Electric Power Systems Research 129 (2015) 23–31

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Electric Power Systems Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/epsr

A critical review of AC Microgrid protection issues and available

solutions
Aushiq Ali Memon ∗ , Kimmo Kauhaniemi
Department of Electrical Engineering and Energy Technology, University of Vaasa, PO Box 700, FI-65101 Vaasa, Finland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: One of the main technical issues in the practical implementation of a Microgrid is the design of the proper
Received 8 December 2014 protection scheme. The scheme must be capable to meet the basic protection requirements of selectiv-
Received in revised form 27 May 2015 ity, sensitivity and reliability not only in grid-connected mode but also in islanded mode of operation.
Accepted 9 July 2015
Since the introduction of Microgrid concept, many researchers have introduced various new protection
Available online 1 August 2015
schemes to be incorporated in medium and low voltage Microgrids. Most of the researchers agree that
the conventional protective devices usually based on overcurrent principle are inadequate to provide
Keywords:
complete protection for Microgrids during both grid-connected and islanded mode of operation, hence
AC Microgrid
Protection issues
new protection techniques based on other principles must be developed. The new protection schemes
Protection schemes should be not only adaptable according to operational modes of Microgrid but also sensitive enough to
Islanded mode detect and clear the lowest possible fault currents within Microgrid quickly ensuring minimum supply
Grid-connected mode disruption to consumers. This paper briefly reviews protection issues in AC Microgrids and presents state
of the art protection schemes for AC Microgrids developed and proposed so far. It also gives a critical
analysis of each proposed method and categorizes the protection issues and schemes on the basis of
operational modes of AC Microgrid. At the end, it has been concluded that more effort is still needed to
overcome the limitations of proposed protection schemes and to improve reliability of communication
system for adaptive protection schemes or provide alternate means to cope with communication failures.
Moreover, protection against cyber-attacks is crucial for safe and secure operation of future Microgrids.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2. Protection issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1. Protection coordination (selectivity) with DG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2. Protection issues in Microgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.1. Selection of protection device/switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.2. Spurious separations or false trips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.3. Re-synchronisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.4. Events/faults during grid-connected mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.5. Events/faults during islanded mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.6. Anti-islanding protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.7. Role of Microgrid control architecture in protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3. Protection schemes for Microgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.1. The protection schemes for only grid-connected mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2. The protection schemes for only islanded mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3. The protection schemes for both grid-connected and islanded mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +358 414744093; fax: +358 63175225.

E-mail addresses: Aushiq.Memon@uva.fi (A.A. Memon), kimmo.kauhaniemi@uva.fi (K. Kauhaniemi).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2015.07.006
0378-7796/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
24 A.A. Memon, K. Kauhaniemi / Electric Power Systems Research 129 (2015) 23–31

3.3.1. Adaptive protection schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.3.2. Differential protection schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3.3. Distance protection schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3.4. Pattern recognition schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3.5. Other miscellaneous schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

1. Introduction and unplanned switching operations (by anti-islanding protection

incorporated in DERs) due to safety concerns and in compliance
The low-carbon emitting kW-scale distributed generators (DGs) with existing control and protection constraints of distribution sys-
like reciprocating engine generators, gas turbines or fuel cells act- tems [1,7,8]. For realisation of maximum advantages of high DG
ing as combined heat and power (CHP) units close to consumer penetration, the islanded operation of Microgrid must be consid-
premises along with renewable energy sources (RES) like small ered which will obviously have strong consequences on the existing
wind turbines and solar photovoltaic (PV) modules collectively safety, control, protection and dispatch practices and strategies of
known as distributed energy resources (DERs) or microsources and electrical energy [9]. IEEE Standard 1547.4-2011 with title of “IEEE
heat and electricity storage technologies have to play an important guide for design, operation and integration of distributed resource
role in future electric supply systems. The increased energy- island systems with electric power systems” has been developed
efficiency, reduced carbon emissions, improved power quality and which covers the intentional islands in electric power systems that
reliability, reduced line losses and deferral of grid expansion are contain distributed resources (DR). In this guide Microgrid has been
the most prominent benefits offered by DERs installed near the termed as “DR island system” and seven types of planned or inten-
load centres. These benefits cannot be fully exploited with tradi- tional DR island system configurations have been presented [6].
tional method of integrating a limited number of stand-alone DERs This guide is a good effort to provide an introduction to design,
with distribution networks according to “fit and forget” rule in operation and implementation issues of future Microgrids present
which DERs are bound to be disconnected from network when- on primary distribution systems with some limitations as explained
ever any disturbance occurs on electric grid as per IEEE Standard in its sub-clause 1.3.
1547. Moreover, the integration of individual DERs can cause vari- It is essential for a properly operating Microgrid that the inter-
ety of problems like local voltage rise, violations in thermal limits of connecting switch (connecting Microgrid with main grid) must
certain lines and transformers, unintentional islanding etc. As the open during any unacceptable power quality disturbance or fault on
penetration level of DERs in developed countries will reach a sig- the main grid and the DERs must be capable to carry the load on the
nificant level, it will create a number of new dynamic operational, islanded section while maintaining the proper levels of voltage and
control and safety challenges for medium and low voltage electric frequency for the islanded loads. Suitable load-shedding schemes
supply networks which were actually not designed to be connected should be implemented if DER generation capacity does not meet
with any type of generation. These new challenges could be better the load demand of islanded system. Depending on the technol-
addressed by a properly designed, operated, controlled, managed ogy of switch, some momentary power disruptions may happen
and protected “Microgrid” [1–4]. (DERs may seize to energise the islanded section for some short
The Microgrid is an alternative systematic approach to integrate period of time) during transition from grid-connected to islanded
small-scale DERs into LV (≤1 kV) and MV (1–69 kV) distribution sys- mode; in this scenario the DERs in the islanded portion must be
tems in order to facilitate the simultaneous generation of electricity capable of quick restart and picking up the islanded load after open-
and heat for local electric and heat loads; this approach allows ing of the switch. The DERs must be capable of supplying the real
for local control of distributed generation and thereby reduces or and reactive power requirements in the islanded mode and should
eliminates the need for central dispatch [1,5]. A Microgrid behav- sense a fault current downstream of the interconnecting switch.
ing like a single producer or load is not only capable of operating After the restoration of the main grid supply, the switch should
efficiently and safely with its local distribution network but it not close unless both the grid and islanded system are properly
is also capable of islanding. After islanding, Microgrid continues synchronised, that is, voltage, frequency and phase angle of the
to provide uninterruptible power supply to priority (or sensi- both systems must be within acceptable limits [6,10]. For faults
tive) loads according to its generation capacity within the agreed within the island system, there must be protection system which
power quality level and thus increases the reliability of the sys- can sense the fault and quickly isolate the faulty portion from the
tem. From operational point of view, the DERs must be provided rest of the system ensuring minimum loss of generation and load
with power electronics interfaces and controls to offer the needed interruptions. The protection system of islanded system must be
flexibility for ensuring operation of Microgrid as a single aggre- more sensitive because fault currents in islanded system will be of
gated system and maintaining defined level of power quality and much lower magnitudes than those of the grid-connected system
energy output [1–3]. There are at least three alternative control [1].
strategies for Microgrid operations: centralised control, distributed This paper is organised in a manner that Section 2 briefly
(decentralised) control and autonomous control as explained describes the protection issues in Microgrid, Section 3 reviews the
in [6]. state of art protection schemes developed and proposed so far along
Presently, an islanded operation is not allowed by the utilities, with their comparison in tabular form and Section 4 presents dis-
network operators and regulators and it is required to discon- cussion. In the end, the conclusion of the paper is presented in
nect all DERs automatically from the network after both planned Section 5.
 A.A. Memon, K. Kauhaniemi / Electric Power Systems Research 129 (2015) 23–31 25

2. Protection issues 2.2.1. Selection of protection device/switch

The choice of the protection device is dependent on the required
2.1. Protection coordination (selectivity) with DG speed of operation, voltage level as well as the availability of
fault current; it may range from a moulded-case circuit breaker
Protection coordination (selectivity) is adversely affected by DG to a high speed solid-state switch. The required speed of response
penetration in distribution systems. Traditional overcurrent pro- by Microgrid PCC switch (breaker) to an event on either side of
tection is designed for radial distribution systems with fault current utility transformer largely depends on the sensitivity of load con-
flow in single direction; whereas the connection of DERs into dis- nected within Microgrid [1,2]. Another consideration for high speed
tribution networks changes the singly fed radial networks into response of protective device is the potential loss of Microgrid sta-
complicated ones having multiple sources and thus the flow of fault bility due to faults on the utility grid or within Microgrid, especially
current is changed from unidirectional to bidirectional [1]. The pro- when directly-coupled DGs are connected within Microgrid which
tection system of a typical distribution system is traditionally based are very sensitive to voltage dips due to faults and may endanger
on time or current coordination principle, in which the protective the Microgrid stability [19].
device closest to the fault called main protection operates first and if
it fails to operate then backup protection operates after a predeter- 2.2.2. Spurious separations or false trips
mined time delay. However, if main protection is a fuse and backup Spurious separations or false trips may occur for example due to
protection is the recloser then it is normal practice to coordinate failure of PCC device to discriminate whether the fault is on the util-
the fast operating curve of the recloser to operate first followed ity side or within the Microgrid. Spurious separations are not only
by the fuse, if fault is not cleared; this is commonly known as fuse caused by the inexpensive electromechanical relays and breakers
saving scheme which is usually applied for clearance of temporary but also by sophisticated microprocessor-based protection devices
faults [11]. The conventional distribution protection is comprised working only on information (voltage and frequency measure-
of low cost and simple protective devices like overcurrent (OC) ments) available at PCC. Presently, the only reliable method to avoid
relays, circuit breakers, reclosers and fuses. It is usual practice in spurious separations and providing fast tripping of PCC breaker is
USA to provide inverse OC relays at distribution sub-station, the to have “transfer trip” from utility sub-station breaker. The Micro-
reclosers at main feeder while the fuses on laterals, whereas in grid and the utility operations are less affected due to spurious
Finland and majority of other European countries, definite time separations as long as the Microgrid has the capability to restore
OC relays are used at origin of primary distribution feeders and its normal operation after separation. However, spurious separa-
fuses at secondary sub-stations (this practice may vary from coun- tions can result in increased cost due to more operations of PCC
try to country). For radial networks, the protection coordination device thus decreasing its life time and increasing the labour for
between relays, reclosers and fuses is well established, however, restoration of normal operations. Moreover, false trips can result in
when DGs are connected the networks no longer remain radial and Microgrid exposure to power quality problems, unwarranted out-
the coordination between protective devices is either altered or age to non-priority loads (which are usually disconnected due to
completely lost [12,13]. The extent to which protection coordina- islanding) and loss of revenue as well as a period of over frequency
tion is affected by DGs depends on the capacity, type and location operation for exporting Microgrids [1,2].
of DGs [14–16]. The different adverse effects of DG connection
on distribution network protection include false tripping of feed- 2.2.3. Re-synchronisation
ers, nuisance tripping of protection devices, blinding of protection, The availability of re-synchronisation equipment at Microgrid
increase/decrease in fault level with connection/disconnection PCC should also be considered so that Microgrid can be recon-
of DERs affecting reach of OC relay, unwanted islanding, pre- nected with utility grid as soon as utility is ready to connect
vention of automatic reclosing and out-of-synchronism reclosing all previously disconnected loads due to islanding. The process
[1,17,18]. of re-synchronisation and reconnection may either be manual or
automatic and it may need several seconds to several minutes
depending on the characteristics of the system [2]. Various types
2.2. Protection issues in Microgrids of Microgrid synchronisation schemes have been reviewed in [20]
and the schemes have been categorised into three main types:
Microgrid protection issues can be broadly divided into two active, passive and open-transition transfer synchronisation. Both
categories; protection issues when Microgrid operates in grid- active and passive synchronisation schemes maintain high relia-
connected mode and protection issues when Microgrid operates bility as compared to open-transition transfer scheme but active
in islanded mode. In grid-connected mode (normal mode), the synchronisation schemes are more complex and uneconomical.
protection problems are related with the response time of Micro- Moreover in [20], passive synchronisation scheme have been sug-
grid isolation device (circuit breaker) at the point of common gested using traditional synchrocheck relay and switched capacitor
coupling (PCC) for events on utility grid and Microgrid, preven- banks for Microgrid with both directly-coupled and converter-
tion of spurious or false tripping by isolation device as well as based DERs. However, the use of switched capacitor banks for
re-synchronisation and reconnection speed of Microgrid with util- voltage balancing after Microgrid islanding may result in slow
ity grid after the disappearance of an event. In grid-connected re-synchronisation. Automatic re-synchronisation scheme incor-
mode the response time of protection devices installed within porated through Microgrid central controller using communication
Microgrid (line protection and DER protection) for events on Micro- network is suggested for complicated Microgrid structures in [1].
grid is also considered. For Microgrid operation in islanded mode,
the response time of protective devices within Microgrid (line 2.2.4. Events/faults during grid-connected mode
protection and DER protection) for events within Microgrid is For a fault on the utility grid during normal operation, the
taken into account which largely depends on the complexity of response of the protection devices of individual DERs (anti-
Microgrid. The main concern in islanded mode of operation is islanding protection) should be not to trip before the protection
the reduced short-circuit current at which OC protection devices device at PCC trips and DERs should continue operation during
either do not respond or if they do respond, their operation sensing and switching of PCC device. To allow this all DERs should
time is much longer than the required time (seconds instead of have fault ride through (FRT) capability [21]. For a fault within
milliseconds) [1,2]. Microgrid during normal operation, the response of line/feeder
26 A.A. Memon, K. Kauhaniemi / Electric Power Systems Research 129 (2015) 23–31

protection must be to disconnect the faulty portion from the rest of of noise in voltage/current signal may further degrade the per-
system as quick as possible and how it is done depends on the fea- formance of proposed relay and the setting of threshold values is
tures and complexity of Microgrid and the protection strategy used not clearly mentioned. The potential application of synchronised
[2]. There may be some non-fault cases resulting in low voltages phasor measurements using phasor measurement units (PMUs)
at PCC like voltage unbalances and non-fault open phases which and global positioning system (GPS) at either side of PCC for Loss-
are difficult to be detected and may potentially create hazards of-Mains detection is mentioned in [25]. The high capital cost of
for sensitive loads, microsources etc. Therefore, some protection PMUs makes this scheme uneconomical [25]. Moreover, possibility
mechanisms must be developed to avoid such situations [1]. of GPS signal loss or impairment causing clock drift consequently
make PMUs less accurate (or function incorrectly) and less reli-
2.2.5. Events/faults during islanded mode able, therefore PMUs with back-up clock functionality will be
When Microgrid operates in islanded mode, the nature of prob- required [29].
lems becomes completely different from that of grid-connected
mode. In grid-connected mode, the fault currents of higher mag-
2.2.7. Role of Microgrid control architecture in protection
nitudes (10–50 times the full load current) are available from the
Microgrid configuration may change due to various control
utility grid in order to activate conventional OC protection devices.
actions like load-shedding in peak-hours or increase in local gen-
On the contrary, for a stand-alone Microgrid the fault current of
eration for export to grid for optimum and economical operation of
about five times the full load current is available [1]. When a large
Microgrid. Therefore, adaptive protection system will be required
number of converter-based DERs are connected in Microgrid, the
to change protection relay settings dynamically according to chang-
fault currents of only 2–3 times the full load current (or even less
ing configuration of Microgrid. Adaptive protection scheme can be
depending on control method of converter [22]) are available [23].
implemented with centralised or decentralised control approaches,
The conventional OC protection devices are usually set to operate
but each approach requires different communication architecture.
at 2–10 times the full load current. Hence, due to this drastic reduc-
The centralised control architecture for adaptive protection is the
tion of fault level, the time-current coordination of OC protective
conventional method. In this method, a central controller coordi-
devices is disturbed; the high-set instantaneous OC devices and OC
nates the protection settings. However, failure of central controller
devices with extremely inverse characteristics like fuses are most
causes full loss of adaptive protection and therefore, redundancy
likely to be affected [1].
in central controller is required. The centralised communication
architecture is supported by various communication protocols like
2.2.6. Anti-islanding protection
Modbus, DNP3, IEC 60870-5-101/104, IEC 61850 and it can be
Another important consideration for islanding mode of oper-
implemented with serial/bus communication, over PLC (power-line
ation is related with anti-islanding (or Loss-of-Mains) protection
carrier) or via Ethernet network. The decentralised control archi-
of DERs. The deactivation of anti-islanding protection is generally
tecture depends on information exchange between distributed
required if the amount of microsource generation within Microgrid
intelligent electronic devices (IEDs). Each IED acts autonomously
is very high. If anti-islanding protection is kept activated then there
after receiving information from other IED to change its active set-
is chance that it may cause uncontrolled islands within Microgrid
ting group. The decentralised architecture is only feasible when the
due to its fast tripping. Hence, it will be desirable to deactivate
communication protocol allows direct communication between
anti-islanding protection instantly when an isolated Microgrid is
IEDs. Presently, the industry is focused on IEC 61850 as the stan-
detected to be formed, to do that, DERs must have FRT capa-
dard protocol for decentralised communication. The decentralised
bility to cope with voltage and frequency transients caused by
architecture requires a bus or Ethernet network for implementa-
islanding [1,21]. As reported in [1], the most reliable and fast
tion, though it can also be implemented with 4G wireless network
method to deactivate anti-islanding protection of DERs is to send
or over PLC [30].
a trip blocking signal through Microgrid central controller using
The earlier research shows that traditional protection devices
communication link. The fast and reliable method for islanding
with single setting are incompatible with Microgrid protection phi-
detection is necessary for a stable operation of Microgrid. The
losophy which ensures safe and secure operation of Microgrid in
islanding detection methods are generally divided into three cat-
both the grid-connected and islanded mode of operation. Hence
egories: Passive, active and telecom-based [24]. Various passive
it becomes inevitable to look for alternate means and methods
and active Loss-of-Mains detection methods and algorithms have
of faults detection and isolation which can work equally well in
been reported in [25–27]. Passive islanding detection methods
both grid-connected and islanded mode of operation, that is, new
are preferred over active methods due to factors of speed, reli-
protection schemes must be adaptable [1,2,31,32]. The new pro-
ability and power quality, whereas, telecom-based methods are
tection schemes should not only consider the reduction in fault
more complex and costly as compared with passive methods. How-
levels but also consider the chances of bidirectional fault current
ever, some passive islanding detection methods based on measured
flow in some feeders [1]; besides, the new protection schemes
electrical quantities like voltage and frequency may fail or take
should also use communication links to ensure fast and reliable
longer time to detect islanding when generation and loads in
operation.
Microgrid are nearly equal [24,28]. To solve this problem, a new
passive islanding detection method based on pattern recognition
approach for the extracted current and voltage transient signals 3. Protection schemes for Microgrids
(at DG terminals) generated during disconnection of the main grid
is proposed in [28]. The method uses discrete wavelet-transform A critical review of some proposed protection schemes in the
and classification technique (decision-tree (DT) classifier) to extract recent scientific literature is presented in this section. The protec-
current and voltage signal energies (detail coefficients) in various tion schemes are divided into three main categories: the schemes
frequency bands. The transient detector is used to trigger the clas- for only grid-connected mode, the schemes for only islanded mode
sifier after a delay of 0.01 s if the value of the detail coefficient and the schemes for both grid-connected and islanded mode.
exceeds a pre-set threshold value. The performance of the pro- Tables 1 and 2 summarise the protection schemes for only islanded
posed method has been compared with other passive methods in mode and the protection schemes for both grid-connected and
[24]. The response time of the proposed DT relay is (30–48) ms islanded mode respectively with advantages/limitations of each
for various islanding events and DG types. However, high level scheme.
 A.A. Memon, K. Kauhaniemi / Electric Power Systems Research 129 (2015) 23–31 27

Table 1
Protection schemes for only islanded mode.

No. Protection scheme Applied methods/functions Test system features Faults Advantages/limitations

DG Load Line Volt. level

1. Harmonic content THD and frequency C-DGs Constant MVA OHL radial 11/0.48 kV LLG Difficult to assess THD
based protection measurement of converter threshold values for different
scheme [39] voltages, communication fault types, possibility of relay
link between relays trip failure when more
dynamic loads are connected
or if some DGs with pure
voltage output, sensitivity
problems with varying fault
impedances
2. Voltage based abc-dq0 transformation of C- DGs Constant MVA OHL radial 11/0.48 kV LLL, LL, LG Single-pole tripping and high
protection scheme DGs output voltages and impedance faults are not
[40] communication link considered, trip decision
between relays. depends on communication
link
3. Symmetrical OC relays, static switch at C- DGs kW - 0.48 kV LG, LL No use of communication link
component and PCC, zoning principle. and provides full protection
residual current from LG and LL faults.
based scheme [41] However, three phase and high
impedance faults and single
pole tripping not considered
4. Adaptive IEDs (voltage, current, C- DGs Constant MVA OHL radial 20 kV – Adaptable to operational
protection scheme directional OC modes of Microgrid but highly
[21] measurements with dependent on communication
interlocking), high speed link, detailed simulation
communication link, results for particular types of
zoning. faults are not discussed

3.1. The protection schemes for only grid-connected mode 3.2. The protection schemes for only islanded mode

A protection coordination scheme based on OC principle and A protection scheme based on monitoring of harmonic con-
time dependent characteristics of current to prevent high fault tent of C-DGs in an islanded Microgrid is proposed in [39]. In this
clearing times and maximizing DG connection to MV distribution scheme the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the voltage at the
networks is presented in [33]. This strategy provides extra benefit converter terminal of the DG is continuously monitored by the pro-
of running extensive radial networks with directly-coupled DGs (D- tection relay and when THD exceeds a threshold value during a
DGs) or closed-loop networks with converter-based DGs (C-DGs). fault, the converter gets a shutdown by the relay. The variation
However, this scheme is unclear about high impedance faults (HIF) of the amplitude of fundamental frequency of the faulted phase
and is more effective with increased number of relays. An adap- is used to detect the fault type (the frequency of faulted phase is
tive overcurrent pickup strategy for MV feeder with C-DGs and dropped as compared to sound phase) and comparison of THD of
radial overhead line (OHL) has been proposed in [18]. This scheme voltage between sound and faulted phase is used to identify the
updates the OC relay minimum pickup current on the basis of the fault location (faulted phase has greater THD than sound phase).
fault analysis of the system. However, this scheme is more effec- The relay with more THD is considered to be in fault zone or nearer
tive when some of DGs are disconnected. A protection strategy to the fault location and has to trip in order to clear the fault. How-
using conventional OC relays with definite time grading for a LV ever, for correct relay to trip, relays must be synchronised using
Microgrid with both D-DGs and C-DGs connected to OHL and cable communication link.
network has been presented in [34]. The proposed scheme does A voltage based protection scheme for islanded Microgrids con-
not use any communication link and can be applied without any taining C-DGs is proposed in [40]. The scheme monitors the output
modification of existing protection system, hence it is economical. voltages of DGs and transforms them into dc quantities using d–q
An intelligent agent based protection scheme for radial OHL dis- frame of reference. Any type of disturbance in DGs output voltages
tribution system without DG and for closed loop system with DG due to network faults is reflected as a disturbance in d–q quantities.
is proposed in [35]. The scheme assumes peer to peer communica- The scheme utilizes the concept of zones and uses communication
tion between IEDs. The scheme provides higher speed of back up link between relays in order to discriminate between the faults
protection as compared to conventional protection, autonomous inside and outside of the zone. The considered scheme has been
system monitoring and adjustment of parameters, but needs high verified with the help of simulations for different types of faults at
speed communication. various locations. However, HIF and single-pole tripping have not
In [36,37], it has been proposed to use a fault current limiter been taken into account.
(FCL) in series with DG unit in order to limit the fault current con- A protection scheme based on the principle of symmetrical com-
tribution from DG during fault and thus return the system to its ponents and residual current measurement for islanded operation
original state as if no DG was connected. In this way original direc- of Microgrid is proposed in [41]. In the paper the term “differ-
tional OC relay settings can be used without disconnection of DG. ential current” is applied, but the principle is same as in the
The use of TCSC (thyristor controlled series capacitor) as an FCL common residual current devices. The proposed scheme uses resid-
has been proposed in [38]. The FCLs offer many advantages like no ual current devices as primary protection of LG faults for the zones
DG disconnection, use of original relay settings, avoid upgrading upstream the faults and zero sequence current as primary protec-
of equipment for handling large currents. But impedance of FCL tion of LG faults for the zones downstream of the fault. The negative
increases with increase in individual DG capacity hence its cost sequence current is used as primary protection for LL faults. I2 t pro-
increases. Moreover transient response of FCL is another concern. tection is used as primary backup for both LG and LL events and
 28
Table 2
Protection schemes for both grid-connected and islanded mode.

No. Protection scheme Applied Test system features Faults Advantages/limitations

methods/functions

DG Load Line Volt. level

1. Adaptive Numerical directional D-DGs Constant MVA Cable radial 6/0.4 kV LLL, LL, LG High implementation cost,
directional OC relays with simulation results only for
overcurrent directional interlocking D-DGs, HIF not considered,
protection [42] capability Centralized control is used for
protection settings, needs

A.A. Memon, K. Kauhaniemi / Electric Power Systems Research 129 (2015) 23–31
communication
2. Differential OC relays and C-DGs and D-DGs – OHL and cable, MV LG, LLL Economical (traditional OC
protection communication link radial relays and existing
scheme[47] communication link), but
ineffective when loads are
unbalanced
3. Current travelling Bus bar voltages for – – – 10/0.4 kV – Unaffected by power flow, fault
waves based faults detection and current, load unbalance,
scheme [54] current travelling plug-and-play generators and
waves for fault location independent of Microgrid
operational mode but no
simulation results
4. Multi-agent Network zoning, IEDs, D-DGs Constant MVA OHL radial 24.9 kV LG, LLG-HIF No central data processor, no
protection schemes communication link, voltage transformers, no time
[43] wavelet coefficients of synchronized measurements,
transient current for less computation, effective for
fault location all types of faults including HIF,
but requires means to
differentiate between fault and
switching transients to avoid
false trips, needs high speed
communication
5. Inverse-time Inverse–time C-DGs Constant MVA OHL radial and 11 kV LLL, LL, LG, LLG No use of communication link,
admittance- based admittance relay, closed loop slow tripping for high
protection scheme directional element, impedance faults and higher
[51] zoning DG infeed, measurement errors
due to fundamental extraction
because of harmonics,
transients and decaying dc
components
6. Pattern recognition Time-frequency C-DGs and D-DGs Constant MVA OHL radial and 25 kV LLL, LL, LG, LLG, More robust than current
based scheme transform closed loop LLLG HIF differential scheme, immune to
[52,53] (S-transform), spectral noise and less sensitive to
energy contours, synchronisation error, uses
calculation of both time and frequency
differential energy information (more data for
decision making), proposed for
wide area protection
 A.A. Memon, K. Kauhaniemi / Electric Power Systems Research 129 (2015) 23–31 29

under-voltage as secondary protection if I2 t protection fails due to multi-agent approach has been proposed for MV smart grid. The
insufficient current levels. proposed method is adaptable and is based on distributed intelli-
An adaptive protection scheme based on telecommunication gence but can be made adaptable through centralised intelligence.
and modern protection relays or IEDs for Microgrid with C-DGs A comparison between directional OC protection and distance
is presented in [21]. The scheme has been applied to MV feeder protection with the help of PSCAD simulations has been presented
divided into four protection zones and between each zone a cir- in [45]. It is concluded that distance protection performs better than
cuit breaker is installed which is controlled by an IED, the DG units directional OC protection. Therefore, an adaptive protection based
are also provided with IEDs. The IEDs are provided with voltage on directional OC protection for the grid-connected and distance
and currents measurements as well as directional OC protection protection for the islanded mode of Microgrid has been suggested.
function and are connected with each other through high speed
communication links. The proposed method uses voltage measure- 3.3.2. Differential protection schemes
ments for fault detection and current direction for fault location. One differential protection scheme using communication-
In the proposed method, complete system selectivity and speed is assisted digital relays working on the principle of synchronised
obtained through transfer of fault direction and interlocking infor- phasor measurements has been suggested in [46] for MV Micro-
mation between IEDs using communication based on IEC 61850. grids embedded with both D-DGs and C-DGs. Instantaneous
differential protection is used as the primary protection and
adjacent relays are used as backup in case of breaker failure. Com-
3.3. The protection schemes for both grid-connected and islanded parative voltage protection is used as tertiary protection in case
mode of relay or communication failure. The suggested scheme is also
capable of detecting HIF. However, the proposed scheme is uneco-
3.3.1. Adaptive protection schemes nomical to implement and assumes advanced technical features
An adaptive protection scheme based on the principle of net- that are still not available in the present state-of-the-art equipment
work zoning is presented in [13]. Zoning of the feeders is done like high performance relays and breakers as well as high sensitive
in a way that each zone has appropriate balance DG and load current transformers.
with DG capacity slightly larger than load. Moreover, in each zone In [47], a protection strategy based on the principle of differen-
at least the largest DG is equipped with load frequency control tial current and utilizing traditional OC relays and communication
capability. After zoning, some fast operating switches equipped link has been advised for MV Microgrids having both D-DGs and
with synchronisation-check relays and having capability to receive C-DGs. This scheme offers economical implementation, but not
remote signals from sub-station breaker are placed between each of effective during unbalanced load.
two zones. A computer-based relay having high processing power, A differential protection scheme is suggested in [48] as a means
large storage capacity and capability to communicate with zone of primary protection for MV Microgrid with C-DGs and closed loop
breakers and DG relays is installed at sub-transmission sub-station. OHL for both the grid-connected and islanded mode of operation.
This computer-based relay has to perform the functions of online The scheme uses OC and under voltage based protection schemes as
fault detection and isolation of faulted zone by tripping the appro- backup protection in case of breaker or communication link failure.
priate zone breaker and DG connected to that zone. In addition, Current differential relays are used for feeder and bus protection
sub-station relay has to perform the reclosing in case of temporary while DGs are protected using under voltage, reverse power flow,
faults in any of the zones. The scheme is not suitable for systems over voltage and synchronism check relays. This scheme may suffer
with low DG penetration and to a great extent depends on cen- problems due to switching transients and unbalanced loads.
tralised relay and communication links. The need of continuous
synchronised current measurements at each circuit breaker and 3.3.3. Distance protection schemes
DG location with the help of GPS and PMU make this scheme quite A distance protection scheme has been presented in [49] for
expensive. Microgrid with C-DGs. The performance of distance relays with
An adaptive protection scheme employing numerical direc- Mho characteristic has been evaluated in a radial feeder system for
tional OC relays with directional interlocking capability for unbalanced (LG, LL, LLG) faults using PSCAD simulations and MAT-
Microgrid with both D-DGs and C-DGs is proposed in [42]. The LAB calculations. A method of converter control is proposed to limit
scheme is based on Microgrid central controller which updates the the converter current by reducing the voltage in the faulty phase(s)
protection settings according to Microgrid operational mode using while keeping the voltage of healthy phases unaltered. The effects
advanced communication link ensuring fast tripping. of fault resistance and load are considered on the Mho characteris-
A multi-agent based protection scheme using a wavelet trans- tic. It has been observed that the relay downstream to the fault
form technique is presented in [43] for distribution system with operates unnecessarily for ground faults when a star-connected
DGs. The scheme divides the network into several segments and load is connected downstream to the fault and low fault impedance
relay agents are installed at interconnection points between these appears at the fault point. To alleviate this problem the addition
segments. The relay agents detect and isolate the fault through of a directional feature to the distance relay has been suggested.
communication with neighbouring agents. The faulted zone is To solve the same problem, a negative sequence impedance anal-
determined through feedback signals from current transformers ysis has been done at each distance relay location in [50]. It has
(CTs) installed at interconnected branches which measure the cur- been found that reactive part of negative sequence impedance can
rent leaving the node. From the measurement of transient currents, be used to discriminate forward and reverse faults effectively for
wavelet transform coefficients are calculated and on the basis of radial networks with C-DGs.
the sign of the wavelet transform coefficients a fault is assigned An inverse time admittance-based relay is proposed in [51]
to be internal or external. If the wavelet transform coefficients of for radial distribution system with several C-DGs. The proposed
the currents measured at all points have the same sign, the fault is scheme is capable of detecting fault currents even with lower
categorised as internal fault, otherwise considered as an external magnitudes. In this scheme, first of all a normalized admittance
fault. A relay agent diagnoses a fault on its bus bar as an internal is obtained, then this normalized admittance is used to obtain
fault and immediately trips all circuit breakers connected to the bus an inverse time tripping characteristic of relay. The relay trips
bar to clear the fault and communicates its decision to other relay when the normalized admittance becomes greater than 1.0 or
agents. In [44], a new adaptive relay protection concept based on the measured admittance becomes greater than total admittance
30 A.A. Memon, K. Kauhaniemi / Electric Power Systems Research 129 (2015) 23–31

of protected line segment. In the proposed scheme, each relay 4. Discussion

has two protection zones (Zone-1 and Zone-2) and the unique
inverse time characteristic for each zone depending on the value In order to protect a particular type of AC Microgrid in both grid-
of admittance in that zone. Thus each upstream relay provides connected and islanded mode of operation, an adaptive protection
backup for the immediate downstream relay. The scheme rec- is necessarily required. Most of the proposed adaptive protec-
ommends the use of directional feature in order to differentiate tion methods are completely dependent on exchange or transfer
between forward and reverse faults. Moreover, a third zone (Zone- of data/information in the shape of measured system parameters
3) for each relay is also introduced in order to detect the high (voltage, current, phase angle, etc.) and direction and interlocking
impedance/resistance faults. For Zone-3, each relay has two trip- signals between different protection agents (IEDs) via some kind of
ping characteristics, one for forward faults and other for reverse communication link. Therefore, for an effective adaptive protection
faults. scheme, the reliability of communication link is critical. The factors
like high risks of communication link failures and cyber security
threats as well as the high costs involved to avoid them are the
3.3.4. Pattern recognition schemes
major challenges for implementation of economical adaptive pro-
A differential energy based protection scheme using
tection schemes. Wider application of the most advanced standard
time–frequency transform technique S-transform has been
IEC 61850 basing on modern Ethernet technologies in relay pro-
proposed in [52,53] for MV Microgrid with radial/loop network
tection results in increased level of susceptibility to cyber-attacks
and C-DGs. In the proposed protection scheme, first of all the cur-
as already reported in [57]. More information about cyber security
rents at both ends of faulted line are obtained from the respective
and other potential threats to modern digital relay protection can
buses which are then processed through a modified S-transform
be found in [58–60]. These challenges should be addressed properly
and their time–frequency contours are generated. The spectral
in order to fully exploit the benefits of adaptive protection schemes.
energy content of time–frequency contours of fault current signals
Considering the above factors, the future protection schemes for
is calculated and then the differential energy is computed. The
AC Microgrids, in general, are most likely to be hybrid in nature
differential energy of time–frequency contours of fault currents at
comprised of optimum combination of traditional effective protec-
both ends of faulted line is the key indicator for recognition of fault
tion schemes (directional OC, differential, distance etc.) and new
patterns in Microgrid. The trip signal is issued on the basis of a set
adaptive communication-based protection schemes using pattern
threshold on the differential energy for different fault situations
recognition approaches, synchrophasors, fault current limiters and
in Microgrid. The simulation results show that the differential
energy storages. The choice will depend on the type of Microgrid
energy varies considerably in the faulted phase as compared
structure, reliability needs of consumers and the type and control
with healthy phase and therefore faulted phase can easily be
of DERs. Additionally, redundant protection and communication
identified.
systems will be required for Microgrid providing higher level of
reliability.
3.3.5. Other miscellaneous schemes
A new protection strategy based on the principle of current trav-
5. Conclusion
elling waves is introduced in [54]. The scheme uses the local bus bar
voltages to detect a fault and current travelling waves to find the
Main protection issues of AC Microgrid and available solu-
fault location. The occurrence of fault at any feeder will cause the
tions proposed in the most recent scientific literature have been
change in power frequency voltages of the bus connected to that
reviewed and a critical analysis of suggested protection schemes for
feeder depending on the type of fault. Current transformers are
AC Microgrid has been produced. The critical analysis is based on
used for the measurement of travelling waves and wavelet multi-
basic protection philosophy of Microgrid to have a safe and secure
resolution analysis is used for decomposition of travelling waves.
operation in both grid-connected and islanded mode of operation.
With the comparison of magnitude and polarity of initial travelling
Moreover, the available protection schemes have been catego-
waves the faulted feeder is determined.
rized according to their effectiveness for particular operational
A protection scheme utilizing new programmable
modes of Microgrid and network topology. Various protection func-
microprocessor-based relays with directional elements has
tions as well as advantages/limitations of each proposed protection
been proposed in [55] for LV Microgrid containing C-DGs, D-DGs
scheme have also been mentioned. It is concluded that more effort
and unbalanced loads. The fault detection functions used for the
is still needed to overcome the limitations of proposed protec-
islanded mode of operation are comprised of instantaneous OC
tion schemes in order to make them effective for all types of fault
relay and voltage based relay for detection of solid faults, negative
events including high impedance faults in a selective, sensitive, reli-
and zero sequence components of fault current for detection
able and cost-effective way ensuring minimum supply disruption
of medium impedance faults and energy level method as pro-
to consumers. Most of the proposed adaptive protection schemes
posed in [56] for detection of HIF. In addition to three directional
that are able to work in both grid-connected and islanded mode of
elements (one for each phase), a negative sequence directional
Microgrid require communication links. Therefore, improvement
element is also utilized to avoid false trips due to low magnitude
of communication system reliability through redundancy or other
fault currents. A current-magnitude comparison technique is
means, provision of alternate methods to cope with communica-
also suggested to avoid false tripping by directional element. A
tion failures (if no reliable communication) and protection against
neutral voltage displacement function has also been suggested
cyber attacks are inevitable for safe and secure operation of future
to detect ground faults of MV side of transformer in an islanded
Microgrids.
mode. For grid-connected mode, the conventional OC protection
devices (fuses and relays) with inverse time characteristics and
microprocessor-based relays without communication link are Acknowledgement
suggested. The proposed scheme requires no communication or
adaptive protection devices and to a great extent is indepen- The financial support provided by the Finnish Funding Agency
dent of fault current magnitude, operational mode of Microgrid for Technology and Innovation (Tekes) through the Smart Grid
as well as type and size of DERs. It also enables single-pole and Energy Markets (SGEM) project (Grant No. 1031/09) is greatly
tripping. acknowledged.
 A.A. Memon, K. Kauhaniemi / Electric Power Systems Research 129 (2015) 23–31 31

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