A

 molten  metal  is  poured  into  a  mold  cavity,  where  solidifica7on  takes  
Cas$ng:   place  and  the  solid  metal  takes  the  form  of  the  mold.  The  important  factors  
in  the  cas7ng  opera7ons  are:  (a)  solidifica7on  –  nuclea7on  and  growth;  (b)  
Metal  Flow;  (c)  Heat  Transfer  and  (d)  Mold  Material  
Advantages   Disadvantages  
Complex  geometries  can  be  cast   Limita7ons  in  mechanical  proper7es  
Can  produce  very  large  parts   Presence  of  porosity  
Can  be  mass  produced   Low  dimensional  accuracy  
Any  metal  can  be  cast   Some  metals  are  a  safety  hazard  when  
liquid.  
 Solidifica)on  of  Pure  Metals  and  Eutec)cs  
The  transforma7on  from  a  solid  to  a  liquid  and  vice  versa  occurs  at  a  constant  temperature.    

Undercooling:  The  temperature  to  which  the  liquid  metal  must  cool  below  the  equilibrium  freezing  
temperature  before  nuclea7on  occurs.  
Recalescence:  The  increase  in  temperature  of  an  undercooled  liquid  metal  as  a  result  of  the  libera7on  of  
heat  during  nuclea7on.    
Thermal  arrest:  A  plateau  on  the  cooling  curve  during  the  solidifica7on  of  a  material  caused  by  the  
evolu7on  of  the  latent  heat  of  fusion  during  solidifica7on.  
Total  solidifica)on  )me:  The  7me  required  for  the  cas7ng  to  solidify  completely  aMer  the  cas7ng  has  been  
poured.  
Local  solidifica)on  )me:  The  7me  required  for  a  par7cular  loca7on  in  a  cas7ng  to  solidify  once  nuclea7on  
has  begun.  
In  pure  metals,  the  viscosity  of  the  liquid  is  approximately  uniform  during  the  solidifica7on  
process  and  the  liquid  is  capable  of  moving  to  all  the  spaces  generated  by  the  shrinkage  
(contrac7on)  during  the  liquid-­‐solid  transforma7on.  

Solidifica)on  of  Alloys.  

Alloys  normally  solidify  in  a  temperature  range.  
They  have  no  thermal  arrest.  As  solidifica7on  
proceeds,  the  viscosity  (flow  proper7es)  of  the  
liquid  changes.  The  diffusion  of  the  atoms  is  
faster  in  the  liquid  than  in  the  solid,  thus,  coring  
(difference  in  the  chemical  composi7on  of  the  
grains  from  its  center  to  the  outside)  develops  
during  solidifica7on  of  the  alloys    

The  rela7onship  between  temperature,  chemical  composi7on  and  phases  present  is  
illustrated  in  the  Phase  Diagrams,  also  known  as  Equilibrium  Diagrams  or  Cons7tu7onal  
Diagrams.  These  diagrams  can  establish  the  rela7onship  between  two,  three  or  four  
different  materials  (atoms,  stochiometric  oxides,  nitrides,  etc).  Binary  Phase  Diagrams  are  
for  example  between  two  different  type  of  materials  such  as  Cu-­‐Ni.    
Cu-­‐Ni  Diagram:  
The  Cu-­‐Ni  diagram  is  an  isomorphous  system  i.e.  there  is  100%  solubility  of  one  to  the  
other.  It  shows  two  single  phase  regions  and  one  two  phase  regions.  In  the  two  phase  
region  coexists  liquid  and  solid,  their  chemical  composi7on  and  percentages  are  given  by  
the  7e  line.  
Two-­‐phase  region:  
Tie  line:  across  the  two-­‐phase  
region  at  the  temperature  of  
the  alloy  
Point  B:  T=1250oC  
Composi7on  of  Liquid  phase:    
CL=31.5wt%Ni  –  68.5%Cu  
Composi7on  of  a  phase:  
Ca=42.5wt%Ni-­‐  57.5wt%Cu  

S R
WL = Wα =
Two-­‐phase  region:    Example:  Point  B     R+S R+S
LEVER  RULE  (Inverse  Lever  Rule)  
C − Co C − CL
WL = α Wα = o
Cα − CL Cα − CL
Deriva$on  of  the  lever  rule   Wα + WL = 1
1)  All  material  must  be  in  one  phase  or  the  other:  
2)  Mass  of  a  component  that  is  present  in  both  phases  equal  to  the  
mass  of  the  component  in  one  phase  +  mass  of  the  component  in  
the  second  phase:  
Wα cα + WLc L = co
3)  Solu7on  of  these  equa7ons  gives  us  the  Lever  rule.  
co − cL cα − c o
Wα = WL =
cα − c L cα − c L
Equilibrium Cooling - Example:     Non-Equilibrium Cooling - Fast
Development of Microstructure Cooling
35wt%Cu-­‐65wt%Ni  
system  –  Slow  cooling  
from  point  a  to  point  e  
a:  1300oC:  complete        liquid  
with  35wt%Cu-­‐65wt%Ni    
b:  ~1260oC:  first  solid  begin  to  
form  (a-­‐46wt%Ni)  
c:  ~1250oC:  a-­‐43wt%Ni,  L-­‐32wt
%Ni  
d:~1220oC:  last  liquid  to  solidify  
e:  35wt%Cu  –  65wt%Ni  solid  
phase  
 Development  of  microstructure  in  eutec$c   Development  of  microstructure  in  
alloys  (III)  -­‐Solidifica$on  at  the  eutec$c   non-­‐eutec$c  composi$on  (V)  
composi$on  (I)   Primary   α   phase   is   formed   in   the   α   +   L  
region,   and   the   eutec$c   structure   that  
No  changes  above  eutec$c  temperature,  TE.   includes  layers  of  α  and  β  phases  (called  
At   TE     liquid   transforms   to   α   and   β   phases   eutec$c   α   and   eutec$c   β   phases)   is  
(eutec$c  reac$on).     formed   upon   crossing   the   eutec$c  
L  →  α    +  β   isotherm.    
L  α+L    α+β
The  Iron-­‐Carbon  Diagram  
Eutectoid  steel  

Classifica$on:    Three  types  of  ferrous  alloys:  

 Iron:  <  0.008  wt  %  C  in  a-­‐ferrite  at  room  T  
 Steels:  0.008  -­‐  2.14  wt  %  C  (usually  <  1  wt  %  )  
     α-­‐ferrite  +    Fe3C  at  room  T    
 Cast  iron:  2.14  -­‐  6.7  wt  %  (usually  <  4.5  wt  %)  
 Determine  the  chemical  composi7on  and  percentage  of  each  phases  present  in  
Example:   a  AISI  1040  steel,  that  is  being  cooled  to  the  following  temperatures:  (c)  870oC,  
(d)  780oC;  (e)  728oC  and  (f)  726oC  

(c)  100%  austenite  of  0.4%C.  

0.4 − 0.022
(d)  Austenite  (γ-­‐0.5%C)  and   γ% =
0.5 − 0.022
×100 = 79%
ferrite  (α-­‐0.022%C)  are  present   0.5 − 0.4
α% = ×100 = 21%
0.5 − 0.022
(e)  Austenite  (γ-­‐0.8%C)  and  
0.4 − 0.022
ferrite  (α-­‐0.022%C)  are  present   γ% =
0.8 − 0.022
×100 = 50%

0.8 − 0.4
α% = ×100 = 50%
0.8 − 0.022
(e)  Cons7tuents:  
0.4 − 0.022
Perlite-­‐eutec7c  (γ-­‐0.8%C)  and   perlite% = 0.8 − 0.022 ×100 = 50%
ferrite  (α-­‐0.022%C)  are  present   0.8 − 0.4
α% = ×100 = 50%
0.8 − 0.022

(e)  Phases:  
0.4 − 0.022
Ferrite  (α-­‐0.022%C)  and   Fe3C% =
6.67 − 0.022
×100 = 6%
Cemen7te  (Fe3C-­‐6.67%C)  are   6.67 − 0.4
present   α% = ×100 = 94%
6.67 − 0.022
Cast  Structures   • Solidifica7on  starts  on  the  wall  of  the  mold,  
because  they  are  usually  cold.  This  is  called  
the  Chill  Zone  –  a  solidified  shell  of  fine  
equiaxed  grains.  
•   The  grains  grow  in  the  opposite  direc7on  
of  the  heat  extrac7on.  Some  direc7ons  are  
more  favourable  for  dendri$c  growth.  
Favourable  grains  that  grow  fast  form  a  
Columnar  Zone.  
• The  central  region  is  known  as  the  
equiaxed  zone.  Beder  proper7es  are  
obtained  with  equiaxed  grains.  
• Adding  impuri7es  on  purpose  is  called  
inocula$on  

ß  Heat  extrac7on  
 Mushy  Zone  forma)on  in  Alloys  

Pure  metals  and  eutec7cs  solidify  with  a  planar  

front  as  the  freezing  range  approaches  to  zero  
(no  mushy  zone).    
The  Freezing  Range  is  defines  as  the  difference  
between  the  Liquidus  temperature  and  the  
Solidus  Temperature  in  an  alloy  (TL  -­‐  TS).  Short  
freezing  ranges  are  of  the  order  of  50oC  and  
long  freezing  ranges  are  greater  than  110oC.    

Steel  cas7ng  have  narrow  mushy  zones,  whereas  Al  and  Mg  have  wide  mushy  zones,  that  is,  
these  alloys  are  in  a  semisolid  state  throughout  most  of  the  solidifica7on  process.  The  lader  
behavior  is  used  to  in  a  new  form  of  cas7ng  when  the  semisolid  metal  (mushy  state)  is  injected  
into  a  die,  resul7ng  in  lower  solidifica7on  7mes,  porosity  and  precise  cas7ng  (thixocas7ng).    

Non-­‐Planar  Solidifica7on  Fronts  

Planar  solidifica7on  Front  
A Deeper Look at [D.R. Askeland and P. P. Phule, “The Science and and Engineering of Materials”,Thomson, Brooks/Cole (USA)
(2003)]
Grain Structure

Secondary arms

Macro-Scale:
Engine Block
~1m
Performance criteria:
• Power generated
• Efficiency
• Durability
• Cost Mesostructure:
grains
1-10 mm
Properties affected:
• High cycle fatigue
• Ductility
Microstructure:
dendrites & phases:
50-500 um
Properties affected:
• Yield strength
• Tensile strength Nano-structure:
• High/low cycle fatigue Precipitates
• Thermal growth 3-100 nm
• Ductility Properties affected:
• Yield strength Atomic Structure:
• Tensile strength 1-100 A
• Low cycle fatigue Properties affected:
Mass  Transport  in  Microstructure   • Ductility • Young’s Modulus
Forma7on   • Thermal Growth
Effect  of  Cooling  Rate  
Slower  cooling  rates  (102K/s)  results  in  coarse  dendrites  and  longer  distances  between  dendrite  
arms.  Higher  cooling  rates  (104K/s)  results  in  short  solidifica7on  7mes  and  finer  structures.  The  
resul7ng  structures  are  not  in  equilibrium  and  the  phase  diagram  can  not  be  used  to  predict  the  
composi7on  or  percentages  of  phases.  
Even  higher  cooling  rates  (106-­‐108K/s)  could  result  in  the  development  of  amorphous  structures  
(loss  of  crystallinity).    

Structure-­‐  Property  Rela)onships  

[J.W. Callister: “Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering” 6th Ed, Jon Wiley and Sons (2004)]
Structure-­‐  Property  Rela)onships  
The  dendri7c  arm  spacing  depends  on  the  solidifica7on  7me,  as  the  
solidifica7on  7me  increases  the  secondary  arm  spacing  increases.  
λ2 = k1t m
As  the  grain  size  decreases  or  the  dendri7c  arm  spacing  decreases  and  the  microporosity  
decreases,  then  the  strength  and  duc7lity  of  the  cas7ng  increases  and  the  toughness  
increases  i.e.  the  tendency  to  fracture  decreases.  

Slow  cooling  gives  dendrites  of  nearly  uniform  chemical  composi7on.  

Normal  cooling  produces  casts  with  macro  and  micro  segrega7on  (coring).  
Macrosegrega7on  causes  a  cast  with  large  gradients  of  chemical  composi7on  along  the  work  
piece.  In  turn,  different  types  of  microstructures  are  present  and  different  mechanical  
proper7es.  

Inocula)on:  Use  of  small  par7cles  as  nuclea7on  agents,  to  enhance  the  forma7on  of  a  large  
number  of  nuclei  in  the  liquid,  with  low  or  no  undercooling.  The  result  is  a  beder  cast  with  
homogeneous  proper7es  and  smaller  grain  size.  
Rheocas)ng:  S7rring  of  the  liquid  metal  in  the  mushy  state.  The  small  dendrites  break  and  
mix  with  the  remainder  liquid,  causing  a  large  number  of  nuclei  and  finer  grain  structure.  
Vibra)on:  
Electromagne)c  S)rring:  
Shrinkage  
Most  of  the  metals  contracts  during  solidifica7on.  
The  cast  contrac7on  is  caused  by  (a)  Cooling  of  the  
molten  metal;  (b)  phase  change  from  liquid  to  
solid  and  (c)  Cooling  of  the  solid  cast  to  room  
temperature.  
The  contrac7on  causes  dimensional  changes,  
cracking  (hot  tears)  and  porosity.  

Due  to  the  shrinkage,  molds  must  be  

constructed  larger  than  the  final  product  
dimension  (padernmakers  rules).  
Part  of  the  product  can  solidify  faster  than  
others,  causing  stresses.  Thin  sec7ons  cool  
faster  than  thick  sec7ons,  hence  the  thick  
sec7on  has  too  lidle  liquid  when  it  starts  its  
solidifica7on  and  porosity  develops  due  to  
the  lack  of  feed.  
 Metal or alloy Shrinkage allowances!
mm / m!
"
Aluminum alloy ………………………………...... 13"
Aluminum bronze ……………………………...… 21"
Yellow brass (thick sections) ………...…....…… 13"
Yellow brass (thin sections) …..……...….…...… 13"
Gray cast iron (a) …………………………….... 8 - 13"
White cast iron ………………………………..….. 21"
Tin bronze …………………………………..……. 16"
Gun metal …………………………………...… 11 - 16"
Lead …………………………………………..…... 26"
Magnesium …………………………………..…… 21"
Magnesium alloys (25%) ………………………... 16"
Manganese bronze …………………………….… 21"
Copper-nickel …………………………………….. 21"
Nickel …………………………………………….... 21"
Mold  designers  avoid  the  lack  of  feed  by  using   Phosphor bronze ……………………………… 11 - 16"
Carbon steel …………………………………… 16 - 21"
internal  or  external  chills  and  proper  flow   Chromium steel ……………………………….….. 21"
channels  and  riser  placement.   Manganese steel ……………………………….… 26"
Tin …………………………………………….……. 21"
Chills  ‑  heat  sinks  that  cause  rapid  freezing  in  certain  regions   Zinc …………………………………………….…... 26"
of  the  cas7ng  
Padernmakers  take  into  considera7on  
solidifica7on  shrinkage  and  thermal  
contrac7on  by  making  mold  cavity  oversized    
Pa*ern  shrinkage  allowance:  Amount  by  
which  mold  is  made  larger  rela7ve  to  final  
cas7ng  size.  
 Pouring  
Factors  affec7ng  ‘pouring’.
Pouring  temperature  (vs.  mel7ng  
temp.)  
Pouring  rate:  (Too  slow,  metal  
freezes),  (Too  high,  turbulence)  
Turbulence  -­‐  Accelerate  the  
forma7on  of  oxides,  Mold  
erosion,  Voids  

Total  Heat  Energy  required  

H=ρV[  Cs(Tm-­‐To)  +  Hf  +  Cl(Tp-­‐Tm)  ]  
where    ρ=density,  V=volume  ,  Cs=specific  heat  for  solid,  Cl=specific  
heat  for  liquid,  Tm=mel7ng  temperature,  To=star7ng  temperature,  
Tp=pouring  temperature  
Fluid  Flow  and  Heat  Transfer  
The  molten  metal  is  poured  through  a  pouring  basin.  The  liquid  flows  through  the  sprue  to  
the  ga7ng  system  and  into  the  runners  and  to  the  mold  cavity.  
Sprue  –  is  a  ver7cal  channel  though  
which  the  molten  metal  flows  downward  
in  the  mold  
Runners  –  channels  that  carry  the  molten  
metal  from  the  sprue  to  the  mold  cavity  
Gate  –  is  the  por7on  of  the  runner  
though  which  the  molten  metal  enters  
the  mold  cavity  
Risers  –  serve  as  reservoirs  to  supply  the  
molten  metal  necessary  to  prevent  
shrinkage.  It  should  solidify  last  to  supply  
Basic  Principles  of  Fluid  Flow:   molten  metal  to  the  cast.  
2
Bernoulli’s  theorem:  It  relates  the  pressure  at  that  height,  velocity   h + p v
+ = constant
of  the  liquid  at  that  posi7on  and  the  density  of  the  fluid.     ρg 2g
P1 v12 P2 v22
h1 + + = h2 + + +f
ρ 2g ρ 2g
€
h=head,  P=pressure,  ρ=density,  v=flow  velocity,  g=gravity,  f=fric7on  loss  
Mass  con$nuity:  It  states  that  the  volumetric  rate  of  flow  is  a  constant.  
 
Q = A1v1 = A2v2
Fluidity:  It  is  a  measure  of  the  capability  of  a  metal  to  flow  into  and  fill  the  mold  before  
freezing.  It  is  the  Inverse  of  viscosity.  Factors  affec7ng  fluidity  
–  Pouring  temperature  
–  Metal  composi7on   €
–  Viscosity  
–  Heat  transfer  to  the  surroundings  
–  Heat  of  fusion  
–  Solidifica7on  
A  spiral  mold  is  a  test  method  for  fluidity.    The  fluidity  index  is  
the  length  of  the  solidified  metal  in  the  spiral  passage.  Larger  
lengths  relate  to  metals  of  high  fluidity.    Pure  metals:  good  
fluidity.  Alloys:  not  as  good.  Factors  affec7ng  fluidity:  

Molten  Metal  Characteris$cs   Cas$ng  Parameters  

Viscosity   Mold  design  
Surface  tension   Mold  material  and  surface  characteris7cs  
Inclusions   Degree  of  superheat  
Solidifica7on  Padern  of  the  alloy   Rate  of  Pouring  
Heat  Transfer  
Sprue  Profile:  It  relates  the  height  and  the  cross  sec7on  of  the  sprue,  
assuming  no  fric7onal  forces  and  equal  pressure  at  the  top  and  bodom  of  the  
A1 h2
=
sprue.  If  the  sprue  is  designed  with  a  constant  cross  sec7on,  there  will  be   A2 h1
regions  where  the  molten  metal  looses  contact  with  the  sprue  walls,  
entrapping  air.    
Flow  Characteris$cs:  Laminar  flow  is  preferred  in  the  ga7ng  system.  Severe  
turbulent  flow  can  cause  air  entrapment.  The  Reynolds  Number  is  used  to   vDρ
describe  fluid  flow.  Values  <  2000  are  representa7ve  of  laminar  flow.  Values   Re =
€ flow  
between  2000  to  20000  characterize  a  mixture  of  laminar  and  turbulent   η
(typical  of  cas7ngs).  Values  >  20000  must  be  avoided  in  cas7ngs.  
Solidifica$on  Time:  The  Chvorinov’s  Rule  relates  the  volume  of  the  cas7ng  and  its  surface  
area  with  the  solidifica7on  7me.  The  constant  C  is  related  to  the  mold  material,  metal  
proper7es  and  temperature.  The  parameter  n  is  typically  found  to  € have  a  value  between  
1.5  and  2.   n
⎛ V ⎞
TST = Cm ⎜ ⎟
⎝ A ⎠
where  TST  =  total  solidifica7on  7me;    
V  =  volume  of  the  cas7ng;    A  =  surface  area  of  
cas7ng;  n  =  exponent  with  typical  value  =  2;  and  
Cm  is  mold  constant.  
Total  solidifica7on  7me  (TST).  The  TST  for  the  riser  must  be  greater  than  the  TST  for  the  
cas7ng  (the  molten  metal  solidifies  in  the  riser  aMer  it  solidifies  in  the  main  cas7ng)  
Buoyancy  in  Sand  Cas$ng  Opera$on  
•  It  is  the  force  generated  due  to  the  difference  in  density  of  the  sand  and  the  molten  
metal.  
•  Buoyancy  of  the  molten  metal  tends  to  displace  the  core,  which  can  cause  cas7ng  
to  be  defec7ve  
•  The  buoyancy  force  tending  to  liM  core  =  weight  of  displaced  molten  metal    less  the  
weight  of  core  itself      
Fb  =  Wm  ‑  Wc        
 where  Fb  =  buoyancy  force;  Wm  =  weight  of  molten  metal  displaced;  and  Wc  =  
weight  of  core      
Example:  

The  volume  of  the  mold  cavity  forming  the  outside  surface  of  a  steel  cas7ng  is  6000  cm3.  An  
internal  sand  core  placed  at  the  bodom  of  the  cas7ng  experiences  a  buoyancy  force  of  30kg.    
What  is  the  weight  of  the  final  cas7ng?  Ignore  the  shrinkage  effects.  
Data:  Sand  Density=1.6g/cm3  ;  Steel  Density=7.82g/cm3  

Buoyancy 30 ×1000g 3
VSteel = = = 4823.15cm
ρ Steel − ρ Sand ( 7.82 −1.6 ) g / cm 3
3
ΔV = VCavity −VSteel = 6000 − 4823.15 = 1176.85cm
WSteel = ρ Steel × ΔV = 7.82 ×1176.85 = 9.20Kg
Example:  
Based  on  experimental  work,  a  mold  constant  in  Chvorinov's  rule  of  4.25  min/cm2,  for  the  
cas7ng  of  steel  under  certain  mold  condi7ons.  The  cas7ng  is  a  flat  plate  whose  length  =  50  
cm,  width  =  8  cm,  and  thickness  =  1.5  cm.    
Determine  how  long  it  will  take  for  the  cas7ng  to  solidify.  

Volume = V = 50 × 8 ×1.5 = 600cm 3

Area = A = 2 ( 50 × 8 + 50 ×1.5 + 8 ×1.5) = 974cm 2
2 2
"V % " 600 %
Chvorinov'sRule = TTS = Cm $ ' = 4.25$ ' = 1.61min
# A& # 974 &
Example:  
An  open  mold  cas7ng  opera7on  is  to  be  used  to  cast  a  disk  35  cm  in  diameter  and  8  cm  
height  made  of  pure  zinc  (Mel7ng  temperature  =  420oC)  .  The  pouring  temperature  will  be  
150°C  over  its  mel7ng  temperature  and  the  amount  of  zinc  heated  will  be  8%  more  than  
what  is  needed  to  fill  the  mold  cavity.    
Determine  the  amount  of  heat  that  must  be  added  to  the  metal  to  heat  it  to  the  pouring  
temperature,  star7ng  from  a  room  temperature  of  25°C.    
Data:  The  heat  of  fusion  of  Zn  =  113  J/g;  Specific  Heat  =  0.388J/g-­‐oC;  density=7.14g/cm3  
Assume  the  specific  heat  has  the  same  value  for  solid  and  liquid  zinc.  

π 2
V = (35) 8 = 7696.9cm 3
4
Vexcess = 1.08 × 7696.9 = 8312.7cm 3
Heat = ρVexcess #$c p−solid (Tfusion − RT ) + H fusion + c p (Tpouring − Tfusion )%&
Heat = 7.14 × 8312.7 × #$0.388 × ( 420 − 25) +113+ 0.388 × ( 570 − 420 )%& = 19.26MJ
Example   The  desire  volume  flow  rate  of  the  molten  metal  into  a  mold  is  0.01m3/min.  The  top  
of  the  sprue  has  a  diameter  of  20mm  and  its  length  is  200mm.  What  diameter  should  
be  specified  at  the  bodom  of  the  sprue  in  order  to  prevent  aspira7on?  What  is  the  
resultant  velocity  and  Reynolds  Number  at  the  bodom  of  the  sprue  if  the  metal  being  
cast  is  aluminum  and  it  has  a  viscocity  of  0.004N-­‐s/m2?  

Q = 0.01m 3 / min = 1.667 ×10 −4 m 3 / s Q 1.667 ×10 −4

v1 = = −4
= 0.531m / s
π 2 −4 2
A1 3.1416 ×10
A1 = ( 0.02 ) = 3.1416 ×10 m
4
P1 v12 P2 v22 Assuming  no-­‐fric7on  and  the  same  pressure  at  the  
h1 + + = h2 + + + f top  and  at  the  bodom  of  the  sprue.  
ρ 2g ρ 2g
Q 1.667 ×10 −4
2gh1 + v12 = v22 A2 = = = 8.128 ×10 −5 m 2
v2 2.05m / s
2
2 ( 9.81) ( 0.2 ) + ( 0.531) = v22 d2 = 0.01017m
v2 = 2.05m / s
vDρ
Re =
The  density  of  Aluminum  is   η
2700kg/m3   ( 2.05) ( 0.01017) ( 2700 × 9.8)
Re = = 14077
Mixture  of  laminar  and  turbulent   0.004
flow.  
 Cas)ng  Technology  
Foundry  is  usually  the  place  where  cas7ng  is  performed.  
Mold  is  the  cavity  where  the  liquid  will  be  pour  into  and  
it  resembles  the  shape  of  the  product.  
To  allow  for  shrinkage  the  size  and  shape  of  the  mold  
must  be  slightly  oversized.    
Molds  are  made  of  many  materials  such  as  sand,  metal,  
ceramic,  plaster,  etc.  

Classifica$on  of  Cas$ngs:  

•  Expendable  Molds:  The  mold  is  discarded  or  broken  in  each  of  the  cas7ngs.  Produc7on  
rate  is  limited  
•  Permanent  Molds:  The  mold  is  made  of  durable  materials.  Ideal  for  high  produc7on  
rates  of  limited  shapes  (as  the  mold  needs  to  be  open).  
 Shape  Cas$ng  Processes  

Expendable  Mold   Permanent  Mold  

Sand  Molding   Die  Cas7ng  

Investment  Cas7ng   Centrifugal  cas7ng  

Shell  Molding   Low  Pressure  Cas7ng  

Vacuum  Molding   Squeeze  Cas7ng  

Plaster/Ceramic  Molding  

Cast  Processes  Cost  Comparison  

Types  of  Cas$ng  Processes  

Process Advantages Disadvantages Examples

Sand many metals, sizes, shapes, cheap poor finish & tolerance engine blocks,
cylinder heads
Shell mold better accuracy, finish, higher limited part size connecting rods, gear
production rate housings
Expendable Wide range of metals, sizes, patterns have low cylinder heads, brake
pattern shapes strength components
Plaster mold complex shapes, good surface non-ferrous metals, low prototypes of
finish production rate mechanical parts
Ceramic mold complex shapes, high accuracy, small sizes impellers, injection
good finish mold tooling
Investment complex shapes, excellent finish small parts, expensive jewellery

P e r m a n e n t good finish, low porosity, high Costly mold, simpler gears, gear housings
mold production rate shapes only
Die Excellent dimensional accuracy, costly dies, small parts, gears, camera bodies,
high production rate non-ferrous metals car wheels
Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts, good Expensive, few shapes pipes, boilers,
quality flywheels
 Tempered  sand  is  packed  into  wood  or  metal  padern  halves,  removed  form  the  padern,  and  
Sand  Cas$ng   assembled  with  or  without  cores,  and  metal  is  poured  into  resultant  cavi7es.  Various  core  
materials  can  be  used.  Molds  are  broken  to  remove  cas7ngs.  Specialized  binders  now  in  use  can  
improve  tolerances  and  surface  finish.  
Metals:  Most  castable  metals.  
Size  Range:  Limita7on  depends  on  foundry  capabili7es.  Ounces  to  many  tons.  

Vents  are  placed  in  molds  to  carry  

off  the  gases  produced  when  the  
molten  metal  comes  into  contact  
with  the  sand.  They  also  exhaust  
air  from  the  mold  cavity  as  the  
molten  metal  flows  into  the  mold.  
Advantages:   Disadvantages:  
Complex  geometries  are  possible.   The  produc7on  rate  is  slow.  
All  alloys  can  be  cast.   It  is  labor  intensive  
Very  large  casts  are  possible   Surface  finish  is  rough  
Inexpensive  mold   Only  thick  walls  can  be  cast  (3mm)  
Economical  in  low  quan77es   Tolerances  are  not  very  precise  
Investment  Cas$ng  
It  is  also  known  as    the  lost-­‐wax  process.  The  
padern  is  made  of  wax  or  a  plas7c  such  as  
polystyrene.  The  padern  is  made  by  
injec7ng  molten  wax  or  plas7c  into  a  metal  
die  in  the  shape  of  the  object.  
Many  paderns  are  assembled  in  a  Padern  
Assembly  tree.  The  assembly  tree  is  dipped  
repeatedly  in  a  ceramic  slurry  that  coats  the  
tree.  The  slurry  is  allowed  to  solidify  and  
then  it  is  heated  to  melt  the  wax,  leaving  a  
cavity  with  the  required  shape.  The  metal  is  
poured  in  the  resultant  cavity.  Molds  are  
broken  to  remove  the  cas7ngs.  The  
sequences  involved  in  investment  cas7ng  
are  shown  in  the  figure.    
 Investment casting of an
integrally cast rotor for a gas
turbine. (a) Wax pattern
assembly. (b) Ceramic shell
around wax pattern. (c) Wax is
melted out and the mold is filled,
under a vacuum, with molten
superalloy. (d) The cast rotor,
produced to net or near-net
shape. Source: Howmet
Corporation.

Cross-section and microstructure of two rotors: (top) investment-cast;

(bottom) conventionally cast. Source: Advanced Materials and
Processes, October 1990, p. 25 ASM International
Advantages  of  investment  cas$ng:  
–  Parts  of  great  complexity  and  intricacy  can  be  cast  
–  Good  surface  finish  and  close  dimensional  control.    
–  The  wax  used  can  be  recovered  and  recycled    
–  Net  shape  process  -­‐  addi7onal  machining  is  not  usually  required.  
Disadvantages  
–  Many  processing  steps  are  required  
–  Rela7vely  expensive  process  
Shell   The  sand  is  mixed  with  a  thermoseung  resin.  The  padern  is  heated,  the  box  is  
Molding     inverted  and  the  sand/resin  mixture  that  touches  the  padern,  hardens  and  a  thin  
shell  mold  is  created.  The  thin  shell  mold  is  heated  in  an  oven  for  several  minutes  
to  complete  the  curing  process.  The  thin  shell  mold  is  detached  from  the  padern.  
The  two-­‐halves  of  the  shell  mold  are  assembled  and  supported  with  sand.  
Advantages  of  shell  molding:  
–  Smoother  cavity  surface  permits  easier  flow  of  molten  metal  and  beder  
surface  finish        
–  Net  shape  process  with  good  dimensional  accuracy  -­‐  machining  oMen  not  
required.  
–  Mold  collapsibility  minimizes  cracks  in  cas7ng      
–  Can  be  mechanized  for  mass  produc7on  
Disadvantages:  
–  More  expensive  metal  padern        
–  Difficult  to  jus7fy  for  small  quan77es  
Ceramic    or  Plaster  Molds  
The  mold  is  made  of  ceramic  or  plaster  
(gypsum  –CaSO4-­‐2H2O.  

Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold.

Source: Metals Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.

A typical ceramic mold (Shaw process) for casting

steel dies used in hot forging. Source: Metals
Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.
Lost  Foam  or  Evapora$ve  Padern  Cas$ng  or  
Expanded  Polystyrene  Process  
A  padern  of  polystyrene  is  coated  with  a  refractory  
compound.  It  is  placed  in  a  mold  box  and  sand  is  
compacted  around  it.  Metal  is  poured  through  the  cup  
and  the  polystyrene  vaporizes  ahead  of  the  advancing  
liquid.  
Advantages  of  expanded  polystyrene  process:  
–  Padern  need  not  be  removed  from  the  mold      
–  Simplifies  and  speeds  mold‑making,  because  two  mold  halves  are  not  
required  as  in  a  conven7onal  green‑sand  mold  
Disadvantages:  
–  A  new  padern  is  needed  for  every  cas7ng      
–  Economic  jus7fica7on  of  the  process  is  highly  dependent  on  cost  of  
producing  paderns  
Applica$ons:  
–  Mass  produc7on  of  cas7ngs  for  automobile  engines    
–  Automated  and  integrated  manufacturing  systems  are  used  to    
1.  Mold  the  polystyrene  foam  paderns  and  then  
2.  Feed  them  to  the  downstream  cas7ng  opera7on  
Die  Cas$ng  
Molten  metal  is  injected,  under  pressure,  
into  hardened  steel  dies,  oMen  water  cooled  
If  the  metal  is  poured  into  the  injec7on  
system  is  called  cold  chamber  cas7ng  
(injec7on  pressure  from  14  to  140MPa)  or  
the  injec7on  system  can  be  submerged  into  
the  metal  liquid  is  called  hot  chamber  cas7ng  
(injec7on  pressure  from  7  to  35  MPa).  Dies  
are  opened,  and  cas7ngs  are  ejected.    
Metals:  Aluminum,  Zinc,  Magnesium,  and  
limited  Brass.  
Size  Range:  Not  normally  over  2  feet  square.  
Some  foundries  capable  of  larger  sizes.  
Hot  Chamber  Die  Cas$ng  

Used  for  lower  mel7ng  point  

alloys  (zinc  and  magnesium)  
Mold  pressures  usually  1000    to  
2000  p.s.i,  but  can  be  up  to  
5000.  
Cold  Chamber  Die  Cas$ng  
Used  for  higher  mel7ng  point  
alloys  –aluminum  and  copper  
based  
Die  pressures  from  5,000  to  
20,000  psi  
Die  clamping  forces    at  least  
pressure  *  project  area  of  part  in  
die  closing  direc7on  
 Die  cas$ng  materials:  
• Zinc:  the  easiest  alloy  to  cast;  high  duc7lity;  high  impact  strength;  easily  plated;  
economical  for  small  parts;  promotes  long  die  life.    
• Aluminum:  lightweight;  high  dimensional  stability  for  complex  shapes  and  thin  
walls;.    
• Magnesium:  the  easiest  alloy  to  machine;  excellent  strength-­‐to-­‐weight  ra7o;  
lightest  alloy  commonly  die  cast.    
• Copper:  high  hardness;  high  corrosion  resistance;  highest  mechanical  proper7es  
of  alloys  die  cast;  excellent  wear  resistance.  
Advantages:  
Disadvantages:  
• Excellent  dimensional  accuracy  
• Cas7ng   weight   must   be   between   30  
• Smooth  cast  surfaces  (1—2.5  μm  rms).    
grams  and  10  kg      
• Thinner  walls  can  be  cast  
• Cas7ng  must  be  smaller  than  600  mm      
• Inserts   can   be   cast-­‐in   (such   as   threaded  
• High  ini7al  cost.    
inserts,  hea7ng  elements  )  
• Limited  to  high-­‐fluidity  metals.    
• R educes   or   eliminates   secondary  
• A  certain  amount  of  porosity  is  common.    
machining  opera7ons.    
• Thickest   sec7on   should   be   less   than   13  
• Rapid  produc7on  rates.    
mm      
•   tensile  strength  as  high  as  415  MPa  .    
• A   large   produc7on   volume   is   needed   to  
make  this  an  economical  .  
Centrifugal  Cas$ng  
Squeeze-­‐Cas$ng  
 Cas$ng  Quality  
In  a  cas7ng  opera7on,  the  defects  in  the  final  product  can  be  classified  as  follows:  
–  General  defects  common  to  all  cas7ng  processes  
–  Defects  related  to  sand  cas7ng  process  

General  Defects:  Misrun  

Part  of  a  cas7ng  where  the  molten  metal  has  solidified  
before  completely  filling  mold  cavity      

General  Defects:  Cold  Shut  

When  filling  a  cavity,  two  por7ons  of  molten  metal  
flow  together  but  there  is  a  lack  of  fusion  due  to  
premature  freezing      
General  Defects:  Cold  Shot  
During  pouring,  molten  metal  spladers  and  solid  
globules  form  and  become  entrapped  in  cas7ng      

General  Defects:  Shrinkage  Cavity  

Internal  void  or  surface  depression  caused  by  
solidifica7on  shrinkage  that  restricts  amount  of  molten  
metal  available  in  last  region  to  freeze.      

Sand  Cas$ng  Defects:  Sand  Blow      

Spherical‑shaped  gas  cavity  caused  by  release  of  

mold  gases  during  pouring      
Sand  Cas$ng  Defects:  Pin  Holes  
Forma7on  of  many  small  gas  cavi7es  at  or  slightly  below  surface  
of  cas7ng    

Sand  Cas$ng  Defects:  Penetra$on  

When  fluidity  of  liquid  metal  is  high,  it  may  penetrate  into  
sand  mold  or  core,  causing  cas7ng  surface  to  consist  
of  a  mixture  of  sand  grains  and  metal  

Sand  Cas$ng  Defects:  Mold  Shih  

A  step  in  cast  product  at  par7ng  line  caused  
by  sidewise  rela7ve  displacement  of  cope  
and  drag    
Important  Cas$ng  Processes  

Semiconductor  Cas$ng  
Cas$ng  of  a  Turbine  Blade  
Melt-­‐Spinning  Process