Curriculum

Curriculum means a standard course of study for all students. It is a carefully

sequenced body of skills covering the academic, social, behavioral and spiritual
areas that children are expected to master.

Accommodations involving materials

Students spend a large portion of the school day interacting with materials. Most
instructional materials give teachers few activities or directions for teaching a large class of
students who learn at different rates and in various ways. This section provides material
accommodations that enhance the learning of diverse students. Frequently,
paraprofessionals, volunteers, and students can help develop and implement various
accommodations. Material accommodations include the following:

Use a tape recorder. Many problems with materials are related to reading disabilities. The
tape recorder often is an excellent aid in overcoming this problem. Directions, stories, and
specific lessons can be recorded on tape. The student can replay the tape to clarify
understanding of directions or concepts. Also, to improve reading skills, the student can
read the printed words silently as they are presented on tape.

Clarify or simplify written directions. Some directions are written in paragraph form and
contain many units of information. These can be overwhelming to some students. The
teacher can help by underlining or highlighting the significant parts of the directions.
Rewriting the directions is often helpful.

For example, one set of directions might say: This exercise will show how well you can
locate conjunctions. Read each sentence. Look for the conjunctions. When you locate a
conjunction, find it in the list of conjunctions under each sentence. Then circle the number
of your answer in the answer column. Simplified directions might say: Read each sentence
and circle all conjunctions.

Present a small amount of work. The teacher can tear pages from workbooks and
materials to present small assignments to students who are anxious about the amount of
work to be done. This technique prevents students from examining an entire workbook,
text, or material and becoming discouraged by the amount of work. Also, the teacher can
reduce the amount of work when it appears redundant.

For example, the teacher can request the student to complete only odd-numbered problems
or items with stars by them, or can provide responses to several items and ask the student
to complete the rest. Finally, the teacher can divide a worksheet into sections and instruct
the student to do a specific section. A worksheet is divided easily by drawing lines across it
and writing go and stop within each section.

Block out extraneous stimuli. If a student is easily distracted by visual stimuli on a full
worksheet or page, a blank sheet of paper can be used to cover sections of the page not
being worked on at the time. Also, line markers can be used to aid reading, and windows
can be used to display individual math problems.

Highlight essential information. If an adolescent can read a regular textbook but has
difficulty finding the essential information, the teacher can mark this information with a
highlight pen.
 Curriculum

Locate place in consumable material. In consumable materials in which students progress

sequentially (such as workbooks), the student can make a diagonal cut across the lower
right-hand corner of the pages as they are completed. With all the completed pages cut, the
student and teacher can readily locate the next page that needs to be corrected or
completed.

Provide additional practice activities. Some materials do not provide enough practice
activities for students with learning problems to acquire mastery on selected skills. Teachers
then must supplement the material with practice activities. Recommended practice
exercises include instructional games, peer teaching activities, self-correcting materials,
computer software programs, and additional worksheets.

Provide a glossary in content areas. At the secondary level, the specific language of the
content areas requires careful reading. Students often benefit from a glossary of content-
related terms.

Develop reading guides. A reading guide provides the student with a road map of what is
written and features periodic questions to help him or her focus on relevant content. It
helps the reader understand the main ideas and sort out the numerous details related to the
main ideas. A reading guide can be developed paragraph-by-paragraph, page-by-page, or
section-by-section.

Back to Top

Accommodations involving interactive instruction

The task of gaining students' attention and engaging them for a period of time requires
many teaching and managing skills. Teaching and interactions should provide successful
learning experiences for each student. Some accommodations to enhance successful
interactive instructional activities are:

Use explicit teaching procedures. Many commercial materials do not cue teachers to use
explicit teaching procedures; thus, the teacher often must adapt a material to include these
procedures. Teachers can include explicit teaching steps within their lessons (i.e., present
an advanced organizer, demonstrate the skill, provide guided practice, offer corrective
feedback, set up independent practice, monitor practice, and review).

Repeat directions. Students who have difficulty following directions are often helped by
asking them to repeat the directions in their own words. The student can repeat the
directions to a peer when the teacher is unavailable. The following suggestions can help
students understand directions: (a) if directions contain several steps, break down the
directions into subsets; (b) simplify directions by presenting only one portion at a time and
by writing each portion on the chalkboard as well as stating it orally; and (c) when using
written directions, be sure that students are able to read and understand the words as well
as comprehend the meaning of sentences.

Maintain daily routines. Many students with learning problems need the structure of daily
routines to know and do what is expected.

Provide a copy of lecture notes. The teacher can give a copy of lecture notes to students
who have difficulty taking notes during presentations.
 Curriculum

Provide students with a graphic organizer. An outline, chart, or blank web can be given
to students to fill in during presentations. This helps students listen for key information and
see the relationships among concepts and related information.

Use step-by-step instruction. New or difficult information can be presented in small

sequential steps. This helps learners with limited prior knowledge who need explicit or part-
to-whole instruction.

Simultaneously combine verbal and visual information. Verbal information can be

provided with visual displays (e.g., on an overhead or handout).

Write key points or words on the chalkboard. Prior to a presentation, the teacher can
write new vocabulary words and key points on the chalkboard or overhead.

Use balanced presentations and activities. An effort should be made to balance oral
presentations with visual information and participatory activities. Also, there should be a
balance between large group, small group, and individual activities.

Use mnemonic instruction. Mnemonic devices can be used to help students remember
key information or steps in a learning strategy. (An example of mnemonic instruction is
using the word HOMES to remember the names of the Great Lakes. H is for Lake Huron, O
is for Lake Ontario, M is for Lake Michigan, E is for Lake Erie, and S is for Lake Superior.)

Emphasize daily review. Daily review of previous learning or lessons can help students
connect new information with prior knowledge.

Back to Top

Accommodations involving student performance

Students vary significantly in their ability to respond in different modes. For example,
students vary in their ability to give oral presentations; participate in discussions; write
letters and numbers; write paragraphs; draw objects; spell; work in noisy or cluttered
settings; and read, write, or speak at a fast pace. Moreover, students vary in their ability to
process information presented in visual or auditory formats. The following accommodation
involving mode of reception and expression can be used to enhance students' performance:

Change response mode. For students who have difficulty with fine motor responses (such
as handwriting), the response mode can be changed to underlining, selecting from multiple
choices, sorting, or marking. Students with fine motor problems can be given extra space
for writing answers on worksheets or can be allowed to respond on individual chalkboards.

Provide an outline of the lecture. An outline enables some students to follow the lesson
successfully and make appropriate notes. Moreover, an outline helps students to see the
organization of the material and ask timely questions.

Encourage use of graphic organizers. A graphic organizer involves organizing material

into a visual format. To develop a graphic organizer, the student can use the following
steps: (a) list the topic on the first line, (b) collect and divide information into major
headings, (c) list all information relating to major headings on index cards, (d) organize
 Curriculum

information into major areas, (e) place information under appropriate subheadings, and (f)
place information into the organizer format.

Place students close to the teacher. Students with attention problems can be seated
close to the teacher, chalkboard, or work area and away from distracting sounds, materials,
or objects.

Encourage use of assignment books or calendars. Students can use calendars to

record assignment due dates, list school related activities, record test dates, and schedule
timelines for schoolwork. Students should set aside a special section in an assignment book
or calendar for recording homework assignments.

Reduce copying by including information or activities on handouts or worksheets.

Have students turn lined paper vertically for math. Lined paper can be turned
vertically to help students keep numbers in appropriate columns while computing math
problems.

Use cues to denote important items. Asterisks or bullets can denote questions or
activities that count heavily in evaluation. This helps students spend time appropriately
during tests or assignments.

Design hierarchical worksheets. The teacher can design worksheets with problems
arranged from easiest to hardest. Early success helps students begin to work.

Allow use of instructional aids. Students can be provided with letter and number strips
to help them write correctly. Number lines, counters, and calculators help students compute
once they understand the mathematical operations.

Display work samples. Samples of completed assignments can be displayed to help

students realize expectations and plan accordingly.

Use peer-mediated learning. The teacher can pair peers of different ability levels to
review their notes, study for a test, read aloud to each other, write stories, or conduct
laboratory experiments. Also, a partner can read math problems for students with reading
problems to solve.

Encourage note sharing. A student can use carbon paper or a notebook computer to take
notes and then share them with absentees and students with learning problems. This helps
students who have difficulty taking notes to concentrate on the presentation.

Use flexible work times. Students who work slowly can be given additional time to
complete written assignments.

Provide additional practice. Students require different amounts of practice to master

skills or content. Many students with learning problems need additional practice to learn at a
fluency level.

Use assignment substitutions or adjustments. Students can be allowed to complete

projects instead of oral reports or vice versa. Also, tests can be given in oral or written
 Curriculum

format. For example, if a student has a writing problem, the teacher can allow her or him to
outline information and give an oral presentation instead of writing a paper.

Accommodation
The term accommodation is used to mean a modification to the delivery of instruction or method of
student performance and does not change the content or conceptual difficulty of the curriculum (see
Table 1). Both teachers and students can play a role in the changes of instructional methods in order
to achieve the same intended instructional outcomes suggested in general curriculum. Examples of
accommodation are countless. Some include; incorporating different types of teaching devices and
techniques, such as use of audio or other formats as an alternative to print, technology, graphic
organizers, and pictorial representation; and changing the amount of input, time-frame for learning,
and levels of support for individual students' needs.

Adaptations
Adaptation is a modification to the delivery of instructional methods and intended goals of student
performance that does not change the content but does slightly change the conceptual difficulty of
the curriculum (see Table 1). Adaptations usually require more teacher effort and time than simply
changing instructional methods or access as in an accommodation.An adaptation is a goal-driven
process: in order to decide on an adaptation to curriculum, teachers first need to specify intended
goals for individual students. Again, examples of adaptation abound, and include providing
differentiated activities, homework and evaluations, and using adapted or different instructional
materials and activities for individual students.

A curriculum specialist is a professional in the field of education. He is charged with the

responsibility of coordinating curriculum activities, training teachers, assessing educational materials
and even selecting textbooks. The main duties are monitoring and evaluation of how the curriculum
is being implemented.

Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Curriculum
Curriculum
 Curriculum

the term direct instruction refers to (1) instructional approaches that are structured,
sequenced, and led by teachers, and/or (2) the presentation of academic content to students by
teachers, such as in a lecture or demonstration. In other words, teachers are “directing” the
instructional process or instruction is being “directed” at students. teachers may use direct
instruction to prepare students for an activity in which the students work collaboratively on a
group project with guidance and coaching from the teacher as needed

Learning strategies are used by students to help them understand information

and solve problems. A learning strategy is a person's approach to learning
and using information. Students who do not know or use good learning
strategies often learn passively and ultimately fail in school. Learning strategy
instruction focuses on making the students more active learners by teaching
them how to learn and how to use what they have learned to solve problems
and be successful. The Learning Strategies Curriculum has the necessary
breadth and depth to provide a well-designed scope and sequence of strategy
instruction. The curriculum is divided into strands, or categories of skills.

One strand addresses how students acquire information. It includes strategies

for learning how to paraphrase critical information, picture information to
promote understanding and remembering, ask questions and make
predictions about text information, and identify unknown words in text.

A second strand helps students study information once they acquire it. It
includes strategies for developing mnemonics and other devices to aid
memorization of facts as well as strategies for learning new vocabulary. These
strategies help prepare students for tests.
 Curriculum

A third strand helps students express themselves. It includes strategies to

help students write sentences and paragraphs, monitor their work for errors,
and confidently approach and take tests.

Peer tutoring is an intervention in which students work in pairs to master academic

skills or content. Peer tutoring can involve partners who are the same age or different
ages (cross-age). Cross-age peer tutoring involves older students serving as tutors for
younger, lower-functioning students. Cross-age tutoring occurs, for example, when
students in a high school child development class spend regularly scheduled time each
week reading with struggling students in a fourth grade class. In same-age tutoring, in
which students of the same age tutor each other, more skilled students may be paired
with less skilled students. In this case, students with stronger skills may provide the
first responses, providing a model for the less skilled partner.

 Cooperative Learning involves structuring classes around small groups that

work together in such a way that each group member's success is dependent
on the group's success. There are different kinds of groups for different
situations, but they all balance some key elements that distinguish
cooperative learning from competitive or individualistic learning. Students who
engage in cooperative learning learn significantly more, remember it longer,
and develop better critical-thinking skills than their counterparts in traditional
lecture classes.
 Students enjoy cooperative learning more than traditional lecture classes, so
they are more likely to attend classes and finish the course.
 Students are going to go on to jobs that require teamwork. Cooperative learning
helps students develop the skills necessary to work on projects too difficult and
complex for any one person to do in a reasonable amount of time.

The Tyler Model is:

one of the best known models for curriculum

development.known for the special attention it gives to the

planning phases. deductive for it proceeds from the general

(examining the needs of society, for example) to

the specific (specifying instructional objectives).

Tyler recommends that curriculum planners

identify general objectives by gathering data from

 Curriculum

three sources:

○the learners

○contemporary life outside the school

○subject matter.

•After identifying numerous general objectives, the

planners refine them by filtering them through

two screens:

○the philosophical screen

○the psychological screen

Hilda Taba believed that the curriculum should be

designed by the teachers rather than handed down

by higher authority. Further, she felt that teachers should begin the

process by creating specific teaching-learning units

for their students in their schools rather than by

engaging initially in creating a general curriculum

design. Taba advocated an inductive approach to

curriculum development. In the inductive approach, curriculum workers

start with the specifics and build up to a general

design as opposed to the more traditional

deductive approach of starting with the general

design and working down to the specifics.

The Oliva Model is a deductive model that offers a

faculty a process for the complete development of

 Curriculum

a school’s curriculum. Oliva recognized the needs of students in particular

communities are not always the same as the

general needs of students throughout our society.

Top-down knowledge is that which goes from the general explicit concept to specific implicit
application through deductive reasoning. Bottom-up knowledge is that which goes from
observed implicit specifics to general explicit conclusions through inductive reasoning. The
aim of each approach is to arrive at both explicit knowledge and implicit knowledge but by
going from two different directions, though studies show this aim is not fully realized
especially pertaining to the bottom-up approach. In top-down, the student goes from
receiving knowledge from an instructor to acquiring related implicit knowledge through
application and expansion of the explicit knowledge. This uses deductive reasoning going
from the general rule or theory to specific applications or observations. In bottom-up, the
student starts with a topic or a question, performs self-directed research and study and
ultimately arrives at explicit knowledge. This uses inductive reasoning going from the
specific observations to the general rule.