A Content Analysis of Asian-Pacific Folk Songs in Elementary Musi

University of Colorado, Boulder
CU Scholar
Music Education Graduate Theses & Dissertations Music Education
Spring 1-1-2012
A Content Analysis of Asian-Pacific Folk Songs in

Elementary Music Textbooks from 1967 to 2008
Edna Aurora Cabilatazan Culig
University of Colorado at Boulder, edna.culig@gmail.com
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Recommended Citation
Culig, Edna Aurora Cabilatazan, "A Content Analysis of Asian-Pacific Folk Songs in Elementary Music Textbooks from 1967 to 2008"
(2012). Music Education Graduate Theses & Dissertations. 6.
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A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF ASIAN-PACIFIC FOLK SONGS IN
AMERICAN ELEMENTARY MUSIC TEXTBOOKS FROM 1967 TO 2008
by
EDNA AURORA C. CULIG
B.M., University of the Philippines, 1985
M. M., University of the Philippines, 1995
A thesis submitted to the
Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Colorado in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Music Education
2012
This thesis entitled:
A Content Analysis of Asian-Pacific Folk Songs in
American Elementary Music Textbooks from 1967 to 2008
written by Edna Aurora Cabilatazan Culig
has been approved for the College of Music
___________________________________
Dr. Martina L. Miranda, Committee Chair
__________________________________
Dr. James R. Austin, Committee Member
___________________________________
Dr. Margaret H. Berg, Committee Member
________________________________________
Dr. Margaret D. LeCompte, Committee Member
_____________________________________
Dr. Brenda M. Romero, Committee Member
The final copy of this thesis has been examined by the signatories, and we
find that both the content and the form meet acceptable presentation standards
of scholarly work in the above mentioned discipline.
IRB protocol # : 11-0227

iii
Culig, Edna Aurora C. (Ph.D., Music Education)
A Content Analysis of Asian-Pacific Folk Songs in American Elementary Music Textbooks
from 1967 to 2008
Thesis directed by Associate Professor Martina L. Miranda
ABSTRACT
In this quanto-historical study, the author conducted a content analysis of Asian-Pacific
(AP) folk songs in 18 American elementary music textbooks published from 1967 to 2008. The
researcher addressed the questions: (1) To what degree are AP folk songs included in the printed
and recorded repertoire of elementary music textbook series published from 1967 to 2008? (a)
Specifically, in respect to printed materials, which AP countries are represented, and what types
of song lyrics and supplemental resources are provided for classroom instruction? (b) In respect
to recorded materials, what are the characteristics of the folk song recordings? (2) To what
degree is inclusion of AP folk songs in textbook series impacted by the publication of the
National Standards in 1994, and what other trends can be discerned? Further, to situate findings
from the study within a theoretical context, the researcher adopted the construct of great and
little traditions first advocated by anthropologist R. Redfield in the 1950s, and further discussed
by Jorgensen (1997) in the context of music education to provide an additional perspective for
discussion of findings and implications for future research. Discussion is divided into two
historical periods (1967-1993 and 1994-2008), commencing with the Tanglewood Symposium
and the adoption of the National Standards respectively. Primary sources included teacher’s
editions of 18 series textbooks, and 103 sampled AP folk song recordings. In addition, the
author conducted phone and Skype interviews with 10 individuals in the publishing industry to
provide additional descriptive data. The author found that AP folk songs had a minimal
iv
representation of roughly 3% in textbook series folk song repertoires. There were 11 out of 15
AP countries represented and original folk song lyrics appear in 10 AP languages. Major trends
and patterns that emerged provide evidence of increased and more authentic representation of
those musical cultures during the second period of this study. Besides more diverse
representation of AP folk songs and use of language tools, textbook authors adhered to research-
based principles in their curricular choices and instructional sequences. The researcher posed
some final considerations and recommendations for educators, textbook publishers, researchers,
families, and communities.

DEDICATION
To all the people whose musical voices continue to enrich the lives of children around the globe,
and to the Greatest Artist, the source of life that gives meaning to all works of art.
vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to extend my deepest appreciation to all those people who made this study
possible, and especially to Dr. Martina L. Miranda for her guidance, hours of assistance and
continuous support. I would also like to express my sincerest gratitude to Dr. James R. Austin
for his expertise, assistance and encouragement. In addition, I thank Dr. Margaret H. Berg, Dr.
Brenda M. Romero, and Dr. Margaret D. LeCompte for their invaluable advice.
My sincerest appreciation and gratitude are extended to elementary music textbook series
authors, editors, consultants, and contributors for sharing their time, knowledge, and experience
in interview sessions; to Dr. Jay Keister for sharing his knowledge and expertise on Asian
musics; and to Ms. Carmini Doromal for sharing her artistic talent in creating the geographical
map of the Asian-Pacific region covered in this study.
I would also like to extend my thanks to all Boulder and Denver area elementary school
music teachers and administrators who allowed me to do my research in their respective
institutions, to sales representatives of current elementary music textbooks for generously
donating much needed textbook materials, and to Ms. Constance G. Stallard for her technical
assistance during my analysis of series recordings.
I would like to give special thanks to my friends and family, who served as my sources of
inspiration, for their constant support and encouragement. Most of all, I thank God who gave me
the strength to accomplish this endeavor.

vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1
Historical Perspectives on Multiculturalism 1
Important Developments and Trends in Multicultural Music Education 6
Foundations of Multicultural Music Education 13
Rationale for Multiculturalism in Music Education 20
Great and Little Traditions 23
Pedagogical Resources 26
Statement of Purpose 34
Research Questions 36
Definition of Terms 37
Delimitations 39
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE.............................................................................................................. 42
Vantage Points for Examining Music Education Literature 42
Analytical Review of Related Studies 44
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................... 63
Data Sources 65
External and Internal Criticism 67
Data Collection 67
Data Analysis 70
viii
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS............................................................................................................................................. 76
Content Analysis of Textbooks 78
Content Analysis of Recordings 92
Descriptive Findings 95
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION...................................................................................................................................... 104
Summary of Findings 104
The "Little Traditions" of the AP Vocal Folk Songs 109
Recommendations 117
Epilogue 124
BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................................................................................... 129
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A...................................................................................................................................... 141
Reference List of Series Books
APPENDIX B ...................................................................................................................................... 145
List of Interviewees and Interview Schedules
APPENDIX C...................................................................................................................................... 146
Sample Consent Form
APPENDIX D...................................................................................................................................... 147
The Asian-Pacific Folk Song Contents of American Elementary Music Textbooks
(1967-2008)
APPENDIX E ...................................................................................................................................... 171
Sampled Asian-Pacific Folk Song Recordings

in American Elementary Music Textbooks (1967-2008)
ix
APPENDIX F .................................................................................................................................... 180
List of Recommended AP Folk Songs Not Included in American Elementary

Music Textbooks (1967-2008)
x
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
1. Publishers, Textbooks and Editions (1967-2008) …………………………………66
2. Interviewees and Their Publications ………………………………………………69
3. The AP Song Contents of American Elementary Music Textbooks (1967-2008)....71
4. Thematic Content Analysis Data Sources ………………………………………….73
5. Representation of Folk Songs with Other Vocal Genres Across Periods and
Major Publishers ………………………………………………………………..82
6. Nature of Song Lyrics ……..………………………………………………………..88
7. Language Tools for Song Lyrics ……………………………………………………88
8. Thematic Contents of AP Folk Songs Across Periods ……………………………...91

xi
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
1. Geographical Area of Study …………………………………………………………. 41
2. Represented Countries in the Folk Song Repertoire of American Elementary
Music Textbooks (1967-2008) ………………………………………………………. 79
3. Number of AP Folk Songs and their Countries of Origin Across Time Periods ……. 80
4. Chronological Chart Depicting the Quantity of AP Songs Included in
American Elementary Music Textbooks (1967-2008) ……………………………….. 81
5. The Representation of Folk Songs in Silver Burdett’s World of Music (1991) ……… 83
6. The Representation of Folk Songs in Silver Burdett’s Making Music (2008) ………..83
7. The Representation of Folk Songs in MacMillan’s Music and You (1991) ……………84
8. The Representation of Folk Songs in MacMillan’s Spotlight on Music (2008) ……… 85
9. Quantity of Asian-Pacific Folk Songs with Original Language Lyrics ………………..87

1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Historical Perspectives on Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism, both in definition and practice, has been a part of educational discourse
in America for nearly a century. The term denotes a social movement that was rooted in the
African-American scholarship of writers such as George Washington Williams, W. E. B.
DuBois, and Carter Godwin Woodson (Campbell, 2002, p. 28). Williams, considered the first
African-American historian of the United States, published the History of the Negro Race in
America during the late 1800s (Banks, 2004). DuBois was the first African-American to
graduate from Harvard University, where he was deeply influenced by the pluralistic philosophy
of William James (Volk, 1998a). DuBois recognized the equality and coexistence of all
countries, and celebrated racial diversity and individuality (Spring, 1995). To help fight against
racial discrimination, he urged African-Americans to obtain as much education as they could.
Further, in 1910 he assisted in founding the National Association for the Advancement of
Colored People (NAACP) (Volk, 1998). In 1896, Dubois published the book The Suppression of
the African Slave Trade to the United States of America, 1638 to 1870 (as cited in Banks, 2004).
Woodson, another equally influential figure, wrote The Mis-education of the Negro (1933), in
which he discussed the negative effects of racism on African-American youth’s thinking and
self-esteem due to white-dominated curricula and educational systems that neglect Black history
and civilization (Banks, 2004). As the nation entered the twentieth century, these writers
brought attention to the need for a national discourse on racial equality, opportunity, and
inclusiveness.
2
Societal ideologies and practices in addressing multiculturalism changed at different
periods of history. The idea of the melting pot was adhered to during the early decades of the
twentieth century, when people from poorer countries came to America to “escape poverty,
political and religious persecution, and hopelessness for a better future” (Mark & Gary, 2007,
p. 275). The melting pot ideology represents the amalgamation of diverse cultures into one
single American culture (Brinkley, 1998; Spring, 1995; Volk, 1993). The term was derived from
The Melting Pot, a play written by Israel Zangwill in 1908 featuring a young Russian-Jewish
composer who lived in New York and portrayed in his music the interweaving and melting of
European races into a single American culture (Brinkley, 1998). Concurrently, early 20th
century educators used the term assimilation to represent multiculturalism in the United States
(Volk, 1993b). In the process of assimilation, new immigrants shed-off their lifestyles, beliefs,
and customs in order to absorb the dominant Anglo-Saxon Protestant culture. E. D. Hirsch and
Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. promoted the processes of assimilation and amalgamation of cultures in
education (Spring, 1995). For Hirsch, to be culturally literate was to know the dominant
culture’s core knowledge. It was only through the teaching of an imagined homogenous
American culture that national unity and economic alleviation of the poor would be realized
(Benedict, 1983). Likewise, Schlesinger’s idea of ethnocentric education espoused the teaching
of core values from the Anglo-Saxon tradition, but not necessarily from other cultures such as
African-American, Asian-American, Hispanic-American, and Native-American.
In addition to broad societal practices, multiculturalism in education has also been
addressed through incorporation of different curricular goals at certain periods of American
history. Volk (1998b) discussed the beginnings of intercultural education during the wake of
World War I, when people had great hope that such a catastrophe would never happen again.
3
The aim of intercultural education was to develop an understanding of the ethnic backgrounds
and contributions of the large immigrant populations in the United States. Although there were
some educators who were enthusiastic at promoting intercultural education, the society, in
general, was not prepared. Rachel Dubois (no relation to W. E. B. DuBois), one of the pioneers
in the development of ethnic curriculum materials in the early twentieth century, was pressured
to resign from her teaching position because of public criticism for her persistent emphasis on
the contributions of ethnic minorities to America (Volk, 1998a, p. 38). Not until the mid-
twentieth century, when ethnic minorities asserted their rights, did schools and society in general
consider issues related to inequality. The unanimous decision to desegregate public schools in
the Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka case in May 17, 1954 (Brinkley, 1998), and the
impetus of the Civil Rights Movement beginning in the 1950s contributed to the rise of
multicultural education (Jordan, 1992; Campbell, 2002; Moore, 1977; Schmidt, 1999). The
emergence of ethnic studies in university curricula during the 1960s was region specific and
“intended to enhance the self-esteem of selected minority groups” (Volk, 1998a, p. 3). By the
late 1960s, a new term, multi-ethnic education, raised awareness of equal educational
opportunities for all, regardless of ethnicity (Campbell, 2002; Volk, 1998).
The passage of the Immigration Act in 1965 eliminated a quota system for immigrants
based on national origins, and its full implementation in 1968 increased opportunity for many
(Spring, 2010; Volk, 1997). The demographics of the United States changed considerably to
include more people from Hispanic, Asian, and Arabic populations (Volk, 1997). The influx of
people from varied cultures strengthened the already existing multicultural movement wherein
Native Americans, Hispanic Americans, and Asian Americans demanded a place in the public
school curriculum (Spring, 2010). A new population of individuals from varied cultures
4
contributed to the emergence of multicultural education in the 1970s, a term viewed as more
encompassing. This term not only addressed ethnicity, but also the beliefs, values, religions,
environments, histories, musics, and all other aspects of a person’s culture. In a paper presented
at From Jumpstreet: Television and the Humanities, a workshop on multicultural education in
secondary schools, Standifer defined multicultural education as a process of teaching and
learning that involves a variety of cultural perspectives and techniques (Levine & Standifer,
1981). His perspective recognizes cultural diversity and similarity as a fact of life, requiring
teaching methods and experiential activities that both intellectualize and humanize. According
to Standifer, multicultural education is especially critical in the arts and humanities, to the extent
that these disciplines aim to influence the affective attitudes and social interaction of groups. In
2004, J. A. Banks and Banks further broadened the definition of multicultural education as a
“field of study designed to increase educational equity for all students that incorporates, for this
purpose, contents, concepts, principles, theories, and paradigms from history, the social and
behavioral sciences, and particularly from ethnic studies and women studies” (p. xii).
The contemporary view on multiculturalism is anchored on the recognition and respect
for cultural differences and similarities. Schmidt (1999) refers to the term as “the current state of
ethnic, racial, and cultural diversity in the United States and other parts of the world or to the
practices and theoretical concepts designed to address this diversity” (p. 32). For the purposes of
this paper, the researcher adopted Schmidt’s definition of multiculturalism. This perspective on
multiculturalism is reflected in music education through the study of multi-ethnic music or music
from diverse cultures (Edwards, 1998; Moore, 1977). Multiculturalism recognizes the existence
of “many different but equally valid forms of cultural expressions and seeks to develop among
students a broad perspective based on understanding, respect and tolerance for a variety of
5
opinions and approaches” (Anderson & Campbell, 1996, p. 1). Through performance of varied
world musics, students develop greater musical flexibility, termed polymusicality or multi-
musicality (Palmer, 1975). Students’ abilities to appreciate and perform other types of musics
increases as they gain deeper knowledge and understanding of the utilitarian functions,
performance practices, and treatments of the various musical elements in other musical
traditions. Moreover, “students become more aware of the uniqueness of their own musical
culture by recognizing the differences of a variety of musics” (Anderson & Campbell, 1996,
p. 5).
In de Quadro’s (2009) study of the Asian Diaspora, he considered complex issues such as
(a) varying geographical definitions of Asia, (b) differences between regional diversity or social
class, and socio-economic variations within a country, and (c) the artificiality of borders. Based
on this study, the author advocated the use of a pedagogical framework adapted from Hume’s
1996 study of Africa:
!" #$%&'$%()*+(,-).%/)-(0'0$(+10-)2+)(0.3,4%5)&'$*)*.(0'4.6-)(,.().'0)2.-0/)$%))
primary sources and represent various local entities.
2. Avoid faulty generalization. “Music is not an international language but consists of
equally logical and different systems” (de Quadros quoting Malm, 2001, p.45). An
examination of the context of a music is necessary to arrive at an accurate
understanding of its broader cultural implications.
3. Present a balanced view. Asian musics should not be viewed through Western eyes
and ears, but rather be recognized for their distinguishing characteristics

6
4. Limit the scope of the study. As an example, De Quadros cited Indian music whose
construction is made up of a myriad of musical systems traditions that would be
difficult for a music teacher to completely cover. (pp. 9-11)
Whether multiculturalism is regarded as a movement, a state of the cultural diversity of races and
ethnicities, a field of study designed to address educational equity, or as practices or theoretical
concepts addressing diversity, discussion of multicultural concerns pervaded the different facets
of society (e.g. media and laws) including education during the first half of the twentieth century.
Important Developments and Trends in Multicultural Music Education
In the United States, the 1960s represented a time when culturally diverse groups initiated
protests to establish their rights and make others aware of their needs and perspectives. In
response to racial upheavals, music educators undertook concerted efforts to address emerging
societal concerns through two major symposia: the Yale Seminar in 1963 and the Tanglewood
Symposium in 1967 (Mark & Gary, 2007). In the Yale Seminar, participants encouraged the use
of folk and jazz music in the school curriculum to expand the school repertory that was then
restricted to Western classics, and composed school music. The Julliard School of Music
responded to this directive by producing the Julliard Repertory Library, a published compilation
of high-quality and authentic musics for K-6 school music programs funded by a grant from the
U.S. Office of Education (Mark & Gary 2007; Volk, 1998a). Foremost musicologists (e.g.
Gustave Reese, Noah Greenberg, and Claude Palisca), music educators (e.g. Allen Britton, Sally
Monsour, and Mary Ruth), and testing consultants (public school music teachers), collaborated
to produce a rich collection containing Pre-Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Romantic,
Contemporary, and folk musics. Despite the quality and authenticity of the literature, the Julliard
Repertory Project (JRP) was not widely incorporated into school classrooms. While questions
7
were raised about K-6 music educators’ interest in high-quality music representative of various
genres from different periods of history (Mark & Gary, 2007), there were additional problems
with advertisement, testing, and curricular applications. Moreover, there was a lack of
participation of public school music teachers due in part to questionable testing procedures such
as use of testing materials not categorized by grade level, no predetermined length of testing time
for each class session, and a lack of geographical and population diversity in chosen testing sites.
Additional classroom challenges included instructional materials beyond the skill level of most
elementary students, and non-alignment of selections to children’s interests perhaps because of
the non-involvement of series editors and publishers in the symposium (Scholten, 1998).
The music educators and musicians who attended the Tanglewood Symposium further
expanded curricular materials to include all types of music. The participants in the symposium
concluded that "music of all periods, styles, forms, and cultures belong[s] in the curriculum . . .
including popular teenage music and avant-garde music, American folk music, and the music of
other cultures" (Volk, 1998a, p.201). After the milestone event at Tanglewood, subsequent
sessions at music conferences such as those organized by the Music Educators National
Conference (MENC), International Society for Music Education (ISME), American Orff
Schülwerk Association (AOSA), and Organization of American Kodály Educators (OAKE) gave
focused attention to world musics and their use in general music classrooms.
In 1984, the MENC, Wesleyan University, and the Theodore Presser Foundation co-
sponsored the Wesleyan Symposium on the Application of Social Anthropology to the Teaching
and Learning of Music (Volk, 1993b). David McAllester, a prominent anthropologist and
ethnomusicologist, was invited to chair the conference. For the first time, ethnomusicologists
and anthropologists around the world discussed the role of world music in music education and
8
the use of ethnomusicology as a tool in teaching with music educators. Since then, music
educators have increasingly adopted the ethnomusicological view of “music as, and in, culture”
as evidenced by the formation of the Educational Committee within the Society for
Ethnomusicology. Music educators also continued a close collaboration with ethnomusicologists
in their conferences and publications.
Furthermore, MENC co-sponsored the Washington Symposium on Multicultural
Approaches with the Society for Ethnomusicology and the Smithsonian Institution in 1990.
This event stressed the importance of multicultural approaches for the learning and teaching of
music. Presenters addressed the diversity of musical expressions of world cultures, and in
particular, the need to understand the multicultural dynamics of the United States (Anderson,
1991). The symposium resolution for future directions addressed the breadth of responsibility of
music educators in promoting multiculturalism in music education:
• Be it resolved that music teachers will seek to assist students in understanding that
there are many different but equally valid forms of musical expression.
• Be it resolved that multicultural approaches to teaching music will be incorporated
into musical experiences from the very earliest years of music education.
• Be it resolved that multicultural approaches to teaching music will incorporate both
intensive music experiences in other music cultures and comparative experiences
among music cultures.
• Be it resolved that music instruction will include not only the study of other musics
but also the relationship of those musics to their respective cultures; be it resolved
further that the meaning of music within each culture be sought for its own value.
9
• Be it resolved that we will seek to ensure that multicultural approaches to teaching
music will be incorporated into every elementary and secondary school music
curriculum. These should include experiences in singing, playing instruments,
listening and creative activity and movement or dance experiences with music.
into the music curricula in all educational settings including general, instrumental,
and choral music education. Such instruction will both include product and process.
into all phases of teacher education in music: music education methods classes and
clinical experiences, music history and literature, theory, composition and
performance (Anderson, 1991, pp. 89-91).
A significant byproduct of the conference was an MENC publication entitled Teaching Music
with a Multicultural Approach (Anderson, 1991). This publication included printed and
videotaped information about four traditions represented in the United States: African American,
American Indian, Asian American, and Hispanic American.
Multicultural music education in the United States received more attention with the
development and release of National Standards in Arts Education in 1994. In this publication,
national arts educators recognized the importance of students’ full participation in a diverse,
global society. The standards assert, “students must understand their own cultural heritage and
those of others within their communities and beyond” (Mahlmann et al., 1994, p. 26).
10
Specifically, the following music standards address multiculturalism:
1. Perform/Demonstrate
• by singing from memory a varied repertoire of songs representing genres and styles
from diverse cultures.
• expressively a varied repertoire of music representing diverse genres and styles.
• perceptual skills by moving and by answering questions about and describing aural
examples of music of various styles representing diverse cultures.
2. Identify
• the sounds of a variety of instruments, including many orchestra and band
instruments, and instruments from various cultures.
• by genre or style aural examples of music from various historical periods and
cultures.
• the roles of musicians in various settings and cultures.
3. Describe
• in simple terms how musical elements are used in music examples from various
world cultures.
• distinguishing characteristics representative of music genres and styles for a variety
of cultures.
4. Analyze/Compare
• the uses of musical elements in aural examples representing diverse genres and
cultures.
• the functions music serves, roles of musicians, and conditions under which music is
typically performed in several cultures of the world.

11
Another event that reinforced multicultural music education in the U.S. was the National
Symposium on Multicultural Music, initiated by the University of Tennessee School of Music in
1995, under the leadership of Marvelene Moore. Additional sponsors included the College of
Arts and Sciences, the Ready for the World Initiative, and MENC (Moore & Ewell, 2010). Since
1998, this biennial event has included recognized world music experts with the goal of
enhancing multicultural competence for college students, professors from music education and
musicology, and public school music educators. Specifically, the symposium:
1. provides exposure to music that will contribute to understanding one’s own culture
and that of others.
2. supplies students and teachers with a repertoire of vocal and instrumental
multicultural music literature appropriate for inclusion in the school music
curriculum.
3. offers a forum of intellectual discourse on research among faculty and students in
multicultural music education and ethnomusicology.
(Moore & Ewell, 2010, p. xi).
A resultant publication, Kaleidoscope of Cultures (Moore & Ewell, 2010) contains the
proceedings of 2006 and 2008 symposia, including keynote speeches, research papers, workshop
presentations, presentations on making instruments, and an extensive review of vocal and
instrumental multicultural music literature. Instrumental ensembles that were featured include
the Chinese luogo, bamboo angklung, and modern Chinese orchestra. The conference
publication also focused on Black gospel and Korean masked dance drama. The appendix
included several musical traditions linked to accessible video clips through the MENC website.
12
In 1999, MENC past president June Hinkley led a gathering of music educators in a
symposium designed to create a vision for the next 20 years of music education. The resulting
report entitled Vision 2020: The Housewright Symposium (Madsen, 2000) included goals for all
musical traditions, including multicultural music. Among the twelve agreements to insure that
the best of Western art and other musical traditions are transmitted to future generations are:
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In summary, from 1960 to 1999 efforts to address multiculturalism in music education
gained momentum. Beginning in 1963 with the recommendation of Yale Seminar participants to
include folk and jazz music in the curriculum, followed by recommendations from the
Tanglewood Symposium in 1967, and culminating in the Housewright Declaration of 1999,
school repertoire expanded to include contemporary and popular music. Thus, repertoire of all
genres was given a place in the curriculum. Subsequent conferences sponsored by MENC and
other organizations such as the Society for Ethnomusicology (SEM), ISME, AOSA, and OAKE,
centered on the promotion of varied types of musical traditions. In the Goals 2000 Educate
13
America Act, the federal government recognized the arts as core subjects in the public school
curriculum. The subsequent adoption of the National Standards for Arts Education fostered
multiculturalism. Because of the support of the congress, the National Standards for Music
Education provided the framework for the formulation of state and local music standards for
music education in public schools.
Foundations of Multicultural Music Education!

Philosophical
In addition to music educators’ responses to symposia and the standards movement,
philosophical writers have also influenced music education practice. Aesthetic education is an
approach that aims to develop students’ sensitivity to the aesthetic qualities of things (Reimer,
1970). It deals with musical creation and partaking of musical sounds that involve the mind,
body and feeling. Moreover, this approach challenges the intellect, stimulates the emotions, and
develops the very basis of man’s creativity (Kneiter, 1970). Its historical lineage originated in
the time of Plato and Aristotle, through the times of Dewey, Bruner, Broudy, and Langer
(Boothe, 1993). According to McCarthy and Goeble (2002), the surge of the aesthetic approach
in music education was brought about by the discontentment of some music educators (Britton,
Bennett, Reimer, and Leonard) with the state of affairs brought by the Cold War and the Civil
Rights Movement. In advancing aesthetic education, Reimer (1989) embraced the position of
“absolute expressionism” wherein the meaning of a given musical work is primarily internal to
that work. Musical meanings are construed through the merging of universal, cultural, and
individual meanings transformed in sounds; extra-musical meanings that may be experienced in
the work are due to inherent qualities that an individual associates with his life experiences.
Thus, unlike the formalist perspective of aesthetics in 18th century that valued the fine arts for
14
their own sake, Reimer considers both the inherent (musical) and delineated (extra-musical)
meanings of music invaluable (Reimer, 2003). Although he places prime importance on the
intrinsic qualities of music, he considers these insufficient to negate its contextual aspects.
Reimer (1994) views the different modes of musical engagement such as performance, listening
and creating as equal ways to meaningful musical experiences (Reimer, 1994).
As the field of aesthetic education expanded, several philosophers addressed implications
for music education practice. After the Tanglewood Symposium in 1967, there was an
increasing concern for the inadequacy of the philosophy of aesthetic education with respect to
world musics, and based on the advancement of technology, anthropology, and communication
(Choate, 1968). Abraham A. Schwadron (1973) addressed the conflict between utilitarian and
aesthetic values in music education, and advocated for a universal philosophy that would
promote mass literacy and embrace socio-musical aspects of multi-cultures. Schwadron (1975)
emphasized, “the music educator’s view should be on music in cultural perspectives, with the
musico-aesthetic as a primary focus, and the extra-musical secondary” (p. 105). Schwadron
recommended the use of comparative aesthetics, an approach that considers a person’s responses
to musical sounds, including feelingful responses that can be generally experienced by anyone,
and specific responses acquired through training. According to Schwadron, an
ethnomusicology-based study on comparative aesthetics would lead to enlightenment on
ethnocentric attitudes and tendencies, and the possible revision of Western aesthetic theory that
would impact education, bimusicality and world communication (Volk, 1998a, p. 11). Volk
(1993b) stated that Schwadron’s comparative aesthetics was “perhaps the real application of the
philosophy of multicultural music education” (p. 20).

15
Elliott (1989) addressed the issues raised by Schwadron in his praxial philosophy. The
term praxial refers to the necessity of understanding the meanings and values involved in the
actual performance and listening activities of particular cultures. In contrast with Reimer who
looks through the lens of music as an artistic product, Elliott views music in the actual process of
music making, which he termed musicing (Wheeler, 2006). According to him, the expressive
values and meanings of music are culture specific (Elliott, 1989). Because music is something
people make or do “a people’s music is something that they are, both during and after the making
of music and experiencing of music” (Elliott, 1989, p. 12). Elliott found that the aesthetic
concept separates music from its context of use and art of production, which tends to place music
as an object “against a blank background and examined through a perceptual microscope”
(Elliott, 1989, p. 12). According to Elliott, a dynamic music curriculum that fosters the
development of students’ discrimination of the differences and similarities among world musical
cultures not only enhances bimusicality, but also leads to the possibility of students developing
appreciations and new behavior patterns in relation to both world musics and peoples.
Reimer (1993) explained the paradoxical nature of music as having both universal and
unique elements. The universal aspects of music are both transcultural and transpersonal.
According to Reimer, the organization of musical sounds always has the potential to engage
human feelings and imagination (Reimer, 1993, p. 23). Therefore, regardless of a listener’s
cultural background, music has the potential to be perceived as meaningful. Music performance
calls for craftsmanship and sensitivity. The organization of musical sounds involves the
processes of repetition, change and closure that may intensify the human experience. On the
other hand, the unique nature of music refers to its particular characteristics that manifest in
different musical styles. Reimer (1993) stressed, “every culture has its own way of construing
16
what music is” (p. 24). The author suggests that both the generality and uniqueness of music
should be taught if musical literacy is to be achieved. From a critical standpoint, Santos (1997)
stressed that although there are common elements in music (e.g. pitch, rhythm, timbre or tone
quality, and tempo), each of these are conceived and treated differently by groups of people from
varied cultures in the process of music making (p. 9). Moreover, Koza (1996) argued that when
individuals study music as sounds, through the use of a common elements approach, they remain
uninformed about the cultural and contextual background of the music and the people being
studied (p. 268), diminishing the essence of the music that symbolizes a people’s culture.
Amidst the conflicting aesthetic and praxial perspectives, several music educators (e.g.
Campbell, Lundquist, & Quesada) involved with multicultural music adhered to the main tenet
of ethnomusicology that “music is a part of culture and something people make and do;
therefore, world musics should be studied in cultural contexts” (Schmidt, 1999, p. 146).
Moreover, scholars (e.g. Regelski, Santos, and Volk) no longer perceive the pervasiveness of
music across cultures, with its many varied functions, practices, and associated traditions.
Because music is embedded in the cultures of people who practice them, the praxial philosophy
seems to be more significant in teaching world musical cultures. One needs to know and
understand how and why such musics are created and performed in particular communities in the
process of music making. To honor the many cultures in the teaching and learning processes is
to value authenticity, as defined by the people who instill them.
World musics should be viewed, taught and learned contextually, in adherence to the
functions, musical systems, unique transmissions, performance practices and traditions of the
unique cultures. With this in mind, music educators need to balance students learning of
different musical traditions with mastery of their own (Jorgensen, 1997). Moreover, they need to
17
engage children in varied musical roles (performing, listening, and creating), as expressed in the
National Standards, to provide rich and meaningful experiences. A multicultural music
education that values authenticity may be one of the most effective means by which students are
able to empathize and respect people from varied cultures.
!Anthropological
Anthropology is the study of human beings and their ancestors through time and space
and in relation to physical matter, environmental and social relations, and culture (Merriam-
Webster’s online dictionary, 11th ed.). Because of our common origin, we have both
commonalities and differences due to our adjustment to varied environmental conditions
(Portera, 2011, p. 15). Cultural differences such as food, religion, values, beliefs, customs,
traditions, and styles of living have also developed over time. Mullings (1986) described culture
as constantly changing and transforming because it is created and modified by material
conditions. However, it also has some permanent roots that anchor its own uniqueness. With the
advancement of science and technology, and world communication networks, cultures tended to
be transcultural, rather than bounded. People share their customs and traditions through virtual
and actual interactions. In music, genres (e.g. folk, country, jazz, and contemporary) and
compositions emerged because of the mingling of cultures. For example, the Philippine folk
song Akong Manok has a similar tune to the Spanish folk song Mi Gallo. Both songs having the
rooster as a subject are recognized as traditional songs in both countries. American
contemporary composer Steve Reich captured the feel of different musical traditions in his
incorporation of gamelan music in Music for 18 Musicians (1974-76), Ghanaian drumming in
Drumming (1970-71), and Japanese music in Nagoya Marimba (1994) (Griffiths, P., 2001).
Popular musician Bob Dylan used folk elements in his compositions Blowin in the Wind (1962)
18
and The Times They are A-Changin (1963), and adopted the rock style in Like a Rolling Stone
(1965) (Griffiths, D., 2001). Beatles featured the Indian !"#$%&"'&#()"%&*+,-+!"#"+'&!"#$%&'()*
+"",-*./%*0'#,*1(2*34"$)*./$0)11+2"3&45567. In some cases, due to prolonged contact with a
foreign culture, song forms are developed. For example, Spain left remnants of its musical roots
in its former colonies. The Philippine folk song Zamboanga has the inherent rhythm of the
Spanish pasadoble or double-step and Spanish lyrics. The matachines music/dance forms of the
Native American and Mexican people in the Southwest also evolved from Spain (Romero,
1997). “Jazz has often been explained to have emerged in New Orleans from “the meeting of the
uptown African American brass and string band tradition of blues-drenched, aurally transmitted
music, with the downtown Creole band tradition of instrumental virtuosity, musical literacy, and
training in classical music” (Monson, 2006, p. 147).
Ethnomusicology, the study of music in culture (Merriam, 1960) and/or the study of
music as culture (Nettle, 1983; Volk, 1993; Volk, 1998a), helped foster intercultural
understanding in music education. The following are the multi-functions of music as outlined by
anthropologist Alan P. Merriam (1964) and applied by Campbell and Scott-Kassner (1995) to
childhood music:
1. !"#$%#&'()*+,-*..%#&)//)$0*)1.*)#2)"1.%3)2#-)*"#$%#&'()*+,-*..%#&4)50*$0*-).130)
*"#$%#&)%.).,*3%'()6%&7%8%71'()2**(%&9:)#-)9*&*-'()6,1;(%3).*&$%"*&$:<))=0%(7-*&)
"'>)*+,-*..).'7&*..)%&)$0*%-).%&9%&9)#-)?#>)%&)$0*%-)7'&3%&9<)
2. )@*.$0*$%3)*&?#>"*&$)//)$0*)1.*)#2)"1.%3)2#-);#$0)%&$*((*3$1'()'&7)*"#$%#&'()
.'$%.2'3$%#&<))@.)30%(7-*&)(%.$*&)$#)'&7),*-2#-")"1.%34)$0*%-),-#2#1&7)
*&9'9*"*&$)'22*3$.)$0*")%&)5'>.);*>#&7)5#-7.<)
19
3. !"#$%&$'(#)%#$**!$+%!,-%!./!),-(0!/.&!1(2%&-(.#!'#1!%#$%&$'(#)%#$3!!4+&.,5+!
%'-6!7(-$%#(#58!0+(71&%#!%#9.6!$+%!),-(0'7!&%-.,&0%-!.//%&%1!:6!)%1('3!
4. !;.)),#(0'$(.#!**!'!1%2(0%!/.&!0.#2%6(#5!/%%7(#5-!'#1!(1%'-!<($+(#!'!='&$(0,7'&!
0,7$,&%3!!;+(71&%#!)'6!%>=&%--!$+%(&!(1%'-!'#1!%).$(.#-!(#!<'6-!$+'$!'&%!
)%'#(#5/,7!$.!$+%(&!/')(7(%-8!0.)),#($(%-8!'#1!-.0(%$63!
5. !?6):.7(0!&%=&%-%#$'$(.#!**!$%>$-!./!-.#5-!'#1@.&!),-(0'7!-.,#1-!=&.2(1%!'#!
%>=&%--(.#!$+'$!&%=&%-%#$-!$+(#5-8!(1%'-8!'#1!:%+'2(.&-3!!;+(71&%#!/(#1!)%'#(#5!
(#!),-(0!$+&.,5+!$+%(&!0.#1($(.#%1!&%-=.#-%-!:6!/')(768!0.)),#($68!'#1!-.0(%$63!
6. !A+6-(0'7!&%-=.#-%!**!),-(0!%7(0($-!:.16!&%-=.#-%!-,0+!'-!).2%)%#$3!!;+(71&%#!
)'6!%#5'5%!(#!=+6-(0'7!'0$(2($(%-!-,0+!'-!1'#0(#58!+.==(#58!'#1!-B(==(#5!.&!$+%6!
)'6!:%!-..$+%1!$.!-7%%=!'-!$+%6!%#5'5%!(#!),-(03!
7. !"#/.&0%)%#$!./!0.#/.&)($6!$.!-.0('7!#.&)-!**!),-(0!)'6!=&.2(1%!(#-$&,0$(.#-8!
<'&#(#5-8!'#1!-$'#1'&1-!/.&!-.0('7!#.&)-3!!;+(71&%#!'&%!$',5+$!:6!'1,7$-!-.)%!
-.#5-!'#1!&+6)%-!/.&!-.0('7!%$(C,%$$%3!
8. !D'7(1'$(.#!./!-.0('7!(#-$($,$(.#-!'#1!&%7(5(.,-!&($,'7-!**!),-(0!(-!,-%1!(#!&%7(5(.,-!
-%&2(0%-!'#1!-$'$%!.00'-(.#-3!!;+(71&%#!,-%!),-(0!(#!$+%(&!=7'6!&($,'7-!E0+'#$-!'#1!
-.#5-F8!'#1!2'7(1'$%!$+%(&!'//(7('$(.#-!(#!$+%(&!-(#5(#5!./!&%7(5(.,-8!='$&(.$(08!'#1!
-%'-.#'7!-.#5-3!
9. !;.#$&(:,$(.#!$.!$+%!0.#$(#,($6!'#1!-$':(7($6!./!0,7$,&%!**!),-(0!(-!'#!%>=&%--(.#!
./!0,7$,&'7!2'7,%-3!!;+(71&%#!'&%!:%(#5!$',5+$!$+%!+(-$.&68!7($%&'$,&%8!'#1!-.0('7!
).&%-!./!$+%(&!0,7$,&%!$+&.,5+!),-(03!
10. !;.#$&(:,$(.#!$.!$+%!(#$%5&'$(.#!./!-.0(%$6!**!),-(0!:&(#5!=%.=7%!$.5%$+%&3!!
;+(71&%#!'&%!-.0('7(G%1!$+&.,5+!),-(03!!4+&.,5+!='&$(0(='$(.#!(#!),-(0'7!
20
!"#$%$#$&'(')"*(!'('$+,$+,(,!-&'(./('$+,$+,(!(,/.)0(./('"*..1('.+,2("*$13/&+(
&40&/$&+"&(5&1.+,$+,+&''(!+3(,/.)0(-&-5&/'*$06((7006(89:;(
By experiencing different types of musics and by understanding their associated
multi-functions in the lives of people who practice them, students may be led to understand, if
not appreciate, cultures other than their own. Furthermore, by exposing them to different
musical traditions, they may gain experiences that would enrich their lives, strengthen their
cultural identities, and broaden their social perspectives.
Rationale for Multiculturalism in Music Education
Multicultural music education in the United States is grounded on the following
considerations: cultural pluralism and the changing demographics of the American society
(Anderson & Campbell, 1996; Campbell, 2002; Volk, 1993), globalization of economies through
extensive growth in world networks of communication and transportation (Campbell, 2002),
with a resultant need for world mindedness (Volk, 1998a), and aesthetic development (Volk,
1993b; Volk, 1998a).
As the demographics of American schools and society represent culturally diverse
populations, a multicultural approach to music education is necessary work toward educational
equity. Johnson (2004) stated, “if music is to remain a viable curricular option, music educators
must adapt both curricula and methods to the cultural backgrounds and needs of a changing
student population” (p. 135). Based on the 2009 American Community Survey (ACS), the
foreign-born population of the United States was 12.5%, equivalent to 38.5 million of the 307
million residents of the United States (U.S. Census Bureau, October 2010a). Proportions of the
foreign-born population were: Latin America at 53.1%, Asia at 27.7%, Europe at 12.7%, Africa
at 3.9%, and other regions at 2.7%. Furthermore, countries with more than 750,000 foreign-born
21
people in the US, arranged from highest to lowest, were Mexico, China, the Philippines, India, El
Salvador, Vietnam, Korea, Cuba, Canada, Guatemala, and the Dominican Republic (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2010b). In American schools, students of color constituted 32% of K-12 school
population in 1988; by 1998 this proportion had increased to 37%, and by 2008 had reached a
proportion of 45% (NCES, 2010a). Between 1979 and 2008, students aged 5-17 who spoke a
language other than English at home increased from 3.8 to 10.9 million, or from 9% to 21%
(NCES, 2010b). Kotkin (2010) stated, “ . . . by the year 2050, Latino and Asian populations are
expected to triple” (p. 22-23). The foregoing statistics reflect a highly multicultural population
in the United States. One important aim of multicultural music education is to help all students
function in a culturally diverse and democratic society through acquisition of inclusive
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values. This study focuses on Asian-Pacific (AP) musics
because among all major groups, the Asian population grew at the fastest rate (43%), from 10.2
million in 2000 to 14.7 million in 2010 (U.S. Census Bureau, March 2011). Moreover, past
research findings show that AP musics, other than Middle Eastern, were the least represented in
music textbooks (Diaz, 1980; Simmons, 2002).
From the perspective of this writer, the general impetus of rapidly advancing science and
technology provides for a closer interaction of people of different nationalities either through
direct contact or through mass media. However, direct and continuous contact among ethnic
groups allows for the introduction of new cultural markers to affirm the identities of cultures
(Roosens, 1989). Thus, it is important that people from diverse backgrounds practice respect,
tolerance, and understanding toward each other. One way of furthering this process in today’s
complicated world would be to provide students with important information that challenges the
social construction of ideas about “race”. Teaching that dark skin color (the most villified of all
22
human differences) is closely tied to human survival (Jablonski, 2006) would emphasize that, as
a family of homo sapiens, we need to survive for intercultural understanding and bridge our
cultural differences through education.
According to Volk (1993b), another important reason to study multiple music cultures is
that, “listening to, performing, or composing music from any culture can lead to aesthetic
experiences for students” (p. 22). Any individual, regardless of cultural background, can
appreciate the intrinsic qualities of a piece of music at varying degrees (Hood, 1989). The
intrinsic qualities of music include, “features such as tone quality, rhythmic patterns, or melodies
that are appreciated for their own sake” (Kaemmer, 1993, p. 125). These qualities define the
style or observable nature of the medium that may not only contain symbolic but also pragmatic
meanings. One should be reminded that the Western concept of the aesthetics is a relative
concept, and related to the idea of what is “beautiful” as defined by societies who value and
appreciate different kinds of intrinsic qualities. D’Azevedo (1958) defined aesthetic experience
as “the qualitative feature of the event involving the enhancement of experience and the present
enjoyment of the intrinsic qualities of things” (p. 706). In the praxial philosophy of Elliott
(1989), the expressive values and meanings of sounds experienced in the actual performance or
listening processes are dependent on the contexts within which they are practiced. In non-
Western societies, it is common for music making to occur outside the concert hall. For
example, the folk song Mambayu were sang by Kalinga women in the Philippines as they
rhythmically pound rice with traditional mortar and pestles (Prudente, 1998) in their backyards.
In this context, the women’s enjoyment of the intrinsic qualities (e.g. rhythm, melody, and tone
quality) of their singing is associated with their activity, including the resultant rhythmic
accompaniment produced as they do the pounding with their pestles and mortar. Exposing
23
students to the aesthetics of other cultures could provide opportunities for them to understand
and appreciate foreign musical traditions while comparing and being more aware of the aesthetic
features and functions of their own musical heritage.
The influx of immigrants from diverse cultures to the US and the advancement of science
and technology that speeded up world communication networks necessitates a well-thought
scheme on how to promote a democratic society that recognizes the cultures of all ethnicities.
Geertz (1973) defined culture as “a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms
by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about attitudes
toward life” (p. 89). Music is one of these symbolic forms, and referred to by Romero as a
“microcosm of culture” (personal conversation, Jan. 12, 2012). Musical attitudes, being a part of
culture, are often the result of social forces (Kaemmer, 1993). Music education can be one of
these vital forces. Through a well-designed music education program, that focuses not only on
the nature of music but also on its contextual aspects, students’ attitudes toward foreign cultures
may be directed toward understanding and appreciation. As Kaemmer said, “society is more
important in determining attitudes than is the nature of music itself ” (p. x). With these in mind,
in this study, the researcher investigated the inclusion AP folk songs in American elementary
music textbooks and adopted the philosophy of great and little traditions as a theoretical
backdrop to provide an additional context for findings and implications of the study.
Great and Little Traditions in Textbooks
The notion of great and little traditions was first developed in the 1950s and 1960s by
researchers at the University of Chicago (Randel, 1986). Its prime advocate was cultural
anthropologist Robert Redfield, who described the difference between great and little traditions
as follows:
24
In a civilization, there is a great tradition of the reflective few, and there is a little
tradition of the largely unreflective many. The great tradition is cultivated in schools; the
little tradition works itself out and keeps itself going in the lives of the unlettered in their
village communities. (Redfield, 1956, p. 70)
According to Redfield “the two traditions are interdependent” (p.71). The developed and highly
codified great traditions of the learned emerged from the aurally transmitted folk traditions of the
little communities. Having been modified by reflective minds, these great traditions gained
widespread popularity and were returned to the villagers who reinterpreted them in local terms.
Jorgensen (1997) addressed the place of music within the folk genres in a larger
discussion of great and little musical traditions. Great traditions are those that are internationally
recognized and revered as highly developed, complex, notated with written tradition, ethically
elitist, and practiced mainly by professional artists. In contrast, little traditions are often
localized, structurally simple, constrained by social class and ethnicity, orally transmitted, and
practiced mainly by amateurs. Art musics that follow the Euro-American classical traditions and
have gained extensive geographical spread can be categorized as great musics. Folk songs may
be considered genres belonging to the little traditions because of their localized underpinnings in
a particular culture or ethnicity. Jorgensen explained the importance of separating classical
music traditions from folk musical traditions, without necessarily imposing normative value
judgment upon them, as providing “a way for envisaging two separate emphases in music
education: literacy (principally associated with mature great traditions), and orality (mainly
revealed in little traditions)” (p. 75).
The philosophy of great and little traditions, as explained by Jorgensen, rejects a Marxist
view of classical traditions as elitist - associated only with the bourgeoisie, and folk music
25
traditions as proletarian – tied only with the masses – since “(n)either classical (n)or folk music
has a corner on greatness, goodness, or rightness. And the line between great and little musical
traditions is fuzzy as one merges into the other” (Jorgensen, 1997, p. 76). The blurring of the
distinction of oral and written traditions, as well as the distinction of great and little traditions, is
manifested in mediated musics (e.g. popular, jazz, rock, and country) that retain folk appeal and
qualities while being popularized through media, and the works of contemporary classical and
popular composers who draw musical concepts and elements from folk traditions. Little
traditions are not just different but in ways more complex than great traditions. An example is
the traditional war song of the Ewe people Agbekor. This song, in leader-chorus singing style, is
centered on pitch areas rather than precise pitch points (Locke, 2005). It is only learned aurally
and has a considerable performance length of several hours. In practice, it is performed with
polyrhythmic drumming and dancing.
The Asian-Pacific folk songs, the focus of this study, belong to the little traditions. In the
past, these songs were mostly passed on through oral tradition; however, in the modern world,
the media have become a vital force in the transmission of these little musical traditions. These
folk songs are generally viewed as simple in structure, usually with extra-musical functions that
are associated with culture, and have gained general acceptance among groups of people in
specific communities that practice them through the years. Music from the AP region typifies
one of the least represented musical genres in elementary music basal series (Culig, 2008; Diaz,
1980; Simmons, 2002; Sorensen, 1991).
Musical practices are handed down by a society from one generation to another through
the process of socialization or enculturation. Thus, people in basic institutions of society (e.g.
family, education, and government) need to determine how to best perpetuate musical traditions
26
in addition to Western classical music. Music educators need to give careful consideration in
balancing great and little traditions in the curriculum, including classical music modeled on
Western traditions but while also incorporating elements of the composers’ own cultural musics.
In this study, the framework of great and little traditions provided additional context for
discussion of findings and implications for future research.
Pedagogical Resources
Scholars in the field of music education have responded to the multicultural thrust in
education through their published articles, books, and audio/video recordings.
Articles!
! Historical Development
Volk (1993a) traced the history and development of multicultural music education in the
United States, as evidenced in the Music Educators Journal (MEJ) from 1967 to 1992. The
author found sizeable evidence that MEJ, in cooperation with the MENC, helped in informing
and sustaining the interests of teachers on multicultural music by publishing articles, special
issues, book reviews, and reports on MENC conferences and symposia on this topic.
Campbell (2002) succinctly narrated the development of multicultural music education in
the United States, highlighting historical events that fostered multiculturalism since the turn of
the twentieth century and pointing to issues that needed to be addressed in a time of cultural
transformation. Specifically, Campbell addressed curricular issues such as the focus of school
music on subject-specific skill development or goals related to global understanding; a tour of
many cultures, or a study of selected cultures in greater depth; and teacher participation in
curriculum development or seeking community support for their respective ensemble goals and
repertoires. The author stressed a democratic approach, “multiculturalism assumes that the
27
values of all students are sought and accepted and that the design and delivery of knowledge and
skills are sensitive to their experiences, interests, and needs” (p. 30).
! Multicultural Concerns!
Reimer (1993) raised the issue of breadth versus depth. Should teachers opt for children
to have wider musical exposure to a variety of musics versus in-depth experiences of limited
types of musics? Reimer also points out the challenges of creating a balance between honoring,
preserving and propagating the Western musical roots of America, honoring and preserving the
musics of the subcultural groups in America, and rich intercultural sharing between the peoples
of America. The great diversity of musical cultures in America challenges teacher preparation
programs to prepare graduates who can impart varied genres of music, develop positive teacher
attitudes towards diverse musics, and select age appropriate materials for use in schools.
Educators faced with these challenges are in need of research-based principles to guide their
teaching practices in school music classrooms.
On a similar thread, Anderson (1992) expressed the need for rethinking the music
education curriculum on the university level to include the addition of multicultural components
in courses such as history and literature, music theory, performance studies, methodology,
clinical and field experiences, historical, psychological, and philosophical studies, and research
in music education (p. 51). While acknowledging the importance of a Euro-American cultural
heritage, Anderson encouraged a balanced curriculum that includes students’ exposure to the
enormous variety of American cultural heritages and historical periods, and other non-Western
musical cultures. The author suggested useful materials to broaden history and literature, and
cited exemplars for teaching non-Western theory through hands-on multicultural experiences.
28
Strategies for Teaching Multicultural Musics
Music specialists have suggested ways for authentic and effective teaching of
multicultural musics, recognizing this genre can pose many challenges to teachers. Campbell
(1992) cited challenges that might inhibit the music teacher from introducing multicultural
music, and offered some solutions and insights. Time constraints to cover the curriculum can be
addressed by using materials from other cultures in introducing the elements of music.
Language problems may be solved through listening and internalization before teaching the
song. Lack of preparation and training can be helped by attendance at workshops and conference
sessions. Campbell discussed how classic pedagogical techniques (Kodály, Orff- Schulwerk,
and Dalcroze) could be applied in teaching the vast repertoire of music of other cultures. The
author stressed the importance of process rather than the product in learning, and explained the
importance of how the musicians interact with each other and with the music components in the
process of learning. Imitation, modeling, exploration and improvisation are important, just as
they are integral to any lesson.
Yudkin (1993) explained how multicultural music education in the US could be
approached from the perspective of cultural pluralism or particularism, depending on the focus
and emphasis. An instruction using cultural pluralism (a) relates to American culture, (b)
recognizes a common culture, (c) promotes unity among cultural groups, and (d) emphasizes
human commonalities. An instruction using cultural particularism (a) de-emphasizes American
culture, (b) focuses on cultural differences, (c) rejects a common culture, and 4) emphasizes
human interests. He advised educators to be alert to cultural differences and commonalities.
Any style of music can be taught with either approach, however there are certain musics that are
best taught with one. For example in discussing bell patterns and polyvocality (Bakan, 2007) in
29
Ghanaian music, particularism is better to use. On the other hand, in teaching jazz music, it is
advisable to use pluralism since this is common to all Americans. Whatever perspective one
uses, teachers should bear in mind that the primary purposes of instruction are to identify,
describe, and experience the structure and context of music.
Goetze (2000) challenged Western trained musicians to adopt other methods and
alternative resources to foster authenticity in their ensemble teaching. According to the author,
Western notation does not embody some important elements germane to non-Western musical
cultures (e.g. vocal timbre, function, quarter tones, slides, ornaments, pulsations, and surges).
Based on her experiences with an experimental vocal ensemble she founded, Goetze suggests the
following ways to help choral and instrumental directors recreate a non-Western musical culture
as close as possible to its original function and context:
1. Honor the culture by deferring to the experts.
2. Speak with a native artist or cultural representative to determine the appropriateness of
the ensemble learning the music and performing it for others.
3. Learn as much as you can about the culture from written and video resources and
share the information with your students.
4. Invite a native of the culture to have a personal connection with the group.
5. Have the ensemble learn the music aurally-especially if it is transmitted that way
within the culture.
6. Carefully lead students to explore unfamiliar methods of vocal production.
7. Imitate the visual aspects of the performance carefully.
8. Record a native performer who can pronounce and translate the text.
9. Listen to the musical model repeatedly.

30
10. Explore performing without a conductor, if appropriate to the tradition.
11. Share information about the music with the audience through program notes. (p. 25)
Books and Audio/Video Recordings !
Campbell (1991) provided a cross-cultural guide to music teaching and learning in her
volume Lessons from the World. The author emphasized the aural and creative components of
music teaching and learning as part of human phenomenon. In particular, the chapters highlight
improvisation as a key component in music performance, and recognize listening, creating, and
recreating as invaluable musical experiences in music teaching and learning across time and
distance. The book is particularly intended for instructors in K-12 general music classrooms,
conductors of choral and instrumental ensembles, and private studio instructors. Campbell’s text
can also be an addendum to books on music education philosophy, history, and contemporary
curricular practices. In 1994, Campbell, Brabson, and Tucker published Roots and Branches: A
Legacy of Multicultural Music for Children, a book and compact disc recording of 38 songs from
seven areas of the world. Authenticity of recordings and printed materials were addressed
through the involvement of culture bearers who served as primary resources. Authors also
included biographies for the contributing culture bearers. This resource material was intended
for use in all levels of education.
In 1996, Music in Cultural Context, a series of eight interviews with ethnomusicologists
conducted by Campbell and first published as a series in volumes of The Music Educators
Journal (1995-96), was released in book format. The manuscript included topics on musical
authenticity, representation, and possible instructional approaches. The interviewees and their
topics included D. P. McAllester on Navajo music, T. Miller on Thai music, B. Nettle on music
of Iran, A. Seeger on music of the Amazonian Indians, B. Yung on Chinese music, C. Waterman
31
on Yuruba music of Africa, M. Burnim on African American music, and S. Loza on Latino
music (Campbell, 1996).
Anderson and Campbell (1996) published Multicultural Perspectives in Music Education,
a collection on world musical cultures for upper-elementary and secondary school music classes.
The authors presented lesson plans for a variety of musics from South Asia, East Asia, Southeast
Asia, North America, Latin America and the Caribbean, Europe, Africa, Middle East, and
Oceania. In the same year, Campbell, Williamson, and Perron published a book with recording
entitled Traditional Songs of Singing Cultures: A World Sampler. The authors aimed to provide
both songs and cultural information to teachers, parents, and childcare workers. The collection
features 20 songs from 13 countries in various languages and musical styles. Bridges to Asia
(Shamrock, 1998) is a collection of songs, rhymes and folk tales of the peoples of Asia. The
books and recordings for this publication are divided into primary and intermediate levels.
Singers and musicians of the representative cultures recorded the songs. Selections are presented
in 13 languages, lesson plans, recorded and written pronunciation guides, singable English lyrics,
occasional idiomatic translations, and accompaniment recordings using both non-Western and
Western instruments. This resource correlates with Making Music (2000), a basal series
published by Silver-Burdett and Ginn. Another multicultural resource for basal music series use
is the Festival of World Music (2005) book and CD recordings produced by
MacMillan/McGraw- Hill. This collection features songs from Asia and Oceania in 16 different
languages, with pronunciation guides, singable translations, and maps. Some selections were
taken from the series textbook Spotlight on Music, and others were especially selected for this
volume.
32
Additional classroom resources come from ethnomusicologists. Ted Solis published,
Performing Ethnomusicology: Teaching and Representation in World Music Ensembles (2004)
to provide holistic model experiences as informed by views of ethnomusicologists from world
music ensembles in academia: African, Chinese, Philippine rondalla, Javanese gamelan,
Balinese gamelan, Latin marimba, and Middle Eastern music ensemble. Among a variety of
world music textbooks that have emerged since the 1980s, Worlds of Music, a textbook edited by
Titon (2005) and authored by ethnomusicologists, deals with music appreciation through the
study of selected musical cultures around the world. Textbook resources include an
accompanying compact disc, historical and contextual descriptions, lyrics and translations, maps
& illustrations, teaching guides, and glossaries of native terms for the included musical
traditions.
Educators have also produced video recordings, and interactive multicultural resources
Among these are Global Voices in Song: Four Swazi Songs, volume one (Goetze & Fern, 1999),
and Global Voices in Song: Songs of Hungary, volume two (Goetze & Fern, 2002), Global
Voices Comprehensive: Music of Azerbaijan that come in DVD and e –book formats, and a
series of four Global Voices Interactive DVD’s featuring songs from South Africa, Zulu, Maori,
and Appalachia. Mary Goetze and Jay Fern’s Global Voices (2005) is a collection of world
musics in a set of six DVD’s that correspond to grade levels one to six of the series textbook
Spotlight in Music. The 24 songs contained in the volumes originate from Korea, Zimbabwe,
Brazil, Mexico, Cyprus, Ghana, New Zealand, Norway, Azerbaijan, South Africa, Philippines,
Holland, Ireland, India, and Japan. Recorded music performances, pronunciation guides by
culture bearers, translations of texts, and contextual backgrounds of the songs were vividly
captured in the videos. World Music Instruments (n.d.), a multimedia CD-ROM for Grades 3-8
33
that correlates with Spotlight on Music (2008) contains 80 lessons about instruments around the
world includes live video demonstrations of instruments, geographical origins of instruments,
and listening examples.
Elementary Music Textbooks!
Elementary music textbook series have been a part of music education since the
publication of the first music textbook series The Song Garden by Lowell Mason in 1864 (James,
1976). These vital resources influence the teaching and learning process as they are often
adopted for teacher use by districts or states. According to the Association of American
Publishers (2012), generally, 20 states have “textbook adoptions” administered and implemented
by the state board of education and state department of education; non-adoption states are “open
territories” wherein local districts have the decision on which textbooks to use in elementary
schools. In both situations, textbook choices of authorities are based on state and local standards.
In the case of the music subject area, state and local standards are often founded on the National
Standards for Music Education adopted in 1994.
Volk (1993a) stressed the impact of music textbooks in the teaching of multicultural
education, as these influential resources are employed not only by music teachers but also
general classroom teachers. Beginning in the 1950s, authenticity became a major concern of
textbook companies, as worldview on multicultural musics heightened societal awareness of the
inadequacies in source materials. It was during this time that publishing companies (e.g. Silver
Burdett Company, Follett Publishing Company, and Holt, Rhineheart, and Winston Company)
hired experts in various world musics for the selection and presentation of folk song selections.
These experts served as authors, consultants, board members, or representatives. During the
period 1968-1990, the textbook industry included more popular songs, and musics from
34
underrepresented cultures (African-American, Caribbean/Latin American, Native-American, and
Asian-American). In addition, foreign language texts, photographs, art reproductions, poetry,
and descriptions of instruments were included. Recordings that accompanied the textbooks
contained authentic examples of folk musics to accompany published scores, and music by
composers from culturally diverse groups for listening purposes. Although there was a marked
improvement in the representation of diverse musical cultures during this period, there were still
inaccuracies such as mislabeled song origins, use of accompaniment tracks that did not match the
style of the culture, and partial representation of the culture in terms of performance practices
and learning styles.
Authors of basal texts reflect the views of societies on what things are worth passing on
to students. They help define the curriculum of schools and contribute toward the development
of education in the United States (Altbach, 1991). Although teachers vary on how they interpret,
implement, and adapt identical curriculum materials, authors need to conceive and design
textbooks to serve as a resource for teachers to make informed curricular decisions (Wanda,
1993). Music series textbooks continue to be published for classroom use, because authors
encapsulate and update their lesson materials to include contemporary resources (e.g. music
scores, recordings, YouTube and other internet links, visual illustrations and transparencies, and
interactive DVDs or Smart Board materials).
Statement of Purpose
The purpose of this study is to examine the inclusion of Asian-Pacific folk songs in
American elementary music textbooks published from 1967 to 2008. Specifically, the researcher
focused on K through 5 basal series because children’s musical foundations and multicultural
literacy are formed at these initial stages of the general music program in K-12 public schools.
35
As Reimer (1993) said, “The general music program in grades K through 12 is that segment of
music education responsible for providing the broadest, most relevant literacy for all our
citizens” (p. 24). Moreover, Choate (1968) explained that the optimum ages for developing
musical interests, skills, and attitudes are from ages three to eleven. This research encompassed
a time period beginning with the occurrence of the Tanglewood Symposium in 1967 through
2008, when the most recent elementary music series were published in the United States.
The International Folk Music Council defines folk music as a musical tradition that has
evolved through the process of oral transmission (Myers & Wilton, 2002). The council identifies
factors that shape the tradition: 1) continuity that links the present and the past, 2) variation
which springs from the creative impulse of the individual or the group, and 3) selection by the
community which determines the form or forms in which the music survives. Because of their
inherent qualities, aesthetic or practical, folk songs have a mass appeal that has survived the test
of time; passed from one generation to another. Although these songs exist in variations that
attest to the spontaneous creativity of peoples imbibing their own cultural heritage in a culturally
diverse society, they are sturdy threads that connect dynamic cultures across the passage of time.
Bohlman (1988) discussed the dynamic nature of folk songs brought about by urbanization, and
modernization of societies. Thus, now exist notated, arranged, authored, and modern folk songs.
A secondary focus in this study is on folk song recordings included by textbook authors as
examples of vocal style, timbres of authentic instruments, or genre. Because music is an aural
art, listening is crucial to musical development. As Campbell (1991) said, “Musical growth
cannot occur without careful listening, for it is through listening that an individual develops
sensitivity to musical sounds” (p. xi).

36
One rationale for selecting vocal folk songs is that in the view of this writer, they may be
considered musical gems that can lead students to understanding, respect and appreciation of
peoples’ cultural heritage. Folk songs are generally simple. They have repetitive melodic and
rhythm patterns, limited ranges, and scale systems that are germane to or assimilated by their
cultures of origin from a prolonged close contact with another culture/s. Their lyrics often relate
to daily activities which readily make them part of the everyday lives of people regardless of age.
They are mostly participatory and functional. Some examples are singing games, counting
songs, work songs, cradlesongs, bathing songs, rice pounding songs, war songs, religious songs
and even fun nonsense songs.
Folk songs belong to the vocal classification of folk music, as different from instrumental
folk music. These songs are expressed through the voice, the natural instrument of each
individual. Faulkner explained:
The folk music of every land reflects so decidedly the characteristics of the people, their
customs and habits, that it would seem to be a natural sequence that this music should be
sung and danced and studied during the period when one is learning . . . the national
characteristics of certain people. (Volk, 1998 quoting Anne Faulkner, p. 41)
Further, Kodály asserts that using folk songs of a child’s own linguistic heritage
constitute a musical “mother tongue” and should therefore be the vehicle for early instruction.
The inflections and natural stress of language are reflected in the musical rhythm and melody
(Choksy, Abramson, Gillispie, Woods, & York, 2001, p. 83).

37
Research Questions
Specifically, this study addresses the following primary questions:
1. To what degree are Asian-Pacific (AP) folk songs included in the printed and recorded
repertoires of elementary music textbook series published from 1967 to 2008?
(a) Specifically, in respect to printed materials, which AP countries are represented,
and what types of song lyrics and supplemental resources are provided for
classroom instruction?
(b) In respect to recorded materials, what are the characteristics of the folk song
recordings?
2. To what degree is inclusion of AP folk songs in textbook series impacted by the
publication of the National Standards in 1994, and what other trends can be discerned?
To determine the impact of the National Standards, data analysis is divided into two time periods
(1967-1993 and 1994-2008) for comparison purposes, and to determine trends over time.
Further, to situate the study within a theoretical context, the researcher adopted the conception of
great and little traditions first postulated by R. Redfield and researchers at the University of
Chicago (Randel, 1986) and further discussed in music education by Jorgensen (1997) to discern
implications for music educators as they incorporate folk music from the AP regions in their
classroom experiences.
Definition of Terms
1. Asia-Pacific - There is no consensus as to the meaning of the term Asia-Pacific, as it is
geopolitically defined. According to Oxford Dictionary of English (2010), it is a
business region that includes all countries of Asia and the countries along the Pacific
Rim.
38
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4. Asian-Pacific musics - refers to “traditional folk music, and to newly composed music
in the traditional style of the Asia-Pacific region which is not influenced by the
Western musical system” (Burton, 1979).
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9. Folk music - used interchangeably with the term “traditional music,” as different from
art, and popular music (Sadie, 2001). For the purposes of this paper, folk music
refers to both vocal, and instrumental selections described in the textbooks as
folk, traditional, or regional.
10. Folk song – a vocal folk music in the traditional style, with unknown or known
composer/s; representative of a particular culture.
11. Multicultural music education - the study of multi-ethnic music or music from diverse
cultures (Edwards, 1998; Moore, 1977).
12. Polymusicality – flexibility to perform and listen proficiently, and appreciate diverse
musical cultures.
Delimitations
This study focused on AP indigenous folk songs mainly intended by authors for
classroom singing, excluding folk selections, instrumental or vocal, indexed by authors under
listening repertoire. Additionally, this study excludes preparatory warm-up exercises for other
music activities, speech pieces, chants and rhymes, poems, folktales, stories, and fables.
American elementary music series textbook publications from 1967-2008 for K-5 elementary
grade levels were covered, although earlier publications that excluded kindergarten were
40
included as their data applies to the research questions for this study. It is common practice for
each textbook series to publish multiple editions with minimal editorial changes. For the
purposes of this study, only the latest edition of each series publication was examined for
analysis. For example, The American Book Company published, New Dimensions of Music, in
1970, 1976, and 1980. For the purposes of this study only the 1980 edition was used for
analysis. Only vocal AP folk songs labeled by the editors as folk, traditional or regional in the
textbooks are included in the listing of folk songs for each grade level. The author carefully
accounted for the repeated songs within each textbook series but not across textbook series
publications.
Because the primary focus of this study was on the print versions of AP folk songs and
written material about their accompanying recordings, analysis of AP folk song recordings was
more delimited in scope. Thirty percent of the folk song recordings for the first period (1967-
2008) obtained through an extensive search in local elementary schools and universities, and
online library systems, were examined. For the second period (1994-2008), an equivalent
representative sampling of recorded materials was obtained and individual recordings were
examined in a manner identical to that employed for the first period. All 18 series publications
were represented in the analysis.
The following Asia-Pacific countries in the sub-regions of Eastern Asia, and Southeast
Asia (see Figure 1) are included for the purposes of this study: (a) Eastern Asia - China, Korea,
Japan, Mongolia, and (b) Southeastern Asia - Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao People’s
Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar (Burma), Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Timor-
Leste, and Vietnam.

41
Figure 1
Geographical Area of Study
Note: For the purposes of this study, Carmini Doromal adapted this map from
http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/as.htm
42
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter is divided into two sections: an introductory part that includes the different
ways authors’ have classified the areas of multicultural music education in literature reviews,
followed by an analytical review of related studies on the following specific areas: historical
development, representation of culture and values, curriculum content and materials, pedagogy,
and teacher training. Studies under the historical development category address socio-political
events, educational ideologies, and media and technology that influenced the development of
multicultural music education. Research on the representation of cultures and values, provides
an overview on how particular cultures and what educational goals (e.g. values, attitudes, skills,
and knowledge) were represented in published series textbooks. Philosophical perspectives that
influenced the representation of cultures were integrated in this category as well. Investigations
on curriculum content and materials uncovered to what extent textbooks are utilized by music
teachers, and the inclusion of Western and non-Western musics in textbooks. Studies on
pedagogy include comparisons on the effectiveness of multicultural teaching approaches on
students’ achievements and attitudes. Research on teacher training presents multicultural
education practices and needs in the training of pre-service teachers in higher education.
Vantage Points for Examining Multicultural Music Education Literature
The term multicultural music education is broad in scope. Lundquist (2002) explained
that multicultural music education is a construction of the twentieth century, encompassing a
broad range of curricular areas from concern for educational equity to expanding musical content
(Green, 1983; Norman, 1999). Consequently, researchers and authors examine multicultural
43
music education from a variety of vantage points. For example, Lundquist (2002) examined
areas of curriculum, instruction, teacher preparation and development, and contextual issues
pertaining to curriculum, instruction, and exemplary programs. Bennet (2001) proposed a
conceptual framework consisting of clusters of sub-topics around four headings: (a) curriculum
reform – curriculum theory, detecting bias in text, media, and educational materials, and
historical inquiry, (b) equity pedagogy – school and classroom climates, student achievement,
cultural styles in teaching and learning, (c) multicultural competence – ethnic group culture,
prejudice reduction, and ethnic identity development, and (d) societal equity – social action,
demographics, and culture and race in popular culture. Bennet noted that topics may overlap. In
a comprehensive literature review of dissertations published from 1973 to 1993, Quesada and
Volk (1997) divided their discussion of studies on world musics and music education into four
areas: philosophical and historical, student attitude and achievement, teacher attitudes and
training, and compilation and evaluation of materials. The following year, Volk (1998b)
continued the literature review for dissertations published from 1993 to 1996 utilizing a new
categorical framework for discussion: (a) philosophy, (b) history, (c) attitude, (d) methodology,
(e) classroom materials, (f) performance applications, (g) evaluation, (h) curricular development,
(i) music teacher education, and (j) qualitative research.
The foregoing information shows that there are many factors involved in multicultural
music education. With the many categories and ways authors have classified them, researchers
may need to decide which areas to include in their literature reviews for the purposes of their
studies.
44
Analytical Review of Related Studies!

Historical Development
Volk (1993b) traced the development of multicultural music education in the public
schools of the United States from within the contexts of social history and the history of music
education in America from 1900 to 1990. The author crossed checked events and information by
using historical narrative and oral interviews with music educators and ethnomusicologists
prominent in multicultural education. After a chronological presentation of data, the researcher
posits that the socio-political factors of immigration, desegregation, and the civil rights
movement had the greatest impact on multicultural education over the century. Further, Volk
discussed the influence of two world wars, federal foreign policy, and the Cold War on the
multicultural education movement. Volk also suggests that trends in multicultural music
education can be identified in acceptance of non-Western music cultures, changing goals and
objectives, changing perspectives, teacher training practices, and American popular music. Volk
identified technology and music textbooks as other areas impacting multicultural music
education.
Branscome (2005) traced the evolution of the current music curriculum for public schools
through an examination of music series textbooks. The author considered historical events,
influential figures and organizations, socio-political and educational ideologies, and the influence
of media and technology on the development of the National Standards for Music Education (as
published by the National Association for Music Education). Of particular interest to this study
was Branscome’s discussion of national sentiment and cultural awareness in the wake of World
War I as a precursor to textbook song materials often used in classroom discussions of Music
Content Standard Nine: Understanding music in relation to history and cultures. The author
45
explained that the national standards for music education would surely be revised with the advent
of other innovations, philosophies, and other elements (p. 19). Furthermore, Branscome raised
critical issues needing further research such as varied time allotment for each standard and the
use of inconsistent teaching methodologies in public school curriculum.
Music exists as an expression of people’s ideas, beliefs, and feelings acquired through
their experiences in their respective environments. The foregoing analyses of series books
indicate that the historical development of multicultural music education is connected to the
contexts from which it evolved. Curriculum and curriculum sources in music education reflect
social ideologies, pedagogical philosophies, collective sentiments, and current thrusts of leaders
in various sectors of society. The direction of music education has shifted in the course of time,
from singing and literacy training in the singing schools to a focus on students’ aesthetic
development and responsiveness to music through additional activities (e.g. listening, evaluating,
instrumental playing, moving, and creating). Textbooks continue to serve as resources for music
educators as they help transmit cultural traditions and prepare students for a pluralistic society.
Representation of Culture and Values
Scholars have examined the representation of culture and values in basal music series
because these graded textbooks are being widely used in elementary music classrooms (Schmidt,
1999), and often represent what is considered the legitimate culture to transmit (Apple, 1992).
Dominy (1958) investigated the appropriateness of current elementary music textbook material
in relation to the aims and purposes of modern elementary education. In order to establish the
concepts of elementary education, the author studied the publications of the National Education
Association and writings of general educators. The author identified the aims and purposes of
music education by examining literature of the Music Educators National Conference and the
46
writings of music educators. The researcher examined three grade levels (grades two, four, and
six) of 10 textbook series published since 1925 for formatting, purposes and sources of materials,
qualitative musical items, and range of songs. Dominy concludes that the major purpose of
music series textbooks during the earlier decades was to develop good future citizens. In the
later decades, the objective shifted to development of skills in reading music, and the
identification of form tonality, and meter. Analysis of the textbooks identified indigenous folk
songs from America and other countries of the word as primary teaching sources. However, the
author noted that there was no assurance that these folk songs would be enjoyed and used outside
of the school context. Furthermore, scant vocal literature by recognized composers did not
appear to support experiences from which students could relate to elements of tradition and
innovation being used by contemporary composers. The author urged music educators not to
rely solely on traditional music included in series books, but to search for music materials that
reflect contemporary educational thought, modern music, the universality of music’s appeal, a
broad scope of music literature, individual interests, and the many purposes music can serve.
Diaz (1980) studied the contents and objectives of American elementary music series
books published between 1926-1976. The author divided the given time span into six time
periods, within which the 22 series textbooks were published. Findings showed that between the
given time periods, there was a change of emphasis in lesson objectives, and a decrease in the
total number of songs in each series. From an earlier emphasis on reading and singing,
objectives broadened to include musical understanding, instrumental performance skills, and
aesthetic responsiveness. Less than 6% of series folk songs in all periods originated from
countries other than Western Europe, the United States, and in the series of the first three
periods, Eastern Europe. However, the variety of songs increased in proportions during the fifty-
47
year period. Although the repertory remained dominated by folk songs from Western Europe,
folk songs from the United States, Eastern Europe and other parts of the world increased. Other
observations included the inclusion of foreign texts, increased number of song recordings,
development of planned listening, expanded opportunities for instrumental experiences, less
emphasis on part-singing, lowering of song ranges, an increase in the number of tonalities other
than major, and increased emphasis on the interrelated arts. The author noted that there was a
marked increase in the number of music series publications.
Blair (1967) conducted a values analysis of five intermediate music series textbooks in
use in the state of Texas from 1966-1967. Specifically, the researcher analyzed song texts, and
assigned one of Harold D. Lasswell’s eight values to each song (power, respect, wealth,
enlightenment, skill, well-being, rectitude, and affection). The investigator found that well-being
and affection had the highest ratings according to grade level (grades four, five, and six). The
values well being, affection, and enlightenment had the highest ratings for all five series. When
comparing all five series, the numerical order of values with significant differences were wealth,
rectitude, enlightenment, affection, well-being, respect, and power. None of the eight values
attained significant difference in the verbal content of songs between grade levels. Blair
concludes that because different areas in the curriculum seem to enhance different values, music
should be used to teach values neglected by other areas. Blair noted, “values should be taught in
the public schools in order to assure the survival of democracy” (p. 123).
Investigators who conducted discourse analyses on the representation of culture in
elementary music textbooks have identified areas for attention by series authors. May, Lantz,
and Rohr (1990) analyzed and critiqued whose content, context, and culture were represented in
two elementary textbook series: Discover Art (1985) by Davis Publications and World of Music
48
(1988) published by Silver Burdett. The authors assumed that equitable social relations and
diverse ways of knowing should be valued in classrooms. Two theoretical frameworks guided
the study: (a) the critical sociological perspective, wherein text is viewed as guiding or
constraining the construction of meaning, and (b) the mediation perspective, wherein text is
viewed as another “participant” because students and teachers impose their own meanings in
texts. Music textbook content and design were investigated from various perspectives: religion,
science, arts, and history. Results indicated that the two series books had very little text written
to open avenues for meaningful discourse, debate, critical discussion, and multiple
interpretations. Activities were delimited to production and performance. The authors expressed
that multicultural, integrated, and developmental components of the texts were subverted when
authors stressed isolated elements more than the socio-historical context of the art and music
with little attention to inclusion of student’s efforts, experiences, and understandings in the
present social context (p. 40). The researchers surmised, “authors need to find more creative and
authentic ways of representing their disciplines and what can be understood, appreciated,
mediated, and experienced as art and music by using texts as resources” (p. 52).
Schmidt (1999) conducted a discourse analysis on multiculturalism and the representation
of culture in series books published in 1995: The Music Connection, published by Silver Burdett
and Ginn; Share the Music, published by Macmillan/McGraw-Hill. The researcher examined
how multicultural discourses in education and music education, as well as other discourses in
society, impacted the representation of culture in grades three and five. The researcher observed
that the multicultural movement was reflected in textbooks through more specific labeling of
musical materials and increased amounts of detailed cultural context. Findings indicated that
there was a relative amount of representation of the various cultures due to power relations in the
49
United States, with half to two-thirds of the music originating from the European American and
European cultures. Further, the researcher found evidence that dominant white art forms are
considered of higher status. Both series include over-generalized and stereotyped representative
examples of musical cultures. Moreover, the textbooks included few culture-centered lessons
and assessments. Schmidt concluded there is a need to emphasize music as a vital part of culture
in these series books.
From a philosophical perspective, Boothe (1993) examined the historical influence of
aesthetic education and interdisciplinary arts on elementary music textbooks from 1950 through
1975. Specifically, the author examined the major philosophical influences and events that
shaped the modern elementary music textbooks, identified significant documents and events that
influenced the increased use of aesthetic education and interdisciplinary arts in elementary
textbooks, and showed how these philosophies and events were applied to a sampling of
elementary music textbooks published by the Silver Burdett Company. Boothe explained that
the increased discourse on aesthetic education changed the role of interdisciplinary fine arts in
the basal series from the utilitarian to the aesthetic, and from activity-centered to conceptual in
nature. The use of the interdisciplinary curriculum increased as a result of the aesthetic
education movement, a reflection of the struggle between the aesthetic and utilitarian viewpoints
in music education.
In a related study, Moore (1977) analyzed Afro-American and Native American folk
songs in four series books published by Silver Burdett Company and American Book Company
for the periods 1928-1955 and 1965-1975. Data were analyzed in relation to educational
philosophies that prevailed during the given time-spans. Progressivism, the underlying
educational philosophy in 1928-1955, stressed experimentation, creativity, and preparation for

50
life experiences. A “Transitional Period” (1956-1964) occurred during the years when socio-
political events (e.g. the Civil Rights Movement, the derivative federal legislation, and the
movement of student activism and protest) posed educational crises in the United States that led
to the development of multicultural music education. The Humanistic Era (1965-1975) centered
on clarification of values and formation of identity, including awareness, creativity, sensitivity,
motivation, self-esteem, self-reliance and other elements of maturation. Moore discovered that
song authenticity was more consistent during the Humanistic Era. Although still dominated by a
Eurocentric repertoire, it was evident that publishers began to give scholarly attention to African-
American music and to incorporate songs from other cultures of the world. However, fewer
Native American songs were incorporated in the later publications. Moore concluded that music
educators are responsible for the constant evaluation of music textbook publications and for
preparing multi-culturally competent future music teachers in a diverse society.
The analyses of the representation of culture and values in music series textbooks ranging
from 1923-1995 showed that there were some important elements lacking in the publications.
The shift from utilitarian to aesthetic role of the interdisciplinary fine arts as reflected in
Boothe’s study (1993) created an imbalance that neglected the functional value of the arts.
Music is a socio-cultural art and it is important to consider its contextual origin, whether
aesthetic or utilitarian. The lack of sufficient contextual backgrounds of representative musics in
textbooks, imbalanced representation of cultures and song genres, limited approaches and
resources in teaching multicultural music led a number of authors to challenge educators to be
more creative and resourceful in their teaching. Because the art of music belongs to the
humanities, there is a need to reconsider the values represented in the verbal content of songs as
focused on by Blair (1967). Values are important aspects of a peoples’ culture and are grounded
51
on core beliefs and principles. A people’s musics are direct manifestations of their values.
Feelings and ideas that are expressed through songs and even instrumental pieces are interrelated
with values. Although scholars in the field found that textbooks remain predominantly
Eurocentric, textbook repertoire expanded to include other musical cultures.
Curriculum Content and Materials
Basal textbooks are a central part of elementary music education practice, and serve as
the primary recourse for multicultural music repertoire. As such, investigators have examined
the representation of cultural diversity in music series textbooks and related curricular resources.
McClellan (1997) studied the importance of basal series textbooks as primary multicultural
teaching resources in the general music classroom. The author surveyed a random sample of K-6
music teachers in Missouri to investigate their opinions on the effectiveness of elementary music
series books. Of the 112 teachers who responded, 11 did not use series books. Findings showed
that 47% of the teachers who responded relied on textbooks for their music activities, lesson
plans, multicultural resources, and integrated curriculum ideas. The teachers found the series
books helpful as guides for curriculum and lesson planning. Fitts (2007) discovered that 56% of
Colorado elementary general music teachers use multicultural materials found in textbooks as
primary resources for their teaching.
Researchers have considered the inclusion of Western and non-Western musics, as well
as composed and folk or traditional materials in their analyses of series textbooks. Peabody
(1963) investigated the use of music by recognized composers in the elementary music series
from 1870 through 1959. Specifically, the author sought to answer to what extent and for what
purposes art music was included in music textbooks in the United States. Roughly 83,943 pieces
(vocal and instrumental) were identified in series books from 1870 through 1959. Works by
52
recognized Austro-German composers comprised roughly 5.9% (4,995 pieces), with the majority
of works by Bach, Beethoven, Brahms, Foster, Handel, Haydn, Mendelssohn, Mozart, Schubert,
Schumann, and Weber. In terms of style, romantic pieces equaled 60% and classical pieces
equaled 26%. Baroque and contemporary selections had only minimal proportions of 8% and 6
% respectively. The frequency for suggested activities included: 60% singing, 15% listening,
14% playing instruments, 8% responding to rhythm, and 3% performing. Analysis for frequency
of editorial suggestions resulted in: 76% social studies, 22 % art, and 2% literature. Disregarding
discussions on contexts, Peabody suggested, “music, especially art music, should be approached
for it’s own terms if real appreciation for its aesthetic values is to result” (p. 516).
Music educators consider folk songs to be valuable materials for cultural transmission
and intercultural understanding. These songs reflect the physical environment, economic and
geographic conditions, social and economic development, as well as ease or difficulty of life of a
people (Knudson, 1946). To foster the use of folk songs as a tool in intercultural education,
Knudson (1946) investigated the type and extent of folk song material in twenty-four basic music
series published from 1914 to 1945. Findings showed that there were 1,198 folk songs
representing 84 different cultures during the time period studied. Moreover, there were
remarkable increases in the number of (a) folk songs included in the series since 1930, (b)
nationalities represented since 1930, (c) American folk songs included since 1936, and (d) Latin
American folk songs included since 1944. The most represented countries by number of folk
songs were: United States (226), England (146), France (114), Germany (96), Latin America
(65), and Russia (62). In contrast, the number of folk songs from Southeast and East Asian
countries included China and the Philippines with 7 songs each, and Japan with 6 songs. Folk
song categories identified by the publishers included play, home, nature, occupation, religion,
53
and group living or country. Knudson addressed the need for further search for authentic folk
songs of other cultures for future publications.
In another study, Simmons (2008) examined how the use of folk songs changed over time
in 18 fourth-grade music textbooks published by the Silver Burdett and Ginn companies, from
1898 through 2002. Analysis indicated that through the years, the trend to incorporate more folk
songs than composed songs started in 1956. From a European dominated folk song repertoire,
series publishers began to predominantly use more North American folk songs beginning in
1950, with the publication of Our Singing World, until the mid 1950s. However, the number of
songs between Europe and North America was closely matched in 1995. A more diverse
representation of folk songs from the seven regional classifications: Europe, North America, the
Caribbean/Central America/South America, Asia, Middle East, Africa, and the Pacific Islands
was apparent through the years. However, the author described Asian and Middle Eastern folk
materials as underrepresented. Songs with unidentified origin decreased in number. There were
1,017 folk songs covered during the period of study. Twenty-eight folk songs from the Middle
East (including 22 songs from Israel) comprised 2.8% of the entire folk song repertoire.
Likewise, 39 folk songs from four Asian countries (China, Japan, Korea and India) comprised
3.8% of the entire folk song repertoire. China and Japan had 16 folk songs represented. No
Japanese folk songs were included in series books in 1945-1950. The author stated, “folk songs
from countries other than those that are political allies with the United States need to be
included” (p. 74).
Mason (2008, 2010) explored the representation of countries in elementary music
textbooks by two publishers: (a) Music Connection (1995) and Making Music (2002 & 2005) by
Silver Burdett Ginn, and (b) Share the Music (1995 & 2003) and Spotlight On Music (2006) by
54
Macmillan McGraw-Hill. There were 3,665 songs with 100 countries represented across the
curriculum in the Macmillan McGraw-Hill series. The Silver Burdett Ginn textbook series
included a total of 4,000 songs from 107 countries. Mason concluded that although there was an
increased representation of countries and recognition of less known countries in the repertoires,
both series had major portions of their repertoires from the United States and Western Europe.
There were also inconsistencies in the categorization of songs in both series across editions.
There are few studies dealing with the representation of specific world music cultures in
music textbooks. James (1976) investigated the inclusion of Afro-American music in elementary
music series books (1864-1970). The author found out that the first music series to include black
music was The Natural Music Course in 1906, and the first music textbook to include Afro-
American music was the Lyric Music Series published in 1912. James also discussed changing
book content in terms of proportion, teaching approaches, interdisciplinary connections, labels
and authenticity. Prior to 1936, the series only contained Afro-American spirituals and folk
songs. It was only in 1936 when composed music of Afro-American began to be included in the
textbooks with the publication of The World of Music. Consequent publications embraced varied
types Afro-American musics – folk games, work songs, street cries, arranged or composed
songs, blues, jazz, boogie-woogie, and ragtime. From a very small number of representative
examples in textbooks, Afro-American music increased in proportion especially during the 1940s
and 1960s ranging from twelve in 1943 to twenty six in 1956. There were only a few listening
selections and the teaching of Afro-American songs were similar to the rest of the songs in the
series. Not until 1953 with the publication of an edition of New Music Horizons did illustrative
materials include black Americans, although other ethnic groups appeared in earlier basal series
books. The first series to single out Afro-American composers for study was Together We Sing
55
published in 1959. Subsequent series followed. Afro-American songs were frequently
accompanied by materials for correlation with art and literature, touching the history of black
people and their contributions to American music. James recommends the evaluation of Afro-
American music included in music series in terms of quality, suitability of arrangements, and
authenticity.
Scholars have also attended to the necessity of providing resources to supplement non-
Western music examples included in music textbooks. Burton (1979) compiled a comprehensive
examination of structural, cultural information, and methods on Asian-Pacific musics that could
be taught to elementary students. The researcher focused on selected dramatic, folk, and
instrumental genres including the dramatic music Noh from Japan, Chinese opera, folk songs
from China, Korea, and Japan, O-Bon dance from Japan, Indonesian gamelan and Filipino
kulintang.
In 1990, Ellis developed instructional materials for the study of African American music
in the elementary class. Genres included in the design were play songs, spirituals, blues songs,
and classic jazz from 1900-1960. Historical information, performance practices, background
information, sample teaching strategies, evaluative criteria and suggestions for further study
were included for each unit. The materials were pilot tested with elementary teachers using the
Research and Development Cycle recommended by Borg and Gall (1989). The researcher
concluded that inclusion of history and performance practices of selected Afro-American
musical styles would enhance elementary music classes.
Engle (1994) conducted an evaluative study on the issue of text translations using an
English to Samoan model. Translations of traditional Protestant hymns made by nineteenth
century British missionaries were compared with translations of contemporary Christian songs
56
made by Samoan native-speakers. The author found out that translators were influenced by their
own cultural priorities for text and music. Consultation with a native-speaker of the musical
culture under consideration is recommended when using song translations in order to avoid
ethnocentricity in the production of the multicultural education music curricula.
Using ethnographic field research, Sorensen (1991) collected 230 songs representative of
the childhood musical heritage of the Asian-Pacific Islander immigrants and refugees residing
along the Wasatch Front in Utah. Obtained information from each song included: lyrics in the
native language and calligraphy, musical and phonetic transcriptions, an English interpretation of
the lyrics, and background. This study covered 17 Asian-Pacific cultures: Cambodia, Cook
Islands, Fiji, Japan, Korea, Laos, Malaysia, New Zealand, People’s Republic of China, Okinawa,
Philippine Islands, Samoa, Tahiti, Taiwan, Thailand, Tonga, and Vietnam. Among the musical
selections known by the Filipino-American immigrants, and those known by the refugees along
the Wasatch Front of Utah, Southeast Asian songs are the most notably absent in Holt Music,
Music and You, World of Music, and Comprehensive Musicianship Program textbooks. In
conclusion, Sorensen stressed the important role of music education in transmitting musical
heritage, and that it is vital to preserve Southeast Asian folk songs that are rapidly being
forgotten (p. 20).
Thus, the results of the foregoing studies that examined the content and materials of these
publications are important. Researchers continued to encourage a wider representation of musics
from non-Western countries. With the ongoing adoption of music series textbooks, editors
expanded musical examples to include genres such as folk, traditional, art, and contemporary
musics. Although there was an apparent increase in the number of musical cultures represented,
there remained a disproportional representation of some countries. Suggested activities in the

57
series branched out from a focus on singing to include music reading, listening, evaluating,
instrumental playing, moving, and creating. The effectiveness of these changes remained to be
investigated.
Pedagogy
Music is a panhuman phenomenon that is created by human beings whose respective
cultures are formed by the society in which they live. Thus, music cannot be taught separately
from its contextual origin. The following studies revealed that incorporation of history and use
of a socio-cultural approach to teaching multicultural musics positively influenced students’
attitude and preference. Abril (2003) investigated the effects of two instructional approaches on
fifth graders’ attitudes toward and preference for music sung in various languages (musical
excerpts included Spanish, English and Mandarin lyrics). Randomly selected intact classes were
assigned to one of the three conditions: concept-based multicultural instruction, socio-cultural
based multicultural instruction, and concept-based instruction with no multicultural content.
Dependent variables were music attitude and preference score. The group exposed to socio-
cultural instruction treatment expressed more positive attitudes toward the foreign language
songs than those in the other groups. Musical preference scores, which were lower than attitude
scores, showed a positive correlation with language although not significant. Familiarity with
language also proved to correlate with multicultural music attitude toward songs in that
language. In 2005, Abril obtained the same result in his experiment to investigate the effects of
language, familiarity, and instructional approach on fifth graders attitudes and preferences
toward, and descriptions of songs sung in Chinese, Spanish and English. Children exposed to
socio-cultural instruction expressed significantly more positive attitudes toward songs in

58
unfamiliar languages than those groups exposed to concept-based multicultural instruction and
concept-based with no multicultural content instruction.
Music is a temporal art that moves horizontally and vertically in time and space. Its
horizontal movement is manifested through beat and rhythm; its vertical movement is manifested
through pitch and harmony. Foremost educators such as Orff, Dalcroze, Laban and Montessori
extensively utilize body movements to internalize the temporal nature of music. Researchers
have explored the efficiency of movement experiences in the teaching of multicultural musics.
Moore (2002) explored the influence of multicultural singing games on primary school
children’s attentiveness and song preferences in music classes. Eight multicultural songs with
varied amounts of movement were taught to 195 four to seven year-olds on a daily basis for a
period of three weeks. Observations, interviews and Spearman correlation results indicated that
children enjoyed moving and singing together and showed preferences for songs with actions.
As the amount of activity in songs increased, the amount of off-task behavior decreased. Based
on the results of this study, educators of young children were encouraged to use singing games in
their teaching, particularly multicultural songs in foreign languages.
Fung (2001) examined the effects of active versus passive listening on the quality of 35
American children’s invented notations of two Korean pieces. Specifically, the researcher
sought to determine the effect of listening conditions on children’s perception of music and their
music preference. The age ranges of participants were 5 -7 year-olds, and 8 -12 year-olds.
Active listeners initially responded with spontaneous movements, with props, and then with pens
tracing in the air, prior to drawing their perceived structures of the listening selections. Passive
listeners just sat quietly as they listened. Results showed that active listeners’ invented notations
referenced more of the rhythm, beat, and note patterns than those of the passive listeners.
59
Moreover, 94% of the subjects preferred rhythmic and percussive sounds, changing tempo, and
dynamic contrasts compared to 53% of the passive listeners. Fung confirmed that the locomotor
rhythms of the body might be the source of children’s perception of movement, nuance and
patterns in music.
Other aspects of listening have been explored. Sanz (1993) focused on the teaching of
listening in the elementary schools as reflected in the elementary textbook series published in
1900-1990. By analyzing music series books within the ninety-year time span, the author found
that the development of methods, and the expansion of materials used for listening were crucial
to comprehensive curricula in the elementary schools. During the first half of the twentieth
century, listening repertoire emphasized European music, particularly Classical and Romantic.
The Progressive Music Series published by Silver Burdett in 1916 was the first series to include
listening activities. In the second half of the twentieth century, textbooks included a more varied
repertoire of Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Romantic, contemporary and ethnic musics, with
contemporary music emphasized during the 1970s and 1980s. Sanz pointed out the strong
influence of technology (e.g. use of piano player, radio, television, magnetic tapes and compact
discs) on the development of listening. Varied listening activities included reading, singing,
rhythmic activities, quiet listening, and use of directed listening maps and call charts.
Authenticity has been a major concern of music educators in their efforts to foster
multiculturalism in their teaching. In a quasi-experiment with fourth graders, Edwards (1994)
found that the use of authentic instruments, live performances of culture bearers, as well as
learning centers with non-authentic instruments, enhanced students’ attitude, perception and
achievement in Indian music experiences. The researcher used the Music Class Aptitude
Inventory (MCAI) and researcher-designed American Indian Belief Inventory (AIBI) as pre-test
60
and post-test measures. Analyses of writing samples also provided evidence for student
achievement responses. In a succeeding paper, Edwards (1996) indicated that the use of
authentic instruments in learning centers for small groups produced higher results than utilization
of non-authentic instruments.
Scholars have also examined issues on repertoire sequencing and text translation.
Williams (1972) examined four approaches to teaching multicultural musics within the
Southwest Regional Laboratory (SWRL) Music Program. Based on analysis of the data,
Williams (1972) emphasized that the Multi-American ethnic approach would serve the needs of
students. This method centers on the students’ discovery of the musical diversity in their own
culture prior to studying other world musics. The other approaches surveyed were: a traditional
approach that exposed the students to a variety of musics from the European tradition, a non-
Western approach that introduced the child to a varied selection of music from other cultures,
and an ethnic-American unidirectional approach that emphasized American ethnic repertoire
other than that originating from the Anglo-Saxon musical tradition.
During the second half of the century, pedagogical approaches were given attention by
music educators, with the intent of improving students’ understanding and sensitivity to world
musics. Further, witnessing the performance of culture bearers was found to provide a realistic
interpretation of the musics and facilitate a contextual approach to learning. Performances were
shared in real environments or through the use of media and technology – listening to records,
video-viewing, and virtual interaction. Consultation with native speakers of the cultures was
seen to add validity to the study of world musics. Readings, explanations and discussions on the
socio-cultural backgrounds of cultures being studied enriched students’ experiences. Educators

61
also offered alternative notational systems and direct experiences to suffice authenticity in
learning non-Western music genres.
Teacher Training
Teachers play a crucial role in the transmission of cultural knowledge, skills, values and
attitudes in educational institutions at all levels. They are the actual implementers of our music
educational system that aims for educational equity, where members of our multicultural society
would be equally accepted, understood and respected. Those having responsibility for teacher
education in colleges and universities need to take a more active role in effective training of
undergraduate and graduate future educators of global musics and address the multicultural
musical dynamics of American Society (Anderson, 1992). Pedagogues have expressed their
concern toward this need through their studies and writings.
Montague (1988) investigated pre-service undergraduate training for teachers.
Questionnaires and interviews were used to identify courses and course content related to
multicultural music education within select universities and colleges. Information was gathered
from 30 professors in select universities and colleges in different parts of the United States.
There were 40 courses identified which were divided into four categories: five special
multicultural music education courses focusing on non-Western musics taught by a music
educator, 20 music education methods with a multicultural component taught by a music
educator, seven elective courses taught by music educator, and eight world music courses taught
by ethnomusicologists. Educators expressed that multicultural music education should first be
addressed in the higher institutions where pre-service teachers are trained to be competent in the
teaching of world musics. They further advocate collaboration between departments.

62
To support the rationale for the inclusion of an undergraduate level course in “tribal”
(indigenous), “Oriental” (Asian), and folk music in the music education curricula that serve as
preparation for teaching in elementary, secondary, and continuing education, Schmid (1971)
outlined a syllabus with selected bibliography, discography, and film list that would serve the
reference needs of the course. References are systematically stated in the form of numbers
throughout the dissertation. The resource materials were presented into the following groupings
of musical cultures and their characteristics: music of the tribal cultures, music of the Asian
cultures, European folk music, and folk music in the Americas.
Chin (1996) described the practice of multicultural music education in higher education
through a two-phase research study. Analysis of catalogs and bulletins of National Association
of Schools of Music (NASM) accredited colleges revealed that few institutions actually meet the
NASM standards for multicultural education. Only 35% of the 781 courses examined were
survey and geographic/area courses in multicultural music. One percent of the courses were
designed for use in classroom settings. The author recommends that higher institutions provide
more opportunities for students to study more than one musical culture.
Multicultural music education is broad in scope given the multiple musical cultures of the
world. Thus, there is a need for a strong teacher-training program in higher educational
institutions that would help insure its successful implementation in the public schools. Given
sufficient pre-service multicultural training and guidance, teachers would be able to sufficiently
deal with both the overt qualities of sounds, and the contextual meanings behind the musics to
lead their students toward intercultural respect, understanding, and appreciation. Teachers may
utilize the multicultural resources mentioned in this chapter to supplement textbook materials in
their teaching.
63
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
This dissertation is based on the tenets of historical inquiry. Historical research is a
systematic process (Wiersma, 1999) that focuses on the collection, recording and interpretation
of data from past events “to determine how they impinge on the present and may portend the
future” (Phelps, Sadoff, Warburton, Ferrara, 2005, p. 205). Moreover, an historical approach
serves to satisfy interest and curiosity, provide a complete and accurate record of the past, and
narrate deeds worth emulating (Heller and Wilson, 1992). Phillips (2008) remarked, “valid
historical research tends to be narrowly focused and based on a presentation of primary
resources” (p. 54). Specifically, this is a quanto-historical study. Rainbow and Froehlich (1987)
explained that quanto-history is a method used in historical inquiry that includes quantifiable
data and use of mathematical devices for verification of evidence and to determine the reliability
of data from the past (Rainbow and Froehlich, 1987). Historians traditionally used standard
procedures of qualitative description and analysis, but in the 1970’s quantitative procedures in
historical data interpretation became accepted (p. 116). For this study, the quanto-historical
method was selected to address the research questions, and provide a numerical basis for
comparison of the AP songs as published in two distinct time periods.
Given the importance of multicultural issues as evident in the literature, particularly in
response to the Tanglewood Symposium of 1967, this researcher decided to conduct a content
analysis of multicultural folk songs in music textbooks published in the US during the time
period of 1967-2008. Leedy and Ormrod (2005) define content analysis as “a detailed and
systematic examination of the contents of a body of material (e.g. television shows,
advertisements, textbooks) for the purpose of identifying patterns, themes, or biases within that
64
material” (p. 142). Content analyses are found in varied disciplines such as psychology, history,
art, and science. The study time boundaries coincide with the occurrence of the Tanglewood
Symposium in 1967, a milestone event that propelled the promotion of multicultural music in
education, and the most recent editions of two popularly used elementary music textbooks series
published in 2008. For purposes of historical comparison, two eras—1967 to 1993 and 1994 to
2008—marked by the formulation and release of the National Music Standards in 1994, were
identified. In keeping with prior multicultural studies, this study focuses on one region of the
world, namely the folk songs from countries in Southeast Asia and East Asia along or near the
Pacific Rim (commonly referred to as the Asia-Pacific region).
The time period of 1967-2008 was selected to build on prior research regarding AP folk
songs in basal series from 1944 to 1968 (Culig, 2008). In that study, content analysis,
emphasizing a quanto-history method, revealed that AP folk songs in basal series had a minimal
representation of 2%, even as their inclusion increased through the twenty-four year period of the
study. Out of 6,672 songs in the repertory of the nine series textbooks, only 139 originated from
the Asia-Pacific region, representing 8 out of 17 countries. Further, only 32 out of 139 songs
included lyrics in native languages. These results reflected publication practices during a period
of time that predated any multicultural imperative for music education, and pointed to the need
for additional research regarding the inclusion of AP folk songs in elementary music textbooks
series following the Tanglewood Symposium. One potential contribution of the current study
may be to discover trends and patterns that portend future directions for multicultural music
education as delineated in music education series texts.
This study addresses the following primary questions: To what degree are Asian- Pacific
(AP) folk songs included in the printed and recorded repertoire of elementary music textbook
65
series published from 1967 to 2008? To what degree is inclusion of AP folk songs in textbook
series impacted by the publication of the National Standards in 1994, and what other trends can
be discerned?
Data Sources
Howell and Prevenier (2001) defined data sources as artifacts that have been left by the
past. They exist as either testimonies or relics. Testimonies are written or oral proofs of an act
or reports of an event. Relics are objects with visual or physical properties that provide
information about the past (e.g. letters, and wooden columns). Textbooks, the focus of this
study, are considered relics. Table 1 presents a listing of primary textbook resources, including
information about parent companies, subsidiary companies, titles, publications and editions. As
previously mentioned, due to the existence of multiple publication dates for many of the series
texts, the author only examined the most recent editions of each textbook series. Data were
obtained from multiple sources: (a) basal series textbooks, (b) bibliographic listings from the
MENC Archival holding at the University of Maryland, (c) Interlibrary Loan sources, (d)
research studies, as cited in Chapter Two, and (e) publishers’ websites (http://www.mcgraw-
hill.com/site/about-us/corporate-history and https://www.MHEonline.com). Additional primary
sources included selected recordings (CD’s, magnetic tapes, and LP’s) that accompanied
textbook series, and transcribed recordings of interviews conducted with textbook editors,
authors, contributors, and consultants.
To give a general overview of the topic, and help interpret findings, secondary sources
were also used. These included other printed materials such as books, articles, symposia papers
and proceedings, poster sessions, theses and dissertations.

66
Table 1
Publishers, Textbooks and Editions
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67
External and Internal Criticism
External criticism refers to “the process of determining whether the apparent or claimed
origin of a historical document corresponds to its actual origin” (D. Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007,
p. 541). The term is sometimes called external evidence of a document or artifact (Leedy, &
Ormrod, 2005). To avoid the pitfalls that may be discovered in the process of external criticism,
the researcher examined only original textbook publications and accompanying series
recordings. Internal criticism or internal evidence “involves evaluating the accuracy and worth
of the statements contained in a historical document” (D. Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007, p. 542).
Internal criticism was addressed in this study through comparison of written information with
selected recordings. The researcher also sought expert knowledge from an ethnomusicologist
and scholar on Japanese music. The expert was particularly helpful in verifying aural
identification of instruments used as folk song accompaniments, and categorical descriptions of
printed materials (e.g. pictures in textbooks, recording covers, and indices) as folk, traditional, or
authentic to particular cultures.
Data Collection
Music Series Textbooks, and Recordings
To gauge the feasibility of this study, the researcher began with an initial survey of
textbook and recording holdings at the University of Colorado and area elementary schools.
Extensive on-line library and database searches, as well as consultation with sales representatives
of the current music textbook publishers, were also done. Primary resources (see Appendix A)
were obtained from interlibrary loan, databases, area elementary schools and local universities,
and publisher sales representatives. Data obtained included 106 teacher editions comprising the
68
18 American elementary music textbooks for kindergarten to fifth grades. Due to the scarcity of
available recordings for textbooks published from 1967 to 1993, a search for these earlier
recordings also was conducted; besides compact discs and magnetic tapes, the researcher
collected long-playing microgroove records containing Asian-Pacific folk songs. The researcher
obtained 30% of the recordings from the first period then sampled a comparable percentage from
the second period.
Interviews
The researcher conducted 10 phone and Skype interviews, with an average length of 20
minutes each, with authors, editors, consultants and contributors (see Appendix B) to determine
the bases for folk song selection in series textbooks. After obtaining Institutional Review Board
(IRB) approval in June 2011, prospective study participants were contacted regarding their
willingness and availability to participate in this study. Participants were asked to e-mail back
the consent form with their completed responses and signatures (see Appendix C). Out of twelve
prospective participants, ten of them consented. The interviewees and their publisher affiliations
include: 1) two authors from Holt, Rhineheart, and Winston, Publishers; 2) five authors from
Silver Burdett; and 3) five authors from MacMillan. Participants represent seven music textbook
series publications. Five authors were involved with textbook publications prior to the adoption
of the National Standards for Music Education in 1994. Table 2 includes the pseudonyms of
authors and the titles of elementary music textbook series they authored.
The interviews centered on the following questions pertaining to folk song selection
for use in American elementary music textbook publications:
1. Please explain the procedure followed prior to selection of folk songs in the
textbooks. !
69
2. What are your criteria for selecting folk songs in elementary music series?
3. !"#$%#&'%$"'%()*'&+,-).%/"-+010/"-'1%$"#$%.(-*'*%$"'%/&'1')$#$-0)%02%20+3%%
10).%%4#$'&-#+15%
4. Who has the final decision on what folk songs are included in elementary music
textbooks?
5. What are the underlying publisher policies that guide the presentation of folk song
materials?
67 !"#$%0$"'&%2#8$0&1%-)2+(')8'%'+'4')$#&,%4(1-8%$'9$:003%/(:+-8#$-0)15%%%
Table 2
Interviewees and their Publications
Author Title/s of Elementary Music Textbook Series

Dr. H Spotlight on Music, Share the Music
Dr. X Making Music, The Music Connection, and World of Music
Dr. Q Making Music, The Music Connection
Dr. D Spotlight on Music, Share the Music
Dr. V Holt Music, The Music Connection
Dr. Y Making Music, The Music Connection, and World of Music
Dr. A Holt Music, Spotlight on Music
Dr. Z Making Music, The Music Connection
Dr. J Spotlight on Music, Share the Music, and Music and You
Dr. B Spotlight on Music
These questions were adapted for this study based on prior research by Moore (1977).
Anonymity of the interviewees was preserved through the use of pseudonyms in the body of this
research. Audio-recordings and transcripts of interviews were safely stored in a locked cabinet
belonging to the researcher throughout the duration of the study. The ten interview sessions took
place between July 8, 2011 and September 27, 2011.

70
Data Analysis
According to Phillips (2008), a content analysis “looks over a period of time seeking
evidence of trends, changing philosophies, or development of terminology” (p. 50). As
textbooks served as primary sources, the researcher used content analysis to identify examples of
AP music included in textbook series and determine the degree to which various AP musical
cultures were represented. As explained by Jarausch and Hardy (1991),
Much numerical information can be conveyed graphically, often rendering complex
relationships intelligible. Maps, charts, and graphs faithfully reproduce data, summarize
massive information and suggest conceptual tendencies in order to make a conceptual
point. As an important tool for analysis, visual displays are useful when used
economically and with integrity. (p. 188)
Findings related to the research questions were organized and presented in tables and graphic
displays (e.g. pie charts, column charts, and line graphs).
Content Analysis of AP Music in Textbooks
The contents of 106 teacher’s editions comprising eighteen music textbooks series from
kindergarten to fifth grade were analyzed based on the following criteria: grade level, total
number of Asia Pacific songs, total number of series songs, countries of origin, song title,
language, the absence or presence of direct text translations (DT), and written pronunciation
guides (WPG) as appearing in the teacher’s edition (see Appendix D). Only vocal AP folk
songs labeled by the editors as folk, traditional or regional in the textbooks are included in the
listing of folk songs for each grade level. Indices and individual pages of series books were
examined. An example of a tabular format used to summarize folk song data provided in each
teacher’s edition is illustrated in Table 3.

71
Table 3
The AP Song Contents of American Elementary Music Textbooks (1967-2008)

Title of Series (Year of Publication)
Grade # AP # Series Country Song Title Language WPG DT

Level Folk Songs
Songs
The language represented by folk song lyrics is not always easy to categorize. When
English lyrics for AP vocal folk songs are included, they are sometimes identified as versions,
translations, or adaptations. Songs with singable English versions may or may not relate to the
exact meanings of the original texts. Translated lyrics more closely, but not exactly, match the
meanings of the original texts. Songs with adapted English lyrics were based on a previously
written song, poem, or rhyme with changes to suit needs. Song texts in foreign languages reflect
the songs’ culture of origin. Song lyrics with specific dialects were classified as belonging to the
language of origin (e.g. Cantonese, Mandarin, Szechuan, and Taiwanese were classified under
Chinese). Because Philippine dialects (e.g. Tagalog, Visayan, and Kapampangan) have no
single language of origin, they were classified under Philippine languages. In addition, DT and
WPG information was classified as present (X) or absent (/) in the textbooks. Direct translations
reflect the authentic meanings of song lyrics as perceived by a native, in contrast to singable
translations that are created to match the rhythmic and poetic scheme if applicable. These
translations are usually written in paragraph forms separate from the musical score. Data for
each criterion were tabulated. Microsoft Excel software was utilized to obtain percentages for
key variables and to produce summary tables for results across time periods, and publishers.
72
To situate the representation of AP folk songs in the broader world of musical genres and
cultures, and have a clearer picture of the impact of the National Standards, the researcher
conducted a content analysis of the vocal folk song repertoire of the latest textbook series sets
published by the two major publishers prior to 1994, and compared these with the 2008 textbook
series sets by these two companies: 1) World of Music (1991) and Making Music (2008) for
Silver Burdett, and 2) Music and You (1991) and Spotlight on Music (2008) for MacMillan. In
each of these publications, analysis was conducted on the quantity of folk songs in comparison
with the total number of vocal series songs that represents various genres. Additionally, the folk
songs were classified by world macro-regions: 1) Africa and African American, 2) North
America and Native American, 3) Asia, 4) Latin American and Hispanic American, 5) Europe,
and 6) Oceania. Although African American and Hispanic American musics thrive in the US,
for purposes of analysis they were linked with the cultures from which they evolved.
The author also conducted an analysis of the thematic contents of AP songs in the last
two publications of each major publishing company for each period (see Table 4). Because
authors in each textbook series classified themes differently, the researcher examined the
singable English lyrics or directly translated English lyrics of all the AP songs and deduced the
following themes: 1) animals – includes farm animals, birds, insects, reptiles, and fishes, 2)
celebrations and events, 3) counting songs, 4) game songs, 5) greetings and goodbyes, 6) home
and family, 7) friendship, 8) lullabies 9) music and instruments, 10) natural world – includes
plants, landscapes, weather, seasons and cosmic objects, 11) nonsense songs, 12) religious or
ritual songs, 13) school, and 14) toys and objects, 15) travel, and 16) work songs.
73
Table 4
Thematic Content Analysis Data Sources
Silver Burdett MacMillan

First Period (1967-1993) Silver Burdett Music The Spectrum of Music
World of Music Music and You
Second Period (1994-2008) The Music Connection Share the Music
Making Music Spotlight on Music
Some songs have more than one theme or interconnected themes. For example, the
Japanese folk song Amefuri (Japanese Rain Song) has the following directly translated English
lyrics:
Rain, come, rain.
I’m happy because Mother will come with an umbrella to pick me up.
Pichi-pichi, chappu-chappu, ran, ran, ran.
I will wear my bag over my shoulder and follow mother.
A temple bell tolls. Pichi-pichi, chappu-chappu, ran, ran, ran.
(Making Music, Gr. 1, p. 481)
The title is about rain and the child imitates the sound of the rain. However, the child associates
the rain with her mother. Thus, this song was listed as having both the themes natural world and
family. Another example is Kagome, a game song about a bird, thus listed under game songs
and animals. Values and sentiments were not included in the themes because these are imbedded
in all the musics. For each of the textbook series, the frequencies of the themes were tabulated
and entered into a summary table (see Appendix E).
Content Analysis of AP Music in Folk Song Recordings
Although this study centered on AP folk songs as printed in series publications, the
researcher also conducted an analysis of the recordings intended to accompany or serve as vocal
74
models for the students as they sing the songs. Thirty percent of the AP folk song recordings for
each period were examined in terms of instrumental accompaniments, the presence (X) or
absence (/) of pronunciation guides, and vocal models. The vocal models used for classification
include: men, women, children or a combination of these, either in groups or as solo singers.
The researcher conducted a comparison of those factors across time periods.
Content Analysis Procedures Used for Interviews
Since the interview data were descriptive rather than numerical in nature, an inductive
coding process was useful in determining categories (LeCompte & Schensul, 1999). For that
reason, the researcher used an inductive analysis strategy to generate descriptive categories from
the data. According to Rossman and Ralis (2003), “inductive analysis is one strategy to identify
salient themes within the data” (p. 282). In contrast with deductive analysis that relies on themes
or pre-existing codes in relation to a theoretical framework (LeCompte and Schensul, 1999), this
researcher identified items and generated codes through the process termed by S. Schensul,
Schensul, and LeCompte (1999) as theorizing. The researcher reviewed the interview transcripts
several times, data reduction was achieved by writing keywords or phrases expressed by the
interviewees, and categories were identified. Analysis for responses related to the criteria for
song selection yielded the following categories: demographics, national standards, accessibility
and authenticity of resources, appropriateness of musical and textual content, skills and
activities, cultural and copyright restrictions, educational patterns and issues, and marketability.
In addition, questions related to procedures and decision-making during the publication
process yielded additional categories for discussion. For procedures prior to song selection and
decision-making, steps toward publication were arranged chronologically. The researcher also
looked for inconsistencies and connections between chunks of information to resolve conflicts
75
and achieve coherence. For instance, although an interviewee stated that the authors had the
final say whether a song should be included or not, the researcher still considered other
interviewees’ statements that the publishing companies have the final decision for song
inclusion, recognizing that although the editors or coordinating authors can override decisions,
the companies work with their agents responsible for checking copyright permissions and
conditions, and make final decisions. Member checks were done through follow-up e-mails with
two authors. Other strategies used to increase the trustworthiness of the findings included peer
review (conducted by the dissertation advisor) and triangulation. Triangulation was conducted
by comparing information gathered from interviews with music textbook series publications,
recordings, literature (e.g. articles, books, and dissertations), and websites of publishers and
related organizations (e.g. American Association of Publishers [AAP] School Division and
National Center for Education Statistics [NCES]). !
In this chapter, the researcher provided a detailed explanation of the methodology used to
address the research questions, including primary and secondary data sources, data collection and
data analysis techniques and procedures, means for addressing internal and external criticism of
written and recorded sources, and strategies to increase the trustworthiness of interview findings.
Chapter Four contains the results of this quanto-historical inquiry.!
!
76
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS
One of the ways in which music education publishers have addressed the need for diverse
curriculum is through the inclusion of vocal and instrumental multicultural songs in their
textbooks, a common resource available for use in K-12 classrooms (Woodward, 1993). In this
quanto-historical investigation, the author analyzed the multicultural content of 18 elementary
music basal series by addressing the following questions:
1. To what degree are Asian-Pacific (AP) folk songs included in the printed and
recorded repertoire of elementary music textbook series published from 1967
to 2008?
(a) Specifically, in respect to printed materials, which AP countries are
represented, and what types of song lyrics and supplemental resources are
provided for classroom instruction?
(b) In respect to recorded materials, what are the characteristics of the folk song
recordings?
2. To what degree is inclusion of AP folk songs in textbook series impacted by the
publication of the National Standards in 1994, and what other trends can be
discerned?
Although the focus of this study was on AP folk songs and their printed supplemental
materials as referenced in textbook lessons for K – 5 students, the author also conducted a
secondary analysis of representative AP folk song recordings that accompanied the music
textbooks. Further, it is the premise of this author that the adoption of the National Standards for
77
Music Education on 1994 had an impact on subsequent music textbook publications and other
curricular resources. The following are the K-12 content standards for music that were
developed by the Consortium of National Arts Education Association and adopted in 1994 in
compliance with the recommendations of Goals 2000: Educate America Act (Public Law 103-
227) (Mark & Gary, 2007):
1. Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music.
2. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music.
3. Improvising melodies, variations, and accompaniments.
4. Composing and arranging music with specified guidelines.
5. Reading and notating music.
6. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music.
7. Evaluating music and music performances.
8. Understanding relationships between music, the other arts, and disciplines outside the
arts.
9. Understanding music in relation to history and culture. (Mahlman, J. et al., 1994)
Specifically, Standards 1, 2, 6, and 8, and 9 are most commonly associated with increased
awareness of multicultural musics. However, music teachers also incorporate world music
examples when addressing standards three and seven.
In this chapter, presentation of findings is divided into two sections: content analysis
results for printed materials in 18 elementary music series textbooks, and content analysis results
for the accompanying recordings. Within each section, historical comparisons are made between
materials published from 1967 to 1993 (first period), and materials published from 1994 to 2008
(second period). These two time periods were marked by the adoption of the National Standards
78
for Music Education in 1994. During the first period, the four major publishers of elementary
music series textbooks were Silver Burdett (produced three series with eight total editions),
Macmillan/McGraw Hill (produced two series with six total editions), Holt, Rinehart, and
Winston (produced three series with five total editions), and Follett Educational Corporation,
(produced two series with four total editions). During the second period, there were only two
major publishers of elementary music textbook series: Silver Burdett (produced two series with
four total editions), and Macmillan/McGraw Hill (produced two series with six total editions).
Content Analysis of Textbooks

Representation of AP Countries
The 18 elementary music series textbooks published between 1967 and 2008 include a
total of 12,556 vocal songs from varied musical cultures, presented for use in singing activities.
Three hundred forty-one (roughly 3%) of those are vocal folk songs from the Asian-Pacific
region. A complete listing of these AP songs is provided in Appendix D. The countries
represented by these AP folk songs are Japan (45%), China (31.7%), Korea (8.5%), Philippines
(7.9%), Vietnam (1.8%), Indonesia (1.5%), Thailand (1.5%), Cambodia (1.2%), Laos (.9%), and
Singapore and Mongolia (.3% each). Figure 2 is a visual representation of the countries and the
proportion of AP folk songs associated with each country.
Compared with Culig’s (2008) prior study on the representation of AP songs in American
elementary music textbooks from 1944-1968, the results of this current study show a marginal
increase in the representation of countries and number of AP songs in basal series sets published
from 1967-2008. In Culig’s prior study, folk songs from the countries of Vietnam, Cambodia,
Laos, Singapore, Mongolia, and Thailand were not included; however, Burma had one song
represented. There was a 1.8% representation of these AP songs, excluding those of Australasia,
79
in basal series sets from 1944 to 1968; there was a 2.3% representation of AP folk songs from
1967 to 1993; there was a 3.8% representation from 1994 to 2008.
Figure 2
Represented Countries in the Folk Song Repertoire of
American Elementary Music Textbooks (1967-2008)
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Note: Others refer to the countries of Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand,

Cambodia, Laos, Singapore, and Mongolia.
In Figure 3, the bar graph illustrates countries represented in the folk song repertoire of
textbook series publications across the two time periods (1967 to 1993, and 1994 to 2008). Only
six countries were included in the first period; five additional countries were included in the
second period, although with minimal representation. The two most represented countries across
time periods were Japan and China. These are followed by Korea and the Philippines. The
countries included in this study but not represented in the textbooks were Brunei, Myanmar
(Burma), Malaysia, and East Timor. After the publication of the National Standards, folk songs
from the following additional countries were represented: Cambodia, Laos, Singapore,
Mongolia, and Thailand.

80
Figure 3
Number of AP Folk Songs and Their Countries of Origin Across Time-Periods
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While AP folk songs constitute a very small portion of the total song repertoire found
within elementary music textbook series, an across-time analysis revealed a noticeable
shift in AP folk song representation following the adoption of the National Standards (see Figure
4). Although there were fluctuations in the number of AP folk songs used in textbooks through
the end of the first period (1967-1993; to the left of the vertical blue bar), there was a marked
increase in the inclusion of AP folk songs during the second period (1994-2008; to the right of
the vertical blue bar). The 14 series publications during the first period include an
average of 14 AP folk songs. With the release of Share the Music and The Music Connection
(concurrent with adoption of the standards), there was a 50% increase in the average number of
Asian Pacific folk songs found in elementary music textbooks, despite the fact that there are
fewer music textbook publishers in business and fewer series being produced than in the earlier
period. The average number of AP folk songs included in music textbooks increased by an
81
Figure 4
Chronological Chart Depicting the Quantity of AP Folk Songs Included
In American Elementary Music Textbooks (1967-2008)
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Legend: The Magic of Music (TMOM), Discovering Music Together (DMT),

The Growing with Music (GWM), Making Music your Own (MMYO), This is Music
for Today (TIMFT), Comprehensive Musicianship Through Classroom Music
(CMTCM), Exploring Music (EM), New Dimensions in Music (NDIM), The
Spectrum of Music (TSOM), The Music Book (TMB), Silver Burdett Music (SBM),
Holt Music (HM), Music and You (MAY), World of Music (WOM), The Music
Connection (TMC), Share the Music (STM), Making Music (MM), Spotlight on
Music (SOM), Making Music (MM)
additional 50% when Silver Burdett (Making Music) and Macmillan/McGraw-Hill (Spotlight on
Music) introduced their most recent series.
Musical Genres and Cultures
To situate the representation of AP folk songs in the broader world of musical cultures
and genres, the researcher conducted a quantitative comparison of the representation of folk
songs in the latest two publications of the two major publishers, prior to and after the adoption of
82
the National Standards. Table 5 reveals the total number of folk songs in each publication and
their percentages in relation to the total number of basal series vocal songs that include various
genres (e.g. folk, popular songs, Broadway songs, blues, and children’s classics).
Table 5
Representation of Folk Songs with Other Vocal Genres
Across Periods and Major Publishers
# Series # Folk
Publisher Series Title Edition Songs Songs %
Silver Burdett World of Music 1991 697 586 84
MacMillan Music and You 1991 749 432 58
Silver Burdett Making Music 2008 1036 592 57
Spotlight on
MacMillan Music 2008 1019 634 62
The above figures shows that prior to the publication of the National Standards, the vocal
repertoire of Silver Burdett’s World of Music were mostly folk songs, with only 16%
representation of other vocal genres. In comparison, the folk songs appearing in Making Music
(published after the adoption of the standards) had a lesser representation than in the first period,
but resulted in a more balanced representation of other vocal genres (43%). MacMillan’s Music
and You and Spotlight on Music had an average of 60% representation of folk songs across
periods. Overall, data analysis indicates an increase of 42% in the total quantity of series songs
representing various vocal genres during the second period, while folk songs had an increase of
roughly 20%.
! To situate the representation of AP folk songs in the broader world of musical cultures, I
analyzed the representation of folk songs of the world macro-regions in the latest two
publications of the two major publishers, prior to and after the adoption of the National
Standards. For example, Figure 5 and Figure 6 illustrate the representation of folk songs,
83
Figure 5
The Representation of Folk Songs in
Silver Burdett’s World of Music (1991)
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Silver Burdett’s Making Music (2008)
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excluding listening selections, in Silver Burdett’s World of Music (1991) and Making Music
(2008).
World of Music contained 586 folk songs, including 30 (5%) AP folk songs, while
Making Music had 592, including 44 (roughly 7%) AP folk songs. In the earlier publication,
North America, including Native American, and European folk songs occupy 72 % of the
84
repertoire. In decreasing order of representation, Africa and African American, Asia, and Latin
America shared 28% of the repertoire. In the later publication, the representation of North
America and Europe decreased to 53% with an increased representation of the rest of the regions.
Latin America exceeded Asia by 1%. Africa continued to be the third most represented region in
the repertoire. Oceania that was not represented in the prior publication had five (roughly 1%)
folk songs in the latter publication.
Figure 7 and Figure 8 illustrate the representation of countries in the vocal folk song
repertoire, excluding listening selections, of MacMillan’s Music and You (1991) and Spotlight on
Music (2008).
Figure 7

MacMillan’s Music and You (1991)
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85
Figure 8
MacMillan’s Spotlight on Music (2008)
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! There were 432 vocal folk songs, including seven (roughly 2%) AP folk songs, in Music
and You, while there were 634 vocal folk songs, including 42 (roughly 7%) AP folk songs, in
Making Music. In the earlier publication, North American and European folk music occupied
75% of the entire folk song repertoire; the rest of the regions shared 25%. In the latter
publication, North American and European folk songs had a decreased representation of 58%;
the rest of the regions shared 42%. Africa continued to be the third most represented region.
There was a 10% increase in Latin American folk songs and 6% increase in Asian folk songs in
Making Music compared with Music and You. Folk songs from Oceania continue to be
miniscule: one (.2%) out of 432 songs in the earlier publication, and eight (1.3%) out of 634
songs in the latter publication.
From the above figures, it is evident that the two major publishers of music textbook
series had been moving gradually toward a more balanced representation of world musical
86
cultures, although there is still much to be done. Prior to the legislation of the National
Standards, Asian and Latin American musics had small degrees of representation, but these have
improved with the latest publications. The quantity of folk songs from Europe and North
America decreased during the second period in both publications. Although musics from
Australasia, a sub-region of Oceania, have much Western influence, aboriginal folk songs exist
in the region, as do children’s folk songs in pidgeon English.
Representation of AP Languages
Having analyzed the AP countries represented in basal series texts, the researcher
examined the types of song lyrics and supplemental resources are provided for classroom
instruction that accompanied the AP vocal songs. Out of 341 AP songs included in all the series,
202 had original foreign language lyrics: 71 for the first period and 131 for the second period.
In Figure 9, languages used for the lyrics of AP folk songs and their frequencies in both periods
are identified. The number of original foreign languages represented in AP folk songs doubled
from the first period to the second period, which coincides with the previously reported increase
in the number of Asian Pacific countries whose music is included in the textbook series. During
the first period, AP song lyrics appear in five languages: Japanese, Chinese, Korean, Philippine
languages, and Vietnamese. Five additional native languages (Cambodian, Laotian, Thai,
Indonesian, and Malay [one of the languages of Singapore), in miniscule increments, were used
for songs lyrics during the second period. Although there were five AP languages used for song
lyrics during the first period, 47 out of 71 of the songs were in Japanese and only one song was
in Vietnamese. For the same period, there were seven songs each with Korean and Philippine
song lyrics, and nine songs with Chinese lyrics. During the second period, most AP folk songs
had Japanese (51 out of 131) and Chinese (37 out of 131) lyrics. The number of Korean songs
87
Figure 9
Quantity of AP folk songs with Original Language Lyrics (1967-2008)
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with native lyrics increased to 16, whereas original language Philippine songs remained seven.
Other AP folk songs with native lyrics ranged from one to five in number for each of the rest of
AP languages. With the inclusion of five additional languages during the second period, the
number of AP languages used for song lyrics doubled from 1994 to 2008.
The nature of song lyrics and supplemental learning resources shown in Tables 6 and 7,
are important factors that can enhance or impair authentic presentations of AP folk musics during
classroom instruction. In Table 6, the researcher presents whether song lyrics appear in the
original language, English, or both. Asian-Pacific folk song versions that appear in combined
English and original language lyrics, as well as nonsense lyrics categories are also included. For
example, the old Japanese song A New Year’s Greeting (see p. 89) from the textbook series The
Magic of Music (Waters et al., 1966) has combined English and original language lyrics in single
musical phrases or lines.

!
Table 6
Nature of Song Lyrics (1967-2008)
Historical Period Publisher
1967-1992 1993-2008 Silver Burdett MacMillan Others

% English Lyrics 56.1 7.7 34.1 14.1 64.6
% Original Language Lyrics 12.6 4.2 11.8 9.8 2.5
% English and Original Language Lyrics 23.2 87.4 48.2 73.9 26.6
% Combined English and Original Language Lyrics 3.5 0.7 3.5 1.1 1.3
% Combined English and Nonsense Lyrics 3.0 0.0 1.8 1.1 2.5
% Nonsense Lyrics 1.5 0.0 0.6 0.0 2.5
!
!
Table 7
Language Tools for Song Lyrics (1967-2008)

!
Historical Period Publisher
1967-1992 1993-2008 Silver Burdett MacMillan Others

% AP Songs with Written Pronunciation Guides 53.5 95.4 77.7 100.0 43.5
% AP Songs with Direct Translations 33.8 38.9 68.6 6.5 0.0
!
""!
89
A New Year’s Greeting
“Omedeto gozai ma,” we will bow and say,
“Omedeto gozai ma,” happy New Year’s Day.
Let us place our pine branches beside the door,
And wish friends and neighbors many new years more. (Vol. 3, p. 105)
Songs with nonsense lyrics use “vocables” that have no particular meanings but are used as vocal
expressions associated with particular actions, activities, or feelings. An example is the
Chinese folk song entitled, “Boatmen’s Chantey” from the textbook series Discovering Music
Together (Leonhard, Krone, Wolfe, & Fullerton, 1970).
Boatmen’s Chantey
Yah hoo, yah hoo hey! Yah hoo, yah hoo hey!
Hai yai yai! Yah hoo, yah hoo hey! (Vol. 3, p. 28)
In Table 7, the researcher also presents percentages of songs with foreign language lyrics that
have direct translations and/or written pronunciation guides. For purposes of comparison, the
researcher used aggregate percentages for AP folk song lyrics included in music textbook series
for each of the periods (1967-1993 and 1994-2008), major companies (Silver Burdett and
Macmillan) that consistently published music textbook series from 1967-2008, and other
companies (Follet Educational Corporation and Holt, Rinehart and Winston) that published
music textbooks only during the first period (1967-1993) of this study.
During the first period, AP folk songs generally had English lyrics. Only 71 (36%) of the
198 AP folk songs had original language lyrics; only 25 (34%) of the AP folk songs with original
language lyrics had direct translations. During the second period, 131 songs out of 143 had
original foreign language lyrics, a remarkable increased of 92%. However, the number of songs
90
with direct translations remained small, 51 (39%) out of 131. While 54% of the songs had
written pronunciation guides during the first period, 95% of the songs had written pronunciation
guides during the second period. All publications of MacMillan during the second period had
written pronunciation guides. The lack of direct translations for AP songs with foreign lyrics
across periods was notable; only 76 (38%) out of 202 songs with original language lyrics had
direct English translations. Publishers included singable indirect translations instead. However,
it is important to mention that all AP folk songs in Making Music, Silver Burdett’s most recent
publication, had direct English translations (see Appendix D). Follett Educational Corporation,
and Holt, Rinehart, and Winston (two of the four major music textbook series publishers during
the first period) did not include direct translations of song lyrics. Nonsense lyrics, or vocables
were mostly used during the earlier period. It is important to note that original lyrics combined
with English lyrics exceeded songs with nonsense lyrics across periods and publishers.
However, both songs with original language lyrics combined with English lyrics, and nonsense
lyrics were used in minimal proportions, especially during the second period.
Beyond addressing research questions related to language use, the researcher conducted a
analysis of AP song topics covered in the last two music series publications from MacMillan and
Silver Burdett across time periods (see Table 8). As mentioned in the previous chapter, a song
may have two or more interconnected themes. Data analysis indicates that there was a marked
increase in the frequencies of themes covered in the AP songs during the second period. A major
reason is the marked difference in the total number of AP songs included in the series sets per
period: 57 songs for the first period and 147 songs for the second period. Across periods, the
theme “natural world” that includes plants, landscapes, cosmic objects, and seasons was the most
predominant followed by the theme “animals”. Game songs and toys were more popular themes
91
Table 8
Thematic Contents of AP Folk Songs Across Periods
Theme First Period Second Period Total

1. natural world 20 40 60
2. animals 12 33 45
3. game songs 5 21 26
4. celebrations/events 8 17 25
5. friendship 8 10 18
6. toys/ play objects 1 14 15
7. home and family 4 11 15
8. work songs 5 8 13
9. music and instruments 2 7 9
10. travel 3 4 7
11. greetings and goodbyes 0 4 4
12. counting songs 1 3 4
13. lullabies 1 3 4
14. school 0 3 3
15. nonsense songs 1 1 2
16. religious songs 1 1 2
72 180 252
during the second period. While celebration of events ranked third, along friendship, for the first
period, it ranked fourth for the second period. Friendship ranked sixth for the second period.
Home and family ranked fifth for the first period; it ranked seventh for the second period. Work
songs, usually found in Asian cultures, ranked fourth for the first period, and eighth for the
second period. Nonsense songs and religious or ritual songs ranked the lowest across periods. In
decreasing degrees of representation, the themes (some related themes were presented in
combined percentages) of the eight series textbooks analyzed included: natural world and
animals (42%), game songs, toys, and play objects (16%), friendship, and home and family
(13%), celebrations and events (10%), work songs (5%), and others (14% combined).
92
Content Analysis of Recordings
Asia-Pacific (AP) folk music recordings are rich resources for exposing children to
multicultural musics of the world. Publishers provided the AP folk song recordings analyzed in
this study to serve as vocal models, assist with pronunciation of lyrics, or accompany students’
singing. These recordings supplement the learning of folk songs included in the music textbook
series teacher editions, and may include several versions of the songs---voices with
accompaniment, voices or instruments alone, or spoken pronunciation guides.
Proportional Representation of Asia Pacific Song Recordings Across Periods
Given the frequent use of these recordings in classroom instruction, the researcher
investigated a sampling of 30% of AP folk song recordings from each period for characteristics,
and trends pertaining to: (1) performance medium/media, including vocal genres and
instrumental accompaniments and (2) recorded pronunciation guides. For the first period, 60 out
of 198 songs were examined; for the second period, 43 out of 143 songs were examined resulting
in an analysis of 103 recordings (see Appendix E).
Vocal Models!
A notable difference between recorded voices used to model AP songs was evident
between the two periods. In decreasing order of frequency, singers in the sampled recordings
during the earlier period were as follows: (a) child/children = 25, (b) woman/women = 24,
(c) woman and children = 6, (d) man/men = 4, and (e) women and men = 1. For the second
period, all the sampled folk song selections were sung by children or youth choirs except for
Santa Clara, a folk song from the Philippines rendered by a woman.

93
Instrumental Accompaniments
Identification of instruments in the recorded accompaniments was difficult as this
information was not usually included in teacher edition notes, or liner notes with the recordings.
For the purposes of data collection, the researcher sought expert assistance from an
Ethnomusicologist and scholar of Japanese music in identifying instruments not identified in
print materials. Based on data gathered, AP folk song recordings were mostly accompanied on
Western instruments during the first period of analysis. The only Asian Pacific instruments used
during the first era were the Japanese instruments koto, shakuhachi, samisen, gong, bamboo
flute, and sitar, which is an instrument not germane to the countries covered in this study. The
earliest AP instruments that were used to accompany the selections were the gong and koto. In
1977, the bamboo flute was included in the ensemble that accompanied a Japanese song entitled
The Moon. In 1985, the instrumental accompaniment for The Jasmine Flower in the Silver
Burdett Music series was labeled “Authentic Chinese Instruments” in the index. Although the
expert expressed, “I could not give a definitive answer,” he named flute, percussion, and
synthesized strings in the ensemble. In 1988, the Japanese instruments shakuhachi, and
shamisen were introduced as accompanying instruments in Holt Music. The use of the
synthesizer as an accompanying resource was evident in the sampled recording of Indonesia’s
folk song Suliram, included in The World of Music series published in 1991.
Folk song accompaniments during the second period included a variety of traditional
instruments (e.g. yangqin, gamelan, pipa, bangdi, guzheng, kayagum, taiko, erhu, angklung,
shimedaiko, dizi, daruan, sralai, sampho, gaohu, ken trong, tang piri, suona, and kendang).
Although accompanying instruments were predominantly Asian Pacific in origin, some Western
instruments (e.g. bell tree, congas, crotales, mandolins, horn, flute, bassoon, and instruments of
94
the string orchestra) were blended in with traditional accompanying ensembles. Moreover, the
use of the synthesizer and electronic percussion was not unusual. A number of accompaniments
were generally labeled (e.g. “Asian Instruments,” “Sampled Instruments,” and “Japanese Folk
Ensemble”). The expert ethnomusicologist identified instrumentation for the recordings as using
a combination of real traditional instruments and synthesized sounds, although accompanying
instruments were identified in recording indices as traditional, authentic or folk. Further, the
expert commented that an ensemble identified as an “Indonesian Folk Ensemble” used generic
Asian instruments to accompany a folk song in the recording. Having been involved with
Philippine rondalla for a long time, the researcher also surmised that a “Filipino Folk Ensemble”
used sampled rondalla instruments, in combination with flute, guitar, and percussion. Generally,
the instrumental accompaniments of folk songs during the second period had a variety of timbres
with the use of folk, Western, and electronic instruments.
Recorded Pronunciation Guides!
The recordings of AP songs examined during the first period had no pronunciation tracks.
This feature of supplemental materials for teaching AP folk songs was not evident until the
publication of Share the Music in 1995, wherein all songs had recorded pronunciation practice
tracks. Thereafter, succeeding publications (e.g. Making Music, and Spotlight on Music)
included pronunciation practice tracks for AP folk songs in their recordings. Persons who
introduced themselves as coming from the songs’ cultures of origin modeled the pronunciation
of song lyrics.
In response to the second research question of this study, several trends were identified,
including a noticeable increase in the quantity of AP folk songs and other vocal genres, number
of song themes, quantity of AP songs with written and recorded pronunciation guides, and
95
variety of indigenous instruments used for AP folk song accompaniments. Although there was
an increase in the representation of AP countries and use of original language lyrics, some
countries and languages rarely appeared in print. Direct translations of original language lyrics
remained limited. A development in recorded materials included the blended use of indigenous,
electronic, and Western instruments. Moreover, unlike in the first period wherein songs were
sung in the recordings by either children, women, men, or a combination of them, children
modeled the singing of all the AP songs, except for one, during the second period.
Descriptive Findings
Analysis of data related to print and recorded materials provided an overview of the
inclusion of AP folk songs in basal series music textbooks from 1967-2008. Comparisons of the
time periods before and after the introduction of the National Standards indicated patterns and
trends as impacted by the standards. In addition, the researcher gathered descriptive data in the
form of interviews with a representative sample of authors, editors, and publishers, to discern
additional insights about the publication process, and provide a context for understanding
patterns and trends in the statistical analysis.
Discussion of interview data addresses broad aspects of the publication process that apply
to all song selection (e.g. planning and decision-making), and several specific criteria related to
the inclusion of multicultural materials: demographics, national standards, accessibility and
authenticity of resources, appropriateness of musical and textual content, skills and activities,
cultural and copyright restrictions, educational patterns and issues, and marketability.
Procedure Prior to Selection of Folk Songs
At the onset of the publication process, editors, authors, consultants, and contributors
gather and meet as a team. They discuss publisher requirements such as diversity of repertoire
96
that is representative of the projected demographics of the United States, and copyright laws.
Moreover, they discuss curriculum requirements and standards. Authors mainly look at the
National Music Standards; however, they also consider the standards of some textbook adoption
states that have different appropriation of song requirements based on ethnic origin, kind, and
language. Publishing editor and/or coordinating authors then assign authors by grade levels and
teams. After receiving their own responsibilities, authors then look for folk song materials that
would meet their folk song selection criteria and underlying philosophies.
Criteria for Folk Song Selection in American Music Textbook Series
The following is a general summary of the key factors that were found to impact folk
song selection of textbook authors: demographics of the United States, National Standards in
Music and the curriculum, accessibility of authentic resources, appropriateness of musical and
textual contents, skills and activities, cultural and copyright restrictions, educational patterns and
issues, and marketability.
Demographics of the United States
Because of the increasingly diverse population of the United States, current publishers
have required authors to match the percentages of their folk song choices according to the
general demographics of the country, whether or not some ethnicities were not found in some
places of the United States. As verified by Dr. H, and Dr. Y, in their experiences the
appropriation of folk song percentages equaled the population percentages of five major ethnic
groups: European Americans, African Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanic/Latino Americans,
and Native Americans. When asked if they also consider other cultures not as prevalent in the
United States, Dr. Y said, “As much as possible, we like to represent as many cultures of the
world; however, we pay close attention to including the cultures that are represented in the US.”
97
Authors are consistent with Kodály’s principle of making sure that children, during his
time, know the folk songs of their language and culture (Choksy, Abramson, Gillespie, Woods &
York, 2001). Given the multicultural demographics of the United States (United States Census
Bureau, October 2010a; United States Census Bureau, October 2010b), wherein people have
diverse or mixed racial origins, textbook publishers are working toward democratizing education
by adapting curricular content to the diverse cultural backgrounds and needs of the student
population, as stressed by Johnson (2004).
National Standards and the Curriculum
Authors clearly expressed the impact of the National Standards for Music Education in
their folk song selections. Dr. Z explained, “All of the authors and publishers were trying to
meet the National Standards in Music. That was why songs of different languages, or songs of
different cultures are found in textbooks. The National Music Standards are the foundation of
the music curriculum in U.S. kindergarten to 12th grade public schools. All series song
selections must meet the curriculum requirements addressing the National Standards in Music.”
Furthermore, Dr. D. remarked, “The heart of the textbooks is the curriculum. All other factors
revolve around it. The curriculum is the driving force of the book.”
The National Standards for Music Education have indeed been a vital element
influencing authors’ decision regarding their folk song selection in American elementary music
textbooks, as they address the following standards expected from students: (a) Singing, alone and
with others, a varied repertoire of music, (b) Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a
varied repertoire of music, and (c) Understanding music in relation to history and culture.
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Accessibility and Authenticity of Resources!
After being invited to be part of a music series publication, each author was assigned a
grade level and particular tasks. Based on those assignments, authors looked for accessible
sources, and conducted research to identify appropriate repertoire. Dr. X first looked at published
notated sources, and then proceeded to look for published audio sources. In some cases, the
author collected and notated common songs of children, locally or in foreign countries. Dr. Y
pulled out songs from her childhood, while Dr. Q looked for song collections that people put
together after the Depression. Regardless of the way songs were collected, authors gauged the
authentic value of the folk song material. Dr. J said, “It should not be a song about the culture,
but a song from the culture.” Dr. B would ask, “Is it a song that children typically sing in the
culture?” Authors were very particular about the source of the song, making certain that it is
indigenous, and came from the culture. They sought to verify the authenticity of their sources
with carriers or natives of the song’s culture of origin.
Appropriateness of Musical and Textual Content of Songs
Authors ensure that the songs they select are musically and textually appropriate for
children, based on their pedagogical knowledge and expertise. They look for musical
characteristics that will appeal to children, and be suitable for their developmental stage and
abilities. Some of these song characteristics include singable range or tessitura, appropriate
length, interesting tonal and rhythmic patterns, repeated musical phrases, and simple over-all
form. Another characteristic is the newness or freshness of the material, such as the sound of the
gamelan (Dr. X). Authors make sure that their choices will be comfortable enough for the
children to have enjoyable and positive musical experiences. Dr. X said,

99
We want to teach children songs that they could take with them, and have forever.
There’s a memory, there’s a reference to them as they appear in various life
circumstances, and those memories are wonderful when they are positive, musically
successful, relating to cultural meanings that are significant songs to people as to children
who sing them, even as they grow.
The folk song selection of authors is also dependent on whether song texts are fitting to children,
correspond to their own value system, and connected with their lives and everyday living. Even
if a song is musically appropriate and interesting for children, it is eliminated if the lyrics are not
appropriate. Songs that suggest gender bias or stereotypes are also eliminated (Dr. C).
Skills and Activities
After being assigned to design lessons for particular sections of series books (e.g. special
education section, movement section), authors select songs that would be usable for their specific
purposes, in terms of skills and activities that they could offer to children. For example, one
criterion of Dr. Y, who is certified in Dalcroze and Orff methodologies, is the potential of the
song to generate children’s interest on the basis of movement. On the other hand, Dr. V focused
on children with special needs, and selected songs that would be accessible to any learner, such
as (a) songs not heavily bound by language, (b) songs with some repetitive parts, and with only a
few words changed for every verse, (c) short songs with three to four phrases,
(d) songs that she thought were authentic, and (e) songs that she was familiar with, so she could
comfortably have them as part of her adaptations.

100
Cultural Prescriptions and Copyright Restrictions
Because folk songs are a part of the daily lives of certain group of communities, some
songs require certain prescriptions. Textbook authors were aware of these parameters. Dr. B
explained:
We don’t select music that may be sung in certain sacred occasions, that has restrictions
by that population. We need to know that the people of that culture are happy that their
music would be shared with other children of the world.
No publisher uses a song without copyright permission. Thus, according to author X, “Some
beautiful songs that could have been perfect materials for children of a particular age to
experience don’t get featured.” Although folk songs should be public properties, there are
instances in which the first individual to notate the song gained the copyright. In some cases, if
the cost to obtain copyright permission was higher than the publisher’s limit, those songs are also
eliminated (Dr. J). On the other hand, even if a song has copyright permission if it cannot be
recorded, it is also eliminated. By carefully observing cultural and copyright restrictions, authors
show respect and honor the cultures. !
Educational Patterns and Issues
One of the authors identified patterns and trends in other subject areas, and intended
teacher as influencing folk song selection in textbooks. For example Dr. X explained,
Music has lost its legs in many districts and they are no longer taught by specialists . . .
So, textbook authors look to the potential of the classroom teacher, and integration would
probably become a bigger element. In some states, we have very solid music education
programs in schools, for example Texas, but in other states like California, we are
looking at quite minimum music education practices in school as directed by musically

101
trained individuals. So, the textbook authors will design and select songs based on the
intended leadership. In the past, textbook authors had specially designed editions for
places like CA, which was so much more like classroom teacher music education than [a]
music specialist’s.
One of the authors also shared that they had to revise a textbook series after only a few years
from its first publication to eliminate some multicultural songs that teachers were quite not ready
and competent enough to teach, and as a result replaced them with more familiar songs.
Deducing from the authors’ statements, the folk songs and instructional approaches contained in
textbooks are testimonies of the state and trends in music education at a given time.
Marketability
Marketing is a vital factor influencing folk song selection in elementary music textbooks.
As Dr. Z remarked, “Although publishers are interested in the best education of children, they
are also businesses.” Publishers see to it that their books will be marketable. Prior to
publication, publishers do marketing research (Dr. D). They talk to teachers and other
professionals who play a critical role in shaping the musical skills and knowledge of the public.
Thus, textbook content is also dictated by teacher tastes and preference. Marketability, as
explained by Dr. X, “has something to do with people in the textbook companies in finding the
most eclectic selections to use in sales pictures, and in training sessions of potential users.”
Marketability has something to do with music selection, art design, teacher needs, and ease of
use. For example, companies publish books that will be useful for teachers who employ Kodály
or Orff approaches, and accessible to classroom teachers who have less musical training and
background (Dr. Q). Furthermore, different states have different requirements for the kinds of
songs that must be in the books, such as the percentage of songs published in a foreign language,
102
percentage of patriotic songs, and percentage of songs from particular ethnicities. Publishers
look into state standards, especially of the bigger states like Texas and California. In order for
the books to sell and be used, special editions of basal music textbooks have been customized
and published to meet the requirements of these larger states (Dr’s. Z, V, X, & Y).
Marketability serves to balance the worlds of publishers and the community of users.
Books that sell are those that are needed and can be easily used by teachers and students.
Although authors always look after the educational welfare of the students, their choices are also
constrained by the fit of the folk song material to the needs and interests of the publishers and
society in general.
Final Decision Making Process
Folk song selection is a team effort as evident from the start of the publication process.
Authors meet and set parameters for inclusion of materials such as the representation of the
ethnicities that constitute the US population in the series repertoire for each grade level if
possible, the exclusion of religious songs in particular states, and the appropriateness of the
materials to the curriculum. At the initial search stages, the authors explore what is available and
look for possible materials from various sources. The author teams then meet and discuss which
materials they collected would be best to include. Consultants who specialize in specific musical
cultures and areas of instruction find materials that are appropriate. They also sought work with
culture bearers and informants to verify authenticity. The textbook editor could override the
decision of authors and the textbook company could eliminate a selection due to copyright
restrictions. However, before the materials are presented to the editor and people in the
publishing company for final copyright verification, authors, contributors, and consultants have
103
already pre-screened them. Thus, the final song repertoire in a textbook series publication is the
product of team effort.

104
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to examine the inclusion of Asian-Pacific (AP) folk songs
in American elementary music textbooks published from 1967 to 2008. A content analysis of
folk songs originating from countries in Southeast Asia and East Asia along or near the Pacific
Rim was conducted to determine to what degree AP folk songs were included in the printed and
recorded repertoire of elementary music textbook series published from 1967 to 2008. Further, a
secondary layer of analysis examined the data for trends related to the adoption of the National
Standards in Music in 1994. Consequently, analysis of data was framed by two time periods:
1967 to 1993 and 1994 to 2008. To answer the research questions, non-statistical comparisons
of key variables across time periods and publishers were conducted. Primary sources included
printed materials contained in the teacher’s editions of series textbooks, a sampling of folk song
recordings that accompanied the published folk song materials, and interviews conducted with
individuals involved in music textbook series publication.
Findings in respect to representation of AP songs, were framed on the theoretical
framework of great and little traditions, as discussed by Jorgensen (1997). This chapter is divided
into the following sections: (a) summary of findings, (b) the “little traditions” of the AP folk
songs, (c) recommendations for future research, closing with an epilogue.
Summary of Findings
Representation of AP Folk Songs in Printed Materials
Results obtained from content analyses of 106 music series teacher editions showed that
Asian-Pacific vocal folk songs shared roughly three percent (3%) representation of the entire
105
vocal folk song repertoire of music textbook series published from 1967 to 2008, an increase of
1% when compared with AP vocal folk songs published between 1944 to 1968. There were 341
AP vocal folk songs out of 12, 556 vocal songs from a variety of cultures in series publications.
Moreover, a comparative analysis between the two periods of this study revealed a difference in
the average number of AP folk songs published. During the first period, 14 basal music series
sets included an average of 14 AP folk songs; during the second period, the four basal series sets
included an average of about 36 AP songs.
Out of the 15 AP countries included in this study, 11 countries were represented: Japan,
China, Korea, Philippines, Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Singapore, and
Mongolia. The countries not represented in the study were Brunei, Myanmar, Malaysia, and
East Timor. Japan, followed by China, was the most represented country across periods. Korea
and the Philippines shared roughly 16% representation; the rest of the countries shared only
about 8%. Compared with Culig’s (2008) prior study of Asian-Pacific songs in textbooks series
published from 1944-1968, the number of represented countries during the first period of this
study remained six. Common countries included in series sets published from 1944 to 1993 were
Japan, China, Korea, Philippines, and Indonesia. Burma was represented prior to the
Tanglewood Symposium in lieu of Vietnam, which was represented after the event. After the
publication of the National Standards, additional countries represented in miniscule increments
included: Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Singapore, and Mongolia.
An examination of the contents of the latest two publications prior to the National
Standards, namely World of Music (1991) by Silver Burdett and Music and You (1991) by
MacMillan, was conducted to investigate the representation of folk songs in comparison to other
vocal genres, and the representation the AP sub-region in comparison to the other world macro-
106
regions in the vocal repertoires of series textbooks across periods. Findings showed that among
the vocal genres included in the vocal repertoires, folk songs had the most representation: 84% in
World of Music and 58% in Music and You. After the adoption of the National Standards in
1994, folk songs remained the majority in the vocal song repertoires, although at decreased
percentages: 57% in Making Music by Silver Burdett and 62% in Spotlight on Music by
MacMillan. The total number of vocal series songs increased by 42%, including a 20% increase
of folk songs during the second.
The majority of the series folk songs for both periods originate from the North America
and Europe. These regions occupied 72% to 75% of the entire vocal song repertoires of the two
series sets during the first period, and 53% to 58% of those published during the second period.
The regions of Africa, Asia, and Latin America shared 25% to 28% during the first period, and
increased to 41% to 46% during the second period. Oceania that had a .2% representation during
the first period had a 1% to 1.3% representation during the second period.
Out of the 341 AP folk songs included in series repertoire, 202 (59.1%) songs had
original language lyrics. The 11 AP languages represented were: Japanese (48.5 %), Chinese
(22.8%), Korean 11.4%), Philippine languages (6.9%), Vietnamese (2.5%), Thai (2.5%),
Cambodian (2.5%), Laotian (1.5%), Indonesian (1%), and Malay (1%). An across time-period
analysis showed that the last five languages mentioned (7.5% combined) were included by the
textbook publishers during the second period. Burmese, included in textbook publications from
1944 to 1968, was not included. Japanese, followed by China, had the largest representation
across the time eras. There were more songs with nonsense lyrics used during the first period
than during the second period. Combined English and AP original language lyrics exceeded
vocables across periods.

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The language tools provided by authors to facilitate the learning of original language
lyrics included written pronunciation guides and direct English translations. Out of 202 songs
with AP original language lyrics published from 1967 to 2008, 163 (81%) had written
pronunciation guides; 76 (roughly 38%) had English direct translations. During the first period,
54% of the 71 songs had written pronunciation guides, while 95% of the 143 songs had this
feature during the second period. There were fewer AP songs with direct translations. During
the first period, 25 (35%) out of 71 songs had direct English translations, while 95% out of 131
AP songs had this feature during the second period.
In terms of developmental awareness, authors have paid attention to the developmental
characteristics of children by selecting AP folk songs with familiar themes (e.g. nature, animals,
games, celebrations and events, friends, and families) that allow children to make personal
connections with the song material. As Dr. X remarked,
We want to teach children songs that they could take with them. . . . those memories are
wonderful when they are positive, musically successful, relating to cultural meanings that
are significant songs to people as to children who sing them , even as they grow.
Across periods, songs about nature, including plants, insects, birds and animals; bodies of water
and landforms; and cosmic objects and seasons, were the most popular. From 1967 to 2008,
game songs and toys were the second most represented, in keeping with Maria Montessori’s
(1870-1952) belief that children learn best through play (Choksy, 1981). Folk songs about
friends and families when combined ranked third most represented. Celebrations and events that
manifest people’s ways to rejoice, honor, and practice their cherished beliefs and traditions
ranked fourth. Religious songs were least represented because, although religion supports proper
conduct by picturing a world in which such conduct is only common sense (Geertz, 1973), the
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symbols representing meanings in different religions are varied and thus, demand different ways
for addressing them. Religion is relative and religious songs are mostly prohibited in public
schools. The family, the basic unit of society, mostly decides on how this aspect of culture is
formed in children. Through the inclusion of folk songs in series song repertoires, children’s
interests, skills, and attitudes toward diverse musical cultures are being addressed at the optimum
ages when they could be developed (Choate, 1968).
Representation of AP Folk Songs in Recorded Materials
The researcher identified the following vocal models and their frequencies through aural
identification and verification on indices and recording covers: (a) child/children = 67, (b)
woman/women = 25, (c) woman and children = 6, (d) man/men = 4, and (e) women and men = 1.
During the first period children, followed by women, sang the majority of the songs; during the
second period, children sang all but one of the AP folk songs sung by a woman. Unlike those in
the first period, men were not recorded during the second period. In terms of instrumental
accompaniments, majority of the accompanying instruments during the first period were
Western; there was a limited number of AP folk instruments used including koto, shakuhachi,
samisen, gong, and bamboo flute. During the second period, numerous AP folk song instruments
were used. These were played as a solo or in an ensemble, sometimes in combination with
Western, and electronic instruments. Among the pieces aurally examined, Suliram, included in
The World of Music series published in 1991, was the first to use the synthesizer. The earliest
AP instruments to accompany the selections were the gong and koto. All the 198 AP folk songs
published during the first period had no recorded pronunciation tracks; one hundred thirty one
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songs (roughly 92%) out of 143 AP folk songs had recorded pronunciation tracks during the
second period.
The “Little Traditions” of the AP Vocal Folk Songs
The AP folk songs in this study are examples of little music traditions that are described
by Jorgensen (1997). They are practiced locally by specific ethnicities in particular regions, have
simple structures, and mostly orally transmitted. While most of the AP folk songs were
originally passed on through oral transmission, greater representation in series textbooks after
1994 also presented the issue that some of these little traditions are now being learned through
notated sources in series texts and other supplemental materials. Campbell (1991) stressed that it
would seem dishonest to divorce a culture’s music from the process by which it was originally
transmitted. Goetze (2000) further commented that Western notation does not fully contain the
nuances of other musical cultures, such as vocal timbres, slides, quarter tones, pulsations, and
ornaments. In an attempt to present and teach songs authentically, Goetze and Fern (2005)
produced Global Voices, a video supplementing the textbook series Spotlight on Music (2008).
The AP folk songs (e.g., Ban Dal and Santoki) included in the video were not notated in the
textbooks, thus preserving the oral-aural transmission of the folk songs.
Further, the simplicity of the AP songs in this study exemplifies little traditions in their
limited ranges, repeated melodic structures, unique scales, and rhythm patterns. Their lyrics, as
found in the thematic content analysis, often relate to nature, family and friends, customary
events, and daily activities. Because they are practiced as part of everyday life, they are mostly
participatory in nature and associated with certain functions. The structural simplicity and daily
life themes of the AP vocal songs make them appropriate singing materials for children who can
successfully perform them using their natural instrument – their voices.

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In respect to vocal models, during the first period, children and women provided the
majority of models, while children sang all but one of the AP folk songs in the sampled
recordings from the second period. In a study in which participants echoed a minor 3rd after a
child, an adult female, and an adult male, Green (1990) found that children in grades 1, 2, and 6
responded most precisely to a child model, whereas participants in grades 3 through 5 had the
greatest percentage of precise responses to the adult female model.
Folk songs, like any little music tradition, encapsulate the cultures of particular ethnic
groups, including their beliefs, values, attitudes, and customs and traditions in texts with sounds.
Although their lyrics emanate from “language behavior rather than music sound, they are an
integral part of music (Merriam, 1964). As such, vocal folk songs are important media for
understanding other peoples with different cultures. Moreover, they provide a way for children
to appreciate their own culture/s as well as other’s.
Prior research reveals an imbalanced representation of musical cultures in music textbook
series (Culig, 2008; Diaz, 1980; Simmons, 2002). Major findings of this study revealed that
people involved in textbook publications have been trying to address, consciously or
unconsciously, some of the challenges posed by Jorgensen, which were to (a) balance the great
and little musical traditions in the curriculum in a way that the claims of each are reconciled, (b)
solve the problems of curriculum construction so as to avoid superficiality and tokenism, (c) seek
a musical repertoire that is special, meaningful, and within the powers of students to realize
successfully, and (d) integrate rather than accommodate different musical traditions. The
following patterns and trends in the representation of Asian-Pacific folk song traditions that
emerged from this study provide evidence to this claim, although there are still some important
considerations that need to be addressed.

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When considering ways to balance the traditions in the curriculum, the demographic
issues need to be taken into account. Because of the increasingly multicultural demographics of
the United States, textbook publishers have required authors to include a more diverse repertoire
in music textbook series publications. To fulfill this requirement, and believing in the rationale,
authors considered diversity as one of their criteria for folk song selection. Based on the findings
of this study, there has been an increased representation of Southeast Asian and East Asian folk
song traditions in textbook series’ repertoires since the occurrence of the Tanglewood
Symposium in 1967 and especially after the development and adoption of the National Standards
for Music Education starting in 1994. This was evident in the increased number of Asian Pacific
countries and the quantity of AP folk songs represented in the folk song repertoires during the
two periods (1967-1993 and 1994-2008). In terms of quantity of AP folk song repertoire, there
was a remarkable increase. The average number of AP folk songs for textbook series
publications during the first period was 14, and this figure was more than doubled during the
second period.
Although there has been an increase in the representation countries, the five additional
countries during the second period had folk songs in miniscule quantities. Moreover, Japan that
had the most AP folk song representation across periods was not listed by the U.S. Census
Bureau (October 2010a) as among those that had more than 750,000 foreign born people in US
as of 2009; the countries China, Philippines, Vietnam, and Korea were listed. Publishers did
match the series folk song repertoires with the larger ethnic groups that make-up the US
population; however, a closer introspection of the specific ethnicities that make-up these large
groupings showed a non-proportional representation. The mentioned demographics apply to
series teacher editions published from 2003 to 2008. According to the Association of American
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Publishers (2012), adoption states usually use textbooks they purchased for six years. Moreover,
the projected US demographics were one of authors’ bases for folk selection (Dr. D). Thus, most
series published during the second period did not match the specific Asian-American
demographics of US. It is also important to note that Burma, included in an earlier publication
prior to Tanglewood Symposium (Culig, 2008) was not represented. Additionally, Brunei,
Malaysia, and Indonesia remained not represented.
Folk songs comprised more than half of the series vocal genres across periods. However,
there has been a big shift in the representation of cultures across periods. Prior to the publication
of the National Standards, European folk songs were the second most represented, next to North
American folk songs in Silver Burdett’s World of Music (1991 as well as MacMillan’s Music
and You (1991). After the release of the National Standards, European folk songs ranked fourth,
next to Latin American, African American, and Asian in terms of quantity of representation in
Silver Burdett’s Making Music (2008). European folk songs remained second most represented
in MacMillan’s Spotlight on Music (2008) but decreased by four percent. The decrease in the
representation of European folk songs, coupled with the increased acceptance of folk songs from
other regions in series publications, is one of the ways authors have addressed the changing
demographics of the US. Through history, publishers have expanded their folk song repertoires
from a focus on Eastern and European traditions from 1910 to 1940, to emphasis on American
and Latin American musics from 1940 to 1967 (Volk, 1993b), and increasing inclusion of other
cultures from 1967 to 2008.
Authors have found ways to solve the problems of curriculum construction so as to avoid
superficiality and tokenism. One of the ways in which people in the publishing industry have
avoided tokenism and superficiality in the representation of musical traditions in textbooks was
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by paying closer attention to authenticity, as defined by people who practice them. This was
achieved through increased use of original language lyrics, direct translations, recorded and
written pronunciation guides, use of traditional instruments as accompaniments, and adoption of
the oral transmission of little traditions.
Palmer (1975) stressed the importance of providing original song lyrics because of the
intimate connection between the sounds of the language and sounds of the music tradition.
During the first period analyzed in this study, roughly 40% of the songs were presented in their
original language; during the second period, 88% of the songs were published in their original
language. According to Palmer, original languages are necessary “to maintain the viewpoint and
stylistic validity of the music tradition under study” (p. 223). Moreover, original song lyrics
contain the real meanings expressed by the people who created them. They are important
“sources for the understanding of human behavior in connection with music” (Merriam, 1964,
p. 187).
Data analysis findings across time periods also identified an increased use of direct
translations of foreign lyrics in basal series texts. A number of authors stressed the importance
of providing correct translations of songs (Engle, 1994; Sorensen, 1991). Although singable
translations facilitate successful performances of foreign folk songs by children, most often they
do not provide the exact meanings of songs from the cultures. As explained by Sorensen (1991),
“[I]t is highly problematic to capture the exact translations in an artistically valid way” (p. 27).
However, Abril (2005) found that students show more positive ratings to songs sung in familiar
languages. Although singable translations and use of combined language lyrics frequently do not
represent the exact meanings of original lyrics, they provide a way for children to perform the
elements of the songs successfully.

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The increased use of written pronunciation guides provided a visual tool for correct
pronunciation of foreign language lyrics. According to Sorensen (1991), the IPA is an alphabet
based on Greek and Roman letters. It is a system that uses diacritics sparingly, each symbol
represents one sound, and the symbol remains constant for all languages (pp. 33-34). The
succeeding publications adapted the IPA for the written pronunciation guides of foreign language
songs. Calligraphies, used in the home cultures of the AP folk songs, also appeared in recent
publications (e.g., Spotlight on Music and Making Music). In addition, the inclusion of recorded
pronunciation guides is an additional feature that facilitates learning AP folk songs published
with foreign lyrics. Dr. Z narrated an historical overview on the development of this language
tool was narrated (personal e-mail correspondence, Jan. 18, 2012), who corresponded with an
editorial director:
MacMillan/McGraw was the first to have “spoken pronunciation tracks”, and those
appeared around 1988 or possibly around 1990. However, the tracks were not for all
songs in the books. . . . they may have been tied to the Texas adoption at the time, and
that it may have been only for a few Hispanic songs. No one liked the spoken tracks.
They didn’t translate well to singing, and there were questions about how they have been
done . . . There were no checks for authenticity. The first “sung pronunciation practice”
may have been done in 1995 with the Silver Burdett’s Bridges to Asia book.
Results of this study showed that the first music textbook series to include spoken pronunciation
tracks for AP folk songs with original language lyrics was Share the Music first published in
1995. The publishers of succeeding music textbooks have added this relevant tool. Native
speakers of languages other than English model the pronunciations of foreign lyrics. For
example in Macmillan’s recent music textbook series publications, the culture bearers in the
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recordings aim to establish a connection with the students through self-introductions. For
example, the song Chang (Spotlight on Music, 2008, Gr. 1, p. 198) was introduced in the
recording as follows: “Hi! My name is Huang. I came from Bangkok, Thailand. I have been in
the United States for 5 years. I want to teach you a song from my country. It is called Chang,
the elephant” (CD 9:12). By listening and imitating the vocal modeling of these native speakers,
children are able to aurally discern and consequently pronounce the foreign words closer to a
native’s diction and accent.
Folk songs symbolize the local cultures of particular ethnic groups. In the study of these
little vocal traditions or world musics, in general, focusing only on the intrinsic qualities of
sounds for aesthetic purposes does not suffice, as the field of ethnomusicology views music
sound as “the result of human behavioral processes that are shaped by the values, attitudes and
beliefs of the people who comprise a particular culture” (Merriam, p. 6). Student performances
of others’ music could be partially driven by inaccurate representations as they learn. For
example in the process of playing the Philippine kulintang, a set of 8 bossed gongs in a row with
non-Western tunings, children would not fully enjoy the uniqueness of performing on this
instrument if they do not experience the process of improvisation, know the basic local kulintang
rhythms (tidtu, binalig, and sinulog), and understand the contexts of when, where, why this
particular type of music is being played.
To provide children with a musical repertoire that is special, meaningful, and within the
powers of students to realize successfully, authors included folk song that are textually and
musically appropriate for children. The most frequently used song themes generated from the
content analysis of this study were those familiar to children. Moreover, authors included
supplementary materials and tools to enrich and facilitate children’s learning of both the musical
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and extra-musical aspects of the AP songs. Through the use of audio-recordings, video-
recordings, original language lyrics with written and recorded pronunciation guides, and direct
translations, children gain contextual understanding as they discern the real meanings of the folk
songs and develop skills modeled by culture bearers. The simplicity of the AP folk songs in this
study could provide children meaningful and fulfilling multicultural music experiences.
Authors integrated rather than accommodated different musical traditions by focusing not
only on vocal folk song traditions but also on the use of traditional instruments in the recorded
accompaniments of AP folk songs. People from various cultures develop instruments that have
unique timbres (Volk, 1997). These timbral differences are represented and recognized through
the use of these instruments as accompaniments in the series folk song recordings. Analysis of
the data provided evidence for increased efforts of the publishing industry to provide aural
examples of the indigenous sounds of instruments that normally accompany AP folk songs in
their original cultures. In a study done by Edwards (1996), the use of authentic instruments in
learning centers for small groups produced higher results in students’ attitude, perception and
achievement in Indian music than the use of non-authentic instruments. The results of this study
could transfer to the use of folk instruments to accompany singing.
As the field of music continues to change, some aspects of little music traditions and/or
Western great traditions have been mixed in mediated traditions. The use of Western, and
electronic instruments together with AP folk instruments to accompany some of the folk song
accompaniments in recordings, provide children a way to connect, and blend their modern
culture with the folk musical tradition. In some current practice it is not surprising to hear
gamelan, jaw’s harp, sitar, bungkaka, African drums, and other indigenous instruments
combined with orchestral and/or electronic instruments in the works of contemporary composers
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and popular artists. The synthesizer is a wonderful resource, especially when actual folk
instruments and artists are not accessible. Although it cannot exactly replicate the sound
produced by indigenous artists on their instruments, the synthesizer can be a viable alternative to
replicate the timbres of AP folk instruments as closely as possible.
Textbook authors have indeed found some great ways for addressing the challenges,
posed by Jorgensen (1997), as they provided educators with invaluable resources for the
transmission of “great and little traditions”. However, the challenges remain to be addressed as
they continue to move toward a direction that would serve the needs of children in a
multicultural American society.
Recommendations
!
The author recommends the following to further enrich and provide meaningful
experiences to children as they learn the little folk song traditions of the Asia-Pacific included in
American elementary music series textbook publications:
Recommendations for Music Educators!
Besides utilizing music textbook resources, teachers are encouraged to maximize the use
of ancillary materials such as video recordings (e.g. Global Voices by Goetze & Fern, 1999,
2002, 2005) and interactive CD-ROM’s (e.g. World Instruments by Macmillan, n.d.) to enrich
their teaching. Internet resources such as YouTube and Skype also provide ready access to a
variety of world musics for use in the classroom. Whenever possible, it would be good for
teachers to invite culture bearers to share their knowledge and experiences, and perform for
children in the classroom. Beside direct interaction with the performer, this would give children
the opportunity to experience the authentic vocal and instrumental timbres of the musics.
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Although this author has stressed the integration of AP folk song traditions,
marginalizing the great Western Classical music traditions in general education can also create
an imbalanced representation of cultures. Jorgensen (2003) expressed the need for music
educators to address the negative connotation of classical Western traditions as elitist, while
popular musics and musics of other cultures have the pride of place in higher educational
institutions. Pedagogues in all educational levels are encouraged to include both Western and
Non-Western musics, as well as traditional and contemporary folk musics in their teaching
repertoire.
Teachers pass on to their students music they have learned through their training and
experience, and music they love; teachers cannot teach what they do not know and do not love
(Campbell, 1992). By keeping abreast with world musical traditions through in-service activities
such as workshops and professional development sessions, educators can be enriched and
consequently improve their teaching. Moreover, music educators may also consider organizing
or attending workshops on the use of the IPA, presented in textbooks with symbols that
accurately symbolize the sounds of the foreign languages.
Teachers are encouraged to present folk song materials in textbook series as closely as
possible to their authentic forms, taking into the account the cultures of the peoples who created
them. In doing so, we not only equip children with the basic knowledge, understanding, and
proper attitude to others’ cultures, we can also familiarize students with nuances of others
musical systems, and help them gain aesthetic fulfillment with world musical traditions.
Children are receptive to new things in their environments. Textbook authors included curricular
adaptations (e.g., the use of singable translations, the use of combined native and English
language lyrics, and the use of native and Western instruments) to augment positive performance
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experiences of children. When considering textbook materials, educators need to consider the
appropriate stage in which the children will be prepared to learn and reproduce the authentic
sounds from the represented cultures, and fully experience other musical traditions.
In addressing the issue of breadth vs. depth in the study of multi-cultures, this author
believes that younger children need to be grounded in their own musical roots but also need to be
exposed to as many different musical cultures as possible. It would be advisable for educators to
know the ethnicities of their students and introduced multicultural experiences based on their
students’ cultural affiliation/s. In teaching these, teachers may use varied activities (singing,
listening, creative movements, structured instrumental accompaniments, and video-viewing) as
needed and appropriate. Teachers may also encourage students volunteer to share their songs in
their vernacular languages and/or initiate singing games germane to their cultures. Care must be
taken that only songs with age-appropriate lyrics and musical characteristics should be shared.
In order for music educators to effectively impart the multi-functions of music in
different cultures to students, they need to be equipped with sufficient knowledge and skills on
multicultural musics, have access to adequate multicultural resources, and know the cultural
backgrounds and needs of their individual students. There is a pressing need for higher
educational institutions to train pre-service teachers to be multi-culturally competent, and for
people producing educational materials to provide rich and diverse educational resources.
Recommendations for People in the Publishing Industry
Authors may consider including other vocal genres besides folk songs in series
repertoires. If selections are vocally not possible for children to reproduce because of their
unique musical systems, complexity, and tone qualities, they could be included in series listening
and movement repertoires wherein children may successfully experience and understand them.
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Tanglewood Symposium participants addressed the inclusion of all genres of music from various
periods of history in the curriculum, and perhaps a more balanced representation of this could be
achieved in the curriculum.
Singable English translations, though sometimes inexact or different in meanings from
the original lyrics, facilitate the singing of folk songs and active engagement with the music.
Although this is a partial representation of the songs, they enable students to experience the
musical sounds through performance. However, direct translations can serve as guides for
teachers who select only folk songs with developmentally appropriate lyrics for their young
students to learn. Moreover, these not only help teachers understand the real meanings and
contexts of the songs, but more importantly they enable them to translate, share, and appreciate
with children the cultures of the peoples who created the songs. Thus, it is advisable for
publishers to always provide the direct translations of folk songs.
Publishers are encouraged to always specify the names of traditional instruments they use
in series recordings. This would help educators, as well as students, become familiar with the
names of instruments from all cultures, and associate them with their unique sounds. Further,
labeling instruments as folk, traditional, or authentic entails the use of real, and not sampled
instruments. Publishers are urged to make sure that accompaniments labeled as
authentic/traditional/folk to some cultures are not synthesized or sampled. Although synthesizers
are great resources in the absence of artists playing authentic instruments, some professionals are
familiar with the nuances of sounds produced on real instruments and would expect these if
labeled as such.
Authors have taken great care to know the cultural backgrounds of people who modeled
the pronunciation of song lyrics in recordings. However, a culture bearer may be acculturated to
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the Western speaking accent due to prolonged absence from his or her home country. Authors
may consider inviting only people that possess the vernacular speaking accents to model the
pronunciation guides of songs with foreign language lyrics. Cross-checking with more than one
carrier of culture, preferably a music specialist or a well-known performer, prior to publication of
folk song materials, is advisable. Spellings and meanings of original language lyrics also need to
be double-checked because a native may also commit errors or misinterpretations.
Publishers are always encouraged to look for more folk songs, especially from
unrepresented countries (e.g. Myanmar [Burma], Timor-Leste, Brunei, and Malaysia) in Asia
and other world macro-regions (see Appendix F for a list of recommended folk songs not
included in series publications). Goals to achieve equal representation of AP countries in music
textbook song repertoires, would help to augment U.S. regions with greater foreign-born
populations. For example, if folk song selection is primarily based on the demographics of the
U.S. population, would proportional representation increase the number of Latino and Asian
songs by the year 2050, when Latino and Asian populations are predicted to triple (Kotkin,
2010)?
Authors and publishers may also consider representing the unique musical traditions of
ethnicities not included in the demographics of the United States. De Quadros (1996) pointed
out the artificiality of geographical borders. In this modern age, the advancement of
communication networks and transportation make multicultural interaction inevitable, regardless
of “race” and location. It is important to remember that “race” is a socially constructed concept
with no scientific basis. This implies that children will better understand why people have
different skin pigments if they are taught the scientific explanation for the dark skin color of
many people around the world (Jablonski, 2006).

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Recommendations for Researchers!

!
Since the inclusion of music as one of the subjects in public school curricula in 1838,
singing has been a primary emphasis in general music education. However, the National
Standards for Music Education equally addressed the need to develop the performance, listening,
and creative skills of students. Anderson and Campbell (1996) described polymusicality as a
term that refers to the increased ability of students to perform, listen intelligibly, and appreciate
many types of music (p. 5). Based on findings from this study, the researcher recommends
additional research in these areas:
1. An historical investigation of the representation of AP repertoire intended for use as
listening selections in basal series would complement the detailed analysis of folk
songs in this study. Further, a detailed analysis of contemporary basal series listening
recordings and suggested teaching activities may illuminate how textbook series
publications can balance the musical experiences of children, and foster the
development of “polymusical” or at least bimusical individuals.
2. Research dealing with the authenticity of the AP folk songs represented in textbook
series publications would help evaluate the accuracy of the link between the musics
and the cultures authors tried to represent.
3. In a quasi-experiment with fourth graders, Edwards (1996) concluded that the use of
authentic instruments in learning centers for small groups produced higher results
than utilization of non-authentic instruments in terms of students’ attitude, perception
and achievement on Indian music. There is a need for research on whether the use of
authentic AP traditional instruments to accompany AP folk song series recordings

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would produce the same results. At the very least, children will learn about different
tunings and performance practices.
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series sets published from 1967 to 2008. A follow-up study on the representation of
other musical traditions or genres in these series resources would supplement this
endeavor.
Recommendations for Families and Communities
The preservation and promotion of multi-cultures in a pluralistic society is a huge task
and requires the cooperation and support from various sectors of society. In this modern age, it
is typical to find families with mixed ethnicities. Intermarriages between races are common.
Parents are encouraged to help children understand their cultural roots to strengthen
understanding between family members as well as to enable them relate and identify themselves
within a multi-culturally diverse society. The “melting pot” ideology has been historically
proven to not be beneficial to the welfare of individuals. Although far from their countries of
origin, parents could still transmit aspects of their cultures to their children. They may tell
stories about their lifestyles and their experiences in their home countries and exemplify
practices that would instill in their children their cherished values. They may join specific local
and national organizations (e.g. National Organization of Korean Americans, National
Association of Korean American, & National Association of African Americans) that promote
the customs and traditions of their specific cultures. Attendance at and participation in fun and
meaningful multi-cultural events (e.g. Dragon Boat Festival, Cinco de Mayo Parade, Chinese
New Year, Mardi Gras, St. Patrick’s Day Parade, & Hannukah) could also help their children be
proud of their ethnic origins as they connect with other cultures. Communities are encouraged to
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continue supporting organizations that help people nurture their cultural affiliations so that
everyone’s life can be enriched, unique contributions can be appreciated, and their community
can be a place for cultures to blend.
In terms of musical development, families and communities are urged to continue their
efforts in formation and development of traditional musical groups, not normally offered in
public schools, that allow individuals of certain ethnicities to practice their musical heritages
(e.g. mariachi, rondalla, phi-phat ensemble, choir, gamelan, angklung, African drumming
ensemble, and taiko ensemble). They are also encouraged to sing their folk songs, and continue
practicing their languages, in addition to English. Individuals who practice bilingualism or
multilingualism have the advantage of being able to communicate with people who speak other
language/s.
Epilogue
When I was in my teens, I was one of the 12 members of Himig ng Lahi or Voice of the
Race, a cultural group headed by Professor Felipe Padilla de Leon, Sr, a Filipino National Artist.
As official members of this group, we were designated as Cultural Ambassadors of Goodwill by
the Philippine government. Our mission was to preserve and promote Philippine culture by
presenting Filipino history through songs, music, and dances. For three summers (1982-1985), I
joined the group in concert tours to about 40 states in the U.S. and 16 states in Canada. I was
touched by the receptivity of the Filipino-American and Filipino-Canadian audiences. Whenever
audience participation was requested, they would zestfully join the singing or clap to the beat of
folk songs sung in their respective Philippine native languages (e.g. Cebuano, Tagalog, Bisaya,
Ilocano, Ilongo, and Kapampangan). The audience members’ instant reactions to the meanings
of the songs were apparent in their facial expressions and occasional utters (e.g. smiles, laughs,
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sighs, and cheers). At the middle of each concert, we always sang Bayan Ko, a patriotic art song
form called kundiman, that expresses the hardships and desires of a beautiful country – the
Philippines, personified in this song as a woman in captivity. In every performance of this song
by Constancio de Guzman, we evoked a nostalgic atmosphere with a teary-eyed audience
waiving Philippine flags as they joined our singing. In almost all of our shows, we were
acknowledged at the end with standing ovations.
The day after one of these experiences, we performed in a well-known private university.
In this setting, our audience was comprised of college students who were attentive listeners.
Unlike most of our Filipino-American and Filipino-American audiences who had spontaneous
reactions to the musical numbers, their reactions were reflective. They seemed to enjoy and
understand our musical numbers, as narrated by our director. They occasionally smiled, and they
cheered for numbers intended to be comical. They applauded each of our renditions. At the end,
they congratulated us and expressed their appreciation for our sharing of our Philippine heritage.
Although the general scenarios of our concerts were as described, there were few
exceptions. In one of the venues, we performed for public middle school and high school
students. Our young audience was unprepared for the type of cultural show we presented. They
were noisy and rowdy, especially when we were portraying pre-colonial tribal musics. The
audience’s noise increased when one of our male singers wore a G-string on stage as he played
the Kalinga jaw’s harp ulibaw. Despite reminders from the organizers to observe audience
decorum, the crowd continued to be loud. My companions and I were challenged to focus on our
roles to convey the real meanings of the songs. In the end, the organizers thanked and
congratulated us for sharing our culture. They apologized for the misbehavior of the audience.
126
The scenarios just described reflect the musical attitudes of three types of audiences:
1) insiders of the Filipino culture who were deeply moved by our cultural presentation, 2) college
students at the private university who showed respect, openness, and appreciation for learning
aspects of our foreign culture and 3) middle/high school teenagers in a public school who were
not able to relate nor respect our cultural presentation, most probably because of inadequate
multicultural exposure and preparation for the concert. The varied audience reactions to the
same music performances were due in part to cultural differences. As a performer, I felt fulfilled
when the audiences expressed their appreciation and openness to our Filipino heritage; I felt
disappointed with the youths who did not understand nor respect our culture. It was then about
17 years after the occurrence of the Tanglewood Symposium.
Now that we live in the year 2012, the gaps between cultures have diminished, as music
educators, publishers, researchers, families and communities continue to work on bridging social
and cultural divides. In this technologically advanced world of almost instant global
communications and mobile populations, the intermingling of cultures is inevitable, and ethnicity
may not reflect presupposed preferences. For example, a person may appear to be of Asian
ethnicity, but in reality share more in common with Western attitudes, tastes, values, lifestyle,
and religious practices. Likewise, a person may have American-European features but speak
Tagalog and retain some Asian values acquired from a childhood home in an Asian country. It is
imperative that we, as human beings, aim for multicultural understanding, respect, and
appreciation for people as individuals, and that as music educators we bring that same goal to our
classrooms.
In his introductory address in UNESCO’s Universal Declaration of Cultural Diversity
(2001), Director Koïchiru Matsuura said, “the cultural wealth of the world is its diversity in
127
dialogue.” By diversifying textbook folk song repertoires and representing the songs in their
socio-cultural contexts, children can understand their own and other’s cultural identities or
affiliations. Authors who aim toward developing polymusical students could enrich children’s
lives by letting them enjoy the cultural wealth of the world through the diverse musics they
represent in the American elementary music textbooks.
Popular music forms and styles that draw elements from the great and little traditions
swiftly change with the tastes of the masses. The great Western musical traditions, with their
established complex systems, continue to be revered by many and supplement the existence of
the little traditions from which they evolve. Folk little traditions remain practiced by people in
their local communities, as some may also join the masses in singing popular songs and
reinterpreting the great traditions. Although people express themselves in different ways, they
live with the same realities in life: beauty and goodness, destructions and sufferings, affluence
and poverty are only some of these. Music educators share the responsibility with publishers,
researchers, families, and communities in helping children appreciate the varied musical
traditions, as people express aspects of their cultures in these songs.
In this study, data analysis focused on the representation of Asian-Pacific folk songs in
American elementary music textbooks from 1967 to 2008, with the intent of providing insights
for multicultural musical experiences in general music classrooms. Through an understanding of
a variety of musics, it is the hope of this author that teachers and students can develop a sense of
respect and sensitivity to others’ cultures through the world of musical sounds. Although vocal
folk songs were the primary focus for this study, in keeping with the recommendations of the
Tanglewood Symposium, teachers, textbook publishers, and community groups are encouraged
to include all types of music from various cultures and historical periods in curriculum and
128
community experiences. All cultures represent peoples who belong to particular ethnicities.
Thus, all musical cultures are valid. The great and little traditions, including mediated genres,
belong to the curriculum. It takes a concerted effort to achieve balance in the representation of
these cultures in a way that all children can understand and appreciate a multicultural society,
while being solidly grounded in their own cultural affiliations. Music textbook resources could
serve as an effective tool toward this end, when presented with musical integrity and cultural
sensitivity.
129
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1. The Magic of Music
Waters, L. E., Wersen, L. G., Hartshorn, W. C., McMillan, L. E., Gallup, A., &
Beckman, F. (1965-1969). The magic of music, K-5. Boston, Massachusetts:
Ginn and Company.
2. Discovering Music Together
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together, K-5. Chicago: Follett Educational Corporation.
3. Growing with Music (Related Arts Edition)
Wilson, H. R., Ehret, W., Knuth, A. M., Snyder, A. M., Hermann, E. J. & Renna,
A. A. (1970). Growing with music: Related arts edition, K-5. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Incorporation.
!" #$%&'()#*+&,)-.*/)01')
Jaye, M. T. & Hilyard, I. (1971). Making music your own, K. Morristown, New
Jersey: Silver Burdett Company.
Landeck, B., Crook, E., Youngberg, H.C., & Luening, O. (1971). Making music
your own, 1-5. New Jersey: Silver Burdett Company.
5. This is Music for Today
McCall, A. (1971). This is music for Today, K & Nursery School. Boston: Allyn
and Bacon, Inc.
Sur, W. R., McCall, A., Fischer, W. R. & Tolbert, M. R. (1971). This is music for
Today, 1-3. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
Sur, W. S, Tolbert, M. R. & Fischer, W. R. (1971). This is music for Today, 4-5. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
142
6. Comprehensive Musicianship
Gillett, D. K. (1972). Comprehensive musicianship through classroom music, Zone 1A,

Zone 1B. CA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Burton, L. H. (1973). Comprehensive musicianship through classroom music,

Zone 2A. CA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Burton, L. H. (1973). Comprehensive musicianship through classroom music,

Zone 2B (L. Burton & W. Thomson, eds.). CA: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company.
Gillett, D. K. (1974). Comprehensive musicianship through classroom music,

Zone 3A (L. Burton & W. Thomson, eds.). CA: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, Inc.
Hughes, W. O. (1974). Comprehensive musicianship through classroom music,

Zone 3B (L. Burton & W. Thomson, eds.). CA: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company.
7. Exploring Music
Boardman, E., Landis, B. & Andress, B. (1975). Exploring music, K-5 . New
York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc.
8. New Dimensions in Music
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9. Spectrum of Music
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10. The Music Book
Boardman, E., Landis, B. & Andress, B. (1984). The music book, K-5. New York:
Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc.
11. Silver Burdett Music (Centennial edition)
Aubin, N., Crook, E., Hayden, E. & Walker, D.S. (1985). Silver Burdett music
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143
Crook, E., Reimer, B., & Walker, D.S. (1985). Silver Burdett music, 1-5
(Centennial edition). Morristown, New Jersey: Silver Burdett Company.
12. Holt Music
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13. World of Music
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. . . Weikart, P. (1991). World of music, 1-5. Morristown, N. J.: Silver, Burdett &
Ginn.
14. Music and You
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Staton, B., Staton, M., Davidson, M. C. & Snyder, S. (1991). Music and you, K-2.
New York, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
15. The Music Connection
Beethoven, J., Bohn, D., Campbell, P. S., Culp, C. E., Davidson, J., Eisman, L., .
. . Thomas, J. (2000). The music connection, K-5. Morristown, NJ: Silver Burdett
Ginn.
16. Share the Music
Bond, J., Davidson, M.C., Goetze M., Lawrence, V. P., Snyder, S., Boyer-White,
R., . . . Rawlins, I. (2003). Share the music, K-5. New York: McGraw-Hill School
Division.
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Jellison, J. A., …Trinka, J. (2008). Making music, K-5. Glenview, Illinois: Scott
Foresman.
144
18. Spotlight on Music
Bond, J., Boyer, R., Campbell-Holman, M., Crocker, E., Davidson, M. C., Frere
de, R., . . . McMillion, J. (2008). Spotlight on music, K-5. New York:
Macmillan/McGraw-Hill.
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145
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Name Date
1. Dr. J July 8, 2011

Coordinating Author, Author
2. Dr. H July 11, 2011

3. Dr. Q July 18, 2011

Contributor
4. Dr. A July 19, 2011

Contributor
5. Dr. D July 19, 2011

6. Dr. Z July 29, 2011

Program Author, Author, Contributor
7. Dr. B Aug. 16, 2011

Contributor
8. Dr. Y Aug. 17, 2011

Resource Author, Author, Contributor
9. Dr. V Aug. 5, 2011

Contributor
10. Dr. X Sept. 27, 2011

Program Author, Resource Author, Author
Multicultural Advisor
146
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May 25, 2011
Dear ________________________ :
I am a graduate student at the University of Colorado in Boulder, and I am currently writing a

dissertation on the representation of Asia-Pacific Folk Songs on American Elementary Music
Textbooks (1967-2008). In connection with this, may I please ask your consent for me to
conduct a phone interview with you on textbook publications? I am curious about the selection
process for multicultural material materials, including folk songs and instrumental pieces. I am
planning to conduct a one time 20-minute interview with you via Skype sometime during early
summer 2011. Please let me know if you would also be willing that the interview be recorded
for reference during my dissertation study. Your responses will be kept anonymous;
pseudonyms shall be used for the reporting. I plan to use interview findings to crosscheck my
content analysis of the series textbooks.
If you agree to participate in this study, please e-mail back this completed form with your
signature as an attachment. Once I have received your response, I will contact you by e-mail to
arrange for date and time.
Thank you so much for you precious time, support and cooperation.
Sincerely yours,
Edna Culig
Interviewer
PhD Candidate, UCB
I am willing to be interviewed for Edna Culig’s dissertation study.
I agree that you audio record my interview session with you.
_________________________________ ________________________
Signature Over Printed Name Date Signed
Interviewee
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The Asian-Pacific Folk Song Contents of
American Elementary Music Textbooks (1967-2008)
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APPENDIX E
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Legend:
AI = Aurally Identified by the author and/or Dr. Jay Keister
RPG = Recorded Pronunciation Guide
Series Titles: The Magic of Music (TMOM), Discovering Music Together (DMT), The Growing with Music (GWM),
Making Music your Own (MMYO), This is Music for Today (TIMFT), Comprehensive Musicianship Through Classroom
Music (CMTCM), Exploring Music (EM), New Dimensions in Music (NDIM), The Spectrum of Music (TSOM), The Music
Book (TMB), Silver Burdett Music (SBM), Holt Music (HM), Music and You (MAY), World of Music (WOM), The
Music Connection (TMC), Share the Music (STM), Making Music (MM), Spotlight on Music (SOM), Making Music (MM)
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A Content Analysis of Asian-Pacific Folk Songs in Elementary Musi

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University of Colorado, Boulder

A Content Analysis of Asian-Pacific Folk Songs in

Follow this and additional works at: https://scholar.colorado.edu/mued_gradetds

EDNA AURORA C. CULIG

B.M., University of the Philippines, 1985

M. M., University of the Philippines, 1995

A thesis submitted to the

Faculty of the Graduate School of the

University of Colorado in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

Department of Music Education

A Content Analysis of Asian-Pacific Folk Songs in

American Elementary Music Textbooks from 1967 to 2008

written by Edna Aurora Cabilatazan Culig

has been approved for the College of Music

of scholarly work in the above mentioned discipline.

IRB protocol # : 11-0227

Culig, Edna Aurora C. (Ph.D., Music Education)

A Content Analysis of Asian-Pacific Folk Songs in American Elementary Music Textbooks

from 1967 to 2008

Thesis directed by Associate Professor Martina L. Miranda

In this quanto-historical study, the author conducted a content analysis of Asian-Pacific

families, and communities.

map of the Asian-Pacific region covered in this study.

music teachers and administrators who allowed me to do my research in their respective

institutions, to sales representatives of current elementary music textbooks for generously

assistance during my analysis of series recordings.

the strength to accomplish this endeavor.

Historical Perspectives on Multiculturalism 1

Important Developments and Trends in Multicultural Music Education 6

Foundations of Multicultural Music Education 13

Rationale for Multiculturalism in Music Education 20

Great and Little Traditions 23

Vantage Points for Examining Music Education Literature 42

Analytical Review of Related Studies 44

External and Internal Criticism 67

Content Analysis of Textbooks 78

Content Analysis of Recordings 92

Summary of Findings 104

The "Little Traditions" of the AP Vocal Folk Songs 109

APPENDIX A...................................................................................................................................... 141

Reference List of Series Books

APPENDIX B ...................................................................................................................................... 145

List of Interviewees and Interview Schedules

APPENDIX C...................................................................................................................................... 146

Sample Consent Form

APPENDIX D...................................................................................................................................... 147

The Asian-Pacific Folk Song Contents of American Elementary Music Textbooks

APPENDIX E ...................................................................................................................................... 171

Sampled Asian-Pacific Folk Song Recordings

APPENDIX F .................................................................................................................................... 180

List of Recommended AP Folk Songs Not Included in American Elementary

1. Publishers, Textbooks and Editions (1967-2008) …………………………………66

2. Interviewees and Their Publications ………………………………………………69

3. The AP Song Contents of American Elementary Music Textbooks (1967-2008)....71

4. Thematic Content Analysis Data Sources ………………………………………….73

Major Publishers ………………………………………………………………..82

6. Nature of Song Lyrics ……..………………………………………………………..88

7. Language Tools for Song Lyrics ……………………………………………………88