Control Surveys: Section V

Section V
Control Surveys
Table of Contents
A. Geodesy .................................................................................................................V-3
1. General ...............................................................................................................V-3
2. Control Datums ...................................................................................................V-6
a. Horizontal Datum ...........................................................................................V-7
b. Vertical Datum ...............................................................................................V-9
3. Coordinate Systems..........................................................................................V-12
4. State Plane Zones ............................................................................................V-14
a. State Plane Coordinates ..............................................................................V-17
b. Surface Coordinates ....................................................................................V-18
5. Azimuths ...........................................................................................................V-21
a. Azimuth References ....................................................................................V-21
b. Forward and Back Azimuths ........................................................................V-23
B. GPS Surveying .....................................................................................................V-23
1. The Global Positioning System .........................................................................V-24
2. A Brief History of GPS ......................................................................................V-25
3. Global Navigation Satellite Systems .................................................................V-26
4. How GPS Works ...............................................................................................V-27
a. Measuring Distance .....................................................................................V-27
b. Signal Timing ...............................................................................................V-28
5. The GPS Signal ................................................................................................V-28
6. Satellite Geometry ............................................................................................V-29
7. Error Sources in GPS .......................................................................................V-30
a. Atmospheric Errors ......................................................................................V-30
b. Obstructed Signals and Multipath Errors .....................................................V-32
c. Satellite Errors .............................................................................................V-33
d. GPS Equipment Errors ................................................................................V-33
Control Surveys
e. Human Errors ..............................................................................................V-33

8. GPS Accuracy...................................................................................................V-33
9. GPS Surveying Procedures ..............................................................................V-34
a. GPS Methods ..............................................................................................V-34
a. Equipment ...................................................................................................V-48
b. Weather Conditions .....................................................................................V-49
C. Differential Leveling ............................................................................................V-49
1. General .............................................................................................................V-49
2. Bench marks .....................................................................................................V-49
3. Procedures .......................................................................................................V-50
4. Instrument Person’s Duties ...............................................................................V-51
5. Rod Person’s Duties .........................................................................................V-51
D. Extendible Control Surveys ................................................................................V-51
1. Extendible Control Coordinates ........................................................................V-51
a. Method 1......................................................................................................V-51
b. Method 2......................................................................................................V-52
c. Method 3 ......................................................................................................V-54
2. Traverse adjustment .........................................................................................V-55
V-2 Revised February, 2015

Section V
V. Control Surveys
A. Geodesy
1. General
Geodesy is the science of measuring and monitoring the size and shape of the Earth and the
location of points on its surface. The National Geodetic Survey (NGS) is responsible for the
development and maintenance of a national geodetic database. The database serves as the
basis of measurement for navigation and mapping.
The Earth’s shape is not quite spherical. It is slightly flattened at the poles and bulging at the
equator. This equatorial “bulge” is caused by the rotation of the Earth. Irregularities in its
surface such as mountains and valleys make modeling the surface impossible. An infinite
amount of data would be needed to create an exact model. Due to this complexity, a
simplified mathematical model of the Earth was created.
To measure the Earth, geodesists use a theoretical surface called an ellipsoid. The ellipsoid
is a mathematically defined surface around on the earth's center of mass that approximates
the size and shape of the Earth. This ellipsoid is smooth and does not account for surface
irregularities. It is created by rotating an ellipse around the shorter polar axis to match the
Earth’s actual shape. Because of its relative simplicity, an ellipsoid is the preferred surface
to perform geodetic network computations. Point coordinates such as latitude, longitude, and
elevation are defined on the ellipsoid.
Figure V-1. Reference ellipsoid and geoid.

Revised February, 2015 V-3
Control Surveys
While the ellipsoid gives a common reference, it is still only a mathematical concept.
Geodesists often need to account for the undulating surface of the Earth. To meet this need,
the geoid was created. A geoid is a theoretical surface perpendicular at every point to the
direction of gravity. It is also commonly associated with mean sea level. Since the Earth’s
mass is unevenly distributed, certain areas of the planet experience more gravitational “pull”
than others. Figure V-1 is an illustration of the ellipsoid and geoid.
Latitude is measured in a north-south direction and is expressed as degrees of departure

parallel to the equator. The equator is defined to be 0° latitude and is the intersection of the
Earth’s surface with the plane perpendicular to its axis of rotation. It is nearly equidistant
from the North Pole and South Pole and divides the Earth into northern and southern
hemispheres.
Longitude is measured in an east-west direction and is expressed as degrees of departure

from the prime meridian. The longitude of the prime meridian is arbitrarily set as 0° and
passes through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England. The prime meridian and its
opposite meridian (at 180° longitude) divide the Earth into the eastern and western
hemispheres. The International Date Line closely follows the 180° longitudinal meridian,
occasionally deviating around land masses and island groups. Figure V-2 is an illustration of
latitudes and longitudes.
Figure V-2. Latitudes and longitudes.

Section V
Gravity is the force that pulls all objects in the universe toward each other. On Earth, gravity
pulls all objects downward, toward the center of the planet. According to Newton’s
Universal Law of Gravitation, the attraction between two bodies is stronger when their
masses are larger and closer together. This rule applies to the Earth’s gravitational field as
well. Because the Earth rotates and its mass and density vary at different locations on the
planet, gravity also varies.
The variation in Earth’s gravity is measured because it plays a major role in determining
mean sea level. Elevations on the Earth’s surface are based on mean sea level. Knowing
how gravity affects sea level helps geodesists make more accurate measurements. Generally,
areas of the planet where gravitational forces are stronger, the mean sea level will be higher
because the water will be “pulled” to these locations. Conversely, areas where the
gravitational forces are weaker, the mean sea level will be lower.
To measure the Earth’s gravity field, geodesists use instruments located in space and on land.
In space, satellites gather data on gravitational changes as they pass over points on the
Earth’s surface. On land, devices called gravimeters measure the gravitational pull on a
suspended mass. With this data, geodesists can create detailed maps of gravitational fields
and adjust existing elevations.
Because of the variations in gravitational force, the geoidal surface is irregular, but
considerably smoother than the actual surface. The geoid varies from 350 ft (107 m) below
to 280 ft (85 m) above the reference ellipsoid. As shown in Figure V-3, areas in red and
yellow indicate regions where the Earth’s gravitational pull is stronger. In these areas, the
geoid is above the reference ellipsoid. Areas in green and blue indicate regions where the
Earth’s gravity is weaker and the geoid is below the reference ellipsoid.
Figure V-3. Global geoid undulations.

Every topographic point on the Earth’s surface has an orthometric elevation defined as the
height above mean sea level. Near coastal areas, mean sea level is determined with by tidal
gauges. In areas far from the coast, mean sea level is determined by the geoid. The geoid is
a theoretical surface used to closely approximate mean sea level. The orthometric elevation
is the distance or height from the geoid to a point on the Earth’s surface, measured along the
plumb line normal to the geoid. Each point also has an ellipsoid elevation which is the height
of the surface above the reference ellipsoid. Geoid separation is defined as the distance

Control Surveys
between the geoid and the ellipsoid at any given point. A positive value indicates that the
geoid is above the ellipsoid while a negative value indicates that the geoid is below the
ellipsoid. In Wyoming, the geoid separation ranges from -26 ft (-8 m) in the northwest
corner to -62 ft (-19 m) in the southeast corner of the state.
Every few years, the NGS uses the latest vertical measurement data to develop new geoid
models. Each subsequent model is a better representation of the actual size and shape of the
Earth. Because GPS elevations are related to the geoid, it is important to use the current
version to achieve the highest level of accuracy. The latest model, Geoid 12A, supersedes the
previous models, Geoid 12 and Geoid 09. Figure V-4 is an illustration of geoid, ellipsoid,
and orthometric elevations.
Figure V-4. Geodetic elevations.

2. Control Datums
A datum is an established point, line, or surface used as a reference to describe the location
of a point. In surveying and geodesy, a datum is a set of reference points on the Earth’s
surface. These reference points are used to correlate measurements for the determination of
horizontal and vertical positions.
Because datums may be defined by differing points of origin, a specific location can have
substantially different coordinates. There are hundreds of locally developed datums around
the world, usually related to a convenient reference point. Contemporary datums, based on
increasingly accurate measurements of the shape of the Earth, are intended to cover larger
areas for measurement.
A nationwide network of control monuments and bench marks provide the basis for
horizontal and vertical datums. A horizontal datum is used to define latitude and longitude or
northing and easting locations. A vertical datum is used to define elevations or depths.
The horizontal and vertical positions of the monuments in the control network have been
determined by precise geodetic control surveys. Subsequent control surveys use the
established monuments and bench marks to develop local project control networks. These

Section V
local control monuments are used as a reference for the collection of preliminary, cadastral,
and construction surveys.
a. Horizontal Datum
A horizontal datum is a network of survey monuments that have been assigned precise
latitude and longitude measurements. Survey stations in the datum were typically
marked with a brass, bronze, or aluminum disk set in concrete or rock. These markers
were placed so that surveyors could see one marked position from another. To maximize
the line-of-sight between monuments, they were usually set on hilltops or other areas of
high elevation. Monuments placed in areas with little vertical relief had towers built to
aid surveyors in locating them.
Figure V-5. USC&GS Brass cap.

The datum is then used as a reference for the development of new control networks.
Surveyors have historically used a procedure referred to as triangulation to “connect” the
horizontal monuments into a unified network. Using this procedure, the location of a
point is determined by measuring angles to it from other known points. The new point is
fixed as the third point of a triangle with one known side and two known angles. Another
procedure used by surveyors is the traverse method.
A traverse starts from two known points to provide a beginning azimuth (or direction)
and position. Angles and distances are measured throughout the traverse at intermediate
points. The traverse is then completed at two known points to check the ending azimuth
and position. Today, surveyors rely almost exclusively on the Global Positioning System
(GPS) to determine monument positions. Regardless of the method used to determine
monument positions, the observations are adjusted to correct misclosure errors.

Control Surveys
(1) History
In 1807, the U.S. Coast Survey was established to chart the country’s coast in the
New York Bay area. Shortly thereafter, its mission changed to include surveys of the
interior as the nation grew westward. In 1878 the agency was reorganized into the
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey (USC&GS).
The first coordinate reference system was established from geodetic surveys
performed in 1816 and 1817. The reference system has evolved from the original 11
local markers to more than 250,000 monuments around the country. These stations
support various activities such as:
 Topographic mapping
 Nautical and aeronautical charting
 Engineering and construction
 Public utility management
 Tectonic motion studies
 Environmental hazard analysis
 Geographic information systems
Early surveys were often based on a local datum or reference system that was
determined by astronomical observations. These surveys were performed to develop
nautical charts of small areas. Many other local surveys were used to develop maps
as the country expanded westward. It soon became apparent that a common set of
reference points were needed. Without a common reference, maps and charts
produced from these surveys would not be compatible.
By 1900, a sufficient amount of observations were obtained to complete a national

geodetic datum. The datum, containing approximately 2,500 monuments, was based
on the Clarke 1866 reference ellipsoid. The datum became known as the U.S.
Standard Datum of 1901.
In 1913, the U.S. Standard Datum became known as the North American Datum
(NAD) when the governments of Canada and Mexico adopted it. The geodetic center
of the datum is a survey station named Meades Ranch. The monument is located in
Kansas near the geographic center of the contiguous United States.
In the 1920’s, the USC&GS expanded the national network to more than 25,000
survey monuments. This network established limited geodetic control in many areas
that were not involved in the 1901 datum. These new observations were incorporated
into an adjustment known as the North American Datum of 1927 (NAD 27).
An increase in economic and scientific growth after World War II resulted in a need
for accurate coordinate information. Development of distance measuring equipment
and aerial photography enhanced the capabilities of geodesists, surveyors, and
cartographers to provide more precise positional data. Satellite and remote sensing
Section V
technology improved and was made available for civilian applications. Due to these
innovations, it became apparent that the NAD 27 coordinates were not sufficiently
accurate.
To provide more accurate global mapping, improved geoids and geocentric ellipsoids
were developed. Newer geoid models combined terrestrial surveying measurements
with information gathered from space-based satellites. The geocentric ellipsoid
models (centered about the Earth’s mass) more closely approximate the true size and
shape of the Earth. Three ellipsoids of note are the World Geodetic System of 1972
(WGS 72), the Geodetic Reference System of 1980 (GRS 80), and the World
Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84). The GRS 80 ellipsoid system was adopted by
the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics in 1979. The U.S. Department of
Defense (DoD) used the WGS 72 ellipsoid for its worldwide navigation until 1986
when it switched to WGS 84. The WGS 84 ellipsoid was last revised in 2004.
In 1970, the Federal Government underwent a reorganization that created the

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The USC&GS became
known as the National Geodetic Survey (NGS) and was placed under NOAA. In
1971, the NGS began an adjustment of the North American Datum to meet the
demands for increased positional accuracy. The development of the North American
Datum of 1983 (NAD 83) included a readjustment of existing survey observations.
The adjustment resulted in the publication of coordinate data for approximately
250,000 geodetic control markers throughout the United States.
Just as there was a need to adjust the NAD 27 datum, there was also a need to revise
the NAD 83 datum. Further improvements in the Global Positioning System (GPS)
revealed inaccuracies in individual survey monuments. Recent versions of the North
American Datum include NAD 83 (1993), NAD 83 (CORS), and NAD 83 (2007).
The latest version is the NAD 83 (2011) datum.
The shift between the various datums is not uniform across the United States. There
isn’t a single value that can be applied to every latitude and longitude in an older
datum. However, the NGS provides software that transforms geodetic coordinates
between datums. NADCON is conversion program that converts latitude and
longitude positions between the NAD 27 and NAD 83 datums. NADCON also
converts horizontal positions between the NAD 83 datum and the NAD 83 (1993)
datum. This conversion tool is available on the NGS website and can be accessed
through the following link: http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/TOOLS.
b. Vertical Datum
A vertical datum is a collection of specific points on the Earth’s surface with known
heights in relation to mean sea level. Near coastal areas, mean sea level is determined
with a tide gauge. In areas far away from the shore, mean sea level is determined by the
geoid.
Bench marks in the vertical datum use a non-corrosive metal disk set in concrete or rock
to mark elevations. The disks are similar to survey markers used to identify positions in

Control Surveys
the horizontal datum. Beginning in 1978, the NGS introduced an improved bench mark
into the National Vertical Control Network. The reference point for the elevation is the
top of a stainless steel rod which is protected inside an aluminum casement. The rod,
driven to refusal, is accessed by lifting a hinged cover. The bench mark is designed to
prevent near-surface soil disturbances such as frost heave, soil shrinkage, and soil
swelling. This is accomplished by encasing the rod in a lubricated sleeve to the depth of
expected soil movement.
Figure V-6. Modern NGS bench mark.

The traditional method for establishing new elevations is differential leveling. This
method uses a known elevation at one location to determine the elevation at another
location. For further information on differential leveling, see part C in this Section.
(1) History
The U.S. Coast Survey established the first geodetic quality leveling route in the
United States in 1856. The leveling survey was required for tide and current studies
in the New York Bay and Hudson River. The USC&GS began the transcontinental
level line in 1887 at bench mark ‘A’ in Hagerstown, Maryland. The survey followed
the 39th parallel and reached the Pacific by 1904.
By 1900, the vertical control network in the U.S. included 4,200 bench marks and
more than 13,000 miles of geodetic leveling. Because the vertical networks in each
area were usually fixed to a local reference, most of the data was not compatible. A
single vertical datum was needed to link the level elevations. A vertical datum was
created and referenced to local mean sea level. Mean sea level is the average (or
mean) height of the ocean’s surface measured by tidal stations over a 19-year period.
This time period, known as a tidal epoch, is a complete sun and moon cycle and

Section V
accounts for the effects on ocean levels. Subsequent adjustments of the leveling
network were performed by the USC&GS in 1903, 1907, and 1912.
By the late 1920’s, over 60,000 miles of leveling data had been collected. Mean sea
level was being measured at 26 tide gauges in the United States and Canada. The
gauges were connected through tidal bench marks to an extensive leveling network
throughout the United States. However, the height of mean sea level was found to
vary slightly from one tidal gauge to another.
In 1929, the USC&GS began a least-squares adjustment of all geodetic leveling data
completed in the United States and Canada. Because of the variations in mean sea
level, the network was adjusted to set the elevation of mean sea level at each tidal
gauge to zero. This adjustment established the 1929 Sea Level Datum, to reference
each bench mark elevation to mean sea level. The datum was later renamed the
National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 29).
Since 1929, approximately 385,000 miles of leveling has been added to the National
Geodetic Reference System (NGRS). Periodic discussions were held to determine the
proper time for the inevitable adjustment. In the early 1970’s, NGS conducted an
extensive inventory of the vertical control network. The search identified thousands
of bench marks that had been destroyed. Many existing bench mark elevations were
affected by:
 Changes in sea level
 Movement of the Earth’s crust
 Uplift due to postglacial rebound
 Ground subsidence resulting from the withdrawal of underground water and oil
Beginning in 1977, the NGVD 29 datum was adjusted to remove inaccuracies and to
correct distortions in the network adjustment. Much of the first-order NGS vertical
control network had to be re-leveled. Damaged or destroyed monuments were
replaced with newer, more stable deep-rod bench marks. Due to the local variations
at each tidal station, mean sea level was based on a single tidal gauge located in
Quebec. In 1991, the result of the vertical adjustment of new and old leveling data
was released. This adjustment also included level runs completed in Mexico and
Canada. This new datum, called the North American Vertical Datum of 1988
(NAVD 88), provides a more accurate vertical reference system.
Similar to the horizontal datums, there isn’t an exact correlation or translation

between vertical datums. VERTCOM is an NGS conversion program that computes
orthometric height differences between the NGVD 29 and NAVD 88 datums. The
conversion is determined for any location specified by latitude and longitude. This
conversion tool is available on the NGS website and can be accessed through the
following link: http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/TOOLS.

Control Surveys
3. Coordinate Systems
A coordinate system is used to determine the position of any point relative to an origin.
Two-dimensional (2-D) coordinate systems utilize a pair of coordinate values to define a
location in a single plane. A three-dimensional (3-D) coordinate system uses three
coordinates to define a location in three perpendicular planes.
The Cartesian coordinate system, also known as the rectangular coordinate system, is used to
determine the location of points in a plane. The plane is defined by a Y (north-south) axis
and an X (east-west) axis. The axes intersect each other at right angles at a location defined
as the origin. The perpendicular distance of any point from the north-south axis is the easting
(x) coordinate. The perpendicular distance of any point from the east-west axis is the
northing (y) coordinate. The position of a point within the coordinate system is expressed
with easting and northing (x, y) values.
Figure V-7. Two-dimensional coordinate system.

Section V
The polar coordinate system is another coordinate system used to define points located in a
single plane. The location of a point is determined by the angle and distance from the origin.
The angular coordinate ( ) is the angle between the polar (X) axis and a line to the point. The
radial coordinate (r) is the distance from the origin to the point.
Polar coordinates can be converted to Cartesian coordinates using the sine and cosine
trigonometric functions. Conversely, Cartesian coordinates can be converted to polar
coordinates using the Pythagorean Theorem and the inverse of the tangent trigonometric
function.
;
Figure V-8. Polar coordinate system.

Control Surveys
A three-dimensional (3-D) Cartesian coordinate system adds a third (Z) axis to provide
another dimension of measurement. The perpendicular distance from the Z axis defines the
elevation (z) of a point. The position of a point within the coordinate system is expressed
with easting, northing, and elevation (x, y, z) values.
Figure V-9. Three-dimensional coordinate system.

4. State Plane Zones
The state plane coordinate system (SPCS) was established in 1933 by the United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey (USC&GS). The USC&GS, now known as the National Geodetic
Survey (NGS), developed the system to simplify geodetic calculations. Prior to the
development of the SPCS, geodetic positions were given in latitudes and longitudes and
involved complex computations on the surface of an ellipsoid. By ignoring the curvature of
the Earth, the SPCS allows surveyors to use a rectangular coordinate system to define
specific locations.
The SPCS is a network of individual state plane zones designed for specific regions
throughout the United States. Each zone has an independent rectangular (or Cartesian)
coordinate system with its own point of origin. The zones were created by using map
projections to transform geodetic coordinates on a curved surface to rectangular coordinates
on a flat plane. Distortions between the curved surface and the plane are not evident for
small areas. However, as the projection area becomes larger, the distortions become more
apparent.

Section V
Distortions in a map projection are defined as the difference between distances calculated on
the ellipsoid compared to the state plane. A maximum distortion of 1 part in 10,000 was
established for the system. To maintain accuracy, larger states were divided into smaller
zones the boundaries of which typically follow county lines. Only the smallest of states
contain one state plane zone. There are a total of 110 zones in the continental U.S., with 10
more in Alaska, and 5 in Hawaii. Figure V-10 is an illustration of the four Wyoming state
plane zones.
Figure V-10. Wyoming state plane zones.

Control Surveys
Most state plane zones are based on either a transverse Mercator map projection or a Lambert
conformal conic map projection. The map projection is centered about a longitudinal line
referred to as the central meridian. The specific map projection is dependent on the shape
and size of the state. States that are longer in the east-west direction are divided into similar
shaped zones that are also longer in the east-west direction. These zones use the Lambert
projection to superimpose an imaginary cone over the ellipsoid. The apex of the cone is
aligned with the Earth’s rotational axis. Figure V-11 is an illustration of a Lambert
conformal conic projection.
Figure V-11. Lambert conformal conic projection.

States that are longer in the north-south direction are divided into zones that are also longer
in the north-south direction. These zones use the transverse Mercator projection to
superimpose an imaginary cylinder over the ellipsoid. The axis of the cylinder lies in the
Earth’s equatorial plane. Figure V-12 is an illustration of a transverse Mercator map
projection. All four Wyoming state plane zones are transverse Mercator projections.
Either map projection intersects the ellipsoid along two lines, called secants. Along the
secant lines, distortions between the curved surface and the plane are essentially zero.
However, distortions increase as the distance from the secant lines increase. To maximize
the accuracy of each zone, the width of either projection is limited to 158 miles (254 km).

Section V
Also, the secant lines are positioned such that 2/3 of the zone lies between them and 1/6 of
the zone lies outside.
Figure V-12. Transverse Mercator projection.

a. State Plane Coordinates
To convert geodetic positions from the ellipsoid to a plane, points are first
mathematically projected onto an imaginary surface. This surface is then laid out flat
without further distortion in shape or size. A rectangular grid is superimposed over the
flat surface to establish x and y state plane coordinates. Easting coordinates increase
from west to east and are measured as the distance from the origin. The northing
coordinates increase from south to north and are measured as the distance from the
origin. The x and y coordinate values assigned to the grid’s origin are termed “false
easting” and “false northing”.
The grid origin is located south of each state plane zone to assure that the northing
coordinates are positive. The easting coordinate at the origin is assigned a sufficiently
large number to assure that these values remain positive. As mentioned earlier, each state
plane zone has its own independent coordinate system. The easting and northing
coordinates in adjacent zones are sufficiently different in magnitude to avoid confusing
the coordinates.

Control Surveys
State Plane Zone Central Meridian Latitude False False Zone

Zone Number Longitude Of Origin Easting (m) Northing (m) Width
East 4901 105°10’00” 40°30’00” 200,000 0 3°00’00”
East Central 4902 107°20’00” 40°30’00” 400,000 100,000 3°00’00”
West Central 4903 108°45’00” 40°30’00” 600,000 0 3°00’00”
West 4904 110°05’00” 40°30’00” 800,000 100,000 3°00’00”
Table V-1. Wyoming state plane zone properties.

b. Surface Coordinates
A distance measured between two points on the Earth’s surface will differ from a
distance calculated between the same two points on the state plane. An adjustment of the
surface coordinates becomes necessary for these distances to match. It is important to
remember that a particular adjustment is only valid over a relatively small area. The
magnitude of the adjustment depends on the elevation and location within the state plane
zone.
All surveys utilizing project control monuments are based on surface (or ground)
coordinates. This is necessary to produce mapping on a surface that matches the ground
on which the project will be designed and constructed. The use of scaling factors is used
to equate ellipsoid, grid plane, and ground distances.
Figure V-13. Grid, ellipsoid, and surface distances.

Section V
One component of the adjustment involves the projection of positions from a curved
surface to a flat plane. A grid scale factor is used to convert positions located on the
ellipsoid to positions on the state plane grid. It is a dimensionless scale factor that
reflects the difference between distances on the ellipsoid and distances on a plane. The
grid scale factor varies across the state plane zone and is dependent on the distance from
the central meridian in the east-west direction. It is less than 1.0 at the central meridian,
equal to 1.0 at the secant lines, and greater than 1.0 when the state plane is above the
ellipsoid. For each Wyoming state plane zone, the grid scale factor is 0.9999375 at the
central meridian. This equates to a scale factor equal to 1 part in 16,000.
Figure V-14. Grid scale factor.

The other component of the conversion is a function of elevation. An elevation factor is
another dimensionless scale factor used to convert distances. This scale factor is used to
convert a distance on the ground to an equivalent distance projected onto the ellipsoid.
The elevation factor varies as the elevation of the Earth’s surface changes.

Control Surveys
As the ground elevation increases, the distance from the center of the Earth to its surface
increases. This distance is equal to the radius of the Earth. As the radius increases, the
corresponding arc length also increases. Thus, a distance measured on the ellipsoid is
shorter than a corresponding distance measured on the ground due to the longer radius. A
distance measured on the surface must be reduced in proportion to the change in radius
between the ellipsoid and the surface.
The grid and elevation factors for each project are determined from the adjusted project
control positions by GPS post-processing software. The combined datum adjustment
factor (DAF) is a product of the grid scale factor multiplied by the elevation factor. State
plane coordinates are multiplied by the reciprocal of the DAF to determine corresponding
surface coordinates.
Each project control monument is “occupied” by GPS receivers in a series of static and
rapid-static networks. The raw GPS data is then adjusted with proprietary post-
processing GPS software. Although combined factors are computed for each control
monument, a single DAF is used for the entire project. This DAF is an average of the
individual DAF values of each project control point. The single adjustment factor does
not cause an appreciable loss in accuracy and will eliminate confusion caused by multiple
factors. The DAF value is carried out to nine decimal places so that surface coordinates
can be accurately calculated to the nearest ten-thousandth of a meter.
Figure V-15. Scale factors.

The purpose of the DAF is to keep surface coordinate computation errors less than
1:50,000 for the entire project. This equates to a linear error of less than 0.02 ft (0.006
m) in a 1000 ft (305 m) distance. Occasionally, the DAF for an individual control point
will differ from the project DAF by more than 0.00002. When this happens, errors
greater than 1:50,000 will occur. These situations typically take place on projects that are
extremely long, have a considerable elevation difference, or run in a predominantly east-
west direction. The project may need to be broken into shorter lengths with a separate

Section V
DAF for each segment. Splitting the project will keep the computational errors within
acceptable standards. Project control monuments may have dual surface coordinates for
each DAF where the project has been split.
5. Azimuths
Azimuths are expressed as an angular measurement from a reference line or meridian to an
observed line. One of the many interpretations of North is typically used as a reference,
although a south reference has also been used. The angular measurement will range through
a full circle, most commonly expressed as 0° to 360° measured clockwise from the reference.
a. Azimuth References
The most commonly used references are geodetic north, astronomic north, magnetic
north, grid north, and an assumed north.
(1) Geodetic North

Geodetic north is defined at any point by a meridian that passes through the north and
south geodetic poles. Surveys are typically based on the geodetic north reference
unless otherwise specified. Geodetic north may also be referred to as geographic
north.
(2) Astronomic North

Astronomic north is determined by a celestial body. Polaris (the North Star) is
typically used to define this reference. Astronomic north is very close to geodetic
north, and the two have sometimes been used interchangeably.
(3) Magnetic North

Magnetic north is based on magnetic or compass meridians which run through the
magnetic north and south poles. In the northern hemisphere, magnetic north is the
direction that a compass needle will point toward. The Earth’s magnetic poles are not
at the same location as the geodetic poles and are constantly changing.
Figure V-16. North references.

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(4) Grid North

Grid north at any point within a state plane zone is parallel to the central meridian.
While geodetic north meridians converge at the poles, grid north remains parallel to
the central meridian. Therefore, only at the central meridian will grid north point in
the same direction as geodetic north. Figure V-17 is an illustration comparing
geodetic north and grid north.
Figure V-17. Geodetic and grid north.

(5) Assumed North
Assumed north is an arbitrary direction assigned to be 0°.

Section V
b. Forward and Back Azimuths

The direction of a given line is usually stated as an azimuth measured from its beginning
point to an ending point. This is called the forward azimuth. Each line also has a
corresponding back azimuth, which is the azimuth measured from its ending point back
to the beginning point. The difference between the forward azimuth and the backward
azimuth is always 180 degrees.
Figure V-18. Forward and back azimuths.

B. GPS Surveying
The practical uses of GPS are more meaningful to the surveyor or engineer than the theory
behind it. However, when performing a GPS survey, an understanding of the basic principles
involved is important. Like any tool, GPS equipment is most effective when it is used in the
proper situations. Planning, preparation, and an awareness of the capabilities and limitations of
GPS are critical factors for a successful survey.
Note: The methods of GPS surveying in this section apply only to preliminary surveys. For
information on construction surveys or land surveys, consult the Construction Manual or
the Right-of-Way Program.
Surveying with GPS equipment has many advantages over conventional surveying methods:
 It is not necessary to have intervisibility between project control monuments.
 GPS collection can be used at any time, day or night, and in most weather conditions.
 GPS methods typically produce results with very high geodetic accuracy.

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 In general, more work can be accomplished in less time with fewer people.
Using GPS equipment also has several disadvantages:
 GPS receivers require a clear view to a minimum of four satellites.
 Satellite signals may be blocked or deflected by buildings, trees, utility poles, etc.
 GPS cannot be used indoors and is difficult to use in urban environments, heavily wooded
areas, or in mountainous terrain.
 The vertical component of GPS measurements may not meet established collection standards
for features with critical elevation accuracies.
Due to these limitations, it may be necessary in some survey applications to use an optical
instrument by itself or in conjunction with GPS equipment.
1. The Global Positioning System

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a worldwide radio-navigation system. The system
was originally intended to be used for military applications only. GPS technology has since
evolved into a resource used by civilians for locating, navigating, tracking, mapping, and
timing applications. The space segment, control segment, and user segment are key
components of GPS.
The space segment consists of a constellation of up to 32 satellites traveling in nearly circular

orbital patterns. The exact number varies as older satellites are continually retired and
replaced. The satellites are positioned in six Earth-centered orbital planes approximately
11,000 miles (17,700 km) above the surface of the Earth. The orbits are equally spaced
about the equator at a 60 degree separation with an inclination of 55 degrees relative to the
equator.
Figure V-19. Satellite orbits.

The orbital period of a GPS satellite is one-half of a sidereal day or 11 hours 58 minutes.
Each satellite will arrive at a specific location above the Earth’s surface every 23 hours 56

Section V
minutes. Because satellite and Earth rotational periods are slightly different, each satellite
will appear above the same location of the Earth four minutes earlier every day. Each
satellite transmits a signal that gives its current position and time.
The control segment consists of monitor stations, ground antennas, and a master control
station. The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) operates a globally distributed
network of automated GPS monitor stations. This network is positioned to allow each
satellite to be observed by at least two monitor stations. Their primary mission is to collect
observations from satellites in the GPS constellation. Each satellite’s operational health,
ephemeris (altitude, speed, and position), and clock offsets are continually monitored.
Figure V-20. Monitor and control station locations.

The monitor stations send the satellite information to the master control station located at
Schriever AFB in Colorado Springs, CO. The data is processed to identify positional or
timing errors for each satellite. The updated ephemeris data and clock offset corrections are
then transmitted to each satellite via ground antennas. The satellites incorporate these
updates to ensure accurate orbital data is included into the signals sent to ground-based GPS
receivers.
The user segment includes the equipment used by civilian and military personnel to receive
GPS signals. The GPS receiver equipment consists of an antenna and receiver. The antenna
acquires the GPS signals while the receiver decodes the signals to determine position,
velocity, and time.
2. A Brief History of GPS

Trying to calculate a precise position on the Earth’s surface has always been a difficult
problem to solve. Over the years various technologies have tried to simplify the task but
every method had disadvantages. The United States Department of Defense (DoD) needed a
very precise method of worldwide positioning.
In the latter days of the arms race, targeting and hitting specific sites became very precise.
But a target could only be hit if the exact launch point is known. However, the majority of
the U.S. nuclear arsenal was at sea on submarines. The DoD had to find a way to allow the

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subs to surface and calculate their exact position. With the development of the Global
Positioning System, this was now possible.
Figure V-21. GPS satellite.

The Navigational Satellite Timing and Ranging (NAVSTAR) system is the official name for
the positioning system used by the DoD. The first GPS satellite was launched in 1978 and a
full constellation of 24 satellites were in orbit by 1994. The spacing of the satellites was
arranged so that a minimum of five satellites are in view from every point on the globe.
While each satellite has a designed life expectancy of approximately 10 years, replacements
are continuously being built and launched. The satellites are powered by solar energy and
use onboard batteries in the absence of solar power. Small rocket boosters are used to keep
satellites in their intended orbit.
3. Global Navigation Satellite Systems

A Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) provides autonomous positioning with global
coverage. The coverage for each system is generally achieved by a constellation of 20 to 30
satellites spread between several orbital planes. Although each system varies, satellites
generally orbit the Earth in 12 hours and travel in the middle Earth orbit at an altitude
between 12,000 to 15,000 miles (19,300 to 24,100 km).
The United States’ NAVSTAR Global Positioning System is the only fully operational
GNSS. Currently, there are three other global navigational systems in the process of being
developed and implemented. These navigation systems, when operational, will provide
positional data that is complementary to the U.S. Global Positioning System.
The Russian GLONASS system was a fully functional constellation developed in the days of
the Soviet Union. With the fall of Communism, GLONASS fell into a state of disrepair
leading to gaps in coverage and partial availability. The Russian Federation has since
committed to completely restoring the navigational system. Currently, 24 of the 28
GLONASS satellites are fully operational.

Section V
Galileo is the project name for the satellite navigation system being developed by the
European Space Agency. Designed specifically for commercial and civilian use, Galileo is
intended to provide a higher degree of navigational accuracy than is available with
NAVSTAR or GLONASS. Currently, Galileo is in the initial deployment phase and is
scheduled to have all 30 satellites in orbit by 2020.
The Chinese are developing an extension to their regional navigational system, known as
Compass. The current system replaces an earlier satellite system referred to as Beidou (Big
Dipper). Compass became operational in China in December 2011, and expand into a global
network by 2020. The global Compass system is proposed to utilize 30 orbiting satellites and
five geostationary satellites.
In the near future, these systems have the potential to provide a minimum of 75 satellites for
civilian users. GPS receivers will be able to combine the signals from each system to greatly
increase positional accuracy. However, older receivers will need to be upgraded or replaced
to utilize these global navigational systems.
4. How GPS Works

The GPS process utilizes orbiting satellites as reference points for determining locations on
or near the Earth’s surface. By measuring the distance from a minimum of three different
satellites, a ground-based GPS receiver can then determine its position. The receiver then
uses a fourth measurement to another satellite to calibrate its internal clock.
a. Measuring Distance
The distance to an orbiting satellite is calculated by measuring the elapsed time for a
signal sent from a satellite to arrive at a receiver. This method uses the equation distance
equals velocity multiplied by travel time. Radio signals travel at the speed of light or
roughly 186,000 miles (300,000 km) per second. The travel time of a signal emitted from
a satellite directly overhead is approximately 0.06 seconds. Because the travel time of
the radio signal is so short, very precise clocks are needed.
The pseudo-random code (PRC) is a fundamental part of GPS. It is a digital code with a
complicated sequence of “on” and “off” pulses. The signal is so complicated that it
resembles random electrical noise. Since all satellites use the same frequency, this
pattern ensures that a GPS receiver can distinguish each signal sent from every satellite.
The complex digital code also makes the system more difficult to jam and gives the DoD
a way to control access to the system.
Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a signal with the time of day and its
ephemeris (among other information). There is a very slight delay between the time the
satellite broadcasts the signal to the time the receiver detects it. The amount of delay is
equal to the travel time of the satellite’s signal. The distance to the satellite is then
calculated by multiplying the delay by the speed of light.
Using the GPS signals, a receiver calculates the range (distance to each satellite) to
determine its position. When a single range is known, the receiver calculates its position
as any point located on an imaginary sphere with the satellite at the center. The receiver

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simultaneously generates an imaginary sphere with each visible satellite. By generating a

sphere with three satellites, the receiver narrows its location to two possible points.
Figure V-22 is an illustration of the intersection of these spheres. The receiver can
typically dismiss one of the points leaving only one possible solution. However, to
determine a precise position, a fourth satellite must be used.
Figure V-22. Position determination.

b. Signal Timing
Each satellite in the constellation is equipped with an atomic clock. By using the
oscillations of a cesium atom, these clocks are the most accurate form of timing ever
developed. The atomic clocks installed in each GNSS satellite are synchronized with
Universal Time established by the U.S. Naval Observatory.
Measuring the travel time of the radio signal emitted by a satellite is the key to precise
GPS positioning. As mentioned earlier, the radio signal is traveling at the speed of light.
If the timing is off by only one thousandth of a second, an error of 186 miles (300 km)
can result. For the system to work correctly, the receiver’s clock must be also be
precisely synchronized.
By making a fourth satellite measurement, the receiver can eliminate any clock
inaccuracies. The distance from a receiver to a satellite is calculated from the radio
signal travel time. If the receiver was perfectly synchronized with Universal Time, then
each satellite range would intersect at a single point. But with an imperfect clock in the
receiver, a fourth measurement will not intersect with the first three. The receiver then
calculates a correction factor to apply to each timing measurement that allows all ranges
to intersect at a single point. This correction synchronizes the receiver’s clock and is
constantly repeated to keep the clock synchronized.
5. The GPS Signal

GPS satellites emit radio signals on two carrier frequencies. The L1 frequency is 1575.42

Section V
MHz and transmits satellite status information and the pseudo-random code. The L2
frequency is 1227.60 MHz and transmits another, more precise pseudo-random code. The
PRC carried by the L1 signal modulates at a 1 MHz rate and is called the Coarse/Acquisition
(C/A) code. The C/A code is the basis for civilian GPS use. The second PRC carried by the
L2 signal modulates at a 10 MHz rate and is called the Precise-code (P-code). This code is
intended for military users and when encrypted is referred to as the Y-code.
Currently, there are over 30 operational satellites in the GPS constellation. Additional
satellites with modernized signals are continually being put into orbit. These satellites are
capable of transmitting L2C signals (civilian signals on the satellite’s L2 carrier). The new
L2C signal will make GPS observations even more reliable. However, a GPS receiver
capable of tracking the L2C signal will be required.
An entirely new L5 carrier is being transmitted on a new generation of satellites. The

launching of these satellites began in 2007. With the L1, L2, L2C, and L5 carriers available,
the capabilities of GPS systems should be significantly boosted and will provide more
benefits for surveyors. In addition, the L5 signal will provide a higher power output than the
other carriers. As a result, acquiring and tracking signals will be easier. As with the L2C
signal, a GPS receiver capable of tracking the L5 signal will be required.
6. Satellite Geometry
Dilution of precision (DOP) is a measure of satellite geometry as it relates to the spacing and
position of every satellite above the mask angle. Several different types of DOP can be
calculated. Time dilution of precision (TDOP) measures accuracy degradation as it relates to
time. Vertical dilution of precision (VDOP) measures accuracy degradation as it relates to
elevation. Horizontal dilution of precision (HDOP) measures accuracy degradation as it
relates to latitude and longitude. Positional dilution of precision (PDOP) measures accuracy
degradation as it relates to latitude, longitude, and elevation. Geometric dilution of precision
(GDOP) measures accuracy degradation as it relates to latitude, longitude, elevation, and
time.
Lower DOP values occur when satellite constellations are evenly distributed throughout the
visible sky. The most accurate positions will generally be achieved when GDOP values are
5.0 or lower. When GDOP values exceed 8.0, GPS data collection should be suspended.
Software programs using the latest GPS almanac are used to predict DOP values for a
specific location and time. When DOP values are known, GPS sessions may be scheduled to
collect data during times of optimal DOP values. See Figure V-23 for an example of a
satellite availability program.
The GPS almanac is comprised of data transmitted from orbiting satellites regarding the
operational status of the entire constellation. Orbital information for individual satellites is
also included in the almanac. When an up-to-date almanac is loaded onto a receiver, it can
acquire satellite signals and determine an initial position more quickly.
Because atmospheric effects are increased for satellites closer to the horizon, an minimum
elevation mask of 15 degrees should be set in each receiver. An elevation mask is the lowest
elevation above the receiver’s horizon that satellite data is recorded. The receiver’s horizon

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is defined by a level plane radiating out from the antenna. The receiver will not utilize a
signal emitted from any satellites orbiting below this elevation. Most obstructions below the
elevation mask can be ignored but multipath signals from a surface below the mask can still
reach the antenna.
Figure V-23. Satellite availability program.

7. Error Sources in GPS
Measurement errors in GPS can never be completely eliminated. However, through proper
planning, collection procedures, redundant measurements, and random checks most errors
can be identified and mitigated. There are many external factors that adversely affect GPS
signals and consequently the GPS survey.
a. Atmospheric Errors
Changes in atmospheric conditions alter the speed of GPS signals as they travel from the
satellite to the Earth’s surface. Any delay in the signal causes measurement errors that
affect the accuracy of calculated positions. Correcting these errors is a significant
challenge to improving GPS accuracy. Atmospheric effects are minimized when
satellites are directly overhead. The effects are increased for satellites closer to the

Section V
horizon because the signal must pass through more of the Earth’s atmosphere. Once the
receiver’s approximate location is known, mathematical models can be used to estimate
and compensate for some of these errors.
Figure V-24. Atmospheric disturbances.

The ionosphere is a layer of the Earth’s atmosphere that ranges in altitude from 30 to 300
miles. This layer mainly consists of ionized or charged particles. Increased ionosphere
disturbances are caused by solar particles and magnetic fields emitted by the sun. Any
significant increase in solar activity can adversely affect GPS collections. Space weather
conditions are posted on the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
website, http://www.swpc.noaa.gov. NOAA’s Space Weather Prediction Center (SWPC)
provides warnings in three different categories; geomagnetic storms, solar radiation
storms, and radio blackouts. GPS surveys should not be collected during severe solar
weather events.
Satellite signals passing through the ionosphere layer are subject to refraction which
results in a delay of the GPS signal. The effects of the ionosphere for receivers less than
6 miles (10 km) are nearly equal for each receiver. However, when the receivers are
greater than 6 miles apart, the ionosphere effect is not equal. Ionospheric modeling is
accomplished by receivers with multi-channel tracking and dual frequency capabilities.
While much of the error caused by the ionosphere can be removed through mathematical
modeling, it is still one of the most significant error sources.
The troposphere is the portion of the atmosphere closest to the Earth’s surface and is the
densest layer of the atmosphere. The tropospheric effects are more localized and change
more quickly than the ionospheric effects. However, errors caused by the troposphere are
smaller than ionospheric errors. This layer is mainly comprised of water vapor and varies
in temperature, pressure, and humidity. Because of this variability, errors are more
difficult to predict and can only be approximated by a general calculation model.
Atmospheric modeling is accomplished by receivers with dual frequency capabilities that

compare the relative speeds of two different signals. Low-frequency signals get refracted
or slowed more than high-frequency signals. By comparing the delays of the two

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different carrier frequencies, L1 and L2, the atmospheric delays can be mitigated.
b. Obstructed Signals and Multipath Errors

Nearby obstructions can produce poor GPS results or can eliminate the use of GPS
altogether. Overhead obstructions may block GPS signals completely or introduce
multipath errors to limit the effective use of GPS equipment. Multipath errors result from
a GPS signal that has reached the receiver’s antenna by more than one path. This is
typically caused by a signal that has been reflected off of another surface before reaching
the GPS antenna. When a reflected signal reaches the antenna, a position is calculated as
if the signal traveled directly from the satellite. A positional error results because the
receiver interprets the slightly longer travel time as a longer travel distance from the
satellite.
Figure V-25. Signal obstructions and multipath errors.

When collecting GPS survey data, obstructions and multipath errors must be kept to a
minimum at each receiver. Sources of obstructions and multipath include but are not
limited to buildings, trees, vehicles, traffic signs, and overhead utility poles. These error
sources can be minimized by following a few simple procedures:
 Be aware of the immediate surroundings and do not place the receiver near
obstructions or reflective surfaces.
 Collect data for longer periods of time, with multiple sessions, and with substantially
different satellite constellations.
 Raise the elevation mask to eliminate the source of the multipath.
 Use an antenna with a choke ring or ground plane to reduce the effects of multipath.

Section V
c. Satellite Errors
While the satellites utilize very accurate on-board atomic clocks and follow precise
orbits, deviations are inevitable. These types of errors are the result of orbital drift and
timing errors. The discrepancies translate into travel time measurement errors that
adversely affect the position determination of the receiver. Although minor, these errors
must be accounted for to achieve greater accuracy.
The ephemeris data and clock offsets are continuously monitored by the GPS monitor
stations. Any necessary corrections are sent back to the satellites to be included in their
broadcasted signal. Positional errors occur because of the latency between the time of the
actual occurrence of the deviation(s) and the time the corrections are computed and
broadcasted. Because these errors are random in nature, the more satellites that are
tracked, the more likely these satellites errors will cancel rather than compound.
d. GPS Equipment Errors

Poorly maintained GPS equipment may potentially introduce errors into the survey.
Although not all errors caused by GPS equipment can be completely eliminated, they can
be kept to a minimum. Internal and/or external batteries should be fully charged prior to
GPS collections. Periodically check equipment cables and connectors. Memory cards
should be periodically formatted to limit the chance of corruption and to ensure adequate
storage space is available. Refer to the manufacturer’s guidelines regarding routine
maintenance and calibration.
e. Human Errors
Perhaps the biggest and most unpredictable source of error is caused by the human
element. Human errors are typically caused by inconsistent setup and collection
procedures. Care should be taken while performing GPS surveys to minimize these types
of errors. Examples of human error include but are not limited to the following:
 Incorrect reading or recording of antenna height measurements.
 Poor centering or tripod leveling procedures.
 Observing the wrong control point (e.g. setting up on a reference marker instead of
the actual survey station).
 Using GPS equipment in areas where satellite signals may be blocked or deflected.
 Collecting GPS data with an inadequate number of satellites or an elevated
GDOP/PDOP value.
 Relying on GPS measurements for critical elevations that may not meet established
collection standards.
Following established GPS setup and collection procedures will eliminate the majority of
human errors.
8. GPS Accuracy
As previously discussed, GPS accuracy is affected by a number of external factors. The
accuracy of a GPS established position is also dependant on the type of receiver. Hand-held
GPS receivers use an absolute position method to determine a location. This positioning

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method is based on the receiver’s relationship to each satellite. Survey grade receivers use a
relative position method to determine a location. This positioning method is based on the
receiver’s relationship to each satellite and to other ground based receivers.
Most hand-held GPS units establish absolute positions accurate to within 15 to 50 ft (5 to 15

m). Multi-channel, dual frequency receivers are typically able to achieve relative positional
accuracies of 3 to 5 ft (0.9 to 1.5 m). Substantially greater accuracies are achieved when a
receiver’s survey data is post-processed with another receiver’ data. Post-processing is a
procedure used to adjust raw survey data to determine a solution for each occupied position.
The receivers must run concurrently and include information from the same satellites.
GPS generated positions are typically more accurate when two (or more) measurements are
averaged. This is especially true when the measurements are separated by a time difference
of three to four hours to include a different satellite constellation. A unique result will be
produced from each observation thereby strengthening the overall solution.
9. GPS Surveying Procedures

These specifications define procedures that shall be followed while performing GPS surveys
by WYDOT personnel or contracted consultant surveyors. GPS technology is constantly
undergoing advances with respect to hardware, firmware, and post-processing software.
New and/or revised procedures for WYDOT will continually need to be developed within
this section to reflect these changes.
a. GPS Methods
There exists a wide variety of GPS surveying methods. These methods differ in the type
of equipment used, length of observation times, and accuracy attained. GPS methods that
are most commonly used within WYDOT include but are not limited to HARN, static,
rapid-static, and RTK surveys.
All GPS surveys shall be referenced to the National Spatial Reference System (NSRS).
Previously established WYDOT project control monuments tied to the NSRS are also
acceptable for reference stations. The NSRS is a highly accurate network of survey
monuments throughout the United States and is the primary source for geodetic control in
Wyoming. The National Geodetic Survey (NGS) maintains the survey monuments and
corresponding geodetic data within the NSRS. NGS and WYDOT survey monuments
are fixed positions used to establish adjusted positions for subsequent control networks.
Currently, horizontal positions are referenced to the NAD 83 (2011) horizontal datum.
Vertical elevations are referenced to the NAVD 88 vertical datum.
Information regarding survey marks in the national database can be accessed through the
NGS website http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/datasheet.prl. They provide ASCII text
datasheets that contain information for each survey control station in the database.
Datasheets for horizontal control stations show precise latitude and longitude. Datasheets
for vertical control stations or bench marks show precise elevations. Other relevant data
includes geoid height, state plane coordinates, and directions to the monument. Figure V-
26 is an example of an NGS data sheet.

Section V

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Figure V-26. NGS data sheet.

Section V
The NGS has requested that users of NSRS monuments complete an Online Mark
Recovery Form. This form allows the surveyor to submit information regarding the
location and condition of each survey marker. Monuments that have been destroyed or
cannot be found should be reported. The Online Mark Recovery Form can be accessed
through the NGS website: http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/ngs-cgi-bin/recvy_entry_www.prl.
(1) HARN Densification

The High Accuracy Reference Network (HARN) is a nationwide GPS survey
network which forms the highest order of control for the NSRS. HARN densification
surveys are used to establish geodetic positions to supplement the existing reference
network in Wyoming.
Horizontal positions for new HARN monuments are established by a GPS network
occupying a minimum of three existing HARN monuments. Vertical control is
established by completing a level loop from an NGS bench mark. If level elevations
from a bench mark are not feasible, then the GPS elevation will be used. The length
of observation for a HARN survey is two 3-hour sessions separated by at least 30
minutes to allow for a new satellite constellation.
(2) Static GPS Surveys

Static GPS surveys are used to establish horizontal and vertical coordinates for
project control monuments. The static monuments are spaced throughout the project
at a distance of approximately 3 miles (5 km). The adjusted positional coordinates
are based on a network of fixed monuments with published coordinates from the
NSRS and/or previously established WYDOT monuments.
Fixed positions with published coordinates are selected to create a network that
surrounds the project to create “good geometry.” Ideally, the surrounding
monuments should within 40 miles (65 km) from the project. Shorter baseline
lengths are easier to process and require less travel time and collection time.
Monuments that are located within the highway right-of-way or on public land are
easier to access and typically do not require permission. Monuments located on
private property, railroad right-of-way, or further than 45 miles from the project
should be avoided unless absolutely necessary.
A static network is made up of multiple GPS receivers collecting data over multiple
GPS sessions. Static observations typically range from 30 to 120 minutes depending
on the distance from the NGS/WYDOT markers to the static monuments. The data
from these observations are post-processed with proprietary GPS software using the
least-squares method of adjustment. The software generates baselines between
stationary GPS receivers that have simultaneously recorded data over an extended
period of time. The post-processing software will produce latitude and longitude
coordinates and elevations for each static monument in the network.
The longest baseline in the GPS session is used to determine the collection time. As a
rule of thumb, two minutes of collection time is needed for each kilometer of baseline
length. A baseline length of 25 miles (40 km) would require a minimum of 80

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minutes of collection time. Each static monument on the project shall be “occupied”
by a GPS receiver at least twice during the static network collection. This
redundancy improves the accuracy of the network by comparing measurements of the
same quantity.
(3) Rapid-Static Surveys

Rapid-static networks are used to establish coordinates on intermediate project
control monuments between the static monuments. The collection time for these
sessions is generally 15 minutes. Typically, five GPS receivers are used to complete
the rapid-static network by setting on consecutive monuments. After each rapid-static
session, one receiver will remain stationary for another session while the other
receivers move to the next four consecutive monuments. The monument with the
stationary receiver is referred to as a “hinge point.” The hinge points connect two
consecutive rapid-static sessions. This “leap frog” method is repeated until all of the
project control monuments have been occupied. Additional rapid-static sessions
called hinge point sessions use the same procedure, but are centered on each hinge
point. These sessions provide overlapping baselines for the network. Figures V-27
and V-28 are illustrations depicting these rapid-static sessions.
Figure V-27. Rapid-static collections.

Positional values derived from the static network are used to establish latitude and
longitude coordinates for the intermediate monuments. Based on the appropriate
Wyoming state plane zone, northing and easting coordinate values are also
determined. The datum adjustment factor (DAF) is calculated from the adjusted

Section V
rapid-static network. The DAF is used to compute surface coordinates for the project
control monuments.
Figure V-28. Hinge point collections.

Level circuits using a digital level are used to establish elevations throughout the
project control. If available, an NGS bench mark should be used as the starting
elevation for the levels. Refer to the Differential Leveling portion in Part C of this
section for more information on differential leveling procedures.
(4) Real-Time Kinematic Surveys

Real-time kinematic (RTK) surveys are a “radial” type of survey that utilizes two or
more GPS receivers. RTK surveying does not require the data to be post-processed;
thereby allowing the surveyor to obtain coordinates in “real-time”. The base or
reference station is a receiver that remains stationary over a project control monument
with known coordinates. The rover is any other receiver moving from point to point
collecting data for short periods of time. RTK surveys measure baselines from the
base station to the rover by a radio data link. These baselines consist of delta x, delta
y, and delta z measurements between the base and the rover.
From these measurements, Cartesian coordinates are produced in “real-time” by each

rover. This method allows the surveyor to stake points similar to conventional
surveying methods. Data can also be collected by the rovers while the base station
has an autonomous position. The computed coordinates for the base can be assigned
later in the office using post-processing software.
The base station consists of a GPS receiver, data collector, antenna, broadcasting
radio, and tripod. Each rover is comprised of a GPS receiver, data collector, antenna,

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receiving radio, and RTK pole. Depending on the accuracy required, a bipod or
tripod may be required to stabilize the rover pole during collection. The data transfer
link may be either a UHF/VHF radio link, a cellular telephone link, or a spread
spectrum radio link. A UHF/VHF radio link with an output greater than one watt
requires a Federal Communications Commission (FCC) license.
RTK collection under a forest canopy or in an urban environment is generally not

recommended. However, this method is acceptable if the resulting solutions are
within defined survey standards. Refer to Section VIII, Survey Standards, in this
manual for defined accuracy tolerances. The surveyor must make an informed
decision when choosing the appropriate methodology to be used in a particular
project area. For survey projects with marginal sky visibility, conventional
instrument methods should be considered instead of RTK equipment.
A minimum of five satellites should be available throughout the RTK survey to

increase the accuracy of the survey. Each receiver should also have an elevation
mask setting from 10 to 15 degrees, depending on the manufacturer’s specifications.
Under optimum conditions, most RTK equipment is able to achieve a horizontal

accuracy of 0.03 ft (1.0 cm) + 1 ppm and a vertical accuracy of 0.06 ft (2.0 cm) + 1
ppm. The parts per million (ppm) constant is the amount of additional error added to
an RTK measurement. This constant is dependent on the rover’s distance from the
base. A measurement distance of 1,000 ft (305 m) will result in 0.001 ft (0.3 mm) of
error. If a rover is 6 miles (10 km) from the base then the measurement will have
over 0.03 ft (10 mm) of additional error, both horizontally and vertically.
When surveying in an RTK mode, the ppm error occurs because the receiver operates
as a single frequency unit. As mentioned earlier, dual frequency receivers compare
the relative speeds of two different satellite signals (L1/L2) as they pass through the
Earth’s atmosphere. By comparing the signal delays of the two signals, the
atmospheric delays can be mitigated. However, single frequency receivers are unable
to compare the L1 and L2 signals and therefore cannot correct for atmospheric
effects.
The base station may be set over any of the control points along the project corridor;
however, consideration must be given for the best overall location. Choose a location
that will minimize satellite signal interference and maximize the data transfer link
between the base and rover(s). To maximize the radio communication range, set the
base station on a hilltop or with a raised radio antenna. A fully charged battery also
will increase the effective communication range between base and rover. The
accuracy of RTK surveys decline as the rover moves further from the base station.
To maximize accuracy, the baseline distance from the base station to the rover should
be less than 6 miles (10 km).
Some surveys require a horizontal or vertical component with more accuracy than can
be achieved with RTK equipment. Specific features that require greater collection

Section V
accuracy include but are not limited to:

 Pavement features
 Sidewalk and curb features
 Bridge ends, approach slabs, retaining walls, and box culverts
 DTM feature codes with the exception of ground shots and breaklines
RTK equipment may be used for the following features:
 Topographic ground shots and breaklines
 Utilities
 Photo control collection
All photo control targets will be collected twice. During the 2nd occupation the base
station will be set up on a different control monument and should have a minimum of
three different satellites in the constellation. This is generally achieved by observing
the 2nd occupation at a time of day that is several hours later than the 1st occupation.
When collecting photo control targets, a bipod or tripod is required to stabilize the
rover pole.
(a) Initialization
The RTK process begins with a preliminary ambiguity resolution or initialization.
This is a crucial aspect of any kinematic system. During RTK initialization, the
receiver calculates the integer numbers of carrier-phase wavelengths between the
antenna and each satellite. This process is known as fixing the integers. Before
the integers are fixed, the position is referred to as a float solution. After the
integers are fixed, the position becomes a fixed solution.
In order to collect accurate data, a fixed solution is required. If the rover is

receiving a strong signal from the base station and has adequate satellite
geometry, it is operating with this fixed solution. If at any time during the survey,
the base signal is interrupted or the rover displays a high GDOP value it is
operating under a floating solution. Any points staked or collected with a floating
solution will not be accepted.
If the integer computation is incorrectly calculated, significant baseline errors can

be introduced without being immediately obvious to the operator. There are
methods available to solve the integer ambiguity problem when collecting RTK
surveys.
A known-point initialization requires that the rover be positioned on a project

control monument with established 3-D coordinates. The rover antenna height
and offsets must be accurately measured. A known-point initialization allows the
integer ambiguities to be directly computed within a few seconds of observation.
The rover unit will perform a statistical check and display the results of the
initialization including a pass/fail indication.

Control Surveys
An on-the-fly (OTF) initialization allows the rover to be moving while the integer
ambiguities are resolved. This technique is only possible with dual-frequency
RTK systems. These systems continuously perform “background” OTF
initializations as an ongoing quality check of the current initialization.
Regardless of the initialization method used, it is important to realize that the

integer ambiguities may not always be correctly resolved. Changing satellite
geometry will eventually indicate if an incorrect initialization occurred.
Typically, the quality indicators gradually increase in magnitude until a threshold
value is exceeded indicating a probable incorrect initialization. Any survey work
completed during this period will have unknown accuracies. For this reason, it is
important that the operator is aware of the initialization status at all times.
As part of each RTK survey, periodic checks on known control points should be
performed to increase the confidence of the initialization. The 3-D coordinates of
each check are compared to the published coordinates. If the comparison is
within acceptable tolerances, then the initialization is confirmed. If the
comparison is not within tolerance, then the operator should be concerned about
the initialization. Any data collected during this initialization is suspect and
should be confirmed before being accepted.
RTK systems with OTF capabilities can perform “forced” re-initializations as a

check confirmation. This is done by inverting the GPS antenna (referred to as an
“antenna dump”) to force a loss of tracking to all satellites. A new OTF
initialization is performed and the most recent point is re-surveyed and the 3-D
coordinates compared.
(b) Calibration
A calibration is necessary whenever an RTK survey is used to collect preliminary
survey features or stake specific locations. The calibration, also known as a one-
step transformation, is used to relate GPS positions to a set of local coordinates.
The GPS positions, defined by the curved surface of the WGS 84 ellipsoid, are
expressed in terms of latitude, longitude, and ellipsoid height. The local
coordinates, defined by a plane, are expressed in terms of northing, easting, and
orthometric height. Because of the curved surface/plane relationship, distortions
will occur. These distortions become increasingly larger as the survey progresses
outward from the area defined by the project control monuments used in the
calibration.
The calibration may be computed in the office with post-processing software or

on the project with the GPS equipment. In either case, the WGS 84 positions are
squeezed or stretched to fit the surface coordinates for each project control point
in the calibration. A minimum of four points surrounding the intended surveying
area should be used in the calibration. Through a site-specific coordinate system,
the calibration allows the user to relate any GPS position to local x, y, and z
coordinates.

Section V
When the base station is set up on a project control monument and transmitting
data, a calibration check should performed by each rover. This check provides a
means to verify that the calibration and initialization was performed correctly.
The best method to accomplish this task is to use a stake-out mode. With each
rover, collect an observation at a minimum of two control points in the area of the
survey. Each stake-out observation is used to determine the residual value
between the published coordinates and the measured coordinates.
Specific tolerances must be met in order for any succeeding surveys to be

considered acceptable. The maximum residual values for each control point used
in the calibration check are 0.05 ft (1.5 cm) horizontally and 0.10 ft (3.0 cm)
vertically. Once the check shot measurements have been stored, and the residual
values are within the tolerance limits, the survey may proceed.
Additional checks must also be performed throughout the survey to verify that the
initialization is still valid. These periodic checks are especially important
whenever there is an interruption in the GPS signal or data transfer link. As with
the initial calibration check, perform a stakeout operation to one or two control
points. Additionally, at the end of the survey for each base station setup, another
initialization check must be completed. An RTK collected survey will only be
considered complete after the calibration and initialization checks have been
performed. If any of the horizontal and vertical tolerances have not been met, the
collected data may not be accepted.
There are various factors that can adversely affect the residuals at individual
control points during the calibration check. These factors include but are not
limited to:
 Poor satellite configuration (high GDOP/PDOP values)
 Satellite signal obstructions or multipath errors at the base or rover
 Signal interference between the base to the rover
 Low battery charge
The accuracy of the RTK survey also degrades as the rover moves away from the
base. If the tolerances are not met during any of the initialization checks, the
rover may have experienced one or more of these conditions. When this occurs,
try a stake-out observation at a control point closer to the base or wait for a better
satellite configuration. If the tolerances are still not met, the survey must be
restarted at the last point when a check was made and the tolerances were met.
Due to the nature of typical highway projects, the control is set inside the highway
right-of-way along long, narrow corridors. This is not an ideal configuration for
establishing an area for an RTK survey. To accommodate RTK surveys outside
of the right-of-way, the photogrammetric wing points may be used to allow for a
wider survey area. Depending on the mapping scale, wing points are placed from
500 to 1000 ft (150 to 300 m) outside the highway corridor. When the photo

Control Surveys
targets are removed, the wooden hub is left in the ground. These hubs have
coordinate values assigned and can be used in the calibration of an RTK survey.
(5) GPS Surveying Specifications

GPS and RTK equipment used to collect control and supplemental survey data must
adhere to the specifications outlined in Table V-2. These specifications apply only to
surveys that are intended for inclusion in the project mapping. The specifications
relate to baseline distances, occupation times, mask angles, dilution of precision
(DOP) values, RTK measurement quality, and stakeout residuals. By following these
specifications, the accuracy of GPS and RTK data will be greatly increased.
(a) Submittal
There are specific requirements for submitting GPS/RTK data to the State
Photogrammetry & Surveys Engineer. The survey shall be submitted in a
coordinate file format as defined in Chapter 10 of the Data Collection Manual. A
hardcopy printout of the survey and a signed and sealed cover letter shall also be
submitted. In the cover letter include the project name, section, and number; also
include a brief description of the survey. The cover letter should also state that
the survey has been completed under the direction of a P.E. or P.L.S and has been
reviewed and found to be correct and accurate. Refer to Chapter 10 in the Data
Collection Manual for more information on submitting survey files.
Many topographic features require greater vertical accuracy than RTK surveys are
able to produce. An RTK survey may be rejected if specific items such as
pavement, curb & gutter, or bridge features are collected. Refer to Section
VIII, Survey standards, in this manual for a complete list of the DTM features that
are required to be collected with conventional means. Each RTK survey
submitted to the Photogrammetry & Surveys Section (P&S) will be examined to
ensure the specification parameters were not exceeded.
At some point in the near future, the Photogrammetry & Surveys Engineer will
require a GPS survey report for all RTK collected data. This report is only for
data that is submitted to P&S for inclusion in the project mapping. Currently,
P&S is in the midst of developing an outline for the report. This report will
include, at a minimum, the following information:
 Base station location with coordinates
 Base/rover antenna heights
 Base/rover mask angles
 PDOP or GDOP values
 Stakeout results with horizontal and vertical residuals
 Baseline distance from base to rover
 Quality measurement of each observation

Section V
When in the RTK measurement mode, GPS receivers will display a quality
indicator of the current position. Some manufacturers will display a root mean
square (RMS) value, while others display a three-dimensional coordinate quality
(3D CQ) value. These values are an indicator of measurement noise and
environmental conditions.
Rapid-Static
Specification Static Surveys RTK Surveys
Surveys
Preliminary
Typical use Control surveys Control surveys survey collection
and stakeout
Maximum baseline length
125 miles (200 km) N/A N/A
from CORS Stations
Maximum baseline length
45 miles (72 km) 5 miles (8 km) 6 miles (10 km)
from NSRS Monuments
2 minutes/km of
Minimum occupation time 15 minutes 5 epochs
baseline length
Minimum satellite mask
10 degrees 10 degrees 10 degrees
angle
Maximum GDOP during
8.0 8.0 8.0
satellite observation
Minimum number of
satellites observed 5 5 5
simultaneously
Maximum position
indicator values (RMS/3D N/A N/A 30/0.05
CQ)
Maximum horizontal
residual for calibration N/A N/A 0.05 ft (0.015 m)
check
Maximum vertical
0.10 ft (0.030 m)
residual for calibration N/A N/A
check
Minimum number of
horizontal and vertical
N/A N/A 4
control points for
Calibration
Table V-2. GPS and RTK survey specifications.
(6) Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS)
The NGS coordinates a network of Continuously Operating Reference Stations
(CORS) throughout the United States. The CORS stations are owned and operated by
various federal, state, and local municipalities as well as academic institutions and
private organizations. New sites are continually evaluated for inclusion into the
network according to established criteria.

Control Surveys
The CORS network consists of approximately 1,250 individual sites with a geodetic
quality, dual-frequency GPS receiver and antenna. There are currently 12 CORS
stations operating in Wyoming. There are many more CORS stations operating in the
surrounding states that may be of use for surveys located near the Wyoming borders.
The NGS and its partners collect, process, and distribute data from the CORS sites on
a continuous basis. This data is used for a variety of activities including land
surveying, navigation, GIS development, remote sensing, weather forecasting, and
satellite tracking.
Figure V-29. CORS locations.

The GPS data collected at each CORS site is corrected with its precise position and
can be accessed via the internet. The CORS system enables positioning accuracies
approaching a few centimeters relative to the National Spatial Reference System
(NSRS), both horizontally and vertically.
WYDOT surveys using CORS stations for HARN or static network collections can be
downloaded from the NGS website, http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/CORS. Using the
UFCORS tool, specify the collection date, session starting time, collection duration,
appropriate time zone, and CORS station. After submitting the required information,
the CORS data is available in a receiver independent exchange (RINEX) format. The
data, contained in a zip file, can then be saved to a local network drive and imported
into a post-processing software program. The CORS data can be processed with
other CORS data or used to supplement static GPS data to produce more accurate
solutions.
NGS has recently released an update to the North American Datum called NAD 83
(2007). This version revised the coordinates for approximately 70,000 geodetic
control monuments. The readjustment used approximately 700 CORS stations to
adjust GPS data collected during geodetic surveys between 1985 and 2005.

Section V
(7) On-line Positioning User Service

NGS operates an on-line positioning user service (OPUS) that processes individual
GPS data files in a RINEX format. This service can be accessed through the NGS
website, http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/OPUS. The OPUS program allows users to submit
raw GPS data files to determine WGS 84 and state plane coordinates. Each data file
will be processed with respect to three CORS sites. An NGS OPUS Solution Report
will be sent to the user via email. Figure V-30 is an example of an NGS OPUS
Solution Report.
Figure V-30. OPUS solution.

Control Surveys
a. Equipment
Basic instrumentation for a GPS network survey includes multiple sets of receivers,
antennas, fixed-height tripods, and meteorological instruments. Identical equipment
should be used whenever possible to minimize the effect of equipment biases. Any GPS
data stored on memory cards should be downloaded daily onto a laptop or personal
computer. This practice will limit the amount of stored data that could be lost in the
event of a memory card malfunction.
The proper storage, transportation, and adjustment of equipment are major factors in the
successful completion of a survey. Poorly maintained GPS equipment has the potential
to produce errors. These errors cannot be completely eliminated but can be kept to a
minimum with periodic maintenance. Field survey operations should be performed using
the manufacturer’s recommended receiver settings and observation times.
GPS operations in an urban environment, under a forest canopy, in canyons, or

mountainous terrain may require longer observation times than specified by the
manufacturer. Fixed height or adjustable height antenna tripods can be used for GPS
observations. However, the elevation of an adjustable height tripod should be regularly
checked to ensure slippage has not occurred. All plumbing/centering equipment such as
RTK poles, tripods, and tribrachs should be periodically checked and calibrated.
(1) Receiver Specifications

The receivers used for network surveys should record the full wavelength carrier
phase and signal strength of both L1 and L2 frequencies. They should also be able to
track at least eight satellites simultaneously on parallel channels. WYDOT requires
multi-channel tracking, dual frequency receivers for all GPS surveys to mitigate some
of the atmospheric effects on the GPS signal.
Each GPS receiver should also have the most current manufacturer’s firmware
upgrades. Refer to the instrument’s user manual for additional specifications and
recommended servicing and adjusting intervals and methods. Periodic servicing,
repair, or complex adjustments shall be accomplished by authorized service facilities.
(2) Antenna Specifications

GPS antennas should have stable phase centers and choke rings or large ground
planes to minimize multipath interference. Any antenna models used for GPS
collection shall have undergone antenna calibration by the National Geodetic Survey
(NGS).
The antenna height used at NGS is the vertical distance between the station datum
point and the antenna reference point (ARP). Operators must carefully measure and
record this height. As mentioned previously, this measurement should be periodically
checked. Fixed-height tripods simplify the measurement of antenna height.
(3) Tripod Specifications

The tripods used must facilitate precise offset measurements between the station
datum point and the ARP. Fixed height tripods are preferable, due to the decreased

Section V
potential for antenna centering and height measurement errors.
All tripods shall be examined for stability with each use. Ensure that hinges, clamps,
and feet are secure and in good condition. Fixed height tripods should be regularly
tested for stability, plumb alignment, and height verification.
b. Weather Conditions
In general, most weather conditions do not affect GPS surveying. However, observations
should not be conducted during an electrical storm or during severe snow, hail, and rain
storms. These weather conditions must be considered when planning GPS surveys.
Pertinent weather data (temperature, wind speed, rain, snow, etc.) should be recorded
during each network session.
Sunspots, magnetic storms, or other solar events can also adversely affect GPS
observations. Periods of extreme solar activity should be avoided. Solar activity alerts
can be viewed on the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
website http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/.
C. Differential Leveling
1. General
The most accurate method for determining elevations is known as differential leveling. This
method uses a leveling instrument to measure the vertical difference between two points.
The instrument is set on a stable, horizontally leveled tripod and takes backsight and
foresight readings on a calibrated level rod. A leveling run is a series of backsight and
foresight measurements that establish elevations relative to a local reference. A leveling loop
is a series of measurements that begin and end at the same reference point. For more
information on leveling accuracy standards, refer to Section VIII, Survey Standards, in this
manual.
A digital level is used to perform the differential level measurements through project control
monuments and photo control targets. An NGS bench mark is typically used as the starting
reference point. Office research and field reconnaissance will help determine which NGS
bench marks are available for each level run.
It should be noted that only the elevations of project and photo control points located within
the right-of-way are established in this manner. Elevations outside of the right-of-way are
established through GPS measurements.
2. Bench marks
If only one bench mark is located near the project, a single level loop or a series of smaller
loops will need to be completed. The level loop(s) will run through the entire project and
return to the starting bench mark. If NGS bench marks are located throughout the project,
then a single level line through the project is adequate. Each bench mark elevation must be
verified before continuing with the next line. In the absence of NGS bench marks located
near the project, a level loop will begin at a project control monument. The loop will run
throughout the project and return to the starting monument. A GPS elevation will be used for
the reference elevation. If the GPS elevation is not known at the time of the run, use an
Control Surveys
assumed elevation of 1,000 ft or 1,000 m. The misclosure at the end of each line or loop
shall be less than the maximum allowable.
3. Procedures
For proper leveling procedures, tolerance settings, and misclosure calculations refer to
Chapter 9 in the Data Collection Manual. The operator should perform regular adjustment
procedures (peg tests) for correcting collimation errors. Furthermore, each digital level
should be submitted annually to the WYDOT vendor for routine maintenance, calibration,
and necessary firmware upgrades.
Keeping the backsight and foresight distances balanced reduces earth curvature and
atmospheric refraction errors. Additionally, it minimizes errors due to the instrument’s line
of sight differing from a true horizontal line. These line of sight errors are caused by internal
instrument mal-adjustments and/or imperfectly leveled instrument setups. All tolerances
should be set in the instrument prior to commencing a level run.
The maximum distance balance between the backsight and foresight measurements should be
set to 15 ft (5 m). The maximum sight distance should be set to 230 ft (70 m). Avoid low,
ground skimming shots where refraction might become pronounced. The minimum ground
clearance should be set to 1 ft (0.3 m). Avoid sighting close to obstructions that interfere
with the line of sight. Tree branches, tall grass, and shadows can prevent the digital level
from taking accurate rod readings. When leveling in steep terrain, place turn points and
instrument setups so that they follow parallel paths and not on the same line. Figure V-31 is
an illustration of this procedure.
Figure V-31. Parallel leveling on steep terrain.

Section V
Communication between crew members keeps the work progressing in an orderly fashion.
Everyone in the survey crew should know what their duties are at all times. Remember,
SAFETY FIRST when working near traffic, power lines, or other hazards.
4. Instrument Person’s Duties

A stable, horizontally leveled instrument setup is vital to a successful survey. Ideally, the
digital level should be set on a stable, flat surface. However, if it is necessary to set the
instrument on uneven terrain, place two tripod legs on the downhill side. Field notes are an
essential part of any level survey. Write down the results of each peg test including the
collimation errors and reticle adjustment. The field notes should also include the name and
elevation for the starting bench mark, each monument and target along the level run, and the
final bench mark. At the end of each run, verify that the misclosure is within allowable
standards. If the misclosure is not within specifications, then a loop will need to be
established to verify the results or to find errors within the run. Balance distances, minimum
ground clearance values, and maximum shot distances should be in compliance with
WYDOT specifications.
5. Rod Person’s Duties

It is important for the rod person to make sure the level rod is in good condition and each
section of the rod is securely locked when extended. Ensure that turning points are
sufficiently stable to minimize potential errors associated with movement. A turning plate
(turtle), railroad spike, wooden hub, and a prominent point on a solid rock are examples of
temporary turning points. Inform the instrument person when the rod is on the turning point
and plumb.
While the instrument person is moving, leave the level rod on the turning point, and rotate it
towards the next instrument setup. After the backsight measurement has been completed,
pace the distance to the instrument and then pace the same distance to the next turning point.
The foresight distance may need to be shortened or lengthened to adjust the cumulative
distance balance.
D. Extendible Control Surveys

1. Extendible Control Coordinates
The coordinate positions for extendible control shall be determined by utilizing one of the
following conventional surveying methods. Refer to Table 6-1 in Chapter 6 of the Data
Collection Manual for the required number of measurements per setup. For each backsight
and foresight shot, the vertical angle, horizontal angle, and slope distance will be measured
by the data collector.
a. Method 1
Measurements are taken from at least two existing control points to each extendible
control point. For the first set of measurements, the instrument is set up at existing
control point LALC 8. A prism target is placed at existing control point LALC 9 and
extendible control point LALC 101. The instrument height and both target heights will
need to be recorded prior to any distance measurements. Next, take a backsight shot to
the target at point LALC 9 and turn to point LALC 101 for the foresight shot.

Control Surveys
Figure V-32. Establishing extendible control, Method 1.

For the second set of measurements, the instrument is set up at existing control point
LALC 9. A prism target is placed at existing control point LALC 8 and extendible
control point LALC 101. Record the instrument height and both target heights. Take a
backsight shot to the target at point LALC 8 and turn to point LALC 101 for the foresight
shot. Figure V-32 is an illustration of this method.
b. Method 2
A sub-traverse is run from an existing control point through all of the extendible control
points to another existing project control point. For the first set of measurements, the
instrument is set up at existing control point LALC 9. A target prism is placed at existing
control point LALC 10 and extendible control point LALC 102. The instrument height
and both target heights will need to be recorded prior to any distance measurements.
Next, take a backsight shot to the target at point LALC 10 and turn to point LALC 102
for the foresight shot.
For the second set of measurements, the instrument is set up at extendible control point
LALC 102. A prism target is placed at existing control point LALC 9 and extendible
backsight shot to the target at point LALC 9 and turn to point LALC 103 for the foresight
shot.

Section V

Control Surveys
For the third set of measurements, the instrument is now set up at extendible control point
LALC 103. A prism target is placed at extendible control point LALC 102 and existing
backsight shot to the target at point LALC 102 and turn to point LALC 11 for the
foresight shot. Figure V-33 is an illustration of this method.
In this process, all sub-traverse legs except the last are measured twice. This redundancy
improves the accuracy of the coordinate positions for the extendible control points by
identifying, isolating, and removing blunders. The data collector compares the second set
of measurements of any line to the first set of measurements. A distance tolerance error
message will be displayed whenever the difference between measurements of the same
line is larger than the tolerances set in the data collector.
c. Method 3
A resection is performed using two existing control points for each extendible control
point. For the first set of measurements, the instrument is set up at extendible control
point LALC 104. A prism target is placed at existing control points LALC 11 and LALC
12. The instrument height and the target heights will need to be recorded prior to any
distance measurements. Take a backsight shot to the target at point LALC 11 and turn to
point LALC 12 for the foresight shot. Figure V-34 is an illustration of this method.

Section V
2. Traverse adjustment
All of the traverse measurements are recorded by the data collector. These measurements
should be collected in a job file on the data collector that does not contain any other
observations. Once the measurements have been stored the compass rule or the transit rule
will be used to distribute the closure errors within the traverse. The data collector will then
calculate the coordinates for the unknown vertices in the traverse.
The measurement file can then be imported and adjusted in MicroStation using Geopak
Survey to compute horizontal and vertical coordinates. Geopak Survey uses the least-squares
adjustment for the traverse coordinates. Because of the different adjustment method, the data
collector coordinates may not exactly match the Geopak Survey adjusted coordinates.
Despite these minor adjustment variances, the traverse coordinates can be calculated while
still in the field to identify potential blunders. The data collector will provide an evaluation
of the accuracy and precision of the combined measurements. Any necessary corrections can
be made before leaving the project.
These methods for establishing extendible project control are used to ensure the calculated
coordinate values conform to the survey accuracy standards defined in Section VIII, Survey
Standards, in this manual. Differential leveling elevations should be established at each
extendible control point if the extendible control is to be used for critical elevation
measurements.
Traverse data collected by a field crew and submitted to P&S will be adjusted to compute the
final coordinate values for each extendible control point. The resulting coordinates will be
added to the original project control file and distributed to the field office. The updated
control file can then be used for collection or staking surveys.

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Section V

e. Human Errors ..............................................................................................V-33

V-2 Revised February, 2015

Figure V-1. Reference ellipsoid and geoid.

Latitude is measured in a north-south direction and is expressed as degrees of departure

Longitude is measured in an east-west direction and is expressed as degrees of departure

Figure V-2. Latitudes and longitudes.

V-4 Revised February, 2015

Figure V-3. Global geoid undulations.

Revised February, 2015 V-5

Figure V-4. Geodetic elevations.

V-6 Revised February, 2015

Figure V-5. USC&GS Brass cap.

Revised February, 2015 V-7

By 1900, a sufficient amount of observations were obtained to complete a national

In 1970, the Federal Government underwent a reorganization that created the

Revised February, 2015 V-9

Figure V-6. Modern NGS bench mark.

V-10 Revised February, 2015

Similar to the horizontal datums, there isn’t an exact correlation or translation

Revised February, 2015 V-11

Figure V-7. Two-dimensional coordinate system.

V-12 Revised February, 2015

Figure V-8. Polar coordinate system.

Revised February, 2015 V-13

Figure V-9. Three-dimensional coordinate system.

V-14 Revised February, 2015

Figure V-10. Wyoming state plane zones.

Revised February, 2015 V-15

Figure V-11. Lambert conformal conic projection.

V-16 Revised February, 2015

Figure V-12. Transverse Mercator projection.

Revised February, 2015 V-17

State Plane Zone Central Meridian Latitude False False Zone

Table V-1. Wyoming state plane zone properties.

Figure V-13. Grid, ellipsoid, and surface distances.

V-18 Revised February, 2015

Figure V-14. Grid scale factor.

Revised February, 2015 V-19

Figure V-15. Scale factors.

V-20 Revised February, 2015

(1) Geodetic North

(2) Astronomic North

(3) Magnetic North

Figure V-16. North references.

Revised February, 2015 V-21

(4) Grid North

Figure V-17. Geodetic and grid north.

V-22 Revised February, 2015

b. Forward and Back Azimuths

Figure V-18. Forward and back azimuths.

Revised February, 2015 V-23

1. The Global Positioning System

The space segment consists of a constellation of up to 32 satellites traveling in nearly circular

Figure V-19. Satellite orbits.

V-24 Revised February, 2015

Figure V-20. Monitor and control station locations.

2. A Brief History of GPS