Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz.

, 2011, 30 (3), 969-983

Organic livestock production: an emerging

opportunity with new challenges for producers
in tropical countries
M. Chander (1), B. Subrahmanyeswari (2), R. Mukherjee (3) & S. Kumar (3)
(1) Principal Scientist, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-243 122 (UP), India
(2) Associate Professor, NTR College of Veterinary Science, Gannavaram-521-102 (AP), India
(3) Senior Scientist, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-243 122 (UP), India

Submitted for publication: 4 November 2009

Accepted for publication: 15 December 2010

Summary
Agrochemicals, veterinary drugs, antibiotics and improved feeds can increase
the food supply while minimising production costs in various livestock
production systems around the world. However, these days, quality-conscious
consumers are increasingly seeking environmentally safe, chemical-residue-
free healthy foods, along with product traceability and a high standard of animal
welfare, which organic production methods are said to ensure. Organic
production is not only a challenge for producers in developing countries, it offers
new export opportunities as well.
Organic agriculture is practised by 1.8 million producers in 160 countries, and
production of organically grown food continues to increase steadily by 15% per
year. Most tropical countries are now exporting organic agricultural products
but, apart from organic beef from Brazil and Argentina, organic livestock
products are yet to take off. Most trade in organic livestock products is restricted
to the European Union and other developed nations. Nevertheless, tropical
countries cannot afford to neglect this emerging system of animal production.
Organic production is knowledge- and management-intensive. Producers must
be well versed in organic production standards, principles and practices, which
require a high degree of knowledge and skill. In organic production, it is not
simply the final product but the whole production process that must be inspected
and approved by the accredited certification bodies. Organic livestock farming is
still evolving, and further research is needed to make it sustainable. In this paper,
the authors review the prospects of organic animal husbandry and its possible
constraints in developing and tropical countries.

Keywords
Animal welfare – Certification standards – Consumer choices – Hot climates – Organic
foods – Organic livestock production – Problems – Tropical environment.

Introduction into account that regional conditions require locally

adapted systems. This is accomplished by using, where
possible, agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods,
According to the Codex Alimentarius Commission,
as opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfill any
‘Organic agriculture is a holistic production management
specific function within the system’ (9).
system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem
health, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil Organic animal husbandry, on the other hand, is defined
biological activity. It emphasises the use of management as: a system of livestock production that promotes the use
practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking of organic and biodegradable inputs from the ecosystem in
970 Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 30 (3)

terms of animal nutrition, animal health, animal housing based on criteria that meet all health regulations, work in
and breeding. It deliberately avoids the use of synthetic harmony with the environment, build biological diversity
inputs such as drugs, feed additives and genetically and foster healthy soil and growing conditions. Animals
engineered breeding inputs. are marketed as having been raised without the use of
persistent toxic pesticides, antibiotics or parasiticides (33).
Farmers in resource-constrained countries traditionally use Animal health and well-being through better living
few external inputs, such as allopathic medicines and conditions, improved welfare measures and good feeding
antibiotics, and follow grazing-based extensive or semi- practices are ensured through a set of standards and the
intensive production systems. In many ways, they are thus maintenance of written records by organic livestock
closer to organic farming systems, though largely by farmers. Better management practices and prevention of
default. However, a lack of appropriate agro-ecological illness are emphasised over treatment. Thus, the primary
knowledge means that they fail to gain most of the characteristics of organic livestock production systems are:
environmental, social and economic benefits of organic
management, which translate into ecological – well-defined standards and practices which can be
intensification (i.e. sustainable farming). Nevertheless, verified
developing countries are becoming important suppliers of – greater attention to animal welfare
organic foods, since organic practices tend to suit the
conditions under which their producers farm, especially in – no routine use of growth promoters, animal offal,
the case of smallholders living in rainfed areas. The fact prophylactic antibiotics or any other additives
that most organic markets and consumers are in developed – at least 80% of the animal feed grown according to
countries and are prepared to pay a premium for organic organic standards, without the use of artificial fertilisers or
products makes organic farming a niche area with excellent pesticides on crops or grass.
prospects for exports. Organic farming is practised in
160 countries and 37.2 million hectares of agricultural
To be precise, organic meat, milk and eggs are produced,
land are managed organically. Global sales of organic food
harvested, preserved and processed according to verified
and drink reached US$54.9 billion in 2009 (35). Forty
organic standards. Practically speaking, organic methods
percent of the world’s organic producers are in Asia,
call for a change in existing production systems.
followed by Africa (28%) and Latin America (16%). The
countries with the most producers are India (677,257),
Organic livestock farming is not a production method
Uganda (187,893) and Mexico (128,862). Yet animal
meant to solve all problems in livestock production. It is
products are still a small share of the organic market,
primarily a production method for a specific premium
compared to fruits, cereals and herbs, and, in terms of
market, demanding high quality standards during the
exports, are almost negligible in developing countries (35).
entire production process and advanced management
The evidence presented in a United Nations study, which qualifications. If organic livestock farming is to develop,
explored the relationship between organic agriculture and the high expectations of consumers must not only be met
food security in Africa, supports the argument that organic but be seen to be met, to ensure their confidence in organic
agriculture can be more conducive to food security in products (26).
Africa than most conventional production systems, and is
more likely to be sustainable in the long run (28). This is
in line with the findings of the Food and Agriculture Organic crops versus
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) International
Conference on Organic Agriculture and Food Security livestock products
(13), where it was concluded that organic agriculture has
many benefits, for developing countries in particular. Across the world, rapid advances have been seen in the
Organic agriculture not only offers improved food security, production and trade of organic cereal, horticultural and
but also an array of other economic, environmental, health even textile products. However, organic livestock and
and social advantages (28). poultry systems are not nearly so developed. What few
developments have taken place have been concentrated
Under organic livestock production systems, consumers mostly in temperate climates. Although tropical countries
expect organic milk, meat, poultry, eggs, leather products, are now producing and exporting organic agricultural
etc. to come from farms that have been inspected to verify products in ever-increasing quantities, only negligible
that they meet rigorous standards, which mandate the use developments have been reported in livestock production
of organic feed, prohibit the use of prophylactic antibiotics from these countries. This could be due to, among other
(though in fact all antibiotics are discouraged except in things, limited export prospects for organic livestock
medical emergencies) and give animals access to the products due to quality controls (so-called ‘trade barriers’)
outdoors, fresh air and sunlight. Production methods are and self-sufficiency in importing countries. Nevertheless,
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 30 (3) 971

some Latin American countries, such as Brazil and themselves, thus have a strong influence over organic
Argentina, not only produce organic beef but also export it production.
to the European Union (EU) and the United States (USA).
This development has been greatly facilitated by the Throughout the world, 468 organisations offer organic
sustained interventions and support of importing countries certification services. Most certification bodies are in
in the North (15). Europe (37%), followed by Asia (31%) and North America
(18%). The countries with the most certification bodies are
Globally, efforts are being made to harmonise organic the USA, Japan, China and Germany. Forty percent of these
standards. These have met with considerable success, since certification bodies are approved by the EU; 32% have
most of the organic standards of the EU, the USA, the International Organization for Standardization 65 (ISO65)
International Federation of Organic Agriculture accreditation and 28% are accredited under NOP. Under
Movements (IFOAM) and other regional and national India’s National Programme on Organic Production
standards show parity, especially those concerned with (NPOP), which is named in the Foreign Trade and
organic crop production. However, when it comes to Development Regulation Act (FTDR) and legally applicable
livestock standards, there are significant variations in only to exports, 20 certification bodies have been
interpretations and requirements. For instance, the EU authorised to oversee and verify the organic certification
requirements on organic feed and fodder, antibiotics, etc. process. Similarly, East African nations, such as Tanzania
differ from those of the USA, laid down in the National and Kenya, have recently developed their own organic
Organic Program (NOP), although efforts are under way to standards for crops and livestock, taking into account local
achieve harmonisation in these standards and prospects production conditions as well as the requirements of
look promising. Moreover, organic livestock production is international trade, especially when exporting to
more demanding than crop production since, to raise developed nations. An ever-increasing number of countries
livestock organically, their fodder crops must also comply in the South are in the process of developing organic
with strict organic standards. Organic livestock production standards, and formulating rules and regulations to
is still evolving and has yet to overcome several barriers encourage organic food production, including animal
before it becomes popular with producers, especially products (35).
farmers in tropical environments.
Organic farming can be practised by any farmer who is
willing to follow its principles and guidelines to produce
organic foods for his or her own household. However, if
Organic livestock standards the food is to be marketed or traded, it must be certified by
an accredited agency. The steps involved in certification
Unlike traditional or conventional systems of production, are:
organic production systems are governed by a set of
standards that must be strictly followed by producers. – registration of producers and the processing industries
Compliance with these standards is verified by certification – the provision of basic information on the crops and farm
agencies authorised by respective governments. A farm
– inspection and verification of the field and processing
may be classified as organic if it meets the criteria
unit
stipulated in a set of guidelines known as ‘organic
standards’. The quality of production under organic – inspection of production methods and practices by the
management is ensured through certification procedures inspector appointed by the certifying agency.
using internationally accepted standards. Organic
certification guarantees not only the quality of the product A transition period of one to three years is required, during
but also the quality of the production process. In the case which no inorganic fertiliser or agrochemicals may be used
of conventional products, there is no way to guarantee on the farm and no antibiotics or synthetic hormones may
production methods and procedures, but, in organic be given to the animals, before produce from the farm can
farming, production methods are certified to be safe and be marketed as organic. Since production during this
sound, as well as environmentally friendly. Plant and transition period is generally low, farmers intending to
animal products intended for human consumption, and become organic would suffer some losses, unless
animal feed that is produced, processed and handled in compensation was made for this. The cost of these
accordance with these standards, are labelled ‘organic products is further increased by the fact that organic
products’. Organic agriculture is considered to be production is generally 20% to 38% less than production
consumer- or market-driven, since such products are using modern agricultural practices, at least in the initial
clearly identified through certification and labelling. years. Furthermore, the current standard of organic
Consumers take a conscious decision on how they wish farming is quite stringent in terms of using organic
their food to be produced, processed, handled and manures, the type of animal feed/fodder required, the
marketed. These standards, as well as the consumers minerals or soil conditioners allowed, the quality of surface
972 Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 30 (3)

irrigation and underground water, and the agricultural efforts are needed to promote organic livestock production
practices employed on neighbouring farms. Producing and make it an economically rewarding proposition for
organic food, therefore, requires considerable attention, farmers in tropical areas. This can be partially achieved by
care and skill and, above all, a strong connection to its networking. The EU countries formed the Network for
market. In addition to the product quality standards that Animal Health and Welfare in Organic Agriculture
must be met, an equal emphasis is placed on the methods (NAHWOA) to develop organic livestock production. This
of production, which must also comply with stringent network was a collaborative research forum on animal
standards set for this purpose. health and welfare in organic livestock production, funded
by the EU for the period between 1999 and 2001. The
Finally, the ‘organic’ in organic agriculture is a labelling project brought together experts from 17 research
term that denotes products that have been produced in institutes in 13 European countries. Likewise, equivalent
accordance with certain standards during food production, networks can be formed in Asian, African and Latin
handling, processing and marketing, and confirms that American countries that have similar agro-climatic and
these standards have been certified by a duly constituted socio-economic conditions (6).
certification body or authority. The organic label is,
therefore, a process claim rather than a product claim. It
should not necessarily be interpreted to mean that the Animal welfare and
foods produced are healthier, safer or entirely natural. It
simply means that the products follow the defined organic animal husbandry
standards of production and handling, although surveys
indicate that consumers consider the organic label as an
Good animal health and welfare is an important goal for
indication of purity and careful handling. The organic
organic husbandry. In contrast to crops, animals are not
standard does not exempt producers and processors from
just part of the farming system; they are also sentient
compliance with the general requirements of statutory
creatures and as such deserve special care and moral
regulations, such as food safety regulations, pesticide
consideration. Animal management is therefore different
registration, general food and nutrition labelling rules, etc.
from crop management in that humans have a moral
(12). The basic principles and standards for organic
obligation to treat animals well and to intervene before
farming are formulated by IFOAM, an umbrella
they suffer or die, as this is unacceptable. Organic farming
organisation that covers groups in more than
principles go further in promoting animal welfare than
120 countries.
simply avoiding suffering; they also recommend unlimited
access to ‘natural’ behaviour, which substantially broadens
Unfortunately, standards are open to many interpretations the concept of ‘welfare’. Organic livestock production and
and are not always easily enforceable. For example, the EU animal welfare go hand in hand so, with the rising
Regulations require that animals be given ‘regular exercise’ importance of animal welfare, organic animal production
and that ‘appropriate breeds’ be used, yet there is no clear may also get a boost in coming years. There will thus be
definition of either of these dictates. However, there are recognised benefits for developing countries that can
some clear high priorities for organic livestock. evolve niche markets in higher welfare products, and the
World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) process for
Owing to organic prohibitions on certain veterinary drugs, developing baseline standards for animal welfare will assist
health care protocols must be developed for each species, in the harmonisation and equivalency of standards in
including research on alternative and complementary this area.
methods of disease prevention, effective non-chemical
parasiticides, and preventive health care practices. Feeding For instance, in Namibia, the development of animal
strategies and specific foodstuffs must be developed to welfare standards already plays an important role in market
reduce the incidence of harmful pathogens and enhance access. Namibia’s quality assurance scheme, with its
breeding programmes for organic animals. Improvements guaranteed traceability and animal welfare standards, has
in animal housing and husbandry and a better gained recognition for the Namibian beef industry of the
understanding of mixed crop and livestock systems are quality of its products. This has resulted in increased
also important. Designing feeding strategies that provide market leverage and a trade advantage over its competitors.
adequate nutrition and high livestock productivity in areas The beef market is also starting to cross over from the
with environmental constraints, such as arid and semi-arid catering sector into the retail sector, adding another market
areas, is key. Most of the current research on organic for the product (1). Such examples may highlight the
livestock is being undertaken in temperate areas. Though importance of animal welfare measures and the fact that
arid areas are largely dependent on livestock, little research welfare-oriented products can gain a market niche worth
is being conducted on organically raised livestock in these capitalising on. All of this indicates an excellent
countries (14). Much greater research and developmental opportunity for producers in tropical countries.
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 30 (3) 973

The animal welfare goal of avoiding suffering allows the organically. This includes pasture, forage and crops.
use of synthetic medicines for treating sick animals, even Certain non-synthetic and synthetic substances may be
when it results in that animal losing its organic status. This used as feed additives and supplements. Twenty percent of
is the only circumstance in organic agriculture where the the feed for dairy cattle under nine months of age is
use of ‘chemicals’ is allowed and recommended, even in allowed to come from non-organic sources. Plastic pellets,
Europe (31). Nonetheless, no matter how diseases are urea, manure and by-products from mammalian or poultry
managed, the most sustainable way of avoiding suffering slaughter are not allowed.
and the need for veterinary treatment is to make more
fundamental changes in husbandry methods, such as:
– breeding for increased disease resistance Living conditions
– allowing more access to the natural environment An organic livestock producer must create and maintain
living conditions that promote the health and
– introducing more species-appropriate housing
accommodate the natural behaviour of the animal. These
– feeding a well-balanced diet (31). living conditions must include access to the outdoors,
shade, shelter, fresh air, direct sunlight suitable for the
particular species and access to pastures for ruminants.

Key considerations in
Waste management
organic livestock production Organic livestock producers are mandated to manage
Although changes in consumption patterns will continue manure so that it does not contribute to the contamination
to result in an average net increase in the demand for of crops, soil or water and optimises the recycling of
animal products, the major challenge in organic livestock nutrients.
production systems is to ‘think the organic principles’ into
a wide range of diverse systems, under a wide range of
circumstances and conditions, including systems which Health care
are not certified ‘organic’ at present. Developing and Organic livestock production requires producers to
applying the principles of organic animal husbandry at all establish preventive health care practices. These practices
times requires a thorough analysis of the problems and include:
opportunities involved and existing local knowledge (30).
– selecting the appropriate type and species of livestock
Some key considerations in organic animal husbandry that
producers and other stakeholders need to take into – providing adequate feed
account are listed below: – creating an appropriate environment that minimises
– the origins of livestock stress, disease and parasites

– livestock feed – administering vaccines and veterinary biologics

– living conditions – following animal husbandry practices to promote

animal well-being in a manner that minimises pain and
– waste management stress.
– health care
Producers cannot provide preventive antibiotics. Producers
– record keeping/the audit trail are encouraged to treat animals with appropriate protocols,
including antibiotics and other conventional medicines
when needed, but these treated animals cannot be sold or
Origin of livestock labelled as organic. Producers cannot administer hormones
All livestock (and all products from these livestock) that or other drugs for growth promotion.
are sold, labelled or advertised as organic must be raised
under continuous organic management from the last third
of gestation or at hatching. Record keeping/audit trail
Organic livestock operations need to maintain records for
a number of reasons. Certainly, records are important for
Livestock feed the financial management of any organic livestock
The total rations of livestock that are produced under enterprise. However, records are also important to verify
organic management must consist of agricultural products the organic status of the animals and the production,
that have been organically produced and handled harvesting and handling practices associated with them
974 Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 30 (3)

and their products. These records must demonstrate (USDA) announced that it had decided to implement a
compliance with the Organic Food Production Act in the recommendation from the National Organic Standards
USA and equivalent legislation elsewhere. Because organic Board (NOSB) to extend the use of synthetic sources of
production generally requires more record keeping than methionine in organic poultry production until 1 October
conventional crop production, it can seem onerous to 2010. The NOSB made this recommendation during its
producers in developing countries. May 2008 meeting, after considering public comment from
organic poultry producers. The producers explained that,
Almost all countries which are investing in their organic in spite of research on multiple alternatives to synthetic
agricultural sector are taking note of the changing import methionine in poultry feed, they had not yet been able to
environment in industrialised countries, and making the identify practical alternatives from natural sources. Had
required changes to their production standards to enable NOP not granted this extension, the use of synthetic
them to export to the major consumer countries in the methionine would have been prohibited as of 1 October
North. Developing countries in Asia, such as China, India, 2008. In allowing the extension, NOP explained that its
Thailand, Malaysia, Sri Lanka; in Africa, such as Kenya, goal was to provide the organic feed sector with enough
Tanzania and Ethiopia; and among the South American time to create sufficient supplies of wholly natural
countries, such as Argentina and Brazil, have already substitute products (10). This case underlines the
developed regulations, standards and certification importance of speeding up research on acceptable organic
procedures for organic livestock production. The number alternatives to conventional products.
of such countries is increasing, mainly due to improved
prospects for their exports, as well as a slowly growing
domestic market for environmentally friendly food Problems in developing
products (35). organic animal husbandry
While many tropical countries are making concerted
efforts to boost organic production, especially of high-
Challenges for researchers value commercial crops, with considerable success, some
serious problems are still restricting growth in organic
farming. Some of these potential obstacles, especially when
Organic livestock farming is still evolving and it will take
exporting livestock products, are as follows:
some time to become sustainable on its own, using organic
methods without depending on the artificial or chemical – lack of knowledge
products used in conventional livestock production. This – small farms
underscores the need for more research on organic
alternatives, including medications, feeds and feeding – problems in livestock feeding
practices that are compatible with organic management – sanitary regulations
practices and standards. For instance, how can organic – traceability
animal production be managed efficiently without some of
the routine supplements, such as synthetic amino acids, – disease
considered essential in poultry and pig feeding? – lack of training and certification facilities.
Alternatives must be developed so that neither production
nor the animals suffer. The production factors cited as Lack of knowledge
reasons to supplement with amino acids may be addressed
by changes in animal and land management practices, In general, there is inadequate awareness about organic
novel feed sources and better feed handling. Methionine production practices, animal welfare issues and the
can be obtained from natural sources, since it is also found requirements of importing countries, especially by
in naturally occurring proteins. Other options include individual organic trainers/advisers and farmers. Organic
improved pasture management and a balanced production calls for an in-depth understanding of the
supplemental ration, composed of organic grains, legumes principles, standards, production practices and
and oilseed meals. Temporarily confined poultry can be fed requirements of the organic certification agencies. Most of
practical organic corn/soybean rations. Depending on how the literature on organic farming is available in English,
market conditions and organic standards evolve, novel through the print medium and the Internet. Much of this
organic products can be developed as supplements. material is inaccessible to small-scale farmers in the South,
Likewise, other alternatives must be researched and where illiteracy is common and most do not speak English.
developed for organic livestock production.
Small farms
One example highlights the importance of research and In tropical countries, especially in Asia and Africa, small-
development into effective substitutes. On 18 September scale farmers depend on livestock production for their
2008, NOP of the United States Department of Agriculture livelihood. However, the landless animal husbandry
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 30 (3) 975

system, which is common in India, is not allowed under with a burgeoning market for grass-fed meat, has created
organic systems of livestock production. Small farms are great interest in developing pasture improvement strategies
generally not suitable for the development of organic for the organic sector. Pastures may also have a large role
livestock production, especially for exports. Small farms in mitigating climate change through carbon sequestration.
mean small volumes, coupled with a lack of processing But, to date, little research has been done on organic
infrastructure, which results in poor quality. Milk pastures in arid regions, although these areas are largely
production in tropical countries is largely the domain of dependent on their pastures and livestock (14).
small producers producing small volumes. Dilution,
contamination and traceability are common problems with Sanitary regulations
this small scale. Therefore, both technical and policy Only a few developing countries are able to export even
interventions are crucial to resolve these issues. conventional livestock products due to the strict sanitary
Governments must support added-value initiatives and requirements imposed by importing countries. These
product marketing to help make the small farm production disease control regulations are even more strictly
system more sustainable. Various essential goods and monitored when it comes to organic livestock products.
services, including credit, insurance and improved Governments of tropical countries are taking the initiative
technologies, must be made available to improve the in this regard by emphasising their adherence to the
efficiency of small producers (27). Contract farming may guidelines for clean milk production, good manufacturing
be a potential solution. Under this system, many small practices (GMP), hazard analysis and critical control points
farmers can contract their farms out to companies that (HACCP), International Organization for Standardization
produce organic food products on consolidated holdings. (ISO) certification, and best practices recommended by
Such contract farming may be mutually beneficial and GLOBALGAP (a private sector body that sets voluntary
organic farming would be easier to pursue under such standards for the certification of agricultural production
arrangements, for obvious reasons. processes), among others. These efforts must continue if
access to international markets for organic livestock
Livestock feeding products is to be improved. This may be difficult but not
impossible, especially since some developing countries,
Livestock feeding has been a matter of much debate in the
such as Argentina and Brazil, can already export organic
EU and particularly in the USA, where it has recently been
livestock products to the EU (15). Massive efforts are
resolved. The USDA has published new regulations
needed to improve hygiene and disease control measures,
addressing the use of pastures in organic livestock
especially during the production, processing and
production. These rules strengthen the existing standards
packaging stages. Many donor countries are coming
and clarify the USDA’s emphasis on pasture-based livestock
forward to help developing countries to produce safe and
production for producers, consumers and certifiers.
nutritious products, including organic products, through
project-based assistance. Such assistance must be
An important requirement of the final regulation is that:
harnessed effectively to develop organic livestock
‘animals must obtain a minimum of 30% dry matter intake
production systems. In addition, projects may be
from grazing pasture during the grazing season’. This
submitted that seek international help to develop good-
ruling establishes that not only must animals be outside,
quality organic animal products for consumers who are
but that the pasture must be well managed, so that it
ready to pay a little more for such items.
makes a significant contribution to their nutrition (32). It
has important implications for the livestock sector in
tropical countries, where livestock intensification is Traceability
increasingly being attempted to increase per-unit Importing countries emphasise farm-to-table traceability
productivity. The organic alternative may help these and, over recent times, this requirement has become even
farmers to reap greater benefits without intensifying their more important. It may be comparatively easy to trace the
production systems, instead relying on the free-range, origin of products in western countries, where farms are
grazing-based systems that are already common in African large, with high volumes of production per farm. In the
and South and Central American countries. context of developing countries, where milk and meat are
sourced from numerous small farmers, traceability is a
Approximately two-thirds of organically managed land more difficult option. Traceability tools that are both cost
worldwide, roughly 23 million ha, was pasture in 2009. In effective and suitable for mixed farming conditions in
developed countries, organic regulations are increasingly tropical countries, and, furthermore, that are acceptable to
requiring that animals should be raised on pasture. In importing countries, will have to be developed. However,
addition, further requirements are being placed on pasture product traceability is also an issue in conventional
quality. For example, EU regulations require that pastures production. Thus, whether developing nations seek to
be suitable for the natural nutritional and behavioural export organic products or conventional products, they
needs of particular species. These market drivers, along will still need to evolve acceptable traceability mechanisms
976 Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 30 (3)

to assure consumers that their food comes from a reliable a lack of organic feed and pastures. Limited amounts of
source, with high standards of food safety, hygiene and certified organic animal products, mainly poultry and
animal welfare. pork, are available in some domestic markets. Compliance
requirements are so stringent that the first organic Japan
Existence of diseases Agricultural Standard- (JAS-) certified beef sold in Japan
reportedly came from an Australian operation in 2008.
The prevalence of infectious/zoonotic diseases also
Organic aquaculture (shrimp and fish), on the other hand,
adversely affects trade in livestock products. Better animal
is emerging in China, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand,
health conditions are needed, especially in the case of
Malaysia and Myanmar (34).
organic livestock production. Foot and mouth disease
(FMD), swine fever and Rift Valley fever restrict exports
from much of the developing world. Thus, controlling
such infectious diseases should be a high priority for these
Threats to the development
countries. Indian authorities, for example, are focusing on of organic animal husbandry
controlling FMD, an economically important OIE-listed Marketing opportunities may exist for developing
disease which has far-reaching implications for production countries to export organic meat and dairy products,
and trade. Such countries can begin with the creation of especially in those countries where the climatic and
disease-free zones, in which organic livestock production ecological conditions favour the development of extensive
can be encouraged. For the most part, the animal health production systems for livestock. However, meeting the
services of tropical countries, which are largely under certification requirements and quality standards of an
government control, are often criticised for their poor external market can be extremely demanding. Moreover,
reach and efficiency. there is no guarantee that the strong growth in demand
seen in recent years will continue at the same level in the
In organic livestock production, the focus is on preventing
future. Therefore, careful research and analysis are strongly
health problems and diseases through better management
recommended to any country considering developing the
practices. However, despite the benefits of such an
production of organic meat and dairy products for external
approach for animal welfare and animal-friendly
markets (12).
production, the basic standards seem, as yet, to be
insufficient to ensure a higher animal health status and a
The prospect of a successful export industry is the major
better quality of product, when compared to conventional
motivating factor in the development and growth of
production. Comparative studies investigating the health
organic farming in most developing countries. These
situations of organic and conventional dairy farms show
countries may have impressive livestock strength and other
that there seems to be no fundamental difference between
factors in their favour, yet the international trade in
these two production methods in terms of the animal
livestock from the developing world is a risky business, as
health status of dairy cows (26).
far as organic livestock products are concerned (12, 15).
An exporter must have an assured and certified supply
Lack of training and certification facilities
chain to successfully enter international markets. For
As yet, there are few local training and certification instance, the need to have a completely organic supply
facilities available to small farmers at an affordable cost. chain could present a problem for exporters of organic
Small farmers in tropical countries may find it difficult to meat from these countries. Large-scale commercial farms
pay for mandatory inspections which are often carried out usually undertake most organic livestock production for
by foreign certification agencies through their affiliates in export; whereas, in developing countries, the livestock
producing countries. This may deter many farmers from sector is dominated by small-scale producers, who have
switching over to organic production, especially if the few resources and little ability to bear risk. Moreover, the
domestic market is weak and export prospects are poor for EU may become self-sufficient in organic livestock
livestock products. If we are to harness the potential products, leading to a reduced demand for imports and
benefits of organic farming, then training in organic limiting the growth of the organic livestock sector in
production practices for both organic trainers/advisers and developing countries.
farmers is essential. Governments of tropical countries may
consider sponsoring certification to encourage The EU is a net exporter of organic milk, milk products,
environmentally friendly production. In India, such efforts pork, poultry and eggs. Some 85% of the world’s meat
are being made but at present they occur mostly for high- trade and over 90% of the global milk trade takes place
value commercial crops, for which a strong export market between developed countries (15). Developed nations
is already available. place many restrictions on imports from developing
countries, principally citing the poor disease control
In addition to these problems, organic livestock conditions, poor quality and traceability problems
production is not yet developed in Asian countries due to prevailing in these countries. Moreover, many developed
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 30 (3) 977

countries, particularly in Europe, have huge food surpluses – consumers pay a large price premium for organic food
and farmer subsidy problems. Thus, only a handful of in Austria, Belgium, Germany and the UK;
developing countries have export potential, including
some in South America, southern Africa (Namibia, – some developing countries are successfully exporting
Botswana and Zimbabwe) and Southeast Asia. Tropical livestock products to developed countries;
countries must make much more sustained efforts, even – in 2001, 16% of broiler meat and 40% of beef imported
more so than in the case of conventional agricultural into the UK came from developing countries, such as
products, to make their presence felt in organic livestock Argentina and Brazil, that export organic livestock
production. One way could be to develop the organic products to the EU (15);
livestock sector initially for domestic consumption, and
gradually move towards organic livestock production for – India and Nepal currently export certified organic
export. honey, as do some African countries, sourced mostly from
forests and small-scale producers. Organic honey is a good
entry point to focus on, along with small ruminants, when
Although many countries report a strong growth in developing organic livestock production in developing
demand for organic meat and dairy products, a number of countries;
instances can be cited where supply has exceeded demand.
This has resulted in either a severe reduction in the price – to begin with, non-food livestock products, such as
difference between organic and conventional products or organic textiles and garments, including materials of
organic products being sold as conventional products. This animal origin such as hides, leather, and wool, offer hope
could call into question the achievability of some Western for organic livestock production in tropical countries. The
European countries’ goals to increase the proportion of UK imports large amounts of raw textile materials and
organic products in their domestic food consumption processed textiles; a significant proportion of these come
during this decade, as excess supply and an associated fall from developing countries. Current global market trends
in price may well result in organic production becoming show a rapid increase in international trade in organic
unprofitable. For example, before 2001, when export textiles. Organic leather thus has the potential to become a
markets started to grow, Danish organic pork was in over- valuable export commodity;
supply on the domestic market and prices were weak.
– indigenous technical knowledge, available in poorer
Similarly, an estimated 20–30% of organic meat produced
and developing countries, may provide an effective
in Ireland is sold as conventional meat, while, in
substitute for veterinary care (16);
Switzerland, it is reported that a number of organically
produced animals – especially pigs – are sold as – the use of agrochemicals is almost nil in large parts of
conventionally reared animals. In the case of milk, in India and Nepal, and this is ideal for developing organic
Austria, Denmark and the United Kingdom (UK), only livestock production;
one-third of organic milk is reportedly sold as such and the
rest is sold as conventional milk. Consequently, some – native breeds of livestock, which predominate in
farmers’ organisations in the EU have recently cautioned tropical countries, are less susceptible to stress and disease,
against the rapid conversion of farms to organic and so the need for allopathic medicines and antibiotics is
production, fearing that it could be out of step with the much lower;
growth in demand (12). This experience in EU countries – the grass-based, extensive production systems and
may be taken as a possible warning that tropical countries forest-based, animal production systems that are prevalent
should be cautious when showing an interest in organic in many areas of these countries have considerable
animal husbandry. potential for conversion into organic animal husbandry;
– literacy is on the rise and the media are making
consumers more aware of and concerned about animal
Opportunities for tropical countries welfare issues and healthy foods. This may well boost the
In spite of the potential drawbacks mentioned above, there domestic consumption of organic foods;
are strong reasons for tropical countries to focus on organic
– a growing domestic market for organic products in
livestock production. Some of these encouraging factors are:
developing countries may help boost the international
– demand for organic livestock products is growing in the organic market at the country and regional level.
USA, the EU, Japan, Argentina and Brazil;
– Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the UK Several Latin American, African and Asian countries have
import significant amounts of organic produce; significant potential for organic milk and meat production,
due to their compliance with legal requirements, low use
– the EU is a net importer of organic beef, sheep and goat of external inputs/resources, natural grazing and good
meat; agricultural practices. Among the African countries,
978 Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 30 (3)

Namibia has recently taken a step forward, in that its meat One severe constraint on organic meat production in Latin
sector wants to take things further and obtain certification America is the fact that their main consumers (in Europe
for organic meat production. Beef and mutton in Namibia and the USA) ask only for the best pieces (i.e. the sirloin,
generally come from free-range cattle and sheep and thus tenderloin and pistol cuts from the hindquarter). The rest
already have a good international reputation, prompting of the meat must be sold on the domestic market, mostly
national agencies and donors to promote the organic as conventional meat (35). Developing countries in Asia
production of beef and mutton. An agreement for a one- and Africa may draw lessons from these experiences from
year study to assess the potential of Namibia’s organic meat Latin American countries in coming years.
production for markets in Finland and the rest of the EU
was signed on 12 March 2010. It is anticipated that organic Elsewhere, only limited data are available. However, it is
meat production and marketing could bring in additional evident that the interest in organic livestock products is on
income to the meat industry, which could include livestock the rise, not only in response to the strong demand for
producers as well. This study is expected to look at the best organic products in national and export markets, but also
ways to improve market access for Namibian meat because of the benefits it offers in maintaining soil fertility
products in the EU, and particularly in Finland. Such (12).
mutually beneficial arrangements may evolve among other
countries to promote market access for organic livestock With Argentina’s 20 years of experience in the organic
products from developing countries into developed market, coupled with a growth in its broiler industry in
nations. It is expensive for intensive livestock producers to recent years, there is significant potential for Argentina to
convert to organic production, but converting extensive, supply welfare-friendly organic broiler chickens to
pasture-based systems could be much more attractive, developed countries. Moreover, the development and
economically speaking, if price premiums could be implementation of standards for organic products in
captured for organic meat and livestock products (20). Thailand and Argentina over the past decade have also
resulted in the growth of these countries’ export markets in
these products (1). Based on case studies carried out in
It has been reported, from countries like India, that local Namibia, Argentina and Thailand, there is considerable
livestock production practices, especially in drylands and potential for the export of animal-welfare-oriented
mountainous regions, are very close to organic production products, including organic foods of animal origin, in all
practices and, to a great extent, already comply with these countries. This development can be greatly assisted
organic standards (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 16, 22, 24, 25). Such by the development of OIE baseline standards. Moreover,
areas may be targeted to develop as hubs of organic animal an increased emphasis on organic production in Argentina
husbandry, since this offers many advantages over and Thailand should also bring benefits for animal
intensive production. Such success stories from developing welfare (1).
countries may help to pursuade other developing nations
to switch over to organic livestock production. For Many developing countries are forging ahead to ensure
instance, among Latin American countries, Argentina is in quality in their livestock products. For instance, the
the forefront of organic production, and, alongside its Government of the Republic of Korea recently revised its
vegetable and fruit market, there is a growing interest in ‘Environmentally Friendly Agriculture Promotion Act’. The
animal products. Organic milk production there increased National Assembly passed this Act in
in 2003 and, although the size of the organic beef herd 1997 and quality certification of processed organic foods
declined slightly in 2003, exports of organic beef increased was implemented in 1998 (18). Mandatory certification of
from 50 tonnes to 270 tonnes, with the majority going to environmentally friendly agricultural products was
the UK (21). Argentina also has a strong domestic market initiated to harmonise with international standards (the
for organic beef. Codex) and global organic standards in July 2001.
According to the new regulation, any agricultural product
The FAO too recognises that, among developing countries, claiming to be an ‘environmentally friendly agricultural
the largest and most advanced organic livestock sectors are product’, regardless of whether it is domestic or imported,
observed in Argentina and Brazil. According to the or claiming to be ‘organic’ or with ‘no agricultural
Brazilian Beef Association, approximately 210,000 animals chemicals’ (antibiotic-free livestock products) or ‘low
are being farmed organically in Brazil. If 2 ha of pasture per agrichemical’, must get approval from the Korean
animal is required, that means at least 420,000 ha of Government before promoting these claims at retail. In
pasture are under organic beef production (11). Brazilian cases where labels claim ‘organic’ for imported livestock
companies are even buying processing plants in Argentina products, an authorised certification agent will visit the
to expand their influence. Uruguay is also a significant plant to determine if the product complies with Codex
producer of organic meat while Mexico and Nicaragua international guidelines (29). Such initiatives are likely to
have initiated projects to produce organic meat, mainly for become more common in the future, to cope with a rising
the domestic market. demand for eco-friendly, environmentally safe, healthy
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 30 (3) 979

food products. For instance, in Argentina and Thailand, farming, which is gradually spreading across the world.
the promotion of organic production is being undertaken Tropical countries may find new opportunities in this
with government support to devise and promote premium market to export their own organic livestock
recognised national organic standards. The organic food products but it is a tough challenge, given the current
market is expected to continue to grow and, as long as they sanitary conditions and prevalence of infectious diseases in
comply with the necessary standards, this offers excellent these countries. Nevertheless, tropical countries have some
opportunities for exporters in developing countries to gain natural advantages when it comes to organic livestock
access to this market (1). farming, which could be harnessed to boost organic
livestock production for domestic consumption, initially,
and exports in the long term. Nonetheless, this presents a
formidable task, considering the stringent principles,
Conclusion guidelines, practices and standards of organic livestock
production, as well as the mandatory certification
Livestock production has become far more sophisticated procedures for such production systems. To benefit from
since the days of hunter-gatherers. Today, most production this emerging system of food production, producers in
systems are intensive, with a very high per-animal developing countries must build their capacity and take
productivity, due to better nutrition, health and housing into account their natural advantages.
management. However, the recent focus on and concerns
over food quality, animal welfare, traceability, human
health and environmental quality have led to the
emergence of and growing interest in organic livestock

Productions animales biologiques : nouvelles perspectives

et nouveaux défis pour les éleveurs des pays tropicaux
M. Chander, B. Subrahmanyeswari, R. Mukherjee & S. Kumar
Résumé
Un grand nombre de systèmes de production animale dans le monde a recours
aux produits agrochimiques, aux médicaments vétérinaires, aux antibiotiques et
à la complémentation des aliments destinés aux animaux, ce qui leur permet
d’accroître les quantités de denrées alimentaires produites tout en réduisant les
coûts de production. Toutefois, à l’heure actuelle, les consommateurs sont
devenus plus exigeants en matière de qualité et veulent que les denrées
alimentaires qu’ils achètent soient exemptes de risque pour l’environnement et
de résidus chimiques, tout en présentant des garanties de traçabilité et de
respect des normes relatives au bien-être animal, ce que les méthodes de
production biologique sont censées offrir. Pour les producteurs des pays en
développement, la production biologique n’est pas seulement un défi ; elle
constitue également une voie d’accès à de nouveaux débouchés d’exportation.
L’agriculture biologique est pratiquée par 1,2 million de producteurs dans
141 pays, avec une production en hausse constante de 15 % par an. Si la plupart
des pays tropicaux exportent désormais des produits issus de l’agriculture
biologique, les productions animales biologiques n’y ont guère connu un tel
essor, à l’exception de la viande de bœuf « bio » produite au Brésil et en
Argentine. Pour l’instant, l’Union européenne et d’autres pays développés
constituent l’essentiel des destinations commerciales pour les productions
animales biologiques. Néanmoins, les pays tropicaux ne peuvent se permettre
de négliger ce nouveau système de production animale.
980 Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 30 (3)

La production biologique requiert un haut niveau de savoir-faire et de gestion.

Les éleveurs doivent être versés dans les normes, les principes et les pratiques
de la production biologique, qui exigent des connaissances et des compétences
spécialisées. Dans les productions biologiques, ce n’est pas seulement le
produit final qui est visé par les procédures d’inspection et d’approbation des
organismes de certification accrédités, mais la totalité du processus de
production. La production animale biologique est en pleine évolution, et il faudra
mener des recherches approfondies pour en assurer la pérennité. Les auteurs
examinent les perspectives d’avenir des productions animales biologiques, ainsi
que les difficultés spécifiques des pays en développement et tropicaux dans ce
domaine.

Mots-clés
Bien-être animal – Climats chauds – Denrées alimentaires issues de l’agriculture
biologique – Environnement tropical – Normes de certification – Préférences des
consommateurs – Problème – Production animale biologique.

Producción ganadera ecológica: nuevas posibilidades

y dificultades para los productores de países tropicales
M. Chander, B. Subrahmanyeswari, R. Mukherjee & S. Kumar
Resumen
En diversos sistemas de producción ganadera de todo el mundo se recurre a
productos agroquímicos, medicamentos veterinarios, antibióticos y alimentos
enriquecidos para obtener una mayor cantidad de alimentos reduciendo al
mínimo posible los costos de producción. Hoy en día, sin embargo, los
consumidores se muestran exigentes en materia de calidad y prefieren cada vez
más consumir alimentos saludables, exentos de residuos químicos y obtenidos
de forma respetuosa con el medio ambiente, con garantías de rastreabilidad y
atendiendo a estrictas normas de bienestar animal, parámetros que
presumiblemente cumplen los métodos de producción ecológica. Para los
productores de los países en desarrollo, este tipo de producción no sólo
presenta dificultades, sino que también abre nuevas posibilidades de
exportación.
Actualmente hay 1,2 millones de productores de 141 países que practican la
agricultura ecológica, y la producción de alimentos obtenidos con métodos
ecológicos sigue progresando a un ritmo constante del 15% anual. Aunque la
mayoría de los países tropicales exportan ahora productos agrícolas ecológicos,
la producción animal ecológica todavía no ha despegado, con la salvedad de la
carne vacuna ecológica de Brasil y Argentina. Por ahora, el mercado de los
productos ganaderos ecológicos se circunscribe casi exclusivamente a la Unión
Europea y otros países desarrollados. Sin embargo, los países tropicales no
pueden permitirse el lujo de pasar por alto este nuevo sistema de producción
animal.
La producción ecológica es un proceso exigente, que requiere profundos
conocimientos y mucha gestión. Los productores deben estar versados en las
normas, principios y prácticas de la producción ecológica, y ello exige
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 30 (3) 981

competencias y conocimientos especializados. En la producción ecológica, los

organismos acreditados de certificación no controlan y aprueban únicamente el
producto final, sino el proceso productivo en su conjunto. La producción
ganadera ecológica está en plena evolución, y hace falta más investigación para
lograr que sea duradera a largo plazo. Los autores examinan las perspectivas de
estos métodos de producción animal, así como los posibles impedimentos que
pueda haber en este ámbito en los países en desarrollo y tropicales.

Palabras clave
Alimentos ecológicos – Bienestar animal – Climas cálidos – Medio tropical – Normas de
certificación – Preferencias del consumidor – Problemas – Producción ganadera
ecológica.

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