Chemistr

Laboratory Manual
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Chemistry
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Class XII
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FOREWORD
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is the apex
body concerning all aspects of refinement of School Education. It has recently
developed textual material in Chemistry for Higher Secondary stage which is
based on the National Curriculum Framework (NCF)–2005. NCF recommends
that children’s experience in school education must be linked to the life outside
school so that learning experience is joyful and fills the gap between the experience
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at home and in community. It recommends to diffuse the sharp boundaries
between different subjects and discourages rote learning. The recent development
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of syllabi and textual material is an attempt to implement this basic idea.
The present Laboratory Manual will be complementary to the textbook of Chemistry
for Class XII. It is in continuation to the NCERT’s efforts to improve upon
comprehension of concepts and practical skills among students. The purpose of
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this manual is not only to convey the approach and philosophy of the practical
course to students and teachers but to provide them appropriate guidance for
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carrying out experiments in the laboratory. The manual is supposed to encourage
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children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue further activities and
questions. Of course the success of this effort also depends on the initiatives to be
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taken by the principals and teachers to encourage children to carry out experiments
in the laboratory and develop their thinking and nurture creativity.
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The methods adopted for performing the practicals and their evaluation will
determine how effective this practical book will prove to make the children’s life
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at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress and boredom.

The practical book attempts to provide space to opportunities for contemplation
and wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on
experience. It is hoped that the material provided in this manual will help students
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in carrying out laboratory work effectively and will encourage teachers to

introduce some open-ended experiments at the school level.
P ROFESSOR YASH PAL

Chairperson
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National Steering Committee

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New Delhi National Council of Educational

21 May 2008 Research and Training
PREFACE
The development of the present laboratory manual is in continuation to the
NCERT’s efforts to improve upon comprehension of concepts and practical skills
among the students. The present laboratory manual will be complementary to
the textbook of Chemistry for Class XII.
The expansion of scientific knowledge and consequently the change in the
system of education has led to the development of new methods of instructions.
Today the stress is laid on the enquiry approach and discussion method instead
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of lecture method of teaching. Unfortunately, it is believed that study of chemistry
means abstract thinking, writing long formulas and complex structures and
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handling complicated equipments. The reason behind such endeavour is that
even well-endowed schools tend to give only the cosmetic importance to the
laboratory work. Children’s natural spirit of inquiry is often not nurtured.
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The new syllabus of practical work in chemistry has been designed to cater
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to the needs of pupil who are desirous of pursuing science further.
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The fundamental objective of this course is to develop scientific attitude and
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desired laboratory skills required at this level. The practical syllabus includes
content based experiments, which help in comprehension of the concepts.
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The project work is expected to provide thrill in learning chemistry. It is
expected to serve the real purpose of practical work, which means inculcating
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the ability to design an experiment, to make observations methodically and to

draw conclusions out of experimental data. The real purpose of practical work
should be to enable the students to represent the outcome of experiments
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logically to conclusion, with genuine appreciation of it’s limitation.

For each practical work, brief theory, material required, procedure,
precautions and the questions for discussion are given in the book. The questions
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are aimed at testing learner’s understanding of the related problems. However,

teacher may provide help in case the problem is found to be beyond the capability
of the learner. Precautions must be well understood by the learners before
proceeding with the experiments and projects.
In order to provide some basic idea about the investigatory projects, a brief
description of some investigatory projects is given in the book. However, this list
is only suggested and not exhaustive. The students may select projects from
subject area of chemistry, interdisciplinary areas or from the environment.
While selecting a project, care should be taken to see that the facilities for carrying
it out are available.
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Appendices related to the chemical data and logarithmic tables are

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attached at the end of the book. International symbols for hazards and hazard
warnings are given at several places in the book. It is expected that this will
make the learners more careful about the environment and make them careful
while dealing with the chemicals. Some non-evaluative learning material has
been given in the boxes to provide interesting information related to the
practical work.
It is a pleasure to express my thanks to all those who have been associated
at various stages of development of this laboratory manual. It is hoped that this
practical book will improve teaching learning process in chemistry to a great
extent. The learners will be able to understand the subject well and will be able
to apply the acquired knowledge in new situations. I acknowledge with thanks
the dedicated efforts and valuable contribution of Dr Alka Mehrotra, Coordinator
of this programme and other team members who contributed and finalised the
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manuscript. I especially thank Professor Krishna Kumar, Director, and Professor
G. Ravindra, Joint Director, NCERT for their administrative support and keen
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interest in the development of this laboratory manual. I am also grateful to the
participating teachers and subject experts who participated in the review
workshop and provided their comments and suggestions which helped in the
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refinement of this manual and make it learner friendly. We warmly welcome
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comments and suggestions from our readers for further improvement of this
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manual.
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HUKUM SINGH
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Professor and Head

Department of Education in
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New Delhi Science and Mathematics

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vi
LABORATORY MANUAL DEVELOPMENT TEAM
MEMBERS
Anjni Koul, Senior Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Brahm Parkash, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
I. P. Aggarwal, Professor, Regional Institute of Education, NCERT, Bhopal
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R. S. Sindhu, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Ruchi Verma, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
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MEMBER-COORDINATOR
Alka Mehrotra, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)

acknowledges the valuable contributions of the individuals and the
organisations involved in the development of Manual for Chemistry Practicals
for Class XII. The following academicians contributed very effectively for the
review of the manuscript of this manual : D. S. Rawat, Reader, Department
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of Chemistry, University of Delhi; Haritima Chopra, Reader, Maitreyi College,
New Delhi; K. G. Trikha, Reader (Retired), A.R.S.D. College, New Delhi;
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M. S. Frank, Vice Principal, St. Stephen’s College, Delhi; Samta Goel, Reader,
Zakir Hussain College, New Delhi; S. G. Warkar, Lecturer, Delhi College of
Engenering, Delhi; Sunita Bhagat, Reader, A.R.S.D. College, New Delhi;
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K. K. Singh, PGT, Kendriya Vidyalaya, Pushp Vihar, New Delhi; Mona Rastogi,
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Senior Headmistress, ITL Public School, Dwarka, New Delhi; Nivedita Bose,
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PGT, Bluebells School, New Delhi, Nishi Saraswat, PGT, Kendriya Vidyalaya
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No.1, Delhi Cantt. We are thankful to them. We also acknowledge the
contribution of Sunita Kumari, JPF. Special thanks are due to Hukum Singh,
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Professor and Head, DESM, NCERT for his administrative support.
The Council also acknowledges the support provided by the administrative
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staff of DESM; Deepak Kapoor, Incharge, Computer Station, Ishwar Singh,

Nargis Islam DTP Operator for refining and drawing some of the illustrations;
Ritu Jha, DTP Operator; K. T. Chitralekha, Copy Editor. The efforts of the
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Publication Department are also highly appreciated.

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CONTENTS
F OREWORD iii
P REFACE v
UNIT-1 : COLLOIDS 1
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• To prepare (a) lyophilic sol; and (b) lyophobic sol 1
• To purify prepared sol by dialysis 4
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• To study the role of emulsifying agents in stabilising the
emulsions of different oils 5
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UNIT-2 : CHEMICAL K INETICS 8
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• To study the effect of concentration and temperature
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variation respectively on the rate of reaction between
sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid 8
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• To study the effect of variation in concentration of iodide
ions on the rate of reaction of iodide ions with hydrogen
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peroxide at room temperature 12

• To study the rate of reaction between potassium iodate
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(KIO3) and sodium sulphite (Na2SO3) 15
UNIT-3 : T HERMOCHEMICAL MEASUREMENT 19

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• To determine the enthalpy of dissolution of copper

sulphate/potassium nitrate 20
• To determine the enthalpy of neutralisation of a strong
acid (HCl) with a strong base (NaOH) 24
• To determine the enthalpy change for the interaction
between acetone and chloroform (hydrogen bond
formation) 26
UNIT-4 : ELECTROCHEMISTRY 30
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• To study the variation in cell potential of the cell Zn/

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Zn 2+ ||Cu2+ /Cu with change in concentration of

electrolytes (CuSO4/ZnSO4) at room temperature 31
UNIT-5 : CHROMATOGRAPHY 34
• Separation of pigments present in the leaves (spinach)
and flowers (rose, marigold) by paper chromatography
and determination of Rf value of components 34
• Separation of the constituents of a mixture of inorganic
compounds containing two cations, Pb2+ and Cd2+ , using
chromatographic technique 37
UNIT-6 : TITRIMETRIC ANALYSIS (REDOX REACTION) 40
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• To determine the concentration/molarity of KMnO4
solution by titrating it against a 0.1 M standard solution
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of oxalic acid 40
• To determine the concentration/molarity of KMnO4
solution by titrating it against standard solution of
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UNIT-7 : SYSTEMATIC QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS 49
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• To detect one cation and one anion in the given salt 50
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• Systematic analysis of anions 51
• Preliminary tests with dilute sulphuric acid 51
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• Confirmatory tests for anions of dilute sulphuric acid group 52

• Preliminary tests with concentrated sulphuric acid 56
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• Confirmatory tests for anions of concentrated sulphuric

acid group 57
• Tests for sulphate and phosphate 62
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• Systematic analysis of cations 63

• Preliminary examination of salt for identification of cation 63
• Wet tests for identification of cations 69
• Analysis of Group-zero cation 69
• Analysis of Group-I cations 71
• Analysis of Group-II cations 72
• Analysis of Group-III cations 75
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• Analysis of Group-IV cations 76

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• Analysis of Group-V cations 79

• Analysis of Group-VI cations 81
• Specimen record of salt analysis 84
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UNIT-8 : T ESTS FOR FUNCTIONAL GROUPS IN ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 86
• Test for unsaturation 86
• Tests for alcoholic group 88
• Tests for phenolic group 90
• Tests for aldehydic and ketonic groups 92
• Tests for carboxyl group 95
• Tests for amino group 97
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UNIT-9 : PREPARATION OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS 100
• To prepare double salts: ferrous ammonium sulphate
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(Mohr’s salt) and potash alum 100
• To prepare potassium trioxalatoferrate(III) 102
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UNIT-10 : PREPARATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 104
• To prepare acetanilide 104
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• To prepare dibenzalacetone (Dibenzylideneacetone) 106
• To prepare p-nitroacetanilide 107
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• To prepare phenyl–azo–β-naphthol (an azo dye) 109
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• To prepare aniline yellow (p-amino-azobenzene) 111
UNIT-11 : T ESTS FOR CARBOHYDRATES , FATS AND P ROTEINS 114

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• Tests for carbohydrates 114

• Test for oils and fats 120
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• Tests for proteins 121
PROJECTS 125
APPENDICES 132
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UNIT-1
COLLOIDS
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Na true solution, solute particles mix homogeneously with the molecules of
the solvent and thus form a single phase. However, a colloidal solution is a
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heterogeneous system in which very fine particles of one substance disperse
(dispersed phase) in another substance called dispersion medium. Particles
of the dispersed phase do not form a single phase with the particles of the
dispersion medium because of the fact that they are either very large molecules
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or essentially aggregates of small molecules. Colloidal particles are larger in size
than simple molecules but small enough to remain suspended in the dispersion
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medium (10–9 –10–6 m). Some examples of very large molecules which form collidal
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dispersion are starch, gum and proteins, whereas colloidal sulphur is an example
of aggregates of small molecules. Further, a heterogeneous system of a solid as
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dispersed phase and a liquid as dispersion medium is called a sol. Depending
upon the nature of interaction between the dispersed phase and the dispersion
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medium, colloidal sols are divided into two categories, namely, lyophilic (solvent
attracting) and lyophobic (solvent repelling). If water is the dispersion medium,
the terms used are hydrophilic and hydrophobic. Egg albumin, starch and gum
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are lyophilic sols. Freshly prepared ferric hydroxide, aluminium hydroxide and
arsenic sulphide sols are examples of lyophobic sols. A few methods of
preparation of colloids are – chemical methods, electrical disintegration and
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peptization. In this unit you will learn to prepare both the types of sols. Also, you
will learn a method of purification of sols.
EXPERIMENT 1.1
Aim
To prepare (a) lyophilic sol; and (b) lyophobic sol.
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Theory
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Since particles of dispersed phase in lyophilic sols have an affinity for the particles
of dispersion medium, these sols are more stable as compared to lyophobic sols.
Two factors responsible for the stability of sols are – charge and the solvation of
the colloidal particles by the solvent. Stability of lyophilic sols is primarily due to
the solvation of colloidal particles by the solvent whereas lyophobic sols are
stabilised by the charge on the colloidal particles. Due to their charges, colloidal
LABORATORY MANUAL CHEMISTRY
particles remain suspended in solution and coagulation does

not take place. These charges may be positive or negative.
Some examples of negatively charged sols are starch and arsenious
sulphide. Positively charged sol of hydrated ferric oxide is formed
when FeCl3 is added to excess of hot water and a negatively charged
sol of hydrated ferric oxide is formed when ferric chloride is added
to NaOH solution. The lyophilic sols are directly formed by mixing
and shaking the substance with a suitable liquid. Lyophobic sols
cannot be prepared by direct mixing and shaking. Special methods
are employed to prepare these.
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Material Required
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• Beaker (250 mL) : One
• Egg : One
• Watch glass : One
• Sodium chloride : 5g
•
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Porcelain dish : One
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• Ferric chloride : 2g
• Measuring cylinder : One
• Aluminium chloride : 2g
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(100 mL)
• Starch/gum : 500 mg
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• Pipette (10 mL)
• Graduated pipette :
: One
One
• Arsenious oxide : 0.2 g
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(20 mL)
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Procedure
A. Preparation of Lyophilic Sol
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Aluminium
I. Egg Albumin Sol
chloride (i) Prepare 100 mL of 5% (w/v) solution of NaCl in water in
a 250 mL beaker.
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Arsenic
compounds (ii) Break one egg in a porcelain dish and pipette out the
albumin and pour it in sodium chloride solution.
Stir well to ensure that the sol is well prepared.
Hazard Warning
II. Starch/gum Sol
• While doing experiment (i) Measure 100 mL of distilled water with the help of a
do not eat, drink or
smoke.
measuring cylinder and transfer it to a 250 mL beaker
and boil it.
(ii) Make a paste of 500 mg starch or gum in hot water
and transfer this paste to 100 mL of boiling water with
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constant stirring. Keep water boiling and stirring for

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10 minutes after addition of paste. To judge the efficacy

of the prepared sol, you may compare it with the
original paste prepared.
B. Preparation of Lyophobic Sol
I. Ferric hydroxide/Aluminium hydroxide
(i) Take 100 mL of distilled water in a 250 mL beaker and
boil it.
2
COLLOIDS
(ii) Add 2g of ferric chloride/aluminium chloride powder to

boiling water and stir it well.
(iii) Take 100 mL of distilled water in another 250 mL beaker
and boil it.
(iv) Pour 10 mL of ferric chloride/aluminium chloride solution
prepared in step (ii) drop by drop into the boiling water
with constant stirring. Keep the water boiling till brown/
white sol is obtained.
II. Arsenious Sulphide Sol
(i) Transfer 100 mL of distilled water to a beaker of 250 mL
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capacity.
(ii) Add 0.2 g of arsenious oxide to it and boil the content of
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the beaker.
(iii) Cool and filter the solution.
(iv) Pass hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gas through the filtered
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solution till it smells of H2S. (Use Kipp’s apparatus to
pass hydrogen sulphide gas).
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(v) Expel H2S gas from the sol by slow heating and filter it.
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(vi) Label the filtrate as arsenious sulphide sol.
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Precautions
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(a) While preparing colloidal solutions of starch, gum, ferric chloride, aluminium
chloride etc., pour the paste or solution gradually into the boiling water with
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constant stirring. Addition of these substances in excess may cause precipitation.

(b) Arsenious oxide is poisonous in nature; so wash your hands immediately every
time after handling this chemical.
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Discussion Questions
(i) How will you differentiate between a true solution and a colloidal dispersion?
(ii) Identify some sols (colloids) that you use in your daily life and mention their importance.
(iii) How do colloids acquire a charge? Why is ferric hydroxide/aluminium hydroxide sol
prepared in the experiment, positively charged while arsenious sulphide sol is negatively
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charged?
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(iv) What is coagulation? How is coagulation different from peptization?

(v) How can you convert a colloidal dispersion of sulphur into a true solution?
(vi) Out of lyophilic and lyophobic sols, which one can be easily converted into a gel and why?
(vii) Differentiate between a gel and a sol.
(viii) What are the applications of colloids in the field of Medicine, Defense and in Rocket Technology?
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EXPERIMENT 1.2
Aim
To purify prepared sol by dialysis.
Material Required
• Parchment/
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cellophane paper : One sheet • Colloidal dispersion of : Prepared in
egg albumin experiment 1.1
(30 cm 30 cm)
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• Distilled water : As per requirement
• Trough : One
• Uranyl zinc acetate : As per requirement
• Thread : As per need
• Silver nitrate : As per requirement
• Test tubes : Two
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Procedure
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cellophane paper.
(ii) Soak the sheet in water and give it a conical shape.
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(iii) Pour the colloidal dispersion of egg albumin in the cone of

parchment/cellophane paper.
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(iv) Tie the cone with a thread and suspend it in a trough

containing distilled water as shown in Fig. 1.1.
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Fig. 1.1 : Purification of a colloid
(v) After about half an hour, test for the presence of ions in the
trough water.
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COLLOIDS
(vi) Change the water present in the trough after every half an
+ –
hour till it is free of the impurities of Na and Cl ions.
+ –
To check the presence of Na and Cl ions take water from
the trough in two test tubes. To one test tube add uranyl
zinc acetate and to the other add silver nitrate solution.
A yellow precipitate with uranyl zinc acetate indicates the
+
presence of Na ions, while a white precipitate of silver nitrate
indicates the presence of chloride ions.
(vii) Note the time required for the purification of colloidal dispersion.
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Note : In some cases, dialysis may be a very slow process. Therefore, in such
cases, it is advisable to change the water of the trough twice or thrice
till the colloidal dispersion is free of ions.
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Precautions
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(a) For dialysis make the parchment bag air tight to prevent the entry of water into
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the bag. Keep the neck of the parchment bag above the surface of water.
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(b) Change the water in the trough from time to time during dialysis.
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Discussion Question
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(i) How can you make the process of dialysis quick? What are the limitations of this technique?
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EXPERIMENT 1.3
Aim
To study the role of emulsifying agents in stabilising the emulsions
of different oils.
Theory
Emulsion is a type of colloid in which, both the dispersed phase
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and the dispersion medium are liquids. Here the dispersed phase
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and the dispersion medium are distinguished by their relative

amounts. The one, which is present in smaller proportion, is called
dispersed phase, while the other, which is present in relatively
large quantity, is known as the dispersion medium.
When oil is shaken with water, a faint milky solution is often
observed, which is unstable and is called an emulsion of oil in
water. On standing, it gets separated into two layers, i.e. oil and
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water. The mixing capacity of different oils with water is different.

This mixing capacity of the oil in addition to its nature depends
upon the method of shaking also (i.e.vigorous shaking or swirling).
The stability of an oil and water emulsion is increased by the
addition of a suitable emulsifying agent such as soap solution.
Soap contains sodium salt of long chain aliphatic carboxylic acids
with the carboxyl group as the polar group, which decreases the
interfacial surface tension between oil and water. Hence oil mixes
with water and emulsification takes place. The concentration of
soap required for complete emulsification is called optimum
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concentration. Any amount less or more than this optimum
amount does not cause an effective stabilisation. In the presence
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of optimum amount of soap solution, oil in water emulsion is more
stable and the separation of oil and water layers takes more time.
Material Required
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• Test tubes : Six • Soap/detergent : 5g
•
•
Droppers
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Test tube stand
:
:
Five
One
• Mustard oil,
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linseed oil,
• Glass rod : One castor oil and : 10 mL each
• Stop watch : One machine oil brand
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Procedure
(i) Dissolve 1 g of soap/detergent in 10 mL of distilled water in
a test tube with vigorous shaking and heat the content of
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the test tube if needed. Label it as ‘A’.

(ii) Take four test tubes. Mark these as B, C, D and E and to
each of the test tubes, add 5 mL distilled water followed by
10 drops of mustard oil in test tube B, linseed oil in test tube
C, castor oil in test tube D and machine oil in test tube E,
respectively.
(iii) Shake test tube B vigorously for five minutes, keep it in a
test tube stand and simultaneously start the stopwatch.
Record the time taken for the separation of the two layers.
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(iv) Repeat the same procedure with test tubes C, D and E and
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record the time for the separation of the layers in each case.
(v) Now add two drops of soap/detergent solution from test
tube ‘A’ into each test tube (B, C, D and E). Shake each test
tube for five minutes and record the time of separation of
the layers in each case again.
(vi) Record your observations in a manner detailed in
Table 1.1.
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COLLOIDS
Table 1.1 : Emulsification of different oils by soap/detergent
Test tube Name of oil used for Time taken for the
specification emulsification separation of layers
Without Soap/ With Soap/
detergent detergent
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Precautions
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(a) Add equal number of drops of a soap/detergent solution to all the test tubes.
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(b) To minimise the error in recording the time required for the separation of layers
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in different systems, shake all the test tubes for identical time span.
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(c) Start the stopwatch immediately after shaking is stopped and stop it immediately
when the two layers separate.
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(i) Name a reagent other than soap, which can be used as an emulsifying agent in the oil in
water type emulsion.
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(ii) Milk is said to be a stable emulsion. What provides stability to milk?

(iii) Can two miscible liquids form an emulsion?
(iv) Why do separation of layers of different oils forming an emulsion with water take different
time?
(v) What are the points of similarity and dissimilarity among sol, gel and emulsion?
(vi) Suggest a test to distinguish between Oil in Water and Water in Oil type of emulsions.
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(vii) Give some examples of emulsions that you come across in daily life.
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(viii) Dettol forms an emulsion in water. How does this emulsion get stabilised?
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UNIT -2
CHEMICAL KINETICS
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ATE of reaction can be measured either in terms of decrease in concentration
of any one of the reactants or increase in concentration of any one of the
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products with time. For a hypothetical reaction,
A ⎯→ B
[ A] [B]
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Rate of reaction
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Factors such as concentration, temperature and catalyst affect the rate of a
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reaction. In this unit you will learn the technique of determining the rate of a
reaction and technique of studying the effect of concentration and temperature
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on the reaction rate.
EXPERIMENT 2.1
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Aim
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To study the effect of concentration and temperature variation respectively on

the rate of reaction between sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid.
Theory
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Sodium thiosulphate reacts with hydrochloric acid and produces a colloidal

solution of sulphur, which makes the solution translucent. The reaction occurs
as follows:
Na2S2O3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) ⎯→ 2NaCl (aq) + H2O(l) + SO2 (g) + S(s)
Ionic form of the above reaction is written as:
+
S 2 O 3 (aq) + 2H (aq) ⎯→ H 2O (l) + SO2 (g) + S(s)
2–
The property of the colloidal solution of sulphur to make the system

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translucent is used to study the rate of precipitation of sulphur. The rate of

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precipitation of sulphur increases with an increase in the concentration of the

reacting species or with an increase in the temperature of the system. With an
increase in the concentration, the number of molecular collisions per unit time
between the reacting species increase and consequently chances of product
formation increase. This results in an increase in the rate of precipitation of
sulphur. Similarly, on increasing the temperature, the kinetic energy of the
reacting species increases, so the number of collisions that result in the formation
of products increase leading to a faster rate of reaction.
CHEMICAL KINETICS
Material Required

• Burette (50 mL) : One
• Pipette (25 mL) : One • 0.1M Sodium
• Pipette(5 mL) : One thiosulphate : As per need
• Burette stand : One • 1.0 M Hydrochloric
• Stop watch : One acid : As per need
• Thermometer (110°C) : One
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Procedure
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A. The effect of concentration on the rate of reaction
(i) Take a trough and fill half of it with water. This will serve as
constant temperature bath, maintained at room temperature. Hydrochloric acid
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(ii) Rinse and fill the burette with 1.0 M HCl solution.
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(iii) Take a 100 mL beaker and make a mark ‘X’ in the centre
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of the outer surface of the bottom with the help of a glass
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marker pencil. Fill 50 mL of 0.1M sodium thiosulphate
solution in it. Place the beaker in the trough. The mark ‘X’
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will be visible to the naked eye on account of the
transparent nature of the system. Allow the beaker to stand
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in the trough for a few minutes so that it attains the

temperature of the bath.
(iv) Add 1.0 mL of 1.0 M HCl solution with the help of a burette.
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Start the stopwatch when half the HCl solution i.e. (0.5 mL)
has been transferred. Swirl the beaker while adding HCl.
(v) Record the time required for the mark ‘X’ on the bottom of
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the beaker to become invisible (This is considered as a stage

of completion of the reaction).
(vi) Repeat the experiment by adding 2 mL, 4 mL, 8 mL and 16
mL of 1.0 M hydrochloric acid solution to fresh sodium
thiosulphate solution every time and record the time required
for the disappearance of the mark ‘X’ in each case separately.
B. The effect of temperature on the rate of reaction

(i) Take 50 mL of 0.1M sodium thiosulphate solution in a
t
100 mL beaker, on the outer surface of the bottom of which

no
a mark ‘X’ has been made. Keep the beaker in a thermostat

maintained at 30°C. Add 5 mL of 1.0 M hydrochloric acid
solution with swirling. Start the stopwatch immediately
when half the amount (i.e. 2.5 mL) of hydrochloric acid
has been transferred.
(ii) Record the time at which the mark ‘X’ becomes invisible.
(iii) Repeat the experiment at temperatures 40°C, 50°C, 60°C
and 70 °C using fresh sodium thiosulphate solution each
9
time and record the time required for the disappearance of

the mark ‘X’.
(iv) Record your observations in Tables 2.1 and 2.2.
(v) Plot two graphs, one for the volume of HCl added (which
determines concentration of HCl) and the time taken for the
mark to become invisible and the other between temperature
and the time taken for the mark to become invisible. For plotting
the graph, the variation in time is plotted on x-axis and the
variation in volume or temperature is plotted on y-axis.
d
Note : If thermostat (i.e. constant temperature bath) is not available for
studying the rate of the reaction. Ordinary water bath may also
he
be used for maintaining constant temperature but in this case
heating of the bath from outside might be required for the
adjustment of temperature. Water in the bath should also be stirred
continuously.
pu T
is
Table 2.1 : Effect of concentration of HCl on the rate of reaction between
sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid
re R
Amount of Na2 S2 O3 solution used each time = 50 mL
bl
Concentration of Na2 S2O 3 solution = 0.1M, Room temperature = °C
Concentration of the HCl solution used in the reaction mixture = 1.0 M
E
Volume of HCl added in mL Time ‘t’ in seconds for the mark
Sl. No.
‘X’ to become invisible
be C
1. 1.0
2. 2.0
to N
3. 4.0
4. 8.0
5. 16.0
©
Table 2.2 : The effect of temperature on the rate of reaction between

sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid
Volume of sodium thiosulphate solution used each time = 50 mL
Volume of HCl used each time = 5 mL
Temperature of the reaction Time ‘t’ in seconds for the mark
Sl. No. mixture/°C ‘X’ to become invisible
1. 30
t
2. 40
no
3. 50
4. 60
5. 70
Result
Write your conclusions on the basis of data in Tables 2.1 and 2.2.
10
CHEMICAL KINETICS
Precautions
(a) Start the stopwatch when half of the hydrochloric acid solution has been
transferred to the reaction flask and stop the watch when the mark ‘X’ becomes
invisible.
(b) If a constant temperature bath is not available to maintain the constant
temperature, heat the water of the bath in which the beaker is kept from time to
time with constant stirring, and remove the burner when the required temperature
is attained.
d
(c) Select suitable scale for plotting the graph.
he
(i)
pu T
The reaction under examination is as follows:
is
2– +
S2O 3 (aq) + 2H (aq) ⎯→ H2O (l) + SO2 (g) + S(s)
re R
bl
Write the conditions under which the rate law expression for this reaction can be written in
E
the following manner.
2– + 2
Rate of precipitation of sulphur = k [S2O 3 ][H ]
be C
(ii) Suppose the above rate law expression for the precipitation of sulphur holds good, then
on doubling the concentration of S 2 O 2– ion and H+ ion, by how many times will the rate of
to N
the reaction increase?

(iii) Comment on the statement that for a given reaction, rate of the reaction varies but the rate
©
constant remains constant at a particular temperature.

(iv) How does the rate constant of a reaction vary with temperature?
(v) Devise an experiment to study the dependence of rate of precipitation of sulphur upon the
nature of monobasic acid for the reaction given below :
2– +
S2O3 (aq) + 2H (aq) ⎯→ H2O (l) + SO2 (g) + S(s)
(vi) Why is the stop watch/stop clock started when half of the reactant is delivered into the
beaker?
t
2–
no
(vii) The structure of S2O3 ion is described as follows:
11
The two sulphur atoms are marked here as (1) and (2). Which
of the sulphur atoms, according to you, is precipitated as
colloidal sulphur? How can you verify your answer
experimentally?
(viii) What is the difference between the order and the molecularity
of a reaction?
(ix) The molecularity of a reaction can’t be zero but the order
can be zero? Explain.
(x) Can the order of a reaction be a fractional quantity?
d
(xi) Suppose the above reaction follows third order kinetics, then
in what units, will the rate of the reaction and the rate
he
constant be expressed?
EXPERIMENT 2.2
pu T
is
Aim
re R
bl To study the effect of variation in concentration of iodide ions on
the rate of reaction of iodide ions with hydrogen peroxide at room
E
temperature.
be C
Theory
The reaction between iodide ions and hydrogen peroxide occurs
to N
in the acidic medium and can be represented in the following

manner:
– +
2I (aq) + H2O 2 (l) + 2H (aq) ⎯→ I 2(g) + 2H2O (l)
©
In this reaction, hydrogen peroxide oxidises iodide ions (I– ) to

molecular iodine. If calculated amount of sodium thiosulphate is
added in the presence of starch solution as an indicator to the above
reaction mixture, the liberated iodine reacts with thiosulphate ions
as fast as it is formed and is reduced back to iodide ions till all the
thiosulphate ions are oxidised to tetrathionate ions.
I2(g) + 2S 2O 2–
3
(aq) ⎯→ S4O 2–
6
(aq) + 2I–(aq)
t
After the complete consumption of thiosulphate ions, the

no
concentration of iodine liberated in the reaction of hydrogen

peroxide with iodide ions increases rapidly to a point where iodine
forms intense blue complex with starch. The time required to
consume a fixed amount of the thiosulphate ions is reproducible.
Since the time for the appearance of colour is noted, the reaction
is some times called a clock reaction.
12
CHEMICAL KINETICS
Material Required
• Starch solution : As per need

• 2.5 M Sulphuric acid
• Conical flasks (250 mL) : Five solution : As per need
• Conical flask (500 mL) : One • 0.1 M Potassium
• Stop watch : One iodide solution : As per need
• Measuring cylinder (100 mL) : One • 0.04M Sodium
• Trough : One thiosulphate solution : As per need
• 3% Hydrogen
d
peroxide solution : As per need
he
Procedure
(i) Take 25 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide, 25 mL of 2.5 M H2SO4
Sulphuric acid
solution, 5 mL of freshly prepared starch solution and 195
pu T
is
mL distilled water into a 500 mL conical flask marked as A.
Stir this solution well and place it in a water bath maintained Hydrogen peroxide
re R
at room temperature.
bl
(ii) Take four 250 mL conical flasks and mark them as B, C, D and E.
Hazard Warning
E
(iii) Take the sodium thiosulphate solution, potassium iodide
solution, and distilled water in the flasks B, C and D in a • Cotact of hydrogen-
proportion given in the following steps and keep the flask E peroxide with combustible
be C
for carrying out the reaction. material may cause fire.

(iv) Take 10 mL of 0.04 M sodium thiosulphate solution, 10 mL
to N
of 0.1 M potassium iodide solution and 80 mL of distilled

water in the conical flask marked B. Shake the contents of
the flask well and keep it in a water bath.
(v) Take 10 mL of 0.04 M sodium thiosulphate solution, 20 mL
©
of 0.1M potassium iodide solution and 70 mL of distilled water

in the conical flask marked C. Shake the resulting solution
well and place it in the same water bath in which reaction
mixture of step (iv) is kept.
(vi) Take 10 mL of 0.04 M sodium thiosulphate solution, 30 mL
of 0.1 M potassium iodide solution and 60 mL of distilled
water in the conical flask marked D. Shake the solution well
and keep this flask also in the above water bath.
(vii) Take conical flask E. Pour 25 mL solution from flask A into
it after measuring it with the help of a measuring cylinder.
t
Now add 25 mL of solution from flask B into this flask with

no
constant stirring. Start the stop watch when half of the

solution from flask B has been transferred. Keep the flask E
in a water bath to maintain the constant temperature and
record the time required for the appearance of blue colour.
(viii) In exactly the same manner, repeat the experiment with the
solutions of flasks C and D separately by using once again
25 mL of the solution of these flasks and 25 mL of solution
13
from flask A. Note the time required for the appearance of

blue colour in each case.
(ix) Repeat the experiment with solutions of flasks B, C and D
twice and calculate the average time for the appearance of
blue colour.
(x) Record your observations as given in Table 2.3.
(xi) Compare the time required for the appearance of blue colour
for all the three systems and make a generalisation about
the variation in the rate of the reaction with concentration of
iodide ions.
d
Table 2.3 : Study of reaction rate between iodide ions and
hydrogen peroxide in acidic medium
he
Sl. Time taken for appearance of the
Composition of the Average
blue colour
No. system Time
First reading Second reading
pu T
is
1. 25 mL solution from flask A +
re R
25 mL solution from flask B
2.
bl
25 mL solution from flask A +
25 mL solution from flask C
E
25 mL solution from flask D
be C
Result
to N
Write your conclusions on the basis of the data recorded in Table 2.3.
Precautions
©
(a) Always keep the concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution less than that of
potassium iodide solution.
(b) Always use freshly prepared starch solution.
(c) Use fresh samples of hydrogen peroxide and potassium iodide.
(d) Always use the same measuring cylinders for measuring solutions in two different
sets of observations. If after measuring one solution, the cylinder is used for
measuring another solution, clean it before using.
(e) Record the time immediately after the appearance of blue colour.
t
no
(i) Distinguish between the role of iodine and iodide ions in this experiment.
2–
(ii) Calculate the oxidation number of sulphur in tetrathionate ion (S4O 6 ). Can the oxidation
number be a fractional number?
14
CHEMICAL KINETICS
(iii) Why does iodine impart blue colour to starch?

(iv) Explore the possibility of using an oxidant other than H2O2 in this experiment.
(v) Why is the reaction given the name clock reaction?
(vi) Why should the concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution taken be always less than
that of potassium iodide solution?
d
EXPERIMENT 2.3
he
Aim
To study the rate of reaction between potassium iodate (KIO3) and
pu T
sodium sulphite (Na 2SO 3).
is
re R
bl
Theory
E
The reaction between KIO3 and Na2SO3 indirectly involves the
formation of iodide ions, which are oxidised in acidic medium by
IO3– ions to iodine. The overall reaction proceeds in the following
be C
two steps.
to N
– 2– – 2–
IO 3 + 3SO 3 ⎯→ I + 3SO 4 (1)
5I– + 6H + + IO –3 ⎯→ 3H2O + 3I2 (2)

©
The evolved iodine produces blue colour with the starch

solution in a manner described in the previous experiment.
This reaction like the earlier reaction is also known as ‘clock
reaction’.
Material Required
t
• 2 M Sulphuric acid : As per requirement

no
• Conical flasks (250 mL) : Six • 5% Starch solution : As per requirement

• Measuring • 6% Potassium iodate
cylinder (100 mL) : One solution : As per requirement
• Stopwatch : One • 6% Sodium sulphite
• Trough : One solution : As per requirement
15
Procedure
(i) Take a 250 mL conical flask and mark it as ‘A’. Transfer
25 mL of 6% potassium iodate solution, 25 mL of 2.0 M H2SO4
and 50 mL of distilled water into it and shake the content of
the flask well. Keep the flask in a trough half filled with water.
This serves as constant temperature bath.
(ii) Take five 250 mL conical flasks and mark these as B, C, D, E
and F respectively. Take 6% sodium sulphite solution, starch
solution and distilled water in flasks B, C, D and E in the
d
proportion given in the following steps and keep flask F for
carrying out the reaction.
he
(iii) In the conical flask marked ‘B’ take 20 mL of sodium sulphite
Note : solution, 5 mL of starch solution and 75 mL of distilled water.
• Total amount of Shake the contents of the flask well and keep it in the water
pu T
solution in each bath.
is
flask is 100 mL
(iv) In the conical flask marked ‘C’, take 15 mL of sodium sulphite
re R
• Same amount of
solution, 5 mL of starch solution and 80 mL of distilled water.
bl
indicator has been
used.
Shake the resulting solution well and keep it in the water bath.
E
(v) In conical flask ‘D’, take 10 mL of sodium sulphite solution,
5 mL of starch solution and 85 mL of distilled water. Shake
be C
the solution well and place the flask in the water bath.
Sulphuric acid (vi) In conical flask ‘E’, take 5 mL of sodium sulphite solution,
to N
5 mL of starch solution and 90 mL of distilled water. Shake

the content of the flask well and keep it in the water bath.
(vii) Take conical flask ‘F’. In this flask pour 25 mL of the solution
©
from the conical flask marked ‘A’ and add 25 mL of the solution
from the conical flask marked ‘B’. Start the stop watch when
half of the solution from flask B has been added. Mix these
two solutions thoroughly by constant stirring and keep it in
the water bath. Record the time required for the appearance of
blue colour (you may use stop watch/wrist watch for noting
the time).
(viii) In a similar manner, repeat the experiment with the solutions
in flasks C, D and E respectively by using 25 mL of the
t
solution as in the experiment with solution from flask B and

no
record the time required for the appearance of blue colour in

each case.
(Once again care should be taken to repeat the experiment for
each case twice so as to take the average time required for the
appearance of blue colour in each set).
16
CHEMICAL KINETICS
(ix) Record your observations as given in Table 2.4.

(x) From the tabulated results, find out the relationship between
the time of appearance of blue colour and the variation in
concentration of sodium sulphite.
Table 2.4 : Study of the reaction rate between potassium iodate (KIO 3)
and sodium sulphite (Na2 SO3 ) in acidic medium
Sl. Time taken for appearance of the Average

Composition of the
No. blue colour in seconds Times/
d
system
First reading Second reading sec.
he
25 mL solution from flask B
pu T
25 mL solution from flask C
is
re R
25 mL solution from flask D
4.
bl
25 mL solution from flask A +
E
25 mL solution from flask E
be C
Result
Write your conclusions on the basis of data recorded in Table 2.4.
to N
Precautions
©
(a) As sodium sulphite is likely to be easily oxidised in air, therefore, always use its
fresh solution.
(b) Keep the concentration of potassium iodate solution higher than the concentration
of sodium sulphite solution.
(c) Use a freshly prepared starch solution.
(d) Start the stop watch when half of the solution from conical flask B, C, D or E is
added to the conical flask F containing 25 mL solution from flask A.
t
no
(i) How would the time for the appearance of blue colour vary if the temperature of the
experiment in the above case is enhanced by 10° C ?
(ii) Mention the factors that affect the rate of reaction in the present study.
17
(iii) Which of the acids, hydrochloric or nitric, would be suitable to make the medium acidic in
this experiment? Explain your answer with reasons.
(iv) Out of the reactions (1) and (2) given below:
IO 3 + 3SO 3
– 2–
⎯→ I – + 3SO 2–
4
(1)
– – +
5I + IO 3 + 6H ⎯→ 3H2O + 3I2 (2)
which could be the rate determining reaction? What is the molecularity of the rate
d
determining reaction?
he
(v) Can AsO 3–
3
be used in place of SO2–
3
in the above reaction? Support your answer with
proper reasoning.
(vi) Why is the concentration of potassium iodate solution kept higher than the concentration
pu T
is
of sodium sulphite solution?
re R
bl
E
be C
t to N
©
no
18
UNIT-3
THERMOCHEMICAL
MEASUREMENT
d
OST of the reactions are carried out at atmospheric pressure, hence
heat changes noted for these reactions are enthalpy changes. Enthalpy
he
changes are directly related to the temperature changes by the relation:
ΔH = qp
= mCp ΔT
pu T
= VdCp ΔT ... (1)
is
where V = Volume of the solution.
re R
d = Density of the solution
bl
C p = Heat capacity
ΔT = Change in temperature
E
Measurement of heat changes are carried out in vessels called calorimeters.
Reactions may also be carried out in beakers placed in thermos flask or in
be C
thermally insulated box or in styrofoam cup. Metallic calorimeters are not used
for measuring thermochemical changes because metals may react with
to N
substances. Stainless steel or gold plated copper calorimeters may be used.

During measurement of heat changes, calorimeter, thermometer and stirrer also
absorb some heat; this amount of heat should also be known. It is called
calorimeter constant. In the case of a glass vessel, (e.g. beaker) calorimeter
©
constant for that part is found, which is actually in contact with the reaction
mixture. This is so because when thermal conductivity of the material of
calorimeter is low, only the area of the calorimeter in contact with the liquid
absorbs maximum heat. Method of mixtures is used to determine the calorimeter
constant. To determine calorimeter constant, known volume of hot water at a
specified temperature is added to known volume of water contained in the
calorimeter at room temperature. Since energy is conserved, the heat taken by
calorimeter and cold water should be equal to heat given by hot water. Thus, we
can write the following equation :
t
ΔH1 + ΔH2 = –ΔH3 ... (2)

no
Enthalpy change Enthalpy Enthalpy

of calorimeter, change of change of
stirrer and cold water hot water
thermometer
Let tc, t h and tm be temperatures of cold water, hot water and mixture
respectively. Then, in view of the definition of enthalpy change given in equation
(1) we can rewrite equation (2) as
m1 Cp1 (tm–t c) + m2Cp(t m–tc ) + m3Cp (tm–th) = 0 ... (3)
where m1, m2 and m3 are masses of calorimeter, cold water and

hot water respectively and Cp1 and Cp are heat capacities of
calorimeter and water respectively. Since, thermal conductivity of
glass is low, only that part of the beaker gains maximum heat which
comes in contact with water therefore, we can calculate only effective
m1 Cp1 (i.e. calorimeter constant, W). On rewriting equation (3) we
d
get
he
W (tm– tc) + m2Cp (tm– tc) + m3Cp (tm– th) = 0
m2 Cp(t m – t c ) + m3Cp (t m – t h )
W= ... (4)
pu T
is
(t m – t c )
re R
but mCp = VdCp, where V, d and C p are volume, density and
bl
heat capacity of water respectively. By definition, heat capacity of
a substance is the amount of energy required to raise the
E
temperature of 1 g of substance by 1 K (or 1°C). The amount of
energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 K (or
be C
1°C) is 4.184 Joules. This means that for 1 g water for rise of
1 Kelven temperature VdC p = 4.184 JK –1. Therefore, product of
–1 –1
density and heat capacity can be taken as 4.184 J.mL .K . Thus,
to N
equation (4) can be written as :

(4.184) [Vc (tm – tc ) + Vh (t m – t h ) –1
W= JK ... (5)
(t m – t c )
©
where Vc = volume of cold water

Vh = volume of hot water
Technique for measuring the enthalpy changes are given in
the following experiments.
EXPERIMENT 3.1
Aim
t
no
To determine the enthalpy of dissolution of copper sulphate/

potassium nitrate.
Theory
In thermochemical measurements generally aqueous solutions are
mixed therefore, water in the reaction medium and the temperature
changes result due to the chemical reactions taking place in
solution.
20
THERMOCHEMICAL MEASUREMENT
According to law of conservation of energy, the sum of enthalpy

changes taking place in the calorimeter (loss and gain of energy)
must be zero. Thus, we can write the following equation-
(ΔH1) (ΔH2) (ΔH 3) (ΔH4)

Heat gained by Enthalpy Enthalpy change Enthalpy
calorimeter, + change of
+
of added solution/
+
change of
= 0 .. (6)
thermometer solution/water water in reaction
and stirrer in calorimeter calorimeter
d
In these reactions we take the product of density and heat
he
capacity of solutions, dCp, to be 4.184 J.mL–1.K–1, nearly the same
as that of pure water.*
Solution formation often accompanies heat changes. Enthalpy
of solution is the amount of heat liberated or absorbed when one
pu T
is
mole of a solute (solid/liquid) is dissolved in such a large quantity
of solvent (usually water) that further dilution does not make any
re R
heat changes.
bl
E
Material Required
be C
• Beakers (250 mL) : Three

Thermometer (110°C)
to N
• : One
• Glass rod : One
• Copper sulphate/
• Cotton wool : As per need
potassium nitrate : 2g
• Small wooden block : One
©
• Small piece of cardboard : One

• Stirrer : One
Procedure
A. Determination of Calorimeter constant of calorimeter
(Beaker)
(i) Take 100 mL of water in a 250 mL beaker marked ‘A’.
t
(ii) Place this beaker on a wooden block kept in a larger beaker

no
of capacity 500 mL (Fig. 3.1).

(iii) Pack the empty space between the large and the small
beaker with cotton wool. Cover the beaker with a cardboard.
Insert thermometer and stirrer in the beaker through it.
* Density of the solutions is 4 to 6% higher than that of pure water and heat capacity is about 4 to 8% less than
pure water so the product of density and heat capacity (dCp ) is nearly the same as the product of pure water.
21
d
he
pu T
is
re R
bl
Fig. 3.1 : Determination of calorimeter constant
E
(iv) Record the temperature of water. Let this temperature
be tc° C.
(v) In another beaker of 250 mL capacity marked ‘B’ take
be C
100 mL of hot water (50-60°C).

(vi) Note the exact temperature of hot water. Let this
to N
temperature be th°C.
(vii) Lift the card board and pour the hot water contained in
beaker B into beaker A. Stir the mixed water and note the
©
temperature. Let this temperature be tm°C.

(viii) Calculate the calorimeter constant of the beaker by using
the expression (5) given above.
(Remember the three temperatures are in the order th > tm >tc).
B. Determination of Enthalpy of Dissolution
(i) Take 100 mL of distilled water in the beaker of which

calorimeter constant has been determined and place it on
a wooden block kept in a larger beaker of capacity 500
t
mL (Fig. 3.1).
no
(ii) Pack the empty space between the larger and the smaller
beaker with cotton wool and cover with a cardboard.
(iii) Record the temperature of water already taken in the small
beaker. Let this be t'1°C.
(iv) Add weighed amount, say W1 g of well powdered copper
sulphate in water and stir the solution with a stirrer till
the entire amount of copper sulphate dissolves.
22
(v) Note down the temperature attained by the solution after

the addition of copper sulphate. Let this be t'2°C. Calculate
the enthalpy of dissolution of copper sulphate as follows:
Total mass of the solution = Mass of Solvent + Mass of Solute
= (100 + W 1) g
(Assuming density of water to be equal to 1 gL–1 at the
experimental temperature)
Note : To find out enthalpy
Change in temperature = (t'2 - t'1) °C change for the dissolution
Enthalpy change of the calorimeter (beaker) = W (t'2 - t'1) of potassium nitrate, use
d
where, W = Calorimeter constant potassium nitrate in place
of copper sulphate in this
Enthalpy change of solution = [(100 + W1) (t'2 - t'1)] 4.184 J experiment.
he
for (t'2 - t'1) °C rise in temperature
Total enthalpy change
pu T
is
of the Calorimeter = [W (t'2 - t'1) + (100 + W1) (t'2 – t'1)] 4.184 J
(beaker) and solution
re R
Heat liberated
on dissolution
bl
[W (t'2 - t'1 ) + (100 + W1 ) (t'2 - t'1)] × 4.184 J
E
of 1 g copper W1
sulphate
be C
Since 1 mol of copper sulphate weighs 249.5 g. Therefore,

to N
[W(t'2 – t'1 ) + (100 + W 1)(t'2 – t' 1)] 4.184 –1

Sol
H of CuSO4 .5H 2O = 249.5 × J mol
W1
©
Result
Enthalpy change in the dissolution of copper sulphate/potassium
–1
nitrate is _______ Jmol .
Precautions
(a) To record the temperature of water, use a thermometer with 0.1 °C graduation.
t
(b) In the determination of calorimeter constant record the temperature of hot water
no
just before mixing.

(c) Avoid using very large amounts of copper sulphate/potassium nitrate.
(d) Stir the solution well to dissolve the solid and record the temperature. Avoid too
much stirring, it may produce heat due to friction.
(e) Weigh copper sulphate carefully as it is hygroscopic in nature.
(f) Use cotton wool to create insulation between the two beakers.
23
(i) What is meant by the term, calorimeter constant?
(ii) Why is ΔSol H for some substances negative while for others it is positive?
(iii) How does Δ Sol H vary with temperature?
(iv) Will the enthalpy change for dissolution of same amount of anhydrous copper sulphate and
hydrated copper sulphate in the same amount of water be the same or different? Explain.
d
(v) How will the solubility of copper sulphate and potassium nitrate be affected on increasing
he
the temperature? Explain.
EXPERIMENT 3.2
pu T
is
re R
Aim
bl To determine the enthalpy of neutralisation of a strong acid (HCl)

E
with a strong base (NaOH).
Theory
be C
A neutralisation reaction involves the combination of H+(aq) ions

to N
furnished by an acid and OH–(aq) ions furnished by a base,

evidently leading to the formation of H2O (l). Since the reaction
envisages bond formation, therefore, this reaction is always
©
exothermic. Enthalpy of neutralisation is defined as the amount

+
of heat liberated when 1mol of H ions furnished by acid combine
–
with 1 mole of OH ions furnished by base to form water. Thus:
H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O (l), Δ neut H is negative

(Acid) (Base)
where Δneut H is known as enthalpy of neutralisation.

t
If both the acid and the base are strong then for the
no
formation of 1 mol H2O (l), always a fixed amount of heat, viz,

–1
57 kJ mol is liberated. If any one of the acid or the base is
weak or if both of these are weak, then some of the heat
liberated is used for the ionisation of the acid or base or both
of them (as the case may be) and the amount of heat liberated
is less than 57 kJ mol–1.
24
Material Required
• Beakers (250 mL) : Three

• Thermometer (110°C) : One
• Glass rod : One
• Cotton wool : As per need • 1 M HCl : 100 mL
• Small wooden block : One • 1 M NaOH : 100 mL
• Piece of cardboard : One
d
• Stirrer : One
• Calorimeter : One
he
Procedure
A. Determination of calorimeter constant
pu T
is
This may be determined by following the procedure, as detailed in
re R
experiment 3.1.
bl
B. Determination of Enthalpy of Neutralisation
E
(i) Take 100 mL of 1.0 M HCl solution in the calorimeter (beaker)
and cover it with cardboard. In another beaker of 250 mL
be C
capacity take 100 mL of 1.0 M NaOH solution.

(ii) Note down the temperature of both the solutions, which is
likely to be the same. Let it be t1°C.
to N
(iii) Pour 100 mL 1 M NaOH solution into the calorimeter

containing 100 mL of 1.0 M HCl solution.
(v) Mix the solutions by stirring and note the final temperature
©
of the mixture. Let it be t2°C.

Calculate the enthalpy of neutralisation as follows:
(i) Note the rise in temperature of the mixture, which in this
case is (t2-t1) °C.
(ii) Calculate the total amount of heat produced during the
neutralisation process, using the following expression
Heat evolved = (100 + 100 + W) (t 2 - t1) 4.18 J
(where W, is the calorimeter constant)
t
(iii) Finally calculate the heat evolved when 1000 mL of 1M HCl

is allowed to neutralise 1000 mL of 1M NaOH. This quantity
no
would be ten times the quantity obtained in step (ii).

(iv) Express the quantity of heat evolved in kJ mol–1.
Result
Enthalpy change in the neutralisation of hydrochloric acid solution
–1
with sodium hydroxide solution _______ kJmol .
25
Precautions
(a) Record the temperature carefully with the help of a thermometer graduated up to
0.1°C.
(b) Measure the volume of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solution to be
taken for the experiment carefully.
(c) Proper insulation should be made between the two beakers.
(d) Avoid unnecessary and excessive stirring to prevent heating due to friction.
d
he
(i) Why do we calculate the heat evolved for the neutralisation of 1000 mL of a (1 M) acid by
1000 mL of a (1 M) monoacidic base?
(ii) In comparison to heat evolved in neutralisation reaction between a strong acid and a strong
pu T
is
base. Why is lesser quantity of heat evolved when any one of the acid or the base is weak
and still less when both are weak?
re R
bl
(iii) Why does the reaction: H2O (l) H+ (aq) + OH–(aq) proceed in the forward direction with rise
in temperature of the system?
E
EXPERIMENT 3.3
be C
Aim
to N
To determine the enthalpy change for the interaction between

acetone and chloroform (hydrogen bond formation).
©
Theory
On mixing, liquid pairs show departure from ideal behaviour.
Acetone and chloroform form non-ideal liquid pair system, which
shows a negative deviation from Raoult’s law. This negative deviation
from Raoult’s law implies that the two components are strongly held
together in liquid state on mixing due to hydrogen bonding. On the
other hand in the pure state, only weak Van der waal’s forces hold
molecules of chloroform as well as acetone. The hydrogen bonding
t
between the molecules of acetone and chloroform is depicted as

no
follows:
Hydrogen bonding between

chloroform and acetone
26
In this process enthalpy change takes place due to hydrogen

bond formation. The enthalpy change is an extensive
thermodynamic property, therefore, the heat evolved from the
system depends upon the amount of the liquid components
mixed. It is for this reason that the heat change is reported for
specified amount. Therefore, enthalpy change during mixing of
1 mol chloroform with 1 mol acetone is reported.
(ΔH1) (ΔH2) (ΔH3) (ΔH4)

Heat gained by Enthalpy Enthalpy Enthalpy
d
+ + + =0
calorimeter, change of change for change of
thermometer chloroform acetone interaction
he
and stirrer
pu T
ΔH4 = – (ΔH1+ΔH 2+ΔH 3)
is
re R
bl
E
Material Required
be C

to N
• Boiling tube : One

• Thermometer (110° C): One
• Cotton wool : As per need
©
• Glass rod : One • Chloroform : 20 mL

• Measuring • Acetone : 10 mL
cylinder (250mL) : One

• Piece of cardboard : As per need
• Stirrer : One
t
no
Procedure
A. Determination of calorimeter constant Chloroform
This may be determined in a manner detailed in previous
experiments; except that here instead of a beaker, boiling tube
may be taken and 8 mL of cold and 7.5 mL of hot water can be Acetone
used instead of 100 mL.
27
B. Determination of Enthalpy Change on

Mixing Chloroform and Acetone*
(i) Transfer the volume of chloroform
equivalent to 0.1 mol (≈ 8.14 mL) after
measuring from a measuring cylinder
into the insulated boiling tube as shown
in Fig. 3.2. Let the mass of chloroform
taken be m1 grams.
(ii) Record the temperature of chloroform.
Let it be t1°C.
d
(iii) Transfer the volume of acetone equivalent
he
to 0.1 mol of acetone (≈ 7.34 mL) in a
clean measuring cylinder. Let its mass
be m2 grams.
pu T (iv) Record the temperature of acetone. Let
is
it be t2°C.
re R
(v) Pour acetone from the measuring
bl cylinder into the chloroform contained

E
in the insulated boiling tube.
(vi) Stir gently the mixture of chloroform
be C
and acetone carefully with the help of

a stirrer.
Fig. 3.2 : Determination of enthalpy of interaction
to N
of chloroform and acetone (vii) Record the temperature of the

mixture of chloroform and acetone.
Let it be t3° C.
©
Mo lar mass of CHCl 3

*Volume of one mole of CHCl3 = Densi ty of CH Cl 3
1
Volume of 0.1 mole = th of the above volume
10
t
(Similarly you can calculate the volume of 0.1 mole of acetone).

no
Density of chloroform= 1.47 g /mL Density of acetone = 0.79 g /mL

Molar mass of chloroform = 119.5 g Molar mass of acetone = 58.0
1.47 g = 1 mL volume 0.79 g = 1 mL
119.5 58
119.5 g = mL 58 g = mL
1.47 0.79
1 mole = 81.4 mL 1 mole = 73.4 mL
0.1 mole = 8.14 mL 0.1 mole = 7.34 mL
Total volume of acetone and chloroform = 8.14 +7.34 = 15.48 mL
28
Calculate the enthalpy of interaction as follows :
(i) Let the room temperature be t°C, then heat gained by

calorimeter (boiling tube) is W (t3 – t), where W is the
calorimeter constant, i.e. boiling tube in this experiment.
(ii) Note the value of specific heat of chloroform from literature.
Let it be q1.
Then heat gained by chloroform = m1 q1 (t3 - t1).
(iii) Note the value of the specific heat for acetone from literature.
d
Let it be q2. Thus heat gained by acetone = m2 q 2 (t3 - t2).
(iv) Total heat gained by all the three components, i.e. boiling
he
tube, chloroform and acetone = – {W(t3 – t1) + m1q1(t3 – t1) +
m2 q2 (t3 – t 2)}. This in fact is the enthalpy change of
interaction, on mixing 0.1 mol chloroform with 0.1 mol acetone.
pu T
is
The negative sign simply implies that the mixing of
chloroform and acetone is an exothermic process.
re R
bl
Note : Here, care should be taken that the total volume of acetone and chloroform
E
is equal to the volume of water for which water equivalent of the
calorimeter has been calculated.
be C
Precautions
to N
(a) Measure chloroform and acetone carefully.

(b) Record the temperature very carefully with a thermometer graduated up to 0.1°C.
©
(i) Chloroform and acetone do not form an ideal liquid pair, whereas acetone and benzene do
form. Why?
(ii) Why does liquid pair of ethanol and water show positive deviation from Raoult’s law?
Give two examples of each of the liquid pairs for which ΔMixing H is negative and positive
t
(iii)
respectively.
no
(vi) How is the vapour pressure of the liquids related to interaction pattern between the
molecules of the components of a liquid mixture?
(v) How can you correlate the heat evolved from the system with the strength of the hydrogen
bond?
29
UNIT-4
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
d
HE potential difference between two electrodes of a galvanic cell is called
Cell Potential and is measured in volts. It is the difference between the
he
reduction potentials (or oxidation potentials) of the cathode and anode. When
no current is drawn from the cell it is called electromotive force (emf) of the cell.
Ecell = Ecathode – Eanode
pu T
is
The potential of individual half-cells cannot be measured. We can measure
re R
only the difference between the two half-cell potentials that gives the emf of the
bl
cell. According to convention, standard hydrogen electrode represented by
Pt, H2 (g, 1 bar)/H+ (aq, 1M) is assigned zero potential at all temperatures
E
corresponding to the reaction.
be C
1
H (aq) + e ⎯→
+ –
H (g)
2 2
to N
Half cell potentials are measured with respect to standard hydrogen electrode.
A cell is constructed by taking standard hydrogen electrode as anode
(reference half cell) and under standard conditions of which cell potential is to be
measured, is made cathode the other half cell. Then the cell potential is equal to
©
the standard electrode potential of the other half cell.

V V V
E cell = E cathode because E anode 0
Nernst showed that electrode potential of a cell with respect to standard
hydrogen electrode can be measured at any concentration. For the electrode
reaction of the type:
n+
M (aq ) ne M(s)
The electrode potential at any concentration measured with respect to
t
standard hydrogen electrode can be represented by:

no
V RT [M]
E n+ =E n+ ln n+
M /M M /M nF [M ]
the concentration of solid M is taken as unity and we have
V RT 1
E n+ =E n+ ln n+
M /M M /M nF [M ]
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
–1 –1
Here R is the gas constant (8.314 JK mol ), F is Faraday
–1 n+
constant (96487C mol ), T is the temperature in Kelvin and [M ]
is the concentration of the species, M n+ .
In the following experiment the variation in the cell potential
of Zn/Zn2+||Cu2+ /Cu cell with concentration of electrolytes will
be studied.
EXPERIMENT 4.1
d
he
Aim
To study the variation in cell potential of the cell Zn/Zn2+ ||Cu2+/Cu
with change in concentration of electrolytes (CuSO4/ZnSO4) at room
pu T
is
temperature.
re R
Theory
bl
The cell under investigation in this experiment is represented as
E
follows:
Zn(s)/Zn 2+(aq., 1.0M) || Cu 2+ (aq., x M)/Cu(s)
be C
Here x M denotes varying concentrations of Cu2+ (aq) ions. In

other words, to study the variation in cell potential with
concentration, the concentration of Cu2+ (aq.) is varied while that
to N
of Zn2+ (aq) is kept constant. The measured cell potential enables

us to calculate the electrode potential of Cu2+ /Cu electrode for
each concentration of copper (II) ions. This variation is theoretically
©
depicted according to the equation:

V 0.059 2+
E 2 E 2+ log[Cu ] (1)
Cu /Cu Cu /Cu 2
The variation in the electrode potential of Cu2+/Cu electrode
consequently brings variation in the cell potential according to
the relation:
V
Ec ell = E 2 E 2+ (2)
Cu /Cu Zn /Zn
t
V
Equation (2) clearly suggests that even if E Zn2+ /Zn is kept
no
constant, the variation in ECu2 /Cu

would bring corresponding
variation in Ecell (cell potential). Similarly, keeping the concentration
of Cu2+ ions constant, one can study the variations in the cell
potential with the variation in concentration of Zn2+ ions.
31
Material Required
• 1.0M Zinc sulphate

• Zinc plate : One
solution : 40mL
• Copper plate : One
• 0.25 M, 0.1M, 0.05M,
• Beaker (50 mL) : Six
0.025 M and 0.0125M
• Voltmeter (Potentiometer) : One
Copper sulphate
• Salt bridge : One
solutions : 40 mL each
d
he
pu T
is
re R
bl
E
Fig. 4.1 : Set up of Zn(s)/Zn2+(aq.), (1.0M) || Cu 2+ (aq., xM)/Cu(s) cell
be C
Procedure
(i) Set up the cell as given in Fig. 4.1, using 1.0 M ZnSO4 and
to N
0.2 M CuSO4 solution.

(ii) Measure the potential difference of the cell and also keep
record of the polarity of the electrodes (this will enable us to
©
give a sign to the cell potential ECell).

(iii) Remove the salt bridge as soon as the cell potential
measurement is over.
(iv) Replace the beaker of 0.2 M CuSO4 with 0.1 M CuSO4
solution in the beaker. Place the salt bridge in position and
note the cell potential.
(v) Repeat this procedure for other solutions of copper
sulphate in decreasing order of concentrations of copper
sulphate solution.
t
(vi) Calculate log [Cu2+ (aq)] and then E Cu2 for each variation
no
/Cu
in the concentration of copper (II) in the solution.

(vii) Record electrode potential values of Cu2+(aq)/Cu(s) electrode for
different concentrations of Cu2+ ions as given in Table 4.1.
(viii) Plot a graph for the variation of cell potential with concentration
taking ( E Cu2 /Cu

) on y-axis and log [Cu2+(aq)] on x-axis.
32
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Table 4.1 : Record of the Cell Potential Data

2+ –1 2+ –1
Sl. No. [Cu (aq)]/mol L log [Cu (aq)]/mol L Ecell/V E( Cu2+/Cu )
Experimental value
1. 0.2
2. 0.1
3. 0.05
4. 0.025
d
5. 0.0125
he
Result
Write conclusion on the basis of data obtained.
pu T
is
Precautions
re R
(a)
bl
Clean copper and zinc strips and connecting wires with sand paper before use.
E
(b) Place the salt bridge immediately in distilled water after its use.
(c) Carry out dilution of the solution to another concentration very carefully.
be C
(d) Choose appropriate scales for plotting the graph.

to N
©
(i) For the reaction given below, apply Le-Chatelier principle to justify the results recorded by
you and also bring out mathematical rationalisation of your results.
Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq)

Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s),
(ii) Determine the slope of the graph. Match experimental value with the theoretical value. On
what factors does the value of slope depend?
(iii) Devise another experiment to study the variation in cell potential with concentration of one
of the ions involved in a cell reaction.
t
(iv) What factor is kept in mind while selecting an electrolytic solution for the construction of a
no
salt bridge?
(v) Is it possible to measure the single electrode potential?
33
UNIT-5
Chromatography
d
HE technique of chromatography is vastly used for the separation,
purification and identification of compounds. According to IUPAC,
he
chromatography is a physical method of separation in which the
components to be separated are distributed between two phases, one of which is
stationary while the other moves in a definite direction.
pu T
The stationary phase is usually in the form of a packed column (column
is
chromatography) but may take other forms such as flat sheet or a thin layer adhering
to a suitable form of backing material such as glass (thin-layer chromatography).
re R
bl
In column chromatography, mobile phase flows through the packed column,
while in thin layer chromatography, mobile phase moves by capillary action.
E
In this the thin film stationary phase may be either a liquid or a solid and the mobile
phase may be a liquid or a gas. Different possible combinations of these phases give
rise to principal techniques of chromatography. Two of these are described below.
be C
In partition chromatography, stationary phase is thin film of liquid

adsorbed on an essentially inert support. Mobile phase may be a liquid or a gas.
to N
Paper chromatography is an example of partition chromatography in which

liquid present in the pores of paper is stationary phase and some other liquid is
movable phase. Separation depends upon partition of substance between two
phases and the adsorption effects of inert support on compounds undergoing
©
chromatographic separation.
In adsorption chromatography, the stationary phase is a finely divided
solid adsorbent and the mobile phase is usually a liquid. Process of separation
depends upon selective adsorption of components of a mixture on the surface of
a solid.
In chromatography, substance equilibrates between a mobile and a stationary
phase. The more the interaction of substance with the stationary phase, slower
is its movement.
In this unit you will learn about the technique of separating the components
t
of a mixture by using paper chromatography.

no
EXPERIMENT 5.1
Aim
Separation of pigments present in the leaves (spinach) and flowers (rose, marigold)
by paper chromatography and determination of R f value of components.
CHROMATOGRAPHY
Theory
In paper chromatography, water molecules present in the pores of
the filter paper act as the stationary phase and the moving phase
can be a solvent like hexane, toluene, acetone or a mixture of solvents
such as methanol-water mixture etc. As the moving phase passes Methanol
through the spot on which sample has been adsorbed, it dissolves

the components more or less readily; depending upon the solubility Acetone
and carries them along with it while moving on the support.
At a given temperature and for a given solvent, it is possible to Petroleum
determine the characteristic rate of movement of each substance ether
d
on the chromotographic paper, as the moving phase moves.
This is represented by relative front or retardation factor also Chloroform
he
called Rf value. Rf values of different compounds are different
even if the mobile phase (solvent) is same. Furthermore, Rf value
of a compound may be different in different solvents. Rf values can
pu T
be calculated by using the following expression:
is
Distan ce travelled by the substance fr om reference line (cm)
re R
Rf
Distance travelled by th e solvent fron t from r eference line (cm)
bl
Since solvent front moves faster than the compounds, the Rf
E
value of a substance will always be less than one. Also note that Rf
value has no unit.
be C
If the compound is coloured then its position on the

chromatographic paper may be easily located. However, if the
substance is colourless, it may be treated with a reagent, which
to N
imparts it a characteristic colour. This reagent is given the name

developer. Iodine is the most commonly used developer in paper
chromatography. Several other techniques are available for locating
the spots.
©
Material Required
• Flower extract and
• Whatman’s filter paper extract of leaves : As per need
No.1 of size 4 cm 17 cm : One • Distilled water : As per need
• Gas jar of size 5 cm 20 cm: One • Methanol/Acetone : As per need
• Rubber cork fixed with • Petroleum ether boiling
hook in the centre : One range (60–80°C) : As per need
t
• Test tubes : As per need • Chloroform

no
/Acetone : As per need
Procedure
(i) Grind flowers/leaves in a mortar and transfer the paste into
a test tube.
(ii) Add small amounts of methanol or acetone in the crushed
material. Close the test tube with an appropriate cork and
35
shake it well. Filter it and collect the filtrate in a test tube

and cork the test tube.
(iii) Procure a Whatman filter paper No.1 of size 4 cm 17 cm
and mark a line at a distance of 3 cm from one of the ends of
the paper with the help of a pencil [Fig. 5.1(a)].
(iv) Using a finely drawn capillary, put one spot ‘a’ for the extract
of leaves and one spot ‘b’ for the extract of flowers. Allow
these spots to dry as shown in Fig. 5.1 (a).
(v) Hang the filter paper in a jar containing 20 mL mixture of
petroleum ether (boiling range 60–80°C) and chloroform
d
containing 19 mL petroleum ether and 1 mL chloroform or
a mixture of petroleum ether (boiling range 60–80°C) and
he
acetone in the ratio 9:1 (18 mL petroleum ether + 2 mL acetone)
so that the solvent does not touch the reference line as given
in Fig. 5.1 (b).
pu T (vi) Keep this jar as such till the mobile phase (solvent) rises up
is
to 2/3 of the length of the paper [Fig. 5.1(c)].
re R
(vii) Remove the filter paper from the jar, mark the solvent front,
bl
outline the spots with the help of a pencil and allow the filter
paper to get dry.
E
(viii) Measure the distance travelled by the solvent front and the
centre of different spots with respect to the reference line as
be C
given in Fig. 5.1 (d).

(x) Ascertain the number of pigments, which are present in the
extract of leaves and flowers.
to N
(xi) Calculate the R f value of different spots with the help of the
expression mentioned earlier.
t ©
no
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 5.1 : (a) Marked paper; (b) Dipping the filter paper in the solvent;
(c) Developing chromatogram; and (d) Developed chromatogram
36
CHROMATOGRAPHY
(xii) Record your observations as in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Separation of pigments of leaves and flowers
Sl. Distance travelled by the Distance travelled

Rf
No. Name of Colour of components of the spots by the solvent
the the spot ‘a’ or ‘b’ from the from reference line value
extract reference line in cm in cm
1.
d
2.
he
3.
4.
pu T
is
Result
re R
(i)
bl
R f values of components of flower are __________.
E
(ii) R f values of components of leaves are __________.
be C
Precautions
(a) Use good quality pencil for drawing the reference line so that the mark does not
to N
dissolve in the solvent in which TLC is run.

(b) Dip the paper strip in the solvent in such a way that the spot of the mixture is
above the solvent level and the movement of the solvent front is not zig-zag.
©
(c) While spotting the test solution on the paper, do not allow the spots to spread.
Use finely drawn capillary to put the spot on the paper.
(d) Ensure that the filter paper strip hangs freely in the jar.
(e) Once the experiment is set, do not disturb the jar as long as the chromatogram is
being developed.
(f) Keep the jar covered with the lid when the chromatogram is being developed.
(g) Make the paper strip perfectly dry before developing the spots.
(h) Handle the organic solvent/solvents, with care.
t
no
EXPERIMENT 5.2
Aim
Separation of the constituents of a mixture of inorganic compounds
containing two cations, Pb2+ and Cd2+ , using chromatographic
technique.
37
Theory
Principle for the separation of cations is same as has been explained
in Experiment 5.1. In this case the two cations to be separated are
colourless. therefore, a developer is needed. In the present case,
ammonium sulphide (NH4) 2S*, can be used to locate the position
of these ions on chromatographic paper or plate.
Material Required
• Whatman’s filter paper
d
No. 1 of size 4 cm 17 cm : One • 1–2% solution
of Pb(NO3)2
he
• Gas jar of size 5 cm 20 cm : One
• Rubber cork fixed with and Cd(NO3)3 : As per need
hook in the centre : One • Ehthanol : As per need
• 6.0 M HNO3 : As per need
pu T
• Test tubes : As per need
is
re R
bl Procedure
E
Ethanol (i) Procure a Whatman No. 1 filter paper of size 4 cm 17 cm.
With the help of a pencil, mark a line at a distance of 3 cm
be C
from one of the ends of this paper.

Lead (ii) Put a spot of the mixture on the marked line with the help of
to N
nitrate
a fine capillary.
(iii) Hang the filter paper in a jar containing a mixture of ethanol,
Cadmium 6.0 M HNO3 and distilled water, in the ratio 8:1:1.
nitrate
©
(iv) Keep the jar as such till the mobile phase (solvent) rises up
to two third of the length of the paper.
(v) Remove the filter paper from the jar, mark the solvent front.
(vi) Spray ammonium sulphide solution on the chromatography
paper to obtain spots of yellow and black colour. Mark the
position of spots with a pencil and allow the paper to dry.
(vii) Measure the distance moved by the solvent front and the
different spots of the cations with respect to the reference
line. This distance is the shortest distance between the
t
no
reference line and the centre of different spots.

(viii) Record the observations in tabular form as in Table 5.2.
Calculate the R f value for each cation.
* Ammonium sulphide is prepared by passing H2S gas through the mixture containing 100 mL water and
10 mL liquor ammonia for about 45 minutes.
38
CHROMATOGRAPHY
Table 5.2 : Separation of Pb2+ and Cd2+ ions by paper chromatography
Sl. Colour of Distance travelled

Distance travelled by components Rf
by the solvent from
No. the spot from reference line/cm value
reference line/cm
1.
2.
3.
d
Result
he
(i) R f values of Pb2+ ions is __________.
2+
(ii) R f values of Cd ions is __________.
pu T
is
Precautions
re R
(a)
bl
Use good quality pencil for drawing the reference line so that the mark does not
E
dissolve in the solvent in which TLC is run.
(b) Dip the paper strip in the solvent in such a way that the spot of the mixture is
be C
above the solvent level and movement of solvent front is not zig-zag.
(c) While spotting the test solution on the paper, do not allow the spots to spread.
Use finely drawn capillary to put the spot on the paper.
to N
(d) Ensure that the filter paper strip hangs freely in the jar.
(e) Once the experiment is set, do not disturb the jar as long as the chromatogram is
being developed.
©
(f) Keep the jar covered with the lid when the chromatogram is being developed.
(g) Make the paper strip perfectly dry before developing the spots.
(h) Handle the organic solvent/solvents, with care.
t
(i) What is a chromatogram? Explain the principle on which the technique of chromatography
no
is based.
(ii) What are the essential characteristics of the substance used as a developer?
(iii) How is the phenomenon of ‘adsorption’ applied in the separation of compounds by
chromatography?
39
UNIT -6
TITRIMETRIC ANALYSIS
(REDOX R EACTIONS)
d
HE oxidation and reduction reactions in aqueous solutions involve the
transfer of electrons from one species to another. In the oxidation of a
he
substance electron(s) is (are) transfered from the species and in reduction,
electron(s) is (are) gained by the species. Oxidation and reduction reactions occur
simultaneously. A reaction, which involves simultaneous oxidation and
reduction, is called a redox reaction. The titrations involving redox reaction are
pu T
is
called redox titrations. You know that in acid-base titrations, indicators which
are sensitive to pH change are employed to note the end point. Similarly, in
re R
bl
redox titrations there is a change in oxidation potential of the system.
The indicators used in redox reactions are sensitive to change in oxidation
E
potential. The ideal oxidation-reduction indicators have an oxidation potential
intermediate between the values for the solution being titrated and the titrant
and these show sharp readily detectable colour change.
be C
to N
EXPERIMENT 6.1
Aim
©
To determine the concentration/molarity of KMnO4 solution by titrating it against

a 0.1 M standard solution of oxalic acid.
Theory
In the present experiment, potassium permanganate acts as a powerful
oxidising agent. Although KMnO4 acts as an oxidising agent in alkaline medium
also, for quantitative analysis mostly acidic medium is used. The oxidising
action of KMnO4 in the acidic medium can be represented by the following
t
equation:
no
MnO4– + 8H+ +5e– ⎯→ Mn2+ + 4H2O
The acid used in this titration is dilute sulphuric acid. Nitric acid is not used
as it is itself an oxidising agent and hydrochloric acid is usually avoided because
it reacts with KMnO4 according to the equation given below to produce chlorine
and chlorine which is also an oxidising agent in the aqueous solution.
2KMnO4 + 16 HCl ⎯→ 2KCl + 2 MnCl2 + 5Cl2 + 8 H2O
TITRIMETRIC ANALYSIS (REDOX REACTIONS)
Since, oxalic acid acts as a reducing agent, it can be titrated

against potassium permanganate in the acidic medium according
to the following equation:
Reactions of oxalic acid
A. Chemical equations
Reduction half reaction : 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 ⎯→ K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 3H2O + 5 [O]
d
60°C
Oxidation half reaction : H2C2 O4 + [O] 2CO2 + H2O] × 5
he
________________________________________________________________________________
2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 + 5H2C2O4 ⎯→ K 2SO 4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 10 CO2
________________________________________________________________________________
pu T
is
B. Ionic equation
re R
bl
Reduction half reaction :
– – +
MnO4 + 5e + 8H ⎯→ Mn + 4H 2O] 2
2+
E
Oxidation half reaction : C2O4– ⎯→ 2CO2 + 2e– ] 5
be C
_____________________________________________________________________
2 MnO4– + 5C 2O2– + 16H+ ⎯→ 2Mn2+ + 10CO2 + 8H2O
to N
4
_____________________________________________________________________
– 2+ 2–
In these equations, MnO4 is reduced to Mn and C2O4 is
©
oxidised to CO2. The oxidation number of carbon in C2O42– changes

from +3 to +4.
In these titrations, potassium permanganate acts as a self-
indicator. Initially colour of potassium permanganate is discharged
due to its reduction by oxalic acid. After complete consumption of
oxalate ions, the end point is indicated by the appearance of a
light pink colour produced by the addition of a little excess of
unreacted potassium permanganate. Further, during the titration
t
of oxalic acid against potassium permanganate, warming of oxalic

no
acid solution (50°–60°C) along with dilute H 2SO4 is required.

This is essential because the reaction takes place at higher
temperature. During the titration, first manganous sulphate is
formed which acts as a catalyst for the reduction of KMnO4 by
oxalic acid. Therefore, in the beginning the reaction rate is slow
and as the reaction proceeds, the rate of the reaction increases.
41
Material Required
• Measuring flask (250 mL): One

• Burette (50 mL) : One
• Burette stand : One
• Pipette : One • Oxalic acid : As per need
• Conical flask : One • Potassium permanganate
• Funnel : One solution : As per need
• Weighing bottle : One
d
• 1.0 M Sulphuric acid : As per need
• Glazed tile(white) : One
he
• Burner : One
• Wire gauze : One
• Chemical balance : One
pu T
is
Procedure
re R
bl
A. Preparation of 0.1 M standard solution of oxalic acid
E
Prepare 0.1M oxalic acid solution as mentioned in experiment
Oxalic acid 2.1(Unit 2, Class XI, Laboratory Manual)
be C
B. Titration of oxalic acid solution against potassium

Potassium
permanganate permanganate solution
to N
(i) Rinse and fill a clean burette with potassium permanganate

Sulphuric acid solution. Remove the air bubble, if any, from the nozzle of the
burette by releasing some solution through it. The burette
used in the permanganate titration must have a glass stop
©
cock as rubber is attacked by permanganate ions.
(ii) Take 10 mL of 0.1 M oxalic acid solution in a conical flask

and add half of the test tube full ( 5 mL) of 1.0 M H2SO4
to it to prevent the formation of any precipitate of
manganese dioxide during the course of the titration.
(iii) Heat the oxalic acid solution upto 50°– 60°C before titrating
it with potassium permanganate solution taken in the
burette. To increase the visibility of the colour change, place
t
the conical flask containing the solution to be titrated over

no
a white glazed tile kept below the nozzle of the vertically

fitted burette.
(iv) Note the initial reading of the volume of permanganate

solution in the burette and add it in small volumes to the
hot oxalic acid solution while swirling the contents of the
flask gently. The violet colour of permanganate solution is
42
discharged on reaction with oxalic acid. The end point is

indicated by the appearance of permanent light pink colour
due to a slight excess of permanganate solution.
(v) Repeat the titration till three concordant readings are

obtained. Since the solution of KMnO4 is of dark colour,
the upper meniscus should be considered for noting the
burette readings.
(vi) Record the readings as shown in observation Table 6.1 and
calculate the strength of potassium permanganate solution
d
in mols/litre.
he
Table 6.1 : Titration of potassium permanganate solution
against standard oxalic acid solution
pu T
is
Burette readings Volume (V) of
Sl. No. Volume of Oxalic
acid in mL KMnO4 used
re R
Initial (x) Final (y) V = (y–x) mL
bl
E
be C
to N
©
Calculations
(i) The strength of the unknown solution in terms of molarity
may be determined by the following equation.
a1M1V1 = a 2 M2 V2 (6.1)
For oxalic acid vs potassium permanganate titration:
a1 = 2, (the number of electrons lost per formula unit of
t
oxalic acid in a balanced equation of half cell reaction)

no
a2 = 5, (the number of electrons gained per formula unit

of potassium permanganate in the balanced equation
of half cell reaction)
M1 and M2 are the molarities of oxalic acid and potassium
permanganate solutions used in the titration.
V1 and V 2 are the volumes of oxalic acid and potassium
permanganate solutions.
43
On putting the value of a1 and a2 in equation 6.1 we get

Oxalic acid KMnO4
2M1V1 = 5M2V2
2 M1V1
M2 = (6.2)
5 V2
We can calculate the molarity of potassium permanganate
solution by using equation 6.2. Strength of the solution is given by
the following equation:
d
Strength = Molarity Molar mass
he
Result
(i) Molarity of KMnO4 solution is _______.
(ii) Strength of KMnO4 solution is _______.
pu T
is
re R
Precautions
(a)
bl
Always rinse the burette and the pipette with the solutions to be taken in them.
E
(b) Never rinse the conical flask with the experimental solutions.
(c) Remove the air gaps if any, from the burette.
be C
(d) Never forget to remove the funnel from the burette before noting the initial reading
of the burette.
to N
(e) No drop of the liquid should hang at the tip of the burette at the end point and
while noting reading.
(f) Always read the upper meniscus for recording the burette reading in the case of
©
all coloured solutions.

(g) Never use pipette and burette with a broken nozzle.
(h) Lower end of the pipette should always remain dipped in the liquid while sucking
the liquid.
(i) Do not blow out the last drop of the solution from the jet end of the pipette.
(j) The strength of the solution must be calculated up to the fourth decimal place.
(k) Do not forget to heat the mixture of oxalic acid and H2SO4 solutions between 50°–60° C
while titrating it against potassium permanganate.
t
no
(i) What specific name is given to the permanganate titrations?

(ii) Which indicator is used in the permanganate titration?
44
(iii) Why is a burette with pinch-cock regulator not used for the permanganate titration ?
(iv) Why do we heat oxalic acid solution containing sulphuric acid up to 50–60°C in the
permanganate titration?
EXPERIMENT 6.2
Aim
d
To determine the concentration/molarity of KMnO4 solution by
titrating it against standard solution of ferrous ammonium
he
sulphate.
Theory
pu T
is
Like oxalic acid, ferrous ammonium sulphate also acts as a
reducing agent in the titration against potassium permanganate.
re R
The reaction which takes place is given below :
bl
E
(a) Chemical equation
Reduction half reaction : 2 KMnO4 + 3H2SO 4 ⎯→ K2SO4 + 2 MnSO4 + 3H 2O + 5 [O]
be C
Oxidation half reaction :2 FeSO4 (NH4)2 SO4 . 6H2O + H2SO4 + [O] ⎯→ Fe2 (SO4) 3 + 2 (NH4)2 SO 4
to N
+ 13 H2O] x 5
_______________________________________________________________________________________
2KMnO4 + 8H2SO4 + 10FeSO4 (NH4)2 SO 4 . 6H2O ⎯→ K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 5Fe2(SO4)3
©
+ 10(NH4)2SO4 + 68H2O
_______________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Ionic equation

– – + 2+
Reduction half reaction : MnO4 + 5e + 8H ⎯→ Mn + 4H2O
Oxidation half reaction : Fe2+ ⎯→ Fe3+ + e– ] 5
_______________________________________________________________________________________
MnO4– + 5Fe2+ + 8H+ ⎯→ Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2O
t
_______________________________________________________________________________________
no
The oxidation number of iron in Mohr’s salt is +2. Iron is

oxidised during the reaction and its oxidation number changes
from +2 to +3. In this titration heating of ferrous ammonium
sulphate solution is not required because reaction rate is very
high even at room temperature. Also, at high temperatures, ferrous
ions may be oxidised to ferric ions by oxygen of air and error may
be introduced in the experiment.
45
Material Required
• Measuring flask (250 mL) : One

• Burette (50 mL) : One • Potassium
• Burette stand : One permanganate solution : As per need
• Pipette : One • Dilute sulphuric acid : As per need
• Conical flask : One • Ferrous ammonium
• Glazed tile (white) : One sulphate : As per need
• Funnel : One
d
• Weighing bottle : One
he
Procedure
pu T
is
A. Preparation of 0.05 M, standard solution of ferrous
Potassium ammonium sulphate
re R
permanganate
bl
(Molar mass of FeSO4(NH4)2SO4 . 6H2O = 392 g mol–1).
(i) Weigh 4.9000 g of ferrous ammonium sulphate and
E
Sulphuric acid
transfer it into a 250 mL measuring flask through a funnel.
(ii) Transfer the solid sticking to the funnel with the help of
be C
distilled water into the flask and add dilute H 2 SO4 into the
flask drop wise to get the clear solution.
to N
(iii) Shake the flask till the substance dissolves and make the
solution upto the mark.
B. Titration of ferrous ammonium sulphate against

©
potassium permanganate solution

(i) Rinse and fill the clean burette with potassium
permanganate solution. Remove air bubbles if any, from
the burette tip by releasing some solution through it.
(ii) Take 10 mL of 0.05 M ferrous ammonium sulphate solution
in a conical flask and add half test tube (≈ 5 mL) full of
(1.0 M) H2SO4 to it.
(iii) Titrate the above solution with potassium permanganate
t
solution till the colour of the solution changes to permanent

no
pink. Swirl the content of the flask during the titration.

(iv) Repeat the titration, until three concordant readings are
obtained.
(v) Record the readings as shown in observation Table 6.2 and
calculate the strength of potassium permanganate solution
in mols/litre.
46
Table 6.2 : Titration of potassium permanganate solution against

standard ferrous ammonium sulphate solution
Volume of ferrous Burette Readings Volume (V) of

ammonium sulphate
Sl. No. KMnO4 used
solution used for
Initial (x) Final (y) V = (y–x) mL
each titration in mL
d
he
pu T
is
Calculations
re R
bl
The strength of unknown solution in terms of molarity may be
E
determined by the following equation :
a1M 1V1 = a2M 2V 2
M 1 and M2 are the molarities of ferrous ammonium sulphate
be C
and potassium permanganate solutions and V1 and V2 are volumes

of ferrous ammonium sulphate and potassium permanganate
to N
solutions, respectively.
a1 = 1, (the number of electrons lost per formula unit of ferrous
ammonium sulphate in the half cell reaction)
©
a2 = 5, (the number of electrons gained per formula unit of

potassium permanganate in a half cell reaction)
Strength can be calculated by the formula given below :
Strength = Molarity Molar mass
Result
The strength of the given potassium permanganate solution is _____ g/L.
t
no
Precautions
(a) Always use a fresh sample of ferrous ammonium sulphate to prepare its standard
solution.
(b) Other precautions are same as that in Experiment 6.1.
47
(i) Why is ferrous ammonium sulphate solution not heated before titration?
(ii) Why is nitric acid or hydrochloric acid not used in permanganate titration? Explain.
(iii) Why is dilute sulphuric acid added while preparing a standard solution of ferrous
ammonium sulphate ?
(iv) How will you prepare 100 mL of 0.1 M standard solution of ferrous ammonium sulphate?
d
(v) Why is KMnO4 not regarded as a primary standard?
he
(vi) What type of titrations are given the name redox titrations? Name some other redox
titrations?
pu T
is
re R
bl
E
be C
t to N
©
no
48
UNIT -7
SYSTEMATIC QUALITATIVE
ANALYSIS
d
NALYSIS always does not mean breaking of substance into its ultimate
constituents. Finding out the nature of substance and identity of
he
its constituents is also analysis and is known as qualitative analysis.
Qualitative analysis of inorganic salts means the identification of cations and
anions present in the salt or a mixture of salts. Inorganic salts may be obtained
by complete or partial neutralisation of acid with base or vice-versa. In the
pu T
is
formation of a salt, the part contributed by the acid is called anion and the part
contributed by the base is called cation. For example, in the salts CuSO4 and
re R
NaCl, Cu2+ and Na+ ions are cations and SO2– and Cl– ions are anions. Qualitative
bl
4
analysis is carried out on various scales. Amount of substance employed in
these is different. In macro analysis, 0.1 to 0.5 g of substance and about 20 mL
E
of solution is used. For semimicro analysis, 0.05 g substance and 1 mL solution
is needed while for micro analysis amount required is very small. Qualitative
be C
analysis is carried out through the reactions which are easily perceptible to our
senses such as sight and smell. Such reactions involve:
to N
(a) Formation of a precipitate

(b) Change in colour
(c) Evolution of gas etc.
©
Systematic analysis of an inorganic salt involves the following steps:

(i) Preliminary examination of solid salt and its solution.
(ii) Determination of anions by reactions carried out in solution (wet tests)
and confirmatory tests.
(iii) Determination of cations by reactions carried out in solution (wet tests)
and confirmatory tests.
Preliminary examination of a salt often furnishes important information, which
simplifies further course of analysis. Although these tests are not conclusive but
t
sometimes they give quite important clues for the presence of certain anions or
no
cations. These tests can be performed within 10-15 minutes. These involve noting
the general appearance and physical properties, such as colour, smell, solubility
etc. of the salt. These are named as dry tests.
Heating of dry salt, blow pipe test, flame tests, borax bead test, sodium
carbonate bead test, charcoal cavity test etc. come under dry tests. Some of these
tests are given later in this unit.
Solubility of a salt in water and the pH of aqueous solutions give important

information about the nature of ions present in the salt. If a solution of the salt is
acidic or basic in nature, this means that it is being hydrolysed in water. If the
solution is basic in nature then salt may be some carbonate or sulphide etc. If
the solution shows acidic nature then it may be an acid salt or salt of weak base
and strong acid. In this case it is best to neutralise the solution with sodium
carbonate before testing it for anions.
Gases evolved in the preliminary tests with dil. H2SO4/dil. HCl and conc. H2SO4
also give good indication about the presence of acid radicals (See Tables 7.1
and 7.3). Preliminary tests should always be performed before starting the
d
confirmatory tests for the ions.
he
EXPERIMENT 7.1
Aim
pu T
is
To detect one cation and one anion in the given salt from the following ions:
2+ 2+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
Cations - Pb , Cu , As , Al , Fe , Mn , Ni , Zn , Co , Ca , Sr , Ba ,
re R
bl
2+
Mg , NH+4
E
2– – – –
Anions - CO2–
3
, S , SO2–
3
, SO4 , NO2 , NO3 , Cl , Br , I , PO 4 , C2 O4 ,
2– – – 3– 2–
be C
–
CH3COO .
(Insoluble salts to be excluded)
to N
Theory
Two basic principles of great use in the analysis are:
©
(i) the Solubility product; and

(ii) the Common ion effect.
When ionic product of a salt exceeds its solubility product, precipitation takes
place. Ionic product of salt is controlled by making use of common ion effect
which you have studied in the textbook of chemistry.
Material Required
• Boiling tube : As per need

t
• Test tubes : As per requirement

no
• Measuring cylinder : One

• Test tube stand : One • Reagents : As per need
• Test tube holder : One
• Delivery tube : One
• Corks : As per need
• Filter paper : As per need
50
SYSTEMATIC QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS OF A NIONS
Step - I : Preliminary Test with Dilute Sulphuric Acid

In this test the action of dilute sulphuric acid (procedure is given
below) on the salt is noted at room temperature and on warming.
Carbonate ( CO2–
3
), sulphide (S2–), sulphite ( SO2–
3
), nitrite ( N O 2– )
–
and acetate (CH3COO ) react with dilute sulphuric acid to evolve
different gases. Study of the characteristics of the gases evolved
d
gives information about the anions. Summary of characteristic
properties of gases is given in Table 7.1 below.
he
Procedure
(a) Take 0.1 g of the salt in a test tube and add 1–2 mL of
pu T
is
dilute sulphuric acid. Observe the change, if any, at
room temperature. If no gas is evolved, warm the
Fig. 7.1 : Testing a Gas
re R
content of the test tube. If gas is evolved test it by using
bl
the apparatus shown in Fig.7.1 and identify the gas
evolved (See Table 7.1).
E
be C
Table 7.1 : Preliminary test with dilute sulphuric acid

to N
Inference
Observations
Gas Evolved Possible Anion
©
A colourless, odourless gas is evolved

with brisk effervescence, which turns CO2 2–
Carbonate ( CO 3 )
lime water milky.
Colourless gas with the smell of rotten

2–
eggs is evolved which turns lead acetate H 2S Sulphide (S )
paper black.
Colourless gas with a pungent smell, like

burning sulphur which turns acidified SO2 2–
potassium dichromate solution green. Sulphite ( SO 3 )
t
no
Brown fumes which turn acidified

potassium iodide solution containing NO2 –
Nitrite ( NO2 )
starch solution blue.
Colourless vapours with smell of

–
vinegar. Vapours turn blue litmus red. CH3COOH vapours Acetate, (CH3 COO )
51
2- 2– 2- – –
Confirmatory tests for CO3 S , SO3 , NO2 and CH3COO
Confirmatory (wet) tests for anions are performed by using water extract when
salt is soluble in water and by using sodium carbonate extract when salt is
insoluble in water. Confirmation of CO2– 3
is done by using aqueous solution of
the salt or by using solid salt as such because sodium carbonate extract contains
carbonate ions. Water extract is made by dissolving salt in water. Preparation of
sodium carbonate extract is given below.
Preparation of sodium carbonate extract
d
Take 1 g of salt in a porcelain dish or boiling tube. Mix about 3 g of solid sodium
carbonate and add 15 mL of distilled water to it. Stir and boil the content for about
he
10 minutes. Cool, filter and collect the filtrate in a test tube and label it as sodium
carbonate extract.
Confirmatory tests for acid radicals, which react with dilute sulphuric acid
are given below in Table 7.2.
pu T
is
2– 2– 2– – –
Table 7.2 : Confirmatory tests for CO3 , S , SO3 , NO3 , CH3 COO
re R
Anion
bl Confirmatory Test
E
Carbonate ( CO
2 -) Take 0.1 g of salt in a test tube, add dilute sulphuric acid.
3
CO2 gas is evolved with brisk effervescence which turns lime
be C
water milky. On passing the gas for some more time, milkiness
disappears.
to N
2–
Sulphide (S ) Take 1 mL of water extract and make it alkaline by adding
ammonium hydroxide or sodium carbonate extract. Add a drop of
sodium nitroprusside solution. Purple or violet colouration appears.
©
*Sulphite ( SO3 )
2–
(a) Take 1 mL of water extract or sodium carbonate
extract in a test tube and add barium chloride
solution. A white precipitate is formed which dissolves
in dilute hydrochloric acid and sulphur dioxide gas
is also evolved.
(b) Take the precipitate of step (a) in a test tube and add
a few drops of potassium permanganate solution
acidified with dil. H 2 S O4 . Colour of potassium
permanganate solution gets discharged.
–
Nitrite ( NO ) (a) Take 1 mL of water extract in a test tube. Add a few
t
2
drops of potassium iodide solution and a few drops of
no
starch solution, acidify with acetic acid. Blue colour

appears.
(b) Acidify 1 mL of water extract with acetic acid. Add
2-3 drops of sulphanilic acid solution followed by 2-3
drops of 1-naphthylamine reagent. Appearance of red
colour indicates the presence of nitrite ion.
* Like CO2 sulphur dioxide also turns lime water milky. But CO 2 is odourless gas and SO2 has
a characteristic smell.
52
–
Acetate (CH3COO ) (a) Take 0.1 g of salt in a china dish. Add 1 mL of ethanol
and 0.2 mL conc. H 2 SO4 and heat. Fruity odour
confirms the presence of acetate ion.
(b) Take 0.1 g of salt in a test tube, add 1-2 mL distilled
water, shake well filter if necessary. Add 1 to 2 mL
neutral** ferric chloride solution to the filtrate. Deep
red colour appears which disappears on boiling and
a brown-red precipitate is formed.
** Prepareation of neutral Ferric Chloride : Add dilute NaOH solution to ferric chloride solution drop by drop with
d
shaking until a small but permanent precipitate of ferric hydroxide is obtained. Filter the precipitate and use
the filtrate for analysis.
he
Chemistry of Confirmatory Tests
2–
1. Test for Carbonate ion [CO3 ]
pu T
is
If there is effervescence with the evolution of a colourless and odourless gas on
re R
adding dil. H2SO4 to the solid salt, this indicates the presence of carbonate ion.
bl
The gas turns lime water milky due to the formation of CaCO 3 (Fig. 7.1)
E
Na2CO3 + H2SO4 ⎯→ Na2SO 4 + H 2O +CO2
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 ⎯→ CaCO3 + H2O

be C
If CO 2 gas is passed in excess through lime water, the milkiness produced

to N
disappears due to the formation of calcium hydrogen carbonate which is soluble

in water.
©
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O ⎯→ Ca (HCO3)2 Hydrogen

sulphide
2–
2. Test for Sulphide ion [S ]
(a) With warm dilute H2SO4 a sulphide gives hydrogen sulphide gas which
smells like rotten eggs. A piece of filter paper dipped in lead acetate
solution turns black on exposure to the gas due to the formation of
lead sulphide which is black in colour.
Na2S + H2SO4 ⎯→ Na2SO4 + H2S
t
no
(CH 3COO)2Pb + H2S ⎯→ PbS + 2CH3COOH

Lead sulphide
Black precipitate
(b) If the salt is soluble in water, take the solution of salt in water make it
alkaline with ammonium hydroxide and add sodium nitroprusside
solution. If it is insoluble in water take sodium carbonate extract and
add a few drops of sodium nitroprusside solution. Purple or violet
53
colouration due to the formation of complex compound Na4[Fe(CN)5NOS]

confirms the presence of sulphide ion in the salt.
Na2S + Na 2 [Fe(CN)5NO] ⎯→ Na 4 [Fe(CN)5NOS]
Sodium nitroprusside Complex of Purple colour
2–
3. Test for Sulphite ion [SO3 ]
(a) On treating sulphite with warm dil. H2SO 4, SO 2 gas is evolved which is
suffocating with the smell of burning sulphur.
Na2SO 3 + H2SO 4 ⎯→ Na2SO4 + H2O + SO2
d
Barium
The gas turns potassium dichromate paper acidified with dil. H2SO4, green.
he
compounds K2Cr2O7 + H 2SO 4 + 3SO2 ⎯→ K2SO4 + Cr2 (SO4)3 + H2O
Chromium
sulphate (green)
pu T
is
Potassium (b) An aqueous solution or sodium carbonate extract of the salt produces a
permanganate white precipitate of barium sulphite on addition of barium chloride solution.
re R
bl
Na2SO 3 + BaCl 2 ⎯→ 2NaCl + BaSO 3
E
This precipitate gives following tests.
(i) This precipitate on treatment with dilute HCl, dissolves due to
decomposition of sulphite by dilute HCl. Evolved SO2 gas can be tested.
be C
BaSO3 + 2HCl ⎯→ BaCl2 + H2O + SO2

to N
(ii) Precipitate of sulphite decolourises acidified potassium permanganate

solution.
BaSO3 + H2SO 4 ⎯→ BaSO4 + H2O + SO2
©
2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 ⎯→ K 2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 3H2O + 5 [O]

SO2 + H2O + [O] ⎯→ H2SO 4
–
4. Test for Nitrite ion [NO2 ]
(a) On treating a solid nitrite with dil. H2SO4 and warming , reddish brown
fumes of NO2 gas are evolved. Addition of potassium iodide solution to
the salt solution followed by freshly prepared starch solution and
acidification with acetic acid produces blue colour. Alternatively, a filter
t
paper moistened with potassium iodide and starch solution and a few
no
drops of acetic acid turns blue on exposure to the gas due to the
interaction of liberated iodine with starch.
(i) 2NaNO2 + H2SO 4 ⎯→ Na2SO 4 + 2HNO2
3HNO2 ⎯→ HNO3 + 2NO + H2O
2NO + O2 ⎯→ 2NO2
Brown gas
54
– –
(ii) NO2 + CH3COOH ⎯→ HNO2 + CH 3COO
2HNO 2 + 2KI + 2CH3COOH ⎯→ 2CH3 COOK + 2H2O + 2NO + I 2
I 2 + Starch ⎯→ Blue complex
(b) Sulphanilic acid — 1-naphthylamine reagent test (Griss-Ilosvay test)

On adding sulphanilic acid and 1-naphthylamine reagent to the water
extract or acidified with acetic acid, sulphanilic acid is diazotised in the
reaction by nitrous acid formed. Diazotised acid couples with
d
1-naphthylamine to form a red azo-dye.
he
NO2– + CH3COOH ⎯→ HNO2 + CH 3COO–
pu T
is
re R
bl
E
be C
to N
©
The test solution should be very dilute. In concentrated solutions

reaction does not proceed beyond diazotisation.
–
5. Test for Acetate ion [CH3COO ]
(a) If the salt smells like vinegar on treatment with dil. H2SO4, this indicates
t
the presence of acetate ions. Take 0.1 g of salt in a china dish and
no
add 1 mL of ethanol. Then add about 0.2 mL of conc. H2SO4 and heat.
–
Fruity odour of ethyl acetate indicates the presence of CH 3COO ion.
2 CH 3COONa + H 2SO4 ⎯→ Na2SO4 + 2 CH3COOH
+
H
CH3COOH + C 2H 5OH ⎯→ CH 3COOC 2H5 + H2O
Ethylacetate
(Fruity odour)
55
(b) Acetate gives deep red colour on reaction with neutral ferric chloride
solution due to the formation of complex ion which decomposes on
heating to give Iron (III) dihydroxyacetate as brown red precipitate.
– 3+ + +
6 CH3COO + 3Fe + 2H2O ⎯→ [Fe3(OH)2 (CH3COO) 6] + 2H
[Fe3(OH)2 (CH3COO) 6]+ + 4H2O ⎯→ 3[Fe (OH)2 (CH3COO)] + 3CH3COOH + H+

Iron(III)dihydroxyacetate
(Brown-red precipitate)
Step-II : Preliminary Test with Concentrated Suphuric Acid
d
If no positive result is obtained from dil. H2 SO4 test, take 0.1 g of salt in a test
he
tube and 3-4 drops of conc. H2SO4. Observe the change in the reaction mixture
in cold and then warm it. Identify the gas evolved on heating (see Table 7.3).
pu T
Table 7.3 : Preliminary examination with concentrated sulphuric acid
is
Inference
re R
Observations
bl
Gas/Vapours Evolved Possible Anions
E
A colourless gas with pungent smell,
which gives dense white fumes when a
be C
–
rod dipped in ammonium hydroxide is HCl Chloride, (Cl )
brought near the mouth of the test tube.
to N
Reddish brown gas with a pungent

odour is evolved. Intensity of reddish gas
–
increases on heating the reaction Br2 vapours Bromide, (Br )
mixture after addition of solid MnO2 to
©
the reaction mixture. Solution also

acquires red colour.
Violet vapours, which turn starch paper
blue and a layer of violet sublimate is I2 vapours
–
Iodide, (I )
formed on the sides of the tube. Fumes
become dense on adding MnO2 to the
reaction mixture.
Brown fumes evolve which become dense
upon heating the reaction mixture after –
NO2 Nitrate, ( NO )
t
addition of copper turnings and the 3

no
solution acquires blue colour.
Colourless, odourless gas is evolved

which turns lime water milky and the 2–
CO and CO 2 Oxalate, ( C2O 4 )
gas coming out of lime water burns with
a blue flame, if ignited.
56
Confirmatory tests for the anions which react with concentrated sulphuric
acid are given in Table 7.4.
– – – 2–
Table 7.4 : Confirmatory tests for Cl , Br , I , NO 3– and C2 O 4
Anion Confirmatory Test
Chloride (Cl )
–
(a) Take 0.1 g of salt in a test tube, add a pinch of
manganese dioxide and 3-4 drops of conc. sulphuric
acid. Heat the reaction mixture. Greenish yellow
d
chlorine gas is evolved which is detected by its pungent
odour and bleaching action.
he
(b) Take 1 mL of sodium carbonate extract in a test tube,
acidfy it with dil . HNO3 or take water extract and add silver
nitrate solution. A curdy white precipitate is obtained
which is soluble in ammonium hydroxide solution .
pu T (c) Take 0.1 g salt and a pinch of solid potassium
is
dichromate in a test tube, add conc. H2 SO4 , heat and
pass the gas evolved through sodium hydroxide
re R
bl
solution. It becomes yellow. Divide the solution into
two parts. Acidify one part with acetic acid and add
E
lead acetate solution. A yellow precipitate is formed.
Acidify the second part with dilute sulphuric acid and
add 1 mL of amyl alcohol followed by 1 mL of 10%
be C
hydrogen peroxide. After gentle shaking the organic

layer turns blue.
to N
–
Bromide (Br ) (a) Take 0.1 g of salt and a pinch of MnO2 in a test tube.
Add 3-4 drops conc.sulphuric acid and heat. Intense
brown fumes are evolved.
(b) Neutralise 1 mL of sodium carbonate extract with
©
hydrochloric acid (or take the water extract). Add 1

mL carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)/chloroform (CHCl3)/
carbon disulphide. Now add an excess of chlorine
water dropwise and shake the test tube. A brown
colouration in the organic layer confirms the presence
of bromide ion.
(c) Acidify 1 mL of sodium carbonate extract with dil.
HNO3 (or take 1 mL water extract) and add silver
nitrate solution. A pale yellow precipitate soluble with
difficulty in ammonium hydroxide solution is obtained.
t
–
Iodide ( I ) (a) Take 1 mL of salt solution neutralised with HCl and
no
add 1 mL chloroform/carbon tetrachloride/carbon

disulphide. Now add an excess of chlorine water drop
wise and shake the test tube. A violet colour appears
in the organic layer.
(b) Take 1 mL of sodium carbonate extract acidify it with
dil. HNO3 (or take water extract). Add, silver nitrate
solution. A yellow precipitate insoluble in NH 4OH
solution is obtained.
57
*Nitrate ( NO3– ) Take 1 mL of salt solution in water in a test tube. Add 2 mL

conc. of H2 SO4 and mix thoroughly. Cool the mixture under
the tap. Add freshly prepared ferrous sulphate along the
sides of the test tube without shaking. A dark brown ring is
formed at the junction of the two solutions.
Oxalate ( C O )
2– (a) Take 1 mL of water extract or sodium carbonate
2 4
extract acidified with acetic acid and add calcium
chloride solution. A white precipitate insoluble in
ammonium oxalate and oxalic acid solution but
soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid and dilute nitric
acid is formed.
d
(b) Take the precipitate from test (a) and dissolve it in
dilute H 2SO4. Add very dilute solution of KMnO 4 and
he
warm. Colour of KMnO 4 solution is discharged. Pass
the gas coming out through lime water. The lime water
turns milky.
pu T
is
–
1. Test for Chloride ion [Cl ]
re R
bl (a) If on treatment with warm conc. H2SO4 the salt gives a colourless gas
E
with pungent smell or and if the gas which gives dense white fumes
with ammonia solution, then the salt may contain Cl– ions and the
following reaction occurs.
be C
NaCl + H2SO4 ⎯→ NaHSO4 + HCl

Manganese
Sodium Hydrogen chloride
to N
dioxide
hydrogen sulphate Colourless gas
HCl + NH3 ⎯→ NH4Cl
Ammonium chloride
©
Silver nitrate
White fumes
(b) If a salt gives effervescence on heating with conc. H2SO4 and MnO2 and
a light greenish yellow pungent gas is evolved, this indicates the presence
of Cl– ions.
MnO2 + 2NaCl + 2H 2SO 4 ⎯→ Na2SO4 + MnSO4 + 2H2O + Cl2
(c) Salt solution acidified with dilute HNO3 on addition of silver nitrate
solution gives a curdy white precipitate soluble in ammonium hydroxide
–
solution. This indicates the presence of Cl ions in the salt.
t
NaCl + AgNO3 ⎯→ NaNO3 + Ag Cl

no
Silver chloride
(White precipitate)
AgCl + 2NH4OH ⎯→ [Ag(NH3)2 ]Cl + 2H2O

Diammine silver (I)
chloride
* This test can also be performed by adding first ferrous sulphate solution and then conc. H2SO4 .
58
(d) Mix a little amount of salt and an equal amount of solid potassium
dichromate (K2Cr2O7) in a test tube and add conc. H2SO4 to it. Heat the
test tube and pass the evolved gas through sodium hydroxide solution.
If a yellow solution is obtained, divide the solution into two parts. Acidify
the first part with acetic acid and then add lead acetate solution.
Formation of a yellow precipitate of lead chromate confirms the presence
of chloride ions in the salt. This test is called chromyl chloride test.*
4NaCl + K2Cr2O7 + 6H2SO 4 ⎯→ 2KHSO4 + 2CrO2Cl2 + 4NaHSO4 + 3H2O Chromyl
(Chromyl chloride
chloride)
d
CrO2Cl2 + 4NaOH ⎯→ Na 2CrO4 + 2NaCl + 2H2O
he
Lead
(CH 3COO)2Pb + Na2CrO4 ⎯→ PbCrO4 + 2CH3COONa chromate
Sodium Lead chromate
chromate (Yellow precipitate)
pu T
is
Acidify the second part with dilute sulphuric acid and add small amounts of
re R
amyl alcohol and then 1 mL of 10% hydrogen peroxide solution. On gentle shaking
bl
organic layer turns blue. CrO24– ion formed in the reaction of chromyl chloride
with sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrogen peroxide to form chromium pentoxide
E
(CrO5) (See structure) which dissolves in amyl alcohol to give blue colour.
2– +
CrO4 + 2H + 2H2O 2 ⎯→
be C
Cr O5 + 3H2O
Chromium
pentoxide
to N
–
2. Test for Bromide ion (Br )
©
If on heating the salt with conc. H2SO 4 reddish brown fumes of bromine are
evolved in excess, this indicates the presence of Br–ions. The fumes get intensified
on addition of MnO 2. Bromine vapours turn starch paper yellow.
Bromine
2NaBr + 2H 2SO4 ⎯→ Br2 + SO2 + Na2SO 4 + 2H2O very toxic by
inhalation
2NaBr + MnO 2 + 2H2SO4 ⎯→ Na 2SO 4 + MnSO4 + 2H2O + Br 2 corrosive
(a) Add 1 mL of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)/chloroform (CHCl3)** and excess

of freshly prepared chlorine water dropwise to the salt solution in water
t
or sodium carbonate extract neutralised with dilute HCl. Shake the test
no
tube vigorously. The appearance of an orange brown colouration in the

organic layer due to the dissolution of bromine in it, confirms the
presence of bromide ions.
2NaBr + Cl 2 ⎯→ 2NaCl + Br2
3+
* Chromyl chloride test should be performed with minimum amount of substance to avoid pollution by Cr ions.
** In place of carbon tetrachloride or chloroform, carbon disulphide or dichloromethane (CH2Cl2) can also be used.
59
(b) Acidify the sodium carbonate extract of the salt with dil. HNO3.
Add silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution and shake the test tube. A pale
yellow precipitate is obtained which dissolves in ammonium hydroxide
with difficulty.
NaBr + AgNO3 ⎯→ NaNO 3 + AgBr
Silver bromide
Pale yellow precipitate
–
3. Test for Iodide ion ( I )
d
(a) If on heating the salt with conc. H2SO4 , deep violet vapours with a
pungent smell are evolved. These turns starch paper blue and a violet
he
sublimate is formed on the sides of the test tube, it indicates the presence
–
of I ions. Some HI, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, and sulphur
are also formed due to the following reactions.
Iodine,
pu T 2NaI + 2H2SO 4 ⎯→ Na2SO4 + SO2 + 2H2O + I2
is
harmful by
inhalation
re R
and contact I2 + Starch ⎯→ Blue colour
bl
with skin solution
E
Chlorine, NaI + H2SO4 ⎯→ NaHSO 4 + HI
toxic by
inhalation
2HI + H2SO 4 ⎯→ 2H2O + I2 + SO 2
be C
Chloroform, 6NaI + 4H2SO4 ⎯→ 3I2 + 4H2O +S + 3Na2SO4

to N
harmful and
toxic by 8NaI + 5 H2SO4 ⎯→ 4I2 + H 2S + 4Na2SO4 + 4H2O
inhalation
On adding MnO2 to the reaction mixture, the violet vapours become
©
dense.
2NaI + MnO2 + 2H2SO4 ⎯→ I2 + MnSO4 + Na2SO 4 + 2H2O
(b) Add 1 mL of CHCl3 or CCl4 and chlorine water in excess to the salt
solution in water or sodium carbonate extract neutralised with dil.HCl
and shake the test tube vigorously. Presence of violet colouration in the
organic layer confirms the presence of iodide ions.
2NaI + Cl2 ⎯→ 2NaCl + I2
t
no
Iodine dissolves in the organic solvent and the solution becomes violet.
(c) Acidify sodium carbonate extract of the salt with dil.HNO3 and add
AgNO3 solution. Appearance of a yellow precipitate insoluble in excess
of NH4OH confirms the presence of iodide ions.
NaI + AgNO3 ⎯→ AgI + NaNO3
silver iodide
(Yellow precipitate)
60
–
4. Test for Nitrate ion [NO3 ]
(a) If on heating the salt with conc. H2SO4 light brown fumes are evolved
then heat a small quantity of the given salt with few copper turnings or
chips and conc. H 2SO 4. Evolution of excess of brown fumes indicates
the presence of nitrate ions. The solution turns blue due to the formation
of copper sulphate. Copper
sulphate
NaNO3 + H2SO4 ⎯→ NaHSO4 + HNO 3
4HNO3 ⎯→ 4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O
2NaNO3 + 4H2SO4 + 3Cu ⎯→ 3 CuSO4 + Na2SO4 + 4H2O + 2NO
d
Nitric
Copper sulphate acid
(Blue)
he
2NO + O 2 ⎯→ 2NO2
(Brown fumes)
(b) Take 1 mL of an aqueous solution of the salt and add 2 mL conc. H 2SO 4
pu T Oxalates
is
slowly. Mix the solutions thoroughly and cool the test tube under the
tap. Now, add freshly prepared ferrous sulphate solution along the sides
re R
of the test tube dropwise so that it forms a layer on the top of the liquid
bl
already present in the test tube. A dark brown ring is formed at the
E
junction of the two solutions due to the formation of nitroso ferrous
sulphate (Fig. 7.2). Alternatively first ferrous sulphate is added and
then concentrated sulphuric acid is added.
be C
to N
©
Fig. 7.2 : Formation of brown ring
NaNO3 + H2SO4 ⎯→ Na HSO 4 + HNO 3

6 FeSO4 + 3H2SO4 + 2HNO3 ⎯→ 3Fe 2 (SO 4)3 + 4H2O + 2NO
FeSO4 + NO ⎯→ [Fe(NO)]SO4
t
Nitroso ferrous sulphate

no
(Brown)
2–
5. Test for Oxalate ion [C 2O4 ]
If carbon dioxide gas along with carbon monoxide gas is evolved in the
preliminary examination with concentrated sulphuric acid, this gives indication
about the presence of oxalate ion.
(COONa)2 + Conc. H 2SO 4 ⎯→ Na 2SO4 + H2O + CO2 ↑ + CO ↑
61
Oxalate is confirmed by the following tests:

(a) Acidify sodium carbonate extract with acetic acid and add calcium chloride
solution. A white precipitate of calcium oxalate, insoluble in ammonium
oxalate and oxalic acid solution indicates the presence of oxalate ion.
CaCl2 + Na2C2O 4 ⎯→ CaC 2O 4 + 2NaCl
Calcium oxalate
(White precipitate)
(b) KMnO4 test
d
Filter the precipitate from test (a). Add dil. H2SO4 to it followed by dilute
KMnO4 solution and warm. Pink colour of KMnO4 is discharged:
he
CaC2O4 + H 2SO 4 ⎯→ CaSO 4 + H2C2O4
Calcium sulphate Oxalic acid
pu T 2 KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 + 5H2C2O4 ⎯→ 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 8H2O + 10CO2
is
Pass the gas evolved through lime water. A white precipitate is formed
re R
bl
which dissolves on passing the gas for some more time.
E
Step-III : Test for Sulphate and Phosphate
If no positive test is obtained in Steps-I and II, then tests for the presence of
be C
sulphate and phosphate ions are performed. These tests are summarised in
Table 7.5.
to N
Table 7.5 : Confirmatory tests for Sulphate and Phosphate

©
Ion Confirmatory Test
2– (a) Take 1 mL water extract of the salt in water or sodium

Sulphate ( SO 4 )
carbonate and after acidifying with dilute
hydrochloric acid add BaCl 2 solution. White
precipitate insoluble in conc. HCl or conc. HNO 3 is
obtained.
(b) Acidify the aqueous solution or sodium carbonate
extract with acetic acid and add lead acetate solution.
Appearance of white precipitate confirms the presence
t
of SO 24 – ion.
no
3– (a) Acidify sodium carbonate extract or the solution of

Phosphate ( PO 4 )
the salt in water with conc. HNO3 and add ammonium
molybdate solution and heat to boiling. A canary
yellow precipitate is formed.
62
2–
1. Test of Sulphate ions [SO4 ]
(a) Aqueous solution or sodium carbonate extract of the salt acidified with
acetic acid on addition of barium chloride gives a white precipitate of
barium sulphate insoluble in conc. HCl or conc. HNO3 .
Na2SO4 + BaCl2 ⎯→ BaSO4 + 2NaCl

Barium sulphate
d
(White precipitate)
he
(b) Sulphate ions give white precipitate of lead sulphate when aqueous
solution or sodium carbonate extract neutralised with acetic acid is
treated with lead acetate solution.
pu T
Na2SO4 + (CH 3COO)2Pb ⎯→
is
PbSO 4 + 2CH 3COONa
Lead sulphate
re R
(White precipitate)
bl
E
3–
2. Test for Phosphate ion [PO4 ]
(a) Add conc. HNO3 and ammonium molybdate solution to the test solution
be C
containing phosphate ions and boil. A yellow colouration in solution

or a canary yellow precipitate of ammonium-phosphomolybdate,
to N
(NH 4)3[P (Mo3O10)4] is formed. Each oxygen of phosphate has been

replaced by Mo 3O 10 group.
©
Na2HPO4 + 12 (NH4)2 MoO4 + 23 HNO3 ⎯→ (NH4)3[P (Mo3O10 )4] + 2NaNO3 + 21NH4NO3 + 12H2O
Canary yellow
precipitate
SYSTEMATIC A NALYSIS OF CATIONS
The tests for cations may be carried out according to the following scheme.
t
no
Step - I : Preliminary Examination of the Salt for Identification of Cation
1. Colour Test
Observe the colour of the salt carefully, which may provide useful information
about the cations. Table 7.6 gives the characteristic colours of the salts of some
cations.
63
Table 7.6 : Characteristic colours of some metal ions
Colour Cations Indicated
Light green, Yellow, Brown Fe2+, Fe3+

Blue Cu2+
Bright green Ni2+
Blue, Red, Violet, Pink Co2+
Light pink Mn2+
d
he
2. Dry Heating Test
(i) Take about 0.1 g of the dry salt in a clean and dry test tube.
(ii) Heat the above test tube for about one minute and observe the colour of
pu T
is
the residue when it is hot and also when it becomes cold. Observation of
changes gives indications about the presence of cations, which may not be
re R
taken as conclusive evidence (see Table 7.7).
bl
E
Table 7.7 : Inferences from the colour of the salt in cold and on heating
be C
Colour when cold Colour when hot Inference

Blue White Cu2+
to N
Green Dirty white or yellow Fe2+

White Yellow Zn2+
Pink Blue Co2+
©
3. Flame Test
The chlorides of several metals impart characteristic colour to the flame because
they are volatile in non-luminous flame. This test is performed with the help of a
platinum wire as follows :
(i) Make a tiny loop at one end of a platinum wire.
(ii) To clean the loop dip it into concentrated hydrochloric acid and hold it in a
t
non-luminous flame (Fig. 7.3).

no
(iii) Repeat step (ii) until the wire imparts no colour to the flame.
(iv) Put 2-3 drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid on a clean watch glass
and make a paste of a small quantity of the salt in it.
(v) Dip the clean loop of the platinum wire in this paste and introduce the loop
in the non-luminous (oxidising) flame (Fig. 7.3).
(vi) Observe the colour of the flame first with the naked eye and then through
a blue glass and identify the metal ion with the help of Table 7.8.
64
d
he
Fig.7.3 : Performing flame test
pu T
is
Table 7.8 : Inference from the flame test
re R
bl
Colour of the flame Colour of the flame
observed by naked eye observed through blue glass Inference
E
Green flame with Same colour as observed Cu2+
blue centre without glass
be C
Crimson red Purple Sr 2+

Apple green Bluish green Ba2+
to N
Brick red Green Ca2+

©
4. Borax Bead Test

This test is employed only for coloured salts because borax reacts
with metal salts to form metal borates or metals, which have
characteristic colours.
(i) To perform this test make a loop at the end of the platinum
wire and heat it in a flame till it is red hot. (a) (b)
(ii) Dip the hot loop into borax powder and heat it again until
borax forms a colourless transparent bead on the loop. Fig. 7.4 : Borax bead test
Before dipping the borax bead in the test salt or mixture, (a) Heating in reducing
t
confirm that the bead is transparent and colourless. If it flame (b) Heating in
no
is coloured this means that, the platinum wire is not clean. oxidising flame
Then make a fresh bead after cleaning the wire.
(iii) Dip the bead in a small quantity of the dry salt and again hold it in the flame.
(iv) Observe the colour imparted to the bead in the non - luminous flame as well
as in the luminous flame while it is hot and when it is cold (Fig. 7.4).
(v) To remove the bead from the platinum wire, heat it to redness and tap the
platinum wire with your finger. (Fig. 7.5).
65
On heating, borax loses its water of crystallisation and decomposes to give

sodium metaborate and boric anhydride.
Na2B4O7 .10H2O ⎯→ Na2B4O 7 + 10H2O
Borax
Na2B4O7 ⎯→ 2NaBO2 + B2O3
Sodium metaborate Boric anhydride
On treatment with metal salt, boric anhydride forms metaborate of the metal
which gives different colours in oxidising and reducing flame. For example, in
the case of copper sulphate, following reactions occur.
d
CuSO4 + B2O 3 Non -lu minou s flam e Cu(BO2)2 + SO3
he
Cupric metaborate
Blue-green
Two reactions may take place in the reducing flame:
pu T (i) The blue Cu (BO2)2 is reduced to colourless cuprous metaborate as follows:
is
Luminous flame
2Cu(BO2 )2 + 2NaBO2 + C 2CuBO 2 + Na2 B4 O7 + CO
re R
bl
or (ii) Cupric metaborate may be reduced to metallic copper and the bead appears
red and opaque.
E
Luminous flame
2Cu(BO2 )2 + 4NaBO 2 + 2C 2Cu + 2Na 2B4O 7 + 2CO
be C
The preliminary identification of metal ion can be made from Table 7.9.
to N
©
Fig. 7.5 : Removing borax bead
Table 7.9 : Inference from the borax bead test
Heating in oxidising Heating in reducing

(non-luminous) flame (luminous) flame
Inference
Colour of the salt bead Colour of the salt bead
t
In cold In hot In cold In hot

no
Blue Green Red opaque Colourless Cu2+
Reddish brown Violet Grey Grey Ni2+
Light violet Light violet Colourless Colourless Mn2+
Yellow Yellowish brown Green Green Fe3+
66
5. Charcoal Cavity Test
Metallic carbonate when heated in a charcoal cavity decomposes to give

corresponding oxide. The oxide appears as a coloured residue in the cavity.
Sometimes oxide may be reduced to metal by the carbon of the charcoal cavity.
The test may be performed as follows:
(i) Make a small cavity in a charcoal block with the help of a charcoal borer.
Do not apply pressure otherwise it will crack [Fig.7.6 (a)].
(ii) Fill the cavity with about 0.2 g of the salt and about 0.5 g of anhydrous
sodium carbonate.
d
he
pu T
is
re R
bl
E
be C
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.6 : (a) Making charcoal cavity (b) Heating salt in the cavity
to N
(iii) Moisten the salt in the cavity with one or two drops of water, otherwise
salt/mixture will blow away.
©
(iv) Use a blowpipe to heat the salt in a luminous (reducing) flame and
observe the colour of oxide/ metallic bead formed in the cavity both
when hot and cold [ Fig. (7.6 b)]. Obtain oxidising and reducing flame as
shown in Fig. 7.7 a and b.
(v) Always bore a fresh cavity for testing the new salt.
t
no
Note : • To obtain oxidising flame

hold the nozzle of the
blowpipe about one third
(a) (b) within the flame.
• To obtain reducing flame
Fig. 7.7 : Obtaining oxidising and reducing flame place nozzle of the blowpipe
(a) Oxidising flame; and (b) Reducing flame just outside the flame.
67
When test is performed with CuSO4, the following change occurs.

Heat
CuSO 4 + Na 2CO3 CuCO3 + Na 2 SO 4
He at
CuCO 3 CuO +CO 2
He at
Cu O + C Cu + CO
Red c olour
In case of ZnSO4 :
d
Heat
ZnSO 4 + Na2 CO 3 ZnCO3 + Na 2 SO 4
Heat
he
ZnCO 3 ZnO + CO 2
Yellow when hot,
White when cold
pu T
is
The metal ion can be inferred from Table 7.10.
re R
Table 7.10 : Inference from the charcoal cavity test
bl Observations Inference
E
Yellow residue when hot and grey metal when cold Pb2+
be C
White residue with the odour of garlic As3+

Brown residue Cd2+
to N
Yellow residue when hot and white when cold Zn2+
6. Cobalt Nitrate Test

©
If the residue in the charcoal cavity is white, cobalt nitrate test is performed.
(i) Treat the residue with two or three drops of cobalt nitrate solution.
(ii) Heat it strongly in non-luminous flame with the help of a blow pipe and
observe the colour of the residue.
On heating, cobalt nitrate decomposes into cobalt (II) oxide, which gives a
characteristic colour with metal oxide present in the cavity.
Thus, with ZnO, Al2O3 and MgO, the following reactions occur.
Heat
2Co (NO3 )2 2CoO + 4NO 2 + O 2
t
no
CoO + ZnO ⎯→ CoO.ZnO

Green
CoO + MgO ⎯→ CoO. MgO

Pink
CoO + Al2O3 ⎯→ CoO. Al2O3

Blue
68
Step-II : Wet Tests for Identification of Cations

The cations indicated by the preliminary tests given above are confirmed by
systematic analysis given below.
The first essential step is to prepare a clear and transparent solution of the
salt. This is called original solution. It is prepared as follows:
Preparation of Original Solution (O.S.)

To prepare the original solution, following steps are followed one after the other
in a systematic order. In case the salt does not dissolve in a particular solvent
d
even on heating, try the next solvent.
The following solvents are tried:
he
1. Take a little amount of the salt in a clean boiling tube and add a few mL of
distilled water and shake it. If the salt does not dissolved, heat the content
of the boiling tube till the salt completely dissolves.
pu T
is
2. If the salt is insoluble in water as detailed above, take fresh salt in a clean
boiling tube and add a few mL of dil.HCl to it. If the salt is insoluble in
re R
cold, heat the boiling tube till the salt is completely dissolved.
3.
bl
If the salt does not dissolve either in water or in dilute HCl even on heating,
try to dissolve it in a few mL of conc. HCl by heating.
E
4. If salt does not dissolve in conc. HCl, then dissolve it in dilute nitric acid.
be C
5. If salt does not dissolve even in nitric acid then a mixture of conc. HCl and
conc. HNO3 in the ratio 3:1 is tried. This mixture is called aqua regia. A salt
not soluble in aqua regia is considered to be an insoluble salt.
to N
Group Analysis
©
(I) Analysis of Zero group cation (NH 4+ ion)
(a ) Take 0.1 g of salt in a test tube and add 1-2 mL of NaOH solution to
it and heat. If there is a smell of ammonia, this indicates the presence
of ammonium ions. Bring a glass rod dipped in hydrochloric acid
near the mouth of the test tube. White fumes are observed.
(b) Pass the gas through Nessler’s reagent. Brown precipitate is obtained.
+
t
Chemistry of Confirmatory Tests for NH4 ion

no
(a) Ammonia gas evolved by the action of sodium hydroxide on ammonium

salts reacts with hydrochloric acid to give ammonium chloride, which is
visible as dense white fume.
(NH 4) 2 SO4 + 2NaOH ⎯→ Na2SO 4 + 2NH 3 + 2H2O
NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
69
On passing the gas through Nessler’s reagent, a brown colouration or a

precipitate of basic mercury(II) amido-iodine is formed.
Mercury 2K2HgI4 + NH3 + 3KOH ⎯→ HgO.Hg(NH2)I + 7KI + 2H2O
Salts
Basic mercury (II)
amido-iodine
(Brown precipitate)
For the analysis of cations belonging to groups I-VI, the cations are precipitated
from the original solution by using the group reagents (see Table 7.11) according to
the scheme shown in the flow chart given below:
d
The separation of all the six groups is represented as below:
he
Flow Chart*
pu T Original Solution
is
Dil.HCl
re R
bl
Precipitate, Group I If no precipitate is formed
E
2+
(Pb ) as chloride Pass H2S gas
be C
Precipitate, Group II If no precipitate, take original solution

(Pb2+, Cu2+, As 3+)
to N
Heat (O.S.) with conc. HNO3,

as sulphides
cool and add solid NH4Cl + NH4OH
solution in excess
©
Precipitate, Group III If no precipitate

(Fe3+, Al3+) as hydroxides
Pass H2S
Precipitate, Group IV If no precipitate, take original solution

2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
(Co , Ni , Mn , Zn ) Add NH4OH and
as sulphides solid (NH4)2 CO3
t
no
Precipitate, Group V If no precipitate, take original

2+
(Ba , Sr , Ca )2+ 2+ solution to test Group VI,
as carbonates Mg2+
* This flow chart is for the detection of one cation only. For detection of more than one cation modification
will be required.
70
Table 7.11 : Group reagents for precipitating ions
Group Cations * Group Reagent
+
Group zero NH4 None
2+
Group-I Pb Dilute HCl
2+ 2+ 3+
Group-II Pb , Cu , As H 2S gas in presence of dil. HCl
3+ 3+
Group-III Al , Fe NH4OH in presence of NH4Cl
2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
Group-IV Co , Ni , Mn , Zn H 2S in presence of NH4 OH
d
2+ 2+ 2+
Group-V Ba , Sr , Ca (NH4)2CO3 in presence of NH4 OH
he
2+
Group-VI Mg None
(II) Analysis of Group-I cations
pu T
Take a small amount of original solution ( if prepared in hot conc. HCl) in a test
is
tube and add cold water to it and cool the test tube under tap water. If a white
re R
precipitate appears, this indicates the presence of Pb2+ ions in group –I. On the
bl
other hand, if the original solution is prepared in water and on addition of dil.
HCl, a white precipitate appears, this may also be Pb2+. Confirmatory tests are
E
described below in Table 7.12.
2+
Table 7.12 : Confirmatory tests for Group-I cation (Pb )
be C
Experiment Observation
to N
Dissolve the precipitate in hot water and divide

the hot solution into three parts.
1. Add potassium iodide solution to the first A yellow precipitate is obtained.
part.
©
2. To the second part add potassium chromate A yellow precipitate is obtained which
solution. is soluble in NaOH and insoluble in
ammonium acetate solution.
3. To the third part of the hot solution add few A white precipitate is obtained
drops of alcohol and dilute sulphuric acid. which is soluble in ammonium
acetate solution.
Chemistry of the Confirmatory Tests of Pb2+ ions

t
Lead is precipitated as lead chloride in the first group. The precipitate is soluble
no
in hot water.
1. On adding potassium iodide (KI) solution, a yellow precipitate of lead
2+
iodide is obtained which confirms the presence of Pb ions.
PbCl2 + 2KI ⎯→ PbI2 + 2KCl
(Hot solution) Yellow precipitate
* Here only those cations are given which are in the syllabus.
71
This yellow precipitate (PbI2) is soluble in boiling water and reappears

on cooling as shining crystals.
2. On addition of potassium chromate (K2CrO4) solution a yellow precipitate
of lead chromate is obtained. This confirms the presence of Pb2+ ions.
PbCl2 + K2CrO4 ⎯→ PbCrO4 + 2KCl
(Hot solution) Lead chromate
The yellow precipitate (PbCrO4) is soluble in hot NaOH solution.
PbCrO4 + 4NaOH Na2[Pb(OH)4] + Na2CrO4
d
Sodium tetra
hydroxoplumbate (II)
he
3. A white precipitate of lead sulphate (PbSO4) is formed on addition of
alcohol followed by dil. H2SO4.
PbCl2 + H2SO4 ⎯→ PbSO4 + 2 HCl
pu T
is
Lead sulphate
(White precipitate)
re R
Lead sulphate is soluble in ammonium acetate solution due to the formation
bl
of tetraacetoplumbate(II) ions. This reaction may be promoted by addition of few
drops of acetic acid.
E
Hydrogen PbSO4 + 4 CH3COONH4 ⎯→ (NH4)2 [Pb(CH 3COO)4] + (NH4) 2SO 4
sulphide Ammonium
be C
tetraacetoplumbate(II)
(III) Analysis of Group–II cations

to N
If group-I is absent, add excess of water to the same test tube. Warm the solution
and pass H2S gas for 1-2 minutes (Fig. 7.6). Shake the test tube. If a precipitate
©
appears, this indicates the presence of group-II cations. Pass more H2S gas
through the solution to ensure complete
precipitation and separate the precipitate.
If the colour of the precipitate is black, it
indicates the presence of Cu2+ or Pb2+ ions.
If it is yellow in colour, then presence of
As3+ ions is indicated.
Take the precipitate of group-II in a
test tube and add excess of yellow
ammonium sulphide solution to it. Shake
t
the test tube. If the precipitate is insoluble,

no
group II-A (copper group) is present. If

the precipitate is soluble, this indicates the
presence of group-II B (arsenic group).
Confirmatory tests for the groups II A
and II B are given in Table 7.13.
Fig. 7.8 : Kipp’s apparatus for preparation of H 2S gas
72
Table 7.13 : Confirmatory tests for Group-II A and II B cations
2+
Black precipitate of Group II A ions (Pb , Cu )
2+
If a yellow precipitate soluble in
insoluble in yellow ammonium sulphide is formed. yellow ammonium sulphide is
3+
formed then As ion is present.
Boil the precipitate of Group II A with dilute nitric Acidify this solution with dilute
acid and add a few drops of alcohol and dil. H2SO4 . HCl. A yellow precipitate is formed.
Heat the precipitate with
White precipitate confirms If no precipitate is concentrated nitric acid and add
2+
the presence of Pb ions. formed, add excess of ammonium molybdate solution. A
Dissolve the precipitate in ammonium hydroxide canary yellow precipitate is formed.
d
ammonium acetate solution. A blue solution
solution. Acidify with is obtained, acidify it
he
acetic acid and divide the with acetic acid and add
solution into two parts. potassium ferrocyanide
(i) To the first part add solution. A chocolate
potassium chromate brown precipitate is
pu T
solution, a yellow formed.
is
precipitate is formed.
(ii) To the second part,
re R
add potassium iodide
bl
solution, a yellow
precipitate is formed.
E
Group-II A (Copper Group)
be C
Chemistry of confirmatory tests of Group-II A cations Alcohol

to N
1. Test for Lead ion (Pb 2+)

Lead sulphide precipitate dissolves in dilute HNO3. On adding dil. H2SO4 and a
few drops of alcohol to this solution a white precipitate of lead sulphate appears.
©
This indicates the presence of lead ions.

3PbS + 8HNO3 ⎯→ 3Pb (NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O + 3S
Pb(NO 3) 2 + H2SO4 ⎯→ PbSO 4 + 2HNO3
The white precipitate dissolves in ammonium acetate solution on boiling.

When this solution is acidified with acetic acid and potassium chromate solution
is added, a yellow precipitate of PbCrO4 is formed. On adding potassium iodide
solution, a yellow precipitate of lead iodide is formed.
t
no
PbSO 4 + 4CH3COONH4 ⎯→ (NH4)2[Pb (CH3COO)4] + (NH4)2SO 4

Ammonium
tetraacetoplumbate(II)
Pb2+ + CrO 2–
4
⎯→ PbCrO4 Pb2+ + 2I – ⎯→ PbI2
Lead chromate Lead iodide
(Yellow precipitate) (Yellow precipitate)
73
2. Test for Copper ion (Cu2+)
(a) Copper sulphide dissolves in nitric acid due to the formation of copper
nitrate.
3CuS + 8HNO3 ⎯→ 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 3S + 4H2O
On heating the reaction mixture for long time, sulphur is oxidised to
sulphate and copper sulphate is formed and the solution turns blue. A
small amount of NH4OH precipitates basic copper sulphate which is soluble
in excess of ammonium hydroxide due to the formation of
tetraamminecopper (II) complex.
d
S + 2HNO3 ⎯→ H2SO 4 + 2NO
he
2Cu2+ + SO24 +2NH3+2H2O ⎯→ Cu(OH) 2. CuSO4+ 2NH 4
– 2
pu T Cu(OH)2.CuSO4 + 8NH 3 ⎯→ 2 [Cu(NH3)4]SO4 + 2OH + SO4
is
Tetraamminecopper (II)
re R
sulphate (Deep blue)
bl
(b) The blue solution on acidification with acetic acid and then adding
E
potassium ferrocyanide [K4Fe(CN)6 ] solution gives a chocolate colouration
due to the formation of copper ferrocyanide i.e.Cu 2[Fe(CN)6].
be C
[Cu(NH3)4] SO4 + 4CH3COOH ⎯→ CuSO4 + 4CH3COONH4
2CuSO4 + K4[Fe(CN)6] ⎯→ Cu2[Fe(CN)6] + 2K2SO4

to N
Potassium Copper
hexacyanoferrate (II) hexacyanoferrate (II)
(Chocolate brown precipitate)
©
Group-II B (Arsenic Group)
If group- II precipitate dissolves in yellow ammonium sulphide and the colour of

the solution is yellow, this indicates the presence of As3+ ions. Ammonium
thioarsenide formed on dissolution of As2S3 decomposes with dil. HCl, and a
yellow precipitate of arsenic (V) sulphide is formed which dissolves in concentrated
nitric acid on heating due to the formation of arsenic acid. On adding ammonium
molybdate solution to the reaction mixture and heating, a canary yellow
precipitate is formed. This confirms the presence of As3+ ions.
t
As2S3 + 3 (NH4)2S2 ⎯→ 2 (NH4)3As S4 + S

no
Yellow ammonium
sulphide
2(NH4)3AsS4+ 6HCl ⎯→ As2S5 + 3H2S + 6NH4Cl
3As2S5 + 10HNO3 + 4H2O ⎯→ 6H3AsO4 + 10NO + 15S

Arsenic acid
74
H 3AsO4 + 12(NH4)2 MoO4 + 21HNO3 ⎯→ (NH4)3[As (Mo3 O10)4] + 21NH4NO3 +12H2O

Arsenic acid Ammonium Ammonium
molybdate arsinomolybdate
(yellow precipitate)
(IV) Analysis of Group–III cations
If group-II is absent, take original solution and add 2-3 drops of conc. HNO3 to
oxidise Fe2+ ions to Fe 3+ ions. Heat the solution for a few minutes. After cooling
add a small amount of solid ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and an excess of ammonium
d
hydroxide (NH4OH) solution till it smells of ammonia. Shake the test tube. If a brown
or white precipitate is formed, this indicates the presence of group-III cations.
he
Confirmatory tests of group-III cations are summarised in Table 7.14.
Observe the colour and the nature of the precipitate. A gelatinous white
precipitate indicates the presence of aluminium ion (A13+ ). If the precipitate is
3+
brown in colour, this indicates the presence of ferric ions (Fe ).
pu T
is
Table 7.14 : Confirmatory test for Group-III cations
re R
bl
Brown precipitate
Fe
3+
White precipitate
Al
3+
E
Dissolve the precipitate in dilute HCl Dissolve the white precipitate in dilute
be C
and divide the solution into two parts. HCl and divide into two parts.
(a) To the first part add potassium (a) To the first part add sodium hydroxide
ferrocyanide solution [Potasium solution and warm. A white
to N
hexacyanoferrate (II)]. A blue gelatinous precipitate soluble in

precipitate/colouration appears. excess of sodium hydroxide solution.
(b) To the second part add potassium (b) To the second part first add blue
thiocyanate solution. A blood red litmus solution and then ammonium
©
colouration appears. hydroxide solution drop by drop along

the sides of the test tube. A blue
floating mass in the colourless
solution is obtained.
Chemistry of confirmatory tests of Group-III cations
When original solution is heated with concentrated nitric acid, ferrous ions are
oxidised to ferric ions.
t
2FeCl2 + 2HCl + [O] ⎯→ 2FeCl3 + H2O

no
Third group cations are precipitated as their hydroxides, which dissolve in

dilute hydrochloric acid due to the formation of corresponding chlorides.
1. Test for Aluminium ions (A13+ )
(a) When the solution containing aluminium chloride is treated with sodium
hydroxide, a white gelatinous precipitate of aluminium hydroxide is formed
75
which is soluble in excess of sodium hydroxide solution due to the formation

of sodium meta aluminate.
AlCl3 + 3NaOH ⎯→ Al(OH) 3 + 3NaCl
Al(OH)3 + NaOH ⎯→ NaAlO 2 + 2H2O

White gelatinous Sodium
precipitate meta aluminate
(b) In the second test when blue litmus is added to the solution, a red
colouration is obtained due to the acidic nature of the solution. On addition
d
of NH4OH solution drop by drop the solution becomes alkaline and
aluminium hydroxide is precipitated. Aluminium hydroxide adsorbs blue
he
colour from the solution and forms insoluble adsorption complex named
‘lake’. Thus a blue mass floating in the colourless solution is obtained. The
test is therefore called lake test.
pu T
is
3+
2. Test for ferric ions (Fe )
re R
Reddish brown precipitate of ferric hydroxide dissolves in hydrochloric acid and
bl
ferric chloride is formed.
E
Fe(OH)3 + 3HCl ⎯→ FeCl3 + 3H2O
(a) When the solution containing ferric chloride is treated with potassium
be C
ferrocyanide solution a blue precipitate/colouration is obtained. The colour

of the precipitate is Prussian blue. It is ferric ferro-cyanide. The reaction
to N
takes place as follows:

4FeCl3 + 3K4[Fe(CN)6] ⎯→ Fe 4[Fe(CN) 6] 3 + 12KCl
Potassium Prussian blue
©
ferrocyanide precipitate
If potassium hexacyanoferrate (II) (i.e. potassium ferrocyanide) is added in
excess then a product of composition KFe[Fe(CN)6] is formed. This tends to
form a colloidal solution (‘soluble Prussian blue’) and cannot be filtered.
FeCl3 + K4[Fe(CN)6] ⎯→ KFe[Fe(CN)6] + 3KCl
(Soluble prussian blue)
(b) To the second part of the solution, add potassium thiocyanate (potassium
sulphocyanide) solution. The appearance of a blood red colouration
3+
t
confirms the presence of Fe ions.

no
Fe3+ + SCN – ⎯→ [Fe(SCN)] 2+

Blood red colour
(V) Analysis of group-IV cations
If group-III is absent, pass H2S gas in the solution of group-III for a few
minutes. If a precipitate appears (white, black or flesh coloured), this indicates
76
the presence of group-IV cations. Table 7.15 gives a summary of confirmatory

tests of group-IV cations.
Table 7.15 : Confirmatory test for Group-IV cations
White precipitate Flesh coloured precipitate Black precipitate

2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
(Zn ) (Mn ) (Ni , Co )
Dissolve the precipitate Dissolve the precipitate in Dissolve the precipitate in

dilute HCl by boiling, then add aqua regia. Heat the
d
in dilute HCl by boiling.
Divide the solution into sodium hydroxide solution in solution to dryness and
two parts. excess. A white precipitate is cool. Dissolve the residue
he
formed which turns brown on in water and divide the
(a) To the first part add
keeping. solution into two parts.
sodium hydroxide
solution. A white (a) To the first part of the
pu T
precipitate soluble solution add ammonium
is
in excess of sodium hydroxide solution till it
hydroxide solution becomes alkaline. Add
re R
bl
confirms the a few drops of dimethyl
2+
presence of Zn glyoxime and shake the
E
ions. test tube. Formation of
a bright red precipitate
(b) Neutralise the
confirms the presence
second part with
be C
2+
of Ni ions.
a m m o n i u m
hydroxide solution (b) Neutralise the second
to N
and add potassium part with ammonium

ferrocyanide hydroxide solution.
solution. A bluish Acidify it with dilute
white precipitate acetic acid and add
©
appears. solid potassium nitrite.

A yellow precipitate
confirms the presence
2+
of Co ions.
Chemistry of confirmatory tests of Group–IV cations
Fourth group cations are precipitated as their sulphides. Observe the colour of
the precipitate. A white colour of the precipitate indicates the presence of zinc
t
ions, a flesh colour indicates the presence of manganese ions and a black colour
no
2+ 2+
indicates the presence of Ni or Co ions.
1. Test for Zinc ion (Zn2+ )
Zinc sulphide dissolves in hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride.

ZnS + 2HCl ⎯→ ZnCl2 + H2S
77
(a) On addition of sodium hydroxide solution it gives a white precipitate of

zinc hydroxide, which is soluble in excess of NaOH solution on heating.
This confirms the presence of Zn2+ ions.
ZnCl2 + 2NaOH ⎯→ Zn(OH)2 + 2NaCl
Zn(OH)2 + 2NaOH ⎯→ Na2ZnO2 + 2H2O

Sodium zincate
(b) When potassium ferrocyanide K4Fe(CN)6 solution is added to the solution
after neutralisation by NH4OH solution, a white or a bluish white precipitate
of zinc ferrocyanide appears.
d
2 ZnCl2 + K4 [Fe(CN)6] ⎯→ Zn2 [Fe(CN)6] + 4 KCl
he
Zinc
ferrocyanide
2. Test for Manganese ion (Mn2+ )
pu T
is
Manganese sulphide precipitate dissolves in dil. HCl on boiling. On addition of
NaOH solution in excess, a white precipitate of manganese hydroxide is formed
re R
which turns brown due to atmospheric oxidation into hydrated manganese dioxide.
bl MnS + 2HCl ⎯→ Mn Cl2 + H2S

E
MnCl2 + 2NaOH ⎯→ Mn(OH)2 + 2NaCl
be C
(White precipitate)
Mn (OH)2 + [O] → MnO(OH)2

to N
Hydrated manganese dioxide

(Brown colour)
3. Test for Nickel ion (Ni2+)

©
The black precipitate of nickel sulphide dissolves in aqua regia and the reaction
takes place as follows:
3NiS + 2HNO3 + 6HCI ⎯→ 3NiCl2 + 2NO + 3S + 4H2O
After treatment with aqua regia nickel-chloride is obtained which is soluble

in water. When dimethyl glyoxime is added to the aqueous solution of nickel
chloride, made alkaline, by adding NH4OH solution, a brilliant red precipitate is
obtained.
t
no
Complex of red colour

(Stable form of complex)
78
2+
4. Test for Cobalt ion (Co )
Cobalt sulphide dissolves in aqua regia in the same manner as nickel sulphide.
When the aqueous solution of the residue obtained after treatment with aqua
regia is treated with a strong solution of potassium nitrite after neutralisation with
ammonium hydroxide and the solution is acidified with dil. acetic acid, a yellow
precipitate of the complex of cobalt named potassium hexanitritocobaltate (III)
is formed.
CoS + HNO3 + 3HCl ⎯→ CoCl2 + NOCl + S + 2H2O
CoCl2 + 7KNO2 + 2CH3COOH ⎯→ K3 [Co(NO2)6] + 2KCl + 2CH3COOK + NO + H2O
d
Potassium
hexanitritocobaltate(III)
he
(VI) Analysis of Group–V cations
pu T
is
If group-IV is absent then take original solution and add a small amount of solid
NH4Cl and an excess of NH4OH solution followed by solid ammonium carbonate
re R
(NH 4)2CO3. If a white precipitate appears, this indicates the presence of group–V
cations.
bl
Dissolve the white precipitate by boiling with dilute acetic acid and divide
E
2+ 2+ 2+
the solution into three parts one each for Ba , Sr and Ca ions. Preserve a
small amount of the precipitate for flame test. Summary of confirmatory
be C
tests is given in Table 7.16.
Table 7.16 : Confirmatory test for Group–V cations

to N
Dissolve the precipitate by boiling with dilute acetic acid and divide the
2+ 2+ 2+
solution into three parts one each for Ba , Sr and Ca ions
2+ 2+ 2+
Ba ions Sr ions Ca ions
©
(a) To the first part add (a) If barium is absent, take (a) If both barium and
potassium chromate second part of the solution strontium are absent,
solution. A yellow and add ammonium take the third part of
precipitate appears. sulphate solution. Heat the solution. Add
and scratch the sides of the ammonium oxalate
(b) Perform the flame test tube with a glass rod solution and shake
test with the and cool. A white well. A white
preserved precipitate. precipitate is formed. precipitate of calcium
A grassy green flame oxalate is obtained.
t
is obtained. (b) Perform the flame test with

no
the preserved precipitate. (b) Perform the flame test

A crimson-red flame with the preserved
confirms the presence of precipitate. A brick red
Sr2+ ions. flame, which looks
greenish-yellow through
blue glass, confirms the
2+
presence of Ca ions.
79
Chemistry of Confirmatory Tests of Group–V cations
The Group–V cations are precipitated as their carbonates which dissolve in acetic
acid due to the formation of corresponding acetates.
1. Test for Barium ion (Ba2+ )
(a) Potassium chromate (K2CrO4) solution gives a yellow precipitate of barium
chromate when the solution of fifth group precipitate in acetic acid is treated
with it.
BaCO3 + 2CH 3COOH ⎯→ (CH 3COO)2 Ba + H2O + CO2
d
(CH3COO)2Ba + K 2CrO4 ⎯→ BaCrO4 + 2CH3COOK
he
Barium chromate
(yellow precipitate )
(b) Flame test : Take a platinum wire and dip it in conc. HCl. Heat it strongly
pu T until the wire does not impart any colour to the non-luminous flame.
is
Now dip the wire in the paste of the (Group–V) precipitate in conc. HCl.
Heat it in the flame. A grassy green colour of the flame confirms the
re R
bl
presence of Ba2+ ions.
E
2. Test for Strontium ion (Sr2+ )
(a) Solution of V group precipitate in acetic acid gives a white precipitate of

be C
strontium sulphate with ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4, solution on

heating and scratching the sides of the test tube with a glass rod.
to N
SrCO3 + 2CH3COOH ⎯→ (CH3COO)2 Sr + H2O + CO2
(CH3COO)2 Sr + (NH4)2SO4 ⎯→ SrSO 4 + 2CH 3COONH4

Strontium
©
sulphate
(White precipitate)
(b) Flame test : Perform the flame test as given in the case of Ba2+. A crimson
red flame confirms the presence of Sr2+ ions.
2+
3. Test for Calcium ion (Ca )
(a) Solution of the fifth group precipitate in acetic acid gives a white precipitate
with ammonium oxalate solution.
t
CaCO3 + 2CH 3COOH ⎯→ (CH 3COO)2 Ca + H2O + CO2

no
(CH3COO)2Ca + (NH4)2C2O4 ⎯→ (COO)2Ca + 2CH3COONH4

Ammonium Calcium oxalate
oxalate (White precipitate)
(b) Flame test : Perform the flame test as mentioned above. Calcium imparts
brick red colour to the flame which looks greenish-yellow through blue glass.
80
(VII) Analysis of Group–VI cations

2+
If group–V is absent then perform the test for Mg ions as given below.
Chemistry of Confirmatory Tests of Group–VI cations

2+
Test for Magnesium ion ( Mg )
(a) If group–V is absent the solution may contain magnesium carbonate, which
Note :
is soluble in water in the presence of ammonium salts because the Some times
equilibrium is shifted towards the right hand side. precipitate of
d
magnesium
NH4+ + CO 2-
3 NH3 + HCO 3
–
ammonium
phosphate
he
The concentration of carbonate ions required to produce a precipitate is appears
not attained. When disodium hydrogenphosphate solution is added and after some
the inner walls of the test tube are scratched with a glass rod, a white time. So
crystalline precipitate of magnesium ammonium phosphate is formed which warm the
pu T
is
indicates the presence of Mg2+ ions. solution and
scrach the
2+
re R
Mg + Na2HPO4 ⎯→ Mg (NH 4)PO4 + NH4OH + 2Na+ + H2O sides of test
bl
tube after
a d d i n g
Magnesium ammonium
E
s o d i u m
phosphate (White precipitate) hydrogen
phosphate
Note down the observations and the inferences of the qualitative analysis
be C
solution.
in tabular form as given in the specimen record given in pages 114-115.
to N
Precautions
(a) Always use an apron, an eye protector and hand

gloves while working in the chemistry laboratory.
©
(b) Before using any reagent or a chemical, read the

label on the bottle carefully. Never use
unlabelled reagent.
(c) Do not mix chemicals and reagents
unnecessarily. Never taste any chemical.
(d) Be careful in smelling chemicals or vapours.
Always fan the vapours gently towards your
nose (Fig. 7.9).
(e) Never add sodium metal to water or throw it in
t
the sink or dustbin.

no
(f) Always pour acid into water for dilution. Never

add water to acid.
(g) Be careful while heating the test tube. The test
tube should never point towards yourself or
towards your neighbours while heating or
Fig. 7.9 : How to smell a gas
adding a reagent.
81
(h) Be careful while dealing with the explosive compounds, inflammable substances,
poisonous gases, electric appliances, glass wares, flame and the hot substances.
(i) Keep your working surroundings clean. Never throw papers and glass in the
sink. Always use dustbin for this purpose.
(j) Always wash your hands after the completion of the laboratory work.
(k) Always use the reagents in minimum quantity. Use of reagents in excess, not
only leads to wastage of chemicals but also causes damage to the environment.
d
he
(i) What is the difference between a qualitative and a quantitative analysis?
pu T
(ii) Can we use glass rod instead of platinum wire for performing the flame test? Explain
is
your answer.
re R
bl
(iii) Why is platinum metal preferred to other metals for the flame test?
E
(iv) Name the anions detected with the help of dilute H2SO 4?
be C
(v) Why is dilute H2SO 4 preferred over dilute HCl while testing anions?
to N
(vi) Name the anions detected by conc. H2SO 4.
(vii) How is sodium carbonate extract prepared ?

©
(viii) What is lime water and what happens on passing carbon dioxide gas through it?
(ix) Carbon dioxide gas and sulphur dioxide gas both turn lime water milky. How will you
distinguish between the two?
(x) How will you test the presence of carbonate ion?
(xi) What is the composition of dark brown ring which is formed at the junction of two layers
in the ring test for nitrates?
t
no
(xii) Name the radical confirmed by sodium nitroprusside test.
(xiii) What is chromyl chloride test ? How do you justify that CrO2Cl2 is acidic in nature?
(xiv) Why do bromides and iodides not give tests similar to chromyl chloride test?
(xv) Describe the layer test for bromide and iodide ions.
82
(xvi) Why is silver nitrate solution stored in dark coloured bottles?
(xvii) How do you test the presence of sulphide ion?
(xviii) Why does iodine give a blue colour with starch solution?
(xix) What is Nessler’s reagent?
(xx) Why is original solution for cations not prepared in conc. HNO3 or H2SO4?
d
(xxi) Why cannot conc. HCl be used as a group reagent in place of dil. HCl for the precipitation
of Ist group cations?
he
(xxii) How can one prevent the precipitation of Group–IV radicals, with the second group
radicals?
pu T
is
(xxiii) Why is it essential to boil off H2S gas before precipitation of radicals of group–III?
re R
(xxiv)
bl
Why is heating with conc. nitric acid done before precipitation of group–III?
E
(xxv) Can we use ammonium sulphate instead of ammonium chloride in group–III?
be C
(xxvi) Why is NH4OH added before (NH4)2CO3 solution while precipitating group–V cations?
to N
(xxvii) Why do we sometimes get a white precipitate in group–VI even if the salt does not
2+
contain Mg radical?
(xxviii) What is aqua regia?

©
(xxix) Name a cation, which is not obtained from a metal.
(xxx) How can you test the presence of ammonium ion?
(xxxi) Why are the group–V radicals tested in the order Ba2+ , Sr2+ and Ca2+ ?
(xxxii) Why does conc. HNO3 kept in a bottle turn yellow in colour?
t
(xxxiii) Why should the solution be concentrated before proceeding to group–V?

no
(xxxiv) Why is the reagent bottle containing sodium hydroxide solution never stoppered?
(xxxv) What do you understand by the term common ion effect?
(xxxvi) Why is zinc sulphide not precipitated in group–II?
83
SPECIMEN RECORD OF SALT ANALYSIS
Aim
To analyse the given salt for one anion and one cation present in it.
Material required
• Boiling tubes, test tubes, test tube holder, test tube stand, delivery tube, corks,
filter papers, reagents
d
he
Sl. No. Experiment Observation Inference
pu T 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
is
1. Noted the colour of the given White Cu , Fe , Ni ,Co ,
2+
salt. Mn are absent.
re R
2– 2– –
bl
2. Noted the smell of the salt. No specific smell. S , SO3 , CH3 COO
may be absent.
E
3. Heated 0.5 g of the salt in a (i) No gas was evolved. (i) CO 3
2–
may be
present, NO3 , NO2 ,
– –
dry test tube and noted the
be C
–
colour of the gas evolved and Br may be
change in the colour of the absent.
2+
residue on heating and (ii) No particular (ii) Zn may be
to N
cooling. change in colour of absent.

the residue is
observed when
heated and when
©
cooled.
2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
4. Prepared a paste of the salt No distinct colour of the Ca , Sr , Ba Cu
with conc. HCl and performed flame seen. may be absent.
the flame test.
5. Borax bead test was not — —

performed as the salt was
white in colour.
2– 2– 2– –
6. Treated 0.1 g of salt with 1 mL No effervescence and CO3 , SO 3 , S , NO2 ,
dil.H2 SO4 and warmed. evolution of vapours. –
t
CH3COO absent.
no
– – – – –
7. Heated 0.1 g of salt with 1 mL No gas evolved. Cl , Br , I , NO3 , C2 O4
conc. H2SO4. are absent.
3–
8. Acidified 1mL of aqueous salt No yellow precipitate PO4 absent.
solution with conc. HNO 3 .
Warmed the contents and then
added 4-5 drops of ammonium
molybdate solution.
84
2–
9. Acidified water extract of the A white ppt. is obtained SO4 present.
salt with dil. HCl and then which is
added 2mL of BaCl2 solution. insoluble in conc. HNO3
and conc. HCl.
+
10. Heated 0.1 g of salt with 2 mL Ammonia gas is not NH4 absent.
NaOH solution. evolved.
11. Attempted to prepare original Clear solution formed Water soluble salt is
solution of the salt by present.
d
dissolving 1g of it in 20 mL
water.
he
12. To a small part of the above No white precipitate Group–I absent.
salt solution added 2 mL of formed.
dil. HCl.
pu T
is
13. Passed H 2S gas through one No precipitate formed. Group–II absent.
portion of the solution of step 12.
re R
14.
bl
Since salt is white, heating
with conc. HNO 3 is not
No precipitate formed. Group–III absent.
E
required. Added about 0.2 g
of solid ammonium chloride
be C
and then added excess of

ammonium hydroxide to the
solution of step 12.
to N
15. Passed H2 S gas through the No precipitate formed. Group–IV absent.

above solution.
16. Added excess of ammonium No precipitate formed. Group–V absent.

©
hydroxide solution to the

original solution and then
added 0.5 g of ammonium
carbonate.
2+
17. To the original solution of salt White precipitate. Mg confirmed.
added ammonium hydroxide
solution, followed by disodium
hydrogen phosphate solution.
Heated and scratched the
sides of the test tube.
t
no
Result
The given salt contains:
2–
Anion : SO4
Cation : Mg2+
85
UNIT -8
TESTS FOR FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
IN ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
d
EXPERIMENT 8.1
he
Aim
To identify the functional groups present in an organic compound.
pu T
is
re R
bl
I. TESTS FOR U NSATURATION
E
Theory
be C
Organic compounds containing > C = C < and / or — C C – bonds are called

unsaturated compounds. These compounds undergo addition reaction with
bromine water or the solution of bromine in carbon tetrachloride, chloroform or
to N
glacial acetic acid. Addition of bromine to an alkene results in the formation of

vicinal dibromide. The reddish orange colour of the solution of bromine in carbon
tetrachloride disappears on reaction with an alkene. The reaction is as follows :
©
Alkenes decolourise the neutral/alkaline KMnO4 solution and vicinal glycols

are formed (Bayer’s test). Reaction takes place as follows :
t
no
Both the above reactions are used as tests for unsaturation.

TESTS FOR FUNCTIONAL GROUPS IN ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Material Required
• Potassium hydroxide
solution : 1–2 mL
• Carbon tetrachloride/
chloroform : 2 mL
• Test tubes : Two
• Bromine water/solution
• Test tube holder : One
of bromine in CCl4 or
chloroform : 2 mL
d
• Potassium permanganate
solution : As per need
he
• Compound to be tested : As per need
Procedure
pu T
is
A. Bromine water test
Dissolve 0.1 g or 5 drops of organic compound in 2 mL of carbon
re R
Potassium
bl
tetrachloride in a test tube and add 2% solution of bromine in hydroxide
carbon tetrachloride or bromine water drop by drop with
E
continuous shaking. Decolourization of bromine solution indicates
the presence of unsaturation in organic compound. Carbon
tetrachloride
be C
B. Bayer’s test
Chloroform
Dissolve 25-30 mg of organic compound in 2 mL of water or
to N
acetone (free of alcohol) and add 1% potassium permanganate

solution containing equal volume of 1% sodium carbonate Bromine
solution. The discharge of the colour of more than one drop of
©
potassium permanganate indicates the presence of unsaturation Potassium

in the organic compound. Carrying out the reaction under alkaline permanganate
conditions removes the possibility of confusion due to substitution
in aromatic compounds.
Note: (i) Unsaturation in an organic compound is confirmed only when

both of the above tests are positive.
(ii) In place of CCl4 any other solvent such as CHCl3/dioxan and
even water can be used to dissolve the organic compound for
carrying out the reaction.
t
no
Precautions
(a) The tests should be performed at room temperature.

(b) Handle bromine solution carefully. Do not inhale the vapours and also avoid its
contact with the skin.
87
II. TEST FOR ALCOHOLIC (R–OH) GROUP
Theory
Alcoholic compounds on reaction with ceric ammonium nitrate
give a red colouration due to the formation of a complex.
(NH4)2 [Ce(NO3)6] + 3ROH ⎯→ [Ce(NO3)4(ROH)3] + 2NH4NO3

Ceric ammonium Red complex
nitrate
d
Distinction between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols
can be done on the basis of iodoform test and Lucas test.
he
Ethanol and secondary alcohols which contain CH3—CH(OH)R
group (iodoform reaction) give positive iodoform test. To carry out
reaction, potassium iodide and sodium hypochlorite solution are
pu T added to the compound in the presence of sodium hydroxide
is
solution. Probably sodium hypochlorite first oxidses potassium
iodide into potassium hypoiodite, which oxidises CH3—CH(OH)R
re R
bl
group to CH3COR group and then iodinates it in the alkaline
medium of the reaction mixture by replacing the α-hydrogen
E
attached to the carbon atom adjacent to carbonyl group by iodine.
Iodoform is formed after cleavage of C—C bond.
be C
Potassium Potassium
hypoiodite hypoiodite NaOH
CH3 CH 2OH CH 3CHO CI 3CHO CHI3 + HCOONa
to N
Lucas Test
Lucas reagent contains zinc chloride and concentrated
hydrochloric acid. This reagent reacts with primary, secondary
©
and tertiary alcohols at different rates. Tertiary alcohols react

almost instantaneously, secondary alcohols react in about 1-5
minutes and primary alcohols react very slowly. The reaction may
take 10 minutes to several days.
Z nCl
RCH2 OH+HCl 2 No reaction/Slow reactio n
ZnCl
R 2 CHOH+HCl 2 R 2 CHCl+H2 O
t
ZnCl
R3 COH+HCl 2 R 3CCl+H2 O
no
Alcohols are soluble in Lucas reagent but the formed alkyl

halides are not soluble. Therefore, formation of two layers in the
reaction medium indicate the occurrence of the reaction.
Primary alcohols – Layers do not separate
Secondary alcohols – Layers separate within 1-5 minutes
Tertiary alcohols – Layers separate immediately
88
Material Required
• Ceric ammonium
nitrate solution : As per need
• Test tube holder : One • Sodium hydroxide : As per need
• Test tubes : As per need • Iodine solution : As per need
• Lucas reagent : As per need
• Dioxan : As per need
d
Procedure
he
A. Ceric ammonium nitrate test
Take 1 mL solution of organic compound dissolved in a suitable Sodium
solvent. Add a few drops of ceric ammonium nitrate solution. hydroxide
Appearance of red colour shows the presence of alcoholic – OH group.
pu T
is
Iodine
Note : The red colour disappears after keeping the reaction mixture for
re R
sometime. The colour also disappears if excess of ceric
bl
ammonium nitrate solution is added. Therefore, use of excess
of ceric ammonium nitrate solution should be avoided.
E
B. Iodoform test
be C
First method
Take 0.2 mL of the compound in a test tube, add 10 mL of 10%
to N
aqueous KI solution and 10 mL of freshly prepared NaOCl solution.

Warm gently; yellow crystals of iodoform separate.
Second method
©
Dissolve 0.1 g or 4 to 5 drops of compound in 2 mL of water. If it

does not dissolve, add dioxane drop by drop to get a homogeneous
solution. Add 2 mL of 5% sodium hydroxide solution followed by
potassium iodide-iodine reagent* dropwise with continuous
shaking till a definite dark colour of iodine persists. Allow the
reactants to remain at room temperature for 2-3 minutes. If no
iodoform separates, warm the reaction mixture in a water bath at
60°C. Add more drops of potassium iodide–iodine reagent. If colour
of iodine disappears continue addition of reagent till the colour of
t
iodine persists even after two minutes of heating at 60°C. Remove

no
excess iodine by adding a few drops of sodium hydroxide solution

with shaking. Dilute the mixture with equal volume of water and
keep it at room temperature for 10-15 minutes. A yellow precipitate
of iodoform is obtained if test is positive.
* Potassium iodide-iodine reagent is prepared by dissolving 20 g of potassium

iodide and 10 g of iodine in 100 mL of water.
89
C. Lucas test
Take 1 mL of compound in a test tube. Add 10 mL of Lucas reagent.
Shake well and note the time for the separation of two distinct layers.
Note : Lucas test is applicable to only those alcohols which are soluble
in the reagent because the test is based on separation of alkyl
halides as separate layer.
III. PHENOLIC (A R-OH) GROUP
d
Theory
he
The –OH group attached directly to the ring carbon of an aromatic
ring is called phenolic –OH group. Phenols are weakly acidic,
therefore they are soluble in NaOH solution but at the same time
they are not sufficiently acidic to be soluble is sodium
pu T
is
hydrogencarbonate solution. Phenols give coloured complex with
neutral ferric chloride solution. For example, phenol gives a
re R
complex of violet colour as follows :
bl 3–
6C6H5OH + FeCl 3 ⎯→ [Fe(C6H 5O)6] + 3HCl + 3H
+
E
Violet complex
Resorcinol, o–, m– and p–cresol give violet or blue colouration,
be C
catechol gives green colour which rapidly darkens. 1 and 2–Naphthol

do not give characteristics colours. Phenols condense with phthalic
to N
anhydride in the presence of concentrated H2SO4, Phenol condeses to

give phenolphthalein which gives a dark pink colour with NaOH
solution. This is called phthalein dye test.
t ©
no
90
Table 8.1 : Colours produced by some other phenolic compounds in phthalein dye test
Compound Colour Compound Colour
o–Cresol red Catechol Usually blue takes

longer time to appear
m–Cresol bluish-purple
Resorcinol Green fluorescent
p–Cresol No colour
colour of fluorescein
d
Material Required
he
• Blue litmus paper
• Ferric chloride solution
• Conc. sulphuric acid
pu T
is
According
• Sodium hydroxide
• Test tube holder : One to
re R
• Phthalic anhydride
requirement
bl
• Test tubes : As per need • Organic compound
containing phenolic
E
–OH group
be C
Procedure
to N
A. Ferric chloride test

Sulphuric
Take 2 mL of aqueous or alcoholic solution of the organic acid
compound in a test tube, add neutral ferric chloride solution
dropwise and note the colour change. Appearance of a blue, green,
©
Sodium
hydroxide
violet or red colour indicates the presence of phenolic –OH group.
B. Phthalein dye test Phthalic

anhydride
Take 0.1 g of organic compound and 0.1 g of phthalic anhydride
in a clean dry test tube and add 1-2 drops of conc. H 2SO 4. Heat
the test tube for about 1 minute in an oil bath. Cool and pour the
reaction mixture carefully into a beaker containing 15 mL of dilute
sodium hydroxide solution. Appearance of pink, blue, green, red
etc. colours indicates the presence of phenolic –OH group in the
t
compound. However, the colour disappears on addition of large

no
excess of sodium hydroxide solution.
Note : (i) Neutral ferric chloride solution is prepared by adding dilute sodium hydroxide solution to
ferric chloride solution drop by drop till a small but permanent brown precipitate appears.
Solution is filtered and the clear filtrate is used for the test.
(ii) Some phenols like 2,4,6 – trinitrophenol and 2,4 – dinitrophenol, which contain electron
withdrawing groups are strong acids and dissolve even in sodium hydrogencarbonate solution.
91
Precautions
(a) Always use freshly prepared, neutral and very dilute solution of ferric chloride.
(b) Phenol is toxic and corrosive in nature and should be handled with care.
O
IV. ALDEHYDIC AND KETONIC G ROUPS (–CHO and –C–)
Theory
d
Both aldehydes and ketones contain carbonyl group (>C = O) and
he
are commonly known as carbonyl compounds. Identification of
aldehydes and ketones is done by two important reactions of
carbonyl group i.e.
pu T (i) addition reaction on double bond of >C = O group and
is
(ii) oxidation of carbonyl group.
re R
Addition reactions of derivatives of ammonia are important from
bl
the point of view of identification of carbonyl compounds. Addition
is generally followed by elimination resulting in the formation of
E
unsaturated compound.
be C
to N
(R = alkyl, aryl or C6H 5NH etc.)

These reactions are catalysed by an acid or a base and do not
occur under strongly acidic or basic conditions. Each reaction
requires an optimum pH for its occurrence. Therefore, maintenance
©
of pH is very important while carrying out these reactions.

As far as oxidation is concerned, aldehydes are easily oxidised
to carboxylic acids while ketones require relatively stronger
oxidising agents. Distinction can be made between these two types
of carbonyl compounds on the basis of difference in their reactivity.
Following tests are performed for the identification of aldehydic
and ketonic groups:
(i) On reaction with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (2,4-DNP), they
form the respective 2,4–dinitrophenyl hydrazones.
t
no
2, 4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine 2, 4 – Dinitrophenyl hydrazone of

carbonyl compound
92
These two carbonyl compounds (aldehydes and ketones) are

distinguished on the basis of tests using mild oxidising reagents,
like Tollen’s reagent and Fehling’s reagent or Benedict’s reagent.
Tollen’s reagent is an alkaline solution of silver cation complexed
with ammonia, and Fehling’s and Benedict’s reagents are alkaline
solutions containing cupric ions complexed with tartarate and
citrate ions respectively. Fehling’s reagent is freshly prepared by
mixing equal amounts of Fehling’s solution A and Fehling’s
solution B. Fehlings reagent deteriorates on keeping while Fehling’s
solutions A and B are quite stable. Fehling’s solution A is an
d
aqueous copper sulphate solution while Fehling’s solution B is
an alkaline solution of sodium potassium tartarate (Rochelle’s salt).
he
The reagent contains Cu 2+ ion complexed with tartarate ions. The
structure of the complex is given below :
pu T
is
re R
bl
E
be C
Copper tartarate complex

to N
Benedict modified the original Fehling’s test by using a single

solution which is more convenient for the test. Benedict’s solution
is more stable than Fehling’s reagent and can be stored for a long
time. It is an alkaline solution containing a mixture of copper
©
sulphate and sodium citrate (2Na3C6H 5O 7.11H2O).

Complex formation decreases the cupric ion concentration
below that necessary for precipitation of cupric hydroxide. These
two reagents oxidize aldehydes while ketones remain unaffected.
The chemistry of these tests is as follows:
+ –
RCHO + 2[Ag (NH3)2] + 2OH ⎯→ 2Ag + 3NH3 + H2O + RCOONH4
From Tollen’s reagent
RCHO + 2Cu 2+ (complexed) + 5OH– ⎯→ RCOO– + Cu2O + 3H2O

t
Fehling’s solution
no
However, aromatic aldehydes do not give positive Fehling’s test.

2+ +
In Benedict test also, Cu ions are reduced to Cu ions in the
same manner as in the case of Fehling’s reagent.
Aldehydes also give pink colour with Schiff’s reagent (the
reagent is prepared by decolourising aqueous solution of
p–rosaniline hydrochloride dye by adding sodium sulphite or by
passing SO2 gas). Ketones do not respond to this test.
93
Material Required
• Schiff’s reagent : As per need

• Fehling’s solutions A and B: As per need
• Beaker (250 mL) : One • Silver nitrate : As per need
• Test tube holder : One • Dilute ammonium
• Test tubes : As per need hydroxide solution : As per need
• 2,4-Dinitrophenyl-
hydrazine reagent : As per need
d
Procedure
he
Silver nitrate
A. Test given by both aldehydes and ketones
pu T
is
Ammonia
solution 2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine test (2,4-DNP test)
re R
Take 2-3 drops of the liquid compound in a test tube or in case of
Ammonia gas
bl solid compound, dissolve a few crystals of it in 2-3 mL

alcohol. Add a few drops of an alcoholic solution of
E
2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine. Appearance of yellow, orange or
orange-red precipitate confirms the presence of carbonyl group.
be C
If precipitate does not appear at room temperature, warm the

mixture in a water bath for a few minutes and cool.
to N
B. Tests given by aldehydes only
Following tests namely Schiff’s test, Fehling’s test and Tollen’s test
©
are given by aldehydes only.
Schiff’s test
Take 3-4 drops of the liquid compound or dissolve a few crystals

of organic compound in alcohol and add 2-3 drops of the Schiff’s
reagent. Appearance of pink colour indicates the presence of an
aldehyde.
Fehling’s test
t
no
Take nearly 1 mL of Fehling’s solution A and 1 mL of Fehling’s

solution B in a clean dry test tube. To this add 2-3 drops of the
liquid compound or about 2 mL of the solution of the solid
compound in water or alcohol. Heat the content of the test tube
for about 2 minutes in a water bath. Formation of brick red
precipitate of copper (I) oxide indicates the presence of an aldehyde.
This test is not given by aromatic aldehydes.
94
Benedicts test
Add 5 drops of the liquid compound or the solution of the solid

organic compound in water or alcohol to 2 mL Benedict’s reagent.
Place the test tube in boiling water bath for 5 minutes. An orange-
red precipitate indicates the presence of an aldehyde.
Tollen’s test
(i) Take 1 mL of freshly prepared (~ 2 %) silver nitrate solution

in a test tube. Add 1-2 drops of sodium hydroxide solution
d
to it and shake, a dark brown precipitate of silver oxide
appears. Dissolve the precipitate by adding ammonium
he
hydroxide solution drop-wise.
(ii) To the above solution, add an aqueous or an alcoholic
solution of the organic compound.
pu T
is
(iii) Heat the reaction mixture of step (ii) in a water bath for about
5 minutes. Formation of a layer of silver metal on the inner
re R
surface of the test tube which shines like a mirror, indicates
bl
the presence of an aldehyde.
E
Precautions
be C
(a) Always use freshly prepared reagents to perform the tests.

(b) Do not heat the reaction mixture directly on a flame.
to N
(c) After performing the test, destroy the silver mirror by adding dilute nitric acid
and drain off the solution with excess of water.
©
V. CARBOXYL GROUP (—COOH)
Theory
Organic compounds containing carboxyl functional groups are
called carboxylic acids.
The term carboxyl, derives its name from the combination of
words carbonyl and hydroxyl because carboxylic functional group
t
no
O
contains both of these groups ( —C—OH ). These acids turn blue
litmus red and react with sodium hydrogencarbonate solution to
produce effervescence due to the formation of carbon dioxide.
This is a test that distinguishes carboxylic acids from phenols.
RCOOH + NaHCO3 ⎯→ RCOONa + H2O + CO2
95
These react with alcohols in the acidic medium to produce esters.
Con c.H SO
RCOOH + R'OH 2 4 RCOOR' + H2 O
Carboxylic Alcohol Ester
acid
Material Required
• Blue litmus paper
d
• Test tube holder : One /solution : As per need
• Glass rod : One • Ethyl alcohol : As per need
he
• Test tubes : As per need • Sodium hydrogencarbonate
solution : As per need
pu T
is
Procedure
re R
bl
A. Litmus test
Put a drop of the liquid compound or a drop of the solution of the
E
Ethyl alcohol
compound with the help of a glass rod on a moist blue litmus paper.
If the blue colour of the litmus paper changes to red, the presence of
be C
either a carboxylic group or a phenolic group is indicated.
B. Sodium hydrogencarbonate test

to N
Take 2 mL of saturated aqueous solution of sodium

hydrogencarbonate in a clean test tube. Add a few drops of the
liquid compound or a few crystals of solid compound to it.
©
The evolution of brisk effervescence of CO2 indicates the presence

of carboxyl group.
C. Ester test
Take about 0.1 g compound in a test tube, add 1 mL ethanol or
methanol and 2-3 drops of concentrated sulphuric acid. Heat the
reaction mixture for 10-15 minutes in a hot water bath at about
50°C. Pour the reaction mixture in a beaker containing aqueous
sodium carbonate solution to neutralise excess sulphuric acid
t
and excess carboxylic acid. Sweet smell of the substance formed

no
indicates the presence of carboxyl function in the compound.
Precaution
Add the compound in sodium hydrogencarbonate solution slowly so that

effervescence is visible clearly.
96
VI. A MINO GROUP (—NH2)
Theory
Organic compounds containing amino group are basic in nature.
Thus they easily react with acids to form salts, which are soluble
in water.
Both, aliphatic and aromatic amines are classified into three
classes namely– primary(–NH2), secondary(-NH-) and tertiary (-N<),
depending upon the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the
d
nitrogen atom. Primary amine has two hydrogen atoms, secondary
has one while tertiary amine has no hydrogen atom attached to
he
nitrogen.
(i) Carbylamine test
Aliphatic as well as aromatic primary amines give carbylamine test
pu T
is
in which an amine is heated with chloroform.
re R
bl
R-NH2 + CHCl3 + 3KOH RNC + 3KCl + 3H2O
(R=alkyl or aryl group) (Carbylamine)
E
Caution!
be C
Carbylamine so formed is highly toxic and should be destroyed

immediately after the test. For this cool the test tube and add
to N
carefully an excess of conc. HCl.
(ii) Azo dye test

©
Aromatic primary amines can be confirmed by azo dye test. Primary

amine e.g. aniline reacts with nitrous acid generated in situ by the
reaction of sodium nitrite with HCl at 0–5°C to produce diazonium
salt. This couples with β-naphthol to give a scarlet red dye, which
is sparingly soluble in water.
t
no
97
Material Required
• Chloroform
• Potassium hydroxide
• Sodium nitrite solution
• Test tubes : As per need
• Aniline
• Test tube holder : One As per need
• β-Naphthol
• Bunsen burner : One • Dilute hydrochloric acid
• Sodium hydroxide solution
• Ice
d
he
Procedure
A. Solubility test
Chloroform
Take 1 mL of given organic compound in a test tube and add a few
pu T
is
Aniline
drops of dilute HCl to it. Shake the contents of the test tube well. If
the organic compound dissolves, it shows the presence of an amine.
re R
+
bl
Potassium C6H5NH2 + HCl ⎯→ C6H5NH3 Cl–
hydroxide (Anilinium chloride
E
soluble in water)
Sodium nitrite
B. Carbylamine test
be C
Take 2-3 drops of the compound in a test tube and add 2-3 drops of
β -naphthol chloroform followed by addition of an equal volume of 0.5 M alcoholic
to N
potassium hydroxide solution. Heat the contents gently. An obnoxious

smell of carbylamine confirms the presence of primary amino group
in the compound.
©
Caution!
Do not inhale the vapours. Destroy the product immediately by
adding concentrated hydrochloric acid and flush it into the sink.
C. Azo dye test
(i) Dissolve nearly 0.2 g of the compound in 2 mL of dilute
hydrochloric acid in a test tube. Cool the content of the test
tube in ice.
(ii) To the ice cooled solution add 2 mL of 2.5% cold aqueous
t
sodium nitrite solution.

no
(iii) In another test tube, dissolve 0.2 g of β-naphthol in dilute

sodium hydroxide solution.
(iv) Add diazonium chloride solution prepared in step (ii) into
the cold β-naphthol solution slowly with shaking.
The formation of a scarlet red dye confirms the presence of
aromatic primary amine.
98
Precautions
(a) Do not expose yourself to the vapours while performing carbylamine test because
isocyanide is highly poisonous. Destroy it immediately as described above.
(b) Maintain the temperature of the reaction mixture below 5°C during diazotisation,
as diazonium chloride is unstable at higher temperatures.
(c) Always add diazonium chloride solution into the alkaline solution of β-naphthol
and not vice-versa.
d
he
(i) What is Bayer’s reagent?
(ii) Why do alkenes and alkynes decolourize bromine water and alkaline KMnO4?
pu T
(iii) Explain why for the confirmation of unsaturation in a compound both the tests namely
is
test with bromine water and test with Bayer’s reagent should be performed.
re R
(iv) Why does phenol decolourize bromine water?
bl
(v) How will you distinguish between phenol and benzoic acid?
E
(vi) Why does benzene not decolourise bromine water although it is highly unsaturated?
(vii) Why does formic acid give a positive test with Tollen’s reagent?
be C
(viii) Outline the principle of testing glucose in a sample of urine in a pathological laboratory?
(ix) Why is Benedict’s reagent more stable than Fehling’s reagent?
to N
(x) How would you distinguish an aldehyde from a ketone by chemical tests?
(xi) How would you separate a mixture of phenol and benzoic acid in the laboratory by using
chemical method of separation?
©
(xii) Write the chemistry of diazotisation and coupling reactions.

(xiii) How can you distinguish between hexylamine (C6H 13NH2) and aniline (C6H5NH2)?
(xiv) How can you distinguish between ethylamine and diethylamine?
(xv) How can CH3OH and C2H5OH be distinguished chemically?
(xvi) Why is solution of iodine prepared in potassium iodide and not in water?
(xvii) What is haloform reaction? What type of compounds generally give this reaction?
t
no
(xviii) How can you distinguish the compounds and by simple

chemical test?
99
UNIT -9
PREPARATION OF
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
d
EXPERIMENT 9.1
he
Aim
To prepare double salts: ferrous ammonium sulphate (Mohr’s salt) and potash
alum.
pu T
is
Theory
re R
bl
When a mixture containing equimolar proportions of potassium sulphate and
aluminium sulphate or ferrous sulphate and ammonium sulphate is crystallised
E
from its solution, a double salt is formed. The formation of double salt may be
shown as follows:
be C
K2SO4 + Al2 (SO4)3 + 24H2O ⎯→ K2SO4 . Al2 (SO4)3 . 24H 2O or 2KAl(SO4)2.12H2O

(Potash alum)
FeSO4 + (NH4)2 SO4 + 6H2O ⎯→ FeSO4 . (NH4)2 SO4 . 6H2O
to N
Ferrous ammonium sulphate (Mohr’s salt)

2+ 3+
Fe and Al ions undergo hydrolysis, therefore, while preparing aqueous
solutions of ferrous sulphate and aluminium sulphate in water, 2-3 mL dilute
©
sulphuric acid is added to prevent the hydrolysis of these salts.

Material Required

• Potassium sulphate : As per need
• Conical flask (50 mL) : One
• Trough : One • Aluminium sulphate : As per need
• Glass rod : One • Ferrous sulphate : As per need
• Tripod stand : One • Ammonium sulphate : As per need
t
• Funnel : One • Dilute sulphuric acid : As per need

• Ethanol : As per need
no
• Wire gauze : One
Procedure
(a) Preparation of Double Salt: Potassium Aluminium Sulphate (Potash Alum)
(i) Take 10 mL of distilled water in a 50 mL beaker and heat it to about 40° C.
Dissolve 6.6 g of aluminium sulphate in it and add about 0.4 mL of dilute
sulphuric acid.
PREPARATION OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
(ii) Weigh 2.4 g of powdered potassium sulphate and transfer

it to the above solution.
(iii) Heat the solution with constant stirring till potassium
sulphate dissolves completely.
(iv) Allow the solution to cool to room temperature slowly.
(v) On cooling, white crystals of potash alum separate out. Ethanol
(vi) Decant the mother liquor and wash the crystals by gently
shaking with 1:1 cold water and alcohol mixture.
Sulphuric acid
(vii) Filter the crystals, dry these between the folds of a filter paper
and note the yield.
d
(b) Preparation of Double Salt: Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate
he
(i) Dissolve 3.5 g of ferrous sulphate and 1.7 g of ammonium
sulphate (weighed separately), in 5 mL of distilled water
contained in a 50 mL conical flask by heating. Add about
0.5 mL of dilute sulphuric acid to the flask and concentrate
pu T
is
the solution by heating till the crystallization point is reached.
(ii) Allow the mixture to cool to room temperature slowly.
re R
(iii) On cooling, light green crystals of ferrous ammonium
bl
sulphate separate out.
E
(iv) Decant the mother liquor and wash the crystals by shaking
with very small amounts of 1:1 cold water and alcohol
mixture to remove sticking mother liquor.
be C
(iv) Separate the crystals by filtration wash with alcohol, dry

between the folds of a filter paper and record the yield.
to N
Result
Yield of potash alum/Mohr’s salt is __________g.
©
Precautions
(a) Cool the solution slowly to get good crystals. Avoid rapid cooling.
(b) Do not disturb the solution while cooling.
(c) Avoid prolonged heating while preparing crystals of ferrous ammonium sulphate,
as it may oxidise ferrous ions to ferric ions and change the stoichiometry of the
crystals.
t
no
(i) Why do we take equimolar quantities of reacting compounds in the preparation of double salts?
(ii) In the preparation of ferrous ammonium sulphate, can concentrated sulphuric acid be
used in place of dilute sulphuric acid? Explain.
(iii) What is the difference between iron compounds; K4[Fe(CN)6] and FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O?
101
(iv) What is the action of heat on potash alum?

(v) Why does an aqueous solution of potash alum turn blue litmus red?
(vi) What are the isomorphous substances?
(vii) Give the name of some of the alums where cations are other than Al3+ .
(viii) What is the difference between a complex compound and a double salt?
EXPERIMENT 9.2
d
Aim
he
To prepare potassium trioxalatoferrate(III).
Theory
pu T
is
When hydrated ferric chloride is dissolved in aqeous solution of
oxalic acid containing potassium hydroxide, green crystals of
re R
potassium trioxalatoferrate(III) are obtained. The reaction involved
bl in the formation of these green crystals is as follows:

E
FeCl3 + 6KOH + 3 H2C2O4 ⎯→ K3 [Fe (C2O4)3] + 3KCl + 6H2O
be C
Material Required
to N

• Ferric chloride : 2.5 g
• Porcelain dish : One
• Potassium hydroxide : 3.8 g
• Water bath : One
• Oxalic acid : 3.0 g
©
• Glass rod : One

• Ethanol : As per need
• Funnel : One
Procedure
Potassium
(i) Prepare a solution of 3.0 g of oxalic acid in 12.5 mL of hot
hydroxide water contained in a clean 50 mL beaker.
(ii) To the above solution, add 3.8 g of potassium hydroxide
Ethanol gradually in lots, with stirring so that it dissolves completely.
t
(iii) Add 2.5 g of ferric chloride into the above solution with
no
constant stirring till it is completely dissolved.

Oxalic acid
(iv) Filter the solution and concentrate the green filtrate by
heating in a porcelain dish over a water bath and cool the
mixture slowly.
(v) Filter the crystals so formed, wash with 1:1 mixture of cold
water and alcohol and dry them by pressing between the
folds of a filter paper.
102
PREPARATION OF INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Result
Yield of potassium trioxalatoferrate (III) is _________ g.
Precautions
(a) Do not evaporate the entire solvent when the solution is being concentrated.
(b) Weigh the desired quantities of different substances accurately.
(c) Maintain the temperature of hot water around 40° C.
d
(d) Add potassium hydroxide to oxalic acid solution in small lots.
he
pu T
is
(i) Give IUPAC name of the compound called potassium ferrioxalate.
re R
(ii) What is the coordination number of iron in potassium trioxalatoferrate(III)?
(iii)
bl
Give two examples of bidentate ligands other than oxalate ion.
E
(iv) Why does the compound, potassium trioxalatoferrate(III), not give tests for ferric ions?
(v) What are chelates ?
be C
t to N
©
no
103
UNIT-10
PREPARATION OF
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
d
EXPERIMENT 10.1
he
Aim
To prepare acetanilide.
pu T
is
Theory
re R
The replacement of one hydrogen atom of the — NH2 group of aniline by CH3CO–
bl
group in the presence of glacial acetic acid. Gives acetanilide. In the laboratory,
E
acetylation is usually carried out with acetic anhydride. Acetyl chloride may
also be used for the purpose of acetylation if acetic anhydride is not available.
Acetylation with CH3COCl is usually carried out in the presence of pyridine.
be C
to N
©
Material Required
• Funnel : One
• Round bottomed flask (100 mL) : One
• Beaker (250 mL) : One • Aniline : 5 mL
• Air condenser : One • Acetic anhydride
• Sand bath : One /Acetyl chloride : 5 mL
• Clamp and iron stand : One • Acetic acid / Pyridine : 5 mL
t
• Pumice stone : As per need

no
• Melting point assembly : One
Procedure
(i) Take 5 mL of aniline in a 100 mL round bottom flask and add acetylating
mixture containing 5 mL acetic anhydride and 5 mL glacial acetic acid.
Alternatively, you can use 5 mL of acetyl chloride and 5 mL of dry pyridine
as the acctylating mixture.
PREPARATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
(ii) Fit an air condenser on the mouth of the round bottom flask
after adding a few pumice stones and reflux the mixture Aniline
gently for 10-15 minutes on a sand bath.
(iii) Cool the reaction mixture and pour it slowly in 150-200 mL Acetic
anhydride
of ice cold water with stirring.
(iv) Filter the solid, wash it with cold water and recrystallise a Acetyl
small amount of sample from hot water containing a few chloride
drops of methanol or ethanol.
Acetic acid
(v) Report the yield and the melting point of the compound. causes
serious burn
d
Result
Pyridine
he
(a) Yield of acetanilide _______ g.
(b) Melting point of acetanilide is _______ °C.
pu T
is
Precautions
re R
bl
(a) Handle acetic anhydride and acetyl chloride carefully as they cause irritation to
the eyes and acetyl chloride also strongly fumes in air.
E
(b) Store acetylchloride under dry conditions.
(c) Handle pyridine with extreme caution. Dispense it in an efficient fume cupboard
be C
and wear disposable glasses while using it.

(d) Distil pyridine before use because it absorbs mioisture and the reaction does not
take place under moist conditions.
to N
(e) Wash the solid 2-3 times with cold water till the filtrate is neutral to litmus.
(f) Determine the melting point of perfectly dried and recrystallised sample.
©
A LTERNATIVE METHOD FOR THE PREPARATION OF ACETANILIDE
If acetic anhydride or pyridine is not available then the following

method can be used for the preparation of acetanilide.
t
Material Required
no
• Boiling tube : One

• Aniline : 1 mL
• Water bath : One
• Melting point assembly : One • Glacial acetic acid : 1 mL
• Acetyl chloride : 1 mL
• Funnel : One
105
Procedure
(i) Take 1 mL of aniline in a dry boiling tube, add 1 mL of glacial
acetic acid to it and mix the two thoroughly.
(ii) To the above mixture add 1 mL of acetyl chloride in lots
(0.3 mL at a time). The mixture becomes warm. If the boiling
tube becomes unbearable to touch, cool it under tap water.
(iii) After addition of whole amount of acetyl chloride, heat the
mixture for five minutes in a boiling water bath.
(iv) Cool the boiling tube and add ice-cold water (~10 mL) into
d
the tube with constant stirring.
(v) Filter the acetanilide separated as white powder and wash
he
with water till filtrate is neutral to litmus.
(vi) Crystallise the crude acetanilide with hot water. White shining
needle shaped crystals are obtained.
pu T (vii) Report the yield and melting point of the compound.
is
re R
bl
Precautions
(a) If aniline sample is too much coloured, distill it before carrying out the experiment,
E
because yield is lowered with impure aniline.
(b) Use perfectly dry apparatus.
be C
(c) Do not inhale the vapours coming out during the addition of acetylchloride.
(d) Determine the melting point of perfectly dried and recrystallized sample.
to N
EXPERIMENT 10.2
©
Aim
To prepare dibenzalacetone (Dibenzylideneacetone)
Theory
α-Hydrogen atom of aliphatic aldehydes and ketones is acidic in
nature, therefore, in the presence of dilute alkali, such an aldehyde
or ketone condenses with an aromatic aldehyde to give α, β–
unsaturated aldehyde or ketone. This reaction is called Claisen -
t
Schmidt reaction. For example, benzaldehyde undergoes

no
condensation with acetone in the presence of aqueous sodium

hydroxide (NaOH) to give dibenzalacetone.
106
Material Required
• Ethanol : 25 mL
• Conical flask(250 mL) : One • NaOH : 3.15 g
• Beaker(250 mL) : One • Benzaldehyde : 3.2 mL
• Funnel : One • Acetone : 2.3 mL
• Melting point assembly : One • Ice : As per need
• Ethylacetate : As per need
d
Procedure
he
(i) Prepare a solution of 3.15 g sodium hydroxide in a mixture Ethanol
of 25 mL ethanol and 30 mL distilled water taken in a 250 mL
beaker. Cool the beaker in an ice bath maintained at a
NaOH
temperature of about 20–25°C.
pu T
is
(ii) Prepare a mixture of 3.2 mL of benzaldehyde and 2.3 mL of
acetone and add half of this mixture slowly in ice cooled Benzaldehyde
re R
NaOH solution prepared in step (i) with vigourous stirring.
bl
A fluffy precipitate is formed within 1-2 minutes. Stir the
mixture gently for about fifteen minutes.
Acetone
E
(iii) After 15 minutes add remaining mixture of benzaldehyde
Ethyl acetate
and acetone and stir for 30 minutes more.
be C
(iv) Filter the pale yellow solid so obtained and wash with cold
water. Dry it and recrystallise its small amount from ethanol
to N
or ethyl acetate.
(v) Report the yield and the melting point of the compound.
Result
©
(a) Yield of dibenzalacetone is _________g.

(b) Melting point of dibenzalacetone _______°C.
Precautions
(a) Maintain the temperature around 20°C while shaking the reaction mixture.
(b) Always use freshly distilled benzaldehyde or the sample from a freshly opened
t
bottle.
no
EXPERIMENT 10.3
Aim
To prepare p-nitroacetanilide.
107
Theory
p-Nitroacetanilide is prepared by the nitration of acetanilide by
using a mixture of conc. nitric acid and conc. sulphuric acid as
nitrating reagent. The mixture of the two acids releases nitronium
ion( NO+2 ), which acts as an electrophile in the reaction.
HNO3 + 2H2SO4 ⎯→ NO+2 + H 3O + + 2H SO –4

Nitronium ion attacks the benzene ring containing anilide
group, mainly at the para position to give p-nitroacetanilide as a
d
major product. This is an example of aromatic electrophilic
substitution reaction.
he
pu T
is
re R
Material Required
bl
E
• Acetanilide : 2g
• Beaker (100 mL) : One • Glacial acetic acid : 2 mL
be C
• Funnel : One • Conc. H2SO4 : 5 mL

• Glass rod : One • Conc. HNO3 : 1.5 mL
to N
• Ice bath : One • Ice : As per requirement

• Ethanol/methanol : As per requirement
©
Procedure
Acetic acid (i) Dissolve 2 g of acetanilide in 2 mL of glacial acetic acid taken

causes severe in a 100 mL beaker.
burns (ii) Add 4 mL of conc. H2SO4 gradually with stirring to the above
mixture. The mixture becomes hot and clear solution is
Hazard Warning obtained. Cool the reaction mixture in an ice bath maintained
• Acetanilide may cause at 0-5° C.
cyanosis. (iii) Add a cold mixture of 1.0 mL conc. HNO3 and 1.0 mL conc.
t
H2SO 4 to the viscous reaction mixture drop by drop with

no
constant stirring, so that the temperature of the mixture does

not rise above 10°C.
(iv) Remove the beaker from the ice bath and allow the reaction
mixture to attain room temperature. Let it stand at room
temperature for about 30 minutes. Stir the reaction mixture
continuously and pour it on 100g of crushed ice.
(v) Stir the mixture well and filter the compound so obtained.
108
(vi) Wash the compound with cold water and dry it.
(vii) Recrystallise a small amount of the pale yellow solid from
alcohol. Colourless crystals of p-nitroacetanilide are
obtained. Yellow ortho-nitroacetanilide formed in the small
amount remains dissolved in the mother liquor.
(viii) Record the yield and melting point of the pure compound.
Result
(a) Yield of p-nitroacetanilide is _______ g.
d
(b) Melting point of p-nitroacetanilide is ______°C.
he
Precautions
(a) Do not allow the temperature of the reaction mixture to exceed 10°C during
addition of nitrating mixture.
pu T
is
(b) Add mixture of concentrated nitric acid and sulphuric acid into the solution of
acetanilide slowly and carefully.
re R
bl
E
EXPERIMENT 10.4
be C
Aim
To prepare phenyl–azo–β-naphthol (an azo dye).
to N
Theory
Aniline is an aromatic primary amine. It forms diazonium salt
©
when treated with nitrous acid at 0-5°C. Nitrous acid is generated

in situ by the reaction of sodium nitrite with hydrochloric acid.
The process is called diazotisation. The diazonium salt is
coupled with an alkaline solution of β-naphthol to form an
orange-red azo dye.
t
no
109
Material required
• Aniline : 2 mL
• Beaker (250mL) : One • Conc. HCl : 6.5 mL
• Conical flask (100mL) : One • Sodium nitrite : 1.6 g
• Glass rod : One • β-naphthol : 3.2 g
• Thermometer (210° C) : One • Sodium hydroxide : 2.0 g
• Filter paper : As per need • Glacial acetic acid : 12.0 mL
• Funnel : One • Ice : As per need
d
• Melting point assembly : One • Distilled water : As per need
he
Procedure
(i) Take 6.5 mL of concentrated hydrochloric acid in a 100 mL
pu T
is
Aniline
beaker. Dilute it with 6.5 mL of water and dissolve 2 mL of
aniline in it.
re R
bl
(ii) Cool the above mixture by placing the beaker in an ice bath
HCl
maintained at 0-5 °C temperature.
E
(iii) Diazotise the above mixture by adding a solution of 1.6 g of
Sodium
sodium nitrite in 8 mL water.
be C
nitrite (iv) Dissolve 3.2 g β-naphthol in 18 mL of 10% sodium

hydroxide solution. Add about 25 g of crushed ice to it.
(v) Stir the β-naphthol solution well and add chilled diazonium
to N
Sodium
hydroxide chloride solution very slowly to it with constant stirring.
(vi) An orange red dye of phenyl-azo-β-naphthol is formed.
(vii) Allow the mixture to stand in the bath for 30 minutes with
©
β-naphthol occasional shaking.

(viii) Filter the crystals obtained and wash them well with cold
water.
Acetic acid (ix) Recrystallise about one-fourth of the crude product from
causes severe
burns glacial acetic acid.
(x) Filter the recrystallised sample, wash with a little alcohol to
remove acetic acid. Dry the recrystallised sample between
the folds of a filter paper.
(xi) Record the yield and the melting point of the compound.
t
no
Result
(a) Yield of phenyl–azo–β–naphthol is ______g and its
(b) Melting point of phenyl-azo-β-naphthol is _______ °C.
110
Precautions
(a) Maintain the temperature in the range of 0-5°C during diazotisation.
(b) Always add diazonium chloride solution in alkaline β-naphthol for dye formation
and not vice versa.
(c ) Dry the recrystallised sample perfectly for determining the melting point.
Note : Azo-dye synthesis are mostly so nearly quantitative that one should use amounts of reactants
closely agreeing with equations. Any excess of certain reactants may cause decomposition of
unused material and tar may appear.
d
EXPERIMENT 10.5
he
Aim
pu T
is
To prepare aniline yellow (p-amino-azobenzene).
re R
Theory
bl
p-aminoazobenzene can be prepared in a good yield by
E
rearrangement reaction of diazoaminobenzene with a small
quantity of aniline hydrochloride in the presence of aniline as
be C
solvent. The chemistry of this conversion is as follows:

to N
©
The above reaction is carried out only in weekly acidic

conditions.
Material Required
t
no
• Conical Flask (100 mL) : One • Diazoaminobenzene : 3g

• Thermometer : One • Aniline : 7 mL
• Funnel : One • Aniline hydrochloride : 1.5 g
• Melting point assembly : One • Glacial acetic acid : 9 mL
• Waterbath : One • Carbon tetrachloride : 9 mL
111
Procedure
(i) Dissolve 3 g of finely powdered diazoaminobenzene in 7 mL

Aniline
of aniline in a 100 mL conical flask.
(ii) Add 1.5 g of finely powdered aniline hydrochloride to the
Acetic acid
above mixture.
causes
severe burns (iii) Warm the mixture with occasional shaking on a water bath
at about 40-45°C , for a period of about one hour.
Carbon (iv) Remove the flask from the water bath and allow the reaction
d
tetrachloride mixture to stand at room temperature for about 30 minutes.
(v) Add 9 mL of glacial acetic acid diluted with an equal volume
he
of water and shake the reaction mixture thoroughly to
convert excess aniline to its acetate, which is water-soluble.
(vi) Allow the mixture to stand for 15 minutes with occasional
stirring.
pu T
is
(vii) Filter p-aminoazobenzene, wash with a little cold water and
dry between the folds of a filter paper.
re R
bl
(viii) Recrystallise a small portion of crude p-aminoazobenzene
from carbon tetrachloride.
E
(ix) Report the yield and melting point of p-aminoazobenzene.
be C
Result
Yield of p–aminoazobenzene is ______ g and its melting point
to N
is ____°C.
©
Precautions
(a) Maintain the temperature of the reaction mixture at about 40-50°C.

(b) Wash the crude product with a small volume of water repeatedly.
(c) Note the melting point of the perfectly dry sample.
AN A LTERNATIVE PROCEDURE FOR PREPARING ANILINE YELLOW

t
no
Theory
Aniline yellow can also be prepared by direct diazotisation and
coupling as followed for phenyl-azo-β-naphthol dye. However,
coupling of the diazonium salt with aniline or any other aromatic
amine is carried out in a weakly acidic medium.
112
Material Required
• Funnel : One • Aniline : 6 mL

• Conical flask (100 mL) : One
• 1.0 M HCl : 4 mL
• Thermometer : One
• Carbon tetrachloride : As per need
• Melting point assembly : One
Procedure
d
(i) Prepare a solution of benzene diazonium chloride using 2 mL Aniline
he
of aniline according to the method described for the preparation
of phenyl-azo–β–naphthol dye (see experiment 10.4). Carbon
(ii) Prepare a solution of 4 mL aniline in 4 mL 1.0 M HCl. tetrachloride
(iii) Add the cold solution of aniline hydrochloride slowly into
pu T
is
the cold solution of benzene diazonium chloride. HCl
(iv) Filter the yellow compound and dry it between the folds of a
re R
bl
filter paper.
(v) Recrystallise the small amount of crude sample from carbon
E
tetrachloride and report the yield and melting point.
be C
to N
(i) Why is acetic anhydride preferred over acetyl chloride for acetylation reaction?
(ii) In the preparation of p-nitroacetanilide another minor product is formed. What is this
compound and how can this be separated from p-nitroacetanilide?
©
(iii) Is it necessary to recrystallise the compound obtained from the reaction? Explain why.
(iv) How is an organic compound recrystallised?
(v) What is the role of acetic acid or pyridine in acetylation?
(vi) How is crude solid compound purified?
(vii) Which of the following compounds on diazotisation followed by coupling with β–naphthol
will form an azo dye?
(a) p-Toluidine (b) Benzylamine (c ) N-Methylaniline.
t
(viii) Why are diazonium chlorides usually soluble in water?

no
(ix) How is methyl orange prepared in the laboratory?

(x) How can phenol and aniline be distinguished chemically?
(xi) Why is aniline soluble in hydrochloric acid while it is insoluble in water?
(xii) Why is aniline a weaker base than ammonia?
(xiii) In contrast to aromatic primary amines, aliphatic primary amines do not form stable
diazonium salts. Why?
113
PROJECTS
Project 1
Title
d
Study the variation in the amount of oxalate ions in guava fruit at different stages
of ripening.
he
Objective
The objective of this project is to investigate the variation in the amount of oxalate
pu T
ions present in guava at different stages of its ripening (i.e. unripe, parialy ripe
is
and fully ripe).
re R
bl
Brief Procedure
E
Collect different samples of guava fruit (green, pale-green, yellowish-white and
yellowish, i.e. from unripe to fully ripe variety). Take100 grams of one of the
sample of guava fruit, crush it into a mortar and transfer the paste in 100 mL of
be C
water. Boil the contents for 10-15 minutes and filter. Take the filtrate, add about
5mL of dilute sulphuric acid and titrate it against 0.001M KMnO4 solution. Repeat
to N
the procedure with other samples of guava and draw conclusion.
Project 2
©
Title
A study to compare the quantity of caesin present in different samples of milk.
Objective
To compare the quality of different samples of milk by finding out quantity of
casein present in them.
t
Brief Procedure
no
Take 200 mL of each sample of milk in separate 500 mL beakers. Heat the milk
samples upto 50 – 60°C. Add a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid slowly with
constant stirring for 5-10 minutes. Casein coagulates as an amorphous
substance. Filter the substance and wash the precipitate several times with tap
water. Remove the fat by using a suitable organic solvent. Weigh casein so obtained
after drying.
Project 3
Title
Preparation of soyabean milk and its comparison with natural
milk.
Objective
To prepare soyabean milk and compare it with natural milk with
d
respect to curd formation, effect of temperature, taste etc.
he
Brief Procedure
Prepare soyabean milk by first soaking soyabean seeds in warm
water and keeping them overnight in water. Make a paste of seeds
pu T by crushing and finely grinding them. Mix the pasty mass with
is
warm water to get soya milk. Filter the mixture and discard the
re R
undissolved portion. Compare soya milk with natural milk and
bl
conclude whether soya milk can be a substitute for natural milk.
The comparison may be made with respect to the nutrients present,
E
colour, smell, taste, effect of temperature, curd formation, etc.
be C
Project 4
to N
Title
Study the effect of potassium metabisulphite as a food preservative
©
under various conditions.
Objective
To study the effect of concentration of potassium metabisulphite
(preservative), temperature and time on preservation of food.
Brief Procedure
Collect amla fruits and wash these with water. Cut these into small
pieces and dry in the sunlight for a few hours. Mix the salt and
t
the spices to the pieces. Pour 25g of amla pieces into each of the
no
six boiling tubes numbered as 1, 2, 3…etc. Weigh 500 mg of

potassium metabisulphite and dissolve it in 20 mL of distilled
water. Keep the boiling tube No. 1 without mixing preservative
and oil. In boiling tube No. 2 and 3 add 1 mL of the preservative
solution and 2 mL of oil and mix the mixture with the glass rod.
Keep the boiling tube No. 2 at the room temperature (25-350C)
and the boiling tube No. 3 at a temperature of 400C. In boiling
126
PROJECTS
tube No. 4,5and 6, add 2 mL, 4 mL and 8 mL of the preservative

solution respectively and 2 mL of mustard oil. Keep these boiling
tubes at the room temperature. Prepare again the fresh mixtures
in boiling tubes No. 4, 5 and 6 and keep them at 40°C temperature.
Keep all these boiling tubes for 3 to 5 days. Note the growth of
fungi, if any, in these tubes. Record your observations and draw
conclusion.
Project 5
d
Title
he
A Study of enzymatic hydrolysis of starch
Objective
pu T
is
Study the hydrolysis of starch by salivary amylase and the effect
re R
of pH and temperature on it.
Brief Procedure
bl
E
Take about 20-30 mL of warm distilled water (30°C– 40°C) in the
be C
mouth and mix it with the saliva by gargling in the mouth. Collect
the saliva mixed water in a beaker.
to N
Digestion of Starch by Saliva Solution

Take 10 mL of the starch solution in a boiling tube and add 2
mL of 1% sodium chloride solution in it. Keep the boiling tube
©
in a water bath, maintained at 30° – 40°C, for at least 15

minutes. Pour 2 mL of the saliva solution in the boiling tube
and start the stopwatch immediately. Take out 2-3 drops of
the mixture after one minute and pour it in the test tube
containing iodine solution. Shake the contents of the test tube
and note the colour of the solution, if any. Similarly, take out
2-3 drops of the mixture from the boiling tube after every one-
minute and add to iodine solution contained in the test tubes.
Record the colour of the solution in each case. Stop taking
t
readings when there is no change in colour. Record the

no
readings in a tabular form.

In order to study the effect of temperature on the digestion of
starch by saliva, perform the above experiment at 50°C.
The effect of pH of reaction medium can also be studied
by using small quantities of dilute HCl and dilute NaOH in
the separate experiments carried out in the same manner as
above.
127
Project 6
Title
A comparative study of the rate of fermentation of the following
substances: (a) Wheat flour, (b) Gram flour, (c) Potato juice, (d) Carrot
juice, (e) Orange juice, (f) Apple juice, and (g) Sugar-cane juice.
Objective
d
To determine the rate of fermentation of different substances and
he
study the effect of concentration, time and temperature on the rate
of fermentation of these substances.
Brief Procedure
pu T
is
Take a conical flask (100 mL) fitted with a delivery tube as shown
re R
in Fig. 12.1. Remove the delivery tube and add 10 g of wheat flour
bl and about 80 mL of the distilled water into the flask. Stir the
contents of the flask with a glass rod and add 2 g of yeast. Stir the
E
contents again. Fit the delivery tube into the mouth of the flask.
Tie a balloon with the help of a thread to the upper end of the
be C
delivery tube as shown in Fig.12.1. As the fermentation proceeds,

carbon dioxide gas is evolved and the balloon inflates. The extent
to which the baloon inflates in the given time is the measure of the
to N
rate of reaction. Repeat the experiment with other materials such

as potato juice, orange juice, apple juice and sugar-cane juice.
t ©
Fig. 12.1 : Determination of rate of firmentation

no
Effect of concentration of yeast

Study the effect of concentration of yeast on the rate of fermentation
of any one of the above materials. For this, carry out the reaction
using 2, 3 and 4 grams of yeast and note the extent of inflation of
baloon in each case in a fixed time interval.
128
PROJECTS
Effect of time
Carry out the reaction using the same ingredients for different
intervals of time and observing the extent of inflation of balloon.
Effect of temperature
Carry out the reaction using the same ingredients for a fixed
interval of time but at three different temperatures (25oC, 30 oC,
and 35°C). Note the extent of reaction by observing the inflation
of baloon in the these reactions.
d
he
Project 7
Title
pu T
is
Extraction of essential oils present in saunf (aniseeds), Ajwain
re R
bl
(carum) and illaichi (cardamom)
E
Objective
To extract essential oils from aniseeds, carum, and cardamom by
be C
using petroleum ether as a solvent.
Brief Procedure
to N
Take 100 g of crushed aniseed in a conical flask and add 100 mL

of petroleum ether (of boiling range 60°-80°) in it. Close the mouth
©
of the flask with a rubber cork and shake it for sometime. Keep
the flask for a day. Filter the solution and collect in a distillation
flask. Distill off the petroleum ether at 60°C - 80°C. Petroleum
ether is a highly inflammable liquid. Do not bring any flame near
it. Use heating mental for heating the flask. Do not heat it directly
on flame. Transfer the liquid (oil) which is left in the flask to a
boiling tube and close the mouth of the boiling tube with a rubber
cork. Note the colour, odour and volume of the essential oil so
collected.
Similarly, extract essential oils of carum and cardamom.
t
no
Project 8
Title
Study of common food adulterants.
129
Objective
To identify the food adulterants in fat, oil, butter, sugar, turmeric
powder, chilli powder and pepper.
Background information
Adulteration of food means substitution of the genuin food material
wholly or in part with any cheaper or inferior substance or removal
of any of its constituents, wholly or in part, which affects adversely
the nature, substance or quality of the food. According to the Indian
d
Preservation of Food Adultration Act (PFA) 1954, any ingredient
which when present in food, is injurious to health is an adultrant.
he
Some of the foods commonly adultrated in India and the
adultrants found in them are as follows ; corresponding form of
Khesari dal (grain/bean/flour) is mixed with pulses like masoor,
bengal gram dal, red gram dal, black gram, and channa.
pu T
is
Consumption of khersari dhal for a long time results in paralysis of
the lower limbs.
re R
bl
Sometimes seeds, barks, leaves and other matter are dressed up
to look like genuine foodstuffs and are used to adultrate pure ones.
E
For example exhausted tea leaves or coloured sawdust are mixed
into fresh tea. Powdered bran and sawdust may be present in ground
spices. Easily obtainable seeds are substituted for cumin, cardamom,
be C
black pepper, mustered seeds etc.

Edible oils and fats are adultrated with cheap edible and non
to N
edible oils. Seeds of Argemone maxicana resemble mustered and

are used to mix with mustard seeds and oil extracted from seeds is
used to adultrate oils such as coconut, mustard, sesame and
groundnut. Argemone oil is poisonous and its use results in dropsy
©
in human beings. Oils and fats are also adultrated with petroleum
products which cause gastrointestinal disorders.
Talc and chalk powder are used to adultrate wheat flour,
Arrowroot powder and confectionary, starch is used as a filler in
milk and milk products.
Coaltar dyes and mineral pigments like lead chromate and red
or yellow earth are common food adultrants used for colouring milk
products, confectionary, soft drinks, beverages, tea, spices, bakery
products, fruits and vegetables to give better look.
t
Brief procedures for testing food adultrants in some of the food

no
materials are given below :

Brief Procedure
Vanaspati ghee in butter
Take 0.5g of butter sample in a test tube and melt it by heating

gently. To this liquid add a small amount of sugar and a few drops
130
PROJECTS
of HC1 and shake the mixture for 5 minutes. Appearance of pink

colour indicates the presence of vanaspati ghee in the butter.
Dyes in fats and oils
Take 1 mL of fat/oil in a test tube and add 1mL of the mixture of

sulphuric acid and glacial acetic acid in the ratio 1:4. Heat the
mixture. Appearance of pink colour indicates the presence of dyes
in fats and oils.
Chalk in sugar
d
Take 1 g of sugar in a test tube and add 2 mL of dilute H2SO4 in it.
he
Evolution of effervescence indicates the presence of chalk in sugar.
Artificial colour in red chillies
pu T
Take a glass tumbler filled with distilled water and pour a few
is
grams of red chilli powder in it. Stir the mixture with the glass rod
re R
and allow it to stand for a few minutes. Appearance of brick red
bl
colour in water shows the presence of artificial colour in red chilli.
E
Coloured chalk powder in turmeric powder
Take about 0.5g of turmeric powder in a test tube and add 1mL of
be C
dilute H2SO4. Evolution of effervescence shows the presence of

coloured chalk powder in turmeric.
to N
Sawdust coloured with coaltar dye in turmeric powder
Take about 1.0 g turmeric powder in a test tube add a few drops
©
of conc. HCl. Instant appearance of violet colour which persists on

dilution with distilled water indicates the presence of sawdust
coloured with metanil yellow, a coaltar dye.
Pappaya seeds in black pepper
Take a beaker filled with distilled water and add one spoon full of
pepper. Papaya seeds float over water while pepper settles down.
t
no
131

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Laboratory Manual

at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress and boredom.

in carrying out laboratory work effectively and will encourage teachers to

P ROFESSOR YASH PAL

National Steering Committee

New Delhi National Council of Educational

the ability to design an experiment, to make observations methodically and to

logically to conclusion, with genuine appreciation of it’s limitation.

are aimed at testing learner’s understanding of the related problems. However,

Appendices related to the chemical data and logarithmic tables are

Professor and Head

New Delhi Science and Mathematics

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)

staff of DESM; Deepak Kapoor, Incharge, Computer Station, Ishwar Singh,

Publication Department are also highly appreciated.

peroxide at room temperature 12

(KIO3) and sodium sulphite (Na2SO3) 15

UNIT-3 : T HERMOCHEMICAL MEASUREMENT 19

• To determine the enthalpy of dissolution of copper

• To study the variation in cell potential of the cell Zn/

Zn 2+ ||Cu2+ /Cu with change in concentration of

UNIT-6 : TITRIMETRIC ANALYSIS (REDOX REACTION) 40

pu T ferrous ammonium sulphate

• Confirmatory tests for anions of dilute sulphuric acid group 52

• Confirmatory tests for anions of concentrated sulphuric

• Systematic analysis of cations 63

• Analysis of Group-IV cations 76

• Analysis of Group-V cations 79

• To prepare aniline yellow (p-amino-azobenzene) 111

UNIT-11 : T ESTS FOR CARBOHYDRATES , FATS AND P ROTEINS 114

• Tests for carbohydrates 114

• Tests for proteins 121

particles remain suspended in solution and coagulation does

constant stirring. Keep water boiling and stirring for

10 minutes after addition of paste. To judge the efficacy

(ii) Add 2g of ferric chloride/aluminium chloride powder to

constant stirring. Addition of these substances in excess may cause precipitation.

(iv) What is coagulation? How is coagulation different from peptization?

bl (i) Take a square sheet (30 cm 30 cm) of parchment/

(iii) Pour the colloidal dispersion of egg albumin in the cone of

(iv) Tie the cone with a thread and suspend it in a trough

Fig. 1.1 : Purification of a colloid

and the dispersion medium are distinguished by their relative

water. The mixing capacity of different oils with water is different.

the test tube if needed. Label it as ‘A’.

Table 1.1 : Emulsification of different oils by soap/detergent

(ii) Milk is said to be a stable emulsion. What provides stability to milk?

To study the effect of concentration and temperature variation respectively on

Sodium thiosulphate reacts with hydrochloric acid and produces a colloidal

The property of the colloidal solution of sulphur to make the system

translucent is used to study the rate of precipitation of sulphur. The rate of

precipitation of sulphur increases with an increase in the concentration of the

• Beaker (100 mL) : One

in the trough for a few minutes so that it attains the

the beaker to become invisible (This is considered as a stage

B. The effect of temperature on the rate of reaction

100 mL beaker, on the outer surface of the bottom of which

a mark ‘X’ has been made. Keep the beaker in a thermostat

time and record the time required for the disappearance of

Table 2.2 : The effect of temperature on the rate of reaction between