

Where: P.E. = potential energy in Joules

K.E. = kinetic energy in Joules
m = mass in kilograms
v = velocity in m/s
g = gravitational acceleration ( g = 9.8 m/s2 )
h = change in vertical displacement ( height )

Work – Energy Theorem

The work done by the resultant force on a particle is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the particle. The
theorem holds whether the force is constant or variable.

Work = change in kinetic energy

W = ½ m( vf)2 - ½ m(vi)2

Law of Conservation of Energy

If the only force acting on a particle during its motion is a conservative force, then the sum of its potential energy and
kinetic energy is constant.

K.E. + P.E. = constant

Exercises:
1. How much work is done in lifting a 300 kg marble slab to a height of 50 m on a building under construction?
2. Eating a banana enables a person to perform about 4.0 x 10 4 J of work. To what height does eating a banana
enable a 70 kg heart patient to climb?
3. Calculate the work done by a mother who exerts a force of 8 N at an angle of 40 o below the horizontal x-axis in
pushing her baby in a carriage to a distance of 20 m.
4. A 60 kg patient exercises on a treadmill, exerting a constant force of 500 N while running at a constant velocity of
4 m/s at an angle of the treadmill θ = 30o for 5 minutes. The coefficient of kinetic friction of the treadmill is 0.45.
Determine the work done by the patient.
5. In transporting a patient on a wheelchair up an inclined ramp at an angle of 20o with the horizontal ground, an
attendant exert a force of 1400 N , resulting in a velocity of 2.5 m/s. Calculate the power produced by the
attendant.

30
 6. The amount of oxygen used by the body in metabolism is proportional to the energy yield, with 1 liter of oxygen
combining with foods to produce about 20,000 joules. If the oxygen consumed in one minute is 1.5 liters during
vigorous exercise, what is the metabolic rate in watts

MOMENTUM

Momentum - it is the measure of difficulty of stopping a moving object/body. It is a vector quantity and has the same
direction with the velocity. It is also defined as the product of the mass of the body and its velocity.

P = mass ( velocity ) = mv

Unit of momentum is kg.m/s or in smaller unit gm.cm/s.

Difference between kinetic energy and momentum.

Kinetic Energy Momentum
1. Scalar quantity 1.Vector quantity
2. Not conserved 2. Conserved

Impulse and Momentum

Impulse is equal to the difference in momentum

J= m( 𝒗𝒇 − 𝒗𝒊 )

Force
The net force acting on a body is equal to the rate of change in momentum of the body and in the direction of the change.

𝒎 ( 𝒗𝒇 − 𝒗𝒊 )
F =
𝒕

If the net force acting on the body is zero, the change in momentum is zero.

Law of Conservation of Momentum

“ When there is no net force on the system, the total linear momentum of the system remains constant”.

𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟐
m1v1 + m2v2 = 0 ; =
𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟏

Head – on Collisions
“ The total momentum of the pair before collision is, by the law of conservation of momentum, equal to the total
momentum after collision”.

m1v1 + m2v2 = m1U1 + m2U2

where: v1 &v2 - velocities of the pair before collision/ velocity of approach

U1& U2 – velocities of the pair after collision/ velocity of separation

Coefficient of Restitution
This is the ratio of the negative of the relative velocity of velocity of separation to the relative velocity of approach.

− ( 𝑼𝟏 − 𝑼𝟐 )
ε= 𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐

Types of collisions

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 Perfectly Elastic Collision ε = 1, a type of collision where two bodies separates after collision and one where kinetic
energy is conserved. For perfectly elastic collision, we have the relation

[v1 ] + [ v2 ] = [ U1 ] + [ U2 ]

Perfectly Inelastic Collision, ε = 0, a type of collision where two bodies stick to each other and do no separate. With
this type of collision, U1 = U2, or the velocity of separation of each body are equal.

Partially Elastic Collision – collision which is between the two extreme types of collision.

Unit Conversion Factors

Measurement Equivalents

1 tablespoon (tbsp) = 3 teaspoons (tsp)

1/16 cup (c) = 1 tablespoon
1/8 cup = 2 tablespoons
1/6 cup = 2 tablespoons + 2 teaspoons
1/4 cup = 4 tablespoons
1/3 cup = 5 tablespoons + 1 teaspoon
3/8 cup = 6 tablespoons
1/2 cup = 8 tablespoons
2/3 cup = 10 tablespoons + 2 teaspoons
3/4 cup = 12 tablespoons
1 cup = 48 teaspoons
1 cup= 16 tablespoons
8 fluid ounces (fl oz) = 1 cup
1 pint (pt) = 2 cups
1 quart (qt) = 2 pints
4 cups = 1 quart
1 gallon (gal) = 4 quarts
16 ounces (oz) = 1 pound (lb)
1 milliliter (ml) = 1 cubic centimeter (cc)
1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimeters (cm)

Metric Conversion Factors

Fluid Ounces 29.57 grams

Ounces (dry) 28.35 grams
Grams 0.0353 ounces
Grams 0.0022 pounds
Kilograms 2.21 pounds
Pounds 453.6 grams
Pounds 0.4536 kilograms

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 Quarts 0.946 liters
Quarts (dry) 67.2 cubic inches
Quarts (liquid) 57.7 cubic inches
Liters 1.0567 quarts
Gallons 3,785 cubic centimeters
Gallons 3.785 liters

Some examples and relationships among units

1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram, so 1 cubic meter — 1000 liters — of water weighs 1000 kilograms or 1 metric
ton.

A US cent weighs exactly 2.5 g, while the nickel weighs exactly 5 g.

A doorknob is typically about 1 m high.

The diameter of a CD or DVD is 12 cm.

1 mL = 1 cm3

1 milliliter is the same volume as 1 cubic centimeter.

1 mL of water has a mass of approximately 1 g

The mass of 1 milliliter of water is approximately 1 gram.

1 L of water has a mass of approximately 1 kg

The mass of 1 liter of water is therefore approximately 1 kilogram.

1 m3 of water has a mass of approximately 1 ton

There are 1000 liters in a cubic meter, so the mass of 1 cubic meter of water is approximately 1000 kilograms or 1
metric ton.

The mass of a nickel is 5 g

A US nickel weighs 5 grams, and a penny weighs 2.5 grams.

A typical doorknob is 1 m high

Although there's no precise standard for doorknob heights, they're often about 1 meter above the floor.

The diameter of a CD or DVD is 12 cm

A CD or DVD is 12 centimeters (120 millimeters) across. The diameter of the center hole is 15 millimeters.

1 ha is 1002 m2

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1 hectare is 10 000 square meters, equivalent to the area of a square 100 meters on a side. A

football field is about 100 meters long, so imagine a square the length of a football field on each side, and that's 1
hectare.

Conversion Factors:
Length:
1 mile (mi) = 1.609 kilometers (km)
= 5,280 feet (ft)
1 yard (yd) = 3 ft
= 0.9144 m
1 meter (m) = 3.28 ft
1inch (in) = 2.54 centimeter (cm)

Mass
1 ton = 2205 pounds (lbs)
= 1000 kilogram (kg)
1 kg = 2.205 lbs
1lbs = 453.6 grams (g)

Volume
1 gallon (gal) = 3.785 liters (li)
1 liter = 1,000 milliliter (ml)

Time
1 day = 24 hours (hrs)
1 hr = 60 minutes (min)
= 3,600 seconds (s)
1 min = 60 seconds

Distance
1 millimetre (mm) = 1 x 10-3m
1 centimetre (cm) = 1 x 10-2 m
1 kilometre (km) = 1 x 103 m
1 inch (in) = 2.54 x 10-2 m
1 foot (ft) = 3.048 x 10 -1 m = 12 in
1 yard (yd) = 0.9144 m = 3 ft
1 fathom = 1.8288 m = 2 yd
1 chain = 20.1168 m = 22 yd
1 furlong = 2.01168 x 10 2 m = 10 chains = 220 yd
1 cable = 608ft = 1/10 UK nautical mile = 720 ft = 120 fathoms
1 mile = 1.609344 x 10 3m = 1760 yd
1 nautical mile (UK) to m: 1.853184E3 (6080 ft)
1 nautical mile (international) (n mile) = 1.852 x 10 3 m
1 league - not precisely defined, about 3 miles
1 astronomic(al) unit (AU) = 1.49597870 x 1011 m
1 light year (l.y.) = 9.4607 x 10 15 m
1 parsec (pc) = 3.0857 x 1016 m

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