Rhetorical Device
Rhetorical Device
Rhetorical Device
How kind, but you need it more than me. The accumulation may be through a set of sentences,
phrases, words or other grammatical units. The order is
No, I don't want it now! not as important as the collective effect.
Discussion: In storytelling, the climax is a classic point of
accumulatio, where multiple tensions are resolved,
Accismus happens when a person refuses something that
meaning is created and the reader thrilled. This does not
they really want. Why would they do this? A very
happen just at the end of the story and can happen in
common reason is because they are being offered
chapters or even individual paragraphs or sentences.
something where acceptance would break
some belief or value, for example where to accept would In speeches, which are often a form of storytelling, the
be to take something that another person needs more. need to create memorable points make accumulatio a
powerful device.
Refusal may happen with the intent of slighting the
person offering. Thus, for example, a man offers flowers Accumulatio is also used to describe over-use of words
to a woman who he has annoyed. She turns her nose up and repetition of sentences or phrases that say essentially
at them, even though they are her favorites. the same thing.
Acyron is where a word is used which is opposite to the The multiple meanings possible also makes it popular
normal word that should be applied. with poets.
It is easy to over-do an allegory, wringing out every last She's a very good friend of his...
drop until the towel of meaning is twisted and torn. It is What are you looking at?
better to select the metaphor carefully, then use it
appropriately, lightly and persistently. It was a hot and steamy day. Jake shifted uneasily as
Manny walked past, eyeing him coldly.
Allegory comes from the Greek 'allos' meaning 'other'
and 'agora' or 'place of assembly'. 'Agoreuein' means ‘to Discussion:
speak in the assembly’. Its origin is hence very much in
Allusion is commonly used in speech where it would be
public speaking and oratory.
considered rude or otherwise socially hazardous to make
Classification: Substitution, Meaning direct reference.
The thing alluded to may require some form of prior
knowledge. In this way, it can be used as a signal to
ALLEOTHETA friends whilst others may not understand what is being
Description: said.
Alleotheta involves substitution of one case, gender, Allusion uses the principle of association to connect a
mood, number, tense, or person for another. vague item to something more specific, or one clear item
to another. In this way, when you start a commonly
Example: known phrase, the rest of the phrase is alluded to and
may be left out.
When he wore a dress she looks delightfully female.
By making an incomplete description, a tension is
I could be dancing yesterday, under the hot, dark moon.
created as the person seeks the closure of completion and
Living her down, strutting to their tune.
hence thinks harder about that to which the speaker may
Every dog has their day. be alluding.
Discussion: Prose and poetry often make use of allusion, hinting at
things that the reader may discover.
Substitution can cause confusion and hence
draw attention and challenge meaning. This is a sliding Allusion comes from the Latin word 'allsus' meaning to
scale, where sometimes the substitution is obvious and play with'.
sometimes it is very subtle.
Classification: Reference
In poetry, the confusion effect may be used deliberately
in almost nonsense verse, yet an underlying meaning is
still there to be discovered in what may be seen as a ALLITERATION
game between the author and the reader.
Description:
Alleotheta is sometimes used as a general category,
including antiptosis and other ennallage. It is also known Use a sequence of words in which the initial letter is the
as allotheta, alloeosis or alloiosis. same.
Classification: Substitution, Meaning The words can be next to one another or spaced out.
Example:
Health, happiness and hope for the New Year!
Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:
i.e. Stylistic or Rhetorical Device Prof. Maya Roxas Irarum
I want this, wish for this and wonder if it can be done. Amphibology is consequently found in much deliberate
humor, where the flexibility of the language is played to
Good grief! That's not the number. Run and recover the
delightful effect.
real one!
Concern for Amphibology can be found in philosophy,
Bye-bye baby, baby bye-bye.
where true meaning is sought, yet ambiguity is found at
Discussion: every turn. It also is common in poetry, where
manipulation of meaning is core.
Alliteration acts as a simple hammer, beating home the
point. Although it may be used at the speed of Amphibology comes from the Greek, where 'amphi'
the jackhammer, it is more subtle. Combining means 'on both sides', 'bolos' means 'throw' and 'logos'
alliteration as a triple can be very effective. means 'word'. Thus Amphibology means 'throwing
words about on both sides', or 'mixing up words' and
The effect of alliteration can be almost poetic, making it hence 'ambiguity'.
pleasant and comfortable on the ears.
Amphibology is also known
Note that some letters have softer sounds (eg. H) and as amphiboly, amphibologia (the more correct Greek
some have more percussive sounds (eg. B). These will form) and also ambiguitas (because of the ambiguity).
have correspondingly softer and harder effects.
Classification: Meaning, Distortion
Alliteration is also called homoeoprophoron,
adnomination, agnomination and annomination.
Classification: Repetition AMPHILOGY
Description:
A summary provides an opportunity to do two important Anacoenosis comes from the Greek, 'nakoinoun',
things in an argument. First, it allows you to remind meaning 'to communicate.'
others of the key points, repeating and emphasizing
Classification: Reasoning
these. It may also draw a line under the argument, saying
'this is the end' and effectively forbidding anyone else
from contradicting you.
ANACOLOUTHA
Anacephalaeosis is also spelled 'Anakephalaeosis'. It
Description:
comes from the Greek 'ana' meaning 'back' and 'cephale',
meaning 'head'. Substitution of nonreciprocal words, where one word
may be substituted for another, but the second word
Classification: Repetition
could not be substituted back in the original context.
Example:
ANACOENOSIS
She opened her thoughts to him.
Description: She opened her heart to him.
Anacoenosis is asking the opinion of others in a way that Heart is used as a substitute for thoughts. You could not
demonstrates a common interest. substitute thoughts for heart, though.
Example: Discussion:
Do you not think we can do this now? This often works when one word is a higher form of
another word. Thus 'human' is higher level than 'John',
Now tell me, given the evidence before us, could you
so where John is used 'human' could be used, but not
have decided any differently?
vice versa. As in the example above, metaphor is often
What do you think? Are we a bit weary? Shall we stay used.
here for a while?
Anacolutha is the opposite of Acoloutha, which is the
Discussion: substitution of reciprocal words.
Anacoenosis typically uses a rhetorical question where Acolutha comes from the Greek word
no reply is really sought or required, thus softening what 'acolouthos', meaning 'following, attending upon'. 'Ana'
is really a statement or command. reverses this form.
Asking a question that implies one clear answer is to put Category: Substitution
others in a difficult position. If they disagree with you,
then they risk conflict or derision. In particular if you
state the question with certainty, then it makes ANACOLUTHON
disagreement seem rude.
Description:
Particularly when used in a group, this uses social
Anacoluthon occurs in a sentence when syntax changes
conformance. If there is an implied agreement by all and
and the logical sequence does not progress as expected.
one person openly disagrees, then they risk isolating
Anacoluthon typically occurs when the expectation Within a sentence, emphasis is normally placed on key
created by the start of the sentence is not fulfilled. When words. These are the words that the speaker wants the
we hear something, we tend to predict ahead, and listener to pay particular attention to. Other words fill in
grammatical syntax helps us do this. The sentence thus and give context. They may also be used to create subtle
does not flow easily, although two parts of the sentence influence.
may well be logically related.
Classification: Meaning
Anacoluthon can occur when the sentence breaks into
two, typically using punctuation such as a dash. It may
also be turned on a word that has meaning both in the ANADIPLOSIS
first part and the second part. Another way of creating
Description:
change is to change the tense.
The repetition of a word sequence used at the end of a
Anacoluthon can be a simple error, although it is also
phrase or sentence at the start of the next phrase or
used for deliberate effect, often causing
sentence.
mild confusion and hence attention. It may also be used
in poetry and prose to make readers pause and think Example:
about any hidden meaning.
If you are going to play wolf, play wolf like the real
Anacoluthon is sometimes confused with Anacoloutha. thing.
Just to make matters worse, the plural of anacoluthon is
'anacolutha'. I would but run away. Run away, perhaps today. Perhaps
today I will. I will run away.
It comes from the Greek 'an', meaning ‘not’, and
'akolouthos,' meaning ‘following’. It thus means 'lacking Will you come with me? Come with me to a better place.
sequence'. A place where we can be together forever, forever where
we can do what we know must be done.
Classification: Distortion, Meaning
Discussion:
When something is repeated, a pattern is created. We are
ANACRUSIS programmed to recognize patterns and so we pay
attention.
Description:
Repetition emphasizes. It hammers home the message
Anacrusis is the lack of emphasis on the first few words
that 'this is important'.
of a sentence.
Anadiplosis is a typical device that is used when
Example:
building a climax, with words set up in increasing
In the town where I was born... (from Beatles importance. Spoken, this is likely to be done with rising
song 'Yellow Submarine' - 'town' receives the first tone.
emphasis; 'In the' is the unstressed anacrucis).
Anadiplosis comes from the Greek word for 'doubling'
When I was young my father said, 'Son I have something or 'repetition'.
to say...
Classification: Repetition
Sometimes anthimeria is used by accident, when the It is also used as a word to describe an epanados that is
speaker does not have full grasp of the language. also an antithesis.
Sometimes also it is a colloquialism that is used within Antimetabole is sometimes called antistrophe, although
particular cultural contexts ('teen-speak' often uses this this word also has other meanings.
form).
Classification: Repetition, Reversal
Substitution or language modification of any kind may
attract attention, which may be desirable. The simple
modification of anthimeria may also be a deliberate
ANTHYPOPHORA
regression to child-like language that says 'I am not a
threat to you.' Description:
Anthimeria is popular in poetry, where substitution Anthypophora is arguing with oneself, for example
evokes emotion of mild confusion yet the intended asking questions and then answering them.
meaning is not too difficult to discern.
Example:
Anthimeria is also called 'antimeria'.
Hmm. I could go to the party or stay in with you. What
Classification: Substitution shall I do? I think I'll stay here.
Is the Republican party the best? I think not. Why else
were they beaten? Because they are no longer in touch
ANTIMETABOLE with the people.
Description:
Who are you? You are my friend. Why did you betray
Antimetabole is the repetition of a clause, with reversed me? Because you are not my friend.
wording in the second clause.
Discussion:
Example:
Anthypophora uses the principle of rhetorical
We eat to live, not live to eat. questions to ask questions which the speaker wishes to
answer. Sometimes this happens when nobody else is
Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you asking the questions and sometimes when nobody is
can do for your country. -- J.F. Kennedy answering questions posed. Often it is used for
It is not even the beginning of the end but is perhaps, the deliberate effect.
end of the beginning -- Winston Churchill One use of anthypophora is to neutralize critics by
Discussion: asking questions that the critics may ask and then
Classification: Reversal, Meaning How can you suggest that? It would be very wrong to do
that to her.
That's a nice argument. It's a shame that it is invalid.
Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:
i.e. Stylistic or Rhetorical Device Prof. Maya Roxas Irarum
Discussion: Antisthecon is sometimes
spelled antistoechon or antistoecon.
Common reasons for using antirhesis is because the
argument being rejected has a logical flaw, promotes It comes from the Greek 'anti-', meaning 'against' and
something minor as being major, or is wicked or bad in 'stoicheon', meaning 'letter order.'
some way.
Classification: Distortion, Substitution
In argumentation, as well as promoting your own case,
you also need to demolish your opponent's argument.
Antirhesis is a way of doing this. ANTISTROPHE
Classification: Reduction, Reasoning Description:
Antistrophe is the repetition of words at the end of
successive phrases or sentences.
ANTISTHECON
Example:
Description:
I told you do to it, again. Like last time, I had to repeat
Antisthecon occurs where a word is altered by changing
myself again. Why do I have to always have to say
a sound, syllable or letter within it.
things again and again?
She is the object of my affection and love, just as I am
Example: the object of her affection and love.
'Parse the sorlt!' he said, in his lovely country accent. I know the best party. The Democrats are the best party.
I will vote for the best party.
Auntie's-the-con; uncle's the pro.
Discussion:
Mary, Mary, are you vary good? Do you cary wood for
the fire? Repetition of a word of phrase creates a pattern and so
draws attention to it. Repetition is thus a powerful tool
Oh loook, it's a skelington!
that is used in all kinds of persuasive speech and action.
Discussion:
When a word is at the end of something, whether a
Antisthecon can occur where an incorrect pronunciation sentence or a list, the recency effect occurs, whereby we
or spelling of a word is used. There is a range of words are more likely to remember it.
like this, from 'seccetry' for 'secretary' to 'definate' for
Antistrophe thus uses a combination of repetition and
'definite'. These typically happen when a person spells
recency to create a powerful linguistic form.
the word in the way they pronounce it.
Classification: Repetition
Puns use antisthecon when they change the spelling or
sound of a word for humorous effect.
The distortion of antisthecon may cause confusion and ANTITHESIS
hence a pause to think harder about the meaning.
Description:
Antisthecon is a form of metaplasm, which is a general
Antithesis is the use of an opposite in order to highlight
term for changing of a word's spelling.
a point.
Antisthecon is also known as wrenched rhyme, where
Example:
the word is distorted in order to rhyme in a poem (eg.
'love' may be pronounced 'lerv' to rhyme with 'serve'. It has been said we are good, but I say we are bad.
This may be bad or clever poetry (often depending on
your point of view). In many ways, the old are young.
She is very intelligent -- far from stupid.
Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:
i.e. Stylistic or Rhetorical Device Prof. Maya Roxas Irarum
Discussion: Thus, for example, when you name a person as an
animal, then they gain qualities of the animal. When you
Antithesis uses the contrast principle to draw attention to
name them as a famous person, they gain the attributes
something. When an opposite to what might be expected
of that person. Context counts! Calling a person Tiger on
is given, it is usually a surprise and hence causes the
the golf course is very different to using that name in the
listener to slow down and figure out the puzzle
bedroom.
presented.
In using antonomasia, there is an element
Antithesis may simply include the negative or may be
of hypocatastasis, where a characteristic of a stated name
done as a form of repetition, stating both the positive and
describes the act of a person being talked about.
criticized negative case.
Classification: Substitution
Argument is often described as thesis, antithesis and
synthesis where, briefly, an idea is put forward (thesis),
it is debated (antithesis) and the idea is consequently
improved (synthesis). APHAERESIS
Description:
The principle of antithesis may also be used more
broadly, for example where a character in a play acts in Aphaeresis is the omission of letters from the start of a
contrary ways, or where two characters have word, typically removing a complete syllable.
diametrically opposite positions, thus highlighting each
other. Example:
Litotes, where someone might say 'I am not unhappy' is The king hath cause to plain.
a form of antithesis as 'unhappy' is the opposite of the Can I 'scape this dull place?
intended 'happy'.
'tis a 'normous place!
Classification: Reversal
Discussion:
Removing letters at the start of a word and still keeping
ANTONOMASIA it pronounceable usually means that a complete syllable
Description: must be removed. To remove more than one syllable
would make most aphaeresis incomprehensible, so the
Antonomasia is the naming of a person not with their single syllable deletion is most common.
given name but another name of some form.
In written text, the missing letters may well be indicated
Example: with an apostrophe.
Easy, tiger! In speech, parts of words are often dropped from
laziness or to allow faster speech. In poetry and metric
Hello, Bruce. (There is some mysteriously humorous
prose it is used as a device to keep the rhythm.
about Australians and the name Bruce)
Classification: Distortion, Omission
Excuse me Tarzan, could you please come down from
that tree.
Discussion: APHORISMUS
What is in a name? A great deal, actually. Every word is Description:
a little package of meaning, and when we take a word
and attach it to a person, then all the meaning of the Aphorismus is questioning or challenging the meaning
word is transferred to the person. In the manner of of a word.
the metaphor, connection of two things creates a Example:
powerful new meaning.
Call yourself a man? You're acting like a boy!
Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:
i.e. Stylistic or Rhetorical Device Prof. Maya Roxas Irarum
That's not a car, it's a lawn mower! Euphemisms are words that are used to replace words
we cannot say. The toilet is thus called, the 'John', the
Is that 'music' is these days? How impoverished you
'loo', the 'little room' and so on.
must be.
Sometimes we try to describe things by what they are
Discussion:
not. Sometimes we may use metaphor.
Words are little packets of meaning that have all kinds of
Sometimes a fairly direct reference may be used,
connotations by which we enrich and extend the
typically mentioning the initial letter, such as 'the f-
language. For example, 'man' may also mean 'strong',
word'.
'independent', 'chivalrous', and so on.
Apophasis does not go as far as making no reference,
This gives plenty of scope in challenging the meaning of
such as the Emperor's nudity in the story of 'The
a word by challenging one of the extended elements.
Emperor's New Clothes'.
Thus, for example, a man who is not 'strong' may have
his manhood challenged in an ad hominem attack that Classification: Reference
implies that failure to comply with one added meaning is
failure to comply with the basic meaning or denotation
of the word. APORIA
Classification: Questioning, Meaning Description:
Aporia is pretending to doubt something.
APOPHASIS Example:
Description: Maybe I am stupid, or something. Maybe I am not
paying attention here. Or maybe you are talking rubbish.
Apophasis is talking about something without directly
mentioning it. Now, ladies and gentlemen, would you say that was the
worst joke I have told? Or was it the best joke? Funny,
Example:
that. I can't tell either.
I'm just going .. er.. to the .. um .. little room .. back
Discussion:
soon. (going to the toilet)
Expressing doubt prompts others to empathetically
You know who is doing you know what with you know
consider how something may be doubted and so sows
who else!
seeds of uncertainty in them. This causes confusion and
He's not going out with Jane, and not with Susan. But leads others to seek certainty, which the speaker can give
I'm not allowed to say who he is going out with. with subsequent statements (and which are thus less
likely to be challenged).
Discussion:
Doubt may thus be used as the start of an argument,
There are times when it is impolite to mention
clearing the decks for the speaker's real intent. The doubt
something or using the word could get you into trouble.
may be sustained or, more often, the speaker proves
Seeking not to embarrass ourselves or others, we thus
themselves wrong by showing the doubt to be
talk around the forbidden words or subjects.
unfounded.
Sex, bodily function, interpersonal differences, religion
Aporia often appears in the form of a rhetorical question.
and so on are typical of subjects where there are plenty
of social taboos and political incorrectness for the Aporia is also called Dubitatio or Dubitation.
unwary to go astray. Those in the know either avoid
Classification: Questioning, Falsehood
the topic or talk delicately around it.
The completion of the sentence may also be rhetorical, 'Apostrophe' is Greek for 'turning away'. It is also known
where both speaker and audience know the answer and it as apostrophatio or exclamatio.
needs not be said, for example when a person is being
Of course an apostrophe is also a word for a a
suggestive.
grammatical symbol.
Aposiopesis may also imply that the speaker is so
Classification: Emotion, Reference, Questioning
overcome by emotion (from passion to anger) they are
unable to speak further. It can also signal modesty or
uncertainty.
APPOSITION
Aposiopesis is Greek for 'becoming silent'.
Description:
Classification: Omission
Apposition is the use of two elements, where the second
explains or modifies the first.
APOSTROPHE Example:
Apostrophe is breaking off from normal speech and Look here at my brothers, my killers.
speaking to an imaginary person or even to an abstract I looked up into the grim sky as the rain washed clean
quality or idea.
my weary face.
Classification: Meaning The pale, fat man would say that they can, but would
they say that too?
Discussion:
ARCHAISM
When a sound is repeated, it creates a pattern and hence
Description: the pleasure of recognition. In rhyme, the final sounds of
words are repeated in successive sections. Assonance
Archaism is the use of outdated language.
can be more subtle, creating patterns more
Example: surreptitiously and hence sneaking up on the conscious
mind and perhaps adding the excitement of surprise.
Thou art a dolt!
Assonance can be over-done (perhaps as in the examples
Henceforth, you are banned from this place.
above) and can also be more subtle, with sounds spread
I'm having a really magic time! across multiple phrases or sentences and maybe at
regular intervals, thus creating additional subtle
Discussion: patterning.
Language evolves, sometimes quickly and sometimes Assonance is common in poetry poetic prose. It may also
slowly. Words appear and words go out of common be used in public speaking to create a more impressive-
usage. At some point they become considered 'old- sounding speech.
fashioned' or quaint.
Classification: Repetition
Some words get associated with particular texts, for
example 'thee' and 'thou' may be associated with the
Bible or Shakespeare. Some words persist in particular
ASTERISMOS
contexts, where they retain particular meaning, for
example the use of 'henceforth' and 'notwithstanding' are Description:
still common in legal documents.
Asterismos is the use of a prefix word to draw attention
Archism may be used deliberately to evoke a particular to subsequent words.
effect, and older words are still used in poetry and some
Example:
literature to give an antique feel. Older words may also
be used to give an impression of erudition. Behold, I come to show you the way.
Classification: Meaning Lo, they came upon the stable.
Listen, you are not helping!
Discussion:
The prefix word effectively says 'look out, here's
something important', thus verbally grabbing attention. It
is followed by a comma that creates a pause, further
Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:
i.e. Stylistic or Rhetorical Device Prof. Maya Roxas Irarum
creating a brief tension before launching into the main Asyndeton done well is terse and direct. Done badly, it is
point. harsh staccato.
Asterismos is common in Biblical passages and literary In grammar, syndetic means 'connected by conjunctions'.
plays, where it is often used to signal an important point. Related figures are syndeton (the use of a conjuction)
and polysyndeton (the use of multiple conjunctions).
Classification: Meaning
Asyndeton is popular in speeches, where the 'and' in a
list is often missed out. It is also used in poetry and
ASYNDETON literature to add terseness.
I fell over and was wounded! By implication, the subject of the speech is deigned to be
particularly bad, wicked and evil, and that others should
If you stay late you'll be a hero. avoid them and not support them in any way or else be
She is good. He is better. They are best. subject to the speaker's continued ire.
You can and you will do this. When used in response to some attack, this is known as a
'tiger defense', sending the message 'if you attack me, I
Discussion: will attack you back even more fiercely!'
When we exaggerate something, we make it bigger and, Done badly, however, or if the subject defends themself
by comparison, other things appear smaller. It says 'me well, bdelygmia can rebound on the speaker, portraying
first' or 'you are the best' or otherwise enacting them as intolerant, offensive, dogmatic and otherwise an
conceptual queue-jumping, putting something in front of unpleasant and nasty person.
others which actually have a better claim to importance.
Classification: Amplification, Attack
Auxesis also appears when a sequence of phrases are
arranged in order of importance. As each item is read,
importance clearly increases in contrast with the BOMPHIOLOGIA
previous item. In effect, this can be a hidden form
of repetition. Description:
Brachyology is the condensation of a phrase or sentence. By stripping back surrounding words, brevitas exposes
the core meaning of what is said, thus enhancing it and
Example: increasing attention to it.
To me! A simple form of brevitas is with a verb-noun
combination, although other combinations may be used
Love, hope, charity.
such as adverb-verb and adjective-noun.
I want out.
Classification: Reduction
Discussion:
Brachyology is typically accomplished by removal of
words. Terseness in speech gives emphasis, stripping CACEMPHATON
away unnecessary words and leaving the key words that Description:
convey the core meaning.
Cacemphaton is the use either of crude words or
Brachyology is a general term for otherwise words which sound bad.
condensation. Ellipsis is often used to mean the same
thing. Asyndeton and Zeugma are types of brachyology. Example:
Praegnans constructio is a form of brachyology where Far too smelly. (sounds like 'fart to smelly')
two clauses are condensed into one. Thou crotch stitch.
Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:
i.e. Stylistic or Rhetorical Device Prof. Maya Roxas Irarum
I had preservative on toast (in many languages, CATABASIS
'preservative' means 'condom')
Description:
Discussion:
Catabasis is the steady decrease of emphasis or sense.
Although cacemphaton can just be intentional vulgarity,
Example:
it is often accidental.
And then I will come before you, and the wise will
Cacemphaton may arise from what is known as 'false
follow and others will be left behind.
friends', where a word in one language translates badly
or means something different into another language or Man bites dog! Jeffrey Evans was in court yesterday for
dialect. For example 'warm' in Dutch means 'not cold' biting a dog in the park. He was remanded in custody
(which includes 'hot'). This can be a splendid source of until a later date.
jokes and amusement.
We shall destroy! We shall, at least break something.
Sometimes cacamphaton is useful in confusing and Well, maybe we'll shout a bit.
shocking in order to get attention. At other times it is to
be avoided in order to sustain harmony. Discussion:
Cacemphaton comes from the Greek for 'evil speech'. This uses the principle of primacy, where things listed
first have particular impact and are more likely to be
Classification: Distortion remembered. By adding emphasis to the beginning,
catabasis increases this effect.
Catabasis works well in speech, where verbal emphasis
CACOPHONY
can be used to add strength to the words. This can make
Description: it useful for politicians and other speech-makers.
Cacophony is the use of unpleasant sounds for particular The first item in a catabasis can act like a headline,
effect. summarizing the key message. Subsequent items add
layers of information but with the earlier ones being
Example:
more important. In this way, newspapers make
Lick, crack, sick, hack. The beggar harried her open significant use of catabasis.
back.
Catabasis can also be used for comedic effect, for
Crash, bang, clang! example showing early bravado collapsing into effective
retraction.
We want no parlay with you and your grisly gang who
work your wicked will. -- Winston Churchill Catabasis is the opposite of anabasis, which is a stepwise
increase in emphasis.
Discussion:
The Latin word for Catabasis is Decrementum.
The unpleasant sounds of cacophony can be used to
deliberately indicate to invoke negative emotions such as Classification: Attention, Reduction
disgust, distress and fear.
Grammatical nonsense can be used, breaking up the flow
CATACHRESIS
of normal sentences, beyond elegant figurative styles.
Description:
Hard consonant sounds ('b',’d’,’t’, etc.) have a
percussive effect and can hence be used to add to Catachresis is the use of word or a figure of speech
cacophony, perhaps with deliberate assonance. incorrectly, breaking the rules of usage.
Classification: Distortion, Emotion Example:
Her laughing feet fell overboard with amazement.
Using a simile that does not work. You are lazy, careless and unlikable. Why should I trust
you?
It is common in literature where it may be used for
alarming effect, for example 'I will speak daggers to her' Wrong again! Your arguments are always full of holes.
- Hamlet. I accuse you, sir, of being a cad and a liar. A blackguard
Catachresis is related to Malapropism, where a word that and bounder of the first degree. A man who does not
sounds similar is used (often with comic effect). deserve the title of gentleman.
Cataphora occurs where a word used is not initially clear Classification: Attack
and is explained by a subsequent word or words.
Example:
CHIASMUS
If you like it, you can stroke the puppy.
Description:
This is John. He's the teacher you wanted to meet.
Chiasmus is a reversal of words in consecutive phrases.
Example:
She gave me hope and hopefully I gave my loyalty.
CRASIS DIALLAGE
Description: Description:
Crasis is the contraction of a word or words, often into a Diallage is the consideration of arguments from different
form that has two vowels that combine to make a longer viewpoints to and then turned to make a single point.
sound.
DISTINCTIO Discussion:
Fan-bloody-tastic! Description:
EPANALEPSIS Discussion:
Epanorthosis is emphatic correction, mid-sentence, of Changing the spelling of a word changes its sound and
what has just been said. causes confusion and hence holds attention.
Epenthesis is the addition of letters to the middle of a Epistrophe is sometimes called antistrophe, although this
word. word also has other meanings. It is also called epiphora.
Oh, my son, my son, what will you do, my son?? Sometimes when you ask questions, you are really
asking them of yourself rather than the other person.
I am lost, lost, lost unto the darkening seas. This is particularly noticeable when you give the answer
soon after asking the question.
Another way that stopping the other person from Euche is the expression of emotion through prayer or
answering is to put a statement of some sort immediately mock-prayer.
after the question. Example:
There is hence no space for the person to answer the Heaven save us from such fools!
question and they are directed more by the final
statement than the question. You have wronged her sorely, may God forgive you.
By showing empathy with one other person, you signal I'm going to the loo.
your general good character to all who are listening. In I'm going to the john.
this way, ethopoeia can be used to build trust and I'm going for a tinkle.
demonstrate integrity. I'm going for a pee.
Ethopoeia also allows you to create empathy in other He showed me his thing. Scary.
people for the person you are empathizing with. A way They did 'it'.
this works is as follows:
Abbreviations ('SOB') Many people have learned to do this. You can too.
Softening ('he sounded stupid') Bugs Bunny eats carrots and I think they make him
happy. Eat up!
Trivializing ('quickie')
How could we do it out here? The Greeks and Persians
Euphemisms themselves may also become taboo and of old did not need great machines but used their
thus not allowed (e.g. 'crap'). ingenuity. All we need is our minds and the resources
Classification: Substitution, Reduction around us.
Discussion:
Fables are teaching stories in which animals play the Sound and fury, signifying nothing (vs. furious sound,
parts (the most famous of these are by Aesop). Putting signifying nothing).
animals in place of humans can make lessons easier to
The man and the strength and the joy of it all. (vs. 'the
accept.
joyful, strong man).
Fictio is also commonly called Anthropomorphism.
Come up and see me sometime (vs. Come up to see me).
Classification: Meaning
Discussion:
Hendiadys is a form of emphasis, created by using a
GLOSSOLALIA word structure that is relatively unusual, thereby
grabbing attention. In effect, the conjunction both
Description: divides and joins, making two separate things as one.
Glossolalia is fabricated, meaningless speech. A typical hendiadys is to replace a noun-adjective pair
Example: with two nouns joined by a conjunction. In effect, one
thing is divided into two by the conjunction and can be
Oh, glaffobalbaness! The fliggit is fanging in the frubor, seen as a form of polysyndeton.
you knowsta!
Hendiatris is the same as hendiadys but using three
Rangliness is more famish that you might expact. words to mean one thing. This allows you to also use the
power of a triple.
An old children's TV show in the UK, call 'Bill and Ben'
had puppets saying things like 'Flobbodop, little weeed!' Hendiadys comes from the Greek phrase meaning 'one
through two'.
Discussion:
It is sometimes known as 'two for one' or 'figure of
Glossolalia is a very onomatopoeic word. Using it means
twinnes'.
using words that sound important and meaningful, yet
are meaningless at the same time. Classification: Substitution, Attention
The purpose of glossolalia can be as a fill-in for acting,
where the actions are more important than the words.
Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:
i.e. Stylistic or Rhetorical Device Prof. Maya Roxas Irarum
HETEROSIS Discussion:
Description: When the ends of words are similar, the principles
of repetition and recency are being used, creating pattern
Heterosis is a figure of speech where one form of verb is
effects and thereby gaining attention.
exchanged for another form.
Homoioteleuton is not often the same as rhyme, as the
Example:
ends of the words are seldom stressed.
I know the game has not yet started, but I know we have
Verb tense endings such as '-ing' and '-ed' are an easy
won.
subject for homoioteleuton, as are adverbs with '-ly' at
Well, I says to him, I says. 'What are you doing?' Then the end, adjectives with '-est' and so on.
he looks at me and I think, 'Duh!'
Classification: Repetition
I throwed the ball over the fence.
Discussion:
HOMOPHONE
A classic form of heterosis is where what happened in
Description:
the past is described using the present tense. This is
because the present tense is more immediate and sustains Homophones are words that are spelled differently yet
greater attention. have the same (or very similar) pronunciation.
Emotions are tense-specific, for example anger and Example:
sadness are often about the past, whilst fear and hope are
His death, which happen'd in his berth,
about the future. By changing the temporal nature of the
At forty-odd befell:
verb, you can change associated emotion.
They went and told the sexton,
Children often use verbs incorrectly and hence express and The sexton toll'd the bell.
heterosis. Children and child-like positions are likewise
(From 'Faithless Sally Brown' by Thomas Hood)
illustrated in literature.
Discussion:
Heterosis is also used to describe other forms of change,
such as gender and mood. The general principle of homophones is at the heart of
many puns, where the confusion (or maybe not) leads to
Classification: Substitution
a review of what was heard until the wit is realized.
The unexpectedness and confusion can be used in
HOMOIOTELEUTON persuasion to distract and otherwise enable key
messages to be slipped past the person's guard.
Description:
Classification: Hidden, Attention
Homoioteleuton is the repetition of word endings.
Example:
HYPALLAGE
He's the maddest, baddest, and maybe saddest person I
know. Description:
Learning anything is better than willy-nilly foolishness. Hypallage is the reversal of the syntactic relationship of
two words.
I ran easily and quickly on the strangely firm surface.
Example:
He danced the happy road home. (he is happy, not the
road)
A common form of hypellage is the transferred epithet, That was so hilarious I laughed my head off. Oh,
where a modifier (typically an adjective) is applied to the goodness it was incredibly, unbelievably funny. I still
'wrong' word in the sentence. This is a common mode in think my head is somewhere else. Maybe that is why I
poetry and literature. won't be going back there again.
Hyperbaton can be used for deliberate effect, rearranging Hyperbole may also be used to push things to the limit,
a sentence to change the meaning or to gain attention. and is often used in conflict, such as when a person
The trick is to sustain the meaning whilst causing accuses another of 'never' doing what is wanted and
momentary confusion whilst the audience works out 'always' doing what is wrong.
what is being said.
Classification: Distortion
Hyperbaton also allows for key words to be placed for
maximum emphasis -- usually at the start or end of a
sentence.
The Greek word 'hyperbaton' means 'transposition'.
Classification: Grammar, Repetition, Attention In this way, Illeism is sometimes talked about in
common parlance as 'the royal we' as kings and queens
use this. Queen Victoria famously said 'We are not
amused.' This also makes illeism a prerogative of royalty
HYSTERON PROTERON
and usage by common people may thus be seen as bad
Description: form (Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was known to
use it upon occasion). Mark Twain said "Only kings,
Hysteron proteron is reversing of the temporal sequence
presidents, editors, and people with tapeworms have the
in order to put of important ideas first.
right to use the editorial 'we'."
Example:
Classification: Reference
I conquered, I saw, I came.
We can win by fighting hard.
INCLUSIO
She brought me up well and gave birth to my life.
Description:
Putting on my shoes and socks.
Inclusio is the bracketing of a passage of text with the
Discussion: same set of words at the start and end.
Example: Discussion:
She's got a great future in front of her! Irony is a core component of a dry sense of humor,
where wit is appreciated but is unlikely to raise a laugh.
Is that a gun in your pocket or are you just pleased to see
me? Verbal irony is incongruence between what is said and
what is meant. For example saying, 'Oh, that's a nice big
Know what I mean? Nudge, nudge! Wink, wink! hat' when you mean that the hat is too big.
Discussion: Dramatic irony include incongruence between a
character's deeds and surrounding events. It usually
When you are prevented from saying something due to
occurs when the audience can see an ironic situation that
social norms, such as when certain words are forbidden
the characters cannot, such as where Romeo kills
or even from politeness, then it is common to try and get
himself because he believes Juliet to be dead (she is
others to understand by using metaphor of some kind.
actually only drugged). Dramatic irony can be tragic or
If the person using innuendo does not get the response humorous.
they require, it is not uncommon for them to increase
Situational irony occurs where there is incongruence
their attempts, exaggerating the innuendo or using
between events such as where a boy gives up wooing a
further suggestion.
girl and leaves town just as she realizes that she loves
An advantage that innuendo gives the person using it is him.
that it deniable, should they be called out for making
Irony is similar to sarcasm, although sarcasm is directed
improper suggestions.
at a person and is more of an attack, whilst irony is more
Sexual innuendo is common, particularly in drama that of an amused observation.
written in times when explicit language could not be
Classification: Distortion, Hidden
used. Used well, it can create a humorous situation, for
example by referencing sexually-related parts of the
body.
Isocolon comes from the Greek 'iso', meaning 'same', That's a wise thought. Can we explore that more? The
and 'kolon', meaning member. other stuff can wait.
Classification: Repetition Yes I know it's not all there. You're very perceptive, you
know. Do you get that from your parents?
I say, you do look good today. Can we talk about this
KENNING thing here?
Description: Discussion:
Kenning is the use of circumlocution instead of a simple There is little more interesting to most people than
noun. themselves, and to be told they are wonderful gives a
Example: welcome boost to their sense of identity. It is no surprise
that attention to the person makes that person pay more
He is the feeder of the bloody battle axe (= he is a attention to themselves and, consequently, less to other
warrior). things.
The clashing ring-feast of the darken day (midwinter There is also a pattern of exchange here: I tell you how
festival). wonderful you are and you ignore that I am changing the
subject.
Discussion:
Classification: Attention
Circumlocution is talking around a subject rather than
just naming it. Not naming something creates mystery
and the confusion of uncertainty, thus encouraging
others to pay attention in order to better understand. LITOTES
Talking around the subject can also be a form of verbal Description and method:
painting, using visual and sensory images that otherwise If you want to affirm something as true in an
would describe a dull subject. understated, quiet way, you can do this by taking the
MEIOSIS
MALAPROPISM Description:
Description: Meiosis is an understatement, making less of something
Malapropism is the use of an incorrect word that is that it actually it.
similar in sound to the intended word (often with Example:
humorous effect).
What they called a 'riot' was really high spirits, just
Example: people having fun.
You did that on porpoise! (vs. purpose) Don't worry, I'm fine. It's only a scratch.
I am prostate with grief. (vs. prostrate) Discussion:
What are you incinerating? (vs. insinuating) Making something smaller reduces chance of people
With all that money, he must be quite effluent. (vs. being distracted by it or focusing on it. If you want
affluent) others to pay attention to something then you may well
want them not be distracted.
Discussion:
Meosis is also common in polite society, where it is
Mrs. Malaprop is a character in Richard Brinsley considered rude to draw attention to one's own problems,
Sheridan’s (1751-1816) play 'The Rivals'. She regularly which may hence be downplayed. In a curious reversal,
makes mistakes in the use of words, often with the intent by downplaying something that others know is
of appearing clever but actually resulting in the opposite significant, you actually draw attention to it.
Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:
i.e. Stylistic or Rhetorical Device Prof. Maya Roxas Irarum
There are words that diminish, such as 'just', 'only', Example:
'simply' and so on. Inserting these as modifiers makes
Past, present and future.
what is said less important. Spotting them is a a useful
method for identifying meiosis. I am everyone I have ever been. I am a little boy, lost on
the beach. I am a confused teenager, raging at the world.
Meiosis is the opposite of Auxesis.
I am an adult, trudging my path.
'Meiosis' comes from the Greek word meaning 'to make
I want to thank everyone who helped with this
smaller'.
production, including the door staff, the make-up artists,
Classification: Reduction, Reversal the costumiers, the lighting engineer…
MERISM Discussion:
Description: By taking time to describe something in more detail than
might normally be expected, merismos acts as a form of
Merism is referencing something by listing its
emphasis, indicating importance and asking the audience
constituent parts or multiple descriptors.
to reflect on the subject.
Example:
Polar merismos occurs where a full description is
Flesh and bone (the body). shortened by describing only boundary or start and end
states. Sometimes this is written by describing the end
Search every nook and cranny (= look everywhere). state before the start. For example, 'man and boy',
Sun, sea and sand (a holiday destination). 'omega and alpha', 'now and again'.
I'm feeling hippy. I feel like wild six. Metonymy is the use of one item's name to represent
another item. In particular the representing item usually
Discussion: has a close association with the represented item.
Words can misspelled because the writer has literacy Example:
problem. They may also be deliberately misspelled for a
reason, such as: Henry invaded France. (Henry represents Britain)
Creating a diminutive of a person's forename. The pen is mightier than the sword. (Pen represents
words. Sword represents military power).
Euphemism, where forbidden words are hidden in
misspelling. I'll just Google it. (using Google instead of search).
Discussion:
Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:
i.e. Stylistic or Rhetorical Device Prof. Maya Roxas Irarum
A common use of metonymy is in synecdoche, where a Example:
part represents the whole, for example the monarch
We are not amused. (Queen Victoria)
being described as 'the crown'.
We will now retire to one's repose.
Metonymy comes from the Greek 'metonymia' meaning
'a change of name'. Discussion:
Classification: Substitution The most famous use of nosism is by the English
monarch, where the 'royal we' is quite common. Because
of this tradition, it is considered very bad form for
NARRATIO anyone else to use it as it seeks puts one on a par with
the monarch. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was
Description:
known on occasion to use the term and was criticized in
Narratio is the presentation of essential facts. the press for doing so.
Oink
OPTATIO
Baa
Description:
Discussion:
Optatio is making an exclamation in the form of a wish.
Generally, words are used to tell what is happening.
Onomatopoeia, on the other hand, helps the readers to Example:
hear the sounds the words they reflect. Hence, the reader I wish you'd shut up! I need quiet to read.
cannot help but enter the world created by the poet with
the aid of these words. The beauty of onomatopoeic O, begone! Wouldst thou not leave thy brother in peace?
words lies in the fact that they are bound to have an
Rain! We need rain! I pray for rain!
effect on the readers’ senses whether they are understood
or not. Moreover, a simple plain expression does not
have the same emphatic effect that conveys an idea
powerfully to the readers. The use of onomatopoeic
words helps create emphasis.
You call her ugly because you do not see her beauty. Paradoxes can be used as explanations, such as the
circular paradox known as the 'grandfather paradox'
Yes, I know it does not work all the time, but that is which is used to discount the possibility of time travel.
what makes it interesting. In this conundrum, a person travels back in time and
Discussion: kills their grandfather before he has children, so
preventing the person being born (and also from killing
To be accused of vice is to be accused to of transgressing the grandfather).
social values and so risk being ostracized. People thus
accused may well seek to reframe what is being called a Paradoxes can appear to be false but actually be true,
vice into a virtue, effectively doing a reversal. such as a person having their fifth birthday after living
twenty years (if they are born on February 29th in a leap
Sales people may use paradiastole when they turn year).
an objection into a benefit.
Paradoxes may be deliberate puzzles and are common in
Paradiastole may also be used in an ironic or sarcastic philosophy, where pedants spend time musing upon their
sense, such when a person committing a foolish act is construction and how feasible solutions may be derived.
praised as being a genius. Poets likewise delight in the twists of a paradox and seek
to place them in matching linguistic settings. Authors
Paradiastole comes from the Greek 'para', meaning 'next
also use paradoxes to create excitement, confusion and
to' and 'stole', meaning 'dressing up'.
enlightening lessons.
Classification: Reversal
An antinomy is a false paradox that is arrived at by using
accepted forms of reasoning. A dialetheia is a paradox
that is both true and false at the same time, such as when
PARADOX you say 'I am both in the room and outside the room',
Description: whilst you are standing in the doorway.
A paradox is a statement (or set of statements) where a A moral paradox occurs where values conflict, for
seemingly impossible contradiction is presented. example where a person is faced with the choice of
killing another person or letting a loved one die.
Classification: Attention
Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:
i.e. Stylistic or Rhetorical Device Prof. Maya Roxas Irarum
PARAENETICON: Paralipsis is also spelled as Paraleipsis.
It comes from Greek paraleipein ‘to leave on one side’,
Description:
‘to omit’, which itself comes from para ‘beside’
Paraeneticon is the expression of emotion through and leipein ‘to leave’
exhortation, telling or asking others to act in some way.
Classification: Omission
Example:
Get out of here! Get out of my sight!!
PARALLELISM
Can you feel the vibes? I think you can be creative now.
Description:
Get those juices flowing...
Parallelism is the use of repeated patterns in separate
Stop! Don't say it!! I can't stand to hear it!
parts of a sentence.
Discussion:
Paraeneticon is a way of issuing a command. It often
Example:
voiced in the form of an uncontrollable outburst,
particularly of anger. Being an outburst, it is more The good that I hear does not match the bad that I see.
socially acceptable in that the person is clearly not fully
He loves to live; I live to love.
in control of themself. This is also a clear signal of the
strength of the emotion the person is feeling and I know you lie, I accuse you of lying, I will show you
consequently the implied importance of the situation. are a liar.
Paraeneticon need not be an outburst and can be more Discussion:
controlled, although its essence is still that emotion of
some form is being expressed. Repetition of a pattern creates emphasis, multiplying
attention to each part referenced and thus the power of
Classification: Emotion sentence.
Pattern repetition can be simple and obvious, making
them easy to see. Patterns can also be subtle and overt,
PARALIPSIS
making them difficult to perceive.
Description:
Various forms of parallelism include:
Paralipsis involves suggesting, by deliberately concise
Parallel subjects: The silent canal and the peaceful
treatment, that much of significance is omitted.
towpath led us on.
Example:
Parallel objects: I will search every city, town and
I will speak only about his good side. village until I find you.
This is not really about how much it will cost. Parallel verbs and objects: Turn out the lights of life,
draw the curtains of time, close the door on existence.
Not to mention her family, of course.
Parallel verbs and adverbs: He was publicly kind and
Discussion:
privately mean.
When we say little about something that obviously
Parallel phrases: Look to the mountains where you can
deserves more, we leave the unsaid things hanging in the
see the peaks.
air for all to know. In this way we can avoid
embarrassing or difficult discussion in we might be Parallel sentences: Lift me up! Help me ascend!
challenged.
Classification: Repetition
In saying that we will not talk about something, we have
to mention that thing, thus drawing attention to it.
Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:
i.e. Stylistic or Rhetorical Device Prof. Maya Roxas Irarum
PARAPROSDOKIAN understanding. Clauses are generally shorter than
sentences. Therefore multiple independent clauses have
Description:
a staccato effect, giving more punch and (perforce)
Paraprosdokian is the use of words at the end of a phrase having less flow.
or sentence that change the apparent initial meaning.
Conjunctions connect clauses together into sentences
Example: and help create flow, yet if the clause is complete, the
conjunction has less effect and may be omitted.
I am most disgusted that you were not rewarded for your Parataxis occurs with or without the conjunction.
wonderful work.
Parataxis is the 'opposite' of Hypotaxis.
Take my hand, I don't want it.
Classification: Grammar, Rearrangement
Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana.
Discussion:
PAREGMENON
When we listen to what someone is saying, we
constantly predict ahead, trying to work out what they Description:
are going to say. It is thus relatively easy to set up
Paregmenon is the repetition of words which have the
expectation and then dash it. This causes confusion and
same root.
hence makes the person review and re-think what you
are really saying. Example:
The confusion and subsequent realization of Verily, you are very well verified.
Paraprosdokian makes it a popular formula with comics
Happily, happiness makes others happy too.
and other humorists.
Society is the socialisation of the unsociable.
Paraprosdokian comes from the Greek words for
'beyond' and 'expectation'. Discussion:
Classification: Attention, Meaning, Humor Repetition is a simple way of grabbing attention, much
as a hammer hitting a nail. This can be make more subtle
in many ways and paragmenon is one way of doing this.
PARATAXIS
Classification: Repetition
Description
Parataxis is the use of multiple independent clauses, with
or without conjunctions. PARENTHESES
Description and method:
Example:
Use parentheses () to add further information to a
We went to the park and we sat down and we had a cup
sentence that is clearly separated from the rest of the
of tea.
sentence. This creates a 'sentence within a sentence'.
In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.
Parenthesized text can include multiple sentences, but
And the earth was without form and void; and darkness
should not run on for too long.
was upon the face of the deep.
Aside
I came, I saw, I conquered.
Use parentheses to indicate 'asides', comments which
Discussion:
may have a secretive element to them, which are thus
An independent clause stands alone, with an individual spoken at a lower volume (and perhaps with a
meaning. After a complete 'chunk' of meaning, we often conspiratorial hand to the side of the mouth).
pause for a moment to integrate it into prior
Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:
i.e. Stylistic or Rhetorical Device Prof. Maya Roxas Irarum
Example: assume others will 'get what we mean', although this is
often far from true.
She is going with John (you know, the handsome one) to
the conference. (aside) As we face ambiguity all the time and seek certainty, we
tend to make assumptions to 'fill in the
Discussion:
gaps'. Vagueness may be used in a persuasive context
Parentheses () are curved brackets that add additional where resolution of uncertainty by the subject is
information to a sentence. The parenthesized contents predictable and their assumptions desirable.
may completely be removed without changing the
Parisology also allows you to imply and insinuate things
meaning of sentence.
without getting into trouble, as you can always deny
When a parenthesis appears to a reader, the current text your intent and possibly accuse the other person of
is 'paused' whilst the parenthesized text is processed. To unfair attack.
keep the paused text in memory requires cognitive effort
Parisology comes from the Greek 'parisos' meaning
to stop it fading. Thus any inserted text should usually
'almost equal' or 'balanced', and 'logos', meaning 'word'.
be kept short in order to reduce this effort and any
chance of forgetting the main text. Classification: Omission, Distortion
As an 'aside', parentheses are more conspiratorial
than dashes or commas.
PARISON
Other forms of bracketing include [square brackets],
Description:
{braces} and <angle brackets>. Square brackets give a
greater degree of separation and are sometimes used for Parison is corresponding structure in a series of clauses.
third-person commenting of text. Braces are used in
some technical situations. Angle brackets (really only Example:
greater-than and less-than signs) are often used to signify I have lived and loved across a long life
something that is to be replaced, such as in a form where And I still live for love and long for more life.
<surname> is to be replaced (including the angle
brackets) with somebody's surname. He that has saved will be safe.
He that has failed will be a failure.
He that has loved will be loved.
PARISOLOGY Discussion:
Description: Parison can be found across sentences and clauses,
Parisology is the use of equivocal or ambiguous where the same word may be found in different forms or
language. nouns, adjectives, verbs and so on may match one
another.
Example:
Parison creates patterns that stimulate recognition of
Happy men and women walked in the park (are the these and hence attention and, hopefully in certain poetry
women happy?) or prose, some measure of delight.
The results of the experiment have value, I think. (What Classification: Repetition
value? How much value? To who?)
It can be done. (What? By who?)
PARISOSIS
Discussion:
Description:
Ambiguity is often caused by incomplete language. It
would be hard work to explain in detail everything we Parisosis is where two or more clauses have the same
mean, and so our speech gets severely attenuated. We number of syllables.
When spoken well, then this is assertiveness, when done Classification: Hidden
badly, it can seem like aggression.
Speaking freely requires either boldness or trust or both. PERISSOLOGIA
In many societies there are many rules about 'saving
face' for others and behaving with dignity. In others, Description:
speaking the truth can get you arrested.
Perissologia is the excessive use of words.
In Greek, parrhesia means not only to speak freely, but
Example:
also to speak boldly and even be obliged to tell truth for
the common good. Courage is thus saying what must be My dearest sir, it is a delight to see you in such stirling
said, even when it may be lead to personal harm. and excellent health. Never, I say, have I set eyes on
such a fine specimen of man who sets my mind a-
Classification: Amplification
dancing with pleasure. (= hello)
Would that I could sing my heart, the birds and bees
PERIPHRASIS would faint with the sounds of such ecstasy that burns
my very soul in sacred flame! (= I'm happy)
Description:
Discussion:
Periphrasis is circumlocution, talking around the subject
rather than directly what perhaps might be said in the Sometimes you can go too far. Where a certain amount
circumstances. of delightful wordplay can spice up the language, there
is level beyond which listeners get confused, bored or
Example: irritated. Or all three.
It is not that James is welcome or otherwise, or that he is The net result is that meaning may be lost or distorted.
sometimes here or not. I do wonder, though, if he might
be thinking what it's all about. (= I don't like James) Perissologia can stem from anxiety, resulting in people
who do not know when to stop. It can also be used by
When I am with you, my toes tingle and my knees are people who like the sound of their own voice or who do
weak. The world is a better place altogether and I find not want to listen to others. It can in this way be used for
myself giving my fortune to beggars, and I am a beggar filibustering (talking to use up available time and so
before you, craving a smile, a whim. (= I love you) block other people).
Polyptoton is the repetition of the same word with the Classification: Grammar, Repetition, Omission
same meaning, but in a different way, varying such as
case, mood, tense, person, degree, number and gender.
PRAECISIO
Example:
Description:
I love, loved, will always love you.
Praecisio is making a point by remaining silent.
She hated him, despised him, utterly detested him.
Example:
Fight the good fight.
A defendant in court refuses to speak on the grounds that
Love is an irresistible desire to be irresistibly desired.
they have nothing to defend against.
Discussion:
A modern poet composes a poem that is just silence for
Repetition emphasises, though simple repetition can be a sixty seconds.
little boring and obvious. Polyptoton adds interest and
Discussion:
perhaps some concealment by repeating something in
different forms. In a clamorous world where everyone is shouting to get
attention, a novel reversal that can get attention is to the
Classification: Repetition
opposite of shouting -- saying nothing, even in the face
of provocation.
And you and I and our cats and dogs, together again. Classification: Hidden
He is clearly guilty, to say nothing of his previous Sales people often use procatalepsis in objection-
record. handling, where they defuse customer reasons not to
buy.
I'm not allowed to talk about whether you did know her
already, so let's discuss how she reacted to you. Procatalepsis is a form of Anthypophora, where a person
answers their own question.
Discussion:
Classification: Reasoning
Sometimes social or other substantive rules prevent the
speaker from explicitly making a point. Praeteritio is a
tricky device that lets them say something whilst
PROLEPSIS
pretending that they are not. Praeteritio is, in this way,
popular with lawyers who slip in inadmissible evidence Description:
whilst effectively recognizing that it is not allowed.
Prolepsis is anticipatory referral to a future event.
Having brought something up, drawing it to
Example:
the attention of the listener, to then suddenly move away
from the subject leaves it open and incomplete, which Say that again and you're fired!
leads them only to think about the mystery even more.
When we make our first million, we'll celebrate in style.
Classification: Reference, Omission
I believe you will succeed.
Discussion:
PROCATALEPSIS
Much of how we think is in anticipation of the future --
Description: in fact neural scan studies have shown that if our brains
have nothing to do, then that is what it does (the rest of
Procatalepsis is raising an objection to one's own
us call it daydreaming). Anticipation is thus very natural
argument and then answering it.
and it appears often in speech.
Example:
Anticipation is also assumptive, working on the principle
This is a stupid question. Or is it? If we look closer we that what is stated will actually come true, which is one
can find some important points here. of the methods that can be used in changing minds.
So who needs ice removal in a warm climate? Well the Classification: Reasoning
night can get very cold. And of course when it's hot
every day, you may want to head for the cooler hills!
Of course you know this already, so why am I pointing it PROPARALEPSIS
out? Well recent research has added new detail... Description:
Proparalepsis is the addition of extra letters to the end of
a word.
When trying to describe something, it is often difficult to Spoonerism can just be a speech error and is named after
convey the idea, so stealing attributes of something else the Reverend William Archibald Spooner (1844–1930),
where the idea is clear is a way of communicating your Warden of New College, Oxford, who often made this
idea. slip. It is also used plays where characters also have this
affliction but make amusing Spoonerisms.
A simile is not the same as a metaphor. Simile takes
some attribute of the object and applies it to the subject. Classification: Rearrangement
A metaphor takes all of the attributes of the object and
applies them to the subject. The simile says 'A is like B
in some way'. The metaphor equates, says 'A is B in all SUBREPTION
ways' or 'A = B'. Thus:
Description:
Simile: You are like a dog.
Subreption is deliberate misrepresentation of facts, often
Metaphor: You are a dog. through concealment.
Some similes are quite explicit, such as 'as wet as rain', Example:
whilst others are less clear, such as 'as wet as a bereft
You were there. You were alone. You did it.
politician'.
I was there, but I was busy. How am I expected to see
Similes may be shortened, almost to metaphor, such as
things when I am busy? It's a big place.
'he was like a sword, reaching right to the real problem.'
Others are more specific, 'his mind was like a sword, The candle was burning. Light was emitted. There were
cutting through irrelevant data to find the real problem.' hence photons in every corner of the room.
Similes often use stereotypes, where the comparison is Discussion:
known by common assumption, such as 'He's as honest
as a politician'. A common political phrase is 'being economical with the
truth'. Subreption happens often in situations where there
Ironic reversal can be used to imply the opposite, such as is a lot at stake as people try to put their interests in the
'as wet as the summer Sahara'. best possible light. This can happen in many places,
from courtrooms to scientific journals.
Classification: Reference
Discussion: What we want and what happens in the world are seldom
in alignment. We thus adjust what we say and think,
Synizesis is typically used in poetry, where the sound making some things more important and others less
can be even more important than the immediate important. Tapinosis is about the latter diminishing
meaning. activity.
Synizesis may be understood as a contrast to the We often compare ourselves with others, even to the
dipthong, where successive vowels are merged together, extent of defining who we are through those with whom
such as 'encyclopaedia'. we do and do not associate. In this way we want
ourselves to be more important than others, and that they
Classification: Sound
are less important than us. As a result, we may use
tapinosis to downplay the achievements of others in
order to make ourselves feel good.
SYNONYMIA
Modesty, on the other hand, is about understating and
Description:
downplaying the importance of our own achievements in
Synonymia is the repetition of synonyms or synonymous order to help others look good (and also to avoid
phrases in order to emphasize. accusations of arrogance).
This arboretum, this collection of trees, is very beautiful. Tmesis can also be used for comic effect, with the
exaggeration over-done. Exaggeration is often used in
Discussion: comedy in this way. Swearing is also used in comedy to
Tautology can be repetition of a single word or of shock and destabilize.
phrases or sentences. The main point in it is that The key part of tmesis is splitting of the word and
meaning is reproduced. insertion of another word. It does not always have to
Tautology is often used in error, including when people have strong emphasis, such as 'be you ware' instead of
are trying to use 'clever' language which they do not 'you beware'. However, the device, by its very use, still
really understand. Another place it appears in formal draws attention.
language where the writer is being overly explicit. The word 'tmesis' is sometimes is used to indicate
It can happen deliberately where the speaker is trying to 'skipping text'.
make sure the other person understands and so is using Tmesis comes from the Greek word for 'cutting'.
different words in case the listener does not understand
the initial (and usually more complex or jargon-based) Classification: Distortion, Attention
word.
Tautology can happen where abbreviations include
TRICOLON
words which are repeated, such as 'The BPS System',
where 'BPS' means Business Processing System'. It can Description:
also occur across languages, for example 'chai tea',
Tricolon is the use of three successive sentence parts of
where 'chai' is Hindi for 'tea'.
equal length and increasing power.
Tautology comes from the Greek word meaning
Example:
'redundant'.
I came, I saw, I conquered. (veni, vidi, vici - Julius
Classification: Repetition, Excess
Caesar)
We will fight! We will kill!! We will destroy!!
I like her, love her, need her forever.