Sports Motivation - Mental Toughness Grit and Motivational Differences in Single-Sp

University of Arkansas, Fayetteville
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Theses and Dissertations
8-2016
Mental Toughness, Grit, and Motivational

Differences in Single-sport and Multi-sport
Athletes
Cole Justin Shewmake
University of Arkansas, Fayetteville
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Mental Toughness, Grit, and Motivational Differences in Single-sport and Multi-sport Athletes
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Kinesiology
by
Cole Shewmake
Pittsburg State University
Bachelor of Science in Physical Education, 2004
Pittsburg State University
Master of Science in Health, Human Performance and Recreation, 2008
August 2016
University of Arkansas
This dissertation is approved for recommendation to the Graduate Council.
____________________________________
Dr. Dean Gorman
Dissertation Director
____________________________________ ____________________________________
Dr. Sharon Hunt Dr. Cathy Lirgg
Committee Member Committee Member
____________________________________
Dr. Wen-Juo Lo
Committee Member
Abstract
Whether it is at work, school or sports, mental toughness (MT), grit and motivation are
essential to accomplishing goals. Sports can be an integral platform for developing MT, grit, and
factors that increase motivation levels, and it is during childhood and adolescence that these
characteristics may develop. All of this could prove beneficial into adulthood. Therefore, the
purpose of this study was to examine MT, grit and motivational orientations of single-sport and
multi-sport athletes at different levels of competition. Considering MT, a 2 x 2 ANOVA
indicated no significant interaction effect between athlete type and competition level, F(1, 387) =
.06, p = .812, partial η2 < .001, but significant main effects for athlete type, F(1, 387) = 4.87, p =
.028, partial η2 = .012, and competition level, F(1, 387) = 17.33, p < .001, partial η2 = .043.
Furthermore, regarding grit, a 2 x 2 ANOVA indicated no significant interaction effect between
athlete type and competition level, F(1, 382) = .32, p = .571, partial η2 = .001, and no
significance for the athlete type main effect, F(1, 382) = 1.22, p = .270, partial η2 = .003.
However, a significant main effect was found for competition level, F(1, 382) = 5.42, p = .020,
partial η2 = .014. As for motivation, a 2 x 2 ANOVA indicated a significant interaction effect
between athlete type and competition level F(1, 373) = 4.11, p = .043, partial η2 = .011 and a
significant main effect for competition level F(1, 373) = 9.50, p = .002, partial η2 = .025.
However, there was no significant finding for the type of athlete, F(1, 373) = .76, p = .385,
partial η2 = .002. Examining the simple main effects for competition level, it was discovered that
single-sport athletes only achieving high school level playing experience scored significantly
lower than single-sport high school athletes that went on to play collegiately, F(1, 373) = 13.61,
p < .001. Moreover, multi-sport high school athletes scored significantly higher than single-sport
high school athletes, F(1, 373) = 5.42, p = .020.

©2016 by Cole Shewmake
All Rights Reserved
Acknowledgements
This doctoral dissertation would not have been possible without the help and support of
several individuals around me, of a few I would like to acknowledge below.
To begin with, I feel extremely blessed by God with a tremendously supportive family.
Without the Peace of my Savior and the steadfast encouragement from my family, mentors,
colleagues, and friends along the way, I would not have been able to accomplish this notable
task.
Second, I would like to specifically thank my advisor and dissertation chair, Dr. Dean
Gorman. From the very beginning you have been extremely supportive and encouraging. I
always knew you were on my side! Next, I want to thank the rest of my dissertation committee.
Dr. Sharon Hunt, you are such a sweet and encouraging individual. Thank you for always
boosting my confidence with your positive words. Dr. Cathy Lirgg, thank you for the direction
you provided throughout the whole doctoral process. Your insight was always valuable. Dr. Lo,
thank you for your patience, time, and energy in giving me statistical advice for not just my
dissertation but in class and on other projects as well.
Additionally, I would like to thank Dr. Paul Calleja, Dr. Jack Kern, and Dr. Amanda
Sullivan for your wisdom and support while completing my graduate work. You all treated me
like a colleague and not just a lowly student. Dr. John Oppliger, thank you for your wisdom as I
started this process and for your on-going mentoring as a full-time professor. Without your
encouragement and guidance, I would not be where I am today!
Lastly, I want to thank Mike Merrie. My family and I moved to Fayetteville not knowing
anyone, and you made the transition so much easier as a new friend. I can’t tell you how much it
meant to have someone going through this process with me, encouraging me along the way. The
end is near and you were right, “I got this Bro!”

Dedication
First and foremost, I would like to dedicate my dissertation work to my wife, Jennifer.
Without your constancy, encouragement, and support, I would not have started this venture, let
alone complete it! Thank you! Additionally, I would like to dedicate this dissertation my kids,
Selah, Noa, and Creed. Often, you had to be without dad while I worked. During those times, I
missed you as much as you may have missed Daddy! And I would like to add a dedication
mention to baby Shewmake, I can’t wait to meet you! Lastly, I would like to dedicate this to my
parents, Buck and Elaine Shewmake. Thanks for your continual support and for instilling in me a
work ethic to persistently pursue my aspirations. Thank you all!

Table of Contents
I. INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………. 1
Significance of the Study ………………………………………………………………... 4
Purpose of the Study ………………………..…………………………………………… 5
Research Questions .……………………………………………………………………... 7
Definitions of Terms …………………………………………………………………….. 7
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ………………………………………………………..… 11
Youth Sports …………………………………………………………………………… 11
Sport Specialization ……………………………………………………………………. 14
Sport Diversification …………………………………………………………………… 16
Mental Toughness ……………………………………………………………………… 17
Grit ……………………………………………………………………………………... 21
Motivation ……………………………………………………………………………… 22
Mental Toughness, Grit, and Motivation Questions …………………………………… 25
III. METHODS …………………………………………………………………………….. 28
Participants ……………………………………………………………………………... 28
Procedure …………………………………………………………………………….… 28
Measures ...……………………………………………………………………………... 28
Demographics ………………………………………………………………………….. 29
Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ) …………………………………….. 29
Grit-S …………………………………………………………………………………… 30
Sports Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6) ………………………………………………….… 31
Statistical Analysis ……………………………………………………………………... 31

IV. RESULTS ……………………………………………………………………………… 33
Mental Toughness …………………………………………………………………….... 33
Grit …………………………………………………………………………………...… 33
Motivation ……………………………………………………………………………… 35
V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ……………………………………………...… 38
Discussion and Research Findings …………………………………………………….. 38
Mental Toughness ……………………………………………………………………… 38
Grit ………………………………………………………………………………...…… 39
Motivation ……………………………………………………………………………… 40
Delimitations …………………………………………………………………………… 42
Limitations ……………………………………………………………………………... 42
Assumptions ……………………………………………………………………………. 43
Recommendations for Future Research ……………………………………………...… 43
VI. REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………… 46
VII. APPENDICES …………………………………………………………………………. 54
Appendix A: Research Study Consent Form …………………………………………... 54
Appendix B: IRB Approval Letter ……………………………………………………... 55
Appendix C: Figure C1: Pie chart for age of participants …………………………...… 56
Appendix C: Figure C2: Pie chart of sports played by participants ……………............ 57
Appendix C: Figure C3: Pie chart of competition level achieved by participants …….. 58
Appendix D: Demographics and sports history questionnaire …………………............ 59
Appendix E: Figure E1: Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ) ……..……. 60
Appendix E: Figure E2: Short Grit Scale (Grit-S) Questionnaire ………..… ………… 61
Appendix E: Figure E3: Sport Motivation Scale (SMS-6) ………………..…………… 62
VIII. TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for Mental Toughness, Grit, and Motivation ……......... 34
Figure 1. Error Bars for Externalized and Internalized motivation for athlete type …… 36
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Sports have become a vital part of the lives of youth and their families, sometimes to an
obsession. Significant time is poured into youth sports starting at young ages. Children, as young
as 10 years old, will sometimes travel nationally to compete, playing in tournaments multiple
weekends throughout the year (Butler, 2011; Keown, 2011). The financial commitment is intense
as well, with some households spending as much as 10 percent of the family’s gross income on
travel, private coaching, and equipment (Sullivan, 2015).
One phenomenon that is seen today is youth choosing to play a single sport at early ages
(Ferguson & Stern, 2014). Many times, the adolescent, or his or her parent, has decided that it is
in the adolescent’s best interest to focus on one sport in order to maximize success in that
particular sport and attain an athletic scholarship (Malina, 2010; Wojtys, 2013). Armour (2015)
provides an example of a 12 year old that has his eyes set on being an NFL quarterback. He
attends football camps, works with a private quarterback coach, and even has an online athletic
profile touting his talents. The potential for achieving expert status at the earliest possible age is
very attractive to those that choose to specialize in a sport (Ferguson & Stern, 2014). However,
while focusing on one sport, youth may be missing out on valuable experiences that can be
gained from participating in multiple sports.
The disadvantages, as well as the advantages, of youth specialization in sports are well
known. Mental and physical disadvantages cited are participant burnout and overuse injury
(DiFiori et al., 2014; Gould, 2010). According to DiFiori et al. (2014), sport specialization puts
an individual at “high risk” to develop overuse injuries at various parts of the body like the
shoulder, elbow, hip/pelvis, lower back, knee, lower leg, ankle, and foot. Likewise, when
1
specializing, youth experience added pressure to win, mental stress from longer practice sessions
and seasons, and boredom of a sport after playing for several years (Woods, 2016).
While many youth choose to specialize in a single sport, others choose to diversify their
sport experiences. Choosing to play multiple sports as a child has few disadvantages, but a
couple of the perceived disadvantages include falling behind peers in skill development and
becoming over-involved in activities having negative implications like decreased academic
performance (American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance
[AAHPERD], 2013; Gould & Carson, 2004). The advantages to participating in multiple sports
throughout adolescence has numerous benefits (National Association of Youth Sports [NASPE],
2010). These benefits include greater overall skill development, more opportunity for social
development, skill transferability to other sports, and a longer sports career (Bailey, 2006; Baker,
Cobley, Fraser-Thomas, 2009; Gould, 2010; NASPE, 2010). With the idea that skills transfer
from sport to sport, several elite and professional figures have promoted the multi-sport track.
For example, a survey by ESPN found that 95% of NFL quarterbacks were at least two sport
athletes in high school (Seifert, 2015). Furthermore, Abby Waumbach, arguably one of the best
women’s soccer players today, credits basketball with some of her success in soccer (Rogers,
2015). Urban Myer, head football coach of The Ohio State Buckeyes, has expressed his favor of
multi-sport athletes (O’Sullivan, 2015). Finally, in 2014, 88 percent of Olympic athletes
surveyed felt participating in multiple sports helped them become better at their main sport
(Riewald & Snyder, 2014). Additionally, 71 percent of the Olympians considered themselves
multi-sport athletes through high school before specializing.
Affective benefits to diversifying in sports during adolescence have been examined
(AAHPERD, 2013). However, little is known concerning the constructs of mental toughness, grit
2
and motivational orientations in single-sport and multi-sport athletes. Mental toughness (MT)
may mean various things to different people (see Gucciardi, Hanton, Gordon, Mallett, & Temby,
2015 for review). When an individual talks about someone being mentally tough they could be
referring to one’s ability to address pain effectively (Bull, Shambrook, James, & Brooks, 2005),
to not give up (Jaeschke & Sachs, 2012), or to perform successfully in stressful situations (Jones,
Hanton, & Connaughton, 2002). Like MT, grit is connected to adversity (Duckworth & Gross,
2014). For instance, there is a popular billboard with a picture of John Wayne (i.e. the actor that
played Rooster Cogburn in the classic movie True Grit) that states, “Don’t much like quitters,
son”, with the phrase “GRIT Pass It On” printed at the bottom (“Grit,” n.d.). Being gritty is about
not quitting, however there is more to it. Grittiness can also be used to describe someone that is
diligent and determined over an extended period of time (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews &
Kelly, 2007).
Being mentally tough, as well as being gritty, may explain why some individuals succeed
while taking on a task when most cannot. For example, as discussed in a 2013 news article by
Sloane, Hanna, & Ford, Diana Nyad had a dream of swimming from Cuba to Florida. On her
fifth attempt at the age of 64, she successfully completed her goal having to overcome numerous
environmental and psychological obstacles. In a similar fashion, motivation answers the “why”
question, but instead of explaining why one is successful, it answers why one would participate.
In Nyad’s case, she set her aims high early in her life. Once she aged and her mother passed
away, she decided that she wanted to commit to her aspiration of the long swim. In her mind, she
was motivated to complete it before she got any older.
Finally, according to Ryan and Deci’s (2000a) Self-Determination Theory, an individual
can be intrinsically motivated, extrinsically motivated or amotivated. Individuals that participate
3
in activities for the pleasure of doing so, or for a sense of accomplishment, are said to be
intrinsically motivated. Those that are seeking an external reward are extrinsically motivated,
and sometimes individuals are not motivated at all – amotivated.
Significance of the Study
People encounter multiple situations that require high levels of MT and grit every day.
Likewise, motivation plays a significant role in everyday life. Experiences requiring adolescents
to be mentally tough or gritty could prove beneficial to them as they mature into adulthood.
Obviously, the quality of our experiences plays a huge role in developing MT and grit
(Connaughton, Hanton, & Jones, 2010). To an extent, motivation levels can be affected by the
quality of our experiences as well (Álvarez, Balaguer, Castillo, & Duda, 2009). But, what about
the quantity of our experiences? One would think the greater the variety of stressful situations to
which one is exposed, the greater the opportunity to learn how to best cope with that stressful
condition. It stands to reason, the more exposure a person has to stressful experiences, the better
equipped that person will be in effectively facing troublesome incidents as they arise
(Connaughton, Wadey, Hanton, & Jones, 2008). As the expression goes, “there’s nothing like
experience.” Simply put, exposure to a variety of demanding situations may provide an
opportunity to build confidence in consistently controlling stressful circumstances.
Stressful conditions in sports occur abundantly. The opportunity to play multiple sports
provides greater exposure to a variety of situations than playing just one sport (NASPE, 2010).
Thus, the individual may be allotted greater opportunity to develop MT and grit (Thelwell,
Weston, & Greenless, 2005). This could prove beneficial to them later in life. However, too
much stress can create an unpleasant setting that is exhaustive (DiFiori et al., 2014). Thus, when
4
one experiences burnout, it may result in amotivation and the individual giving up the activity
(DiFiori et al., 2014).
Purpose of the Study
Being extremely popular today, sports have become a tremendous avenue for adolescents
to develop skills they can carry on throughout their lifetime (AAHPERD, 2013; National Council
of Youth Sports [NCYS], 2008). Teamwork, persistence, resiliency, character and leadership are
all life skills that can be enhanced through participation in youth sports (Theokas, 2009). Thus,
sports provides a pathway to develop these life skills (AAHPERD, 2013)
Hardiness and resiliency have both been linked to MT and grit (Clough, Earl, & Sewell,
2002; Kelly, Matthews, & Bartone, 2014). In addition, perseverance and hard work, qualities
needed to complete goals despite setbacks, are attributes connected to mentally tough and gritty
individuals (Duckworth & Gross, 2014; Jaeschke & Sachs, 2012; Winerman, 2013). Motivation
has been associated with MT and grit as well. According to Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton
(2002), individuals that are mentally tough are highly motivated from deep within to succeed.
Additionally, Middleton, Marsh, Martin, Richards, and Perry (2004) maintained that MT motives
originate internally. Similarly, grit has been tied to motivation (Duckworth & Gross, 2014).
Moreover, Hochanadel and Finamore (2015) suggest that grit can be developed through
internalizing the motivation for participation. Lastly, in a study by J. Reed (2104), it was noted
that gritty individuals look for activities with internal rewards when selecting physical activity.
MT characteristics such as hardiness, resiliency, and perseverance can be related to sport
(Bawa, 2010; Ramzi & Besharat, 2010; Theokas, 2009). These MT attributes can be observed
when sport offers adverse conditions allowing one the possibility to learn how to cope with
stressful situations (Hedstrom & Gould, 2004; Russell & Limle, 2013). Also, sports provide the
5
opportunity to understand and develop work ethic. According to Duckworth and Gross (2014),
spending years or more dedicated to a task may develop grit within an individual. Likewise,
developing a gritty mentality allows one to be resilient in difficult situations. Finally, motivation
plays a huge role in sports. Children first start playing sports because they are interested in them
and enjoy them (Sage & Eitzen, 2013; Watts, 2002). This intrinsic motivation leads to other
advantages from sport like psychological and skill development (AAHPERD, 2013; Côté, Lidor,
& Hackfort, 2009). In addition to intrinsic motivation, individuals may become externally
motivated as well, by striving to maintain a healthy lifestyle for the benefits of overall health
(Fraser-Thomas & Côté, 2006).
Specialization versus diversification in sport is frequently discussed in today’s sporting
world, as can be seen by several professional organizations issuing position statements regarding
the topic (Ferguson & Stern, 2014). Likewise, MT, grit and motivation are highly discussed
topics within physical activity and sport (Álvarez, Balaguer, Castillo, & Duda, 2009; Butt,
Weinberg, & Culp, 2010; Connaughton, Hanton, & Jones, 2010; Crust, 2007; Fraser-Thomas &
Côté, 2006; Jalili, Hosseini, Jalili, & Salehian, 2011; Kelly, Matthews, & Bartone, 2014; Li,
Wang, Pyun, & Kee, 2013; Mahoney, Gucciardi, Ntoumanis, & Mallett, 2014; Middleton et al.,
2004; Readdy, Raabe, & Harding, 2014; J. Reed 2014; Thelwell, Weston, & Greenless, 2005).
During an investigation of elite sport performers, Jones, Hanton, and Connaughton (2002)
highlighted a connection between MT and motivation. Similarly, Hochanadel & Finamore
(2015), as well as Duckworth and Gross (2014), associated grit with motivation. However, there
has been no past research investigating the relationships between MT, grit, or motivation
between single-sport and multi-sport athletes specifically. Therefore, the purpose of this study is
6
to examine MT, grit and motivational orientations of single-sport athletes and multi-sport
athletes at different levels of competition.
Research Questions
In order to examine MT, grit and motivation in athletes at different levels of competition,
the following research questions were developed to guide the research: 1) Do single-sport
athletes or athletes participating in multiple sports throughout high school score higher in MT as
measured by the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ)? 2) Do single-sport athletes or
athletes participating in multiple sports throughout high school score higher in grit as measured
by the Short Grit Scale (Grit-S)? 3) Are there motivational differences between single-sport and
multi-sport athletes as measured by the Sport Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6)? 4) Is there a
difference in MT between those that played a sport collegiately or above and those that did not
play sports past high school? 5) Is there a difference in grit between those that played a sport
collegiately or above and those that did not play sports past high school? 6) Are there
motivational differences between those that played a sport collegiately or above and those that
did not play sports past high school?
Definition of Terms
There are a handful of terms that need to be clarified. For the purpose of this study, the
following definitions will be used for the terms below.
Amotivation: lack of motivation; the state of lacking an intention to act (Ryan & Deci,
2000a).
Autonomy: having a personal “will” to act. Autonomy within Self-Determination Theory
does not mean being selfish or independent, but instead refers to an individual volition to act
(Ryan & Deci, 2000b).
7
Diversification (sport): sampling or participating in multiple sports throughout
childhood and adolescence (Wiersma, 2000). Sport diversification often leads to a more well-
rounded individual athlete.
External regulation: behaviors performed to satisfy an external demand or obtain an
externally imposed reward contingency. External regulation is classified as coming from an
external perceived locus of causality (Ryan & Deci, 2000a).
Externalized motivation: motivation that is said to be from an external perceived locus
of causality. Associated process of externalized motivation include external regulation and
introjected regulation (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). Externalized motivation is not to be confused with
extrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic motivation: attempting a task in order to attain a separable outcome (Ryan &
Deci, 2000a). Extrinsically motivated individuals pursue an activity, not because it is inherently
interesting, but in order to gain something from it (Ryan, Williams, Patrick, & Deci, 2009).
Extrinsic motivation is not to be confused with externalized motivation.
Grit: perseverance and passion for long-term goals (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews &
Kelly, 2007).
Gritty: displaying perseverance and passion for long-term goals.
Identified regulation: motivated by the personal importance seen in the behavior.
Identified regulation is classified as coming from a somewhat internal perceived locus of
causality (Ryan & Deci, 2000a).
Integrated regulation: the most autonomous form of extrinsic motivation. It occurs
when an individual has assimilated extrinsically motivating factors with one’s own personal
values. Many qualities of integrated regulation are shared with intrinsic motivation. Integrated
8
regulation is classified as coming from an internal perceived locus of causality (Ryan & Deci,
2000a).
Internalized motivation: motivation that is said to be from an internal perceived locus
of causality. Associated processes of internalized motivation include identified regulation,
integrated regulation, and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). Internalized motivation is
not to be confused with intrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic motivation: doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable
(Ryan & Deci, 2000a). Factors associated with intrinsic motivation include conscious valuing of
activity, hierarchical synthesis of goals, interest, enjoyment, and inherent satisfaction. Intrinsic
motivation is not to be confused with internalized motivation.
Introjected regulation: motivation stemming from ego or pride; can be caused by the
pressure to perform in order to avoid guilt or anxiety. Introjected regulation is classified as
coming from a somewhat external perceived locus of causality (Ryan & Deci, 2000a).
Mental toughness: the emotional and psychological ability to withstand, or recover
from, setbacks by staying focused, controlled, and committed during an adverse task or
condition. Mentally tough individuals are thought to be emotionally resilient, confident, focused
and able to cope with pressure (Jones et al., 2002; Loehr, 1995; Clough, Earl & Sewell, 2002;
Jones & Moorhouse, 2008).
Motivation: to be moved to do something (Ryan & Deci, 2000a).
Multi-sport athlete: An athlete that finished high school playing two or more sports
(Definition utilized by the researcher.)
Perceived locus of causality: According to Self-Determination Theory, one’s perceived
locus of causality can be attributed to one’s sense of autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2000b).
9
Single-sport athlete: An athlete that finished high school playing only one sport
(Definition utilized by the researcher.)
Specialization (sport): year round training in a specific sport with the exclusion of other
sports at a young age (Ferguson & Stern, 2014).
10
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
From the professional ranks to the pee-wee leagues, sports in American culture are
extremely popular. A little over 60 million youth participate in sports every year (NCYS, 2008).
Adolescents grow up admiring their favorite teams and players. They see them performing on
television or in person, and they believe with a little dedication, they too can reach the elite level.
So, just like their heroes, they start at an early age playing the games they love in hopes of one
day being the next Peyton Manning, LeBron James, or Bryce Harper.
Youth Sports
There are several benefits to adolescents participating in youth sports. These benefits
include learning new skills and improving on existing skills to become better at something,
having the chance to be around friends and make new ones, and having the opportunity to
discover one’s own strengths and weaknesses (AAHPERD, 2013; Watts, 2002). But, most
importantly, kids just want to have fun (Sage & Eitzen, 2013; Watts, 2002)!
It is obvious that participating in a sport provides physical benefits to the individual
(AAHPERD, 2013). Adolescents playing sports can see improvements in both health-related and
performance-related fitness measures (National Strength and Conditioning Association [NSCA],
2009). This fitness during youth lays the foundation for their adult life. In fact, adolescents
participating in sports are more likely to carry on their positive physical activity habits into
adulthood (Bailey, 2006). Additionally, adolescents who participate in youth sports are reported
to have a higher metabolic rate as adults (Yang, Telama, Hirvensalo, Viikari, & Raitakari, 2009).
The expansion of physical development attributes have also been found to be beneficial to
adolescents playing sports (NASPE, 2010).
11
While participating in sports, adolescents can learn social skills that can be useful to them
later in life, and these social skills allow them to learn sportsmanship, cooperation skills, respect
for others and how to build strong relationships with their peers (Bailey, 2006). Moreover,
Cranmer and Myers (2015) indicated sport allows adolescents to develop communication skills.
Effective communication with a teammate or coach, and accountability to those individuals, are
skills similar to interacting with colleagues in a professional work place. Understanding that one
is accountable to others may lead some to rise to the occasion and set higher expectations for
themselves, thus uniting everyone in an overall purpose (Gould & Carson, 2004). Learning to
strive towards a common goal with other individuals is of the upmost importance in preparing
for a professional working career (Messmer, 2003). Overall, sports may provide a setting where
kids can learn to be good teammates (Theokas, 2009).
Along with physical and social benefits, maybe more importantly, affective benefits may
be realized while participating in sports (AAHPERD, 2013; Wiersma, 2000). Sports can teach
things such as responsibility, persistence, dedication, and discipline (Theokas, 2009). Learning
responsibility in fulfilling one’s duties is a similar characteristic to being accountable to others.
The responsibility of being on time, caring for your equipment, and generally, fulfilling your
duties are essential skills to being an effective employee (Robles, 2012). It takes discipline and
dedication to learn these valuable skills. With the development of the specific skills, increased
confidence in oneself can be realized (DiFiori et al., 2014; AAHPERD, 2013; Watts, 2002). The
more responsible an individual becomes, the greater the confidence he or she will have in his or
her abilities (AAHPERD, 2013). This, in turn, can boost one’s self-esteem. However, failures are
sure to happen, but this isn’t necessarily a bad thing. Experiencing failure provides the
opportunity to persevere through difficult situations (Thelwell et al., 2005). Learning from one’s
12
mistakes by positively bouncing back is a skill that can prove beneficial later in life (Bailey,
2006). Finally, we can learn humility in sports (Austin, 2014). Success will come and go.
Sometimes it is during our failures that humility understood, which helps an individual to better
realize how to be humble when one wins (AAHPERD, 2013). Being humble is a characteristic
that can foster success, and in general, it makes us more enjoyable to be around. Learning these
characteristics about oneself aids in developing one’s personality (Bailey, 2006).
Participating in sports provides opportunity for cognitive development as well. In Prosser
and Jiang’s (2008) review of literature investigating the relationship between physical activity
and academic performance, it was noted that, while some studies found no significant
correlations between physical activity and academic performance, there are multiple research
studies that have found a positive relationship between the two (see Prosser and Jiang’s article
“Relationship between school physical activity and academic performance of children” for full
list of suggested studies). Because of this, Prosser and Jiang (2008) were cautious in their
conclusion pointing out the weak correlation in some studies. However, their literature review
produced more findings suggesting a relationship between physical activity and academic
performance than against. Further review of literature produced more research positively
connecting physical activity and athletic performance. When comparing athletes to non-athletes,
athletes tend to have better grades, test scores, and attendance (AAHPERD, 2013; Watts, 2002).
It has also been noted that problem solving skills can be positively influenced by sport activity.
For example, youth participating in sport are able to increase their strategic skills, generating
plans and applications for successful completion of objectives (Baker, 2003). An increase in
mental alertness, attention and working memory have been attributed to sports as well
(AAHPERD, 2013).
13
Sport Specialization
A popular phenomenon within sport culture today is focusing on one sport during
adolescence (Ferguson & Stern, 2014; Hedstrom & Gould, 2004). This is happening at younger
and younger ages. Children can be seen specializing in one sport as early as age nine (K. Reed,
2014). The reasons for specialization vary. The most obvious explanation of an individual
choosing to specialize in a sport is for mastery of skills (Ferguson & Stern, 2014; Gould, 2010;
Wiersma, 2000). Back in the early 1980’s, Newell and Rosenbloom (1981) discovered a positive
relationship between achievement and practice time. In fact, research by Andres Ericsson and
colleagues (1993) concluded that in order to achieve expert status, individuals must dedicate
themselves to 10,000 hours of deliberate practice of a skill for a minimum of 10 years. This
allows individuals greater early skill acquisition, allowing them to gain a competitive edge
(Ferguson & Stern, 2014; Wiersma, 2000).
Sometimes individuals are not as worried about achieving elite status as they are about
falling behind their peers (Gould, 2010). Particular demands of sports influence whether youth
decide to specialize or not (DiFiori et al., 2014). Some activities, like soccer and baseball, are
very sport specific. For example, the specificity of foot-eye coordination involved in soccer is
very unique (Neto, Barbieri, Barbieri, & Gobbi, 2009). Likewise, the timing involved in hitting a
baseball or softball is exclusive to those sports and requires great time and dedication to master
(Epstein, 2013). Even if mastery isn’t the ultimate goal, individuals may feel they will fall behind
their peers if they choose not to specialize in a sport at a young age (Gould, 2010).
As children get older, many start dreaming of playing for their high school, collegiately,
or even professionally (Gould, 2010). By choosing to specialize, they believe they will have a
better chance of realizing those dreams (Hill, 1991; Watts, 2002). Sometimes it may not even be
14
the child who is choosing to specialize, but it is the parents who have made that decision (Gould,
2010). Some parents decide it is in the best interest of their child to focus on one sport in hopes
of realizing the prized college athletic scholarship (Hill, 1991). Coaches, too, see the benefits of
kids specializing. Many coaches today will encourage youngsters to focus on one sport, because
they do not want to share time with another sport (Watts, 2002). They believe the more
exclusively they have their individual athletes, the better the team will become and, likewise,
will have a better chance of winning (Watts, 2002).
While there are advantages to specializing in one sport at an early age, there has been
numerous literature discussing the disadvantages to it (Branta, 2010; DiFiori et al., 2014; Hill,
1991; NASPE, 2010; Watts, 2002; Wiersma, 2000). The two most cited reasons against sport
specialization are athlete burnout and overuse injury (DiFiori et al., 2014; Watts, 2002).
Mentally, adolescents are burned out and no longer wish to participate. An example of this
comes from a study by Shibko (2015), which found adolescents who specialize in a single sport
before the age of 10 are more likely to drop out than those who wait to specialize. Physically,
adolescents wear out as well. Repetitive stress on the same muscles, ligaments, tendons, and
joints causes the body to become vulnerable, and thus, overuse injuries occur (DiFiori et al.,
2014). As someone plays the same sport year round, the same body tissues and structures are
getting overloaded with stress without an opportunity to recuperate (Hollander, Meyers, &
LeUnes, 1995). Therefore, experts suggest that adolescents need an offseason to recuperate
(NASPE, 2010). Even with this advice, sometimes both parents and coaches will encourage
young athletes to focus on one sport year round (Hedstrom & Gould, 2004; Malina, 2010). With
parents and coaches asking young athletes to specialize, it places tremendous stress on the
adolescent to not disappoint (Wiersma, 2000).
15
Sport Diversification
The benefits to specialization that were previously discussed naturally can be seen as
disadvantages to sport diversification. It is believed by some that youth choosing to play multiple
sports throughout the year are at risk of falling behind their peers in specific skill development
due to not devoting all of one’s time to a given sport (Ferguson & Stern, 2014). This purported
“lack of expertise” hinders those diversifying from keeping up; the time spent playing a second
or third sport is thought to diminish the development of specific skills of the first sport
(Wiersma, 2000).
While specialization in sport has become more common (Ferguson & Stern, 2014), there
are still some youth who choose to diversify themselves in their sporting endeavors, and the
reasons for doing so are numerous. Sport diversification allows one to develop as a well-rounded
athlete (Griffin, 2008). It provides the opportunity to experience multiple skill demands,
coaching personalities, and teammate interactions (NASPE, 2010).
There is a lot that goes into becoming a well-rounded athlete. There are physical, social,
and cognitive benefits to playing multiple sports (NASPE, 2010). Athletes diversifying in sports
have the opportunity to balance out activities throughout the year, reducing the chance of both
burnout and overuse injury (NASPE, 2010). Physically, humans need rest. As an adolescent
dabbles in different sports, he or she is able to stay active, while not repetitively putting stress on
the same body parts (DiFiori et al., 2014). Similarly, the body benefits physically from
expanding the possible movements encountered while playing multiple sports (Branta, 2010).
According to Gallahue, Ozmun, and Goodway (2012), it is very important that young people are
provided a variety of experiences when it comes to motor skill development. These experiences
allow for development of fundamental motor skills (Branta, 2010); specialized skills needed for
16
sport are dependent on proficiency of fundamental movement skills (Gallahue et al., 2012).
Finally, adolescents, and adults as well, need time to let their bodies rest and recover (DiFiori et
al., 2014). Participating in multiple sports throughout the year limits overuse injury, since a
variety of sports require different sport specific muscles and body parts like those involved in the
overhand throw in baseball (NASPE, 2010).
Participating in multiple sports provides an opportunity for social benefits as well
(NASPE, 2010). Being involved in multiple sports, provides the opportunity to develop
relationships with a variety of individuals, such as peers and authority figures (NASPE, 2010).
As an adult, one will interact with a variety of individuals, especially in the workplace. While
playing multiple sports, there is the possibility of experiencing varying coaching styles and
personalities (Theokas, 2009). Being given the chance to develop a variety of relationships
provides for greater social development (Bailey, 2006).
Cognitive benefits can be found from playing multiple sports as well. Exposure to an
assortment of strategies from differing sports could allow for more creativity from sport to sport
due to the increased ability to process incoming information from a variety of situations (Baker
et al., 2009). Strategies and conceptual skills may carry over and be useful in another sport (Hill,
1991).
Mental Toughness (MT)
An often reported study by Gould, Hodge, Peterson, and Petlichkoff (1987) found that 82
percent of wrestling coaches stated MT as the most important characteristic in their athletes’
success. In his book, “Mental Toughness Training for Sports: Achieving Athletic Excellence”,
Loehr (1986) states characteristics making up MT as being responsible for 50 percent of the
success found in athletics. Those who have been around sports have probably heard the term MT
17
being used. It is a term that is often applied in connection with sports, but when it is used, there
are frequently different meanings in mind.
The definition of MT has been highly discussed over the past decade or two (see Gucciardi,
et al., 2015 for review). With varying definitions being used by coaches and athletes, researchers
have spent the last decade attempting to nail down a definition. In literature addressing MT in
sport, the most utilized definition is by Jones et al. (2002). In this definition, MT is both innate
(natural) and developed within an individual. These researchers define mental toughness as the
natural or developed psychological edge that enables one to:
 Generally, cope better than your opponent with many demands (competition, training,
lifestyle) that sport places on a performer.
 Specifically, be more consistent and better than your opponents in remaining determined,
focused, confident, and in control under pressure.
Research by Thelwell et al. (2005) employed the same definition as Jones and colleagues (2002)
with one exception. Thelwell et al. (2005) concluded that mentally tough individuals always
cope better than their opponents with demands that sport places on a performer. Words and
concepts highlighted in both of these definitions include coping, consistency, and taking on
pressure. Moreover, Gucciardi et al. (2015) defined MT as the personal capacity to produce
consistently high levels of subjective or objective performance despite everyday challenges and
stressors as well as significant adversities. Like Jones et al. (2002) and Thelwell et al. (2005),
consistency is used in the definition of MT. Additionally, Gucciardi et al. (2015) mention in their
definition that mentally tough performers can overcome adversity. One last definition presents a
few additional characteristics of a mentally tough person. Middleton et al. (2004) also discuss
facing adversity and taking on pressure, and these researchers have the only definition that
18
mentions perseverance; perseverance is often referenced when describing someone that is
mentally tough (Jaeschke & Sachs, 2012).
Along with defining MT, several models have been created featuring characteristics of
individuals that exhibit MT. In his book “The New Toughness Training for Sports”, Dr. Loehr
(1995) outlined his four markers of toughness: emotional flexibility, emotional responsiveness,
emotional strength, and emotional resiliency. Clough, Earl and Sewell (2002) highlighted
commitment, control, challenge, and confidence as the 4 C’s model of MT. Motivation, self-
confidence, attentional focus, and coping with pressure have been tagged the four pillars of MT
by Jones and Moorhouse (2008). Connaughton et al. (2010) created a framework that described
which of the 30 total attributes they claim to affect MT should fall within four dimensions (i.e.
attitude/mindset, training, competition, and post-competition). Bull et al. (2005) generated a MT
pyramid. With this pyramid, upbringing establishes the base which is titled “environmental
influences”. It is this base that influences the next three levels of the pyramid – tough character,
tough attitudes, and tough thinking. Lastly, Middleton and colleagues (2004), after interviewing
25 elite-level athletes, discovered 12 characteristics of MT. These characteristics include self-
efficacy, mental self-concept, potential, task-specific attention, perseverance, task familiarity,
personal bests, task value, goal commitment, positivity, stress minimization, and positive
comparisons. This final model tackles that which has been the deficiency in past MT research:
the complete nature of MT. Specifically, it addresses the notion that MT can be influenced by
stable personality characteristics (i.e. self-belief, goal commitment) and more impressionable
MT actions (i.e. task-specific attention, stress minimization, potential).
Common themes emerging from the definitions and models of MT should be noted.
Emotional strength, tough character, tough attitude, commitment and the ability to minimize
19
stress were highlighted above (Bull et al., 2005; Clough et al., 2002; Loehr, 1995; Middleton et
al., 2004). This suggests that mentally tough individuals will display a strong disposition. Self-
confidence, self-efficacy, mental self-concept, and confidence are terms inferring that a mentally
tough person is self-aware (Clough et al., 2002; Jones & Moorhouse, 2007; Middleton et al.,
2004). To be mentally tough, one needs to be attentive to how an individual best functions in
completing tasks. Therefore, MT requires task-specific attention, attentional focus, and control
(Clough et al., 2002; Jones & Moorhouse, 2007; Middleton et al., 2004). Tough thinking,
emotional resiliency, emotional flexibility, coping, and perseverance are said to be important
(Bull et al., 2005; Jones & Moorhouse, 2007; Loehr, 1995; Middleton et al., 2004). Adapting to,
and fighting through, difficult situations are characteristics of someone with great MT.
Additional characteristics of MT throughout the literature include persistence and motivation
(Jaeschke & Sachs, 2012; Ryan & Deci, 2000a). In summary, literature suggests mentally tough
individuals consistently cope better than their opponents by continuing to be determined,
focused, confident, and controlled during stressful situations.
The nature vs nurture debate can apply to MT (Crust, 2007). Meaning, you are either
born mentally tough or you learn to become mentally tough. While some research findings state
the development of MT to be mostly shaped by a person’s experiences, others acknowledge that
it can be “trait-like” in nature (Bull et al., 2005; Jones et al., 2002; Thelwell et al., 2005).
Currently, the general thought process is that MT is guided by both experiences (learned) and
nature (innate) (Crust, 2007; Jones et al., 2002).
Externally, MT is swayed by the environmental conditions afforded to the individual
(Crust & Swann, 2011). Aspects of the environment that play a role include coaching style,
competition level, and the amount of time in the setting. According to Bull et al. (2005), the type
20
of attitude displayed by the coach may affect a player’s level of MT. It has been reported that an
enjoyable environment that affords the opportunity to display one’s skills aids in MT
development (Connaughton et al., 2008). Additionally, a competitive setting and a tough
physical environment can contribute to the development of MT (Butt et al., 2010; Connaughton
et al., 2008). According to Jones and Parker (2013), accumulating of years of experience
positively contributes to becoming MT. This supports Middleton et al. (2004) which found that
being accustomed to a specific type of environment leads to greater MT, as well as the finding
that when expending effort over time, MT increases (Mahoney et al., 2014).
Internally, MT is thought to be “trait-like” (Jones et al., 2002). It has been noted that MT
can be the result of an “internalized motive” within an individual (Jones et al., 2002; Ryan &
Deci, 2000a). Desire is another term that has been used, and as previously mentioned, MT comes
naturally to some (Jones et al., 2002). Lastly, MT is said to come from having “tough character”
(Bull et al., 2005). This is another example of MT being considered a personality trait that
someone acquires at birth.
Grit
The concept of grit has been around for over a century (James, 1907). Long ago
researchers identified passion and hard work as distinguishing factors of successful individuals
(Galton, 1892). Recently, grit has been defined as perseverance and passion for long-term goals
(Duckworth et al., 2007). Furthermore, “grit entails working strenuously toward challenges,
maintaining effort and interest over years despite failure, adversity, and plateaus in progress”
(Duckworth et al., 2007, pp. 1087-1088).
Several characteristics of gritty individuals have been discussed recently. Kelly,
Matthews, and Bartone (2014) have associated grit with hardiness, relating hardiness to a strong
21
feeling of commitment to an activity. Gritty individuals are said to display passion and
perseverance over time (Winerman, 2013). Perseverance for extended amounts of time requires
stamina to pursue those activities into the future (Duckworth et al., 2007). To maintain this level
of perseverance commands self-control. Thus, individuals that are said to be gritty display great
self-control and are diligent (Duckworth & Gross, 2014; Winerman, 2013). Additionally,
individuals with grit follow through with plans (Duckworth et al., 2007). This is done by
maintaining interest in an endeavor over time even when obstacles are present (Kelly et al.,
2014; Duckworth & Gross, 2014). In summary, gritty individuals are committed and can
persevere in tackling tasks that extend over a longer period of time.
Motivation
The term used to address the question of why people choose to participate in activities is
known as motivation. According to Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary (2005), motivation
is a force or influence that causes someone to do something. The fact is, people experience
various motivational orientations. Sometimes, people engage in activities because they are
interested in them, and other times, individuals are looking for a separate outcome from
completing the activity (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). Occasionally, it is a combination of both interest
in the activity and seeking a separate outcome that motivates an individual (Ryan & Deci,
2000a).
Dr. Richard Ryan and Dr. Edward Deci (2000b) are well-known in the psychology field
for the development of their theory on motivation, known as Self-Determination Theory (SDT).
According to SDT, humans have three basic psychological needs that are inherent in all
individuals and are considered essential for ideal development (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004).
These three needs are the need for autonomy, relatedness (connectedness), and competence
22
(Ryan & Deci, 2000a; Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). Autonomy in SDT does not necessarily
represent the need for independence, but rather, represents one’s craving to have control over
one’s will (Ryan & Deci, 2000c). This attitude of volition can be accomplished individually or
collectively (Van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, De Witte, & Lens, 2008). The need for relatedness
states that humans innately want to feel connected to others, and it also suggests that individuals
need to feel like they belong in the world around them (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). Lastly, the
need for competence signifies a desire to effectively master the world around them (Deci &
Vansteenkiste, 2004).
The central tenet of SDT is that humans are both extrinsically and intrinsically motivated
(Ryan et al., 2009) to pursue the three basic needs of autonomy, relatedness and competence.
Extrinsic motivation relates to action that is done to fulfill the need to accomplish a “separable
outcome” from the activity itself, whereas intrinsic motivation is action not to achieve external
rewards but that which is done for the shear enjoyment of participating in the activity (Ryan &
Deci, 2000a). SDT also defines a lack of motivation for an activity as amotivation (Ryan & Deci,
2000a).
In SDT, motivation falls along a continuum of no motivation (amotivation) to full
inherent satisfaction and joy of participating in an activity (intrinsic motivation) (Ryan & Deci,
2000a). In the middle of this are four types of extrinsic motivation: external regulation,
introjection, identification, and integration (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). Levels of autonomy can differ
greatly within extrinsic motivation. This is recognized by the perceived locus of causality
(PLOC) for the behavior. PLOC was a concept introduced by Fritz Heider (1958) in a book
titled, “The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations.” A PLOC refers to how one internalizes a
motive (DeCharms, 1968). Sometimes an individual will play strictly for a tangible reward or to
23
avoid a consequence (i.e. external regulation), and other times an individual will participate to
accomplish a personal goal (i.e. integration). Therefore, identifying the level of extrinsic
motivation is done by considering the PLOC for the behavior.
According to SDT, extrinsic motivation can stem from the desire to obtain solely external
rewards (i.e. external regulation) to understanding the “value” of accomplishing a task (i.e.
integrated regulation) (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). External regulation is seen as the least autonomous
level of extrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000b). External demands drive externally regulated
actions. That is, an externally regulated behavior is performed to accomplish an external reward
(Ryan & Deci, 2000b). Introjected regulation is the next type of extrinsic motivation. Self-esteem
plays a large role in this type of extrinsic motivation. Actions to avoid guilt or anxiety, or to
boost pride, are seen as being introjected (Ryan & Deci, 2000b). This manner of egotistical
behavior is not fully internalized and as a result, is considered being “somewhat” external in
regards to one’s PLOC (Ryan & Deci, 2000b). The next type of extrinsic motivation is identified
regulation. This type of extrinsic motivation is considered to have a somewhat internal PLOC.
Here an individual values a behavior as personally important or satisfying (Ryan & Deci, 2000b).
The most autonomous type of extrinsic motivation is integrated regulation. It is often seen as
very similar to intrinsic motivation, but it is still a behavior that is performed for a separable
outcome. However, this separable outcome is seen as being assimilated with oneself (Ryan &
Deci, 2000b). For example, participating in a sport because that individual identifies oneself with
that activity. The sport is not performed for the enjoyment it brings, but rather, it is because one
feels it is a part of them as a person.
Lastly, according to Ryan et al. (2009), intrinsic motivation is closely associated with
feelings of autonomy. Individuals naturally seek out sporting activities that are enjoyable,
24
interesting, and challenging to them (Frederick & Ryan, 1995). As noted by Ryan and Deci
(2000a), being intrinsically motivated means one acts for reasons other than an external prompt,
pressure, or reward. This natural curiosity of acting on one’s interests allows for overall personal
growth. In short, intrinsically motivated individuals engage in an activity to fulfill the inherent
gratification that it brings (Ryan et al., 2009).
Mental Toughness, Grit & Motivation
MT, grit and motivation all play a significant role in the world of youth sports.
Motivation is important in the development of young athletes. Having an internal desire to
persevere is a characteristic of gritty individuals (Hochanadel & Finamore, 2015). Additionally,
Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, (1993) found that talent development is dependent on
an athlete being motivated to participate in his or her activity. However, past research has shown
that the personal characteristic of grit can predict success as much as talent does, if not more so
(Duckworth et al., 2007). Finally, according to J. Reed (2014), gritty individuals seek out
difficult activities that are also intrinsically rewarding.
In regards to psychological concepts such as MT and motivation, a wide range of
experiences and relationships has been beneficial (Gould, 2010). In contrast, specializing in one
sport has been shown to reduce self-determination, which stems from an environment that stifles
intrinsic motivation (Gould, 2010). Similarly, what starts out as internal motives for participation
can be transformed into external motives due to reduced enjoyment levels from the activity. In
other words, burnout from specializing in a single sport can change internal reasons for
participation into external motives (Fraser-Thomas & Côté, 2006). The same is true in the
opposite direction. What starts out as external motives for participation can be changed to
internal motives as the individual begins to take ownership of the activity. This “making it their
25
own” attitude stems from a sense of autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2000b). As mentioned earlier, it is
often suggested that athletes narrow down their playing experiences (at the influence of their
parents or coaches) to focus on mastery of one sport, in order to attain an athletic scholarship
(Malina, 2010). This external pressure to do so can stifle autonomy, which in turn suppresses
motivations that started out as internal (Ryan & Deci, 2000b). Consequently, it would be
interesting to see if single-sport or multi-sport athletes, at different levels of sport, have varying
levels of motivation.
Often times, deliberate practice is linked to specialization in a single sport (Ericsson,
Krampe, & Tesch-Romer 1993). However, deliberate practice is not naturally motivating
(Ericsson et al., 1993). Conversely, unsystematic play establishes intrinsic motivation for an
activity (Côté, et al., 2009). To take it a step further, Côté (1999) suggested that multiple sports
settings were needed to develop the intrinsic motivation that would propel an athlete to the “next
level” of his or her sporting career. According to SDT, extrinsic motivation lies on a continuum
from external rewards to the internal value that is obtained from the activity (Ryan & Deci,
2000b). Therefore, this research will further investigate differences between motivational
perceived locus of causalities between multi-sport and single-sport athletes different competition
levels.
Researchers have asserted that MT characteristics are essential from sport to sport (Jones,
Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007), and Bull et al. (2005) raised the question of whether MT is
specific to certain sports, be it individual versus team sports or contact versus non-contact sports.
However, exploration concerning MT needs to be considered for single-sport and multi-sport
athletes and their attained level of competition.
26
Lastly, little research has been conducted examining grit and sports. Furthermore, no
research has examined grit and specialization or diversification in sport. Therefore, the same
questions for MT, regarding single-sport and multi-sport athletes and competition level, apply to
grit.
27
CHAPTER 3
METHODS
Participants
The participants for this study included 392 former high school athletes (236 males and
156 females) from individual and team sports. The sample came from students enrolled in
courses within a physical education department from three Midwestern universities. The ages of
participants ranged from 18 to 35, with an average age of 21.6 years (SD = 2.59). The
participants self-reported their former high school enrollments, which ranged from 50 to 6600,
with a median enrollment of 800. They participated in sports such as baseball, basketball, cross
country, football, golf, gymnastics, softball, soccer, tennis, track and field, and volleyball while
in high school. A consent form (see Appendix A for a copy of the consent to participate form) to
participate was approved by the researcher’s university institutional review board (IRB#15-05-
721) (see Appendix B for a copy of the IRB approval letter).
Procedure
The researcher contacted professors from three Midwestern Kinesiology Departments to
assist in administering the surveys. Consent forms, sports history surveys, and questionnaires
were hand delivered to a representative from the kinesiology departments from each university
that distributed the surveys to their colleagues. The questionnaires were administered at the end
of the class period. Prior to completion of the survey, participants were informed of the general
purpose of the research study and of their right to withdraw at any time with no penalty. The data
were stored in a manila envelope during travel and in a secure file cabinet upon return to the
researcher’s office.
Measures
28
Demographics. The survey instrument consisted of demographics questions (i.e. gender,
age, race) and questions designed to gather information on participants’ sports history. Sports
history questions included topics such as: sports played throughout the participants’ lifetime, the
number of years the participant played each sport, which sports were played competitively
during high school, and the highest level of competition played (i.e. freshman team, JV, varsity,
college) (see Appendix C, Figure C1 for age, Figure C2 for sports, and Figure C3 for
competition level breakdown of participants. Also see Appendix D for specific demographics
questions and sports history questions). Along with the demographics questions, the survey
instrument included three questionnaires: Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ)
(Sheard, Golby & van Wersch, 2009), Short Grit Scale (Grit-S) (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009), and
Sport Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6) (Mallet, Kawabata, Newcombe, Otero-Forero, & Jackson,
2007) (see Appendix E for questionnaires).
Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ). The SMTQ, developed by Sheard et
al. (2009), is a fourteen-item questionnaire arranged on a four-point Likert scale (Not at all true =
1 to Very true = 4), that is designed to measure global MT in sports settings (maximum MT
score = 56; minimum score = 14). The SMTQ contains three MT subscales: confidence (e.g. “I
have an unshakeable confidence in my ability,” I have what it takes to perform well while under
pressure,” and “I have qualities that set me apart from other competitors”), constancy (e.g. “I am
committed to completing the tasks I have to do” and “I give up in difficult situations” [reverse
scored]) and control (e.g. “I worry about performing poorly” [reverse scored] and “I am
overcome by self-doubt [reverse scored]). The three MT subscales utilized in the development of
the SMTQ were consistent with review of MT literature. According to Crust (2007), confidence
is seen as having an unwavering belief in oneself. An individual that displays constancy is one
29
that is consistently persistent over time and control refers to one’s ability to remain influential
during adversity.
Utilizing 1,142 participants ranging in age from 16 to 63, the SMTQ was found to be a
reliable and valid measure of MT (Sheard et al., 2009). Internal consistency was found to be high
with Cronbach’s alphas of .80, .74, and .71 reported found for confidence, constancy, and
control, respectively. Acceptable divergent validity was acknowledged with low-to-moderate
correlations with optimism, positive affect, and negative affect. Likewise, a good model fit was
indicated (RMSEA = .05). (see Appendix E for SMTQ questionnaire)
Short Grit Scale (Grit-S). The Grit-S is an eight-item questionnaire designed by
Duckworth & Quinn (2009) to measure “trait-level perseverance and passion for long-term
goals” (p. 166). Question responses for the Grit-S follow a five-point Likert scale (“Very much
like me” = 1 to “Not much like me at all” = 5). The maximum score of 40 signifies an extremely
gritty individual and a minimum score of 8 represents an individual that is not at all gritty. The
Grit-S has 2 subscales: Consistency of Interest (e.g. “I often set a goal but later choose to pursue
a different one” and “New ideas and projects sometimes distract me from previous ones”) and
Perseverance of Effort (e.g. “I am diligent” [reverse scored] and “Setbacks don’t discourage me”
[reverse scored]). Consistency of Interest statements are designed to identify individuals who are
persistent over time by sticking with a goal, while Perseverance of Effort statements recognize
the passion with which individuals pursue that goal (Duckworth et al., 2007).
Collecting a final total of 2,526 participants from two United States Military Academy,
West Point classes (2008 & 2010), Duckworth & Quinn (2009) found acceptable reliability and
validity within the Grit-S. Overall Grit-S internal consistency alphas ranged from .73 to .76, with
Consistency of Interest subscale alphas ranging from .73 to .74. and Perseverance of Effort
30
ranging from .60 to .65. Fit indexes revealed a good fit for both the 2008 and 2010 West Point
classes (RMSEA = .061 and .068, respectively) (see Appendix E for Grit-S questionnaire).
Sport Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6). The SMS-6 is a twenty-four item questionnaire
designed along a motivation continuum within the framework of SDT (Mallett et al., 2007). The
intention of the SMS-6 is to explore why athletes participate in sport. The seven-point Likert
scale responses range from “Does not correspond at all” to “Corresponds exactly” and a
maximum score of 168 and minimum of 24 can be achieved, with higher scores signifying
greater levels of motivation. There are six subscales from which to respond when presented with
the question “Why do you practice your sport?”: amotivation (e.g. “I don’t seem to be enjoying
my sport as much as I previously did”), external regulation (e.g. “Because it allows me to be well
regarded by people that I know”), introjected regulation (e.g. “Because I must do sports to feel
good about myself”), identified regulation (e.g. “Because training hard will improve my
performance”), integrated regulation (e.g. “Because it is an extension of me”), and intrinsic
motivation (e.g. “For the satisfaction I experience while I am perfecting my abilities”).
A two stage confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) study conducted by Mallet et al. (2007)
confirms the reliability and validity of the SMS-6. Internal consistency was found to be high with
Cronbach’s alphas ranging from .70 to .86 for the six subscale items with a mean of .78. The
CFA revealed acceptable root mean square error of approximation values (RMSEA = .05) (see
Appendix E for SMS-6 questionnaire).
Statistical Analysis
A 2 x 2 analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to assess MT among single-sport and
multi-sport athletes with differing levels of competition achieved (α = .05). Likewise, a 2 x 2
ANOVA was used to evaluate differences in grit between the type of high school athlete one was
31
to the level of competition attained (α = .05). A third 2 x 2 ANOVA was used to measure
motivation differences among single-sport and multi-sport high school athletes and their level of
competition reached (α = .05). And finally, two independent samples t tests were conducted to
explore differences in internalized (intrinsic regulation, integrated regulation, and identified
regulation) and externalized (introjected regulation and external regulation) motivation in regards
to single-sport and multi-sport athletes.
32
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
Mental Toughness
A 2 x 2 analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to investigate the research
question regarding the type of athlete (single-sport and multi-sport high school athletes), their
level of attained competition (high school playing experience or college or above playing
experience), and their MT scores. The ANOVA indicated no significant interaction effect
between athlete type and competition level, F(1, 387) = .06, p = .812, partial η2 < .001, but
significant main effects for athlete type, F(1, 387) = 4.87, p = .028, partial η2 = .012, and
competition level, F(1, 387) = 17.33, p < .001, partial η2 = .043. A post hoc test was not
performed for competition level or athlete type because there are fewer than three levels for each
variable. The athlete type main effects revealed that multi-sport athletes scored higher on MT
than did single-sport athletes. Additionally, the competition level main effects showed that
college level athletes scored higher on MT than did athletes that only played at the high school
level. Means and standard deviations for motivation scores can be found in Table 1.
Grit
A 2 x 2 ANOVA was conducted to investigate the research question regarding the type of
athlete (single-sport and multi-sport high school athletes), their level of attained competition
(high school playing experience or college or above playing experience), and their grit scores.
The ANOVA indicated no significant interaction effect between athlete type and competition
level, F(1, 382) = .32, p = .571, partial η2 = .001, and no significance for the athlete type main
effect, F(1, 382) = 1.22, p = .270, partial η2 = .003. However, a significant main effect was found
for competition level, F(1, 382) = 5.42, p = .020, partial η2 = .014. The competition level main
33
effects showed that college level athletes scored higher on grit than did athletes that only played
at the high school level. A post hoc test was not performed for competition level because there
are fewer than three levels for that variable. Means and standard deviations for grit scores can be
found in Table 1.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics for Mental Toughness, Grit, and Motivation
Variable Athlete Classification N M SD

Mental Single-Sport High School 147 42.12 5.39
Toughness Single-Sport College 68 44.57 5.32
Multi-Sport High School 97 43.48 5.65
Multi-Sport College 79 45.67 4.54
Total 391 43.60 5.44
Grit Single-Sport High School 147 28.47 3.96
Single-Sport College 66 29.29 4.72
Total 386 28.99 4.39
Motivation Single-Sport High School 143 102.69 0.918
Single-Sport College 66 112.52 0.785
Total 377 107.30 18.23
Note: Single-sport high school athlete = An athlete that finished high school playing
only one sport and did not play in college. Single-sport college athlete = An athlete
that finished high school playing only one sport and later played collegiately or above.
Multi-sport high school athlete =An athlete that finished high school playing two or more
sports and did not play in college. Multi-sport college athlete = An athlete that finished
high school playing two or more sports and later played collegiately or above.
34
Motivation
A 2 x 2 ANOVA was conducted to evaluate the research question regarding the type of
athlete (single-sport and multi-sport high school athletes), their level of attained competition
(high school playing experience or college or above playing experience), and their motivation
scores. The ANOVA indicated a significant interaction effect between athlete type and
competition level F(1, 373) = 4.11, p = .043, partial η2 = .011 and a significant main effect for
competition level F(1, 373) = 9.50, p = .002, partial η2 = .025. However, there was no significant
finding for the type of athlete, F(1, 373) = .76, p = .385, partial η2 = .002. Group means show
college level athletes to have higher levels of motivation than high school level athletes.
Since the interaction between competition level and athlete type was significant, the
competition level main effect was ignored and instead the level of competition simple main
effects were examined. In doing so, the difference in competition level between single-sport and
multi-sport high school athletes was evaluated separately. To control for Type I errors across the
two simple main effects, the alpha level was set at .025. Regarding motivation, there were no
significant differences between attained level of competition (high school vs. college) and multi-
sport high school athletes, F(1, 373) = .54, p = .465, but there was a significant difference in
single-sport athletes and attained level of competition, with college level athletes that played
only one sport in high school scoring higher than single-sport high school athletes that did not go
on to play in college, F(1, 373) = 13.61, p < .001. In addition, there were no significant
differences between single-sport and multi-sport high school athletes that went to play in college,
F(1, 373) = .55, p = .460. However, for those that played only at the high school level, multi-
sport athletes score significantly higher than single-sport athletes, F(1, 373) = 5.42, p = .020.
Means and standard deviations for motivation scores can be found in Table 1.
35
To further investigate motivational orientations, an independent-samples t test was
conducted to evaluate whether single-sport or multi-sport athletes have more of an internalized
motive for participation or externalized motive. The t test was significant, t(388) = -2.49, p =
.013, with multi-sport athletes (M = 5.66, SD = .852) scoring higher in internalized motivation
than single-sport athletes (M = 5.42, SD = .964). The 95% confidence interval for the difference
in means ranged from -.415 to -.048. The eta square index indicated that 2% of the variance of
the internalized motivation variable was accounted for by whether or not the athlete was a single-
sport or multi-sport athlete. Figure 1 shows the distributions for the two groups.
Figure 1. Error bars (two standard deviations above and below the mean) for externalized and
internalized motivation for athlete type.
Exploring externalized motivational orientations for participation regarding single-sport
and multi-sport athletes, an independent-samples t test was conducted. Multi-sport athletes (M =

36
4.20, SD = 1.20) scored higher in externalized motivation than did single-sport athletes (M =
3.99, SD = 1.21), but the t test was found to be non-significant, t(388) = -1.78, p = .076. Figure 1
shows the distributions for the two groups.
37
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Discussion of Research Findings
This study was conducted to investigate differences in MT, grit and motivation among
different types of athletes. The results of this study revealed data indicating that multi-sport
athletes score higher on MT than do single sport athletes. However, there were no significant
differences in athlete type for grit or motivation. For all three dependent variables assessed, MT,
grit, and motivation, significant differences were found in competition level scores with single-
sport high school athletes having the lowest scores of the various group combinations.
Additionally, multi-sport athletes appear to display higher levels of internalized motivation than
do single-sport athletes.
Mental Toughness
A review of literature indicates mentally tough individuals demonstrate strong coping
behaviors, resiliency, confidence, and commitment (Clough et al., 2002; Thelwell et al., 2005;
Theokas, 2009). Both single-sport and multi-sport athletes will exhibit these characteristics at
some time. Sports are obviously physically demanding, but they can also be emotionally
exhausting (DiFiori et al., 2014; Gould, 2010). When asked “why did you quit playing that
sport”, the single-sport athletes from this study gave several responses, but the most common
replies were: “I did not enjoy the sport anymore”, “An injury wouldn’t allow me to play
anymore”, “I didn’t have time to play multiple sports”, and “I wasn’t good enough”. The
findings of this study may support these responses. Of course, talent is a huge factor, but when
looking at single-sport athletes, one would have to consider MT as one variable that would
separate those that made it to play collegiately and those that played in high school only. Single-
38
sport high school athletes that only played at the high school level recorded the lowest MT scores
of the four levels of athlete classifications. See Table 1 for means. Furthermore, multi-sport high
school athletes scored significantly higher in MT than the single-sport athletes. This may support
previous research that fewer experiences limit the opportunity to develop MT (Thelwell et al.,
2005).
Both single-sport and multi-sport high school athletes that played collegiately scored
higher than those that only played at the high school level. Furthermore, both types of athletes
that played collegiately or above did not score significantly different from each other for MT.
With multi-sport and single-sport high school athletes that made it to the college level scoring
significantly higher in MT than non-college athletes, it begs the question what comes first? Does
MT come from playing sports, or is it the mentally tough individual that succeeds in sport? This
specific question was not of primary importance and therefore, cannot be answered from this
study. However, literature may suggest that MT comes first. Jones et al. (2002), Bull et al.
(2005), and Ryan & Deci (2000a), have all indicated that MT may be a “trait-like” characteristic
that is phylogenetic in nature. If this is true, adolescents should focus more on activities that
develop MT while young, instead of being concerned about specializing in a single sport.
Grit
Grit has been defined as perseverance and passion for long-term goals (Duckworth,
Peterson, Matthews & Kelly, 2007). Both single-sport and multi-sport athletes can display grit.
However, one would think that single-sport athletes would display more grit. If one sets their
goal to excel at a task, then an individual that selects one specific task and pours themselves into
it could be described as gritty. On the other hand, the same can be said for multi-sport athletes
that grew up playing multiple sports. Gritty individuals, having started a sport early in life, will
39
tend to stick with it. However, neither single-sport nor multi-sport high school athletes scored
significantly higher than the other in grit. Though multi-sport high school athletes that made it to
the college level or above recorded the highest levels of grit, they did not score significantly
higher than any of the three other groups.
One distinguishing characteristic of gritty individuals is the long-term aspect of achieving
a goal (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009). Physically, one must have talent to succeed at high levels of
sport. However, Duckworth and Quinn (2009) have noted that grit can be as much of a predictor
of success as talent. With this in mind, it stands to reason that college athletes would score higher
in grit than high school athletes, which is what the results of this study indicate. However, there
was no significant interaction between the two independent variables for grit, suggesting no
considerable advantage for any combination of athlete type or competition level. While being
gritty is important to completion of long-term goals, there are other factors, both physical and
mental, that might play a role in whether or not an athlete reaches college level or higher
competition.
Motivation
Motivation is a concept that reaches many aspects of life. There are many reasons
athletes choose to compete in sports. Some athletes compete in order to receive a prize at the
end, and some athletes compete for the satisfaction of accomplishing a task or goal. According to
Gould & Carson (2004), “motivation is a critical component [to sport] and is greatly influenced
by support and encouragement from those in the field and one’s family members” (p. 20). Again,
single-sport athletes that only played at the high school level recorded lower scores for
motivation than all other groups. SDT states that individuals have three basic needs: autonomy,
relatedness and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000a; Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). With this in
40
mind, it seems reasonable that those individuals that are good enough to play beyond high school
will feel more competent, while athletes only playing at the high school level feel less
competent, and therefore, less motivated. The same can be true of autonomy. Autonomy in SDT
is related to volition. Individuals that have made their sport(s) their own will exhibit higher levels
of motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000c). Due to the popularity of specialization in sport today,
adolescents are sometimes encouraged to play a single sport by parents and coaches (Hill, 1991;
Watts, 2002). This pressure from authority can suppress an individual’s motivation. One
common reason given by parents or adolescents choosing to specialize in one sport is that
college recruiters encourage it (Hedstrom & Gould, 2004). This would infer that adolescents and
parents have a college athletic scholarship in mind for their future. However, internally
motivated behavior is more sustaining than externally motivated behavior. If one’s main motive
for participating in a sport is to achieve an athletic scholarship, then over time motivation is more
than likely to dwindle. To counter this, an individual should look for ways to transform what
starts out as extrinsic motivation for an activity into intrinsic motivation by fully assimilating the
behavior with oneself (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). Additionally, one could assume that athletes
playing multiple sports would have more opportunity to become connected to others and thus
increase their sense of belonging. The findings of this study supports these notions as single-
sport high school athletes scored significantly lower than both multi-sport high school athletes
and single-sport college athletes in motivation.
Furthermore, a review of the literature indicates that individuals involved in sports are
more intrinsically motivated (AAHPERD, 2013). This would suggest that multi-sport athletes
have a more internalized motive for participation. Additionally, Gould (2010) suggests that
specializing in a single sport may weaken intrinsic motivation. The results of this study
41
reinforces these ideas since multi-sport athletes scored higher on internalized motivation than did
single-sport athletes. Similarly, multi-sport athletes also reported higher externalized motives
than single-sport athletes. Consequently, paralleling the discussion concerning MT, one has to
ask if sports nurture motivation within an individual or individuals have natural levels of
motivation prior to getting involved. If motivation is more phylogenetic, then this study would
support that notion, since individuals that have made it to more advanced levels of sport reported
higher levels of motivation.
Delimitations
 A convenient sample of college-aged students enrolled in various Health, Human
Performance, & Recreation (HHPR) courses was used for this study.
 Adolescents currently participating in interscholastic sports were not part of the sample.
 Non-athletes were excluded from this study by removing all questionnaires from
participants that did not participate in at least one interscholastic sport in high school.
 There was no interest to control for gender in this study.
 High school population of participants was not considered.
Limitations
 Former athletes not enrolled in HHPR courses did not have a chance to be a part of this
study.
 All questionnaires were found to be reliable for the ages of the participants. However,
participants that were not currently participating in a sport were asked to recollect their
playing days to honestly answer the questionnaires.
 Motivations and personalities change over time and may play a role in how surveys were
answered.
42
 With this study, there was no way to predict how much of the participant’s responses
were influenced by their environment. Some coaches may create a climate that is
conducive to fostering certain types of motivation while others generate an environment
that stifles motivation.
 Occasionally, participants from small interscholastic schools are multi-sport athletes out
of necessity, while sometimes, larger schools have more single-sport athletes (Hill,
1991).
Assumptions
 The researcher assumed that students enrolled in HHPR courses participated in sports in
high school.
 The researcher assumes that the participants were able to accurately recall their sports
history and did so honestly.
 The researcher assumes that the participants honestly completed the surveys.
Recommendation for Future Research
MT has been explored by a handful of researchers recently; many have attempted to
define it since there are a wide variety of definitions out there (see Gucciardi, et al., 2015 for
review). Likewise, grit is a popular construct that has recently re-surfaced (Duckworth et al.
2007; Kelly et al., 2014; Winerman, 2013). Motivation has been investigated by numerous
academics for several years (DeCharms, 1968; Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004; Heider, 1958; Ryan
& Deci, 2000b; Ryan et al. 2009). It can be a difficult construct to understand and is undoubtedly
an important one, especially in the academic world (Ryan & Deci, 2000a).
There are many paths that one could follow from the results of this study. First, younger
populations need to be considered. If MT, grit and motivation are nurtured at a young age by
43
participating in sports, then younger populations need to be assessed. Second, school populations
should be considered. With the promotion of sport specialization of young athletes today, fewer
and fewer adolescents are participating in multiple sports (Hedstrom & Gould, 2004). This is
especially true of larger schools where there is more competitiveness for playing time due to the
large number of athletes from which to choose; sometimes at smaller schools, adolescents may
play multiple sports out of necessity (Bell, Post, Trigsted, Hetzel, McGuine, & Brooks, 2016).
Viewing the specialization phenomenon with respect to grit, future research should
dissect the effects of the number of years specializing. Since gritty individuals pursue long-term
goals for extended periods, do athletes that have specialized longer than athletes that have
decided to specialize later in adolescence display more grit? Likewise, does the number of years
participating affect MT levels?
Next, it would be interesting to see if certain sports are correlated with higher or lower
levels of MT, grit or motivation. Prior research suggests that there are no significant differences
in MT between team and individual sport athletes (Jalili et al., 2011). But, what about grit and
motivation? Do individual sport or team sport athletes exhibit varying levels of motivation or
grit? Finally, again with the phenomenon of sports specialization, it would be intriguing to
investigate college athletes to see which athletes, from what sports and how many, chose to
specialize versus diversify in sports while growing up.
In general, MT, grit and motivation should be further explored, as all three can be found
useful in everyday life. MT, a construct that includes resiliency, emotional strength, and the
ability to overcome adversity, is important for success in almost any endeavor in life. Similarly,
gritty individuals are able to preserve over time to accomplish goals, which is also crucial in
everyday life. Lastly, without motivation, one will likely not be successful. We all need a reason
44
“why” to do something. If all three of these psychological constructs can be fostered in sports
participation, then it is important to continually explore that connection.
45
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Appendix A
Research Study Consent Form
54
Appendix B
IRB Approval Letter
55
Appendix C
Demographics of Participants
Figure C1. Pie chart of age of participants.
56
Appendix C
Figure C2. Pie chart of sports played by participants.
57
Appendix C
Figure C3. Pie chart of competition level achieved by participants.
58
Appendix D
Demographic and Sports History Questions
59
Appendix E
Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ)
Figure E1. Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire. Sheard, M., Golby, J., & van Wersch, A.
(2009). Progress toward construct validation of the sports mental toughness questionnaire
(SMTQ). European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 25(3), 186-193. doi:10.1027/1015-
5759.25.3.186.
60
Appendix E
Short Grit Scale (Grit-S)
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validation of the Short Grit Scale (Grit-S). Journal of Personality Assessment, 91(2), 166-174.
doi:10.1080/00223890802634290.
61
Appendix E
Sport Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6)
Figure E3. Sport Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6). Mallett, C., Kawabata, M., Newcombe, P., Otero-
Forero, A., & Jackson, S. (2007). Sport motivation scale-6 (SMS-6): A revised six-factor sport
motivation scale. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8, 600-614. doi:10.10016/j.psychsport.2006.
12.005.
62

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University of Arkansas, Fayetteville

Mental Toughness, Grit, and Motivational

Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of

This dissertation is approved for recommendation to the Graduate Council.

multi-sport athletes at different levels of competition. Considering MT, a 2 x 2 ANOVA

Furthermore, regarding grit, a 2 x 2 ANOVA indicated no significant interaction effect between

partial η2 = .014. As for motivation, a 2 x 2 ANOVA indicated a significant interaction effect

high school athletes, F(1, 373) = 5.42, p = .020.

several individuals around me, of a few I would like to acknowledge below.

dissertation but in class and on other projects as well.

encouragement and guidance, I would not be where I am today!

end is near and you were right, “I got this Bro!”

work ethic to persistently pursue my aspirations. Thank you all!

Significance of the Study ………………………………………………………………... 4

Purpose of the Study ………………………..…………………………………………… 5

Research Questions .……………………………………………………………………... 7

Definitions of Terms …………………………………………………………………….. 7

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ………………………………………………………..… 11

Youth Sports …………………………………………………………………………… 11

Sport Specialization ……………………………………………………………………. 14

Sport Diversification …………………………………………………………………… 16

Mental Toughness ……………………………………………………………………… 17

Mental Toughness, Grit, and Motivation Questions …………………………………… 25

III. METHODS …………………………………………………………………………….. 28

Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ) …………………………………….. 29

Sports Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6) ………………………………………………….… 31

Statistical Analysis ……………………………………………………………………... 31

Mental Toughness …………………………………………………………………….... 33

V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ……………………………………………...… 38

Discussion and Research Findings …………………………………………………….. 38

Mental Toughness ……………………………………………………………………… 38

Recommendations for Future Research ……………………………………………...… 43

VI. REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………… 46

VII. APPENDICES …………………………………………………………………………. 54

Appendix A: Research Study Consent Form …………………………………………... 54

Appendix B: IRB Approval Letter ……………………………………………………... 55

Appendix C: Figure C1: Pie chart for age of participants …………………………...… 56

Appendix C: Figure C2: Pie chart of sports played by participants ……………............ 57

Appendix D: Demographics and sports history questionnaire …………………............ 59

Appendix E: Figure E1: Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ) ……..……. 60

VIII. TABLES AND FIGURES

travel, private coaching, and equipment (Sullivan, 2015).

gained from participating in multiple sports.

becoming over-involved in activities having negative implications like decreased academic

multi-sport athletes (O’Sullivan, 2015). Finally, in 2014, 88 percent of Olympic athletes

multi-sport athletes through high school before specializing.

Affective benefits to diversifying in sports during adolescence have been examined

was motivated to complete it before she got any older.

Finally, according to Ryan and Deci’s (2000a) Self-Determination Theory, an individual

can be intrinsically motivated, extrinsically motivated or amotivated. Individuals that participate

and sometimes individuals are not motivated at all – amotivated.

Significance of the Study

experience.” Simply put, exposure to a variety of demanding situations may provide an

opportunity to build confidence in consistently controlling stressful circumstances.

(DiFiori et al., 2014).

Purpose of the Study

sports provides a pathway to develop these life skills (AAHPERD, 2013)

MT characteristics such as hardiness, resiliency, and perseverance can be related to sport