Natural Resources Management Issues in The Korat Basin of Northeast Thailand: An Overview
Natural Resources Management Issues in The Korat Basin of Northeast Thailand: An Overview
Natural Resources Management Issues in The Korat Basin of Northeast Thailand: An Overview
by the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations with the help and approval of the
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The responsibility for this publication rests with the International Rice
Research Institute.
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Suggested citation:
Kam SP, Hoanh CT, Trébuil G, Hardy B, editors. 2001. Natural resource
management issues in the Korat Basin of northeast Thailand: an overview.
Proceedings of the Planning Workshop on Ecoregional Approaches to
Natural Resource Management in the Korat Basin, Northeast Thailand:
Towards Further Research Collaboration, held on 26-29 October 1999, Khon
Kaen, Thailand. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research
Institute. 169 p.
ISBN 971-22-0161-9
ISSN 0117-8180
Natural Resource Management Issues
in the Korat Basin of Northeast
Thailand: An Overview
S.P. Kam, C.T. Hoanh, G. Trebuil, and B. Hardy, Editors
IRRI
INTERNATIONAL RICE RESEARCH INSTITUTE
Contents
PREFACE v
SECTION A
The biophysical environment and production Systems 1
SECTION B
Socioeconomic and institutional issues 53
SECTION C
Water resources management 97
Development and management of water resources in the Korat Basin of northeast 115
Thailand
Sanguan Patamatamkul
Water management in the Korat Basin, northeast Thailand: policy, institutional, 119
and management issues from the farm/village to the region
Siripong Hungspreug
SECTION D
Soil and nutrient management 125
Soil and nutrient management of some major field crops in the Korat Basin of 127
northeast Thailand
Chairoj Wongwiwatchai and Kobkiet Paisancharoen
Soil compaction and plant growth in northeast Thailand: the case of the Nam 157
Phong soil series
Christian Hartmann, Roland Poss, and Veera Singhatat
Research to enhance the use and management of development for improving rural livelihoods. The
natural resources for human needs often focuses on interventions are only technological but may also
individual problems and solutions, whether it is for be organizational, institutional, or policy-based,
forestry or agricultural production. Although this and may be targeted at different levels of social
approach has produced significant gains in the organization, from individual households to
production of specific commodities, it tends to ignore policymakers.
the interactions and the consequences of often 3. Make knowledge accessible and readily under-
competing and conflicting demands on the resource standable to the target users so that they can avail
base on long-term sustainable development. This of options from which they can select what is
problem is particularly critical in areas that are not best suited to their needs.
richly endowed in natural resources and are subject to 4. Provide platforms and/or mechanisms for
increasing development pressure. The Northeast communication, consultation, and negotiation
Region of Thailand is one such area. Accounting for among various interest groups so that decisions
about one-third of the country's land and its popula- and policies arrived at are more acceptable to the
tion, and despite the increased opportunities for community at large.
development since the opening up of the Region
through road infrastructure development in the 1960s, The Ecoregional Initiative for the Humid and
much of the rural population still lives in poverty Sub-Humid Tropics of Asia—Ecor(I)Asia—an
relative to the other parts of Thailand. initiative of the Consultative Group on International
The setting up of universities in the Region plus Agricultural Research (CGIAR) centers that is
the injection of agricultural research funds from the convened by the International Rice Research Institute,
Ford Foundation in the 1980s and from Japanese and focuses on developing such research and operational
other country sources even today have generated methodologies and testing them within relatively
substantial research findings on agriculture and homogeneous pilot regions representing different
forestry specific to the local conditions. Yet the agroecological types. Started in 1996, Ecor(I)Asia has
impact of past research on improving rural liveli- begun studies in the Red River Basin of Vietnam
hoods has not been widespread. A solution to some of (representing a highland-to-lowland toposequence),
the limitations of past research may be provided by the uplands of northern Thailand (addressing upland
adopting more participatory and interdisciplinary agriculture and soil erosion effects), and the Mekong
approaches in carrying out research and in linking River Delta of Vietnam (representing a delta environ-
research efforts more to development activities and to ment).
influence development policy. In a preliminary consultation with various Thai
This calls for developing research and opera- agencies in 1998, it was suggested that the
tional methodologies that ecoregional approach to integrated natural resource
1. Use a systems approach in characterizing and management (INRM) would be particularly relevant
understanding the key issues and problems facing to the Korat Basin of northeast Thailand. The
livelihood improvement and natural resource planning workshop from which papers were selected
management, and their interrelationships, at and for this book therefore represented a first step in the
beyond the individual farm level. pracess of developing an ecoregional initiative for
2. Identify the best-bet intervention paints far INRM in the Karat Basin. The planning workshop
arresting and reversing undesirable trends and was held 26-29 October 1999, with participation
practices that impede proper and sustainable invited from key local government and nongovern-
v
ment agencies concerned with NRM issues in the international colleagues. While it is not possible to
Korat Basin and joined by researchers from interna- mention all of them, we would like to specially
tional organizations and advanced research institutes. acknowledge the following:
A summary of the workshop presentations and • The presenters and authors of the papers pre-
discussions was published by the co-organizers—the sented at the workshop and published in this
Faculty of Agriculture of Khon Kaen University and book, for the review and research on the variety
the International Rice Research Institute—and was of topics covered;
made available shortly after the workshop. However, • Mr. George Reyes and the other staff members of
it was felt that many of the papers presented by the the Communication and Publications Services of
workshop participants contained information that IRRI for layout, proofreading, and the final
effectively reviewed the key issues and problems and production of this book;
would be of interest to a broad spectrum of readers • The organizing committee from the Faculty of
concerned with managing natural resources in Agriculture of Khon Kaen University headed by
northeast Thailand, particularly in the Korat Basin. Dean Anake Topark-ngarm for its efficient
Therefore, the decision was made to publish this logistical support in organizing the workshop and
limited proceedings, which compiles these papers into facilitating the collection of manuscripts and
four main sections. Section A has five papers that communication with the authors; and
highlight the salient features of the biophysical • The IRRI Thailand Office, particularly IRRI
environment of northeast Thailand and its influence Liaison Scientist Dr. Boriboon Somrith and his
on the types of production systems that have emerged able administrative assistant Ms. Aranya
using the existing natural resources. Section B has Sapprasert, for their administrative and logistical
five papers that highlight the socioeconomic and support, particularly in dealing with international
institutional issues that influence the changes in land participants.
and resource use. Section C focuses on the manage- The workshop could not have been conducted
ment of water as a key and scarce resource of the without core funding from IRRI, particularly the CE6
Northeast Region; the three papers review the status Project that has the responsibility for convening
of water resources and the institutional aspects of Ecor(I)Asia. The European Union, the DGIS of the
water use and management for agriculture. The five Netherlands, and the Government of France are
papers in Section D highlight the problems of particularly supportive of the ecoregional program.
cultivating on soils of generally low productivity and Lastly, it is our sincere hope that this book will
also the challenges of using problem soils for be of interest and use to researchers and policymakers
agricultural production in northeast Thailand. in providing background information, in bringing
This book, and the workshop on which it is some key issues to their attention, and in providing a
based, would not have been possible without the rational basis for appropriate interventions for
dedicated efforts given by many of our Thai and sustainable development in northeast Thailand.
vi
Conversion factors
1. The Thai unit for land area is the rai, which is equivalent to 0.16 ha.
2. The Thai currency is the baht. The currency exchange rate was around 25 baht to US$1 prior to late 1997
and now fluctuates from 38 to 45 baht to US$1.
vii
Section A
Among the four regions in Thailand, northeast physical features of agricultural production in this
Thailand (NET) (Fig. 1) has the most agricultural region. The outcome of such knowledge may be used
land (9.25 million hectares, Center for Agricultural to determine agroecological zones showing related
Information 1998) and the most farms (2,273,000 characteristics and agricultural outputs.
million, Center for Agricultural Information 1998). In
contrast, farmers of this region are known to have the
lowest farm income although the average farm size is Climate
not small. The poor physical endowment of the area
has been considered to be the main cause of such low Rainfall
income. The physical features are poor soil condi- Although the Northeast Region is known to have
tions, uneven distribution of rainfall, and limited prevailing drought, the total annual rainfall of the
irrigation facilities. Nevertheless, some physical whole NET is not much different from that of the
features favor agricultural production, such as the Central Region. The frequently mentioned drought in
subsurface water supply, distinct dry season with this region derives from the uneven distribution of
relatively low air humidity, and good road conditions. rainfall over area, within a year, within a rainy season,
Furthermore, distribution of the characteristics of any and from year to year.
physical feature in the region is not even. This implies The mean annual isohyets divide NET into three
that the whole region does not have an even physical zones: 1,400 mm in the north and east along the
endowment. The objective of this paper is to discuss Mekong River, below 1,200 mm in the west toward
the limitations, benefits, and distribution of the the Petchaboon mountain range, and a central band of
3
8
A few areas have sufficient residual soil mois- located at the northern border. Nine important
ture for another crop after rice, for example, peanut highways link the provinces within the region and
in Surin and sesame in Buriram. three important highways link the major provinces of
Upland areas within the nonflood plains are the region to other regions. The Friendship Highway
usually small. The villages are situated on them and also links the region with Vientiane, the capital of Lao
field crops such as cassava, sugarcane, peanut, and PDR, through the Thai-Laos Friendship Bridge.
watermelon are grown on small parcels. Highway number 217 also links the region with Lao
PDR at Chong Mek, Ubon Ratchathani. Transporta-
Flood plains tion by railway is rather limited. Only two railways
Flood plains are found along the Chi and Mun rivers. link eight provinces to Bangkok, with Nakhon
Their main features are shown in Figure 15. These Ratchasima as the common railway station. Air
plains are annually inundated by floodwater over- transport is also available in seven provinces.
flowing the river banks. The soils are mostly However, transport is limited along the Chi and Mun
Tropaquept along the rivers, but a considerable rivers although ferries have been established across
portion of the flood plains is covered by Paleaquult the Mekong River between Thailand and Lao PDR.
soils. About 99.2% of the villages in NET received
The pattern of cultivation in these plains is electricity at the end of 1996. Electricity is generated
similar to that in nonflood plains. Rice is the main locally at the Ubonrathana, Sirinthon, Juraporn, and
crop with a subsequent crop of vegetables, in limited Nam Phung dams. Eighty percent ofthe electricity
areas, if farmers are able to dig shallow wells. Many used in the region is still purchased from Lao PDR.
small pumping irrigation schemes have also been Electricity allows extra hours of work at night, such
established along the lower reaches of the Chi and as weaving. Most villages can receive radio and
Mun rivers to provide water for dry-season cropping. television broadcasts from Bangkok and the major
provinces, More news is also available from daily
Levee area newspapers from Bangkok and from many northeast
Between the flood plain and river is usually a narrow cities.
levee covered by loamy soils (Ustifluvent) with
moderate fertility. The land is planted with bamboo, Telecommunications
fruit trees, vegetables, and dry-season field crops. The By the end of 1996,319,077 telephone numbers had
problems in the area are unstable market prices, been distributed by the Telephone Organization of
occasional flooding, etc. Thailand and TT&T private company to households
in NET. The ratio of telephone numbers per 100
Irrigation systems people is 1.53. Khon Kaen has the highest ratio at 3.
Within NET, several major irrigation schemes are The wireless telephone is available extensively and is
based on large dams and reservoirs. The soils in offered by many private companies, and many relay
irrigated areas are mostly Paleaquult. Rice is grown in stations have been established. However, links to the
the rainy season, whereas in the dry season there may Internet are available mostly in Bangkok and a few
be a second crop of rice, soybean, peanut, sweet corn, major cities. In rural areas, communication via the
tomato, watermelon, vegetables, etc. The problems telephone is still limited in many villages, causing
are irregular water supplies and increasingly wide- inconvenience to agribusiness.
spread salinity.
Conclusions
Infrastructure
The major physical factors in NET that determine
Transportation crops and their productivity are rainfall, soil type, and
Transportation of agricultural inputs and products by topography. At the macrolevel, annual rainfall is
road is highly convenient as almost all villages are higher along the northeast border next to the Mekong
connected to highways by either asphalt or lateritic River than in the interior of the region. Fertile soils
roads. NET has an extensive and high-quality road can be found in many places of the western and
network. Figure 19 shows the important highways, southern hills except where the topsoil layers are
railways, and airports in NET. The Friendship shallow or originated from sandstone and calcareous
Highway links the region with Bangkok through cities rocks.
of three important provinces and ends at Nong Khai,
15
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Asian Institute of Technology. 1978. Water for the farming systems for the infertile uplands of northeast
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KKU-FORD Cropping Systems Project. 1982. An Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen
agroecosystem analysis of northeast Thailand, Faculty 40002,Thailand.
of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand,
17
The rice-livestock system Thongphan (1989) tested rice-fish farming in
farmers’ fields, in both rainfed and irrigated areas in
Formerly, buffaloes and cattle played an important Ubon Ratchathani. He found that several factors
role in rice production by providing draft power for govern the success of such practices, such as species
land preparation and transportation, farm income, and of fish, stocking density, species composition,
manure. Farmers now use a hand tractor to replace chemical fertilizers, rice varieties, and size of paddy
animal power in crop production. The purpose of fields for raising fish fingerlings. Rice yield, on
raising buffaloes and cattle is to earn income and average, is at least 15% higher than that without fish.
obtain manure, particularly for farmers who have only Prasartsri and Maleelai (1989) introduced the
paddy fields because they don’t have additional farm technology of raising fish in rice fields to farmers.
income from an upland crop. Raising buffaloes and Ditches are dug along four, three, two, or one side of
cattle can also help farmers hedge against risk. the paddy field. Ditches dug on two sides would be
Buffalo/cattle raising requires low investment (free more appropriate for raising fish in rice fields and
grazing area) but more family labor. more accepted by farmers. Fish yield is not signifi-
The paddy field provides grazing area (grasses cantly different among ditches. In general, fish raising
and rice stubble) for buffaloes and cattle during the in rice fields under the rainfed system faces a water
dry season. In addition, the paddy field serves as shortage in a dry year. Therefore, rice-fish culture
forage production during the rainy season (farmers usually works well in areas where irrigation facilities
cut grasses from the paddy bund and paddy field). provide supplementary water.
Rice straw is used to feed cattle during the dry
season. Some farmers also grow short-duration rice
varietios so that the paddy field can be used as a The future of rice-based farming
grazing area earlier, systems
In general, farmers mention that cattle often have
a longer reproductive cycle, perhaps because of low A paddy farm provides low profit per unit of land
feed quality. Therefore, improving feed production area. Market prices tend to be relatively low and
and quality is important for success in raising unstable. A paddy farm with a typical landholding of
buffaloes/cattle. 20 rai (which is predominant in the region) earns an
annual net income of about 7,240 baht and 16,240
baht in rainfed and irrigated areas, respectively,
Rice-fish culture whereas one family has total annual living expenses
of about 23,400 baht. This reveals that total annual
Traditionally, rice farmers in northeast Thailand have expenses now far exceed income from rice farming.
used their rice fields as a source of fish. Fish move Therefore, a substantial proportion of household
into rice fields with the floodwater in the rainy season income is derived from nonagricultural activities. The
and, when the water level recedes, they are trapped by paddy production system should be reoriented toward
farmers for family consumption or sold in local diversification into high-value products such as fruits,
markets. vegetables, and meat.
Wild fish stocks have declined while demand by In rainfed lowland areas, the possibilities for
the higher rural population has increased, particularly seasonal diversification are limited because of the
when farmers became aware of the importance of this lack of an irrigation system. During the rainy season,
protein source. Rice-fish culture has spread among nonrice crops are unsuitable because of drainage
farmers because of research and extension support constraints. The only possibility is to use waterlog-
from several agencies. ging-tolerant crops that are limited in number.
Craig and Pisone (1988) tested the raising of fish Conversion of a portion of the paddy field into a
in paddies under rainfed conditions in Sisaket farm pond is another alternative for an integrated
Province. The technology is viable in terms of farming system in which crops, trees, and livestock
increasing fish yield and rice yield. An increase in are combined on one farm. Reorientation of monocul-
rice yield comes from increased grain weight, ture rice production to integrated farming will need
whereas fish have no effect on tillering or panicle financial support for the initial investment. Farmers
initiation. This implies that fish affect soil nutrient cannot benefit from fruit trees until the trees are old
availability during grain filling. Results also show that enough to provide fruit. This indicates that a long-
fish reduce some pests, diseases, and weed species up term loan with low interest should be provided to
to 50%. farmers who intend to reorient their farming activities.
25
However, not all areas are suitable for farm ponds. An Jackson WT. 1955. The role of adventitious roots in
integrated farming system would depend heavily on recovery of shoots following flooding of the original
water stored in farm ponds during the dry season. In root system. Am. J. Bot. 42:516-519.
general, the most suitable land for a farm pond is Kamara DS. 1981. Effects of planting date and mulching
on cowpea in Sierra Leone. Exp. Agric. 17:25-31.
located in the lowland that is also suitable for rice
Khongmorn B. 1994. Growth and yields of 3 legumes
production. Therefore, competition between the rice
planted after rice in paddy fields with 3 moisture
production system and integrated farming system
regimes. M.S. thesis. Khon Kaen University, Khon
usually occurs. Considering the long-term perspec- Kaen, Thailand. (In Thai.)
tive, integrated farming would provide higher KKU-Ford Cropping System Project. 1982. An
economic viability than monoculture rice. An average agroecosystem analysis of Northeast Thailand. Faculty
annual net income from integrated farming (5-12rai) of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen,
is about 40,000–85,000 baht. Thailand.
Where farm ponds are not feasible, raising beef Polthanee A. 1990. Physical, biological, and socioeco-
or dairy cattle in a rice-based farming system is an nomic conditions in technology transfer of field crops
alternative. In fact, this system has been practiced in before rice in Northeast Thailand. In: Proceedings of
the 7th Thailand National Farming Systems Seminar.
limited areas. Rapid expansion of raising livestock,
(In Thai.)
particularly beef cattle, should be given priority. The
Plothanee A. 1998a. Effect of seeding depth and soil
market price sf beef and milk tends to be relatively mulching on growth and yield of peanut grown after
high and stable. At the same time, upper paddy fields rice in the post-monsoon season of northeastern
where rice yield is low would be devoted to forage Thailand. (Unpublished.)
production, and additional high-nutritive forage Polthanee A. 1998b. Tillage and mulching effects on
species are also necessary. growth and yield of cowpea grown after rice in the
In irrigated lowland areas with water from post-monsoon season in northeastern Thailand.
shallow wells, expansion of perennial trees such as (Unpublished.)
fruit trees instead of annual crops should be encour- Polthanee A. 1999. Growth and yields of mungbean,
aged. The drip irrigation technique should be intro- cowpea, and soybean grown before rice at different
moisture regimes under rainfed conditions of
duced to produce off-season products with a high
northeastern Thailand. (Unpublished.)
market price.
Prasartsri C, Maleelai R. 1989. Farmers’ acceptance of
In the state irrigation areas where water is technology of fish in rice paddy. In: Proceedings of
available and assured in the dry season, market- the 6th Thailand National Farming Systems Seminar.
oriented exotic crops could be considered. (In Thai.)
Finally, appropriate rice-based diversification Prucharoenvanich R. 1996. Effect of waterlogging on
depends on specific biophysical and socioeconomic growth and yield of kenaf and jute. M.S. thesis. Khon
factors at each location. Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand. (In Thai.)
Sandhu KS, Babi DK, Prihar SS, Saggar S. 1992. Dryland
wheat yield dependence on rainfall, applied N and
References mulching in preceding maize. Fert. Res. 32:299-323.
Simpson LA, Gumbs FA. 1986. A system of crop and soil
management for the wet season production of food
Boonpradup S, Thanomsub V. Chatasiri M. 1998. Response
crops on a heavy clay soil in Guyana. II. Effect of
of field corn cultivars after rice to irrigation frequency
mulching and tillage on germination growth, nutrient
and mulching. Thai Agric. Res. J. 16(1):59-68. (In
uptake and yield. Trop. Agric. 63(4):311-315.
Thai, with English abstract.)
Thongphan N. 1989. Rice-fish farming systems in
Craig AL, Pisone U. 1988. A summary of the NERAD
Northeast Thailand. In: Proceedings of the 6th
promising processes, methodologies and technologies
Thailand National Farming Systems Seminar. (In
for rainfed agriculture in Northeast Thailand. NERAD
Thai.)
Project Technology Documentation Working Paper
No. 10. Northeast Regional Office of Agriculture,
Thaphra, Khon Kaen, Thailand.
DOAE (Department of Agricultural Extension), 1996. Notes
Agricultural development in irrigated area of North-
eastern Thailand. Bangkok (Thailand): DOAE. (In Aurhor’s address: Department of Agronomy, Faculty of
mimeo.) Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 4002,
Gupta JP. 1989. Integrated effect of water harvesting, Thailand.
manuring and mulching on soil properties, growth and
yield of crops in pearl millet-mungbean rotation. Trop.
Agric. 66(3):233-239.
26
Problems and strategies for agroforestry
development in the Korat Basin
Monton Jamroenprucksa
Northeast Thailand, which is often called the Korat Plateau, is one of the most inter-
esting parts of the Kingdom, particularly from the viewpoint of development policy.
The Korat Basin is considered to be a part of this region, which covers the areas of
the Mun and Chi watersheds. Its area is about 120,000 km2 in 15 provinces, which
can be grouped into five classes according to the Watershed Classification Regula-
tion. Classes 1 and 2 are suitable for forestry, whereas classes 3, 4, and 5 are
suitable for agricultural land uses. The forest cover is about 21,265 km2 or 12.6%.
More than 80% of the basin belongs to classes 4 and 5 and is suitable for agricul-
ture. The total population in the basin is approximately 10.5 million people or 2.1
million households of 21,190 villages, Most households (80%) grow rice as the main
staple crop.
The necessity of agroforestry in the area has emerged from many factors stem-
ming from a marked decrease in forest cover leading to environmental and socio-
economic problems. The environmental problems include soil erosion, drought, and
flood. These cause a change in the water regimes toward the extremes. Drought
conditions during the dry season are aggravated, whereas flooding becomes more
frequent and severe during the rainy season. The socioeconomic problem is mainly
caused by increasing demand for wood. The study showed that in the northeast the
total annual demand for fuelwood was 13.17 million m3, whereas the supply was
14.89 million m3, 60% of which comes from agroforestry.
Agroforestry has good potential for improving the viability of forest plantations
and increasing wood production in paddy fields and other cropland. By planting rice,
maize, or other cash crops between rows of planted trees, farmers can obtain an
annual source of income while waiting for the tree crop to reach rotation age. At the
same time, the performance of the tree crop is enhanced by the cultural operations
performed on annual crops. Intercropping can be done only until the tree canopy
closes, but, by properly planning the cropping rotation, farmers can maintain a fixed
area under agricultural crops every year.
Some agroforestry systems are proposed for this region. Government strate-
gies for promoting tree planting on private land are also discussed.
In recent years, Thailand's economic growth has been have been heavily overexploited, so that they are now
phenomenal. It has been fueled by both agricultural seriously deficient in growing stock.
and industrial exports. This development, however, Northeast Thailand, which is often called the
has had adverse effects on the environment, mainly by Korat Plateau, is one of the most interesting parts of
upsetting the land-use balance. The country has been the Kingdom, particularly from the viewpoint of
rapidly losing its forests to agriculture and other land development policy. It has usually been regarded as
uses. In 1961, forests covered 53.3% of the land area. the poorest, least developed, most populous, and most
In 1991, they covered only 26.6% and then 25.3% in deforested region of the country. Regional per capita
1998 (TFSMP 1992, Royal Forestry Department income in 1989 was 11,981 baht, or about one-third
1998). In addition, many of the remaining forests of the national average (TFSMP 1992). The popula-
27
tion in 1998 was 21.3 million, or 1.26 inhabitants Vegetation and land use
ha-1, which is the highest density after Metropolitan
Bangkok. In 1961, forests covered 42% of the region, The natural vegetation is closely related to the relief,
but declined to only 12.6% (or 21,264 km2) by 1995. soils, and hydrology. It consists mainly of a Diptero-
Per capita forest in 1998 was only 0.1 ha. carp forest with predominantly Dipterocarpaceae such
The Korat Basin is the main part of this region, as Dipterocarpus tuberculatus and D. obtusifolius.
which covers the areas of the Mun and Chi water- On drier and poorer soils, Pentacme siamensis and
sheds. Its area is about 120,000 km2 in 15 provinces Shorea obtusa are more abundant. Other plants are
or 70.3% of the region (Forestry Research Center thorny shrubs, bamboo, and grasses. On hilly areas,
1996). It is representative of the northeast ecosystem the forests are either mixed deciduous or dry ever-
and provides an appropriate framework for studying green forests, have a better growth, and are more
the impact of land-use changes on the socioeconomic closed. On much of the terrace land, the forest has
and environmental conditions, especially on the been considerably modified by the practice of shifting
hydrological behavior of forest lands. The impact of cultivation for growing upland crops, such as kenaf,
deforestation can be frequently seen in this area. As. cotton, and maize. On the alluvial plains and the
topsoil from the denuded hills gets washed off into lower parts of the low terrace, most of the original
the rivers, flooding becomes more serious after heavy forest has been removed and the land used to grow
rains, and water shortages become more cummon rice. It is also a common practice to leave several
during prolonged dry periods. large trees standing in the paddy fields, especially in
One of the main factors causing the reduction in the less fertile and poorer fields. The vegetative
forest area in the region is the mismanagement of land residues added by the trees increase the organic
by both the government and the private sector, matter and mineral content of the topsoil in their
including local people. The problem is aggravated by immediate vicinity.
the increasing number of landless farmers residing in Land use in the Northeast Region compared with
marginal forests. Normally, agricultural productivity the whole country in 1995 is shown in Table 1. It can
in the region has been generally low because of poor be observed that forest cover of the region is lower
soils and erratic rainfall. Increased production has than the average for the whole country. For agricul-
come from farm land expansion into the forest rather tural land, rice covers more land than for the
than from crop intensification. Production of field country's average (21.3%), with about 35.9% of
crops in the region, such as maize, cassava, sugar- paddy land in this region.
cane, mungbean, and sorghum, expanded tremen-
dously from 1,440 km2 in 1950 to 21,504 km2 in 1988 Forestry
(about 15-fold over 38 years). The expansion of During 1961-91, the average annual deforestation rate
agricultural land into the forest land was mainly done was about 4,560 km2 and about half of the forest was
by landless farmers under the influence of traders. So cut. The two main underlying causes of deforestation
far, the government has attempted to solve the have been the increasing demand for agricultural land
problem by issuing various kinds of land-use certifi- to meet the needs of the growing population and
cates, by restructuring agricultural land use, and by commercial logging. However, the increase in
encouraging landless farmers to perform sustainable population density appears to have been the most
agriculture so that they will not need to expand their important underlying cause.
agricultural land into forestry. In 1998, the area of Thailand has several distinct forest types:
field crops had diminished to 20,590 km2. tropical evergreen forest, mixed deciduous forest, dry
Agroforestry is a form of sustainable farming dipterocarp forest, pine forest, mangrove forest, and
system in which trees or shrubs are grown in associa- scrub forest. Table 2 shows the distribution of the
tion with agricultural crops, pastures, or livestock. It forest types that were in relatively good condition.
may be done by integrating trees and shrubs into the The distinct dry and rainy seasons, high tempera-
farms and by introducing cropping or livestock tures throughout the year, and influences of soil and
systems into forest plantations. The agroforestry groundwater have led to the classification of forest
development plan has the overall objective of into three main types with subtypes: (1) evergreen
increasing wood biomass production, maximizing forest, that is, dry evergreen forest, hill evergreen
land productivity, and improving environmental forest, and pine forest; (2) mixed deciduous forest;
conditions through tree planting. The problems and and (3) dry dipterocarp forest. Of these, dry diptero-
strategies for such a plan in the Korat Basin are carp forest is the most dominant type in this region,
discussed in this paper. covering about 53% of total forest area, followed by
28
Table 1. Land use of northeast compared with the whole country in
1995.
Thailand Northeast
Forest type
km2 % km2 %
evergreen forest and mixed deciduous forest covering Hill evergreen forests cover the mountains in
about 35% and 10%, respectively. limited areas of the southern and western ranges at an
Dry evergreen forests appear along the margins altitude of more than 1,000 m, replacing the semiev-
of the region and to some extent in swampy areas. In ergreen type. Most of the stocks are not easily
contrast to such forests in the south of Thailand, they accessible and therefore are of limited commercial
have a less dense cover and are composed of more interest. The main species are Schima wallichi, S.
moderate-sized trees, occasionally mixed with norenhae, Michelia champaca, and Helicia robusta.
deciduous trees. The vegetation has a wide variety of Pine forests are confined to the southern part of
plants, including ferns, climbers, palms on more open the region, where they can be found mainly in Ubon
parts, clumps of bamboo, etc. Besides timber, the Ratchathani, Si Sa Ket, and Surin, but also in the
forest yields valuable by-products such as wood oil, mountains of Loei. Stocks are mainly mixed with
obtained by tapping Yang trees, and the versatile other trees. Among the conifers, Pinus merkusii and
bamboos. The main species are Dipterocarpus spp., P. khasya prevail. At present, the economic value of
Hopea odorata, Shorea spp., Aromadendron elegans, these stocks lies more in the supply of resin than in
Afzelia xylocarpa, A. bakeri, Artocarpus lakoocha, the production of soft wood timber. Forest fires
Anisoptera cochinchinensis, Dalbergia impede regeneration and remove the protective
cochinchinensis, Fagraea cochinchinensis, ground cover so that the ashes, which contain some
Mangifera caloneura, Cinnamomum iners, and valuable nutrients, are washed off by the first rains.
Lugerstroemia speciosa. Areas formerly cropped are Mixed deciduous forests are characterized by a
now mostly under thick bamboo and thorny shrubs. seasonal contrast between an almost complete
29
disappearance of the leaves during the dry season and overall planted area in the country (Sunthornhao
exuberant foliage during the rainy time. Whereas in 1999). In spite of the controversy, many villagers
the north of Thailand teak wood (Tectona grandis L.) plant eucalyptus on their farms because they see
occurs naturally in this type of forest, it is not benefit in doing so. They know where to plant it to
generally found in the northeast, except in a few minimize adverse effects on their other crops. Other
places in the area around Loei. Here, too, different villagers became opposed to the eucalyptus plantings,
bamboo species are present. Forest by-products, in many cases because they were displaced from the
which offer additional income to the population, are land that they used to farm.
tannins, dyes, and crude drugs. Dominant trees are
Xylia kerii, Pterocarpus macropcarpus, Diospyros The existing agroforestry system
mollis, Afzelia xylocarpa, Adina cordifilia, Sahunalu (1986) reported seven types of agroforestry
Tetrameles nudiflora, Albizzia lebbeck, systems in Thailand: modified taungya system,
Lagerstroemia tomentosa, Dillenia obovata, and shifting cultivation/bush fallow crop rotation, crop-
Dalbergia spp. forest complex, farm forestry, multistory planting, the
The dry dipterocarp forest is found throughout silvopastoral system, and tree integration on farm
the region on very dry sandy soils, which are poor in lands. These can be grouped into three categories:
plant nutrients, especially in the upper extremely those in forest land, those an agricultural land, and
weathered zone, on rocky plateaus, and on steep those on community land,
stony slopes. In the open forest, the ground is covered In the northeast, certain paddy fields have two
with grass, often replaced by bamboo, and scattered basic types of trees. The first type are trees left over
thorny shrubs. Annual fires remove the layer of dry from the original forest or trees growing naturally on
leaves over large areas, burning saplings and destroy- marginal land. The second type are trees planted on
ing the ground cover. So far, this forest type has been purpose in the paddy fields, particularly on bunds for
the main supplier of construction timber, posts, etc. supplying food (Le., Cassia siamea, Tamarindus
But now, only trees of certain species and with a indica ) and fodder (i-e., Strebulus asper, Samanea
length of merchantable size between 8 and 20 m are saman) and for multipurpose use (Le., bamboo,
of commercial importance. The most important Azadirachta indica), etc. Additionally, trees growing
species are Shorea obtusa, S. siamensis, on bunds can be used for shade, additional income,
Dipterocarpus tuberculatus, D. obtusifolius, medicine, fodder, fuelwood, habitat for animals, and
Terminalia chebula, T. alata, and Sindora siamensis. lumber. In some areas, farmers plant different kinds
Shorea spp. are found predominantly on almost sterile of mixed trees around the house as home gardens for
sandstone soils. The more demanding Pentacme supplying fruits, edible leaves, medicine, and shade.
siamensis prefers the basaltic soils in the south of the The composition of trees in home estates in this form
region. varies from place to place; the most common trees are
Finally, a specifically northeastern feature may be bamboo, Mangifera indica, Psidium guajava, A.
mentioned, the so-called “Korat Plateau grass swamp indica, etc. The management of the whole system is
forest,” which develops almost exclusively in the not usefully developed. It is necessary to upgrade the
northeast on areas flooded during the rainy season by mixed-plant system.
overflow of the Mekong and its tributaries. It is The taungya plantation is another form of
closely related to the “Bung” mentioned elsewhere. agroforestry in which intercropping is done in the
These swamps become dry in the dry season. Here early stage of tree establishment in government
and there on elevated flat places are groups of trees, reforestation areas or on private plantations. Live-
chiefly D. obtusifolius. Shrubs occur on the banks of stock or animal raising is sometimes done in the later
the streams and thorny bamboo thickets occupy the stage when trees can withstand the negative effect of
tops of the banks. grazing.
Besides natural forest, eucalyptus plantations
may be considered as the largest man-made forest.
Eucalyptus is also being planted in the form of farm Land-user management
farest. Formerly, planting eucalyptus was a controver-
sial environmental issue especially because of soil Watershed classification
fertility maintenance, soil water depletion, and The Watershed Classification Regulation was
toxicity of the soil surface, Based on a recent survey intraduced in the late 1970s to classify areas for
carried out in 1997, eucalyptus plantations in the watershed protection, praductian forestry, and
northeast covered 207,785 ha, or about 47% of the agriculture. Factors used to classify the watershed-
30
class boundaries are slope, elevation, land form, Economic zone. The forests in these zones have
geology, soil, and forest cover. been degraded, but the soils' capability assessment
Based on an agreement among state agencies, indicates that these areas are suitable for the cultiva-
five watershed classes were characterized as follows: tion of trees, particularly forest tree plantations.
WSC1—Protection or conservation forest and Agricultural zone. This land has been deforested
headwater sources. Areas under this class are usually and is occupied by permanent settlers. These areas
at high elevations, have steep slopes, and should have have been designated for degazettement and the
a permanent forest cover. There are two subclasses: responsibility for their management is to be trans-
WSC1A if the area is wholly undisturbed or WSC1B ferred from the Royal Forestry Department to the
if part of it has already been cleared for cultivation. Agricultural Land Reform Office.
WSC2—Commercial forest. Areas under this Table 4 shows the respective sizes of these
class may be at high elevations and may have steep different zones.
slopes, but their land form results in less erosion than
WSC1, They may be used for logging, mining, or
grazing or for crop production if appropriate soil Problems related to agroforestry
protection measures are taken. land use
WSC3—Fruit tree plantation. Uplands with steep
slopes but less erodible land form than WSC2 may be Problems related to land resources
used for commercial forests, grazing, fruit trees, or Soil compaction is a significant problem in the
some agricultural crops if soil conservation measures northeast. Because of agricultural production for a
are taken. long time, soils are compacted and present hard pans,
WSC4—Upland farming. Gently sloping and especially in the layers from 15 to 40 cm depth from
suitable for row-planted crops, fruit trees, and grazing the surface. Machinery used or cattle trampling is
with moderate use of soil conservation measures. believed to be the cause of soil compaction or
WSCS—Lowland farming. Very gentle slopes or damage to the soil structure, which hampers crop root
flat land; suitable for paddy fields and other agricul- penetration. Moreover, infiltration through the hard
tural crops with few restrictions. pan occurs slowly, causing surface runoff, which can
Table 3 shows the size of the areas for each wash away the whole fertile surface soils. These kinds
watershed class in the Korat Basin for the Mun and of areas are found everywhere in the region.
Chi watersheds. For the whole basin, 87.6% of the Low soil fertility is generally caused by the
area could be used for agricultural production. parent materials, which are generally composed of
alluvial deposits, or the static weathering of sand-
Forest area zoning stone, leading to sandy or sandy loam types of soil
The Royal Forestry Department has established a textures. These soil types are commonly low in
forest land classification within national forest available nutrients and have poor water retention.
reserves with three zones as follows: Plants grown on these soils are always threatened by
Conservation zone. The land in this zone is water stress during dry spells in the rainy season.
mainly covered by forest trees that are healthy and Shallow soils are caused by gravel and rock outcrops.
suitable for preservation. This area includes national Saline soils are caused by the weathering of shale and
parks, wildlife sanctuary, and watershed headlands sandstone where the salt layer is embedded. The salt
(WSC1). is leached by water to lower slopes, foothills, and
31
Table 4. Zoning of national forest land and forest condition.
depression areas. Moreover, salt may move upward households can benefit from limited planting of
through soil pores and accumulate at the soil surface fuelwood trees in nearby areas.
during the dry season.
Land-use problems caused by misuses of land
capability by farmers in several places have generated Strategies for agroforestry development
low income from farming and have degraded agricul-
tural land, leading to further forest clearing. Diagnosis of the situation
Generally, few farmers have their own land Many rural development and conservation efforts
ownership certificate; most of them hold only appear to be aimed exclusively at “farms,” cropland
temporary land-use certificates, which are not plots, or blocks of forest or rangeland. By contrast,
equivalent to land ownership. Farmers have difficul- most people in rural areas depend on a complex
ties applying for credit without this official document pattern of land, water, vegetation, houses, roads,
and therefore also have little interest in improving the markets, and public places (Rocheleau et a1 1988).
land. The arrangement of these features in the larger
landscape reflects the history of the people and the
Fuelwood supply and shortages land.
Most of the fuelwood used in rural households comes Agroforestry is based on the careful placement of
from “around the house” and “neighboring land” trees in spaces shared with crops or livestock.
(Table 5). In spite of ongoing deforestation, wood Therefore, people’s ideas about the organization of
from around houses and fuelwood substitution by their surroundings and the functions of specific places
modern energy mitigate fuelwood shortages in rural may help to determine which land-use practices are
areas. In areas with a fuelwood deficit, fuelwood appropriate for particular sites. By learning more
demand is usually met by overcutting existing about why land, water, plants, roads, and settlements
sources, whereas, in fuelwood-surplus localities, are arranged in a particular way, we may be better
surplus biomass is left unused. able to help choose the right trees for the right places.
Table 5 shows that agroforestry plots are the In the Korat Basin, depending on the type of
main source of fuelwood and they supply wood at problem, agroforestry development can be conducted
relatively lower costs. Therefore, tree planting in in four different kinds of situations, as follows:
open spaces on farms and in homegardens should be 1. Degraded forest land in conservation zone. The
promoted by providing low-cost seedlings of land should be protected and rehabilitated by
fuelwood trees. Although the value of forest planta- reforestation with indigenous planting species
tions for fuelwood production is questionable, such as those in dry evergreen forest, mixed
32
Table 5. Supply of and demand for fuelwood in 1990-91.
deciduous forest, and dry dipterocarp forest. This environmental conditions. Therefore, the criteria for
should be done under the responsibility of a setting up agroforestry systems acceptable to local
government agency. Community participation in people may be as follows:
this activity is a key factor for success. • The proposed agroforestry systems could be
2. Degraded dipterocarp forest. The land should be managed under a subsistent economy and not be
reforested with economic fast-growing species commercial-oriented ones;
such as Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Acacia sp., A. • The size of the agroforestry farm should be
indica, etc., for the short-term supply of wood small;
materials. • Agricultural crops, including fodder crops, must
3. Degraded upland farm. Fast-growing species, be considered as the principal ones, whereas tree
especially indigenous species, should be planted crops should be considered as intercrops. This
and various kinds of incentives should be means that planting of tree crops, fruit trees, and
provided to growers. bamboos has to be done as intercrops in food
4. Paddy land. In nonirrigated paddy land, tree crops and not the contrary.
planting along the farm boundary and bunds is a
potential source of wood supply. Some fast- Proposed agroforestry systems for northeast
growing species such as E. camaldulensis or Thailand
Acacia mangium can be grown to solve wood Based on the abovementioned criteria, six
shortage problems. agroforestry systems that could be considered as
applicable for northeast Thailand conditions are
Adoption of agroforestry systems proposed (Forestry Research Center 1990):
The adoption of any agroforestry system depends on 1. Mixed planting of trees in home gardens. The
its acceptance by the local people who are going to criteria for selection of a suitable area for this
practice it. The sustainability of agroforestry also system are shortage of fuelwood for household
depends on the management capability of farmers consumption, shortage of farmland, need for
who adopt the technology, which in turn depends on supplementary food or fodder from trees, and
their familiarity with the species and cropping-system enough homeyard with moderate soil fertility.
practices and on the economic benefit they receive The system therefore emphasizes growing edible
from agroforestry. Generally, local people will not tree crops and medicinal plants in homeyards or
easily accept new plant species and new agricultural homegardens and, at the same time, tree crops
technologies except if they have seen how these can will provide wood for home use. Tree species for
help them to obtain higher economic benefits, They this system can be fast-growing species such as
usually overlook the effect of this system on environ- Azadirachta indica, Leucaena glauca, Cassia
mental conditions. On the other hand, the majority of siamea, Sesbania grandiflora, Moringa oleifera,
people always have difficulty accepting an Phyllanthus acidus, Tamarindus indica, and
agroforestry system that is efficient in improving Bambusa spp. Fruit crops can be mango
33
(Mangifera indica), guava ( Psidium guajava), camaldulensis trees are felled for producing
citrus (Citrus aurantifolia), rose apple (Eugenia construction materials by keeping the stump
jumbos), custard apple ( Annona squamosa), height as low as possible and not more than 10
jackfruit ( Artocarpus heterophyllus), coconut cm aboveground to accelerate its ability for
(Cocos nucifera), banana ( Musa sapientum), and sprouting. After 6–7 years, some 15 fruit trees are
papaya ( Carica papaya). kept in each plot with the spacing of 8 x 16 m.
2. Mixed planting of fruit trees and tree crops During this period, field crops may be inter-
intercropped with upland crops. The criteria for cropped in the available spaces among fruit trees
the selection of suitable areas for this system are until the fruit trees are felled and replanted for
shortage of fuelwood/charcoal and small produc- the next rotation.
tion of construction wood, shortage of farmland, 3. Planting of tree crops in paddy fields. Criteria
shortage of food and need for supplementary for the selection of suitable areas for this system
income, and annual rainfall of more than 1,500 are shortage of wood for home use, shortage of
mm with more than 120 rainy days per year. tree-planting area, and paddy field mounds are
Therefore, this system integrates tree planting wide enough for planting trees. The system is
with fruit and field crops within a piece of land based on some fast-growing tree species planted
for producing food crops or cash crops and wood in the bunds of the paddy field or on termite
for fuelwood/charcoal for home use or construc- mounds. The size of the planted area is at least
tion. Each family could have about 5 plots, 40 x about 1 ha per family according to the need of
40 m in size each, with one plot being planted the people for wood products and the available
every year. farmed area. E. camaldulensis and A. mangium
Tree species for this system can be fruit alternate on the termite mounds with 4 m
trees, such as mango and sweet tamarind between trees and following the east-west
(Tamarindus indica) as a first tree layer. Fast- direction. The distance between two mounds
growing species such as Eucalyptus must be at least 40 m to reduce the competition
camaldulensis are planted as a second tree layer for water, nutrient, and light between trees and
for wood production. Acacia mangium is planted rice. Branches of both tree species must be
as a third tree layer for fuelwood production and pruned every two years. Branches and leaves
soil improvement. Field crops to be grown should be taken away from the field to avoid
between young trees from the first to the third water pollution during their decomposition.
year could be groundnut ( Arachis hypogaea), When they are 5 years old, some trees can be cut
mungbean (Phaseolus aureus ), maize ( Zea mays) for fuelwood production and the remaining ones
in the rainy season followed by onion (Allium should be kept at a regular spacing to promote
asscalonicum), garlic ( Allium sativum), water- tree growth to the desirable size for their use in
melon (Citrullus vulgaris), and tobacco (Nicoti- making construction materials. Both kinds of
ana tabacum) in the cool season. In the fourth trees should be clear-cut when they are 8 years
year, pineapple (Ananus comosus) or mulberry old. Stumps may be used to produce sprouts and
(Morus alba) could be planted. The annual crops small-sized fuelwood, but, if large-sized wood
should be grown 50 cm apart from the row of the materials are needed, new trees must be planted
tree crop in the first year, and this distance must in the available space between stumps left after
be increased by 50 cm during every following the first cut.
year. The three kinds of trees are planted 4. Mixed planting of tree crops, field crops, and
alternatively within each row, with 4 m between fodder crops in the same area. Criteria for the
trees in the row and 8 m between rows. selection of suitable areas for this system are
Suitable zones for this system have a flat shortage of fuelwood/charcoal and construction
topography, are not flooded, and planting can be materials for home use, shortage of farming land,
done around June-July. shortage of food and animal feed, average annual
Every year, branches of tree crops are rainfall of at least 1,500 mm with more than 80
pruned to keep about 2/3 of the crown height in rainy days per year, and upland fields on hilly
order to make enough open space for sunlight to lands with undulating topography. This system
reach the ground. When they are 3–4 years old, aims at producing food, wood for fuel and small-
Acacia mangium trees are felled for fuelwood scale construction, and fodder within the same
production, by leaving about 1-m-height stumps piece of land. The total area could reach 4 ha
for producing sprouts. When 5–6 years old, E. divided into five plots, one being planted every
34
year. E. camaldulensis is planted for construction fixed at a 10-year interval, is considered to be
materials and alternates with Acacia long enough for soil amelioration if fast-growing
auriculaeformis or A. mangium for fuelwood tree species are planted, especially those belong-
production. Each plot is planted with groundnut, ing to the Leguminosae family such as Acacta
maize, or upland rice (Oryza sativa) in the first auriculaeformis, A. mangium, and others.
year and with kenaf (Hibiscus canabinus) or 6. Planting of bamboo mixed with trees for multiple
cassava (Manihot esculenta) in the second year. purposes. The criteria for the selection of
In the third year, pineapple or mulberry can be suitable areas for this system are a shortage of
grown and fodder produced in the fifth to sixth bamboo, fuelwood, and wood products for
year using Stylosanthes hamata. To reduce the construction in rural areas; shortage of food and
horizontal growth of tree roots, trenches 50 cm limited farming area for the rural people; and
wide and 75 cm deep should be made on both soils with moderate fertility. The system aims at
sides of tree rows and at a distance of 1.5 m from producing food and raw materials for home use,
the trees during the year. In the fifth and sixth such as for handicrafts made from bamboo
years, cattle can graze in the plots; after which, shoots and culms; wood production for construc-
from the sixth up to the tenth year, they are fed tion materials from the second tree layer with
with fodder harvested fram the plats. species such as Eucalyptus; the production of
Acacia mangium can be clear-cut when it is fuelwood from the third tree layer and sail
4-5 years old and E. camaldulensis can be cut improvement with species such as A.
when it is 10 years old. If wood for construction auriculaeformis or A. mangium; and the praduc-
is urgently needed, it may be cut when 5 years tion of field crops in the space available among
old at the same time as A. mangium by cutting in trees. This could be done an private land,
alternate rows. nonfarm land, or public land with a total size of
5. Strip planting of tree crops alternating withfield 1-4 ha divided into five plots, one being planted
crops. Criteria for the selection of suitable areas every year. In a small area of 40 x 40 m, three
for this system are a shortage of fuelwood, need perennial species are grown. A first layer is made
for charcoal and construction materials in rural of several species of bamboo such as Paitong
areas, a cooperative reforestation scheme at the (Dendrocalamus asper), Pai sang (D. strictus),
community level, the community needs the Pai ruak (Thrysostachys siamensis), Pai rai
products of field crops as much as those of tree (Oxytenanthera albociliata), and Pai bong
crops, and average annual rainfall of the area is (Bambusa natans). A second layer is planted to
about 1,500 mm with more than 80 rainy days Eucalyptus spp. for the production of construc-
per year. The topography is rather flat, undulat- tion materials. A third layer is planted to A.
ing, or hilly slopes. This system aims at produc- auriculaeformis, A. mangium, or Cassia siamea
ing both agricultural and forestry products with for fuelwood production and soil improvement.
an equal amount of both for community use. The From the first to the third year, groundnut,
area used for this system can be community land mungbean, upland rice, or maize can be grown. In the
or public land. The total area should not be less fourth year, pineapple or sugarcane (Saccharum
than 4-8 ha and be divided into five plots, one officinarum) can be planted.
being planted every year. In the third and fourth year, Acacia spp. trees are
Species to be planted are E. camaldulensis clear-cut for fuelwood. In the fifth and sixth year,
and A. mangium. Eucalyptus sp. is clear-cut for construction materials.
From the first to the fifth year, field crops In the sixth and seventh year onward, bamboo is kept
such as groundnut, upland rice, maize, kenaf, or at 15 clumps per plot, spaced 8 x 16 m, and becomes
cassava are grown. the principal species for subsequent cutting and use of
In the fourth and fifth year, all trees in the its shoots for food consumption or for sale. The
outer rows should be cut, one row per year for sprouts of Eucalyptus sp. and Acacia spp. will be
wood collection. At the same time, this operation used as fuelwood or small construction materials.
reduces the competition for light between trees Available space between bamboo rows can be planted
and annual crops. The stumps left after cutting to upland crops or herb species.
are used for sprouting. Each row of remaining Where good-quality timber for construction is
trees should be kept until it is 10 years old and required, the first tree layer could be changed to teak
then cut for the production of construction wood, Yang na (Dipterocarpus alatus), Krabak
materials. The felling cycle of trees, which is (Anisoptera glabra), Daeng (Xylia kerrii), Pra doo
35
(Pterocarpus alatus), Maka mong (Afzelia Table 6 shows the results of this program. Table
xylocarpa), Ching chan ( Dalbergia oliveri), or 6 shows that the Northeast Region has the highest
Payoong (Dalbergia cochinchinensis). promotion in terms of number of farmers involved
(120,102) and planted area (3% of the regional
Farm forestry promotion program farmland). However, the area withdrawn from the
The Royal Thai Government has attempted to reforest program (76% of the planted area in the first year)
part of the northeastern region for more than 30 years was also the highest in the northeast as many planta-
with various species, including native species such as tions failed. Several factors may have caused the
T. grandis, P. macrocarpus, A. indica, Melia failure of the promotion, such as
azedarach, etc., and fast-growing species such as – Lack of careful planning: because of rapid
Leucaena leucocephala, A. mangium, E. implementation of the program, several key
camaldulensis, etc. The total area that has been activities were not included in the plan, such as
replanted is less than about 1 million ha, which is still defining the suitable area for each species,
very far behind the objective of reforestation on about zoning the area suitable for tree planting, training
3-5 million ha. This may take more than 50 years to and extension, etc.
be achieved at the present rate of reforestation. – No marketing incentives: many farmers planted
Unsuccessful reforestation programs carried out by trees just to get the subsidies. So, when they
the government mainly resulted from a lack of considered other investments that could give
participation of the local people in tending and them a higher benefit than keeping the land with
protecting the tree seedlings. To realize the potential trees, they often changed their land use.
of the role of the private sector, especially farmers, – Lack of long-term credit: tree plantations are
the government launched a farm forestry promotion long-term investments and require many years of
program in 1994. It has involved farmers who are tending; therefore, long-term credit is necessary,
willing to plant economic trees on their own land. The especially for small-scale farmers.
government provides them with technical support and – Lack of knowledge in tree production.
a subsidy. Farmers will receive US$490 ha-1 for
reforestation activities during five years. The criteria
for subsidization are as follows: Conclusions
– Farmers must have a land title deed and the size
of the plot must be larger than 2.4 ha. The Korat Basin is the main part of the Northeast
– They will receive $130 ha–1 in the first year if Region and comprises forest and agriculture as major
they finish planting the trees, then $115, $100, land uses. It is representative of the northeast ecosys-
$80, and $65 ha–1 for the following years. tem and provides an appropriate case for studying the
– They must plant at least 625 trees ha–1. effect of land-use changes on socioeconomic and
– The tree species must be included on the list environmental conditions. The development of the
provided by the Royal Forestry Department for agroforestry program needs to understand the
this program. Eucalyptus is not found on the list situation of the current land-use system. Land use
because it already receives enough incentives must be identified, categorized, and grouped accord-
from the wood-based industry. ing to the similarity of problems encountered and the
– Farmers can plant their annual crops in between needs of farmers. Different agroforestry systems must
the trees. be designed and evaluated. Strategies must be
– All benefits from the plot belong to the farmers. developed and should involve multi-institutional
Table 6. Status of tree planting under the farm forestry promotion program implemented
for five years (1994-98).
36
collaboration. The long-term commitment of signifi- Rocheleau D, Weber F, Field-Juma A. 1988. Agroforestry
cant financial and institutional resources is a key in dryland Africa. International Research Council in
factor for successful implementation. Agroforestry. Nairobi, Kenya.
Royal Forestry Department. 1998. Forestry statistics of
Thailand. Data Center, Information Center, Royal
Forestry Department, Bangkok, Thailand.
References Sahunalu P. 1986. Agroforestry in Thailand: present
condition and problems. In: Comparative studies on
Department of Agriculture. 1992. Cropping system in agro- the utilization and conservation of natural environ-
climatic zones of Thailand. Farming System Research ment by agroforestry systems. Monsoon Asia
Institute, Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agroforestry Joint Research, Faculty of Agriculture,
Agriculture and Cooperatives, Bangkok, Thailand. Kyoto University, Japan.
Department of Agriculture Extension. 1999. Information on Sunthomhao P. 1999. Supply of eucalyptus material under
October 1999 from Web site http://www/doae.go.th. private sector in Thailand. Master Thesis, Graduate
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Bangkok,
School, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand.
Thailand. TFSMP. 1993. Subsectoral plan for production and
Forestry Research Center. 1990. Agroforestry system: cases
utilization. Thai Forestry Sector Master Plan, Volume
of Lampang Nan and Ubon Ratchathani. Final report
6, Royal Forestry Department, Ministry of Agriculture.
submitted to the National Economic and Social
Bangkok, Thailand.
Development Board.
Forestry Research Center. 1996. Assessment of risk area on
flood and natural calamity in northeast watershed.
Final report submitted to the Office of Policy and
Notes
Environmental Plan.
Office of Agricultural Economics. 1995. Agricultural Author’s address: Assistant Professor, Department of
statistics of Thailand. Ministry of Agriculture and Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University,
Cooperatives, Bangkok, Thailand. Bangkok Thailand.
Patanakosai V. 1999. Strategies for promoting private
reforestation and farm forestry. Lecture note, Division
of Private Reforestation, Royal Forestry Department,
Bangkok, Thailand.
37
Modeling agricultural productivity in northeast
Thailand: background, project outline,
and prospects
Yasuyuki Kono
Kyoto University, particularly the Center for Southeast Asian Studies and Graduate
School of Agriculture, has been engaged in research related to natural resource
management in northeast Thailand since the early 1980s. This work can be roughly
divided into four projects.
The first project was the Don Daeng village study carried out from 1981 to 1985.
This project selected a village in Khon Kaen Province and focused on village-level
population dynamics such as fertility, mortality and migration, the hydrological set-
ting of agricultural production, technology of rainfed agriculture and stability of pro-
duction, the subsistence and market economy including nonrice-farm activities and
nonfarm activities, and the balance among population, land, and food.
The second project was the Yasothon project carried out from 1989 to 1994.
This was an umbrella project and several small projects were conducted mostly in
Yasothon Province under the umbrella project. The research topics of the small
projects were food and population under subsistence rice farming, surplus rice pro-
duction, changes in rice-growing technology, expansion of cottage industry, expan-
sion of arable land and its cessation, upland use and forest land management, nutri-
ent balance in the paddy field, and mapping the village database.
The third project is an on-going project titled Modeling Agricultural Productivity
in Northeast Thailand, the MAPNET project, which started in 1995. This project at-
tempts to develop a method for evaluating regional land productivity of rainfed agri-
culture. The framework of the method is a combination of a geographic information
system and crop modeling supported by field surveys and experiments.
The fourth project is a newly set-up project titled People, Environment, and
Land Use Systems in Mainland Southeast Asia, the PELUSSA project. This project
will focus on environmental stress and agricultural productivity, ecological risk and
environmental conservation, integrated analysis of agricultural production and envi-
ronmental conservation, and local socioeconomic systems.
Kyoto University, particularly the Center for South- and productivity of rice cultivation, occupations other
east Asian Studies, one of the research centers in than rice growing, subsistence and market economies,
Kyoto University, has vast experience in natural and population, land, and food (Fukui 1993). The
resource management research in northeast Thailand. outcome of the Don Daeng village study was holistic
Research conducted during the last two decades and thorough, but we faced the difficulty of extrapo-
can roughly be divided into three phases. The first lating the applicability of our experiences and
phase was the Don Daeng village study, which was knowledge to other villages in the region.
carried out at one village by an interdisciplinary team The second phase was therefore designed to
from 1981 to 1985. The project aimed at gaining a cover a lager area, the province level, to analyze
basic understanding of the dynamics and structure of various types of villages. We selected Yasothon
rural society in northeast Thailand. It focused on Province as a study area and began the Yasothon
almost all aspects of village life, including fertility project in 1989. This umbrella project covered
and mortality, migration, environment, technology several subprojects including food and population
39
under subsistence rice farming (Konchan et al 1995), few applicable methods have been proposed for the
surplus rice production (Nakada 1996), changes in regional level, at which both quantitative analysis of
rice-growing technology (Miyagawa 1995, Konchan agricultural production and mechanistic analysis of
and Kono 1996, Miyagawa 1996), expansion of crop growth and cultivation techniques must be
cottage industry (Ikemoto 1996), expansion of arable considered. In monsoon Asia, rainfed agriculture is
land and its cessation (Fukui 1996), upland use and still widespread. The increasing demand for fresh
forest land management (Kono et al 1994), nutrient water from industries and urban populations will limit
balance in the paddy field (Nakamura and Matoh the expansion of irrigated land and anticipated
1996), and mapping the village database (Nagata climatic changes are also expected to affect rainfed
1996a). These subprojects were carried out at agriculture severely. Therefore, water availability is,
selected villages in Yasothon Province until 1994 and and will be, one of the major determinants of agricul-
revealed a wide range of village types and associated tural production.
modes of natural resource management. The MAPNET project attempts to develop a
The third phase, the Modeling Agricultural method for evaluating regional land productivity of
Productivity in Northeast Thailand (MAPNET) rainfed agriculture in northeast Thailand. Land
project, started in 1995 and continues. The concepts productivity is evaluated in terms of potential and
and methodology of this project are significantly attainable productivity. The former is limited only by
different from those of the first and second phases. temperature and solar radiation, whereas the latter is
First, research topics were chosen not only from the also limited by water availability. Paddy, sugarcane,
local viewpoint but also from a global viewpoint, as cassava, and maize were selected as target crops in
explained below. Second, we are trying to observe this project.
and describe all of northeast Thailand rather than
villages selected for case studies. Third, research
techniques such as the use of geographic information Method for evaluating land productivity
systems (GIS), remote sensing, crop modeling, digital
image analyses, and field experiments have been A combination of GIS and crop modeling supported
applied to supplement data collection by means of by field surveys and experiments was adopted as the
conventional fieldwork. framework for the method. First, a source GIS of
agricultural resources was made, which included the
results of field surveys, questionnaire surveys, and
Background and objectives of the secondary data (Table 1). Second, crop production
MAPNET project models and a crop distribution model were developed
and potential and attainable yields and potential area
In developing countries such as Thailand, planted were estimated. Third, by incorporating the
overexploitation of land resources, such as overgraz- results of the estimation, an integrated GIS of land
ing and overintensification of cultivation, leads to productivity was created.
irreversible deterioration of the natural environment, The crop production model has three modules:
The local population generally tends to focus on water, cropping calendar, and yield. The water
short-term increases in agricultural production and module simulates daily soil moisture content based on
income, even at the expense of the natural environ- climatic data (Fig. 1). Fields were classified in terms
ment. The government also gives priority to ensuring of land form, soil texture, and soil depth and each
an adequate food supply and economic growth over type of field was given a set of land- and soil-related
conservation of the natural environment. In contrast, parameters. The parameter values were validated by
more remote agricultural areas have not been fully field survey results. The cropping calendar module
intensified or have been abandoned due to limited estimates the date of planting. The conditions of
access to markets, shortage of labor, andor unsatis- planting are assumed to follow the common practice
factory living conditions. Evaluation of potential and of farmers in the study area. The yield module
actual land productivity will provide key information simulates crop growth and yield formation from
to rectify the problems of overexploitation and climatic data, estimated date of planting, and daily
underuse of land resources. water conditions during the growing period (Fig. 2).
Many methods of evaluating land productivity The paddy yield module was developed by adding
have been proposed, at both the global and continen. three water functions for nitrogen intake, dry matter
tal level, and at the individual farm level. However, increase, and harvest index to the simulation model
40
Table 1. Layers of GIS of northeast Thailand.
Original data
Category Contents Type of data Data source
scale
Land and soil Soil map (soil series) Vector 1:100,000 Department of Land
Development
Land suitability map Vector 1:50,000
Land elevation 500 m grid
Agricultural production Area and yields of paddy and sugarcane Vector Provincial and
district level Agricultural statistics
Cropping calendar of various Vector District level Northeast Regional
crops (1993-96) Office of Agricultural
Extension
Socioeconomic conditions NETVIS a (population, public facilities, 3 min mesh Village level KCC2K b
electricity, transportation, Iiving (see Nagata 1996b)
conditions, source of Income,
agricultural activities, Iivestock, home
Industry, education, hyglene, work
away, and so on)
41
from no harvest to no damage. This clearly indicates References
that the productivity of rainfed agriculture is vulner-
able to rainfall fluctuation. The gap between attain- Fukui H. 1993. Food and population in a northeast Thai
able and actual yields, caused by such factors as village. Honolulu, Haw. (USA): University of Hawaii
inadequate cultivation technique and insufficient Press.
fertilizer application, is greater in the northern and Fukui H. 1996. Expansion of arable land and its cessation:
the case of Northeast Thailand, Southeast Asian
eastern parts of northeast Thailand and smaller in the
Studies 33(4):675-702.
southwest. This may reflect different economic
Ikemoto Y. 1996. Expansion of cottage industry in
conditions of the rural areas such as land/population Northeast Thailand: the case of triangular pillows in
ratio, farm economy, and availability of agricultural Yasothon province. Southeast Asian Studies
inputs. 33(4):640-655.
An estimation of actual and potential crop Konchan S et al. 1995. Food and population under
distribution reveals that little land is left for paddy subsistence rice farming in three villages in Yasothon,
field expansion. However, the potential for upland Northeast Thailand. Southeast Asian Studies
field expansion is high, particularly in the eastern half 33(3):340-362.
of the region (Fig. 6). Also to be considered is the fact Konchan S, Kono Y. 1996. Spread of direct seeded lowland
that, in practical terms, upland fields and forest land rice in Northeast Thailand: farmers’ adaptation to
economic growth, Southeast Asian Studies 33(4):523-
compete for land use. Consequently, accurate
546.
determination of the possibility of upland field
Kono Y et al. 1994, Dynamics of upland utilization and
expansion must include an evaluation of forest forest land management: a case study in Yasorhon
resources, province, Northeast Thailand. Southeast Asian Studies
32(1):3-33.
Miyngawa S, 1995. Expansion of an improved variety into
Conclusions and prospects rain-fed rice cultivation in Northeast Thailand,
Southeast Asian Studies 33(2):187-203.
The MAPNET project has developed a method for Miyagawa S. 1996. Recent expansion of nonglutinous rice
regional evaluation of land productivity of rainfed cultivation in Northeast Thailand: interregional
variation. Southeast Asian Studies 33(4):547-574.
agriculture and applied it to northeast Thailand. The
Nagata Y. 1996a. Mapping the village database: spread of
overall outcome satisfactorily fits the empirically
economic growth to rural areas of Northeast Thailand.
understood conditions of the region, although minor Southeast Asian Studies 33(4):656-674.
modification of the method is desirable, particularly Nagata Y. 1996b. Northeast Thailand village information
for field type classification and land- and soil-related system (NETVIS) material 1986, 1988, 1990, 1992.
parameters. Another important task that remains is the Kyoto (Japan): Organizing Committee for Global Area
synthetic analysis of agricultural productivity and Studies.
economic development. We have now set up a new Nakada Y. 1996. When does a farmer sell rice?: a case
project titled People, Environment, and Land Use study in a village in Yasothon province, Northeast
Systems in Mainland Southeast Asia (PELUSSA), Thailand. Southeast Asian Studies 33(4):609-624.
partly in order to apply the method developed to Nakamura K, Matoh T. 1996. Nutrient balance in the paddy
field in Northeast Thailand. Southeast Asian Studies
neighboring regions such as the northern part of Lao
33(4):575-587.
PDR and Vietnam. We are also planning to incorpo-
Onishi M et al 1999. Modeling and evaluation of produc-
rate slope, in addition to water availability, as a tivity of rainfed rice in Northeast Thailand. Proceed-
measure of environmental stress in determining ings of the International Symposium on World Food
agricultural productivity. This work is expected to Security. p 173-176.
improve the proposed methodology and create a Watanabe K et al. 1999. Sugarcane yield modeling based
strong tool for the appropriate evaluation of agricul- on water balance. In: Can biological production
tural production and technology, and for the establish, harmonize with environment? Tokyo (Japan): Asian
ment of a food security policy that harmonizes with Natural Environmental Science Center. The University
environmental conservation of dominantly rainfed of Tokyo. p 43-46,
regions.
Notes
Author’s address: Center for Southeast Asian Studies,
Kyoto University.
48
Improving livestock production in crop-animal
systems in the rainfed agroecological zones of
Southeast Asia
C. Devendra
Mixed farming is the backbone of Asian farming systems, within which crop-animal
systems are especially important. Development has overemphasized the use of low-
land irrigated areas to the limits of productivity, primarily for rice production. The
area under rainfed agriculture in Asia represents nearly two-thirds of the total arable
land and this area supports more than 50% of the human population, about 73-95%
of whom are resource-poor smallholders. Improving crop-animal systems in rainfed
areas is therefore important and it is also the primary focus for increasing ruminant
livestock production. Improved understanding is required on how integrated crop-
livestock systems function, how subsystems interact and contribute to one another,
how technology and policy interventions modify system attributes and roles, and
how to identify recommendation domains for promising technologies. The CASREN
project seeks to address these issues and conduct collaborative, multidisciplinary
research to generate technology and policy options to increase the productivity of
smallholder crop-livestock systems in five countries in Southeast Asia: Vietnam,
Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, and China. The specific objectives are to (1)
develop and adapt improved feed production and use technologies for ruminants for
improving productivity and protecting the natural resource base of smallholder farm-
ers, (2) identify and communicate to policymakers appropriate macro and sector
policy options to improve the incentives of smallholder farmers for ruminant live-
stock production, and (3) improve systems-oriented livestock research capacity of
national agricultural research systems.
Increasing food production in Asia is urgent because and North Africa, and Sub-Saharan Africa [ILRI
of several factors inter alia: rising populations, higher 1995a] and Southeast Asia [ILRI, 1995b]). To
incomes, urbanization, and changing consumer provide a sharper focus on the research priorities and
preferences. These factors will fuel increased demand programs, ILRI proposed a detailed assessment of the
for animal products. Approaches to increase animal research and development needs that will lead to the
protein supplies will necessitate a reassessment of formulation of research proposals for the improve-
prevailing animal production systems, current ment of livestock production in crop-animal systems
patterns in the management and use of natural in the rainfed lowlands and uplands of Southeast
resources, and opportunities for research to improve Asia.
the productivity of animals and enhance food security.
The International Livestock Research Institute
(ILRI) has a global mandate to provide leadership in Importance of animals
animal agriculture on behalf ofthe Consultative
Group on International Agricultural Research Animals already make a very important economic
(CGIAR). The definition of this global agenda contribution to Asian farming households, producing
involves the development of agroecological zones food (meat, milk, and eggs), income, employment,
(AEZs). This task was facilitated by a regional and draft power. In Southeast Asia, they are espe-
consultation process and identification of the require- cially valuable in sustaining rice-based agriculture
ments for livestock research in the different regions because of the interdependence of crops and animals
(Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, West Asia through draft power, manure, and the recycling of
49
nutrients. Prevailing crop-animal systems in the significant populations of native pigs and poultry are
lowlands and uplands involve several million found here. Major research and development opportu-
resource-poor farmers who are much poorer than nities exist to increase productivity from these AEZs,
those in the irrigated areas. Animals are often the as well as to address concerns of equity and the
main means to generate income in these situations environment.
(e.g., in Lao PDR and Cambodia, animals contribute The uplands are contiguous with, and include,
45-50% of total farm income). rainfed lowlands, and refer to nonirrigated land up to
Current urban demand is mainly met by the 1,100 m above sea level. In terms of soil moisture
commercial pig and poultry industries, but the stress, the rainfed lowlands approximate more humid
smallholder system will in the future be expected to areas and the uplands subhumid areas. Rice and cash
increase supplies, principally from the intensification crops are grown in the lowlands but perennial crops,
and specialization of mixed farming systems, How- such as coconut, oil palm, and rubber, are more
ever, the region as a whole has a deficit in animal common in the uplands. In both situations, mixed
protein supplies, notably those of beef, milk, goat farming with ruminants and nonruminants is common.
meat, and mutton. Most governments in the region The uplands are generally more fragile because of a
therefore give priority to developing ruminants. combination of rising populations and shifting
agriculture. Environmental degradation is an increas-
ingly serious concern in the uplands because of
Target agroecological zones “slash-and-burn.” Integration and improved use of
animals are important options to sedentarize agricul-
Agriculture has tended to emphasize crop production, ture. There is also a need to manage common
notably rice, based on high inputs and intensive property and provide equity of access to resources.
systems, resulting in enormous benefits through the These issues have policy implications that need to be
Green Revolution. The focus has mainly been on the addressed.
irrigated areas, which are already intensively used. To
further increase food production and sustain the
farming systems of the region, emphasis must now be ILRl project objectives
given to the neglected lowland and upland
agroecological zones. In this context, advantage can In view of these considerations, ILRI has imple-
be taken of significant populations of animals on mented a project on “Increasing the Contribution of
mixed farms to enhance the sustainability of food Livestock to Improving Productivity of Crop-
crop systems. This is seen in the large concentrations Livestock Systems in Southeast Asia” involving
of ruminants in these areas of from 51% to 55% of China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and
the total populations of cattle, and goats and sheep, Vietnam, with funding support from the Asian
respectively, in Asia (Table 1). Unfortunately, no data Development Bank. The proposed project has three
exist for the size of the nonruminant populations, but sets of activities as follows:
Table 1. Human and animal populations, food demand, and land use in the lowland and upland
agroecological zones of Asia.
50
1. Research and development Benchmark sites
a. Assemble and interpret biophysical and
socioeconomic information, using geo- To begin the work, key benchmark sites (BMS) were
graphic information systems and modeling, selected in participating countries. The process was
characterize production systems, determine undertaken through wide discussions within the
factors related to the intensification of country, extensive visits in each country, and consen-
livestock production, and diagnose con- sus on the BMS.
straints to and opportunities for increasing Criteria for the selection of BMS were devel-
livestock productivity. oped, shared with participating countries, and finally
b. Conduct an ex ante assessment of the used in individual situations. Both macro criteria and
biophysical and socioeconomic implications the kind of information required for BMS site
of interventions in available feed production characterization were considered (Table 1). The main
and technologies of use to define their elements are as follows:
recommendation domains. 1. Rainfed area (humid/subhumid)
c. Assess alternative new strategies for feed 2. National priorities, priority by province/country
production and use to improve livestock 3. Animal population density
productivity, and optimize nutrient cycling to - Ruminants and nonruminants
maintain the integrity of natural resources. - Market access and market pull
d. Quantify the effects of macro and sector 4. Poverty and food security
policies on the competitiveness of the - Extent
smallholder livestock sector, study the - Ethnicity
efficiency of livestock and feed markets, and 5. Accessibility
identify options to improve efficiency. 6. Institutional factors
e. Conduct on-farm research to validate - NARS capacity
identified promising technologies and assess - Linkages
their potential and constraints for adoption. - Other agencies, such as nongovernment
organizations
2. Research capacity building 7. Perceived research constraints
a. Support the production, dissemination, and - Such as resource degradation
sharing of information products for better - Dry season
research on improved ruminant production. - Introduction of fodder trees
b. Conduct training courses for national - Nutrient recycling
agricultural research system (NARS) 8. Potential impact
scientists, particularly those involved in this
collaborative project, on systems analysis Table 2 summarizes the final choice of BMS in
with a focus on livestock and impact individual countries.
assessment.
c. Conduct workshops and a round-up sympo-
sium to facilitate information transfer to Relevance to the Korat Basin
policymakers and to share the results of in Thailand
collaborative research with other countries in
the region, development agencies, and The choice of Mahasarakam in the northeast as the
donors that might be interested in dissemi- BMS in Thailand is of relevance to the planning
nating generated technologies. workshop on ecoregional approaches to natural
resource management, as the work there is typical of
3. Monitoring and evaluation the prevailing situation in this area, involving dairy
a. Conduct project implementation and review cattle production integrated with rice, sugarcane, and
workshops to monitor progress and impact. cassava cultivation. The complementarity of these
b. Conduct a round-up symposium, efforts and the implications of crop-animal interac-
51
tions are therefore important. As a start, detailed feeding and management practices also provide the
characterization of the BMS is now under way to key to significantly enhancing existing productivity
formulate appropriate interventions. A major problem gaps. The identification of feeding and nutrition as
that needs to be addressed is feed shortages during the most important constraint and research opportu-
the critical dry season of 6–7 months. Various nity is consistent with the findings on research
activities in Thailand and the other four countries will priorities in Southeast Asia (Devendra et al 1997).
then be undertaken within the newly established
network, called the Crop-Animal Systems Research
Network (CASREN), in the project. References
Table 2 indicates three important observations
within the specific focus on the subhumid/humid Devendra C, Thomas D, Jabbar MA, Kudo H. 1997.
agroecological zone. First, the continuum of lowland improvement of livestock production in crop-animal
and upland rainfed ecosystems provides a mix of both systems in the rainfed agro-ecological zones of
ruminants and nonruminants, involving buffaloes, Southeast Asia. Nairobi (Kenya): International
beef and dairy cattle, goats and sheep in the former, Livestock Research Institute. 107 p.
ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 1995a.
and pigs and poultry in the latter. Second, rice-based
Global agenda for livestock research. Gardiner P,
cropping systems are common, also including other Devendra C, editors. Nairobi (Kenya): International
annual crops and tree crops. The presence of both Livestock Research Institute. 114 p.
animal and crop diversity thus provides a variety of ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 1995b.
crop-animal interactions, the effects of which on Global agenda for livestock research. Proceedings of
productivity, livelihoods of people, and sustainable the Consultation for the Southeast Asia region.
agriculture provide major opportunities for research Devendra C, Gardiner P, editors. Nairobi (Kenya):
and development activities. Third, all the BMS have International Livestock Research Institute. 276 p.
an overriding major constraint in 5-7 months of dry TAC (Technical Advisory Committee). 1992. Review of
periods. This particular situation presents major CGIAR priorities and strategies. Part 1. TAC Secre-
tariat. Rome (Italy): Food and Agriculture Organiza-
challenges to the efficiency of use of natural re-
tion of the United Nations. 250 p.
sources in these environments and protection of the
TAC (Technical Advisory Committee). 1994. Review of
environments. CGiAR priorities and strategies. TAC Secretariat.
More important, the need to address the totality Rome (Italy): Food and Agriculture Organization of
of feed availability (forages, crop residues, the United Nations. 229 p.
agroindustrial by-products, and nonconventional feed
resources), the possibilities of increasing feed
production, synchronization of feed availability to Notes
match species requirements, and methods of conser-
vation present important research opportunities, the Aurhor's address: International Livestock Research
resolution of which can produce major impacts on the Institute, P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya. Contact
productivity of animals and improved livelihoods for address: 130A Jalan Awan Jawa, 58200 Kuala
the resource-poor farmers in these areas. Improved Lumpur, Malaysia.
Location Dong Tam, Bin Phuoc Mahasarakam Cilawu, Garut Don Montano, Bixi Xiang,
Pangasinan NanJian
Distance (km) 110, Ho Chi Minh City 90, Khon Kaen 180, Bogor 220, Manila 380, Kunming
Rainfall (mm) 2,170 1,500 2,200 2,300 760
Climate Humid Humid Humid Humid Subhumid,
subtropical
AEZa Lowlands Lowlands Uplands Lowlands Uplands
Animalsb BC, Pi, Po DC, Pi, Po BC, Bu, S, G, Fi BC, Bu. G, Pi, Po BC, Bu, G, Pi,
Po
Type of crop-animal Rice, cash crops, Annual and cash Rice, cash crops, Rice, cash crops, Rice, tea, and
system and perennial crops crops, fruit trees and fruit trees and fruit trees fruit trees
Dry season (mo) 6 6-7 5-6 6 7
52
SECTION B
Preeda Prapertchob
The Northeast Region is considered the most backward in Thailand mainly because
it is poorly endowed in natural resources, particularly unproductive soils and erratic
rainfall patterns. In 1998, it had a population of 20.75 million, or one-third of the
country’s population, of which 94% is rural. Agricultural growth in the past mainly
came from area expansion at the expense of forest area rather than increases in
productivity. This has resulted in environmental problems such as soil erosion and
increased frequency of flash floods and droughts. The share of agriculture in the
regional gross product declined from 57% in 1961 to 19% in 1994. Labor force par-
ticipation in agriculture declined from 85% in 1970 to 70% in 1995. The latter figure
includes part-time farmers who migrate out to work off-farm during the dry season.
Although a majority of the present labor force has a low educational level, the rate of
school attendance and level of educational attainment have improved markedly
among the younger generation. This increases the marketability of the labor force
for off-farm employment opportunities outside the region. Off-farm employment ac-
counts for two-thirds of the total income of farm households.
The out-migration of northeasterners may be either seasonal (i.e., during the
slack season) or full-time. Farmers select crops or farming techniques that optimize
their opportunities to pursue off-farm employment. Cassava was therefore attractive
as a cash crop because it needed low inputs and care and fetched sufficiently high
prices until recently. Similarly, farmers switched to direct seeding of rice to reduce
labor needs and to maximize their time away from the fields. The high dependence
on off-farm income also made the regions’s economy vulnerable to the economic
recession of 1997-98. Poverty incidence In the region, whlch has generally been
among the highest in the country, increased from 19% in 1996 to 23% in 1998.
The decline of the Thai baht is favorable for agricultural commodity exports;
hence, the 1997 recession would have had a positive effect of rejuvenating the ag-
ricultural sector and the rural economy could have acted as a social safety net for
the displaced labor returning to the countryside. However, because the rural sector
had been excluded from the mainstream of development, the impetus for agricul-
tural development to take up the economic slack could not happen fast enough.
Official statistics show that per capita government development expenditures in the
Northeast Region have been the lowest in the country. The prospects for economic
development of the northeast, which is rich in human resources, are discussed in
the light of a change in development orientation from purely economic growth to
livelihood and quality of life improvement. A brief analysis of the economic prospects
for crops other than rice, such as soybean, silk, and dairy production, shows that
farmers in the Northeast Region need to be more adaptive and more efficient to be
competitive in this age of economic globalization.
The Northeast Region is known as the most back- the region is largely due to its unfavorable endow-
ward region of Thailand. It is the biggest region in ment in natural resources, such as poor soils and
terms of population, with as much as one-third of the erratic patterns of rainfall. Throughout the past, labor
whole kingdom’s population. The backwardness of migrated from the northeast to Bangkok and other
55
regions of Thailand, as well as to foreign countries. and floods that have occurred more frequently in
The laborers from the northeast aye widely known as recent years are seen as the outcome of shrinkage of
being cheap, hard-working, highly loyal, and quick at the forest land. Soil erosion, which has become a
learning new skills and not making trouble. However, major agricultural problem in the region, is also
they generally have a low level of education and are attributed to the decrease in forest. There is some
deficient in necessary skills. Nevertheless, the substitution of area planted to upland crops. For
northeast, in spite of its poor natural resources, if example, area planted to kenaf peaked in the early
properly developed, could become a region rich in 1970s, but declined gradually from the mid-’70s. On
human resources. the other hand, cassava was planted on a limited area
when kenaf was popular, but rapidly replaced kenaf
after the mid-’70s. In the 1990s, when marketing
The northeast: its land and economy problems affected cassava production, sugarcane
moved in to replace cassava.
The Northeast Region, including the Korat Plateau, is The share of the agricultural sector decreased
drought-prone and characterized by a rolling surface from 57.1% of the regional gross product in 1961 to
and undulating hills in its northern and western parts only 19.0% in 1994. The manufacturing sector
and flat plains in the eastern and southern parts. The represented 7.9% in 1961 but increased to 10.2% in
Northeast Region covers a land area of 168,874 km2, 1994. In terms of employment, those who were
or about 32.9% of the kingdom of Thailand. Admin- engaged in farming were as much as 8.5% of the
istratively, the region is divided into 19 provinces; regional labor force in 1970 but were only 70% in
Nakhon Ratchasima or Korat, Khon Kaen, Ubon 1995. It should be noted that this number includes
Ratchathani, and Udon Thani are the major provinces part-time farmers who migrate to work off-farm,
of this region. particularly in the dry season. Recent statistics show
Harsh climatic conditions often result in floods that, in 1995, the income from off-farm employment
and droughts. Rice is the main crop planted on 70% represented as much as 62% of the total income of
of the arable land in the region. The other major farm households.
crops are kenaf, cassava, sugarcane, and groundnut, In many cases, rice production provides the
and their volumes of production in the northeast staple food for household consumption and farmers
amount to 94.0%, 61.0%, 30.6%, and 33.6% of the produce upland crops such as cassava, sugarcane,
total national production, respectively (Table 1). maize, and kenaf for cash income. Rice productivity
In the past, regional agricultural growth mainly is lower than the average for the whole country
came from the expansion of planted area. For because the irrigated area has only 7% of the planted
example, the area planted to rice almost doubled land. Therefore, farming in the region is at the whim
between 1960 and 1980, but productivity growth was of nature. Because of the fast reduction in forest land,
rather low. The planted area of upland crops also the region now faces more frequent natural calamities
expanded rapidly largely because of the encroach- of alternate droughts and floods. Previously, the
ment of forest land. As a result, the forest area region was the major supplier of livestock, particu-
dwindled from about one-half of the gross regional larly buffaloes and cattle, for the country. Because of
area at the beginning of the 1960s to only 12% now. the shortage of herders who took care of livestock
The reduction in the forest area of the Northeast and the progress of farm mechanization, the number
Region is causing a vast devastation. The droughts of buffaloes and cattle decreased rapidly. The region
turned to a new pattern of livestock farming such as
poultry farms under the contractual arrangement,
Table 1. Evolution of planted area for major crops in dairy farming under the cooperative system, and
northeast Thailand, 1960-97. Million rai.
commercial and large-scale cattle raising.
Crop 1960-61 1971-72 1980-81 1991-92 1996-97
56
Out of this regional total, 5,305,000 were under age This region is therefore the largest for labor supply
13. The total labor force (people over 13) was nationwide. It is estimated that Bangkok alone has as
11,237,000, but the actual number of those employed many as 1.2 million northeastern workers and about
was 10,781,000. The population in urban areas was 400,000 northeasterners work abroad (Research and
1,290,000 (6.2%), whereas 19,458,000 (93.8%) lived Development Institute 1997).
in rural areas. The labor force with no education The out-migration of northeasterners may be
numbered 229,000 (2.5%), whereas 7,710,000 either seasonal (mainly during the slack seasons) or
(82.4%) received primary education, 842,000 (9.0%) for the full year. Farmers are very adept at choosing
had secondary education, 129,000 (1.4%) had crops or farming techniques that will make their out-
vocational education, another 202,000 (2.2%) migration possible. Therefore, it is no surprise why
received teacher training, and those with a university farmers choose cassava for their upland crops.
education represented 246,000 (2.6%) of the total. Besides its market availability, the crop requires less
Therefore, most of the labor force in the northeast attention and low inputs, and it allows farmers to
had a low level of education, mainly at the primary work off-farm or even migrate for some months
level. However, the recent trend indicates improve- before returning at harvesting time. Direct seeding of
ments. The rate of school attendance for children rice (or seed broadcasting) is another farming
increased from 80% two decades ago to about 98% technique used by farmers to replace the labor-
now, The rate of children who continued secondary intensive transplanting method of crop establishment.
education was 72% in 1992, but increased rapidly to With this technique, farmers might have more time to
82% in 1996. The number of children who proceeded work off-farm. Income from off-farm activities in
to upper secondary education in 1996 was as high as many cases has become the essential part of the
44.4% of those who graduated from lower secondary household income. This includes remittances of
schools. Of these, 67% went to general courses, income sent back home by the younger generation of
whereas 33% chose vocational courses. workers who left the farm almost permanently.
The increasing rate of the young generation in Income earnings of each household member vary and
higher education might not have a direct benefit for depend heavily on education. Table 2 shows that
rural and agricultural development but it has an household members working as wage earners who
adverse effect on farming. This is because it is quite have a high school or vocational education earn more
common that farming does not appeal to young than those who completed only their primary
people, particularly those who have a good educa- education. They even get more if they work for a
tion. Most of the youth who graduate from high nonfarm business.
school in the local areas prefer to move to town, Even if the people work strenuously, it was
either for advanced studies or for employment. Those found in 1988 that almost half of the total population
who do farming are people who are mainly in their of northeasterners was living in poverty. Recently,
late thirties or forties. This causes a lack of energetic the situation improved and in 1996 this proportion
forces and new initiatives in farming. During the dropped to as low as 19.4%, but it surged up again
slack season, if one visits villages in the northeast, after the recession and reached 23.1% in 1998. This
one might find mainly young children and older rate of poverty should be compared with those of the
family members. Even those who do work in farming central region (7.7%) and for metropolitan Bangkok
would move out of the village to seek a better fortune (only 0.5%) (Table 3).
in town. They should not be blamed because they These data show that the effect of the recent
really do want to work and earn an income and do economic recession was felt most in the northeast.
not want to live idly in villages without employment.
The shortage of irrigation water does not make Table 2. Off-farm and nonfarm income by educatlon
level and occupation (baht person-1 year-1).
farming possible during the dry period of the year.
Moreover, ample possibilities exist for people to seek Education Farming with Nonfarm Not
Wagea
employment in the major towns or in metropolitan off-farm activity business specified
Bangkok. Lower than 11,533 15,427 19,877 11,466
The northeast has been well known for its compulsory
migrations of laborers. It is a large source of labor for Primary 11,076 10,945 21,233 10,208
Secondary 21,605 13,889 25,325 8,527
Bangkok and other regions and countries. Laborers Vocational and 19,250 41,018 60,748 9,600
from the northeast, though mainly unskilled, are University
praised for being hard-working and fast-learning,
aIncluding farm and nonfarm employment.
having fewer problems, and demanding low wages. Source: levllanonda et al (1999).
57
Table 3. Recent evolution of poverty rates (%) by region in urban employment led to a large-scale return
in Thailand.
migration to the countryside and greatly reduced
Metropolitan urban-to-rural remittances. At the same time,
Year Center North Northeast South
Bangkok however, the exchange rate moved favorably for
1988 26.5 32.0 48.4 32.5 6.1
traded commodities and the agricultural sector once
1990 22.2 23.2 43.1 27.6 3.4 again became a savior for the national economy.
1992 13.2 22.6 39.8 19.7 1.9 More farm exports were expected and the promotion
1994 9.2 13.1 28.5 17.2 0.8
1996 6.3 11.2 19.4 11.5 0.6
of agribusiness resumed. Though the countryside
1998 7.7 9.0 23.1 14.8 0.5 could act as a social safety net for a large number of
people, this would not last long because the rural
Source: Data are from the National Labor Force Survey, National
Statistical Office (1999). Analyzed by the Division of Development sector had been discarded from the mainstream of
Evaluation, NESDB (1999). development for some time when the government
spent much effort on industrial development. The
agricultural infrastructure is not yet well developed,
Income was reduced throughout the country but the particularly for irrigation facilities.
worst drop occurred in the northeast. This reduction The irrigated area in the northeast is still
because of the recession reached as much as 32.4% minimal. Because of the shortage of appropriate sites
in the first round of the survey (February 1998) and and the opposition of some groups of people, the
37.4% in the second round (August 1998). This pattern of irrigation development also had to switch
should be compared with the whole kingdom average from a large project approach to a smaller one,
of 19.2% for the first round and 24.8% for the second mainly at the farm level. The King himself tried to
round. promote irrigation on-farm through farm ponds and a
Table 4 shows government development new farming system based on the self-sustenance
expenditures for the people in the northeast com- principle, widely known as the “new theory” system.
pared with those of the other regions of the kingdom. This system will be beneficial to many small farmers.
It shows that the public investment in human But it will operate properly only if it has good
resource development is lowest in the northeast support in technology and organization. More
(2,520 baht capita-1). important is the basic concept of development that
It should be noted that the very high figures must be changed for both government officials in
mentioned for metropolitan Bangkok do not have charge and the people themselves. The growth-
much meaning since they also include contributions oriented development pattern should be changed
made to the central administration, which may serve toward the proposed quality-of-life-oriented one.
all regions. This changing attitude toward life is not a simple task
for both the government authority and the people.
Table 4. Government expenditures per capita for the 1998 fiscal year (in baht).
58
since farmers who have a marketable surplus The growing awareness of health and environ-
represent only a fraction of all farmers. But there are mental problems may create both favorable and
some other commodities for which the region does unfavorable conditions for Thai farmers. Genetically
not have a comparative advantage, notably, soybean, modified organisms (GMOs), which were expected
silk, and dairy products. For soybean, the northeast to bring a second Green Revolution, are now a
has a planted area of 289,977 rai (1996-97 crop controversial issue. Some farmers were expecting
year), or about 17% of the total planted area in that this technological breakthrough would increase
Thailand. The average yield of soybean in this region their productivity and reduce their production costs,
is only 225 kg rai–1, which is much lower than yields whereas many scholars and NGOs are arguing about
in the United States, which are as high as 376 kg environmental effects and sustainability of produc-
rai–1. Moreover, the costs of soybean production in tion. Some maintained that GMOs would increase the
the United States are much lower, so that Thailand monopolistic power of giant global agribusiness
cannot compete in the world market. Therefore, firms. The government should be impartial and fair to
soybean would be among the first crops to disappear both sides. Strictly controlled experiments should be
if the enforcement of the new regulations of the implemented by competent research authorities to
WTO would become effective. Sericulture and silk verify the effects of this new technology.
production, which involve more than 300,000 Government research agencies can still work in
farmers in the northeast and provide a supplementary many different areas to try to boost productivity and
income, are other farm enterprises that lose their edge increase responsiveness to health and environmental
on other major producing countries such as China, concerns of the public. Much research on organic
Vietnam, and Brazil. Since farmers who will be farming and biological control may not be attractive
affected are those who produce hybrid varieties to global agribusiness, but it may benefit both
(about 10,000 farms), if they cannot increase their producers and consumers and be friendly to the
productivity, they will have to change their profes- environment. Thai farmers, if they stand firmly in
sion. their efforts to save the environment, though produc-
During the past decade, the northeast became the tivity might not be very high, will find ways for
new frontier land for dairy cattle and the number of many products to take their place on the world
farmers raising milk cows increased substantially. market under the new rules of globalization of
However, although it is expected that the enforce- knowledge and information and more awareness of
ment of the new trade rules would increase the health care.
international price of powdered milk, this could still
lower the price of milk produced in Thailand. The
given tariff quota of 55,000 tons, on which a tariff of References
5% is levied, is not enough for the domestic demand;
therefore, there is still some room for the domestic Isvilanonda S, Tongpan S, Sukkumnoed D. 1999. Study on
production of milk. However, in the long run, it is major causes of inter-regional income disparity
essential for Thai dairy farmers to increase their problems in agricultural sector and development
productivity so that they can compete with foreign strategy for their solution. Report presented to the
competitors. JICA Thailand Office by the Center for Applied
Economics Research, Kasetsart University, Bangkok,
Thailand.
Research and development in agriculture
NESDB. 1999. Situation and economic and social impact.
The effects of the globalization of agriculture imply Seminar Document on Agricultural Adjustment of
that Thai farmers cannot simply continue farming as Thai Agriculture for the Next Decade. Organized by
in the past. They must be more efficient than before the Agricultural Economics Association of Thailand
so that they can compete with others. They have to be and the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. (In
well informed and knowledgeable about modem Thai.)
technology and well aware of what is going on in the Office of Agricultural Economics, Ministry of Agriculture
world market and of consumer demand. These are and Cooperatives. 1998. Agricultural statistics of
challenges to both Thai farmers and concerned Thailand, crop year 1996/97. Bangkok, Thailand.
academics and administrators who are involved in National Statistical Office. 1999. Labor force survey round
3 (August 1998). Bangkok, Thailand.
agricultural research and development.
59
Research and Development Institute, Khon Kaen Univer- Notes
sity. 1997. Human resources development as a base
for industrial decentralization in the northeastern Author’s address: Department of Agricultural Economics,
region of Thailand. A research report prepared for the Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University,
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). Thailand.
Research and Development Institute, Khon Kaen Univer-
sity, Department of Agricultural ExtensiodMinistry
of Agriculture and Cooperatives, and the UPLB
Alumni Club. 1997. Proceedings of a seminar on the
Direction of Rural Development on the Basis of Self-
Sustenance Economy. (In Thai.)
60
The national and regional farm economy
of Thailand
Supat Viratphong
This paper summarizes the findings from socioeconomlc surveys conducted by the
Office of Agricultural Economics, showing that three decades of socioeconomlc de-
velopment under the National Economlc and Social Development Plan seem to have
widened the gaps in income and living standards across regions, between the farm
and nonfarm sector, and between irrigated and rainfed areas in the farming sector.
The Northeast Region has a predominantly rural population dependent on the poor
natural resource base for agricultural production under rainfed conditions. Net cash
income per farm for the region in 1998 was half that of the national average. Rice
production gave the lowest net income. Rural households would have to depend on
other farm activities, such as cash cropping and dairy farming, to generate higher
farm income. Even so, farm poverty incidence is high at 25%, compared with the
national average of 18%. Rural households became increasingly dependent on off-
farm earnings as the economic expansion in the 1980s and early '90s provided
more employment opportunities in other regions and in the cities. This led to mas-
sive labor out-migration. Of the total labor outflow of 2.3 million people in the country
in 1998,65% originated from the Northeast Region. This out-migration of the younger
and more highly educated labor force causes problems such as agricultural labor
shortages and difficulties in the transfer of technology to an aging farm workforce.
The Agricultural Development Plan formulated under the current Eighth Na-
tional Economic and Social Development Plan aims to eliminate Income disparities
in the Kingdom by providing more economic opportunities for rural communities,
particularly in the regions that have fallen behind in economic development. The
development strategy undertaken by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
for the Northeast Region is to generate opportunities (1) for restructuring agricultural
production to give more economic return, (2) to impart technical and agribusiness
management skills to young farmers, and (3) to strengthen farmers' institutions.
These are accompanied by policies to diversify beyond rice farming, increase input
efficiency, improve the quality of agricultural products, encourage rural savings, and
promote proper management of natural resources,
The Korat Basin is located in the lower part of ment is a major source of supplementary household
northeast Thailand. This region consists of 17 income.
provinces, occupying one-third of the total area of the Previous development efforts aimed at raising
country, and is mainly populated by farmers. Approxi- low rural income by promoting income generation
mately 41% of the total agricultural area of the and economic activities for regional and provincial
country is in this region. However, sandy or saline areas. In spite of successes in general economic
soils and rainfall variability are the main factors growth, the income gap between urban and rural
causing low productivity. Only drought-tolerant crops people, as well as among regions, widened. Com-
such as cassava and sugarcane have been suggested as pared with those of other regions, the incomes of
possible upland crops. Poor resources lead to lower northeast households appear to be low. Therefore, the
household farm income and labor migration to the concept of development has been adjusted by shifting
nonfarm sector. Most of the labor force migrating to from its previous growth orientation to a more
cities comes from this region and off-farm employ- people-centered approach.
61
This paper presents information, from a socio- particularly between farmers in irrigated and rainfed
economic survey conducted by the Office of Agricul- areas. Obviously, in the Northeast Region, which is
tural Economics (OAE), based on data collected from mainly under rainfed conditions, farming produced
the second to eighth development plan. The survey lower cash income than in other parts of the country.
results describe farm household income, farming The shortfall in farm income was covered by nonfarm
systems, and labor employment. Finally, some earnings. From the fifth to the eighth plan, nonfarm
policies and measures for agricultural development income gradually increased as the economic expan-
will be discussed. sion provided more off-farm employment opportuni-
ties. Over the whole period for northeast Thailand,
nonfarm income has increased dramatically relative to
The farm economy farm income (Table 1).
From the second to eighth development plan National and regional farm income
The OAE started conducting socioeconomic surveys and expenditures
in the middle of the second National Economic and In crop year 1998-99, the OAE conducted a socioeco-
Social Development Plan. The main purposes were to nomic survey on income in 14,000 sampled farms
investigate the use of agricultural resources, farm across the country. The national average cash farm
income and expenses, and the living conditions of income was 68,084 baht per farm, but only 38,227
farming families. Basic data on farm households were baht in the northeast. Income from crop sales contrib-
used to monitor the evolution of a series of economic uted the largest portion, accounting for 69% of total
and social indicators of farmers’ situations. These sales nationwide, whereas 259% and 6% of the rest
data were also used to guide the formulation of were derived from livestock and other farm products,
agricultural policy and development measures to respectively. The average cash farm expenses reached
improve farmers’ standard of living. 39,355 baht nationwide and 23,813 in the northeast,
It has been found that past economic develop- resulting in a net cash farm income per farm of
ment has benefited only some groups of people in 28,729 baht and 14,411 baht nationally and in the
some areas. The income gap between the farm and northeast, respectively. This farm income amounted to
nonfarm sector tended to increase from the first to the about half of the nonfarm cash income, estimated at
seventh plan periods. lncome disparity also appeared 55,031 baht nationally and only one-fourth in the
to have increased within the farm sector itself, northeast (Table 2).
Plan II Plan III Plan IV Plan V Plan VI Plan VII Plan Vlll
Item
(US$1 = B20.8) (US$1 = B20.5) (US$1 = B20.6) (US$1 = B24.15) (US$1 = 625.5) (US$1 = B25.2) (US$1 = B38.6)
National average
1. Farm cash income 3,825 7,752 16,777 18,794 32,555 61,818 68,084
2. Farm cash expense 2,390 3,017 7,605 9,378 17,448 32,006 39,355
3. Net cash farm income 1,435 4,735 9,172 9,416 15,108 29,812 28,729
4. Nonfarm cash income 2,096 3,902 8,842 13,629 19,630 51,059 55,031
5. Nonfarm cash expense Na 7,697 15,340 19,901 28,849 59,722 59,855
6. Household cash income 5,921 11,654 25,619 32,423 52,185 112,877 123,115
7. Household cash expense na a 10,714 22,945 29,279 46,297 91,728 99,211
8. Ratio of farm cash income 1.83 1.99 1.90 1.38 1.66 1.21 1.24
to nonfarm income
Northeast
1. Farm cash income 2,078 4,324 9,371 11,257 18,165 31,191 38,227
2. Farm cash expense 1,195 1,984 3,932 5,052 9,216 19,386 23,816
3. Net cash farm income 884 2,340 5,439 6,205 8,949 11,805 14,411
4. Nonfarm cash income 1,132 3,121 7,208 11,888 16,907 50,891 53,439
5. Nonfarm cash expense na 5,157 10,772 15,085 19,601 44,480 47,220
6. Household cash income 3,210 7,445 16,579 23,145 35,072 82,082 91,660
7. Household cash expense na 7,141 14,704 20,137 28,817 63,886 71,036
8. Ratio of farm cash income 1.84 1.39 1.30 0.95 1.07 0,61. 0.72
to nonfarm income
62
Table 2. National and regional farm household income household self-consumption. Only about 30% of the
(in baht per household), crop year 1998/99.
total production would be put on the market, whereas
Item National level Northeast about 37% would be stored for food security pur-
poses because of frequent crop damage by floods and
1. Cash farm income 68,084 38,227
2. Nonfarm income 55,031 53,439
droughts. The last third of the total production will
3. Product/consumption 5,119 6,678 need to be used for family consumption and other
4. Property margin 11,780 12,700 purposes such as seeds.
(ending-beginning)
5. Farm expense 39,355 23,816
6. Nonfarm expense 59,855 47,220 Farm poverty incidence
7. Net cash farm income 28,729 14,411 Based on the farm data collected in 1995-96 and the
Source: Socioeconomic survey, crop year 1998/99.
OAE's estimation of poverty in 1996, the minimum
level of per capita income of rural households in the
country was 9,781 baht. It was also observed that,
Farm income varied from region to region nationwide, the rate of poverty incidence on farm
depending on available agricultural resources and households was 18% for the total sampled farms. In
climatic conditions. The northern, southern, and the northeast, however, farm poverty incidence was as
central regions generated cash furm income per farm high as 25% reflecting a larger shure of poor people
of61,568,93,266, and 447,497 baht, respectively, in this region,
The progressive Central Region shows a significant
income advantage, with a farm income that can Mlgratlon of rural poor
exceed household expenditures. By contrast, the Problems related to low income associoted with
average cash farm income in the northeast reached uncertainty of agricultural revenues have caused more
only 38,227 baht (Table 2). As this is insufficient to farm laborers to leave their farms and resort to new
cover household consumption expenses, farm family job opportunities. This out-migration, in the form of
labor needs to seek supplementary income from both rural-to-rural and rural-to-urban migration, is
sources other than farming activities. Clearly, the widespread in the northeast. The 1998-99 farm survey
living conditions of farm families in the northeast indicated that, for the past decade, the outflow of
depend mainly on their nonfarm income and this farm family members was about 2.3 million people.
situation leads to extensive farm labor migration to About 1.5 million, or 658 of this total, originated in
the cities. the northeast.
This outflow may be classified into three
Income disparities among types categories: the first is :he out-migration of the entire
of farm production farming family, the second is a seasonal outflow, and
Besides this interregional income gap, productivity the last is an outflow of an individual person within
and income differences are observed between types of the farming family. The first category usually com-
farming system and other factors. The general survey prises poor farmers who might form the urban poor
of 12,533 farms conducted by the OAE in 1995-96 sector in large cities. The last category is creating a
revealed that rice farming provided a net national problem of decline in the availability of labor in farm
average farm income of 24,680 baht per family. This operations, particularly during rapid economic growth
income was estimated at 873 baht per rai (1 hectare = periods. In the northeast, the outflow of seasonal off-
6.25 rai) and around 7,195 baht per farm labor unit. farm workers is estimated to represent 4% of the total
Prawn and dairy farming derived the highest income, workforce. Approximately 10% of the total of out-
followed by other categories of farm products. migrating people is individuals within the farming
Similarly, rice farming in the northeast earned a net family who left the farm for a period of one to five
farm income of only 441 baht per rai and 3,248 baht years.
per farm labor unit. In this region, dairy farming A mass outflow of labor from agriculture has
earned the highest net farm income. Other types of caused a labor shortage and difficulties in the transfer
farm activites provided more income than rice of technology to a more aging farm workforce.
production. It is obvious that differences in farm Hopefully, the current older, less educated generation
activity have significant effects on farm income. of farmers will be replaced by a new, more successful
However, rice is still the dominant crop for northeast and better educated one. However, labor migration to
63
the nonfarm sector is common among young laborers The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
aged 15 to 30, and this will continue to take educated (MOAC) has adjusted its economic policies and
persons away from agriculture. action plans for implementation during the period of
The Eighth National Economic and Social the eighth plan:
Development Plan (1996-2001) seeks to eliminate 1. To maintain growth in the agricultural sector,
disparities in income in the Kingdom and ensure that 2. To accelerate the increase in farmer income,
all Thais can obtain an equal share of the prosperity 3. To increase the capacity of the agricultural sector
and other benefits resulting from development. By to be competitive,
giving regional and rural people wider economic 4. To accelerate the export of agricultural products,
opportunities, particularly in terms of employment, it 5. To stimulate domestic production to substitute
is hoped that the foundations for sustainable develop- for imports,
ment can be laid. To generate wider employment 6. To adjust agricultural systems to absorb unem-
opportunities, the interrelationships among people, ployed laborers returning to rural areas, and
communities, local areas, and their existing develop- 7. To prepare for global climate change.
ment potentials must be taken into account. TO
provide greater overall economic opportunities for Some key aspects of the main economic policies
regional and rural people and their communities, it is put in place by the MOAC are briefly presented
necessary to extend all activities related to local below.
economies, social services, and education into these
areas. This eighth development plan particularly Agriculture restructuring policy
emphasizes establishing closer links between rural Designate large ureas for establishing specialized
and urban communities and suiting projects to local agricultural production activities focusing on
areas’ real development potentials. The main target integrated production linked to markets and process-
groups are rural farmers and the urban poor. ing, similar to the production of important agricultural
products for agroindustries. Incentives to encourage
the private sector or foreign investors are offered,
Agricultural development plans and such as tax measures and the revision of laws in the
economic policies of the Ministry of designated areas, especially in cooperative land
Agriculture and Cooperatives settlements, land reform areas, and land consolidation
areas.
As part of the Eighth National Economic and Social Reduce risks for small farmers and ensure food
Development Plan, the Agricultural Development security at the farm level by focusing on support for
Plan is the broad framework for developing agricul- ecologically and environmentally nondamaging
ture in Thailand. This plan establishes a target for activities, as well as increasing the value of products
expansion of the agricultural sector at approximately produced locally.
2.9% annually and designates three development
strategies: Policy on increasing productivity and
1. To ensure the competitiveness of Thai agricul- reducing production costs
tural products, agricultural development will aim Do research and develop appropriate technologies to
to bring adjustments to the agricultural sector in increase productivity and reduce production costs.
response to the changing global economic Implement a “products champion” pilot project
situation. under the MOAC that includes para-rubber, durian,
2. To conserve natural resources and promote longan, and orchids, emphasizing yield, marketing,
sustainable development, importance will be and integrated processing.
placed on the conservation and use of natural Expand the base for producing raw materials for
resources conforming to their capability, to agroindustries. Negotiate with neighboring countries
ensure an ecological balance and prevent in an effort to reduce obstacles to investing in the
damaging the environment. production of raw materials for agroindustries.
3. To develop human resources and farmer institu-
tions, emphasis will be given to imparting Policy to improve quality
knowledge and transferring appropriate technolo- Establish appropriate quality standards for agricul-
gies to farmers. tural products for export. Focus on operating a “one-
64
stop service,” with private-sector participation in the agricultural sector, thus helping to reduce farmers’
providing services and issuing certificates to entrepre- expenditures on imported fertilizers.
neurs who volunteer to adhere to quality standards.
Develop agricultural production systems that Policy for management of forest, soil, water,
have fully integrated quality control, starting with coastal area, and biological resources
production at the field level, by focusing on quality Identify vacant land and extend land tenure rights to
and product standards that conform to international solve the problem of availability of land for subsis-
sanitary and phytosanitary standards. tence, by revising the Land Tax Act and the Rental of
Encourage agricultural organizations to expand Land Act.
their participation in inspecting and guaranteeing Implement a project to reserve and control
product quality, through government promotion of conservation areas, including appropriate activities
infrastructure that will facilitate marketing and ensure related to land allocation, forest fire prevention,
the quality of products being held for sale, such as rehabilitation of natural resources, and surveying and
warehouses and cool storage units. using forest resources.
Support safe agriculture and natural agriculture Conserve and rehabilitate degraded ecosystems
for domestic consumption and for export to specific in coastal areas and resolve coastal aquaculture
markets. problems, particularly those affecting coastal environ-
ments. Take precautions to prevent problems that may
Pollcy to restructure the MOAC arise from environmental actions linked to the export
Restructure the administration of the MOAC to of Thai agricultural products to foreign markets.
enable it to provide services in an integrated manner, Undertake appropriate development of natural
efficiently maintain and rehabilitate natural resources, resources for nature-based tourism (ecotourism) and
directly provide information to farmers, and more promote tourism in agricultural areas, including
efficiently undertake research with academic institu- developing local products for marketing.
tions and the private sector. Develop agricultural potential in irrigation
Reduce the official role in providing services at command areas by producing agricultural products
the subdistrict level through the decentralization of more efficiently, while mitigating pollution problems
authority to local organizations. that affect the environment in these areas.
65
This may be a viable remedy to the problems of low Bibliography
farm income and out-migration.
Isvilanonda S. 1998. Income distribution and poverty
Strengthening farmers’ institutions incidence. Center for Applied Economic Research,
Farmers’ institutions are extremely important for Faculty of Economics, Kasetsart University, Bangkok,
fostering farmers’ efforts to increase production and Thailand.
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. 1997/1998.
income. Many farm products and activities need to be
Economic policies of the Ministry of Agriculture and
integrated into an organizational network having the
Cooperatives.
capacity for investment, facilities, and working Office of the National Economic and Social Department
capital necessary to serve farmers. During the past Board, Office of the Prime Minister. The Eighth
three decades, farm development research conducted National Economic and Social Development Plan.
by the OAE in the northeast led to a significant The Farmers’ Rehabilitation and Development Fund Act.
increase in farm income for hog-raising groups and 1999.
underground water users. These groups were man- Viratphong S et al. 1998. Productivity of farm size and
aged by young farmers. Dairy farming is another type type. Office of Agricultural Economics, Ministry of
of production that requires the integration of milk Agriculture and Cooperatives, Bangkok, Thailand.
production and marketing operations. Viratphong S et al. 1998. Structure of farm household
income and expenses. Office of Agricultural Econom-
An important law now provides an opportunity
ics, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives,
for farmers to organize themselves under the Farmers’
Bangkok, Thailand.
Rehabilitation and Development Fund Act of 1999.
The main reason for the enactment of this new
law is the need to promote farmers’ participation in Notes
the design and implementation of policies and
programs that affect their production and well-being. Author’s address: Office of Agricultural Economics,
It is believed that, without the process of people’s Ratchadamnoennok Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.
participation, the conventional problems of Thai
farmers can never be alleviated. Consequently, it is
necessary to establish an organization that will take
responsibility for rehabilitating and developing the
farmers’ socioeconomic conditions in a continuous
and free manner. This may be done through close
coordination among policymakers, practitioners,
technicians, and farmers. Who will be authorized to
formulate policies to implement the Farmers’ Reha-
bilitation and Development Fund? Among other
functions, the Fund will provide an opportunity for
resource-poor farmers to organize themselves and
could formulate programs and projects to be financed
by the Fund. Once the required funding is allocated to
a specific program or project, a well-structured
monitoring and evaluation system will have to start
functioning to help achieve the objectives.
66
Land-use patterns and agricultural production
systems with emphasis on changes driven
by economic forces and market integration
Sawaeng Ruaysoongnern and Nongluck Suphanchaimart
This paper reviews the major economic forces that have affected land-use patterns
in the Korat Basin. This basin, often called the Korat Plateau, covers a major part of
northeast Thailand. The information presented is drawn from secondary sources.
The land-use patterns in the Korat Basin have changed gradually since the con-
struction of the railway into the Korat Plateau 100 years ago, and can be divided into
three phases: subsistence, semisubsistence, and commercial farming. The railway
construction made inroads into this isolated part of the Kingdom. Early expansion
provided a marketing route to merchants to trade limited consumer goods for some
surplus rice. Farming at this time was referred to as mainly for subsistence. Major
development programs started in the early 1960s when the Thai government, with
assistance from the US. government, constructed the Friendship Highway and other
development projects. This highway helped facilitate transportation and provided an
opportunity for commercial logging and market expansion. Meanwhile, the demand
for cassava exports started around the 1970s because of the Common Agricultural
Policy of the European Union to support cereal prices in the European Union. The
high price of wheat and barley in the Union created demand for imported cassava
for an animal feed substitute. Cassava cultivation expanded rapidly into upland ar-
eas of the Korat Basin because it was suited to the sandy loam soils, and gradually
encroached into forest land. Farming during this period was semisubsistence since
cassava production was for cash, whereas rice was mainly for home consumption.
At the same time, the sharp fail in agricultural prices during this period aggravated
rural poverty in this region. Insufficient income pushed farmers awayfrom rural hard-
ship to seek off-farm work in Bangkok. During this phase, rice and cassava were the
most suitable crops because they allowed farmers to work off-farm during slack
seasons. The use of chemical fertilizer and tractors for land preparation became
widespread. The last phase of commercial farming started in the late 1980s when
the world economy started to recover, and the industrial countries relocated their
labor-intensive industries to countries with a cheap labor supply such as Thailand.
The large inflow of foreign investment during 1988-95 enabled the nonfarm sector to
expand. Consequently, this provided job opportunities for rural workers. Income from
off-farm work provided farmers with capital for investment and served as an engine
of growth because of the increased demand for food. Meanwhile, the farm-restruc-
turing program launched by tho government in 1990 to reduce cassava planted area
had started various kinds of commercial farming in the Korat Basin, such as dairy
farms, integrated farming, and orchards. Other market-oriented products were also
promoted by the private sector through contract farming of seed production, broil-
ers, and flsheries. The economic crash in mid-1998 caused a setback to many gov-
ernment programs because of the budget deficit. Opportunitles for agricultural de-
velopment resurfaced, with government emphasis on farmIng as a fallback to boost
the country’s economy. It is anticipated that, in the present and foreseeable future in
the economics of agricultural production in the Korat Basin, rice will remain 8 subsis-
tence crop together with more intensive land use in crop and livestock production, in
response to market needs both domestically and around the globe. However, the
optimum use of land in the Basin in the future can be assured only if farmers are
allowed to make decisions under free trade conditions and can participate in eco-
nomic and social decision making.
67
Basically, land is the main resource for social and economic development planning (Takai 1985,
economic development. Patterns of land use are Tongpan 1988).
crucial parameters for indicating agricultural develop- Many factors affect the land-use pattern; popula-
ment. The physical environment, people, and the tion pressure, market demand for food, infrastructure
economy are also indicators that influence past and development, and other macroeconomic shifts.
existing resource potential of an area. The Northeast Primarily, population growth led to an expansion in
Region, often called the Korat Plateau, is certainly an land use. Despite the successful program of family
important region of Thailand in terms of area and the planning in Thailand, the population in the northeast
people. The region used to be landlocked before increased by 60% during the past three decades
transportation development took place. Historically, (Table 1). The need for more food led to an expansion
the people in the northeast were isolated from the in paddy land over time. There were strong interac-
central Thai government. Development in the region tions of land-use pattern with infrastructure develop-
was primarily meant for security and survival. Donner ment, especially transportation and communication
(1978), in his book, described the past situation of the systems. Improvement in the transportation network
region as such: “. . . the north-easterners grew rice enabled farmers to fully respond to the market
under unfavorable conditions because if they had demand for food and fiber. It also led to information
grown other crops they would not have had a market and resource exchanges of agricultural produce for
to exchange them for food. Even when Bangkok consumer goods, agricultural equipment, modern
pushed the railway through the northeast, rather as a housing material, education, and modern medicine.
response to French-Indochinese activities, it never The increased demand for cassava in the Euro-
gave any incentive to use this means of transportation pean Union was the most important factor explaining
for development. Only the Chinese traders followed the drastic increase in area of cassava growing in the
the rail and, for the first time, a limited offer of Basin during the 1970s and ’80s. Other macroeco-
consumer goods and textiles appeared in the north- nomic shifts such as higher investment of the central
eastern markets and some surplus rice found its way government in irrigation development, the farm-
to Bangkok.” Geographical drawbacks and political restructuring program during the early 1990s, and the
tensions of the region can be traced back to the late- increase in private-sector investment resulted in a
1950s. Later, the government, with assistance from greater degree of commercialization of agriculture in
the United States, started massive development the Basin.
programs in the 1960s, especially the Friendship This analysis of land use in the Korat Basin,
Highway, which succeeded in connecting the north- which is primarily a review of secondary data,
east to world markets. This market integration reports, and direct research experiences, attempts to
through a good transportation system enabled link changes in cropping over the last three decades
northeastern farmers to respond to the markets. with major macroeconomic shifts and important
Consequently, the land-use pattern in the region government interventions. Because of data limita-
changed rapidly over time from subsistence to tions, the analysis focuses on the Northeast Region as
semisubsistence and commercial farming. Therefore, a whole and deemphasizes minor crops that are
a chronological analysis of the evolving land-use specific to certain parts of the region such as tobacco
pattern is essential to direct proper social and and pineapple.
Table 1. Structural change in the economy of northeast Thailand from 1970 to 1990.
1970 1995
% of whole % of whole
Subject
country country
Northeast Thailand Northeast Thailand
68
The three phases of agriculture An important field crop grown during this phase
in the northeast was kenaf, which covered about 0.2 million ha, the
second largest area after rice. For rice and maize to be
Mainly subsistence transported during those days, it was necessary to
The physical resources of northeast Thailand are develop gunnysacks for packaging, made out of kenaf
characterized by extensive sandy soils and erratic fiber. This requirement created an opportunity for
rainfall (Pairintra 1985). Traditionally, the bimodal farmers to produce an upland crop such as kenaf that
rainfall distribution has been sufficient for lowland could be productive in poor soil areas (Theerasasawat
rice production; the first peak is usually suitable for and Srisontisuk 1986). Although the crop can be
nursery preparation and the second peak for trans- grown under limited water conditions, the processing
planting (Vorasoot et al 1985). Despite the sandy soil, of the fiber requires plenty of water and this posed a
it is fortunate that the plowpan or compacted subsur- serious problem in many areas. Price fluctuations and
face from long-term disturbances through land competition with synthetic packaging material were
preparation has allowed farmers to grow lowland rice the two main factors that caused kenaf to disappear
using short-term availability of standing water. This later. Other field crops were maize, peanuts, sugar-
traditional practice of rice cultivation could have cane, and cotton, covering another 0.2 million ha.
evolved from either (or both) adaptation of rice or of These crops were grown partly for home use and
farmers to the existing poor agricultural resource partly for sale. Sugarcane was the only crop that had
situation (Kyuma and Pairintra 1983). Even to the commercial links with the only two factories in the
present day, rice is regarded as the main crop of the Basin. During this phase, there were only 10,000 ha
Korat Basin despite its infertile soil and unfavorable of cassava, indicating that the crop was introduced
price incentive. Farmers in the old days subsisted on during the late 1960s (Table 3).
cropping of rice and cotton and salt and livestock Livestock has been an important component in
production for home consumption and for barter. this subsistence farming, for both production savings
Available statistics show that rice covered more than and traction power (Phalaraksh 1988). Water buffa-
3.2 million ha and yielded about 4.5 million t, or 1.4 t loes were used for land preparation and cattle were
ha-1, at the beginning of the 1970s. The traditional used to pull carts and were exported in quantity to the
technique of transplanting was practiced with minimal Central Plain. Not only are these animals easy to
use of fertilizer. raise, feeding on grasses, but also the manure they
Two main types of rice, glutinous and produce is essential for soil improvement. Smyth
nonglutinous varieties, are planted in the Korat Basin. (cited by Donner 1978) wrote, “In the future a large
Glutinous rice is regarded as the staple food of most export of buffalo and oxen may be looked for, as the
northeastern people. During this phase, nearly two- plateau is eminently suited for rearing cattle, and it
thirds of the total rice area was devoted to glutinous has already a good reputation in this respect.”
rice, which accounted for more than 73% of the total Another adaptation to such a poor agricultural
production (Table 2). Traditionally, glutinous rice resource environment was hunting and gathering from
provided more yield than nonglutinous rice and this is the uplands. All of these practices constituted
one reason that farmers continue to grow this kind. strategies to cope with uncertainty and extreme
Besides, this crop required a shorter growing period conditions (Rambo 1991).
(Donner 1978).
1970 1996
Variable
Glutinous Nonglutinous Glutinous Nonglutinous
Sources: 1870 date drived from Donner (1978), p 802, 1998 data drawn from the Office of
Agricultural Economics (1997).
69
Table 3. Forest, rice, and main field crops in northeast Thailand (1969-97).
Farmers obtained goods that were not available forest exploitation. As Table 3 shows, the area
locally by bartering with merchants and travelers planted with cassava during the 1980s was nearly 1
(Dixon 1978), Goods obtained by barter could be million ha, compared with 10,000 ha in 1969. The
categorized by value, for example, cooking salt for Northeast Region produced almost 11 million t,
rice and cattle for hardwoods. Other local products of accounting for 51% of the country's production, and
high value for barter were silks and forest spices, almost entirely for export. The production of field
stick lac, and tobacco. Another strategy for coping crops was strongly supported by good transportation
with a limited-resource area is rural solidarity, as networks of railway and roads. During this phase, the
indicated by the common practice of labor exchange area planted with some other field crops such as
during the subsistence phase. This exchange reflects cotton, peanuts, and sorghum gradually declined,
mutual dependency among the rural communities. mainly because of unfavorable prices and pest
The dependency also extended to resource sharing problems, especially for cotton. On the other hand,
and various buffering systems in their livelihood maize and sugarcane production increased. It is very
(Rambo 1991). clear that kenaf was replaced by cassava during this
phase because of yield decline, price fluctuations,
Semisubsistence and relatively lower income than cassava. However,
During the early stage of infrastructure development, cassava was later partly replaced by sugarcane in
there was a gradual increase in access to knowledge some areas, mainly because of better income from
and information on modernization of livelihood sugarcane production (Ruaysoongnern and
systems (Brown 1988). Early changes from subsis- Limpinuntana 1996). Because of general forest area
tence to semisubsistence were driven by internal and shrinkage, hunting and gathering became less
external factors. The main internal factor was related important, although household demand for forest
to the need to adjust production systems, such as rice products remained. As availability of resources
and livestock, to achieve higher productivity for cash dwindled, bartering for locally unavailable resources
generation. The external factors were very much increased correspondingly (Pinthong 1991).
related to market demand at all levels. For example,
forest encroachment, referred to in some literature as The beginning of commercial farming
migration to the forest, started in the early 1970s to For almost two decades, there have been a lot of
produce cassava. This forest clearing was facilitated changes in agricultural production in tandem with the
by concessionary logging. This eventually led to development process in response to export demand
illegal invasion into the forest areas for both logging and changes in natural resource endowment (NESDB
and crop production (Pinthong 1991), the latter 1987, Wright 1991). Although changes in field crops
resulting in the emergence of village settlements in occurred, rice remained the predominant crop in
forest areas. lowland areas. The area under rice remained as high
The high demand for cassava far export could be as 5 million ha, with production above 7 million t. A
considered as an important factor causing a drastic recent change in rice planting can be found in the
increase in cassava production at the expense of higher proportion of nonglutinous rice in total rice
70
produced. The area under nonglutinous rice has collecting forest products for sale (Dixon 1978).
expanded, whereas that under glutinous rice has Recently, some localized expansion of homegrown
remained much the same. This caused the share of herbal medicine took place at a small commercial
rice area under glutinous varieties to drop to 48% in scale. This activity could indirectly reduce natural
1996. This was a response to market demand since resource degradation and land-use pressure in natural
nonglutinous rice has a wider international market. A forests (Theerasasawat and Srisontisuk 1986).
comparison of glutinous rice production with the Bartering for locally unavailable resources was still
growing population in the region indicates reduced practiced using rice as the main commodity for
per capita glutinous rice available for the northeastern exchange. Most farmers still believe that bartering is
population. one way to support others who do not have enough
The area planted to kenaf dropped to only about rice for household consumption. Therefore, bartering
70,000 ha, whereas cassava remained high at 759,162 with rice at a small scale continues to occur despite
ha. The slight decline in cassava planted area was the full development of rice marketing and commer-
replaced by sugarcane in response to the increase in cial farming in the area.
sugar factories. It is important to note that cassava Dairy farming is one enterprise that has been
production remained as high as 10.5 million t despite promoted by the government under the farm-restruc-
a decline in area. The use of chemical fertilizer and turing program of 1993. As a result, more than 30,000
improved varieties of cassava helped maintain dairy cows (10% of the total cows in the country) are
cassava production. Other crops also gained impor- raised in the Basin, compared with none during the
tance for cash earnings, such as shallot, garlic, and subsistence phase. Dairy farming needs intensive care
other vegetables. Livestock production changed from and technical training and requires that farmers
small herding of each farm to a more confined pasture operate through a cooperative system for economies
ranch. The drop in the number of buffaloes occurred of scale (Suphanchaimat 1997). The enterprise brings
mainly because farmers increasingly adopted two- opportunities for farmers to manage pasture and
wheel tractors for land preparation. animal health and experiment on feed substitutes and
Although livestock numbers in the region general farm sanitation.
increased over time, the rate of increase varied by Another fascinating change was the rapid
type of livestock. During this phase, the number of increase in farm ponds in the Basin following the
buffaloes declined by 25% compared to the previous government farm-restructuring program. During
phase despite an increasing number of farm house- 1994-96, more than 65,000 farm ponds were con-
holds (Table 4). This is due to the more widespread structed in the region (OAE 1997). Water from farm
adoption of the power tiller. Many farmers therefore ponds is used not only to supplement rainy-season
found it hard to keep small herds of buffaloes. rice production but also to help improve the local
However, some households could keep buffaloes and food supply and increase the prevalence of mixed
tended to build up larger herds. It is important to note farming. Vegetable growing, fruit tree production,
that cattle, pig, and poultry numbers had been some inland fisheries, and native chicken rearing are
increasing, especially chickens and ducks, because of the usual combined enterprises around the ponds.
contract farming to produce broilers. These small-scale production units help provide
A drastic decrease in forest area in the northeast household food and small cash income in addition to
has negative effects on the supply of forest products supporting mutual cooperation among farmers.
while demand expands. However, many villages have This phase also saw substantial movement of
limited access to other resources but still have some labor between agriculture and other sectors. Migra-
access to natural forests, and are mainly engaged in tion in the past was mainly confined to middle-aged
men. Nowadays, both male and female young workers
are attracted away from farming because of better
Table 4. Livestock In Northeast Thailand, unit: head. income opportunities in the industrial and service
Type of animal 1969 1985 1995 sectors (Ritcher et al 1997, Prapertchob et al 1993).
Many migrants went as couples, leaving their children
Water buffalo 655,921 4,428,732 3,213,215 with the grandparents, and only a small percentage of
Cattle 527,571 1,726,261 2,686,326
Pigs 563,792 1,093,387 1,291,623
migrants came back to help with rice cultivation. A
Poultry 21,694,760 28,981,074 39,689,143 study by Bon (1998) showed that labor migration was
prevalent even within irrigated areas because of low
Source: 1969 data were based on the National Statistics Office as
cited in Donner (1978), p 145-153. cropping intensity, About one-third of the households
71
had at least one member who had migrated. Not all transportation did not have a direct effect on resource
migrants send money home, but, for those who do, use. However, because of these changes, farmers
the remittances average US$500 per year. Although needed to generate more cash from existing resources
this amount is not high, it does provide the family to meet a growing demand for modern consumer
with cash for daily expenses. Circular migration goods. Modes of private transportation changed from
seems to be one strategy to reduce risk and to bicycles to motorcycles and then to agricultural
maintain farming under unfavorable conditions, trucks. Local transportation later improved as pickup
Labor migration drives up agricultural wages and trucks and larger ones became used when off-farm
makes it difficult for farmers to exchange labor. activity increased during the past 10 years. This
Therefore, wage employment in farming gradually period is associated with industrial development in
replaces the traditional practice of labor exchange in Thailand (Wright 1991). The access of rural dwellers
the Basin. to transportation is now comparable with that of city
dwellers. Both private and public transportation
facilities exist; therefore, land use in the region is not
Factors affecting changes limited by the physical context but rather by social
and development and cultural contexts.
After the mid-1990s, the government was able to
Since the beginning of the Korat Basin development, extend better telecommunication systems to rural
various government programs and external driving areas. The availability of telecommunication facilities
forces have interacted and led to the changes in land in rural areas, including mobile phones, is an impor-
use described above. These main factors follow. tant development that could have leverage on market
conditions in the northeast. Nowadays, crop prices,
Transportation and communication purchase orders, and production can be monitored
An early development was the railroad system, through telecommunication systems. With well-
constructed in the early 1900s, which helped facilitate developed transportation and communication
transportation and communication to the northeast. systems, the land-use pattern in the northeast can
This development created localized development probably respond promptly to global market needs.
around the stations along railway lines. Early extrac-
tions from forest resources were timber for railway The Common Agricultural Policy of the
sleepers and firewood for engine boilers (Lovelace European Union
and Panya 1988). Timber was extracted under Because of the linkage between international market
concession to logging companies. Tracks to gain demand and food and fiber production of the people
access to forest areas were constructed to transport in the Korat Basin, any changes in policies of trading
forest products to the railways. Farmers used this partners have repercussions on rural producers. Up
improved access to expand their hunting and gather- until now, northeastern farmers have been highly
ing using ox-drawn carts. dependent on trading primary agricultural goods with
A later development was a big expansion of main the outside world. Therefore, it is important to review
roads and feeder roads in the region for both security the policies in agricultural trade of the EU, the largest
and economic purposes (NESDB 1987). This importer of Thai cassava.
catalyzed the expansion of the export marketing Prior to the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP),
system for rice and kenaf. With improved public road the EU produced and used three important grains:
transportation, local people could also travel farther wheat, barley, and maize. It was estimated that each
for hunting and gathering. This prompted a gradual year the EU would need around 230 million t of
migration of the population to suitable locations and grain, or about 80% of domestic production. Because
the emergence of new settlements. The preferred sites of a grain supply shortage, the CAP began to subsi-
for new settlements were areas with both suitable dize farmers in the EU in 1962 through internal grain
lowlands for rice production and some type of “rich” price supports. As a result, wheat and barley prices
environment (Rambo 1991). The increased mobility became higher relative to those of other feed substi-
of farmers was also caused by improved security and tutes (EC 1996). After the CAP, livestock-producing
preventive medicine. This expansion had a large countries of the EU had to import maize and soybean
effect on resource use and market integration. Forest cake as protein substitutes and cassava and molasses
area dwindled dramatically after road expansion as carbohydrate substitutes, The import of Thai
(Pinthong 1991). On the other hand, later develop- cassava in the form of pellets gradually increased
ment of village roads to facilitate communication and over time. For example, in 1988, the export volume
72
of cassava pellets to the EU reached 9 million t, adjoining slope. This water drains into a canal. The
which was equivalent to 20 million t of fresh roots, irrigated area varies according to the amount of water
before it dropped to 4 million t in 1997. In response stored. To benefit from this system, farmers have to
to this high demand for cassava, northeastern farmers become members of the water user group and manage
expanded cassava planting from 10,000 ha in 1969 to the system themselves. This irrigation technique
almost one million ha by the mid-1980s, before became widespread throughout the Basin and covered
production started to decline in the mid-1990s. After more than 100,000 ha in the early 1970s. A more
the grain price subsidization, the EU countries were recent irrigation technique is the use of electric pumps
able to produce 120% of their domestic grain to lift water from the rivers. All these irrigation
demand. This progress brought new problems. First, systems together provided water for dry-season
there was an overburden on the EU budget to support cropping of more than 1 million ha by 1996 (Table l),
the aid schemes. Second, there was a gap between the enabling farmers to grow two rice crops or a greater
kind of products available and what consumers diversity of vegetable crops, raise fish, or combina-
wanted. Over time, the steady increase in the grain tions of these activities. Although most of the
stock forced the EU to export its surplus at a low irrigation facilities in Thailand are provided by the
price, which triggered a global trade war (EC 1996). central government, water charge systems have never
Finally, in 1992, the EU, or European Community at been seriously discussed. The experience of water
the time, decided to reform the CAP to adjust payment can only be drawn from the pump irrigation
agricultural supply by promoting the rational use of system, whereby farmers pay for the cost of electric-
land for environmental protection. The reform ity.
included cutting back the cereal price guarantee by
29%, a 15% reduction in planted area, and a reduc- Industrial boom during the mid-1980s
tion in export grain subsidies by 30% over 6 years. to 1990s
The new CAP was fully implemented in the mid- After the Northeast Region was opened to the world
1990s to bring down the grain supply to be in line market, Thailand became a major food and fiber
with demand. Following this reform, the export exporter through area expansion. The gross domestic
volume of Thai cassava gradually declined from 8 to product contributed by agriculture was more than
4.5 million tin recent years. Agricultural statistics 32% in the 1960s, but it dropped to 14% by the mid-
showed that area planted to cassava in the Basin 1990s (Nipon 1996). This raised the question as to
diminished correspondingly from the mid- 1990s whether the agricultural sector could maintain its
onward. By then, farmers were already acquainted importance in the national economy. The decline in
with planting this crop. Hence, when the cassave agriculture's share in the GDP was due to two main
price increased because of devaluation of the baht, a reasons. First, the land had reached its frontier and
sudden increase in cassava area took place although the sharp fall in agricultural prices during the 1980s
cassava was highly susceptible to marketing risk. was a disincentive for farmers to remain in farming.
Second was the rapid industrial development in
Irrigation improvement Thailand following the worldwide economic recovery
The Northeast Region is known to suffer from either in the mid-1980s. Japan began to liberalize its
flood or drought because of unpredictable and financial sector, enabling Japanese capital to pour
uncontrolled surface water. Realizing this problem, into Asia in search of higher returns (Muall 1999). In
the government developed water control systems as addition was a need for the existing industrial
early as the 1950s (Donner 1978). The early develop- countries to reduce production costs by relocating
ment was in the construction of hydroelectric dams to labor-intensive industries to countries with cheap
generate electricity and supply water for agriculture. labor such as Thailand. This coincided with the
By 1970, 11 large irrigation projects covering nearly government emphasis on an industrial export program
300,000 ha had been completed or were under by providing tax exemptions for imported inputs and
construction. However, the topography of the tax refunds for domestic inputs (Teerana 1990).
Northeast Region restricts large dam construction to Consequently, massive flows of direct foreign
the limited hilly or mountainous areas. Therefore, investment into Thailand occurred in the industrial,
diversion weirs were developed on the plains. Tank trading, and real estate sectors. The industrial boom
irrigation is another popular strategy as it requires a also led to high labor migration from the farming to
shorter time for construction and lower capital nonfarm sector. Because of the negative expectation
investment. This system consists of a simple earth of agricultural potential, the farm-restructuring
dam that blocks and collects rainwater from the program was launched during 1994-96. This program
73
aimed to restrain farmers from growing cassava and During the 1980s, average farmers could increase the
dry-season rice and from planting rice in unsuitable value of their small herds by raising improved breeds.
areas. Alternatives proposed by the program were The popular improved breed at the time was known
dairy farming, mixed farming, vegetable growing, as Hindu Brazil, which was double the size of the
orchards, and woodlot plantations. In the northeast, local breeds. Because of the relatively high invest-
the project had some success in mixed farming and ment required for the fancy breed, farmers had to give
dairy farming. By the end of the project, more than much attention to animal care. Unfortunately, most
65,000 farm ponds, or 60% of the total, had been farmers lost large amounts of investment in this
constructed (OAE 1997). enterprise when the cattle price dropped suddenly in
the late 1980s, probably because of an oversupply
Increasing demand for modern consumer (Ruaysoongnern 1993).
goods With improved road infrastructure over the past
One main social factor affecting land-use changes is 15 years, there has been widespread adoption of the
the modernization of the village lifestyle. Some small agricultural truck “E-TAN” for multiple purposes: for
changes were reported in the older days, such as pumping and for transporting people and goods. Such
improvements in small, simple agricultural tools an innovative adaptation can be considered as
usually made locally, such as hoes, axes, and knives “mechanization development” of the rural farming
(Natsupa 1985, Theerasasawat 1988). The advent of system. This creates an opportunity for farmers to
better implements, such as the saw and the iron plow, adjust to more advanced machines such as the big
did change some agricultural practices, but not clearly tractor, threshing machines, and even harvesting
for land-use patterns. An early demand for cash was machines (Theerasasawat 1988). Expensive farm
probably related to the introduction of the corrugated equipment is generally deployed in contracting
iron roof about 40 years ago to replace thatched systems.
grass. This demand was met mainly from forest During the past 20 years, rural electrification has
extraction or seasonal migration (Chamraspanth et al also expanded rapidly into every village. This, and a
1992). One important farm tool is the manual pump change in attitude resulting from off-farm migration,
or motor-drawn pump. This tool was a local innova- resulted in domestic modernization, including the use
tion to improve the efficiency of rice and dry-season of electrical appliances such as rice cookers, the
crop production. However, some farmers pointed out refrigerator, and radio and television and also the use
that the depletion of fish stocks in natural water of cooking gas. This modernization has the effect of
resources was caused by the use of the water pump. improving the living conditions of rural households
Another small agricultural tool adopted later was the rather than improving production activities. To some
manual sprayer, which had less effect on land-use extent, cooking gas and the electric rice cooker
changes (Ruaysoongnern 1998). reduced the demand for firewood for cooking
Over the past two decades, farmers have used (Lovelace and Panya 1988). In addition, health care
chemical fertilizers widely for both lowland and improvements, especially the extensive eradication of
upland crop production (Takai 1985, Theerasasawat malaria, allowed farmers to use resources with fewer
1988) mainly because of upland soil degradation from limitations. As such, resource use for cash and the
prolonged planting and the adoption of high-yielding degree of resource exploitation consequently ex-
rice varieties. At the same time, the use of tractors panded (Pinthong 1991).
expanded, enabling farmers to do early planting and
to farm on less suitable land. Early adoption of two-
wheel tractors caused a decline in buffalo numbers. Implications of changing land-use
This led to a modification of land and labor use and patterns for economic development
cultivation practices and affected nutrient trow in
agroecosystems of the Basin. Some farmers even In the past, farmers who opened up into the forest
integrated the use of the two-wheel tractor with the areas for agriculture adopted low-input production
portable pump, or attached a trailer to the tractor to systems carried over from their ancestors, without any
transport materials. As a result, farmers had more free attempt at soil improvement for a prolonged time.
time for off-farm activities such as working as hired This attitude prevailed for as long as there were new
labor on neighboring farms. Land not used anymore lands to be cleared. This kind of practice is consid-
for animal grazing was used for crop cultivation ered as low-input and destructive to forest ecology
instead. However, some richer farmers with ample (Theerasasawat 1988). However, if we consider the
land and capital were able to increase their livestock. self-reliance farming systems without much trading
74
and limited access to modern farm tools as in the old had practically disappeared. The combination of all
days, we could imagine that farmers would only be these factors led many farmers to sell their land.
able to clear as much land as their labor resources Although there are no specific data to support this
could manage. Without modern, labor-saving machin- supposition, empirical field observations suggest that
ery such as large tractors for land clearing, rapid a higher proportion of land has now come under
deforestation by local farmers would not be possible. absentee landlordship, and there seems to be an
The development of transportation infrastructure was increase in farm tenancy. It would be expected that,
an important factor in the expansion of land clearing. under such uncertain circumstances of tenancy, there
In addition, low product prices constrained farmers would be less concern over longer-term soil improve-
from using soil improvement materials. Therefore, ment. In this respect, the economic crisis in the past
despite declining soil fertility and land degradation, two years provides an opportunity for the system to
farmers still used relatively low or nil application of adjust itself and helps slow down land speculation
soil amendments. If this trend continues, severe soil before more farmers in the Basin become landless
and land degradation will continue to occur. workers.
During the past 15 years, industrial development It is important to note that the prevailing attitude
has had a large influence on every economic sector in is that education is a ladder for social mobility and
Thailand. It has diverted production resources to economic improvement. To provide for their
support such a shift. The agroindustrial sector creates children's education, farmers strive to generate more
a demand for agricultural products to support income. This can have both positive and negative
upstream industries. Various marketing systems have effects on the land-use pattern and deployment of
been developed for these purposes, including contract resources (Fukui 1993). On the one hand, farmers
farming, in addition to the existing open market. would want to pay more attention to increasing
Promotion has largely changed the types of crops production, but, on the other hand, expenditures on
grown from conventional to exotic crops (Fukui education constitute a drain on their resources. This
1993). These changes have had both negative effects could be considered as a temporary situation in the
such as pollution by agricultural chemicals and transition for social change. As the existing education
positive effects such as improving the nutrient status system mainly focuses on continuing studies, students
of the nearly depleted soils by increased fertilizer who drop out may not be motivated to do agricultural
application. There needs to be more systematic labor. In such cases, there could be double losses for
evaluation of these effects through long-term studies. the family, which would later face higher pressure on
As a consequence of industrial development, the deployment of existing resources.
there has been a greater demand for labor for the Finally, the upcoming free trade agreement, if
various industries, at the expense of draining the ratified, would bring tremendous changes to the
agricultural labor force. Many industries such as northeast. With the lifting of market distortions and
construction, textiles, and canning require unskilled trade barriers, one would expect more intensive rice
labor and target farm workers. If circular migration cultivation and reduced area planted to cassava, but
has been practiced, we could anticipate the creation increased planting of sugarcane and an increase in
of a temporary labor force and farm productivity livestock raising and mixed farming. All these
could be sustained. But rural workers leave their enterprises will operate under greater market integra-
farms for long-term employment without skill tion.
improvement, while not having the opportunity to
gather traditional knowledge on farming, especially
on proper land management, thus jeopardizing their Conclusions
future welfare. This is evidenced by the massive
layoff of workers from the rural areas from many From this discussion, it can be concluded that land-
industries during the recent economic crisis of the late use patterns in the Korat Basin were well integrated
1990s. Many retrenched workers were not able to go within the sociocultural and economic context of the
back to farming effectively because of a lack of existing physical and biological conditions and were
experience. In addition, the high income disparity responsive to macroeconomic shifts. Early land-use
between farm and off-farm employment during the changes were minimal, except for the opening up of
industrial boom is a disincentive for farmers to forest areas following the development of transporta-
improve their agricultural enterprise. Besides, labor tion systems. Major infrastructure improvement in the
for some farms became quite scarce and traditional Basin was accomplished during the 1960s and '70s.
labor exchange mechanisms within the community Most land was cleared for cassava cultivation in
75
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Ruaysoongnern S. 1993. Evolution and limitation of T, Virmani SM. 1985. Rainfall analysis for the
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1996. Petchburi, Thailand. p 117-138.
Authors’ address: Department of Land Resource and
Ruaysoongnern S. 1998. Sustainability of land rotation Environment, and Department of Agricultural
system in forest areas: case studies: Kaeng Krok
Economics, respectively, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon
village, Dansai district and Kok Nong Haew village,
Kaen University.
Phuluang district, Loei province. Paper presented at
the inter-country seminar on extension activity for
promotion of sustainable forest management, 10-11
Sep. 1998, Nakonrachasima, Thailand.
77
The Korat Basin has about 15.5 million people and people’s ways of life through modernization and
living in 3,130,422 households within 22,952 technological transfer. The development approach
villages, with the share of the female population being used during this period could be characterized as a
slightly larger than that of the male. Eight out of centralized and top-down approach with an aim to
twelve provinces located in the Korat Basin have transform traditional communities into modern
more than one million inhabitants. Nakhon communities according to the objectives of the
Ratchasima has the largest population in the basin, national socioeconomic development plan. Room for
whereas Amnatcharoen Province has the smallest. people’s participation in development was very
The population in the provinces located in the Chi limited because of the undemocratic power structure
River watershed is smaller than that of the provinces of the society. State policy seemed to be the center of
located in the Mun River watershed area (Tables 1 national development. The second part of the
and 2). development process (1981 to present) has changed
the focus and strategies of development toward a
Table 1. Population of the provinces in the Korat Basin people-centered type of development. Popular
by sex in 1998.
participation and bottom-up approaches have become
Province Population Male Female major characteristics of the development strategy
during this period as the power structure changed
Chaiyaphum 1,124,447 561,837 562,010
Nakhon Ratchasima 2,534,287 1,259,424 1,274,803
toward a more democratic political system. Local
Buriram 1,513,889 756,573 757,316 people became the development actors rather than the
Surin 1,382,274 690,744 691,530 target of development, Community culture and quality
Mahasarakham 936,490 406,374 470,116
Kalasin 982,951 491,314 491,037
sf life are the main focus of development activities,
Yasothon 553,794 278,109 275,685 including among the northeastern rural communities
Rol Et 1,321,035 611,211 659,824 and those in the Karat Basin. This means that
Sisaket 1,440,845 720,406 720,541
Amnatcharoen 304,321 183,096 181,225
development activities have to be implemented
Ubon Ratchathani 1,754,910 880,329 874,581 consistently with the community culture. Academic
Khon Kaen 1,730,532 869,006 869,526 institutions and nongovernmental organizations have
TotaI 15,647,775 7,768,423 7,829,454
emphasized four major elements of community
Source: Central Registry Office, Ministry of Interior. culture: village history, local wisdom, community
leadership, and community organizations and
Table 2. Number of districts, subdistricts, villages, and networks. The application of the community culture
households in the provinces of the Korat Basin in 1998.
approach in development reflects the idea of develop-
Province Districts Subdistricts Villages Households ment agencies that local communities are not “empty”
and “backward” but that they are full of knowledge
Chaiyaphum 16 124 1,376 225,294
3,375 572,162
and cohesiveness, which enhance their capability to
Nakhon Ratchasima 32 289
Buriram 23 188 2,392 293,292 determine the goal of local development and the ways
Surin 17 158 2,001 271,467 to achieve it. This development approach has
Mahasarakham 13 133 1,826 180,670
18 134 1,474 198,100
contributed significantly to the empowerment of local
Kalasin
Yasothon 9 78 830 100,566 people.
Roi Et 20 193 2,280 222,540
Sisaket 22 204 2,324 267,167
7 56 573 65,694
Village history
Amnatcharoen
Ubon Ratchathani 25 219 2,422 344,756 Each rural community has its own history and
Khon Kaen 25 198 2,079 388,714 characteristics that development workers have to
Total 227 1,974 22,952 3,130,422
realize and understand. Village history provides a
Source: Ministry of interior. multidimensional analysis of changes that took place
from the village settlement period up to the present.
The analysis may cover changes in the management
Community culture as a development of natural resources, sociocultural aspects, and
approach for strengthening the economic and political transformations of a village.
capability of local people This information helps villagers and development
workers to recognize the potential of local people to
The process of development in Thailand under the solve problems and adjust themselves to changing
national socioeconomic development plan can be environmental conditions. Therefore, lessons can be
divided into two periods. The first period (1961 to drawn from village history so that an appropriate
1980) emphasized the improvement of infrastructure development plan can be formulated.
80
over production activities but none over the other two Some community organizations and networks
components. To strengthen their production capacity aim to improve socioeconomic conditions by organiz-
and bargaining power, a community bank has to be ing activities related to agricultural production
established to mobilize funds from the community systems. Examples may include networks of the rice-
and provide loans to villagers. As far as the marketing growing farmer group in Yasothon Province, the
system is concerned, community markets, such as the cattle-raising group in Nakhon Ratchasima Province,
cattle, cassava, and kenaf markets, needed to be set the Ponsai rice-growing farmer group in Roi Et
up. These could bring in traders to the community so Province, and the integrated farming group in
that villagers could save the cost of transportation for Buriram Province.
sending their products to town, and they would have To see how farmer groups work, a brief discus-
more bargaining power in determining prices for their sion on the ideas and work of the Ponsai District
products. farmer group network is presented. This farmer group
What has been learned fram these two cases of network was formed in 1989 by four farmer groups in
Community leaders, Abbot Nan and Mr. Son, is that Ponsai District, Roi Et Province, Having 1,532
community leaders contribute a lot to the well-being member households of farmers growing aromatic
of villagers by employing self-help, self-reliance, and jasmine rice, the network produces 3,700 tons of
“thinking and doing together” principles. paddy per year in the Tung Kula Rang Hai area,
Having worked successfully in coping with problems
Community organizatlons and networks related to fertilizer prices and supplies, the network
Community organizations may be established by shifted its focus to the marketing system for rice
government agencies, NGOs, or villagers to perform production. Since the rice price and market are
certain functions related to defined objectives. beyond their control, farmers are usually disadvan-
Community leaders play significant roles in operating taged. Some years they don’t gain any benefit from
community organizations by mobilizing human and rice farming because of the low purchasing price in
natural resources and by coordinating with the other the rice market. Debts have been accumulated since
organizations concerned to realize the community they don’t have enough cash to pay back their loans.
organization’s goals. A network of community The leaders of the farmer group network had a
organizations that share common interests may be meeting and analyzed the situation. With the assis-
formulated so that they can exchange ideas and tance provided by GRID (Grass-Roots Integrated
information, share resources in doing development Development), an NGO, and RDI (Research and
work, and learn development experiences from one Development Institute, Khon Kaen University), a
another. Community organizations and networks solution was proposed. A community rice mill should
found in the Korat Basin may be engaged in activities be set up so that the network could buy paddy from
related to natural resource management, agricultural the members, process it, and sell white rice directly to
production, human rights, and participation in policy consumers. This would generate benefits to both
formulation and political decision-making, such as the farmers and rice consumers. Farmers would sell their
community forestry network, farmer group network, products at a higher price than the market price. At
and women’s group network. Since the majority of the same time, consumers could purchase rice at a
the people are engaged in agriculture, community lower price. This is because the role of the middlemen
organizations and networks of farmer groups will be in the marketing system, who usually took a large
discussed here. portion of their benefits out of the rice trade, would
To improve the agricultural production system, have been cut off. Benefits gained from rice mill
farmers are encouraged to work in groups. This operations would be partly returned to members
facilitates the extension services provided to farmers based on the number of shares they hold, and be used
by development agencies. Members of a farmer group to cover the cost of rice-milling operations. The rice
can guarantee one another when applying for a loan mill started operations six years ago and the network
from the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural still maintains its position in the competition on the
Cooperatives (BAAC). In addition, by working as a rice market, in both Bangkok and other major cities.
group, farmers increase their bargaining power when
dealing with development agencies and private
enterprises, More importantly, farmers benefit each The concept of community forest
other through group activities, such as revolving
funds, brainstorming, farmer-to-farmer learning The community forest is a concept showing the
processes, etc. relationship between the community and the forest in
82
the sense that community people must rely on forest responsible for that property. An individual usually
resources for their food, medicinal herbs, and wood takes full advantage of common property only to
for energy and building their houses. When the forest satisfy his or her needs. This has an impact on other
is destroyed, people’s needs are reduced, thus people’s benefits (Uphoff 1986). It is therefore
affecting their way of life. Each community has necessary for the community owning the common
developed a set of mechanisms to manage forestry property to establish certain social sanctions in
use. For instance, some communities may set up a response to individual behaviors and to prohibit
committee or a conservation group to monitor overuse of that property to the extent that the others
forestry use, whereas other communities may have a might lose their advantages. These sanctions can be a
belief system as a guideline for forest resource system of beliefs, local conventions, and regulations
management. This is because all communities have such as those mentioned earlier. However, the local
their own economic, political, sacial, and cultural management of community forest consists of three
structures that play an important part in stipulating the elements: people’s participation, the community’s
relationships with and the use of the forest: for social organization, and the creation of motivation,
example, the belief in ancestral spirits makes people Theoretically, popular participation is the
use the forest appropriately. Thus, the concept of process in which people initiate activities. All people
community forest discloses the roles of community have a right to express opinions and participate in
people in the management of forest use to meet their different activities so as to stipulate the way they
needs. This agrees with the definition given by choose to live their own lives. The state supports
Komon Praekthong (1990), which says that commu- them as necessary, without monitoring their activi-
nity forestry is the management of the forest, which ties. Popular participation in the management of
forms its objective from the fact that people need to community forest may begin from a brainstorming
rely on the forest and allows the beneficiaries to set session to detect the problems or needs of the
up a plan and monitor its implementation to bring community as regards the forest, and is then followed
about continuous and regular benefits to the commu- by planning implementation of activities and finally
nity. FAO defines the community forest as follows: the maintenance and use of the forest. Participation at
the management of community forest will include all different stages, however, requires community
forestry management activities involving local ordering and motivation.
people. These activities are the rehabilitation or The social organization of the community for the
development of forest conditions in areas where wood management of the community forest may be
and other forest products are in short supply, or the composed of different working units, from house-
planting of perennials in crop fields. Community holds, groups, and institutions and from the commu-
forest could also mean the transformation of products nity itself, all of which depend on the community’s
from the forest, as operated at a household level or as collective action. This collective action is viable only
a small-scale community industry. Private organiza- through systematic community organization. Com-
tions dealing with social development and environ- munity organization is a process by which the
mental conservation explain community forest as the community stipulates the people’s needs and objec-
conservation and development of forest resource use tives. Both external and internal resources are
by the community, for the utmost economic benefits compiled so as to achieve the objectives and meet the
of the community, and to sustain the local ecological needs of the community. It is expected that this
system, which will be the foundation for various process will help develop the attitudes and collective
economic benefits for the community in the long run. action of the community members (Mack and Pease
The concept of community forestry is based on 1973), that is to say, people with a common interest
the concept of decentralization of authority to a usually work toward the benefits of the group as a
people’s organization having power to manage its whole because each person is well aware that, when
own community forest. This sort of organization is he or she can make the group achieve common
run by local people for their own general benefits. In benefits, his or her needs will also be satisfied. The
addition, the concept reflects the acceptance of the working units believe in customary laws, the laws
community potential for managing the community formally established by the group or community
forest in common property. Although private indi- organization, and the laws enacted by the state as the
viduals can make decisions on the use of their own means to manage community forest and to assemble
property, any decision on common property needs to people in the community to participate in the
be approved by the different groups of people management of the community forest.
83
As mentioned earlier, to assemble people to looking at people’s rituals, led by “jam.” Acceptance
participate in social forestry management, some sort of supernatural power, in this case the ancestral
of motivation must be created to encourage the ghosts, affects the suitable stipulation of relationships
community members to participate in various between the villagers and nature. Although they use
activities. Each person must be motivated to become the ancestral forest in several ways, the forest itself
enthusiastic and work toward the common objectives. has become the villagers’ symbol of worship of their
Motivation can be extrinsic, arising from external ancestors. The ancestors have been psychological
incentives that move a person to act toward the goals. supporters of the villagers in their search for solutions
These incentives may be something valuable in terms to problems. When they are in trouble, the villagers
of economics, for example, money, food, and clothes, make a request to their ancestral ghosts, accompanied
or noneconomic incentives such as a certificate of by a vow promising an offering of thanks if that
merit, uniforms, or praise given in a meeting or request is granted. Apart from receiving benefits from
training. The second type of motivation is intrinsic, the forest as their mental supporter, the villagers rely
which arises within oneself and urges one to act with on the forest for their food, fuelwood, wood for
faith and love. Intrinsic motivation is more stable and construction, and environmental conservation. Their
permanent than extrinsic motivation. beliefs make them use the forest reasonably, with
The three elements are very interdependent in the consideration and respect for their ancestors whose
management of community forests that calls for souls they believe are still in the forest. This has been
people’s participation and aims for the common traditionally practiced for a long time. Any villager
benefit of the community. Broadly viewed, commu- seeking fuelwood or mushrooms for cooking, or trees
nity forest management of each community has an for public use, always makes a plea to the ancestral
impact on the natural environment of the society and spirits. This can be witnessed in the dry and tiny
the world as a whole. branches of trees taken out from the forest for
cooking. The villagers believe that violation of
traditional practices will result in different kinds of
The management of community forest in punishment. It can then be said that this type of belief
rural areas motivates the villagers in general to help maintain the
ancestors’ forest and use it appropriately.
Traditional management of community forest Because society has changed because of the
through a system of beliefs increase in population, unfortunately, more and more
Traditional means of community forest management contacts are made between the villagers and the
depended on a system of beliefs that could have been outside world while urban society expands. The belief
supernatural or based on religious practices. This in ancestral ghosts has become less important.
influenced people’s behavior in their relationship with External institutions are taking more of a role in
nature. Various types of beliefs enabled people to managing the ancestors’ forest, especially forests
appropriately use natural resources. However, when close to towns. This affects the forest one way or
times and social conditions changed, natural re- another, even though the community still tries to
sources were reduced, whereas people’s need for maintain the pattern of its beliefs. More trees are cut
them increased. Now, people have found that beliefs and more are used from the forest for one’s own
alone are no longer sufficient for them to use natural advantage. This makes the influence of the belief in
resources appropriately. Society must invent different the ghosts less important in the management of
regulations to supplement these beliefs in managing community forest.
community forest. In this section, the influence of In terms of forest temples, the belief in Buddhism
beliefs in ghosts and the principles of practices in of forest dwellers results in proper forest maintenance
Buddhism on community forest management is by monks, so as to retain a peaceful and shady place
presented. around the temple for their perseverance with
The management of ancestors’ forest, in which precepts and meditation, which are successful thanks
both the land and trees belong to and are for the to the peace and quiet of the forest. Monks of this
community’s benefit, has been done by community doctrine often travel into forest land to find such a
people through their beliefs in ancestral and super- place. It can then be seen that these beliefs and
natural spirits. These beliefs enabled people to order Buddhism’s principles are in accordance with the
the relationships among themselves and between them nature of the forest, where dharma (“give merit”) can
and nature. The beliefs and the relationships between be well practiced. The practices of monks never
people and the supernatural could be perceived by destroy the forest. On the contrary, they have a good
84
effect on forest conservation. Therefore, monks forest by the power of the community is presented
derive benefits from their forest conservation, both here, with discussions of the management of forest for
spiritually and through other things, such as the use of conservation and for development purposes. To
wood for construction and the use of the forest for illustrate the presentation, examples taken from field
herb gathering. Villagers are welcomed by these case studies are given.
monks to use forest resources. The management of Management of community forest for conserva-
forest by a forest temple can be classified into two tion purposes. The management of the community
aspects: the conservation of the former forest where forest for this purpose arose from the villagers’
the temple is situated and the planting of more trees observation and perception of the deterioration and
around the temple. The monks usually lead the reduction of the forest, to the point at which they
villagers in planting and looking after the trees, They believed that their community should carry out
use their faith in Buddhism and their belief in the conservation practices to maintain the remaining
usefulness of trees to motivate the villagers to forest for the community in the future.
contribute to the work. For themselves, the monks One good example of forest conservation is
have as their motivation their belief and faith in the located at Dong Jung Harn Forest, in Ban Non
principles and practices of Buddhism to manage the Muang, Dong Ling Subdistrict, Kamalasai District,
forest. Thus, the practices of these forest-dwelling Kalasin Province. A field study reveals that the
monks have an effect on forest conservation and are conserved forest area of Dong Jung Harn now covers
examples of mutual interdependence between people about 48 ha, serving the villagers from three villages.
and nature. In the past, many trees were cut down for wood for
Although environmental resources are decreas- construction of houses and temples. More impor-
ing, the demand of communities for them is increas- tantly, a group of villagers invaded the forest to slash
ing. Forest temples now receive pressure from such and burn the land for a sugarcane plantation. In
demand of communities in the vicinity. It seems addition, the villagers whose crop fields were
obvious that the villagers will eventually acquire the adjacent to the forest often expanded their fields into
resources of the temples. Thus, forest temples adjust the forest. However, when this problem was realized,
their strategy in managing forest resources by the villagers all agreed to conserve Dong Jung Harn
allowing villagers to use the forest, but without for younger generations to see the conditions of the
destroying the resources. This strategy requires the forest in the past. In their conservation implementa-
temples to call for participation from the villagers. tion, the villagers stipulated a set of regulations to be
The villagers are asked to plant and maintain the trees followed by all villagers; for example, no one can
so that they can use the forest. Establishment of invade the conserved area to use land and no one is
regulations, understanding, and conventions between allowed to cut trees, collect resins, or burn the forest.
the temple and the villagers cannot be avoided if Villagers from the three villages are asked to guard
proper forest use is to be aimed at. Villagers’ partici- against violations, a case of which must be reported to
pation and proper understanding save some temples the village committee, which will consider the
from having to build a fence around them to prevent punishment. If the case is not serious, the offender
tree cutting. The villagers themselves are like a forest- will be warned. When the case is serious, for ex-
protecting fence, which costs nothing and is more ample, cutting wood for sale or for personal use, the
permanent than fencing materials. This “fence” stands committee will call the villagers to a meeting to ask
on a foundation of understanding, faith, and coordina- for a public resolution concerning punishment. Public
tion of benefits from forest management. resolutions must be strictly followed; otherwise, the
committee will transfer the case to the district.
The management of community forest However, the committee usually asks for opinions
through social power from a group of elders before a resolution is made.
Another type of community forest management is This measure prevents the villagers from violating the
management that relies on the power of villagers as set regulations. Speaking with the villagers discloses
the major mechanism in the planning, implementa- the fact that the villagers are afraid of being judged at
tion, and maintenance of the forest. The goals of this a meeting of so many people. Besides being ashamed,
management are conservative and developmental, the offender is also psychologically punished by
However, notwithstanding whether it is for any being disliked by friends and other people,
specific purpose, much community forest, which Nevertheless, the community does not aim to
should not be overlooked by authorities, should be maintain the forest to the point at which it cannot be
strongly supported, The management of community entered. On the contrary, the community allows the
85
villagers to use the forest of Dong Jung Harn within fund. Loans may be taken out of this fund by villagers
the set regulations. Villagers can collect mushrooms in need of investment money at a low interest rate, or
and find fuelwood, herbs, and forest items for their money may be used to purchase fertilizers, which are
consumption. They can also let their cattle graze on in turn sold to the villagers at a low cost. Sometimes
the forest land if they wish. In addition, the village villagers borrow the money to build latrines. The
committee may decide to cut down some trees in the head of a “khum” (a group of houses) first screens the
forest for certain common and useful purposes for the applicants and finally the committee approves the
village, such as repairing the temple’s pavillion, the loan. It is evident that the community has an ability to
child development center, the village hall, or the manage its own community forest and to use the
village newspaper stall. The villagers all hold the forest as a method to develop the village and the
concept of cutting trees only when necessary. It is quality of life of the villagers. This means that the
delightful to learn that the village committee has community has integrated community forest activities
decided with the villagers to plant more trees in the into its developmental process. Considering long-term
conserved area, aiming at those species that are useful development, it can be seen that this committee has
as materials and food sources, for example, bamboo, sufficient potential to pursue the management of the
neem tree (Azadirachta indica), cassia (Cassia community forest in a sustainable way for the
siamea), olive (Spondias pinnata), and Leguminosae. common good. The establishment of a village
This community has considered the stability of the development fund with the revenues of wood sales
forest in the long run and understands clearly how and the regulations for administering the fund indicate
forest conservation will bring benefits to people’s that the fund can satisfy the needs of the villagers and
well-being. is growing, bringing about long-term benefits to the
Management of community forest for develop- villagers. More importantly, this type of management
ment purposes. Besides the conservative management is actually based on mutual assistance among the
of community forest, the community also manages its villagers.
forest on the basis of development purposes. This
type of management calls for the establishment of a
community forest committee as the essential mecha- Conclusions
nism in creating community forest, a tool leading to
community development or the development of the The population of the Korat Basin represents a larger
villagers’ quality of life. This means that community portion of the total population of the Northeast
forest is one method of community development. This Region than that of the Sakornakorn Basin. Three
type of community forest management can be seen at main ethnic groups live in the basin: the Laotian,
Khok Pi Ba, Ban Lao Subdistrict, Kosoompisai Khmer, and Korat. To empower local people, changes
District, Mahasarakham Province. Here, villagers in both the ways of thinking of development workers
from the three villages of the subdistrict, Ban Yang and approaches used are necessary. Bottom-up
Sinchai, Ban Nong Hard, and Ban Don Kloy, joined approaches have been proved by several studies to be
together to grow a forest in a public area of about 80 appropriate for realizing people’s potential. The
ha at Khok Pi Ba, with support from the Department community culture and community forestry ap-
of Forestry, in 1982. The majority of the trees grown proaches have been applied in many areas of develop-
were eucalyptus trees and other fast-growing species. ment activities, such as economic development,
The purposes were to produce fuelwood and to sell human resource development, and forest resource
eucalyptus logs. The villages set up a community management. Several case studies demonstrate that
forest committee and appointed representatives of all local people are capable of doing development work
three villages as members. The members are respon- if provided with opportunities and support from the
sible for maintaining the created forest by building a development agencies involved. Two important
fire-protecting fence, replacing dying trees with new lessons have been learned from the application of
ones, destroying weeds, setting up regulations these two approaches:
concerning the use of social forest, and sharing 1, Development work or community organizations
benefits from selling eucalyptus wood. The commu- initiated with the full participation of local
nity forest management of the committee has been people seem to be sustainable and beneficial to
quite successful. Eucalyptus trees have been cut for their livelihood.
sale many times. The money has been shared among 2. Going back to the community roots, village
the three villages to establish a village development history, local wisdom, community leadership, and
86
organizations and networks can increase Viyouth C et al. 1990. Community forests managed by
villagers’ self-confidence in determining the local organizations. Khon Kaen (Thailand): Social
direction of local development based on their Forestry Research Project, Khon Kaen University.
Yaowalak A et al. 1999. Learning patterns related to Thai
needs, knowledge, and experience.
rural community in the northeastern region. Khon
Kaen (Thailand): Faculty of Humanities and Social
Sciences, Khon Kaen University.
References
87
Roles and activities of institutions in regional
development, with emphasis on agricultural
development
Kavi Chutikul
89
Public-sector institutions involved in In addition, the Department of Vocational Education
regional development has established 48 Industrial and Community Educa-
tion Colleges in the Northeast Region offering
The Royal Thai Government organizational structure certificate-level vocational courses, including ones in
comprises the Office of the Prime Minister and 14 agriculture (Department of Vocational Education
ministries. In addition, there are 10 independent 1997).
public agencies and 60 state enterprises. At the Currently, public and private universities in
national level, the Office of the National Economic Thailand are under the supervision of the Ministry of
and Social Development Board (NESDB), the Office University Affairs. The following campuses estab-
of the National Education Commission (NEC) under lished in the northeast offer undergraduate and
the Office of the Prime Minister, and the National graduate courses in agriculture and related areas:
Research Council of Thailand under the Ministry of Suranaree University of Technology in Nakhon
Science, Technology, and Energy are responsible for Ratchasima, Khon Kaen University in Khon Kaen,
overall policies and planning, Ubon Ratchathani University in Ubon Ratchathani,
At the regional level, five ministries have major Mahasarakham University in Maha Sarakham and
roles in agricultural development: the Ministry of Nakhan Phanom, and Kasetsart University in Sakhon
Finance, the Ministry of Interior, the Ministry of Nakhon.
Education, the Ministry of University Affairs, and the The only private university in the northeast does
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MOAC), not offer courses in agriculture.
The Ministry of Finance supervises the operution A considerable amount of research work is
of the Bank for Agriculture and Cooperatives carried out at these universities with support from
(BAAC), a state enterprise. BAAC has branches in all various sources such as the Budget Bureau, the
provinces and mast of the districts in agricultural Thailand Research Fund, and foreign agencies. Some
areas. The Northeast Region has 21 provincial-level of the research programs are collaborative efforts
branches, 141 district-level branches, and two central involving universities and departments of the MOAC.
farmer markets (BAAC 1997). BAAC is the major Regional universities have significant high-level
source of agricultural credit, especially for small manpower in many disciplines that is presently
farmers. In addition to providing credit, BAAC also underused. Except for occasional consultation and
promotes and develops farmer institutions such as training courses for farmers, universities and colleges
agricultural cooperatives for marketing to be more are not very active in extension work.
efficient in production and agribusiness. As a part of recent educational reform, a new
Local administration in Thailand is under the National Education Act of 1999 was introduced on 14
supervision of the Ministry of Interior, which is one August 1999. Under this act, the Ministry of Educa-
of the largest ministries. Provincial officers of every tion and the Ministry of University Affairs will be
ministry report to the governor of the province. The combined within three years into a new Ministry of
provincial governor’s office is the main coordinating Education, Religion, and Culture. Public universities
center for rural and agricultural development activi- will become independent public agencies outside of
ties. The Community Development Department and the civil service system.
the Office of Accelerated Rural Development in the The MOAC is the principal ministry responsible
Ministry of Interior are also involved in infrastructure for agricultural research and extension. The Ministry
development, income generation, and agricultural organization consists of four offices and nine depart-
development down to the village level. ments (Table 1). A new institute, the Natural Re-
The Ministry of Education, with extensive sources and Biodiversity Institute, has been estab-
networks of schools, institutes, and colleges, has an lished internally to coordinate the work of four
important role in training. Agricultural subjects are departments within the Ministry in the area of natural
included in the curricula, from primary level to resource management. The MOAC is now in the
tertiary level, in the formal and nonformal system. In process of restructuring its organizational structure.
the northeast, curricula at the tertiary level in agricul- The MOAC has recently adjusted the Agricul-
ture and related areas are offered at the five campuses tural Development Plan within the Eighth National
of the Rajamangala Institute of Technology, 11 Economic and Social Development Plan to fit in with
Agricultural and Technology Colleges, and 13 the new structure of agricultural production and to
Rajabhat Institutes. These institutions also carry out improve the efficiency of natural resource and
some research and development in agriculture, environmental management (Office of Agricultural
especially the Rajamangala Institute of Technology. Economics 1999). The seven areas of activities that
90
Table 1. Organization of the Ministry of Agriculture and and Oil Products for Agroindustry, Biotechnology
Cooperatives (MOAC). Research and Development Institute, DOA Informa-
Office of the Secretary to the Minister tion Service Center, etc. The Northeast Region has
Office of the Permanent Secretary two regional research and development offices, two
Royal Irrigation Department rice research centers, six rice experiment stations, two
Department of Cooperative Auditing
Department of Fisheries field crop research centers. eight field crop experi-
Department of Livestock Development ment stations, one horticulture research center, three
Royal Forestry Department horticulture experiment stations, one rubber research
Land Development Department
Department of Agriculture center, one rubber experiment station, four sericulture
Department of Agricultural Extension research centers, nine sericulture experiment stations,
Cooperatives Promotion Department
and the Northeast Agricultural Development Research
Agricultural Land Reform Office
Office of Agricultural Economics Center under the DOA’s supervision (Department of
Agriculture 1998).
Natural Resources and Biodiversity Institute
The Department of Agricultural Extension
State enterprises (DOAE) is in charge of the diffusion of production
technology for the DOA. Other departments in the
Forestry Industry Organization
MOAC perform both research and extension activi-
Rubber Estate Organization
Fish Marketing Organization ties in their respective areas. The DOAE is also
Government Cold Storage Organization responsible for agribusiness promotion and farmer
Dairy Farming Promotion Organization of Thailand
groups. Within the DOAE, 12 divisions are respon-
Office of the Rubber Replanting Aid Fund
Thai Plywood Co., Ltd. sible for administrative, extension, 2nd technical
Marketing Organization for Farmers work. At the regional and provincial level, there are
Source: MOAC Web site: http:www.moac.go.th.
six regional agricultural extension offices, 75 provin-
cial agricultural offices, 23 plant propagation centers,
nine silk propagation centers, 12 horticulture exten-
receive utmost attention are management of land for sion and propagation centers, one agricuitural youth
farming and natural resource conservation, agricul- extension center, five bee conservation and propaga-
tural zoning, improving production efficiency in tion centers, seven sugarcane pest protection and
irrigated areas, research and development and eradication centers, four farm machinery extension
technology transfer, postharvest management and centers, and 21 highland agricultural extension
marketing, marine fisheries, and subsistence agricul- centers. The DOAE also maintains 797 district
ture. agricultural offices and, recently, in cooperation with
Overall coordination within the Ministry is the the Tambon Administration Organization, established
responsibility of the Office of the Permanent Secre- agricultural technology transfer centers at the tambon
tary, who is the head of all civil servants and has the (subdistrict) level (DOAE 1999). The Northeast
overall administrative control of all the departments Region has one regional agricultural extension office,
and offices in the Ministry. The Provincial Agriculture 19 provincial agricultural offices, eight plant propaga-
and Cooperatives Officers, who coordinate the works tion centers, five silk propagation centers, three
of provincial officers of various departments of the horticulture extension and propagation centers, one
MOAC in each province, report to this Office. bee conservation and propagation center, one
The Department of Agriculture (DOA), MOAC, sugarcane pest protection and eradication center, and
is responsible €or research for annual and perennial one farm machinery extension center.
craps and regulatory services. Research activities Within the MOAC, livestock research and
range from farming systems, plant breeding, and development is the responsibility of the Department
cultural practices to plant protection, sail fertility, sf livestock Development (DLD). Activities include
farm machinery, foundation seed production, and animal disease contra1 and eradication; vaccine,
postharvest technology. The DOA has four adminis- serum, and antigen production; veterinary research
trative support divisions, one regulatory service and services; research in animal breading, animal
division, seven technical service divisions, five nutrition, and forage crops; regulatory services of
research institutes, and eight regional agricultural animal feeds and veterinary pharmaceuticals; and
research and development offices. The DOA has set extension services. The DLD consists of five adminis-
up several internal institutes and centers: Natural trative support divisions, five animal husbandry
Products Research and Development Institute, divisions, four veterinary divisions, and the National
Research and Development Institute for Oil Crops Animal Hygiene Institute (Department of Livestock
91
Development 1998). At the regional level, there are seedlings. Activities of the RFD involve management
nine regional livestock offices, nine livestock research of watersheds and forest land, forest control and
and breeding centers, 35 livestock improvement regulatory services, research and development in
stations, nine animal feed research centers, 23 animal silviculture and forest products, natural resource and
feed experiment stations, seven animal disease wildlife conservation, promotion of reforestation and
research and diagnostic centers, and 75 livestock community forest, and technology transfer. RFD
quarantine stations. In addition, there are provincial activities in the northeast are under the supervision of
livestock offices in every province. The Northeast four regional forestry offices and 19 provincial
Region has two regional livestock offices, 19 provin- forestry offices.
cial livestock offices, two livestock research and The Cooperative Promotion Department’s main
breeding centers, 11 livestock improvement stations, activities are the promotion of all types of coopera-
two animal feed research centers, four animal feed tives, training of members in cooperative manage-
experiment stations, two animal disease research and ment, business and production skills, and provision of
diagnostic centers, and 19 livestock quarantine financial support. The central administration consists
stations. As a part of its extension services, the DLD of six administrative support divisions and four
maintains district livestock offices to promote and technical divisions. Provincial-level activities are the
support livestock production groups at the village duty of provincial cooperative offices and district
level. These offices also recruit and train village cooperative offices.
volunteers to assist in providing veterinary services. The Royal Irrigation Department (RID) is the
The Department of Fisheries consists of 11 largest department in the MOAC in terms of number
administrative support divisions, 12 technical of employees and operating budget. It has eight
divisions, and nine research and development administrative support divisions, one hospital, one
institutes. At the provincial level, there are 75 information center, and seven offices. At the regional
provincial fishery offices and 398 district fishery level, there are 12 regional irrigation offices and five
offices. Department of Fisheries activities cover water resource development offices. The RID’s main
research and development in all areas of fisheries- activities are water resource development for agricul-
inland and marine, management and conservation of ture, energy, public utilities, and industry. Its research
fishery resources, and regulatory and extension activities mostly deal with soil and construction
services (Department of Fisheries 1999). The materials and hydrology, but agronomic research and
Northeast Region has 19 provincial fishery offices, water management are also included. Appropriate
five inland fishery development centers, and 11 inland water management practices are extended to farmers
fishery stations. in irrigated areas through irrigation water user
Soil and water conservation, soil survey and associations (Royal Irrigation Department 1998). RID
land-use planning, soil improvement, soil analysis activities in the northeast are supervised by the
service, research and development, and technology Regional Irrigation Office 4 (Khon Kaen), 5 (Ubon
transfer are activities undertaken under the Land Ratchathani), and 6 (Nakhon Ratchasima).
Development Department (LDD), which has four The Agricultural Land Reform Office (ALRO) is
administrative divisions and six technical divisions at responsible for implementing land reform in 69
the central level (Land Development Department provinces through provincial land reform offices, and
1997). At the provincial level, there are 12 regional 19 of them are located in the northeast. It cooperates
land development offices and 61 land development with the Royal Forestry Department in the survey and
stations. Within the northeast, there are three regional selection of target areas. In each project area, the
land development offices and 19 land development ALRO assists in infrastructure development, includ-
stations. To provide broad extension coverage, the ing the formation of cooperatives and finding sources
LDD recruits farmer volunteers to serve as “village for agricultural credit (Agricultural Land Reform
soil doctors.” Office 1998).
The Royal Forestry Department (RFD) has eight The Office of Agricultural Economics (OAE) is
administrative divisions, one regulatory office, and responsible for analysis and research in agricultural
five technical offices. There are 21 regional forestry economics, dissemination of agricultural information
offices, 75 provincial forestry offices, and 524 district (market prices, supply and demand of agricultural
forestry offices (Royal Forestry Department 1998). In commodities, etc.), and analysis and preparation of
addition, there are field offices in the national parks agricultural development policies and plans, The
and wildlife sanctuaries, field experiment stations, OAE consists of two administrative divisions and
forest fire control stations, and centers to propagate three offices.
92
The Department of Cooperative Auditing Currently, there are approximately 8,000 nonregis-
consists of six administrative and support divisions, tered farmer groups in the northeast, mainly farm
one office, and one technical division. At the regional housewives’ groups and young farmer groups with
level, there are 12 regional cooperative auditing more than 220,000 members. These groups are under
offices. The Department is responsible for the the supervision of the DOAE.
auditing of all cooperatives in the country, the The Board of Trade of Thailand acts as the
development of financial and accounting systems for “Voice of Business” for the private sector. Its mem-
cooperatives and farmer groups, and training. bers include the Thai Chamber of Commerce, which
Other government agencies that are involved in all provincial chambers of commerce belong to, 22
regional agricultural development are the Royal foreign chambers of commerce, 65 trade associations,
Development Study Centers, Office of Royal Devel- six state enterprises, and one cooperative society. In
opment; Projects Board, Office of the Prime Minister; addition, about 500 large- and medium-scale compa-
Border Patrol Police, Royal Thai Police, Office of the nies are associate members. The Board of Trade of
Prime Minister; Armed Forces, Supreme Command Thailand promotes the economy and trade and acts as
Headquarters, Ministry of Defence; Meteorological a liaison between the private and public sector,
Department, Ministry of Transport and Communica- To facilitate the active participation of the private
tions; Department of Energy Development and sector in development from the national to provincial
Promotion, Ministry of Science, Technology, and level, Joint Public/Private Sector Consultative
Energy; Department of Mineral Resources and Committees have been established at the national,
Department of Industrial Promotion, Ministry of regional, and provincial levels.
Industry; Department of Internal Trade and Provincial
Commerce Offices, Office of the Permanent Secre-
tary, Ministry of Commerce; and Self-Help Land Nongovernment organizations involved
Settlement Schemes, Department of Public Welfare, in regional development
Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare.
Nongovernment organizations (NGOs) are not-for-
profit, public service organizations. NGOs in Thai-
Private-sector institutions involved in land are diverse in name and activities. They may be a
regional development group, a club, an association, a foundation, a center,
an institute, an organization, a federation, an assem-
Private-sector institutions are the for-profit nongov- bly, a league, etc. However, there are only two official
ernment organizations consisting of financial, classes: foundations and associations. The Office of
business, industry, and farmer institutions. The the National Culture Commission, Ministry of
private-sector role is mainly in economic develop- Education, is responsible for registering NGOs.
ment, with some involvement in social development. Currently, 8,000 NGOs have registered as founda-
Commercial banks, including the Bank for Agricul- tions and 10,500 as associations. Many more organi-
ture and Agricultural Cooperatives, provide credit for zations are actually NGOs but they have not regis-
farmers, producers, and processors of agricultural tered formally, Only about 3% of the NGOs are
products. Agribusiness companies such as agrochemi- considered as development NGOs. The northeast has
cal, seed, fertilizer, farm implements, and feed mills 1,464 NGOs and about 8% of them may be called
provide inputs and technology for production. Large development NGOs (Office of the National Culture
seed companies and food-processing plants often Commission 1998). The Coordinating Committee for
employ contract farmers to supply raw materials. Rural Development NGOs has a network of regional
Some companies are also doing research and devel- committees to coordinate and promote development
opment, but mostly adaptive research and on a much activities in provincial areas.
smaller scale than similar activities implemented by Development NGOs have assisted the govern-
public-sector agencies. ment in regional development for many years but the
Farmer institutions that have juristic person scope of their work is limited by the lack of re-
status in Thailand consist of agricultural cooperatives sources. NGOs can have many roles such as creating
and registered farmer groups. In the northeast, there awareness, advocacy, catalytic, facilitator, action and
are 1,112 agricultural cooperatives with more than policy research, monitoring, training, etc. The
two million members and 1,216 registered farmer relationship of large and well-established NGOs with
groups (Cooperative Promotion Department 1999). the government is more collaborative in nature, but
93
smaller NGOs that are involved in an advocacy role participatory. The public sector has a major role to
often seem to be in conflict with the public sector, play in providing infrastructure, technical support,
especially on human rights and environmental issues. and incentives. For income generation activities, the
Established in 1974, the Population and Commu- private sector with its networks and business skills
nity Development Association (PCDA), which is one should have a more proactive role. Businesses should
of the largest NGOs in Thailand, is an example of be partners in development. The government should
how an NGO can assist in community development. provide appropriate incentives to encourage the
The PCDA’s services include many types of activities private sector to have more social responsibility.
such as family planning, primary health care, AIDS Better public-private partnership will help accelerate
prevention, water resource development and commu- and sustain development. But building this partner-
nity sanitation, income generation and vocational ship will not be easy. It requires vision and strong
training, conservation of natural resources and the commitment from both sectors. A well-known, well-
environment, local institution building, and promotion respected individual will be needed to take on the
of democracy. The PCDA’s areas of operation cover leadership role.
157 districts in 48 provinces. Its main activities, To create business awareness of social responsi-
however, are in the northeast. The PCDA has 15 bility and facilitate the mobilization of resources from
branches and Community-Based Integrated Rural the public sector, the private sector, and communities,
Development Centers in provincial areas. development NGOs have a strong potential to act as a
In 1988, the PCDA launched the Thai Business catalyst and facilitator. The government should build
Initiative in Rural Development (TBIRD) to mobilize up their capacity to assume these roles.
technical, managerial, and financial resources of the Sustainable development requires efficient
private sector for community development (United management of resources together with effective
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia participation and cooperation of people involved in
and the Pacific 1996). By sponsoring a village, a the process. Government and business leaders have to
company can help in developing human resources of listen more to civil society representatives—NGOs,
the village, thus enabling villagers to earn a reason- community-based organizations, and community
able income and reduce rural-urban migration. leaders—and respond to their needs. For an inte-
TBIRD projects include a range of activities: income grated participatory approach to work, the public
generation through agriculture, cottage industry, and sector should encourage greater involvement of the
rural industry; educational opportunities; environmen- private sector, NGOs, communities, and people in
tal improvement; local institution building; and social regional development. To link and provide effective
development. More than 120 sponsors, ranging from communication for this would be a challenge for all.
medium-sized Thai businesses to major multinational
companies, have joined TBIRD, which has leveraged
more than 150 million baht from the private sector to References
support village projects. In cooperation with the
Department of Industrial Promotion and the private Agricultural Land Reform Office. 1998. Annual report
sector, the PCDA has played a key role in bringing 1997. Land Reform Bulletin No. 287. Bangkok,
industries to rural areas. Factories built in villages in Thailand. 116 p. (In Thai.)
BAAC (Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Coopera-
the northeast provide employment for more than
tives). 1997. Annual report. Bangkok (Thailand):
5,000 workers and generate direct income for
BAAC. 148 p. (In Thai.)
villagers at approximately 170 million baht annually. Cooperative Promotion Department. 1999. Ministry of
The PCDA case proved that a well-established Agriculture and Cooperatives, Bangkok, Thailand.
NGO, with vision and strong leadership, could Department of Agriculture. 1998. Annual report Depart-
effectively assist the public sector in regional devel- ment of Agriculture 1998. Bangkok (Thailand): DOA.
opment. 43 p. (In Thai.)
DOAE (Department of Agricultural Extension). 1999.
Annual report Department of Agricultural Extension
Partnership in development 1998. Bangkok (Thailand): DOAE. (In Thai.)
Department of Fisheries. 1999. Annual report Department
of Fisheries 1998. Bangkok (Thailand): DOF. 103 p.
Environmentally and socially sustainable regional
(In Thai.)
development involves economic, social, and environ-
Department of Livestock Development. 1998. Annual
mental development with human development as the report Department of Livestock Development 1997.
ultimate goal, The approach must be integrated and Bangkok (Thailand): DLD. 123 p. (In Thai.)
94
Department of Vocational Education. 1997. 56th Anniver- Royal Forestry Department. 1998. Annual report Royal
sary of the Department of Vocational Education. Forestry Department 1997. Bangkok (Thailand): RFD.
Bangkok (Thailand): Kurusapha Press. 100 p. (In (In Thai.)
Thai.) Royal Irrigation Department. 1998. 95 years of irrigation
Land Development Department. 1997. Annual report Land 1997. Bangkok (Thailand): War Veteran Organization
Development Department. Bangkok (Thailand): LDD. Press. 156 p. (In Thai.)
72 p. (In Thai.) United Nations, Economic and Social Commission for Asia
MOAC Web Site http://www.moac.go.th. and the Pacific. 1996. Business for development: the
National Economic and Social Development Board. 1996. HRD approach of the “Thai Business Initiative for
Government of Thailand: The Eighth National Rural Development” (TBIRD). Bangkok (Thailand):
Economic and Social Development Plan (1997-2001). ESCAP. 93 p.
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(revised edition). Bangkok (Thailand): Amarin Notes
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Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives 1998. ment Association, 6 Sukhumvit 12, Bangkok 10110,
Bangkok (Thailand): OAE. 36 p. (In Thai.)
Thailand.
Office of the National Culture Commission. 1998.
Directory of nongovernmental organizations in the
whole kingdom 1997. Bangkok (Thailand): Religious
Affairs Press. 495 p. (In Thai.)
95
SECTION C
This paper analyzes the potential of water resources in northeast Thailand. Accord-
Ing to the climatic information from 1981 to 1996, the annual average temperature,
relative humidity, wind, and pan evaporation are 26 °C, 73%, 1.8 knots, and 1,676
mm, respectively. Average annual rainfall is 1,380 mm.
The Northeast Region consists of three main watersheds: the Mekong, Chi, and
Mun, with average watershed areas of 12,700, 49,480, and 65,520 km2, with an
average annual runoff of 274.3, 160.5, and 193.7 mm, respectively. The average
annual precipitation over the Mekong, Chi, and Mun watersheds is 1,537, 1,181,
and 1,275 mm, respectively. These watersheds are divided Into 58 subwatersheds.
Total surface water storage of northeast Thailand is approximately 5,295 million m3,
whereas water demand in 1993 was 10,817 million m3 and in 2006 will be 14,304
million m3.
Because of the complexity of the hydrogeologic environments of northeast Thai-
land, groundwater potential can be evaluated based on several hydrogeologic fac-
tors, such as hydrostratigraphic units, geologic structures, groundwater salinity, and
hydrologic constraints. Several studies from 1952 to now indicate that the most fea-
sible aquifers in the northeast are sand and gravel aquifers of the major rivers; sand-
stone, siltstone, and shale of the Phu Tok Formation; and shale, siltstone, and sand-
stone of the Mahasarakham Formation, which yield approximately 5.79 x 10-4-9.26
x 10-3 m3 s-1 (50-800 m3 d-1), 1.04 x 10-3-4.63 x 10-2 m3 s-1 (90-4,000 m3 d-1), and
3.47 x 10-4-5.79 x 10-3 m3 s-1 (30-500 m3 d-1), respectively.
Nevertheless, the exploitation and development of water resources should be
considered in both quantity and quality, which must be explicitly evaluated for an
individual subregion to optimize their potential and to prevent saline water intrusion.
The Korat Plateau comprises an area of about fallow. In irrigated areas, farmers tend to grow rice,
170,000 km2 (Fig. 1), one-third of the country, sweet corn, soybeans, peanuts, and tomatoes. Com-
supports about 20 million people, and is relatively flat mon water-related problems in NET are flood during
with a low elevation. Approximately 63% of the the rainy season and insufficient water supply for
Plateau has an elevation of 100-200 m (Donner domestic and agricultural uses during the long dry
1978), 28.4% is at 200-500 m, 6.8% is at 500-1,000 season. Saline water and soil salinity also affect
m, and 1.8% has an elevation of above 1,000 m. agricultural lands. Additional problems are water
Agriculture is the dominant occupation in northeast table decline caused by industrial exploitation of
Thailand (NET). Low and unpredictable agricultural groundwater in developed areas and groundwater
production caused by erratic rainfall and generally contamination and environmental effects. The
poor soils result in per capita income in this region purpose of this paper is to present relevant informa-
being the lowest in the country. During the wet tion about potential water resources as well as
season, farmers normally plant rainfed rice, whereas significant data regarding climate and rainfall, surface
year-round they plant cassava, sugarcane, maize, water, and groundwater availability in NET.
kenaf, watermelon, and tobacco or leave the land
99
Climate and rainfall Ubon Ratchathani, 40 km from the confluence with
the Mekong River. The Mun River flows westward
Northeast Thailand has 203 meteorological stations. from the Dong Paya Yen Range to the Mekong River
Air temperature is normally measured five times a at Khongchiam, Ubon Ratchathani. This watershed
day. An anemometer and the class A pan evaporation covers approximately 65,520 km2.
of the U.S. Weather Bureau are used to measure wind Northeast Thailand has three watersheds and 58
speed and evaporation with a coefficient of 0.7 for subwatersheds: 28 within the Mekong watershed
calculating actual evaporation. (Sakon Nakhon Basin, Fig. 2), 7 in the Chi watershed,
The climate in NET is a tropical savanna type in and 23 in the Mun watershed (Asian Institute of
the low-rainfall transitional zone. The region has Technology 1994, Khon Kaen University 1994a,b).
three seasons: rainy (May to October), winter There are 203 stream-gauging stations equipped with
(October to February), and summer (February to rating curves and a reasonable length of records, 56 in
May). The climate is influenced by the northeast- the Mekong watershed, 66 in the Chi watershed, and
southwest monsoon and occasionally tropical 81 in the Mun watershed (Khon Kaen University
cyclones from the South China Sea. The wind speed 1998).
ranges from 1.0 to 3.9 knots h-l. The temperature of The Songkhram River is located in the northeast
16 provinces in NET as reported by the net of of the Korat Plateau, flowing from the northern slope
meteorological stations is mild. Pan evaporation of the Phu Phan Range northward and then eastward
ranges from 122.3 to 184.3 mm per month. to the Mekong River. The Songkhram watershed
Rainfall can be expected in the six-month period covers 12,700 km2 from the Phu Phan Range in the
from May to October of the rainy season, when south to the Mekong River. Most of the watershed is
average monthly rainfall ranges from 3.9 to 235.4 mm between 140 and 160 m altitude. Annual precipitation
and average monthly rainy days from 20 to 26. of the Songkhram watershed varies geographically
Annual rainfall ranges from 1,102 to 2,282 mm, with from 1,200 to 2,500 mm. The main river valley is flat,
an average of 1,380 mm. May to September is the with an average slope of 0.004%. The Chi River
downpour period and April to May is erratic. Novem- originates from the eastern slope of the Phetchabun
ber to January is a very low rainfall period. Further- Range and drains to the central part of the region
more, the isohyets of annual rainfall increase from the between the Phu Phan Range and the Mun watershed.
southwest to the northeast from 1,000 to 2,500 mm The headstream area of the Chi watershed is the driest
(Fig. 1). Cyclone activity is influenced by monsoon, region, with an annual rainfall of 900 to 1,100 mm. It
typhoon, and depression. has two main tributaries: the Nam Pong and Lam Pao
rivers.
The Mun watershed is situated in the southern
Surface water region and northern part of the Phnom Dongrak
Range, with an annual precipitation ranging from
Watershed characteristics 1,200 to 1500 mm. The upper tributaries such as Lum
The northeast, a subwatershed of the Mekong Takhlong emerge from the heights of the Khao Yai
watershed (795,000 km2), is a square plateau sur- Range at an altitude of about 1,000 m. The average
rounded by mountain ranges to the west (Phetchabun slope of the main part of the Mun watershed is less
Range, 1,500 m above mean sea level) and to the than 0,013%,
south (Phanom Dong Rak Range, 680 m) and
bounded by the Mekong River in the north and east, Quantity of surface water
The plateau is separated by the Phu Phan Range (600 The main sources sf surface water are rainfall and
m) into two basins, namely, the Sakon Nakhon Basin river base flow. The quantity of discharge of the rivers
(53,000 km2, north) and Korat Basin (115,000 km2, varies with the rainfall pattern. Figure 3 shows
south). The Sakon Nakhon Basin consists of several monthly stream discharges over a 3-year period of the
short rivers that drain directly into the Mekong River. Songkhram, Chi, and Mun rivers at Ban Tha
The Songkhram River is the main river in the Sakon Kokdeang (Nong Khai), Ban Kok (Mahasarakham),
Nakhon Basin, with a total length of 450 km. The and Rasi Salai (Sisaket), respectively. The hydrograph
watershed is located south of the Phu Phan Range and of the discharges starts rising at the beginning of June
consists of the Chi and Mun rivers. The Chi River has for the Songkhram River (northern basin), but in the
a watershed area of 49,480 km2 covering the northern southern basin (along the Chi and Mun rivers) the
part of the Korat Basin. It flows into the Mun River at flow starts rising in late June (Fig. 3). The discharges
101
and Mun catchments are lower along the middle polluted by accidental discharge from a sugar factory,
sections, for example, 17.1 mm at MN24 (Ban Kham which destroyed 400 tons of 89 types of fish along the
Klang) and 44.9 mm at MN28 (Ban Tha Wa, Fig. Nam Pong and polluted 338 km of the Chi River
3C). The reason for higher yields among the upper downstream from the confluence of the Nam Pong
tributaries is that their rainfall is not trapped by paddy and Chi rivers. Furthermore, improper management
cultivation, whereas the rainfall in downstream of salt mines causes pollution of surface water such as
portions is used for paddy growing. The lowest yields at Nong Bo (upstream of Lam Sieo) and Ban Dung
of the middle part of the Mun River may be due to and Ban Muang (Sakon Nakhon Basin).
runoff lost into subsurface (stream piracy).
Flood and drought are typical characteristics of
the NET hydrology (Donner 1978). The low gradient Groundwater
of the river beds underlain by a layer of laterite may
cause waterlogging and inundation when the rainy Groundwater studies in northeast Thailand
season starts and water begins to fill the rivers. The Groundwater in NET exists in both porosity of
NET rivers are deep and have scanty flows in the dry unconsolidated sediments and in cracks, joints, faults,
season but bank overflows are observed in the rainy and bedding planes of the sedimentary rocks such as
season. The lowest flows of the Songkhram River at shales, siltstones, and sandstones. Only the west and
Ban Tha Kokdaeng were 0.5, 1.1 and 0.9 m3 s-1 in northwest regions are underlain by limestone.
1992, 1993, and 1994, respectively, whereas the Groundwater resource evaluation and development
highest flows in the same years were 637,672, and have been implemented extensively since 1952 when
708 m3 s-1. Similar patterns can be observed from the the Thai Government, with the cooperation of the
Mun and Chi hydrographs (Fig. 3B,C). United States, began the groundwater program in
Water storage facilities in NET were classified NET (Wongsawat et al 1992). From 1958 to 1973,
into three scale projects (Khon Kaen University several regional hydrogeological maps of NET were
1998): large, medium, and small, with a capacity of published by La Moreaux et al (1958), Haworth et al
3,430.3, 1,217.6, and 646.7 million m3, respectively. (1966), and Phiancharoen (1973). Groundwater
Total surface water storage of NET is approximately development projects were intensively conducted by
5,294.6 million m3, whereas the water demand in the Groundwater Division, Department of Mineral
1993 was 10,816.5 million m3 and in 2006 will be Resources, Accelerated Rural Development, Depart-
14,303.8 million m3 (Khon Kaen University 1996). ment of Health, and Department of Public Work for
more than three decades. In 1973, Phiancharoen
Surface water quality (1973) constructed a hydrogeological map of NET at
High salinity in surface water and soils is one crucial a scale of 1 : 1,000,000. In 1982, Phiancharoen et al
constraint to agriculture during the dry season, (1982) reconstructed the map to a scale of 1:500,000.
particularly in the lowland such as Nong Bo, Lam During 1981-85, under the Thai-Australian Tung
Sieo, Lam Phaphla, etc. Some areas along the Chi and Kula Ronghai Project, implemented by McGowan
Mun rivers have high salinity of 400 mS m-1 such as Pty. Ltd., the Department of Land Development, and
at station MN9 (Satuk, Buriram) and MN14 (Ubon the Accelerated Rural Development of Thailand, a
Ratchathani). Figures 4 and 5 show the distributions comprehensive research and development project was
of soil salinity and shallow groundwater in the central carried out on soil salinity and groundwater resources
Korat Basin. The high salinity of surface water is in the southern region of the Korat Basin. This study
closely related to the high salinity of soils and saline indicated that several hydrogeological conditions
groundwater. Surface water quality has been continu- control groundwater flow, the major mechanism of
ously monitored since 1985 (Tanaka 1997, Arunin soil and water salinity movement. Moreover, the
1992). Salinity of surface water is caused by deep relationship among topography, soil groups, and land
saline groundwater discharging as a base flow into the uses directly affects groundwater flow and distribu-
rivers. Nevertheless, few cases have been evaluated tion of salinity (McGowan Pty. Ltd. 1983, Tuckson
for surface salinity in NET. Several industrial, 1983). From 1990 to now, a groundwater investiga-
agricultural, and urban development activities are tion program (basinwide) was set up from the joint
discharging high levels of pollutants into the surface project between the Department of Mineral Resources
water. In March-April 1993, the Nam Pong River was and Mekong Secretariat (DMR & MSP 1990). Water
104
levels and chemical compositions of groundwater rized from various sources of information (Fig. 6).
have been monitored every three months from Lateral and vertical distributions of the
selected water wells in the Sakon Nakhon Basin. hydrostratigraphic units of the northern and southern
Provincial groundwater availability maps at a scale of Korat Basin are presented in Figures 7 and 8.
1:100,000 were published by the joint project
between the Department of Mineral Resources and Regional groundwater flow
the Thai-Australian Project during 1989 to 1995 Major elements of the groundwater flow regime of
(Wongsawat et al 1989). In 1996, a group of Thai and the central Korat Basin were analyzed based on
Australian experts joined to form the Kong-Chi-Mun derivative maps of soil groups, soil salinity indices,
Team (KCMT) to establish a hydrogeological model groundwater salinity, topography, and
for the central Korat Basin. The KCMT comprises the hydrostratigraphic units. Consequently, the equipoten-
Groundwater Research Center, Faculty of Technol- tial lines and general groundwater flow directions in
ogy, Khon Kaen University; the National Center for both plain views and cross-sections in the basin were
Groundwater Management, Insearch Limited, constructed as shown in Figures 7 and 8. A relatively
University of Technology (Sydney, Australia); and C low topographic depression tends to be a discharge
Vision Pty. Ltd. (Sydney, Australia). The goal of the area. By combining derivation maps of soil groups,
KCMT is to achieve environmentally sustainable soil salinity, groundwater salinity, and water levels
development that maintains high environmental measured from selected wells in the basin, equipoten-
standards while meeting existing and future water tial lines of shallow groundwater less than 60 m in
resource needs. Furthermore, in 1998, the Royal depth can be interpolated as shown in Figure 7. With
Irrigation Department and the King’s project in additional information on the hydrostratigraphic units
cooperation with the Groundwater Research Center of as geologic structures and data of some piezometer
Khon Kaen University conducted numerical ground- nests in the basin, groundwater flow in the basin can
water modeling for management of saline soils and be constructed as in Figure 8. A detailed
water distribution in the lower Nam Kam Basin, hydrogeological map should comprise recharge and
Amphoe That Phanom, Changwat Nakorn Phanom discharge areas, distribution of equipotential lines,
(Groundwater Research Center 1999a). At this stage, and flow direction. The groundwater potential and its
the research projects are focusing on evaluating the flow patterns can be simulated based on its
groundwater regime within the central part of the hydrogeological conditions.
Lower Korat Basin (Kong-Chi-Mun Project) and the
central part of the Sakon Nakhon Basin (Nam Groundwater potential
Songkhram Project). Data on hydraulic parameters of hydrostratigraphic
units in NET can be extracted from pumping-test data
Distribution of water-bearing rocks or at the Department of Mineral Resources, La Moreaux
hydrostratigraphic units et al (1958), Haworth et al (1966). McGowan Pty.
A hydrostratigraphic unit is a formation, part of a Ltd. (1982), Tuckson (1983), Srisuk (1994), Buaphan
formation, or group of formations in which similar et al (1998), the Groundwater Research Center
hydrologic characteristics allow for a grouping into (1999b), and others. Wongsawat et al (1992) com-
aquifers and associated confining layers or aquitards piled and estimated well yields in each province in
(Domenico and Schwartz 1998). According to field northeast Thailand from the wells drilled (26,993
hydrogeological maps and pumping tests (Groundwa- production wells, Table 1) by the Department of
ter Research Center 1999b), seven major Mineral Resources from 1955 to 1992. Available
hydrostratigraphic units were classified as follows yields of aquifers depend on types of
(Fig. 6): (1) sand, clay, laterite aquifer (Scl), (2) sand hydrostratigraphic units, geological structures,
and gravel aquifer (Sg), (3) upper Phu Tok aquifer distribution of recharge and discharge areas, flow
(Upt), (4) lower Phu Tok aquifer (Lpt), (5) systems (local, intermediate, and regional), and
Mahasaraham Aquiclude (Ms), (6) Khok Kruat hydrochemistry of groundwater, particularly salinity.
aquifer (Kk), and (7) lower Korat Group aquitard Wongsawat et al (1992) classified the potential of
(LKG). The ranges of hydraulic properties, hydraulic groundwater resources based on available pumping
conductivity, storage, and well yield were summa- rates into four main groups: (1) less than 2 m3 h–1, (2)
107
Table 1. Number of wells drilled by the Department of Mineral Resources (1955–mid-1992, after Wongsawat et al
1992).
Total no. of No. of wells No. of wells No. of wells No. of wells No. of wells
Changwat production yielding yielding yielding yielding yielding
wells <5 m3 h-1 5–10 m3 h-1 11–20 m3 h-1 21–50 m3 h-1 >50 m3 h-1
111
Donner W. 1978. The five faces of Thailand: an economic Resources, Bangkok, Thailand.
geography. London (UK): C. Hurst & Company (for Phiancharoen C, Chuamthaisong, Phagkhong M, Sakulkeo
Institute of Asian Affairs, Hamburg). 930 p. S, Dhanesvanich O. 1982. Hydrogeological map of
ECAFE-UN. 1957. Development of water resources in the northeastern Thailand, 1 :500,000. Department of
Lower Mekong Basin. Flood Control Series No. 12. Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand.
Bangkok (Thailand): United Nations Publication. Srisuk K. 1994. Genetic characteristics of the groundwater
Groundwater Research Center. 1999a. Numerical ground- regime in the Khon Kaen Drainage Basin, Northeast
water modeling for the management of saline water Thailand. Ph.D. thesis. Department of Geology,
and soil salinity distribution in the lower Nam Kam University of Alberta, Canada.
Basin, Amphoe That Phanom, Changwat Nakorn Tanaka H. 1997. Hydrology programs and related activities
Phanom. Final report to be submitted to the King’s of the Mekong River Commission. Rural Environ.
Project. Groundwater Research Center, Department of Eng. No. 33.
Geotechnology, Faculty of Technology, Khon Kaen Tuckson M. 1983. The hydrogeology of an area of saline
University, Thailand. land, northeast of Kaset Wisai, Tung Kula Ronghai,
Groundwater Research Center. 1999b. Study on soil and Northeast Thailand. McGowan International Technical
water salinity and management plan for the impact on Report, TKR Project, Khon Kaen, Thailand.
soil and water salinity due to Nam Song Khram. Wongsawat S, Dhanesvanich O, Panjasutharos S. 1989.
Progress report to be submitted to the King’s Project. Groundwater resources of northeast Thailand.
Groundwater Research Center, Department of National Conference on Geologic Resources of
Geotechnology, Faculty of Technology, Khon Kaen Thailand, potential for future development, Depart-
University, Thailand. ment of Mineral Resources. p 505-521.
Haworth HF, Na Chiangmai P, Phiancharoen C. 1966. Wongsawat S, Dhanesvanich O, Panjasutharos S. 1992.
Ground water resources development of Northeastern Groundwater resources of northeast Thailand.
Thailand. Department of Mineral Resources, Ground National Conference on Geologic Resources of
Water Division. Ground Water Bull. No. 2, Bangkok, Thailand, potential for future development, Depart-
Thailand. ment of Mineral Resources. p 507-521.
Khon Kaen University. 1994a. Study of potential develop- Yongvanit S. 1997. Regional development and environ-
ment of water resources in the Mun River Basin. The mental change in Thailand. Regional View, Number
Office of National Economic and Social Development 10, Institute for Applied Geography, Komazawa
Board, Thailand. University, Tokyo.
Khon Kaen University. 1994b. Study of potential develop-
ment of water resources in the Chi River Basin. The
Office of National Economic and Social Development Notes
Board, Thailand.
Khon Kaen University. 1996. Preparation of master plan
Authors’ addresses: Kriengsak Srisuk, Chalong Buaphan,
for National Water Resources Development Project.
Chamnan Hovijitra, Department of Geotechnology,
Royal Irrigation Department, Thailand.
Faculty of Technology, Khon Kaen University, Khon
Khon Kaen University. 1998. Preparation of master plan
Kaen 40002, Thailand; Vichai Sriboonlue, Department
for National Water Resources Development Project
of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
(19 northeastern provinces). Royal Irrigation Depart-
Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand.
ment, Thailand.
La Moreaux PE, Charalljavnaphet J, Jalichan N, Na
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank the Groundwa-
Chiangmai PP, Bunnag D, Thavisri A, Rakprathum C.
ter Research Center, the Department of
1958. Reconnaissance of the geology and ground
Geotechnology, Faculty of Technology, of Khon Kaen
water of the Korat Plateau, Thailand. (U.S. Geological
University, for providing all their facilities for
Survey Water-Supply Paper 1429). Washington, D.C.
finishing this paper. We appreciate the staff of the
(USA): U.S. Government Printing Office. 62 p.
Groundwater Research Center, especially Miss
McGowan Pty. Ltd. 1983. Tung Kula Ronghai. Thai-
Natchaya Khetkratok, for providing base maps and
Australia Project. Department of Land Development,
graphic works, and Miss Sukalaya Jaruchakul, for
Thailand.
preparing part of the information, data, and docu-
Phiancharoen C. 1973. Hydrogeological map of northeast-
ments.
ern Thailand, 1: 1,000,000. Department of Mineral
113
Development and management of water resources
in the Korat Basin of northeast Thailand
Sanguan Patamatamkul
The Korat Basin consists of two major basins, the Chi basin and the Mun basin.
Development projects for water resources are divided into large-, medium-, and
small-scale projects.
The main government agencies responsible for water projects are the Royal
Irrigation Department (RID), the Electric Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT),
and the Energy Development and Promotion Department (EDPD). RID Is the largest
department responsible for irrigation projects. The EDPD is the government agency
that constructs pumping projects.
Groundwater sources were developed mostly for domestic uses only. The lim-
ited quantity and unsuitable quality of groundwater deter its development for irriga-
tion.
Irrigation water management for large-scale projects is still undertaken by gov-
ernment agencies such as RID and EDPD with little participation from farmers’orga-
nizations that are usually in the form of farmer cooperatives. For medium-scale
projects, farmers’ organizations are in the form of water user associations (WUA).
Similar to the farmers’ cooperatives, the farmers’ associations participate in man-
agement at the tertiary canal level. Most farmers’ associations have been inactive in
water management activities. Water management for small-scale irrigation projects
was wholly undertaken by the farmers’ organization called the water user group
(WUG). Several small-scale projects were left unused or improperly maintained be-
cause farmers did not actually participate in all stages of project development.
Better water management involved farm pond development in which the farmer
was the owner of the pond, particularly if farmers had to pay back the investment
cost of the farm pond.
In summary, development of water resources is still needed for the Korat Basin.
However, to ensure sustainability of development, farmers must actually participate
in all stages of project development and should be partners in project investment.
The Korat Basin consists of two major river basins, Table 1. Features of the Chi basin and Mun basin.
the Chi River basin and the Mun River basin. Table 1 Catchment area Average annual Average annual
Basin
summarizes some important features of both basins. (km2) rainfall (mm) runoff (106 m3)
Development of water resources in the Korat Basin
Chi 49,477 1,181 11,188
has been implemented progressively by several Mun 69,700 1,275 21,092
government agencies such as the Royal Irrigation
Department (RID), the Electric Generating Authority
of Thailand (EGAT), the Energy Development and Development of water resources
Promotion Department (EDPD), and others. This
chapter aims to summarize the state of the art of the Type of development projects for water
development of water resources and some manage- resources
ment aspects in the Korat Basin. As in other basins in Thailand, development projects
for water resources in the Korat Basin can be classi-
115
fied into three categories: large-, medium-, and small- irrigation area of 207,560 hectares. The EGAT
scale projects. Table 2 summarizes the classification constructed four projects and the RID constructed six
criteria. The major government agencies involved in projects. Table 3 summarizes the main features of
all development projects for water resources are RID, these projects.
EGAT, and EDPD. For small-scale projects, about 16
government agencies are involved. The RID is the Medium-scale development projects for
largest department responsible for irrigation projects. water resources
The EGAT is the main agency constructing hydro- More than 180 medium-scale irrigation projects are
power projects. The EDPD is responsible for most constructed by the RID in the Korat Basin. The total
pumping projects. Generally, projects for water storage capacity is about 1,295 million m3 and the
resources constructed by EGAT are multipurpose total irrigation area is about 177,400 ha. Table 4
projects for flood control, power generation, fishery, summarizes the features of the medium-scale projects.
irrigation, etc. Projects constructed by RID, although
for irrigation, also serve as a water supply for Small-scale development projects for water
domestic consumption. resources
Small-scale development projects for water resources
Large-scale development projects for water include small reservoirs, diversion weirs, shallow and
resources deep wells, farm ponds, and rain water collection
Ten large-scale projects for water resources are facilities. Dredging of natural streams, lakes, and
constructed in the Korat Basin with a total storage swamps is also included in this category. However,
capacity of more than 7,000 million m3 and a total this chapter will emphasize only projects with small
year.
116
reservoirs, diversion weirs, farm ponds, and dredging. canals only. However, many medium irrigation
Several thousand small reservoirs and diversion weirs projects were constructed with distribution systems
are constructed in the Korat Basin. The total storage inferior to that of the large-scale projects. Therefore,
capacity is about 490 million m3 and the beneficial water management is a problem because many WUAs
area is more than 210,000 ha. are inactive in water management. There are few
Farm ponds with a storage capacity of 1,100 m3 active WUAs in projects with good irrigation
have been constructed by several agencies in the systems.
Korat Basin. This is a cost-effective water project for
water harvesting in this part of Thailand. The RID Small-scale irrigation projects
alone built more than 90,000 farm ponds. After construction is completed, the implementing
Because of environmental degradation, espe- agencies will hand over the operation and mainte-
cially deforestation and land-use changes, natural nance of small irrigation projects to the farmer group
water bodies such as streams, lakes, and swamps in called the water user group (WUG). The WUG is
the Korat Basin experience a sedimentation problem. generally formed loosely with very short time
Several government agencies implement many preparation. Moreover, since the government’s POliCY
dredging projects each year. The RID has constructed is to construct only the headwork of the project, small
more than 6,000 dredging projects that benefit more irrigation projects do not have a distribution system.
than 70,000 ha of arable land. The WUA must organize farmer-members to dig
canals by themselves. This causes many problems and
Pumping irrigation projects many WUAs become inactive. Most small projects
The EDPD is responsible for the construction of more have been left unused or improperly maintained.
than 600 small pumping projects to irrigate more than Several factors caused this undesirable outcome, but
80,000 ha of arable land in the Korat Basin. These the most important was that farmers did not actually
projects are usually located along the Chi and Mun participate in all stages of project development.
rivers and their tributaries.
Farm pond
Development of groundwater resources Two types of farm ponds are constructed. The first
Groundwater in the Korat Basin is generally devel- type is the pond that the implementing agencies
oped for domestic consumption because of its low construct for free. The second type is the pond for
yield. The average yield of most wells is about 2 m3 which the farmers have to pay back the construction
h-l. Since the basin area is underlain by thick layers of cost within a period agreed by the farmers and the
rock with salt formation, many areas have salinity farmers’ organization foiixed by the pond’s recipients.
problems and are unsuitable for groundwater devel- The forming of the farmer’s organization is generally
opment. a condition set up by the supporting agencies. The
money returned will be used to construct new farm
ponds for new members who join the farmers’
Management of water resources organization later or used as a loan for agricultural
production activities. The ponds that fall into the
Large-scale irrigation projects second type are generally operated and maintained
In large irrigation projects, water management is better than the first type since the ponds’ recipients
undertaken by government agencies such as the RID must fully engage in agricultural production to earn a
and EDPD. Farmers usually participate in water sufficient living and obtain some extra production to
management at the tertiary canal level. Farmers’ pay back the investment cost.
organizations are usually in the form of farmers’
cooperatives that carry out other activities related to
agricultural production as well as water management Future direction
activities. With good irrigation systems, farmers’
cooperatives are very active. Though more development projects for water
resources are still needed for the Korat Basin, they
Medium-scale irrigation projects should be carried out with adequate planning and
With the assistance of the implementing agencies, managed systematically with farmers’ participation in
farmers form into an organization called the water all developmental stages. Participation should include
user association (WUA) to undertake water manage- the investment cost and operations. Since most
ment activities. Again, the WUA takes care of tertiary farmers are poor, the investment coiltribution may be
117
mostly in kind and partly in cash. The proportion of Bibliography
investment contribution may vary. For example,
farmers can contribute the total investment cost for Royal Irrigation Department. 1999. Irrigation project
farm pond construction according to a repayment plan statistics. Bangkok, Thailand. 299 p.
to be agreed upon. The proportion of the contribution Water Resources and Environment Institute. 1996. A
decreases as the project grows larger. project to prepare a Master Plan of Water Resources
A large number of medium irrigation projects Development for Thailand, Khon Kaen, Thailand.
should be rehabilitated and/or modernized, then
transferred to WUAs for operation and maintenance.
Also, small irrigation projects that have potential for Notes
agricultural production should have distribution
Author's address: Faculty of Engineering, Khon Kaen
systems.
University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand.
118
Water management in the Korat Basin, northeast
Thailand: policy, institutional, and management
issues from the farm/village to the region
Siripong Hungspreug
The Korat Bsin consists of three main basins in human resources that can be briefly described as
Thailand: the Mae Khong, Chi, and Mun. It covers follows:
168,847 km2, 40% of the total land area of the
country. Natural resources
Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of these 1. Rainfall is deficient and seasonally distributed
three basins. 2. Flooding adversely affects wet-season agricul-
Figure 1 shows the irrigation and water resource tural production
development implemented by the Royal Irrigation 3. Water resources for irrigation are deficient in the
Department (RID). dry season because of
- Rapid runoff during the wet season
Problems and constraints - Low runoff during the dry season
Many problems and constraints in the Korat basin - Lack of sufficient storage reservoir sites
hinder the improvement of living standards of the - Competing demands from nonagricultural
area’s inhabitants. Such problems arise from deficien- users
cies in natural resources, irrigated farming systems, - Inefficient use
institutional aspects, socioeconomic aspects, and
119
2. At the regional level, there are three Regional (and marginally Sisaket) have high average
Irrigation Offices of RID in the Korat Basin: the incomes but inequitable distribution. The
RIO 4 at Khon Kaen, RIO 5 at Ubol, and RIO 6 poorest communities exist in these richest
at Nakhorn Ratchasima. The allocation of provinces. Poverty alleviation will therefore
responsibilities based on administrative boundary need to focus on the agricultural plan to raise
to these three RIOs reduces the opportunities for incomes of these poorest communities.
coordination in water resource management and - Low income/high equality of distribution:
inevitably complicates the implementation of Amnat Chareon, Yasothon, Roi Et,
water resource development by basin commit- Mahasarakham, and Khon Kaen (and
tees. marginally Ubon Rachathani) have lower
3, At the farm level, the RID Operation and average incomes but more equitable distribu-
Maintenance Section operates the irrigation tion. The poorest communities in these
systems together with staff of the Department of provinces are substantially richer than those
Agricultural Extension (DoAE), but actually the in the richest provinces mentioned above.
water allocation and management are normally
decided by RID without full involvement of the Human resources
beneficiary farmers. Water users’ organizations, Compared to current conditions, the future rural labor
based on “chaeks” (service groups), are being force will be smaller, older, and increasingly female.
established and irrigation community organizers Laborers, and young males in particular, will become
(ICOs) are being employed for some irrigation increasingly scarce. This will alter the balance
schemes. However, the process of participatory between the labor force and capital and will require
management is often not fully understood; changes in activities appropriate for irrigated agricul-
therefore, “top-down” water management ture.
continues.
4. The On-Farm Water Management Branch of
RID, responsible for farmer participation Natural resources and environmental
activities, is weak in terms of staffing, executive management
capacity, and budget compared with the construc-
tion sections. In the recent history of Thailand’s development, huge
amounts of natural resources have been used under
Key constraints to natural resource inadequate and inappropriate management to increase
development national income and improve living standards for the
The key constraints to natural resource development population. Although rapid economic growth has
were identified as follows: clearly been achieved, several problems have
1. Rural-urban income disparities: Urban employ- accompanied it.
ment can offer almost tenfold more income than To protect and preserve the environment and
what can be obtained in farming. Off-farm natural resources, important factors for sustainable
emplovment forms a significant source of farm development and a better quality of life, it is vital to
family income. There is no apparent correlation incorporate the management of natural resources and
between farm size and farm income, probably the environment into the new Constitution (1997) and
because of remittances by family members the Eighth National and Social Development Plan
working in the nonagricultural sector. (1996-2001).
2. Migration: A survey carried out by NEWMASIP
on some communities in 1995 showed that about New constitution (1997)
20% of farmers (heads of household) and 12% of Many articles in the new constitution stipulate the
family members were engaged in nonfarming roles of the government and the people in the use and
work within the village, whereas 9% of farmers conservation of natural resources, such as
and 20% of family members were engaged in
nonfarming work outside the village. Article 79: The government shall promote and
3. Income and equality of distribution: In terms of support people to participate in the conservation,
income and equity, the analysis of the tambon maintenance, and use of natural resources and
(subdistrict) data clearly shows two main groups: their diversities in a balanced fashion, and
- High income/low equality of distribution: Article 59: Any person shall have the right of access
Nakhorn Ratchasima, Buriram, and Surin to data, an explanation, and reasoning from
121
government agencies, state enterprises, or the quality of life and the participation of all stakehold-
local administrative authority prior to the ers.”
implementation of any project that may have an
impact on people. Any person shall have the right
to express opinions on such issues according to Institutions involved in water resource
the procedures of a public hearing. development and management
National economic and social development The institutions involved in water resource develop-
plan (NESDP) ment and management can be divided into three
The current Eighth NESDP (1996-2001) sets out the levels: national policy, coordinating, and implementa-
objectives of maintaining the environment and tion. Figure 2 presents a flowchart showing the
natural resources as follows: relationships among these three levels.
1. Establish systematic management of water
resources, especially at the basin level, including National policy
the provision of clean drinking water and The organizational body responsible for the establish-
supervision of water quality, pollution control, ment of policies and plans consists of
and drainage. This will involve - the Cabinet
- coordinating activities of agencies at - the National Economic and Social Development
national and basin levels to ensure consis- Board
tency and continuity - the National Water Resources Committee
- prioritizing water allocation at various levels (NWRC)
- promoting of a cost recovery program - the Bureau of Budget
- improving water transmission to reduce loss - the Office of Civil Service Commission
- promoting a water conservation program
2. Coordinate land-use policy and management At the national level, the national vision on water
consistent with development potential in each is to be endorsed by the cabinet. The draft water
region resources law is being scrutinized in order to be
3. Ensure sound management of community accepted by the authorities concerned. It is expected
environments and green areas that principles and measures for water allocation,
4. Conserve natural and heritage sites flood control, water resource development, water
5. Promote a holistic, systematic approach to conservation, and water pollution control will be
natural resource management established as a master plan in each river basin. River
6. Prevent and mitigate natural disasters basin committees will coordinate the activities of
7. Improve the efficiency of public agencies various agencies and local authorities.
8. Expand the Kingdom’s role in international
cooperation Coordinating
The Office of the NWRC whose director is the
National vision on water for Thailand secretary of the NWRC, is to coordinate and follow
(2000-25) up on the activities of the implementation agencies to
Recently, a meeting on the national vision on water make sure that they will be in accordance with the
for Thailand was held in Bangkok in August 1999. policies set.
The meeting was organized by the Office of National The ONWRC is also to act as a central body that
Water Resources Committee and the Royal Irrigation will set up standards and analytical methods to assess
Department with support from the Global Water data and establish a data network system for possible
Partnership. The participants were from government exchange and dissemination of information.
agencies, state enterprises, academic institutions, and
various nongovernment organizations. The meeting Implementation
agreed that the national vision on water for Thailand The agencies at this level can be divided into two
up to 2025 shall be the following: sublevels: the ministerial and departmental level and
“By the year 2025, Thailand will have sufficient the farmers’ institution level. Eight ministries and 31
water of good quality for all users through an efficient departments deal with water resources.
management, institutional, and legal system that At the ministerial level, particularly the Ministry
would ensure equitable and sustainable utilization of of Agriculture and Cooperatives, the policy-led
its water resources with due consideration of the implementation program includes integrated water
122
Fig. 2. Flowchart showing organizations at the national policy, coordinating, and implementation levels. NESDB =
National Economic and Social Development Board, BOB = Bureau of Budget, CSC = Office of Civil Service
Commission, NWRC = National Water Resource Committee, ONWRC = Office of National Water Resource Committee,
NRDC = National Rural Development Committee, NRDCC = National Rural Development Coordination Center, WUIS =
Water User Institutions.
resource development and management, which aims At the farmers’ institution level, farmers’
to optimize natural resources in the same areas institutions are responsible for
supported by many agencies such as the Department 1. Administration and management of water
of Fisheries, Department of Agricultural Extension, distribution and operation and maintenance of
Department of Land Development, and Department water delivery systems;
of Cooperatives. Other programs include the im- 2. Planning and implementing agricultural produc-
provement of efficiency of water use in existing tion and processing, marketing, and
irrigation areas through better management, introduc- agroindustries in the form of cooperatives under
tion of new technology, or promotion of public the coordination and supervision of line develop-
awareness to conserve water and prevent natural ment agencies; and
disasters, etc. 3. Acting as the coordinator among the farmers and
At the departmental level, more detailed plans for line development agencies.
implementation are proposed. Major plans of the
Royal Irrigation Department include For participatory approaches at the farmers’
1. Water resource development plan for large- and institution level, lessons were learned from the
medium-scale projects rehabilitation of the Northeast Small-Scale Irrigation
2. Operation and maintenance plan Project (NESSI, 1981-88), the Farmer Irrigation
3. Rural development plan, which includes Participation Plan (1992), and the Northeast Water
a. Small-scale projects Management and System Improvement Project
b. improvement projects (NEWMASIP-1998) as follows:
c. dredging of ponds and natural waterways 1. The NESSI project concentrated on improving
d. pipeline irrigation projects farmer coordination and involvement in water
4. Flood control projects use through water users’ groups (WUGs). A lot of
useful and valuable information was obtained
The master plan for the water resource develop- from the project. It took farmers from one to two
ment and improvement program recently prepared by years to learn the benefits of cooperative action
the RID is used at the national and provincial levels. and to stop stealing water from each other. Once
123
the benefits of the group were realized, then the Conclusions
WUGs could turn their attention to other forms
of cooperation, such as bulk purchase of inputs Both supply management and demand management
and cooperative marketing. The size of a chaek are necessary to cope the increasingly scarce water
was reduced to 16-24 ha, servicing no more than resources. All stockholders from the national level to
18 farmers. Above this level, obtaining coopera- the village/farm level are key players for the sustain-
tion becomes too difficult. able use of natural water resources. The coordination
2. Water users’ groups eventually link to form water of the multiplicity of institutions, organizations, and
users’ associations (WUAs) and become legal the private sector is to be given high priority. The
entities after registration at the provincial office. concept of the participation of water users as full
The WUA president is elected by the WUGs for partners at all stages of development (planning,
a two-year term. The WUAs also pioneered the design, construction, and operation and maintenance)
collection of water fees for operation and should be accepted at all levels of the project admin-
maintenance services. WUAs collect money for istration. The Mae Khong, Chi, and Mun River basin
membership fees, operation and maintenance, committees should be formulated to coordinate water
fines for nonparticipation in on-farm mainte- resource development and management in each basin.
nance, and profits from marketing activities and
donations. Funds are deposited in savings banks.
3. The only criticisms of the NESSI scheme have Bibliography
been the high cost of on-farm rehabilitation and
the fact that the WUAs were formed only after Charoon Kamolratana. 1996. Water resources development
construction was completed. It would have been and national security: case study on master plan of
beneficial to have prepared the. group, elected the water resources development in Thailand.
chaek leader, and obtained farmer participation National Economic and Social Development Board. 1996.
The Eighth National Economic and Social Develop-
when the scheme was being designed. Training
ment Plan.
programs also targeted only the leaders of WUAs
Office of Agricultural Economics. 1996. The implementa-
or their administrative committee members. tion programme of the Ministry of Agriculture and
4. The FIPA study showed that the irrigation Cooperatives during the Eighth NESDP.
community organizer is efficient in providing Project Planning Division of the Royal Irrigation Depart-
more opportunities for contact among farmer ment. 1994. Master plan of water resources develop-
groups, government line agencies, and the private ment of Thailand.
sector. In particular, contact has been facilitated Royal Irrigation Department. 1988. Chi Basin water use
with the DoAE, Department of Fisheries, study. Royal Irrigation Department, Bangkok,
Department of Livestock Development, and Thailand.
private companies involved in seed production Royal Irrigation Department. 1995. Mun River Basin water
resources development master plan.
and agro-processing for local and export markets.
Royal Irrigation Department. 1997. Feasibility study,of the
5. Once the investment in institution building and
community irrigation development project, Vol. 2,
on-farm work is completed, consideration should institutional aspects.
be given to some form of privatization of Royal Irrigation Department. 1998. North-east water
irrigation schemes. Already the NEWMASIP management and system improvement project.
project is looking at the possibilities of tendering
for scheme maintenance by establishing a scheme
working group. Notes
124
SECTION D
The Korat Basin is located in the lower part of the Northeast Plateau and surrounded
by ranges in the south, west, and northeast. Topography is floodplain, plateau (low,
middle, and high terraces), intramountainous highland, and mountains or hills. Up-
land soils vary from gently undulating landscapes on the plateau to rolling in the
intramountainous area. Alluvial soils on the plateau, mostly derived from sandstone,
are light in texture and low in fertility, whereas colluvial soils among the
intramountainous area are relatively fertile. The Office of Agricultural Economics
reported in 1995 that yield of field crops in the region was the lowest in the country
and the main crops were cassava, maize, and sugarcane, which covered 72.5% of
the total crop area. Meanwhile, the Department of Land Development divided major
upland soils into soil groups 35, 49, 44, 29, and 28, of which groups 35 and 44 are
poor soils and the remaining are relatively fertile.
Improper cultural practices and erratic rainfall are the main causes of drastic
soil degradation on undulating topography. To improve soil properties for better pro-
ductivity and sustainable production of field crops, management of organic matter
and soil fertility should be considered. Several research efforts succeeded with di-
rect application of fertilizers, organic materials, and soil amendments either sepa-
rately or in combination. Fertilizers improve soil nutrients while organic materials
and soil amendments control the soil reaction and increase soil moisture content
and buffering capacity. Changing cropping patterns and managing crop residues
are other practices for soil improvement. They help maintain soil productivity, through
both physical and chemical properties, in the long run. Finally, controlling soil ero-
sion by cultural practices is also necessary to protect soil resources and the environ-
ment.
The Korat Basin is located in the lower part of limited and erratic with long dry spells occurring
northeast Thailand. The soils, mostly derived from frequently, which restrict crop production as men-
sandstone and siltstone, are typically light in texture tioned above.
and low in chemical fertility and have poor moisture The objectives of this chapter are to review (1)
storage capacity. They are also low in cation ex- topography, land forms, soil characteristics, and
change capacity (CEC), clay content, organic matter potential soil productivity for field crops and (2)
content, and buffering capacity. Therefore, the soils in improvement and management of soil productivity for
the region are inherently infertile (Mitsuchi et al sustaining field crop production.
1986, Yoshioka 1987) and susceptible to degradation.
Table 1 shows the yield of some field crops grown on
infertile soils in the Basin compared with that in the Topography, land form, and soil
whole Kingdom and the central region. Ota et al characteristics
(1992) believed that infertile soils are mainly caused
by the poor virgin soil and human activities, that is, The Korat Basin is situated in the southern part of the
deforestation and improper soil management in Northeast Plateau, surrounded by the Phanom
cultivation. In addition, the amount and distribution Dongrak and Sankamphang ranges in the south, the
of rainfall during the crop growing season are quite Phetchabun range in the west, and the Phu Phan range
127
Table 3. Soil types and land use on different land forms in the Korat Basin.
Floodplain Ustifluvents Tha Muang: Tm Chiang Mai: Cm Fruit trees and vegetables
Tropaquepts Phimai: Pm Ratchaburi: Rb Paddy
Low terrace Paleaquults Roi Et: Re Paddy
Middle terrace Paleustults Korat: Kt Satuk: Suk Warin: Wn Upland crops
Plinthustults Phon Phisai: Pp
Quartzipsamments Nam Phong: Ng
High terrace Paleustults Yasothon: Yt Upland crops
lntramountainous area Haplustoxs Chok Chai: Ci Upland crops
Paleustults Pak Chong: Pc
Hills, mountains Unclassified – Forests
Soil Area
groups Soil series USDA taxonomy
km2 %
130
Table 5. Yields of field crops on major soil groups in the Korat Basin.
A. Potential productivity
Yield (t ha-1)
Soil groups Average
Cassava Maize Sugarcane Kanaf Soybean Peanut
Yield (t ha-1)
Soil groups Average
Cassava Maize Suaarcane Kanaf Soybean Peanut
Yield (t ha-1)
Soil groups Average
Cassava Maize Sugarcane Kanaf Soybean Peanut
131
easy and requires a proper method. Vatcharothayan increased 15.7-19.5% (Table 8A) and yield of first
(1987) concluded that, for low-fertility soils, we ratooning sugarcane increased 36.3-52.0% (Table
should take into account organic matter and fertility. 8B).
Direct application of fertilizers, organic materials, or Besides green manure, Jongruaysub et al (1997)
soil amendments is common in improving both carried out an experiment on sugarcane using filter
physical and chemical soil properties. Besides the cake in combination with nitrogen fertilizer in the late
cultural practices, selection of appropriate cropping rainy season of 1996. Results indicated a significant
systems and management of crop residues are also influence of filter cake on sugarcane yield on the
necessary. Korat soil (soil group 35). However, no significant
Some work in soil improvement focusing on yield increase was observed on the Pak Chong soil
cassava, maize, and sugarcane has been done. (soil group 29) due to higher fertility and thus higher
Konsilp and Juykongloy (1989) raised three consecu- yields of sugarcane on this soil (Table 9).
tive crops of maize during 1986-88 to study the effect Panchaban et al (1989) set up an experiment in
of green manure on maize yield and some physical 1988 to study the effects of lime and organic materi-
properties of the Pak Chong soil series (soil group als in combination with compound fertilizer on sweet
29). Green-manuring legumes were grown and corn. Yield of sweet corn responsed markedly to
incorporated after 55 d before growing maize. The organic materials. Table 10 also shows more
results showed that seed yield, averaged over three improvement in chemical properties on the Korat
crops, increased 43–45% compared with the control (soil group 35) and Nam Phong (soil group 44) soils.
treatment. Moreover, soil physical properties im- Changing cropping systems is another alternative
proved (Table 7). Similar work done by Meesawasdi for soil improvement. From the combination of
et al (1997) during 1995-97 in Khon Kaen Province fertilizer application and intercropping with legumi-
on a Korat soil (soil group 35) also showed an nous crops (cut 2 months later for mulching) carried
increase in maize yield of 9–16% over that of the out on Warin soils (soil group 35) during 1986-89,
control treatment. Paisancharoen et al (1996) found that, when legumes
For cassava, several experiments on sandy soil and cassava were grown at the same time, yield of
(soil groups 35 and 44) were carried out in Khon cassava decreased 18-22% compared with cassava
Kaen and Maha Sarakham provinces to investigate alone (Table 11A). After that period, an intercrop
the effect of green manures on cassava. Yield of relay for 3–4 wk during 1990-95 resulted in a yield
cassava increased up to 35–45% with Crotalaria gain of 4–13% over cassava alone (Table 11B).
juncea but increased only 25–35% with Canavalia Wongwiwatchai et al (1997) studied the effects
ensformis (Konsilp 1993). of soil improvement and cropping systems on
During 1991-92, Bhrammanee et al (1996) cassava. Results showed that the most suitable
studied the effects of green manure in combination cropping pattern is the rotation between cassava and
with N fertilizer on planted sugarcane (1991) and first peanut, whereas chemical fertilizer application is
ratooning sugarcane (1992) on silty clay loam soil. important for soil improvement. However, chemical
They reported that yield of planted sugarcane fertilizer application along with soil amendment
Table 7. Effects of green manure legumes on maize and physical properties of the Pak
Chong soil series (group 29) during 1986-88 at Nakhon Ratchasima.
132
Table 8. Yield of sugarcane as affected by green manure and chemical fertilizers (average
of four replications).
Yield (t ha–1)
Yield increase
Green manure Fertilizer N (kg ha–1) Av (%)
0 6 12 18
Yield (t ha–1)
Yield increase
Green manure Fertilizer N (kg ha–1) Av (%)
0 6 12 18
Yield (t ha–1)
Table 10. Changer in roll chemical properties of Korat and Nam Phong soll series due to
lime and organic materials applied after harvesting sweet corn under farmers’ field
conditions in Khon Kaen in 1988.
133
Table 11. Effects of fertilizer and intercropping on cassava grown on Warin soil series in
Khon Kaen (9 consecutive crops during 1986-95).
A. Intercrop (1986-89).
Yield (t ha–1)
0 312.5 625.0
Yield (t ha-1)
0 312.5 625.0
would be more suitable for cassava in the future lower than that in other regions of the Kingdom. To
(Table 12A). In addition, soil acidity was affected by improve productivity, we should focus on managing
chemical fertilizer and soil amendment was capable soil organic matter and fertility.
of maintaining soil pH and organic matter (Table Some overall conclusions are that
12B). 1. Direct application of fertilizers and organic
Soil erosion in the region is due to the undulation materials apparently increases the yield of field
of the ground surface. Therefore, soil conservation in crops.
cassava fields with slope of 3.2-6.7% was done in 2. Soil amendment with lime, rock phosphate, or
Kalasin on sandy loam soils (soil group 35) to assess even compost is able to decrease soil acidity to a
yield and soil loss. The Department of Agricultural suitable level for crops.
Extension (1998) reported that soil loss in cassava 3. Application of organic materials and green
fields ranged from 25.8 to 35.7 t ha-1 y-1. Effective manures and changing the cropping system can
measures that could markedly decrease soil loss are help in maintaining organic matter and nutrients
contour ridging and barrier setting (Table 13). in the soil for plants.
4. Proper cultural practices could reduce soil
degradation.
Conclusions
Upland soils in the Korat Basin are mostly low in References
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134
Table 12. Effects of soil improvement and cropping patterns on cassava grown on
Yasothon soils (group 35).
Cropping pattern
Soil improvement Average Index
Cassava Cassava/peanut intercrop
Table 13. Cassava yield and soil loss due to soil erosion in fields with slope of 3.2–6.7%
in Kalasin (1997).
135
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Agriculture. p 158-164. (In Thai.) tural Development Research Center in Northeast
Mitsuchi M, Wichaidit P, Jeungnijnirund S. 1986. Outline Thailand, Khon Kaen. 142 p.
of soils of the Northeast Plateau, Thailand: their
characteristics and constraints. Technical Paper No. 1.
Agricultural Development Research Center in Notes
Northeast Thailand, Khon Kaen. 80 p.
Moncharoen L, Kunaporn S. 1992. Soil resources and soils Authors’ addresses: Chairoj Wongwiwatchai, Khon Kaen
of Thailand. In: Pongsakul P, Parkpien P, editors. Field Crops Research Center, 180 Mitraparb Rd.,
Handbook of soil improvement and fertilizer applica- Muang District, Khon Kaen 40000, Thailand; Kobkiet
tion. Department of Soil Science, Kasetsart University, Paisancharoen, Field Crops Soil Fertility Research
Bangkok. p 11-33. (In Thai.) Group, Soil Science Division, Jatujak, Bangkok
10900, Thailand.
136
Nutrient management in rainfed lowland rice-
based systems in northeast Thailand
Yothin Konboon, J.D. Wijnhoud, and Rod D.B. Lefroy
Infertile soils and declining soil fertility are widespread in many agroecosystems in
northeast Thailand, including those based on rainfed lowland rice. During the past
30 years, many national and international institutions involved in agricultural research
have carried out research on management strategies to overcome these problems.
Farmers have adopted some research outcomes, whereas others have had minimal
Impact.
This paper gives a brief overview of the characteristics of these agroecosyetems
and outlines past and ongoing research on nutrient management in the rainfed low-
land rice-based systems of northeast Thailand. In addition, it deals wlth the imple-
mentation and impact of research results.
Appropriate nutrient management strategies include the use of inorganic fertil-
izers and various organic inputs, the integration of inorganic and organic inputs, and
changes to cropping systems that improve the use of nutrients. There is a need for
more interdisciplinary and participatory approaches to research that deals concur-
rently with biophysical and socioeconomic factors. Research at the agroecosystem
level, which includes nutrient balance studies and interdisciplinary and participatory
approaches, is outlined.
Thailand is a major-rice growing and exporting nutrients, result in significant depletion and imbal-
country, with rice production in 1995 estimated at 22 ances of crop nutrients in the soil. This situation has
million tons (OAE 1998). Among the four regions in deteriorated as more marginal parts of the landscape
Thailand, the northeast is the most populous and the are used for agricultural production. The greater
poorest. The northeast has about one-third of the total reliance on marginal lands includes expansion of rice
area of the country and the largest area under agricul- cultivation to higher parts of the topography, where
ture, with more than 40% of the nation's agricultural crops are more prone to failure as a result of limited
land. Because of poor soil conditions, an unfavorable, water availability during dry spells. In addition,
or at least unreliable, climate, and a weak economic upland fields and rice paddies located relatively high
infrastructure, partly because of the relatively small in the topography are more prone to soil fertility
nonfarm sector, possibilities for income generation decline because of a greater potential for nutrient
are limited. runoff and leaching. Rough nutrient balances esti-
The northeast has the largest area of land under mated for major land-use systems in northeast
rice production, at approximately 5.12 million ha, or Thailand indicate significant problems in nutrient
56% of the national rice land, but the lowest average management, and thus natural resource management,
rice yield of the country (OAE 1998). The average in the ecoregion (Lefroy and Konboon 1998).
rice grain yield in Thailand is 2.2 t ha–1; however, the The recent economic crisis has probably in-
average in the northeast is 1.7 t ha–1 versus 2.9 t ha–1 creased the rate of environmental and social decline.
in the more fertile Central Region. Many people lost their jobs in Bangkok and other
An increase in both agricultural and nonagricul- cities and had to return to the resource-poor rural
tural production is required to alleviate poverty in areas, thus producing increased pressure on land
northeast Thailand. Current production systems, with resources. The direct effects of the recent economic
law inputs of inorganic and organic sources of downturn on rice cultivation in northeast Thailand are
137
not fully appreciated. During the time of relative which is well below the maximum rates at which
prosperity before the economic crisis, many farmers crops respond. Because of financial constraints and.
committed themselves to high loans to improve their the risk of water shortages, however, farmers-rareiy
farms, but now have problems with repayment. follow these recommendations. Most farmers-apply
Relatively high interest rates contributed to these high 16-16-8 at rates of between 6 and 12 kg rai-l (ap-
levels of indebtedness (Miyagawa et al 1998). The proximately 6-12 kg N ha-1, 2.5–5 kg P ha-1, and 2.5–
economic downturn exacerbated the already unequal 5 kg K ha-1) (ACIAR PN9448 1998). Moreover, the
distribution of wealth, and contributed to an even high sand and low SOM contents of the majority of
greater poverty trap for the rural population in northeast soils mean that there is little capacity to
northeast Thailand, particularly for disadvantaged hold nutrients, which can result in significant leaching
groups and people living in resource-poor areas in the of applied fertilizer, leading to low nutrient-use
region (ADB 1999). efficiency.
This paper provides an overview of recent The key to improving the efficiency of nutrient
research on nutrient management for rainfed lowland use and reducing losses lies in the synchronization of
rice-based systems in northeast Thailand, where it has nutrient supply, particularly of N, with plant require-
succeeded, where it has failed or had limited impact, ment. This can be achieved through split application
and what challenges remain for future research, of fertilizers (Konboon et a1 1998), the use of
development, and implementation. controlled-release N fertilizers (Wonprasaid and
Chaiwat 1997), and subsoil compaction to reduce
leaching (Sharma 1993). However, problems exist
Research and development to date with these approaches. The coincidence of prolonged
submergence with basal applications and drought with
Introduction later applications is a common feature in rainfed
Soil fertility decline is widespread in many situations in the northeast, which makes synchroniza-
agroecosystems in northeast Thailand, including those tion difficult. As a result, farmers apply N fertilizers
based on rainfed lowland rice. During the past 30 according to water availability, regardless of plant
years, many national and international institutions need; thus, application in synchrony with plant
involved in agricultural research have carried out demand is not always practical. The use of chloro-
research on management strategies to overcome these phyll meters or calibrated leaf color charts to improve
problems. These management strategies include the the timing of split applications, or of controlled-
use of mineral fertilizers, the addition of organic release N fertilizers, may help to achieve better
materials, more integrated approaches to nutrient synchrony between demand and supply, although
management, and alterations to the cropping and these options are now too expensive or require further
farming systems. development. Subsoil compaction is not practical for
farmers.
Mineral fertilizers Once improved N nutrition is achieved, more
The simplest and, in many ways, most convenient attention can be directed at improved management of
method for farmers in northeast Thailand to improve other nutrients. Information already exists on the
soil fertility and to increase rice yields has been to use requirements for some nutrients, including P (e.g.,
mineral fertilizers, especially those containing Lefroy et al 1988, Ruaysoongnem 1997), K (e.g.,
nitrogen. Nitrogen is the most common yield-limiting Hatsathon et al 1977), and S (e.g., Kurmarohita et al
nutrient. In some cases, the use of nitrogen fertilizer 1978, Blair and Lefroy 1990).
alone can improve rice yields enormously, with One key issue relating to the application of
positive responses to applications of up to 120 kg N inorganic fertilizer is the possible effect on rice
ha-1 (Konboon et al 1998). Although there is a greater quality. There is evidence that the application of high
risk of leaf blast disease at higher rates of N, farmers rates of N decreases the quality of the aromatic rice
can avoid this by splitting fertilizer applications. varieties widely grown in northeast Thailand, such as
For lowland rice production in this area, the KDML 105, whereas increasing K fertilizer applica-
Department of Agriculture recommends the use of 25 tions can increase aromatic quality (Hatsathon et al
kg rai-l of 16-16-8 or 16-20-0 fertilizer as a basal 1997). However, the nature of the response of yield to
dressing and 5 kg rai-l of urea at panicle initiation to fertilizer applications needs to be clarified to provide
match plant demand for nutrients. This is equivalent better recommendations to farmers.
to 40 kg N ha-1, 12 kg P ha-1, and 0 to 10 kg K ha-1,
138
Organic materials Higher-quality residues such as pigeonpea (Cajanus
Organic materials have been used widely and cajan) produced more rapid yield responses, but did
successfully as soil amendments to improve soil not result in the same improvements in SOM. Even
fertility and yields in northeast Thailand. Tradition- when the quantities of residues applied are small, the
ally, organic materials were recycled within the challenge is to develop appropriate systems to grow
farming systems, although it is almost certain that the these trees in or around paddy fields (Konboon et al
rates of application were low. Research into the 1999).
benefits of applications of organic materials has Given the relatively low crop production and low
included crop residues, such as rice stubble and rice soil fertility in northeast Thailand, the use of on-farm
husks (Supapoj et al 1998), plant residues, such as residues, such as rice stubble and rice husks, together
leaf litter of leguminous trees (Konboon et al 1999), with on-farm leguminous leaf litters, appears to offer
and animal wastes, such as dung (Supapoj et al 1998). some long-term improvements in soil fertility and the
Farmers commonly use crop residues, such as level and sustainability of yields. The use of off-farm
straw, stubble, and rice husks, to improve soil fertility. organic resources will likely be less important, except
Although in the past many farmers in northeast in highly productive areas or in areas close to a large
Thailand burned rice stubble to make plowing easier, source of material, such as near rice mills or intensive
now it is more common to retain the stubble. Farmers livestock production systems.
and extension workers recognize that the management Much of the research that has been carried out on
of these materials is an important part of nutrient the addition of organic materials shows promising
management aimed at improving soil fertility in the results; however, many of the results have been
region. With average grain yields of 1.7 t ha–1, there unavailable to extension workers and of limited
should be an average of 2.5 to 3 t ha–1 of rice residue relevance to specific farming areas.
for recycling in paddy fields of northeast Thailand.
With proper management, these materials can have a Integrated nutrient management and a
significant effect on soil fertility and rice yields of the systems approach
region. The only major competition for recycling the In northeast Thailand, the application of chemical
residues is the demand for their use as animal forage. fertilizer alone has been shown to enhance soil
Another important form of organic material for chemical properties, and thus increase yields, in the
use as a soil fertility amendment is animal dung. One short term; however, these strategies may result in
on-farm source of animal dung is from buffaloes; low nutrient-use efficiency in the longer term.
however, the number of buffaloes has declined Although application of organic materials can
rapidly as hand tractors replace buffalo traction increase SOM and improve soil physical, chemical,
power. From 1987 to 1995, the number of buffaloes and biological properties, a shortage of nutrient
in northeast Thailand decreased by 27%, whereas the supply to the rice crop may occur. Therefore, inte-
number of hand tractors increased sharply, by 284% grated application of inorganic fertilizers and organic
(OAE 1991, 1998). At the same time, the number of materials may be more appropriate for farmers to
livestock, particularly cattle and chicken, continued to raise SOM and soil fertility in these areas.
increase to satisfy the demand for milk, meat, and Much research has focused on nutrient manage-
eggs. Thus, the overall supply of animal wastes ment during the growth of the rice crop. It is equally
increased in the whole of the northeast, although the important to direct attention to generating and
distribution among farms and among livestock developing management strategies that focus on a
species is changing. systems approach to integrated nutrient management
Tree or shrub leaf litters from on-farm sources to sustain productivity and protect the resource base.
show promise for improving soil fertility and increas- The introduction of legume species into rice
ing SOM. Some studies have demonstrated very large monocropping systems can significantly enhance soil
and rapid responses to large applications of legume fertility as a result of the net input of biologically
leaf litter (Rathert et al 1991); however, in many fixed N into the system, thus minimizing the use of
cases, the levels applied are impractical. The URRC- external inputs. In the long run, the introduction of
ACIAR collaborative research projects have demon- legumes can improve the nutrition of rice with respect
strated that the use of relatively small amounts (up to to other nutrients, particularly P. First, the improved
1.5 t dry matter ha–1 y–1) of plant materials such as fertility resulting from the legume can increase the
Samanea saman, Acacia auriculiformis, and vigor of the rice plants, resulting in greater root
Phyllanthus taxodifolius can increase rice yield by growth, and thus nutrient acquisition and nutrient-use
20–25% and SOM by 20% over several years, efficiency. Second, the introduction of legumes often
139
requires addressing other nutrient problems, particu- outlined in the following sections. Many of these
larly P management. The result can be a direct benefit approaches will reduce problems associated with the
to rice through the improved P status of the soil. third category; however, several issues are less related
The Thai-IRRI collaborative project has carried to the research and are more associated with imple-
out both on-station and on-farm trials to investigate mentation and institutional and professional struc-
the use of Sesbania rostrata and Aeschynomene tures.
afraspera as prerice green manures (Herrera et al First, many research programs do not include a
1989). The results obtained, both on-station and on- dissemination and implementation phase, or this
farm, are very promising. The use of S. rostrata and phase is planned, funded, and executed poorly.
A. afraspera can dramatically increase rice yields, Unfortunately, a major goal of many research
although problems exist for adoption of the technol- programs is the production of reports and publica-
ogy by farmers. The major disadvantages of these tions in scientific journals, not impact on end-users.
strategies are the shortage of labor for green manure Optimal dissemination and implementation of results
incorporation, the chemical fertilizer requirements of can be regarded as being of less importance because
the green manure crop, and the shortage of seeds. this process does not match the skills and interests of
Many researchers have investigated legume crops the planners and implementers, or because promotion
such as mungbean, cowpea, and others as pre- or within institutions is tied to easily measurable factors,
postrice crops. These strategies are unlikely to such as numbers of reports and publications and not
produce the large short-term increases in rice yield the impact on farmers, which is much harder to
seen with S. rostruta and A. afraspera, but they do measure.
not have the same problems of adoption. Neverthe- Second, minimal standardization of data collec-
less, these strategies are risky in rainfed lowland tion, management, interpretation, and dissemination
conditions where inundation in prerice crops and plus limited sharing of data result in repetition of
water shortages in postrice crops pose significant research, which is inefficient. In general, this problem
problems (Supapoj et al 1998). results from a lack of research collaboration and
coordination at all scales, both within and between
institutions and countries. In addition, there is a
Research impact, opportunities, and general lack of consensus on guidelines for data
trends collection and analysis, interpretation, and storage, all
of which would result in more standardized, acces-
The low impact of research sible, and reliable data sets.
Although research in northeast Thailand may have Another problem, which is common in research
been very successful in some instances, it is observed in many parts of the world, is that of overlapping
frequently that the impact on improving land and mandates and responsibilities between different
nutrient management is minimal. This observation is groups involved in the research, development, and
true for research in agricultural systems in many implementation continuum. These differences occur
countries. Although the reasons for limited impact of both intra- and interinstitutionally, particularly
research are complex, they can be divided into three between research units and extension services and
broad categories: end-users.
1. The research undertaken is simply wrong, Many of these problems are difficult to address
particularly with respect to the biophysical and directly. Frequently, the root cause is inadequate staff
environmental limitations and constraints, thus and funding; however, some of these problems will
leading to incorrect or inappropriate results. decrease or disappear as greater emphasis is placed
2. Results that are appropriate in the biophysical on conversion of scientific research results into user-
sense are rejected by potential end-users for friendly recommendations and tools for use by
cultural, social, and economic reasons, or extension workers, farmers, and other end-users.
because of their low or negative impact on Achieving and assessing impact from research aimed
longer-term sustainability. at improved sustainable land management must be
3. Good research results simply do not survive the considered from the inception of the research
transition from research to the development and program (Maglinao 1998).
implementation of strategies.
Methods for overcoming problems associated Improving the use of existing data
with the first two categories lie in improving the There is a great deal of information on nutrient
actual research that is undertaken and these are management from national and international research
140
projects in northeast Thailand and in similar Wit et al 1995). Following the agroecological zoning
agroecosystems in neighboring countries, but the initiative by FAO (1978, 1980), the move to consider
availability of this information to farmers and research questions within a broader environmental
extension services must be increased. This informa- context took shape, such that research was managed
tion will allow a better understanding of likely in a more ecoregional or agroecological context. The
responses to fertilizer and a better assessment of the latter two terms suggest that biophysical aspects are
value and management of organic materials in the of greater importance to agricultural practices, which
cropping systems of the region. Much of these data is not the case.
are unpublished or in a wide range of “gray-litera- All of the environmental and other components
ture” sources that are not readily available. Collation that need to be evaluated holistically are included
and reassessment of these data through appropriate more implicitly in the resource management domain
training programs, together with a small amount of (RMD) concept (IBSRAM 1996). An RMD refers to
focused research, would significantly enhance the the overall biophysical, agroecological, socioeco-
value of the research that has been conducted already. nomic, political, and management setting of a
The development of databases that contain nutrient research question. Both the spatial dimensions of an
management data for rice-based systems is essential. RMD and its nonspatial level of complexity are
Such databases would be developed for use by purpose- and information-driven (Kam and Oberthuer
extension services and could be enhanced signifi- 1996).
cantly by using them to develop new extension Recommendations for different land-use systems
materials and decision support systems. New ap- within an RMD must develop within the context of
proaches in information management and dissemina- potential conflicts for the various biophysical, social,
tion must be used. and economic resources of all end-users. Thus, it is
necessary to tailor extension packages to the resource
Participatory and Interdisciplinary bases of farmers, and not only to separate ecologi-
research methods cally determined production systems. Such tailored
A solution to some of the problems of past research packages are best achieved through participatory and
may be provided by greater use of more participatory interdisciplinary research methods.
and interdisciplinary research methods. Participatory The examples and guidelines of farmer participa-
and interdisciplinary approaches are dealt with tory learning and action research aimed at developing
simultaneously as they are highly related. Interdisci- appropriate soil fertility management in sub-Saharan
plinary and multidisciplinary methods ensure that a Africa (Defoer et al 1998a,b) appear promising for
range of disciplines are included, while participation implementation in other parts of the world that
of the major stakeholders ensures that the critical experience substantial soil fertility problems, such as
disciplines are involved and that the research is northeast Thailand.
placed in an appropriate social and environmental
context, normally that of the farmer and the farming Integrated agroecological research
community. Research to improve agricultural practices often
Tailor-made participatory research and participa- focuses on individual problems and solutions.
tory extension can result in improved dissemination Although this approach has produced significant
of data results and implementation of recommenda- outcomes, it can, at times, be of limited relevance.
tions. This helps ensure that research is directed more This situation has improved with more integrated
toward practical problems in the context in which research on multiple and complex problems, such as
they exist. The participatory approach does not mean the integration of soil, water, and nutrient manage-
that farmers take the lead, but rather that a top-down- ment, and the inclusion of the critical socioeconomic
bottom-up approach of aided participation is started, factors. In the context of nutrient management
based on structured mutual interaction among research, this has included a move to multinutrient
farmers, extension workers, and researchers (e.g., problems, to integrated management of inorganic and
Shumba et al 1995). organic materials, and to research on the interaction
Knowledge about the general diversification and between nutrients and water supply. But much more
complexity of an environment has major implications needs to be done.
for the establishment and promotion of extension Understanding the RMDs of northeast Thailand
messages proposed for specific sets of environmental involves a clear classification in terms of the particu-
conditions, both biophysical and socioeconomic (De lar biophysical and socioeconomic characteristics of
141
the particular agroecosystem of interest. Many of the will help focus the plans for new research. New
research and development activities in northeast research needs to be aimed at a better understanding
Thailand can benefit from such classification. of responses to individual nutrients, to interactions
To this end, multidisciplinary biophysical between nutrients, and to nutrients supplied from
research on improved nutrient management needs to different inorganic and organic forms.
focus on critical factors that control nutrient availabil-
ity. Considering climate as a given factor, the main Rice quality. It is essential that strategies that
factors that further influence nutrient availability are increase the production of aromatic rice in the
soil type and topography. In turn, they influence northeast, for national consumption and export, do
inherent nutrient supply, nutrient-holding capacity, not reduce the product’s high quality. Analysis of
soil hydrology, and thus the balance between nutrient existing data will likely indicate several areas for
supply and the various nutrient-loss processes. In further research on the interactions among the supply
combination, these affect current land use and define of different nutrients, yield, and quality, resulting in a
potential land-use capability. The large variability in better identification of those areas most suited to the
RMD characteristics across small distances means production of aromatic rice.
that developing location-specific technology packages
can be difficult. Nutrient supply and soil moisture. Variations in
The short-range variations in biophysical factors, rice yield in northeast Thailand are related to water
which are characteristic of northeast Thailand (Kam supply, nutrient supply, and their interactions.
and Oberthuer 1996), mean that some critical aspects Increasing the water supply must rely mainly on
of domain characteristics cannot be mapped as reasonably large-scale infrastructural developments
homogeneous units. Data are insufficient for such such as land leveling, on-farm water storage, or
spatial definition and collection of the data required irrigation schemes; however, there may be some
to achieve a sufficient data density is impractical. limited scope for improving water management
Despite this, the fine details of resource characteris- through management of crop rotations.
tics, which are critical for selection of appropriate Management of nutrient supply can affect water
management strategies, can be described within the use significantly in some upland farming systems in
context of the spatially defined RMD. Whenever northeast Thailand. Although the effect will be less,
these characteristics can be recognized by farmers as the same may occur in some rainfed lowland rice
components of spatially defined RMDs, they can be systems. In addition, the availability of water appar-
used as important criteria to select appropriate ently has a significant effect on nutrient-use effi-
management practices. ciency, through an effect on crop growth and nutrient-
It is important that integrated agroecological loss processes. These interactions need to be better
approaches to research include assessment of these understood to improve recommendations on timing,
domain characteristics so that the locations for placement. and rates of applications of different
implementation of research outcomes can be identi- fertilizers and organic materials.
fied accurately.
Crop establishment. Periodic and overall
Specific research topics shortages of labor have a significant effect on rice
Along with the more general aspects of improving production systems in the northeast. One critical
research, development, and implementation in an change in production systems is the move to crop
integrated agroecological context and using participa- establishment by direct seeding rather than transplant-
tory and inter-/multidisciplinary methods, it is ing. The rates and management of fertilizers and
possible to identify several important research topics organic inputs are of particular importance as
that need to be addressed or are being addressed in research topics within the context of crop establish-
northeast Thailand. ment, weed management, and evaluation of varieties.
142
within the whole system. In addition, the opportunity factors. The survey revealed that mean annual nutrient
should be taken to evaluate species with less fre- balances for N, P, and K, including inputs in fertiliz-
quently used criteria. For instance, residue quality is a ers, organic residues, and biological nitrogen fixation,
criterion for considering the value of a species as a and removal in products, but excluding leaching,
soil amendment, for increasing nutrient supply and erosion, and gaseous losses, were all positive. The
SOM, and as forage for animals. Similarly, the mean values were 8 kg N ha-1, 29 kg P ha-1, and 35 kg
criterion of biomass production may take precedence K ha-1; however, the ranges were large: -115to 89 kg
over product yield. ha-l for N, 8 to 73 kg ha-1 for P, and -24 to 122 kg
In all research on crop species and varieties for ha-1 for K. The inclusion of losses would reduce
inclusion as in-time or in-space rotations within these balances, particularly for N and K.
farming systems, it is critical that their acceptability Much of the variation between farms appeared to
be on the basis of socioeconomic as well as biophysi- be related to differences in the proportions of off-farm
cal considerations of the management systems. income and nonrice on-farm income. As the propor-
tions of income from rice increased, the productivity
Economic analyses. The integration of biophysi- and sustainability of the farms decreased. A sample of
cal aspects of research and the development of true 10 farms is too small to accept this general hypothesis
multi- and interdisciplinarity within biophysical or to investigate other hypotheses, so a more compre-
research must be broadened to include the critical hensive data set will be collected in five representa-
aspects of socioeconomics. The assessment of tive tambons (subdistricts) in Ubon Ratchathani
management strategies is not complete without an Province, using a newly developed farm inventory
economic evaluation. Ideally, this economic evalua- form. Selection of these tambons was based mainly
tion should include some sensitivity analysis to assess on the incorporation of the main agroecosytems
the risk associated with different strategies. The within the province, based on combinations of soil
difference between maximum responses in research and land use, plus the availability of existing data and
results and the recommendations made by extension the presence of related studies.
services are usually explained by economics. In many In addition to the assessment of nutrient balances
cases, the difference between recommendations and at different scales, emphasis will be placed on
farmer practices results from farmer assessment, identifying socioeconomic and biophysical character-
correct or not, of the risk associated with a particular istics that influence nutrient balances at different scale
strategy, and with other important socioeconomic levels. This requires details of the socioeconomic and
factors. Risk analysis should clearly become a greater biophysical characteristics that define the RMD as
part of the research agenda in terms of converting accurately and precisely as possible. Recommenda-
fertilizer responses and other management practices tions on integrated nutrient management (INM),
into recommendations for farmers. aimed at optimizing nutrient cycling within and
between the different parts of the farm, are an
Nutrient balance studies. A critical component of expected outcome of NBS-NET.
land management, which is affected by factors The nutrient balances at the field and farm level
important in RMD classification, is nutrient budgets. will be scaled up to subdistrict, district, and provin-
Nutrient budgets are a characteristic of the land-use cial levels and should complement land evaluation
system and its current management. Assessment of and land-use planning approaches at larger scales.
nutrient balances can assist in developing improved Large-scale planning is criticized frequently for
land management for particular land-use systems fulfilling the objectives of stakeholders at the larger
within particular RMDs. scale, but not those at the smaller scale, such as the
A collaborative research project on “Nutrient village and farm. Including nutrient balances from the
Balance Studies in Northeast Thailand (NBS-NET)” small scale in land evaluation and land-use planning
between the Ubon Ratchathani Rice Research Center at the larger scales may increase the relevance to
(URRC) and the International Board for Soil Re- stakeholders at smaller scales.
search Management (IBSRAM) began in 1998 The project will need to build on existing
(IBSRAM 1999). During the first phase, a reasonably research results and link up with other ongoing
detailed survey of 10 rainfed lowland rice-based research activities in Ubon Ratchathani Province and
farms was carried out in Muang District of Ubon other parts of northeast Thailand. NBS-NET cannot
Ratchathani Province. The main objectives were to rely completely on its own primary data, but needs to
assess nutrient balances at the field and farm levels link to other research activities on leaching and other
and to identify linkages with key socioeconomic soil, water, and nutrient management research,
143
especially that dealing with micro-topographic able. Although the opportunities for using household
effects. and urban wastes are limited in the northeast, com-
NBS-NET aims to develop simple tools for pared with other areas, particularly Bangkok, recy-
farmers and extension workers to assist them in cling of these materials in agricultural production
evaluating the sustainability of farm practices at the should be increased where possible and ways found to
field and farm level. Another objective is to set up a minimize nutrient removal from sites of agricultural
georeferenced database containing relevant data for production and maximize the return of nutrients.
policymakers dealing with land-use planning, and for
marketing and distribution by the fertilizer industry.
Other research efforts on nutrient balances, Conclusions
especially those in sub-Saharan Africa, reveal that
assessment of nutrient balances is a powerful tool for The low and declining soil fertility in many
evaluating the sustainability of agroecosystems at agroecosystems in northeast Thailand and the poverty
different scale levels (Smaling 1998, Defoer et al of many farm households of the region are indicative
1998a). Nutrient balance principles can be linked to of the great need for research, development, and
socioeconomic data and can be used to develop implementation efforts to improve agricultural
improved recommendations aimed at both the productivity and the sustainability of the rural
biophysical and socioeconomic aspects of systems. As long as the economic situation does not
sustainability. In addition, nutrient budgets have a permit an increase in off-farm income, solutions for
significant educational role within farmer participa- income generation have to be sought on-farm, by
tory research (FPR) and farmer participatory exten- means of farm diversification and the increased use of
sion (FPE) methods. improved management strategies. The Asian Devel-
opment Bank has noted that improved agricultural
On-site, short-distance, and interregional practices are critical to restoring export competitive-
transfer of nutrients. The consumption of agricultural ness and to alleviating poverty, and that this process,
products, whether for the household, for urban including overcoming the negative effects of the
centers, or for export, involves a significant transfer economic crisis, will require substantial investments,
of nutrients. With increasing population and urbaniza- such as water resource management projects and
tion in Thailand, as in many countries, there is an institutional and policy reforms (ADB 1999).
increasing supply of household and other wastes, with Many national and international institutions
a concentration in urban and periurban regions involved in agricultural research have highlighted
resulting, in part, from the movement of agricultural nutrient and farming system management strategies
produce to the centers of high population and for that should improve agricultural productivity in
export. This movement of produce to population northeast Thailand. These management strategies
centers results in waste management problems in include the use of inorganic fertilizers and various
these centers and nutrient losses from the areas of organic inputs, the integration of inorganic and
production. organic inputs, more integrated approaches to nutrient
Waste materials provide a potentially valuable management, and changes in the cropping and
source of organic matter and plant nutrients for farming systems. Although farmers have adopted
agricultural areas. There is a requirement for research some research outcomes, it appears that others have
to find appropriate solutions for the effective and safe failed to be adopted for several reasons.
use of these materials for agricultural production. The research results that exist need to be put into
At the farm and household level, the assessment the context of the biophysical and socioeconomic
of nutrient balances can help to identify ways of constraints of the farming communities and then
minimizing nutrient transfers and reducing and extension materials and methods developed for
replacing losses. As the distances for product, and implementation. The identification of resource
thus nutrient, transfer increase, the possibilities for, management domains and strategies that match these
and ease of, recycling nutrients decrease and the issue domains must become a major focus of research and a
of minimizing nutrient removal becomes more tool for implementation of improved land manage-
critical. ment strategies. An increased use of participatory and
Considering the huge amounts of rice, cassava, multi-/interdisciplinary research methods is required
and other agricultural products moved from northeast to increase the quality and relevance of the research
Thailand to Bangkok, other parts of the country, and and increase the likelihood of adoption of improved
abroad, the amount of nutrient transfer is consider- strategies by farmers.
144
Although several highly specific research topics Soil Fertility and Fertilizer Research Group, Soil
can be undertaken in comparative isolation, the Science Division, Department of Agriculture. (In
majority require attention at the farming systems Thai.)
Herrera WT, Vejpas C, Garrity DD, Sompaew V, Thongpan
level. An agroecosystems or ecoregional approach,
N. 1989. Development of green manure technology
with coordination and collaboration of research
for rainfed lowland rice on acid infertile soils in
efforts across and within institutions, should increase Northeast Thailand. Paper presented at the Saturday
the efficiency of these research efforts to the greater IRRI Seminar, International Rice Research Institute,
benefit of the rural poor. Los Baños, Philippines.
IBSRAM (International Board for Soil Research and
Management). 1996. Proceedings of the International
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146
Managing problem soils in northeast Thailand
A. Yuvaniyama
Northeast Thailand covers 17 million ha, or one-third of the country. More than 80%
of the population is engaged in agriculture and most of the area is under rainfed
agriculture. The low income in this region is due to low agricultural productivity, which
in turn is due to poor soil and erratic rainfall. Farmers have been trying to increase
crop production by extending arable land through deforestation, which accelerates
environmental degradation.
The majority of the soils are formed from old alluvial sediments in the low ter-
races and lower part of the middle terrace. The soils are mainly low humic gley, of
sandy nature and deep, commonly with strong mottles that tend to change to a
plinthitic nature. Chemical analysis of soil properties reveals low to very low organic
matter and indigenous plant nutrient contents (including available phosphorus and
potassium), water-holding capacity, base saturation, pH, and cation exchange ca-
pacity (CEC).
Problem soils occurring in northeast Thailand include saline soils, acid soils,
sandy-textured soils, and skeletal soils, whereas soil erosion constitutes a major
land degradation problem. This paper reviews management strategies on problem
soils in northeast Thailand for sustainable agriculture, aimed at optimizing the effi-
ciency of external inputs rather than maximizing yields. The Department of Land
Development (DLD) disseminates information on low-cost technology that is effec-
tive and practical through farmland demonstration plots, with emphasis on organic
matter application to increase soil fertility, crop management, and cultivation prac-
tices.
Northeast Thailand covers 17 million ha, or one-third 1986). Some soils are highly erodible, especially
of the country. More than 80% of the population is those with a low organic matter content and light
engaged in agriculture and most of the area is under sandy texture. During a rainstorm, the clay particles
rainfed agriculture. The low income in this region is are easily dispersed and move downward with water
due to low agricultural productivity, which in turn is to settle in between the rows of the crop or in low
due to poor soil and erratic rainfall. spots, leaving almost pure sand particles on the ridges
Most of the soils in northeast Thailand are where the crops are transplanted. The clay particles
derived from sandstone, shale, or siltstone and are settle and often form a sheet that hardens into a
inherently low in potassium, calcium, magnesium, surface crust, which can impede water infiltration,
and phosphorus (Ragland and Boonpuckdee 1988). aeration, drainage, and seedling emergence. The lack
Being highly weathered, they are sandy and have low of available carbon and the presence of factors
organic matter and clay contents. The low clay unfavorable for microbial growth account for the low
content, combined with a predominance of kaolinitic biological activity in the soils (Panichapong 1988).
minerals, gives rise to high acidity and low cation As land is a limited natural resource, and suitable
exchange and buffering capacities. Parts of the region land has already been used for agriculture, degraded
are underlain by salt-bearing rock, resulting in land must be used and managed to feed the increasing
geologically induced salinity problems (Mitsuchi et al population.
147
General physical environment of the The major land uses in northeast Thailand are
northeast rice cultivation in the flat lowlands and cassava,
sugarcane, maize, sorghum, and fiber crop cultivation
Physiography in the undulating upland. Land use of northeast
The Northeast Region of Thailand, also called the Thailand in 1998 was as follows: 2.1 million ha
Korat Plateau, lies between longitudes 101-105°E (13%) of forest, 9.3 million ha (54%) of farm land,
and latitudes 14-18°N. The plateau is gently undulat- and 5.5 million ha (32.5%) of unclassified land.
ing and is bounded in the south and west by steep Paddy land and land under field crops constitute 6.1
escarpments. The elevation ranges from 100 to 200 million ha (36.1%) and 2.1 million ha (13%),
m. The land surface and the underlying rock forma- respectively (Agricultural Statistics Center 1997).
tions slope gently inward to the center of the plateau.
The northern and eastern boundary is the Mekong Soils and land forms
River, which separates Thailand and Lao PDR. The The Northeast Region can be divided into four major
plateau consists of a relatively flat saucer-shape basin geographical units-the alluvial plains, plateaus,
called the Korat Basin, tilted to the southeast, and a mountainous areas, and intramountainous areas
narrow smaller basin called the Sakhon Nakhon Basin (Miura et al 1990). Soils and land forms are closely
to the north. The two basins are separated by the Phu related and together they largely influence cropping
Phan mountain range. The Korat Basin is drained by practices and soil management in different parts of
two large rivers, the Mun and the Chi, and the Sakhon the region. Soils in the lower-lying parts of the
Nakhon Basin by the Song Khram River, all of which landscape are poorly drained and are flooded
flow into the Mekong (Gardner et al 1967). annually for a certain period. Rice is the most
The undulating to rolling land forms of the important crop in this area. In the upland type of land
northeast plateau comprise several small watersheds. forms, diverse field crops are found (Kheoruenromne
The major landscape features are the multilevel river and Kesawapitak 1989).
terraces, of which three important levels are recog- The soils in northeast Thailand are derived from
nized: the low, middle, and high terraces. The middle a few major groups of parental material: (1) alluvium,
terrace is dominant in the northern part of the Korat mainly of sandstone origin, (2) colluvium, mainly of
Plateau and the low terrace is dominant in the sandstone origin, and (3) residual sandstone and basic
southern portion, particularly in the Mun River rock such as basalt (Moncharoen et al 1987,
system. Panichapong 1988).
Based on the soil taxonomy classification, there
Climate are seven soil orders and 21 great groups in northeast
The climate of the region is classified as hot savanna Thailand (Vijarnsorn 1980), as listed in Table 1.
(Aw) according to Koppen’s classification. The mean Table 2 lists the major soil series in northeast Thai-
annual temperature is from 26 to 27 °C. Mean annual land.
rainfall during 1951-89 was 1,403 mm and mean The alluvial plains are distributed along the Mun
annual evaporation was 1,729 mm. For the period and Chi rivers and their tributaries in the Korat Basin,
1986-90, the highest mean rainfall (2,975 mm) was and along the Mekong River and its tributaries in the
recorded for Nakhon Phanom, whereas the lowest Sakon Nakhon Basin. Fertile soils such as
(591 mm) was recorded for Nakhon Ratchasima Tropaquepts (hydromorphic alluvial soils) and
(Korat). Korat has the longest period of moisture Tropepts (alluvial soils) occur in these plains.
deficit in northeast Thailand. Moreover, rainfall is However, these alluvial plains are small in area and
unevenly distributed and occurs in the rainy season as comprise only about 6% of the total area of northeast
torrential rains. Precipitation generally exceeds Thailand.
evaporation from May to September, whereas the The gently undulating plateau makes up-nearly
region suffers from a soil moisture deficit during the 80% of northeast Thailand. Basement rocks are
other months. Mesozoic to Tertiary sandstone and siltstone of the
Korat Group, of which the Mahasarakham Formation
Vegetation and land use (formerly called the Salt Formation) is the uppermost
The natural vegetation in northeast Thailand is dry formation. Most soils on the plateau are directly or
monsoon forest, with predominantly mixed deciduous indirectly derived from those formations.
and dipterocarp trees (Moormann and Paleustults (Red-Yellow Podzolic and Gray
Rojanasoonthorn 1972). Most of the forests have Podzolic soils) and Paleaquults (low humic gley soils)
been cleared for agriculture over the past 40 years. are widespread. These soils are characterized by
148
Table 1. Great groups of soil in northeast Thailand.
Group A
Quartzipsamments These soils are found on alluvial terraces having undulating topography with slopes ranging from 3% to
8%. They have A-C profiles with sandy texture throughout. Sand grains are composed of greater than
95% SiO2. These soils are rapidly to excessively drained. Water-holding capacity is very low. Fertility
status is low to very low.
Ustipsamments These soils are similar to the Quartzipsamments except that the sand grains are less than 95% SiO2.
Ustifluvents These soils are found on the levees of the major rivers such as the Chi, Mun, and Mekong, and, in
general, have less than a 5% slope. They have A-C profiles but the texture of each horizon is varied.
Profiles can be sand alternating with loam texture. Drainage of the soils is good to moderate. Fertility
is medium.
Ustorthents These soils are found along the base of hills or mountains. They are shallow with rocks or rock
fragments found at less than 50-cm depths. They can have either A-G-R or A-R profiles and are not
considered suitable for agricultural purposes.
Chromusterts These soils are found on slightly sloping topography and are derived from basalt. They have A-C profiles
with heavy clay texture throughout. They crack deep. They have a pale color. They normally have high
fertility but their suitability for agriculture is outweighed by their poor physical characteristics.
Pellusterts These soils are similar to Chromusterts except that the color of the upper 30 cm of the surface soil is
very dark or black.
Tropaquepts These soils are found in backswamps or low terrace positions having flat topography and slopes less
than 2%. They have A-B (cambic) profiles. Soil texture is clay or loam with a predominantly gray color.
Brownish, reddish, or yellowish mottles are found throughout the profile. They are poorly drained;
during rainy seasons, water stagnates for a long period. Water-holding capacity is moderately high to
high. Fertility is low to moderate.
Halaquepts These soils are found on the low terraces having flat topography with slopes less than 2%. They have A-
B (cambic) profiles. Soil texture is loamy and the soil matrix color is gray with mottles throughout.
These soils often have a high salt content. SAR is >13% (or sodium saturation >15%) in most of the
upper 50 cm and decreases below this depth. A salt crust can be observed on the soil surface during
the dry season.
Group B
Ustropepts Typically, these soils are formed from weathered basic rocks on undulating topography. They are well
drained with A-B (cambic) profiles. Their texture is clayey throughout and lime concretions are often
found in the subsoil, which can reach a base saturation percentage of more than 50%. Their fertility is
medium to high.
Dystropepts These soils are found on nearly flat to undulating topography with slopes ranging from 2% to 8%. They
also have A-B (cambic) profiles with sandy loam or sandy clay loam texture. Drainage is moderate to
good. Their fertility is low or somewhat low.
Haplustolls It is believed that these soils are formed from marl on undulating terrain with slopes from 3% to 8%.
They are shallow soils with marl or carbonate at a depth of less than 50 cm. Surface soil is black and
very thick. Soil texture is fine clayey to clayey. They have a high water-holding capacity and are well
drained. They have high fertility.
Natragualfs These soils are derived from alluvium on flat to nearly flat topography. They have A-Btg (argillic B)
profiles. Surface soil texture is either sandy loam or loamy sand with the clay content increasing in
the argillic horizon. Subsoils contain high sodium. In general, they have a gray matrix color with brown
and yellow mottles in the subsoil. During the dry season, white salt crusts are commonly found on the
soil surface. This group is one of the major problem soils in the northeast, requiring special attention
from all disciplines concerned.
Tropaqualfs These soils are found on recent or low terraces having flat to nearly fiat topography. They have A-Btg
(argillic B) profiles. Soil texture is fine clayey or fine loamy. Matrix color is gray with brown, yellow, or
red mottles throughout the soil profile. Percent base saturation in the subsoil is higher than 35%.
They are poorly drained and water stagnates on the soil surface throughout the rainy season.
Paleustalfs These soils are found on undulating terrain and have A-Bt (argillic B) profiles. Soil texture is mostly
loamy. The soils have a reddish brown color and are well drained. Percent base saturation in the
subsoil is more than 35%. Carbonate concretions may be found in the B-horizon or below. They have
medium fertility.
Haplustalfs These soils are found on undulating to rolling topography. They are somewhat shallow with A-Bt (argillic
B) profiles. Soil texture is clayey throughout. Soil color is mostly brownish or brownish yellow,
indicating weil-drained conditions. Rock or rock fragments, resulting from weathering of the rock
beneath, are present at depths of 50 cm or more. Percent base saturation in the subsoil is more than
35%. These soils are rated as medium in fertility.
Group C
Plinthaquults These soils are found on low alluvial terraces that have flat to nearly flat topography. In general, the
soils have A-Bt (argillic B) profiles with loamy to clayey soil texture. These soils have a gray-colored
matrix with mottles throughout. Laterite gravels are found in the subsoil and below that the plinthite
layer is present. They are poorly drained and water normally stagnates on the soil surface for much of
the rainy season. They are rated low to somewhat low in fertility.
149
Table 1 continued.
Paleaquults These soils are formed on low alluvial terraces that have flat to nearly flat topography. Their profile
orientation is A-Bt (argillic B). They can have either clay or sandy loam texture. Matrix color is gray
with brown, yellow, or red mottles throughout the profile. They are poorly drained with water stagnant
on the soil surface during most of the rainy season. They are low or somewhat low in fertility.
Plinthustults These soils are found on alluvial terraces that are undulating. They are shallow with A-Bt (argillic B)
profiles. Laterite gravels or rock fragments are present at depths of 50 cm or less. The horizon
immediately below this is plinthite in nature. The soils are well to moderately well drained. Fertility is
somewhat low to low.
Paleustults These soils are found on undulating to rolling topography and on footslopes of less than 30%. They are
deep soils with A-Bt (argillic B) profiles. Soil texture varies from clay to loam. Matrix soil color is
yellowish red or red and soils are moderately well to well drained. Fertility is moderately low to low.
Haplustults These soils have characteristics resembling Paleustults except that the argillic horizon is thinner and the
subsoil contains more than 10% weatherable minerals.
Haplustox These soils are found on high alluvial terraces with undulating or rolling topography. They have A-Box
profile characteristics. Soil texture varies from loamy sand to sandy loam and sandy clay loam. Their
color is red or yellowish red throughout, representing well-drained situations. The soils have. .
undergone strong leaching processes, leaving only trace amounts of plant nutrients in the upper
profile. Hence, their fertility is low.
sandy-textured topsoil, which is one of the major lands. These soils, derived from shale or basalt; are
limiting factors for crop production. relatively fertile, although the area they cover is very
The mountainous areas, consisting of three main small.
mountain ranges and some isolated mountains and
hills, altogether make up about 13% of the total area
of the Northeast Region. The soils of mountainous Problem soils: their effect and
areas have not been surveyed and are mapped merely amelioration
as slope complex. Paleustults and Paleustulfs (reddish
brown lateritic soils) and Haplustalfs (reddish brown The major orders of the northeast soils are Ultisols,
earth) can be found in the intramountainous high- Alfisols, and Inceptisols. Sandy, skeletal, acid, and
150
saline soils are regarded as major problem soils in Table 3. Problem soils in northeast Thailand.
northeast Thailand. Low soil fertility caused by these Soil type Area (ha)
soils on the plateau and erratic rainfall are responsible
for the low agricultural productivity of the region as a Sandy-texture soils 610,000
Vertisols 50,000
whole, There are about 3.8 million ha of problem Saline soils
soils and about 1.9 million ha of land with slopes in Severe 240,000
excess of 35% (Table 3). Moderate 590,000
Slight 2,020,000
Potential salt source area 3,040,000
Saline soils Skeletal soils 2,880,000
The inland saline soils of northeast Thailand. These Acid soil 10,370,000
Slope complex 1,920,000
saline soils are derived from geological salinization
or result from man-made or secondary salinization. Sources: Panichapong (1988) and Arunin (1988)
Taxonomically, most of the salt-affected soils fall
within the category of aquic (Hydromorphic) soils,
such as Natraqualfs and Halaquepts. This means that An agronomic management package of improved
the saline groundwater level is shallow enough for cultivation practices (leaching, land leveling and
capillary fringes to reach the land surface. Saline soils surface mulching, addition of organic amendments,
are found in every province in both the Sakhon controlling depth of plowing, and use of salt-tolerant
Nakhon and Korat basins. rice varieties) is recommended to increase rice yield
These soils have a high soluble salt content that (Arunin 1988).
affects crop growth. Soil maps of salt-affected areas Farmyard manure and rice husks are appropriate
were compiled by the Department of Land Develop- organic matter that could be used to improve the
ment (DLD). Saline soils were classified based on the chemical and physical properties of saline soils
proportion of salt patches present at the soil surface (Yuvaniyama et al 1996a). But these materials are
into severely saline soil (240,000 ha), moderately rather bulky and expensive to transport to the farm.
saline soil (590,000 ha), and slightly saline soil The DLD has investigated salt-tolerant crops grown
(2,020,000 ha). There are another estimated for green manure, the right combination of green
3,140,000 ha of potential salt-source area (Wichaidit manure quantities, methods of incorporation, and the
1987), leaving 10,900,000 ha of salt-free area in the times of incorporation for increasing rice yield.
Northeast Region. Sesbania rostrata shows the best performance among
Through the activities of the Soil Salinity the green manure crops. Since 1992, 20 t of Sesbania
Development Project, under the National Economic seeds have been distributed free to farmers annually
and Social Development (NESD) Plan since 1982 to be planted for green manure in slightly and
(Yuvaniyama et al 1996a), agronomic management moderately saline areas. The average seed production
practices that are considered to be low-cost have been of S. rostrata in northeast Thailand is 180 kg ha–1.
developed and transferred to farmers through training, The seed production cost is rather high because of the
extension programs, and demonstration plots. high labor cost for harvesting because of the stag-
Slightly and moderately saline soils. The slightly gered maturing of the seeds. The government encour-
saline groundwater is deeper than 2 m. About 75% of ages farmers to produce their own seed by supplying
these soils in the region are under rainfed lowland free seeds for seed production and buying back the
rice cultivation, with an average yield of 1.2 t ha–1. seeds they produce at a reasonable price.
The risk of salinity increases when the land is put Severely saline soils. Salt patches cover more
under irrigation because the existing irrigation system than 50% of the surface area of these soils, which
is designed for paddy rice cultivation, without due occur in low-lying areas. The depth of saline ground-
attention to the drainage system. Without proper water is 1–1.5 m in the dry season and 0.5 m in the
drainage, the groundwater, which has a high salt rainy season. Most of these areas have a white crust in
content, gradually rises until it reaches the root zone, the dry season and are barren except for native salt-
thereby adversely affecting the crop. The saline soils tolerant thorny bushes and some halophytes.
are generally infertile, with medium to very low The research results of DLD show that some
contents of plant nutrients such as N, P, and K. The imported halophytic grasses such as Sporobolus
coarse texture accelerates leaching of nutrients. virginicus (both coarse and smooth forms), Spartina
Excess Na damages the physical properties of the soil patens, Distichlis spicata, and salt-tolerant trees such
and causes difficulty for plant roots to penetrate the as Acacia ampliceps can be grown in these severely
compact soil structure. saline soils (Yuvaniyama and Arunin 1993). Demon-
151
stration plots of the land use with environmental is precipitated when the pH reaches 5.3 to 5.5.
improvement by halophyte growing are shown on Partially hydrolyzed aluminum, hydroxyaluminum,
farmers’ land. reduces cation exchange capacity (CEC). Reduced
The reclamation of severely salt-affected land by CEC and the long-term consequences of clay decom-
the polder system through the combination of both position, because of the alternate wetting and drying
engineering and revegetation methods was demon- cycles, can seriously degrade tropical soils, especially
strated through collaborative research efforts of the light-textured soils such as those found in the North-
DLD, Khon Kaen University (KKU), and the Japa- east Region.
nese Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). A collaborative Japanese-Thai effort in character-
This could be used as a model and adapted for izing northeast soils (Motomura et al 1979, Ogawa et
implementation in severely saline soils, but drainage al 1975) revealed vast differences in clay contents of
must be considered (Yuvaniyama et al 1996b). paddy and upland soils. Table 4 summarizes the
Potential salt source areas. The soils in the textural differences in the plow layer of 41 paddy and
recharge areas do not have salt on the surface and are 13 upland soils. The supply of 2:l type clay minerals
suitable for normal cropping, but can potentially be to ameliorate the sandy acid soils is desirable
affected by secondary salinization caused by misman- (Mitsuchi et al 1986, Ishida et al 1993) because the
agement. Land-use changes, especially deforestation clay content in sandy soils is very low and the clay
in the upland areas for growing cash crops, have been minerals are mostly 1:1 type. Clayey material rich in
linked with the increase in salinization of land and 2:1 clay minerals and CaCO3 is present below the
water resources. The replacement of deep-rooted sandy soil.
trees with shallow-rooted plants increases recharge, Application of organic matter is believed to be
which provides the source of water for salinization at the best method to ameliorate the sandy, acid infertile
shallow depths (Williamson et al 1989). soils in which prolonged crop cultivation has reduced
A multifrequency electromagnetic induction the organic matter content in the soil, leading to a
terrain conductivity meter (EM) was used to measure decrease in soil fertility. Ragland (1988) reported that
the apparent conductivity of soil profile, and recharge northeast farmers traditionally applied animal manure
and discharge areas were identified and mapped to high-value crops such as vegetables and tobacco
(Arunin 1989). Reforestation in the recharge area grown during the dry season and to rice seedbeds
could be a preventive measure against secondary planted early in the wet season. Animal manure in
salinization in the discharge area (Arunin 1989). Thailand is almost always allowed to air-dry before it
Reforestation had been carried out on 1,920 ha in is applied, causing much of the nitrogen to be lost as
Nakhon Ratchasima Province as a pilot project since ammonia. This decreases its value as a nitrogen
1996. Native fast-growing trees such as Azadirachta fertilizer but increases its liming value. Retarding the
indica and Cassia siamea were planted in the decomposition rate of organic matter applied to the
recharge area, whereas a halophyte grass such as soil is necessary for a quick increase in soil organic
Sporobolus virginicus was planted together with the matter.
salt-tolerant Acacia ampliceps in the discharge area. Generally, for sustainable and intensive crop
The success of this land management practice is being production, liming is needed for some crop species to
evaluated. neutralize the toxic levels of Al and/or Mn and to
supply Ca and Mg as nutrients. However, overliming
Acid soils can cause trace element deficiency and cation
Ultisols are extensive in the Northeast Region. These imbalance. Suwanarit (1985) reviewed the results of
are acidic, highly leached, and well-developed soils. several liming studies on yields of various crops
They can be found in both upland and lowland areas grown in Thailand. Soils of pH 5.0 or less usually
and are extensively cultivated. showed yield responses to lime for mungbean, peanut,
Acid soils are characterized by low pH (often
less than 5.0), high Al and Mn, low nutrient retention
and organic matter content, medium to high P Table 4. Texture differences in the plow layer of
fixation, and low moisture retention capacity. northeast paddy and upland soils.
Soil acidity is higher in the dry season because of Land use % Clay % Silt % Sand pH
the oxidation of ferrous iron by aerobic microorgan-
isms as the soil dries and hydrogen ions are produced Paddy 10 20 70 4.8
Upland 17 21 62 5.1
(Brinkman 1978). Ragland (1988) found that toxic
aluminum accumulates as the soils dry out. Aluminum Source: Motomura et al (1979), Ogawa et al (1975).
152
soybean, and sesame, but not for cassava even on a application of chemical fertilizers, the use of slow-
soil of pH 4.5. However, liming upland acid soils has release fertilizers, organic matter application, and
not proved to be effective (Kheoruenromne and mulching are recommended.
Kesawapitak 1989). Moisture deficiencies and weeds
are additional problems in acid soils. Lateritic and shallow topsoil
Kheoruenromne and Kesawapitak (1989) Soils that have a laterite layer at a shallow depth, such
reported that now no specific management packages as Skeletal Plinthustults and Phinthaquults, make up
can be used as guidelines for sustaining crop yields about 13% of northeast Thailand and are particularly
on acid soils in Thailand. This is because (1) past widespread in the Sakhon Nakhon Basin. The laterite
research efforts have emphasized crop rather than soil layer severely inhibits root elongation and also causes
management, (2) many research findings have not difficulty in plowing. Furthermore, shallow soils
been successfully passed on to farmers, and (3) there resting on laterite are infertile owing to their sandy
is a lack of proper site characterization in the field texture (Miura et al 1990).
trials. The Phen (Pn) soil series commonly occurs in the
The ongoing research on acid soils carried out by lowlands, where rice is the only crop that can be
the DLD includes liming sources, P source, green cultivated. The Phon Pisai (Pp) soil series is used for
manure, and cropping systems. upland crops. Farmers grow cassava on the Tha Yang
(Ty) soil series that has shallow soil depth.
Sandy soils Where the soils occur on slopes less than 12%,
Sandy soils (sandy-textured soils) are estimated to the DLD recommendation is to grow fast-growing
cover about 80% of the northeast area. Clay minerals trees in agroforestry systems or to use the land as
are mostly kaolinitic and are very low in CEC. In pasture. The planting of a legume and ruzi grass is
addition, organic carbon in the soil is only 0.4% on also recommended after a prolonged period of
average. Hence, these soils have very low levels of cassava planting to increase soil fertility.
available nutrients and poor nutrient-holding capacity.
The physical properties of the soils in northeast Soil erosion
Thailand are also unfavorable for plant growth. The As Thailand is located in the tropical monsoon
soils often show unusually high bulk densities and a region, water is the most important agent of soil
high solid-phase ratio, resulting in hardness under dry erosion. Soil erosion occurs in the uplands and
weather conditions (Miura et al 1990). mountainous area. The main cause of accelerated soil
The Ubon (Ub) soil series is normally used for erosion is deforestation (Table 5). The rate of soil
upland paddy and Nam Pong (Ng) soil series for degradation has been increasing in northeast Thai-
upland crops. land.
The DLD recommends that, where the topsoil is The effect of soil erosion is loss of topsoil, which
sandy to a thickness of more than 50 cm, it is advis- adversely affects the productivity of cultivated land.
able to grow (1) upland crops such as upland rice, The loss of topsoil is relatively low in forest and
kenaf, peanut, sugarcane, cassava, and maize, (2) paddy areas and moderate under perennial crops such
trees and fruit trees such as mango (Mangifera indica as orchards. Soil erosion is particularly severe in
L.), cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale), and kapok areas under field crops and shifting cultivation. Rill
(Ceibapentundra L.), and (3) pasture such as hybrid and gully erosion commonly occur where the slope is
napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum), ruzi grass greater than 15% or on undulating terrain.
(Brachiaria ruziziensis), bermuda grass (Cynodon Contour farming and strip farming are effective
dactylon), Guinea grass (Panicum maximum), and for soil conservation, but these measures have not
star grasses (Cynodon nlemfuensis Vanderyst.). Split been widely adopted by poor farmers.
Table 5. Degree, rate, and distribution of soil erosion under different land uses in
northeast Thailand.
153
Conservation tillage systems must be developed success. Recently, S. rostrata, an aquatic legume that
that can be easily and successfully adopted so as to can grow in both drained and submerged soils, was
effectively minimize soil erosion. found to be promising for rainfed rice cultivation. The
DLD distributes S. rostrata seed to farmers as green
Strategies of the DLD manure and uses the strategy of buying the seed back.
The philosophy of the DLD is “land development, a Land development village. Integrated research is
fundamental for sustainable agriculture.” The DLD is carried out and results are demonstrated in a selected
responsible for soil surveys, research on soil and land land development village as an area-based approach
resources, and providing information on soils. The in each region.
DLD has five strategies in land resource development Training for local government officers and
according to the eighth NESD Plan (Boonsin 1999). leader farmers. The DLD disseminates appropriate
1. Land-use planning zonation. Various types of technologies to local organizations and farmers
information such as soil characteristics, land use, through various media and through training.
social and economic conditions, and government 3. Land development information system. Various
policy have been analyzed to develop land-use soil maps have been produced such as a general soil
guidelines for specific activities. There are three map of Thailand (1:1,000,000), regional soil map
levels of scales of land-use plans: the national, (1:500,000), provincial soil map (1:100,000). land-
regional, and provincial level, with mapping scales of use map (1:1,000,000, 1:500,000, and 1:100,000),
1:1,000,000, 1:500,000, and 1:100,000, respectively. land-use plans (1:1,000,000, 1:500,000, and
2. Soil and water conservation and land resource 1:100,000), soil group map (1:50,000), and soil
management for sustainable development. The main suitability map. Maps and other documents produced
objective of sustainability is to maintain the quality of using information from soil surveys, soil classifica-
the soil and the associated environment in a good tion, soil analysis, and research have been computer-
stage of production, while at the same time being ized. Updated soil databases can be made available to
responsive to markets and financial constraints interested users rapidly and systematically. Geo-
(Douglas 1984). Sustainable land management graphic information system (GIS) techniques are
requires a long-term commitment to maintaining the applied to study problem soils, land suitability, and
quality of the land resource; unfortunately, short-term land-use planning.
economics often promotes technologies that exploit 4. Staff and farmer capacity building. Because of
and degrade the land. limited DLD staff resources, farmer participation is a
The DLD policy follows the approach of the key for sustainable land resource management. A
King to overcome the current economic crisis to volunteer farmer is selected in each village to accept
produce food for self-sufficiency and to achieve self- appropriate and relevant technologies that could be
reliance. Poor farmers in the northeast own small transferred to fellow farmers. About 530 DLD staff
pieces of farm land, averaging 4.1 ha (Agricultural members located at the district (Tambon) and village
Statistics Center 1998), and cannot afford high levels work closely with the local farmers to help
investments. Sustainable agricultural policy aims not them solve their problems by carrying out soil
at gaining maximum productivity by using high input: analyses, making recommendations, and making
but at yield improvement by optimizing the efficiency demonstration plots.
of external inputs. 5. Administration and management. Besides the
Green manure as soil amendments. Most technical divisions in the head office in Bangkok, the
northeast Thailand soils have too low CEC and pH DLD has 12 regional offices and 50 DLD stations in
buffering capacities to permit consistent fertilizer the provinces to disseminate research results and
responses (Ragland and Boonpuckdee 1988) and extend their services to farmers all over the country.
chemical fertilizers are too expensive for poor
farmers. The addition of organic matter appears to be
the only practical way of achieving the needed Conclusions
increases in soil buffering. Although effective,
livestock manure and compost are never available in Soil-related constraints can be summarized as
sufficient quantities for widespread use. Green follows: (1) Soils that are low in organic matter and
manuring is considered necessary for agriculture in plant nutrients. (2) Some soils have special character-
northeast Thailand. istics that hinder crop cultivation such as saline soils,
Several leguminous green manure plants have very heavy clay soils (vertisols), very sandy-textured
been introduced into northeast Thailand without full soils, and skeletal soils. Remedial measures or special
154
management practices are necessary before these soils Kheoruenromne A, Kesawapitak P. 1989. Management of
can be farmed effectively and productively. Thus, acid soils for food crop production in Thailand. In:
Craswell, Pushparajah, editors. Management of acid
these soils are called problem soils. (3) Soils with low
soils in the humid tropics of Asia. ACIAR Monograph
water-holding capacity, low CEC, low pH (acidity),
No. 13 (IBSRAM Monograph No. 1). p 100-109.
and low base saturation. (4) Some soils are highly
Mitsuchi M, Wichaidit W, Jeungnijirund S. 1986. Outline
erodible, especially those with low organic matter of soils of the northeast plateau of Thailand, their
content and sandy texture. During a rainstorm, clay characteristics and constraints. ADRC Technical Papcr
particles are easily dispersed and move downward No. 1. ADRC, Khon Kaen, Thailand. 80 p.
with water to settle in between the rows of the crop or Miura K, Wichaidit P, Subhasaram T. 1990. Genetic
low spots, leaving almost pure sand on the ridges features on the major soils in northeast Thailand.
where the crops are planted. The clay particles settle Technical Paper No. 8:67-109. ADRC, Khon Kaen,
and often form a sheet that hardens into a surface Thailand. p 209-226.
crust, which can impede water infiltration, aeration, Moncharoen L, Verasilp T, Eswaran H. 1987. Benchmark
drainage, and seedling emergence. (5) Low biological soils of Thailand. Department of Land Development,
Thailand, and Soil Management Support Services,
activity in the soils because of the lack of available
USA. 77 p, with 99 appendices,
carbon (or energy) and the presence of factors
Moormann FR, Rojanasoonthorn S. 1972. The soils of the
unfavorable for microbial activity.
Kingdom of Thailand: explanatory text of the general
Various institutes have carried out research to soil map report SSR-72A. Soil Survey Division,
solve these problems. Generally, simple and low-cost Department of Land Development, Ministry of
techniques are acceptable to farmers in northeast Agriculture and Cooperatives, Bangkok, Thailand.
Thailand. Sustainable agriculture is the policy of the 59 p.
eighth NESD Plan to overcome poverty of farmers Motomura S, Seirayosokul A, Piyapongse P, Cholikul W.
during an economic crisis. 1979. Field observations and laboratory analysis of
paddy soils in Thailand. Trop. Agric. Res. Center
(Japan) and Department of Agriculture (Thailand).
p 158-243.
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156
Soil compaction and plant growth in northeast
Thailand: the case of the Nam Phong soil series
Christian Hartmann, Roland Poss, and Veera Singhatat
The uplands of northeast Thailand comprise mainly sandy soils that are low in or-
ganic matter, which often have a compact horizon in the 20–40-cm layer. The objec-
tive of this study was to determine whether it was possible to ameliorate the growth
of annual crops by decreasing subsoil compaction. Subsoiling and slotting tech-
niques were tested on a site near Korat on the Nam Phong soil series. Subsoiling
was done using tines 35 cm apart to 40-cm depth. The slotting technique consisted
of narrow slots, hand-made through the compact subsoil every 40 cm. A rotation of
legume and maize was planted. Plant production (yield or biomass), rooting depth,
and bulk density were determined. Subsoiling had no effect on plant growth, whereas
the slotting technique allowed yield and biomass to increase for at least 1.5 years by
an average of 53%. Rooting depth increased and bulk density decreased in the
slots. Subsoil compaction was thus a major limiting factor for rainfed crops in this
soil type. As the collapse of the subsoil in wet conditions prevents the use of subsoiling,
innovative techniques must be designed and slotting can be an option.
The upland soils of northeast Thailand account for improvement: the common technique of subsoiling
20–30% of the cultivated land (Craig and Pisone and the slotting technique (Jayawardane et al 1995).
1988). These areas have been cleared from forest in
the last 50 years and are now used intensively for
major export crops such as cassava and sugarcane. Materials and methods
Because most soils have less than 15% clay in the
topsoil and are acidic and low in organic matter Study site
(Imsamut and Boonsoppan 1999), they are prone to The study was carried out on the research station of
nutrient deficiencies and aluminum toxicity as a result the Department of Land Development located 15 km
of continuous cultivation after clearing. These more north of Korat (15°N, 102°E, annual rainfall 1,020
obvious soil limitations have led most studies to focus mm). The soil (Nam Phong series) is characterized by
on soil chemical properties (Bhuthorndharaj et al 5% clay, 0.22% C, 4.0 pHCaCl , 0.94 cmolc kg–1
2
1996, Kanchanakool et al 1998, Ragland and exchangeable CEC, 4 mg kg–1 Bray II P, and 22%
Boonpuckdee 1987, Singhatat 1996). Although aluminum saturation.
problems related to soil compaction have been The study was carried out from 1996 to 1999 in
mentioned (Kheoruenromne and Suddhiprakarn 1984, two fields about 200 m apart. Both fields had a
O'Donnell et al 1994, Sakurai et al 1996, Vityakon compact layer from 20 to 40 cm (bulk density 1.7 to
and Keerati-Kasikorn 1987), they have not been as 1.8 t m-3). In field #1, high amounts of fertilizers were
extensively studied so far. Soil compaction is a applied every year (around 120 kg N ha-1, 50 kg P ha-
potential limiting factor to plant production because 1
, and 90 kg N ha-1). In field #2, the fertilizer levels
root confinement within a small soil volume may applied were close to the farmers' practice (50 kg N
hinder nutrient and water uptake where both are in ha-1, 22 kg P ha-1, and 40 kg K ha-1). The plots were 6
limited supply. x 8 m in field #1 and 6 x 6 m in field #2. Each field
The objectives of the study were to determine was cropped with a rotation of legume (April to July)
whether soil compaction was a limiting factor to plant and maize (Zea mays, July to October). The legume
production and to compare two techniques of soil crop was black cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) in 1997
157
used as a control. The five plots slotted in 1998 were plots, digging one pit per plot and taking one sample
not slotted again in 1999. for each 10-cm depth increment.
For the slotting experiment, bulk density was
Field data collection determined on eight slotted plots using a 110-cm3
Yield. For cowpea and maize, the yield of each plot cylinder. Soil samples for bulk density determination
was determined by collecting the seeds from a sample were collected from the first five plots after a total of
quadrat and weighing after 2 d in the oven at 70 °C. 109 mm of rain had fallen after the slots were made,
The wet biomass of Stylosanthes guianensis was and from the three other plots 3 d later after another
determined for each plot 2 mo after sowing by 69 mm of rain had fallen. One pit per plot was dug
weighing the total wet biomass from a sample and the bulk density was determined for each pit from
quadrat. Water content of the Stylosanthes was the surface to 70-cm depth by taking three samples
determined by drying 20 plants per plot in the oven at for each 10-cm depth increment between the slots and
70 °C for 2 d. three samples for each 10-cm depth increment above
Rooting depth. Root descriptions were made for and within the slots.
maize at the flowering stage in field #1 using the
method described by Nicoullaud et al (1994). At each
plot, a pit 80 cm long and 60 cm deep was dug along Results
the lines of maize. The vertical face of the pit was
scraped with a knife to expose the roots within a few Subsoiling had no significant effect on crop yield
mm of the pit face. A 30 x 30-cm frame, divided with (Table 1). The same result was obtained in 1996 when
wires into 2 x 2-cm grid squares, was suspended from subsoiling was done in wet conditions and in 1997
a leveled bar over part of the face. The grid squares when it was done in dry conditions. Maize yield was
containing one or more roots were counted. The low in both fields in 1997 because of severe drought
frame was moved horizontally to cover the entire 80- at the flowering stage. Black cowpea yield was low in
cm length of the pit and the process was repeated at field #2 because of a combination of late sowing and
lower depths. The frequency of the grids with roots insect attack on already weak seedlings.
for each pit was determined for 2-cm depth intervals. Figure 2 shows the decrease in frequency of roots
The standard deviation of this frequency was deter- with soil depth. Soil depth was represented using the
mined using the pits of the same treatment. average level of the soil surface so that the hills
For the subsoiling experiment, the roots were appear above the ground. In the control plots, the
described in September 1997 in four control plots and frequency of roots decreased almost linearly with
five subsoiled plots. For the slotting experiment, the depth until 30 cm, beyond which the root frequency
roots were described in September 1999 in three was below 10%. Root frequency data (not shown)
control plots, three plots that were slotted in 1998, collected for the same fields confirmed that without
and three plots that were slotted in 1999. slotting rooting depth was confined to the first 30 cm
Bulk density. Bulk density was determined by of soil. Subsoiling had no effect on the rooting depth
taking a known volume of soil from the face of a pit of maize.
using a cylinder and by drying the soil in the oven at The bulk density did not decrease as a result of
105 °C for 2 d. subsoiling (Fig. 3). In fact, the bulk density was
For the subsoiling experiment, bulk density was higher in the subsoiled plots than in the control plots,
determined in September 1997 using a 165-cm3 but the difference was not significant.
cylinder (total rainfall since subsoiling was 463 mm). The slotting technique increased the yield or
The determination was carried out from the surface to biomass of the crops in 1998 and 1999 (Table 2). The
a 60-cm depth on five control plots and five subsoiled low yields of black cowpea occurred because of
n.s. = nonsignificant,
a
159
severe drought during grain filling. Excluding the
black cowpea data, the average increase in yield of
the slotted plots over the control plots was 53%.
Slotting increased the frequency of roots in the
30-40-cm layer (Fig. 4). The root distribution with
depth was the same in the plots where the slots were a
few months old and in the plots where they had been
dug 1.5 y earlier.
After 109 mm of rain, the bulk density in the 0-
40-cm layer of the slotted horizons was less than 1.56
t m-3 (Fig. 5). Three days later and after another 69
mm of heavy rain, the bulk density in the slotted
layers increased to 1.64 t m-3 in the 20-30-cm layer.
This increase was linear with depth (Fig. 6). The
increase in bulk density was negligible in the 30-40-
cm layer.
n 10 10 10 40
P for difference of averages 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.006
160
Kanchanakool N, Poss R, Brunet D, Bhuthomdharaj S, Vityakon P, Keerati-Kasikorn P. 1987. Farming systems
Suvannang N. 1998. Use of lime and gypsum to and soils in northeast Thailand. Soil management
alleviate infertility in an Arenic Acrisol of northeast under humid conditions in Asia and Pacific. IBSRAM
Thailand. Proceedings of the 16th International Soil Proceedings No. 5. p 361-383.
Science Society Congress (Montpellier, France, 1998). Voorhees WB. Nelson WW, Randall GW. 1986. Extent and
Kheoruenromne I, Suddhiprakarn A. 1984. Ecology, persistence of subsoil compaction caused by heavy
classification and effect of management on selected axle load. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 50:428-433.
sandy soils in Thailand. In: Ecology and management
of problem soils in Asia, Food and Fertilizer Technol-
ogy Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Book Notes
Series No. 27, Taiwan. p 208-222.
Nicoullaud B, King D, Tardieu F. 1994. Vertical distribu- Authors’ addresses: Christian Hartmann, Roland Poss. IRD
tion of maize roots in relation to permanent soil (formerly ORSTOM), Department of Land Develop-
characteristics. Plant Soil 159:245-254. ment, Division of Soil Analysis, Phaholyothin Road,
O’Donnell AG, Syers JK, Vichiensanth P, Vityakon P, Adey Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand, E-mail:
MA, Nannipiery P, Sriboonlue W, Suwan. 1994. hartmann@ksc.th.com; Veera Singhatat, Department
Improving the agricultural productivity of the soils of of Land Development region 3, Jor-Hor, Muang
north-east Thailand through soil organic matter District, Nakhon Ratchasima 30310, Thailand.
management. In: Syers JK, Rimmer DL, editors. Soil
science and sustainable land management in the Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the
tropics. Wallingford (UK): CAB International and contributions of Nijaporn Kunklang, Didier Brunet,
British Society of Soil Science. p 192-205. Emmanuel Bourdon, Guy Perlmann, Guillaume Hardy,
Ragland J, Boonpuckdee L. 1987. Fertilizer responses in and Julien Picard in conducting the often exhausting
north-east Thailand. 1. Literature review and rationale. field work. This research was carried out with
Thai J. Soils Fert. 9:65-79. financial support from IRD (Institut de Recherche
Sakurai K, Kozasa S, Yuasa T, Puriyakorn B, Preechapanya pour le Développement) and DTEC (Department of
P, Tanpibal V, Muangnil K, Prachaiyo B. 1996. Technical and Economic Cooperation in Thailand).
Changes in soil properties after land degradation
associated with various human activities in Thailand.
Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 42:81-92.
Singhatat V. 1996. Management of acid soil for sustainable
upland cropping at Nakhon Ratchasima, northeast
Thailand. In: The management of acid soils in
Southeast Asia. IBSRAM Network Document No. 16.
p 59-62.
162
Ecoregional natural resource management
research of ClAT with special reference to a
farmer participatory research project in Thailand
Reinhardt H. Howeler
The Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical ment of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), cassava
(CIAT), located in Colombia, has within the Consul- ( Manihot esculenta Crantz ), and tropical forages and
tative Group on International Agricultural Research a regional mandate for rice (Oryza sativa) in Latin
system a world mandate for research and develop- America.
163
The Cassava Program at CIAT headquarters 3. Formation of local operational committees for
maintains the world cassava germplasm collection participatory planning and management of'
and conducts basic and strategic research on various watershed resources.
aspects, including cassava mineral nutrition and soil 4. Experimentation with and monitoring of land-use
management. systems that are more productive and environ-
From 1984 to 1998, the University of Hohenheim mentally sound.
in Germany has had a special project at CIAT on PE-4: Land-Use Dynamics and Environmental
improving the sustainability of cassava when the crop Sustainability in Latin America
is grown on hillsides in Latin America. Both strategic 1. Updating of strategic databases for Latin
and applied research have been conducted by students America.
and staff members to understand the underlying 2. Mapping of natural resources and land-use
principles of soil erosion and to develop effective changes at benchmark sites in the savannas,
soil/crop management practices that reduce erosion in hillsides, and forest margins.
cassava fields. PE-5: Sustainable Systems for Smallholders
1. Sustainable cassava-based cropping systems in
Asia.
Natural resource management 2. Forages for smallholders in Asia.
research at CIAT 3. Production systems in the forest margins in Peru.
4. Forages for dual-purpose cattle farms in Latin
In 1992, CIAT also accepted regional responsibility America.
for research on the management of natural resources 5. Sustainable bean production systems in East
in Latin America, especially in two ecosystems: Africa.
tropical lowlands and hillsides. A Land-Use Program SN-1: Rural Agroenterprise Development
was also established to map out the distribution of SN-3: Participatory Research and Gender
natural resources and to study social and economic Analysis
issues related to effective land-use planning and Within the project of Sustainable Systems for
implementation. Smallholders (PE-5) are two subprojects in Asia: The
In 1996, CIAT was reorganized again and the Forages for Smallholders Project (FSP) and the
previous seven programs were transformed into 16 Sustainable Cassava Cropping Systems Project, also
projects. Of these, six projects are in the area of known as the Nippon Foundation Project.
natural resource management. Research conducted by
these projects is briefly summarized below: Forages for Smallholders Project (FSP)
PE-2: Overcoming Soil Degradation The Forages for Smallholders Project has been
1. Identification of main biophysical constraints for funded by AusAID (Australia) and implemented
three priority ecoregions: hillsides, acid-soil jointly by the CIAT Regional Program on Forages in
savannas, and forest margins. Manila, Philippines, and the CSIRO Regional Office
2. Development of soil quality indicators to monitor in Vientiane, Lao PDR. This 5-year project (1995-99)
the sustainability of land-use systems. was executed in collaboration with national programs
3. Development of component technologies for in the Philippines, Lao PDR, Indonesia, Vietnam,
more sustainable production systems in hillside Malaysia, and Thailand. The overall objective of the
ecoregions. project is to increase the availability of adapted
4. Basic research on rates of decomposition and forages and the capacity to deliver them to different
nutrient release of different legume species used farming systems. This is achieved by developing and
as green manures. using a farmer participatory approach to the evalua-
PE-3: Community Management of Watershed tion of forages and technology development in order
Resources in Hillside Agroecosystems of Latin to ensure relevance and increase the chance of
America (Colombia, Honduras, Nicaragua) adoption. Details of the project have been described
1. Development of interactive digital information by Horne (1997), Stur (1997), Stur et al(19981, and
systems for hillside agroecosystems. Howeler et al(l999). A second phase of the FSP
2. Development of decision support (DS) tools with project was approved for funding by the Asian
participation of stakeholders. Development Bank in early 2000, while a separate
164
but related Forage and Livestock Systems Project accumulates rather large amounts of K in the swollen
(ESP) was approved for Lao PDR with funding from roots, which are subsequently removed from the field
AusAID (Australia). in the root harvest. Thus, continuous cassava cultiva-
tion without adequate inputs of K will eventually lead
The Asian Cassava Research Network to K-exhaustion and a reduction in yield (Howeler
In 1985, a Cassava Agronomy Program for Asia was 1991, 2000).
established at the CIAT Regional Cassava Office in Cultivation of cassava on sloping land caused
Asia, located in Bangkok, with the objective of more serious erosion than that of most other food
strengthening national cassava programs so as to crops (Putthacharoen et a1 1998). However, various
enhance the efficiency of germplasm improvement soil/crop management practices have been identified
and agronomic research and to improve communica- that can help reduce erosion in cassava fields. These
tion and collaboration between various national include applying fertilizers or manures, minimum or
cassava programs. The collaborative research is done zero tillage, planting on contour ridges and at closer
within a rather informal Asian Cassava Research spacing, mulching, intercropping, and planting of
Network. The agronomy component has concentrated contour barriers of grass or legume species or of
mainly on soil fertility maintenance and erosion leguminous tree species such as Leucaena
control. leucocephala, Tephrosia candida, Flemingia
Simple long-term NPK trials have been estab- macrophylla, and Gliricidia sepium. Table 1 shows a
lished at 11 locations in five countries. Some of these qualitative estimate of the effect of these practices on
trials have now completed up to ten years of continu- erosion, on cassava yield, on natural terrace forma-
ous cassava cropping. Results show that there was a tion, and on labor and capital requirements. Some
significant response to N at eight of 11 sites, to K at practices, such as contour ridging and fertilizer
seven sites, and to P at only four sites (Howeler application, are clearly very effective in reducing
2000). The rather limited response to P indicates the erosion and increasing yields, but they also require
presence of a very efficient native mycorrhizal more capital inputs, whereas no-fertilizer application
population, which infects cassava fibrous roots and results in high levels of erosion and low yields, but
helps the plant absorb P. Because of this symbiosis requires the least amount of inputs. The selection of
with vascular-arbuscular mycorrhizae, cassava can the best practice for a particular region depends to a
grow better than most crops in soils that are very low large extent on the soil and climatic conditions, but,
in P. However, when the crop is grown continuously even more importantly, on the socioeconomic
on the same land for many years, K invariably conditions of the farmers. Practically all farmers have
becomes the most limiting nutrient because the crop as their primary objective to maximize income. So,
Table 1. Effect of various soil/crop management practices on erosion and yield and on labor and monetary
requirements and long-term benefits in cassava-based cropping systems.
165
unless the recommended soil conservation practices the project, considering that cassava is an important
also satisfy the farmers’ short-term need for food and crop in the area, it is grown on slopes, and erosion is
income, they are unlikely to be adopted. The selection a serious problem. Rapid rural appraisals (RRA) were
of the most suitable practices can therefore best be conducted at each potential site to learn more about
done by farmers themselves in collaboration with the prevalent cropping systems, the agronomic
researchers and extensionists, through the testing of practices used, and the methods of cassava use and
several promising options by farmers in their own about soil erosion, farmers’ perception of the serious-
fields. ness of the problem, and their interest in participating
in developing solutions. After obtaining this informa-
The Nippon Foundation FPR Project—1st tion, the two most suitable pilot sites were selected in
Phase (1994-98) each country.
Based on the premise that soil conservation practices To give farmers an opportunity to see and
will only be adopted by farmers if they are both consider several technological options that might be
efficient and well adapted to local conditions, while suitable for reducing erosion in their own area, one or
providing farmers with some immediate benefits, a 5- more demonstration fields are established in each
year project began in 1994, funded by the Nippon country. These demonstrations usually have a large
Foundation in Japan. The basic objectives are to number of treatments, including different methods of
develop appropriate integrated soil/crop management fertilization, land preparation, ridging, intercropping,
practices for more sustainable cassava-based crop- mulching, and the use of contour barriers. These
ping systems in Asia and to enhance the adoption of demonstrations are laid out on a uniform slope; along
these practices by farmers. The latter is done by the lower side of each plot plastic-covered ditches are
developing a farmer participatory research (FPR) constructed to catch eroded sediments to determine
methodology for the testing, selection, and implemen- soil losses from erosion. Before or during the harvest
tation of suitable soil conservation practices. of these demonstration plots, farmers from the pilot
The project is executed by CIAT and collaborat- sites are invited for a field day to see and discuss the
ing national research and extension organizations in various management options. Table 2 shows the
various countries in Asia and has three principal results of demonstration plots used in Sahatsakhan
components: District of Kalasin in northeast Thailand in 1997-98
1. Farmer participatory adaptive research is and the preferences farmers expressed for each
undertaken at two pilot sites in each of four treatment. Farmers generally preferred those practices
countries (in eastern Thailand; East Java, with high net income and low levels of erosion. Out
Indonesia; Hainan Island of China; and northern of these various options, farmers usually selected four
Vietnam) in collaboration with research, exten- to five management practices to try out in FPR
sion, and farmers’ organizations. erosion control trials in their own fields. Other
2. Strategic and applied research on soil fertility farmers in the same community often conducted FPR
maintenance and erosion control are conducted trials on varieties, fertilization, and intercropping
within a network of collaborating research systems.
institutes and universities in various cassava- At the start of the following planting season, the
growing countries in Asia. FPR team members again visited the pilot sites
3. Training courses on FPR methodologies are (usually one village or subdistrict) and discussed with
conducted to train researchers and extension those farmers interested in participating in the project
workers in FPR methodologies and to develop their selected treatments. Suitable fields within each
training materials in the local languages that can farm were selected by the farmers and local extension
be used in training courses for farmers and workers. In the case of the FPR erosion control trials,
extensionists in each country. researchers showed the farmers how to set out
contour lines, lay out the plots, construct the plastic-
For the FPR part of the project, an informal consor- covered ditches, and establish the various treatments.
tium of collaborating research and extension institu- Farmers planted and maintained the trials, while FPR
tions from each of the four participating countries was team members assisted in collecting and weighing the
organized. These institutes are working closely soil sediments and determining crop yields.
together with the local extension offices and farmers’ At the time of the cassava harvest, a field day
groups at selected pilot sites. was organized. Researchers, extensionists, and the
FPR teams of each country preselected two or collaborating farmers harvested all the trials together,
more pilot sites that were considered most suitable for determined production, and calculated yields. This
166
Table 2. Results of farmer participatory research demonstration plots established on 5% slope in Sahatsakhan District
of Kalasin, Thailand, in 1997-98 (1st year).
aLow fertiIizers = 156 kg 15-15-15 ha-1, high fertilizers = 312 kg 15-15-15 ha-1, chicken manure = 781 kg ha-1.
bPrices (in B): cassava = 2.19 kg-1 fresh roots, peanut = 10 kg-1 dry pods, sweet corn = 1.60 eat-1, pumpkin = 3.0 kg-1 fresh fruit.
cPercent of farmers scorlng treatment as "good."
information, together with data on soil losses from results of FPR erosion control trials conducted at two
erosion, gross income, production costs, and net sites in Thailand and at three sites in Vietnam during
income for each treatment, was presented to the 1995-98. In general, the farmer-selected practices
farmers. After discussing the results, farmers either tended to reduce erosion-sometimes quite mark-
selected new treatments to be tried in similar trials in edly—while increasing net income; the latter was
the following season or they selected one or two particularly true in Vietnam, where peanut intercrop-
practices to try out on a larger area of their production ping and improved fertilization markedly increased
fields. yields and gross income. At both sites in Thailand,
Table 3 shows an example of the average results farmers had a clear preference for the planting of
of nine FPR erosion control trials conducted in Soeng vetiver grass hedgerows to control erosion and many
Saang District of Nakhon Ratchasima in 1995-96. wanted to try out this practice in their larger produc-
Most farmers selected either vetiver grass hedgerows tion fields. Researchers and extensionists helped
or contour ridging as the most suitable practices. farmers to set out contour lines and obtain planting
Similar results were obtained in other locations in material of vetiver grass. In one community near a
Thailand and in other years. Table 4 summarizes the previous pilot site in Soeng Saang, farmers organized
Table 3. Average results of nine farmer participatory research trials on erosion control conducted by farmers in Noon
Sombuun village of Soeng Saang District, Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Thailand, 1995-96.
No. of
Treatments No. of Cassava Gross Production Net Soil farmersb
plots yield incomea costs income loss liking
(t ha-1) (B000 ha-1) (t ha-1) treatment
aPrices (in B): cassava: 1.05 kg-1 fresh roots, peanut: 8.00 kg-1 fresh pods, sweet corn: 1.00 ear-1,
sugarcane: 2.00 stern-1, mulberry: 2.00 kg-1 leaves. US$1 = B25.
bOut of a total of 18 farmers.
167
Table 4. Effect of farmer-selected soil conservation practices on dry soil loss and gross and net income compared
with the traditional farmers' practice in farmer participatory research trials conducted at two pilot sites in Thailand
and three in Vietnam from 1995 to 1998.
a Gross income minus labor and material costs. b Gross income minus all material costs. cGross income minus fertilizer and manure costs.
themselves and formed a “Soil Conservation Group”: The Nippon Foundation Project—2nd Phase
together they started planting contour hedgerows of (1999-2003)
vetiver grass on about 320 ha of cassava fields. In early 1999, the Nippon Foundation approved a
In 1998, the project expanded to two other sites, second phase of the project. This 5-year project will
one in Sahatsakhan District of Kalasin and one in concentrate most work in Thailand and Vietnam,
Sanaamchaikhet of Chachoengsao. while the emphasis changes from farmer participatory
168
research to participatory extension. The project will References
expand to 15–20 sites in each of the two countries.
Besides doing FPR trials on erosion control, varieties, Horne PM. 1997. Farmer-developed forage management
fertilization, etc., the project will also test more strategies for stabilization of shifting cultivation
systems. Paper prepared for the ICRAF Workshop on
informal approaches to farmer evaluation of suitable
Indigenous Strategies for Intensification of Shifting
practices and will enhance adoption of these practices
Cultivation in Southeast Asia, held in Bogor, Indone-
through farmer-to-farmer extension.
sia, 23-27 June 1997. 26 p.
The second phase of the project is being imple- Howeler RH. 1991. Long-term effect of cassava cultivation
mented in Thailand in collaboration with five research on soil productivity. Field Crops Res. 26:1-18.
and extension organizations: the departments of Howeler RH. 1995. Agronomy research in the Asian
Agriculture, Agricultural Extension, and Land Cassava Network: towards better production without
Development, Kasetsart University, and the Thai soil degradation. In: Howeler RH, editor. Cassava
Tapioca Development Institute. In 2000, the project breeding, agronomy research and technology transfer
was working at ten different sites, mostly in the in Asia. Proceedings of the 4th Regional Workshop,
northeast, conducting about 40 FPR trials at three held in Trivandrum, Kerala, India, 2-6 Nov. 1993. p
sites, six of which were on erosion control. In 368-409.
Howeler RH. 2000. Cassava mineral nutrition and
addition, about 240 farmers have decided to plant
fertilization. In: Hillocks RJ, Thresh MJ, Bellotti A,
vetiver grass hedgerows to control erosion in their
editors. Cassava: biology, production and utilization.
fields and 67 km of hedgerows, covering about 200 Wallingford (UK): (Submitted for publication.)
ha, have already been planted. Other farmers re- Howeler RH, Home P, Stür W. 1999. CIAT projects on
quested seed of cowpea ( Vigna unguiculata) and natural resources management in Asia with special
sword bean (Canavalia ensiformis) to plant as a green reference to the Red River Basin of Vietnam. In: Kinh
manure in rotation with cassava. NN, Teng PS, Hoanh CT, Castella JC, editors.
By involving farmers directly in the research on Towards an ecoregional approach for natural resource
and development of soil-conserving practices, it was management in the Red River Basin of Vietnam.
possible to identify those practices that are efficient in Hanoi (Vietnam): The Agricultural Publishing House.
reducing soil erosion, are adapted to local conditions, p 95-118.
and are also considered to be beneficial by the Putthacharoen S, Howeler RH, Jantawat S, Vichukit V.
1998. Nutrient uptake and soil erosion losses in
farmers. If these three criteria are met, farmers will
cassava and six other crops in a Psamment in eastern
more likely adopt these practices on a voluntary basis
Thailand. Field Crops Res. 56:113-126.
and will recommend them to friends and neighbors, Stür WW, editor. 1997. Feed resources for smallholder
thus helping to further extend soil-conserving livestock production in Southeast Asia. Proceedings of
practices. the 1st Regional Meeting of the Forages for
In these various ways, CIAT hopes to contribute Smallholders Project, held in Vientiane, Lao PDR, 16-
to a better understanding of the basic causes of soil 20 Jan. 1996. CIAT Working Doc. No. 156. 93 p,
degradation, both the physical and socioeconomic Stür WW, Owen JA, Kerridge PC, Horne PM, Hacker JB,
aspects, to develop technological innovations that editors. 1998. Proceedings of the 2nd Regional
help reduce erosion, and to enhance farmer adoption Meeting of the Forages for Smallholders Project, held
of soil-conserving farming practices. at Danzhou, Hainan, China, 19-24 Jan. 1997. CIAT
Working Doc. 173. 101 p.
Notes
169