Carp culture notes-II

1. Process and Factors influencing Maturation of Fish

Indian major carps and Chinese carps breed naturally in the running waters of their natural
habitat especially in the monsoon seasons. In confined environmental like ponds and tanks,
although they attain gonadal maturity they do not spawn and reproduce. The only source of
seed for an aquaculturist prior to the introduction of hypophysation technique was from
natural collection mostly from rivers and streams. Natural seed invariability is a mixture of
desirable and undesirable (minor carps, predatory fish, etc.) species and collection also
becoming uneconomical and time consuming. The Central Inland Fisheries Research
Institute, Barrackpore achieved a major breakthrough in induced breeding of carps in the year
1957 and this technique helps in producing absolutely pure seeds and reduces dependency on
monsoon.

Reproduction in fish is regulated by hormones from brain, pituitary and gonads. In general
reproduction in Indian Major Carp (IMC) and Chinese carps are seasonal, starting from
recrudescence of gonad to final maturation, usually occurs in June to August in Andaman.

Endocrine cycle therefore, closely corresponds to the seasonal gonadal cycle. Two most
important environmental factors temperature and photoperiod, play major role in the release
and functioning of hormones.

Hormonal Control of Reproduction in Fishes

The action of seasonal environmental factors on reproduction is mediated through specific
endocrine changes. Endocrine mechanisms controlling breeding and maturation of fishes are
almost similar with the higher vertebrates. When environmental condition is congenial,
stimuli from the environment- photoperiod, temperature, rainfall etc. are processed by
sensory receptors, resulting in development of neural signals. This neural signal stimulates
the hypothalamus, situated at the base of the brain to release Gonadotropine Releasing
Hormone (GnRH), which stimulates pituitary to release Gonadotropine (GTH) hormone.
Gonadotropine hormones stimulate growth and development of gonads. There are two types
of gonadotropine hormones- GTH I and GTH II and are called as Follicle stimulating and
Luteinizing hormone. Thus GTH regulates the formation and maturation of gametes. But to
regulate GTH, there exist an inhibiting mechanism. Dopamine, a neuro-hormone is found to
inhabit the release of GTH in fish. This results in disturbance in the maturation process. It has
been found that by injecting domperidon or pimozide, action of dopamine can be blocked and
resulting in an increased and more reliable release of GTH when the fishes were injected with
GnRH. Hence, analogues of GnRH with dopamine inhibitor can be an important tool for
maturation and spawning of fishes. In earlier days fishes were spawned by injecting pituitary
extract of mature fishes. The draw back to the technique of hypophysation may be due to the
problem of fixing dosages and supply. The problem of deciding dose for breeding fish is
mainly due to not having clear idea about the potency of the pituitary which depends upon
age, sex, stage of maturing of the donor as well as method of collection and preservation
procedure. The supply of pituitary is also problem as one has either to sacrifice a fish to
collect pituitary or from immediately harvested fish before marketing. However, cut on the
head of a fish generally fetches less price. Now a days, synthetic analogs are increasingly
becoming popular among the fish breeders like Ovaprim, Ovatide, Ovapale, etc. Most of
these inducers contain GnRH and dopamine inhibitor.
Factors influencing maturity of fish
1. Temperature and photoperiod
Changes in temperature and photo period in a year are the main physical environmental
factors responsible for maturation and spawning of fishes. The importance of these factors
varies with the species and the stage of the reproductive cycle.
2. Water quality
Physico-chemical properties of water like water current, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, pH etc.,
are prime factors for survival of the aquatic animal and are critical for reproduction. In IMC
breeding, circular water current with high dissolve oxygen is maintained inside the spawning
pool to induce spawning. Many hatcheries also provide water shower for inducement.
Pollution also plays crucial role in reproduction. It has been reported that fishes from the
polluted waters develop depressed reproduction capacity, low fecundity, etc. Heavy metal,
pesticide, sewage, etc may alter or inhibit various steps in the reproduction process.
3. Food availability
Availability of balanced food (natural and /or artificial) in required amount is an important
factor affecting reproduction. It has been found that starved female produces fewer eggs.
Many fishes develop reduced eggs diameter and quality of eggs also may not be of good
leading to poor survival and weak hatching.
4. Social environment
Overcrowding may interfere with the fecundity and reproduction, independent of food
availability. Overcrowding in general, leads to reduced growth rate, higher embryonic
mortality, decreased fecundity, poor vitellogenesis, etc. Also it appears that overcrowding
affects reproduction via food availability, visual interactions and also phenomone (positively
involves in reproductive migration and spawning) release.
5. Stress associated with fish culture practice
Excessive handling, injury during netting, frequent alteration in environmental parameters
also develops deleterious effect of fish reproduction.
Stages of maturity of carps
Based on the development, maturity in carps can be categorized into 7 steps. Up to stage III,
the development is not very fast, after which the ovary will develop at a very fast rate with
increasing temperature. By the time stage V is reached, ovarian weight will be about 20-30%
of the total body weight and the gonado- somatic index in case male and female will be
around 5-10 and 20-30% of the total body weight respectively. Gonado-somatic index of
common carp is relatively higher than IMC and other Chinese carps.

With the advancement of maturity, fishes develop few morphological differences. However,
the sexual dimorphism they exhibit externally is only relative and not infallibility distinct. At
immature and maturing stages, sexes cannot be differentiated externally. One of the most 5
common differences between sexes is the roughness in the pectoral fin – the males develop
relatively long pectoral fin and roughness while that of females are smaller and smooth. On
slight pressure, whitish milt oozes out of male while the female develops pinkish and swollen
vent. IMC and Chinese carps generally mature in 2nd year onwards. If proper management
(specially in the brood stock pond) practice is adopted by providing nutritious food, optimum
water quality, optimum stocking density and pollution free water, very good success can be
achieved in fish breeding operation. At present fish seed production is a viable and highly
profitable business. In Andaman also lot of scope exists for the development of seed
production. Hence, a basic knowledge of maturation of fish and the factors affecting
maturation will help the farmer to develop better understanding in fish breeding operation.
Stage of Female Male
Maturation
I Immature Transparent, long and narrow strip Thread like and transparent
II Immature Thickened strip, translucent Translucent and thread like
III Maturing Opaque, granular and sometime greyish, Opaque, pinkish white, thin stripe like
occupy 1/3 of body cavity
IV Maturing Dull greyish in colour; occupy about 1/3 of Thick strips, milky, oozing whitish fluid on
body cavity applying pressure on the belly
V Mature Dull grey to greenish; occupy almost the Thickened band like; oozing whitish fluid on
entire body cavity; ova distinct in shape applying pressure on the belly
VI Spawning Having loose eggs in the ovarian wall; eggs Oozing milt freely on applying slight
oozing through genital opening on applying pressure on the belly
pressure on belly
VII Spent Ovary- blood- shot, pinkish brown mass but Oozing milt freely on applying slight
gently shrunk pressure on belly

2. Site selection and construction of a small scale carp culture hatchery

Site selection
In a freshwater hatchery water is the most important factor to decide the location of hatchery.
Apart from that a few factors are to be looked into and they are:
􀁹 Availability of sufficient quality of water of required quality.
􀁹 Uninterrupted power supply
􀁹 Availability of skilled and semi-skilled human resource.
􀁹 Infrastructure facility
􀁹 Source of finance and insurance coverage.
The Indian major carp and Chinese carp mature in confined waters but they do not breed
spontaneously in confined waters. Generally they breed in rivers during the south –west
monsoon. Availability of good brooders decides the success of induced breeding. Thus
maintance of healthy brood in broodstock ponds is the prime requisite for successful breeding
operation, which includes stocking of fish @ 1500kg /ha and feeding with formulated diet
@1- 2% of the body weight daily and water exchange.
Hatchery construction and management:
Circular eco –hatchery is the most common hatchery system adopted all over the country.
The hatchery possesses three components i.e., spawning pool, incubation /hatching chamber
and water storage and supply systems. Spawning pool is also called breeding pool. Its
purpose is to hold injected brooders for natural spawning and fertilization. The pool requires
uninterrupted filtered, well-oxygenated supply of water with optimum temperature. The depth
in the breeding pool is maintained up to 1.5 m based on the brood density. 3-5 kg of
brood/m3 is recommended. The breeding pool should have a sloppy bottom leading to the
outlet at center, so that it can be completely drained when required without leaving any eggs.
It is essential to provide a simulative riverine environment in the spawning pool. The
centrifugal flow makes the operation of inlet and outlet more effective.
The size and number of spawning pool may vary based on the production requirement and
the size of the breeding pool. The duck mouth direction and the speed of water are well
adjusted for smooth circulation of eggs in the water preventing them from mechanical injury.
The circulation keeps the fertilized eggs evenly distributed in the water column and keeps
them rolling slowly. Eggs at a concentration of 0.7-0.8 million per cubic meter of water
would be optimum for incubation. The circular pool has the advantage of holding a large
volume of eggs, convenient to manage and higher hatching of embryos which takes place
within 14-18 h in Indian major carps. The spawn are kept in the hatching pool till 72 h before
transfer to nursery.
Portable FRP Carp Hatchery
Breeding Pool
The breeding pool is cylindrical in shape with 2 m diameter and 1 meter height. The bottom
is with uniform slope towards the outlet at the center and the wall thickness varies from 5-
6mm. For providing circulatory water flow 3-4 PVC elbows (duck beak) with required size
pipe line is fitted at the bottom of the side wall with equal spacing. A single point water inlet
is connected with individually full-way valves to control the flow of water. A shower is also
provided at the top of the tank to aerate the water .The water supply to the pool comes from
the overhead tank. If necessary the system can be operated with a 0.5 hp electric pump.
Breeding of 10 kg fish can be done in every operation.
Hatching /Incubation tank
The tank is cylindrical in shape and measures 1.25 m dia and 1 m height and can hold a
volume of 1000 liter of eggs. It consists of egg incubation chamber, FRP inner chamber, FRP
socket and a source of water supply .The inner chamber of the tank is with 0.4 m dia and 0.9
m height covered with nylon bolting cloth to filter the excess water to the drain . 4-5 numbers
of PVC duck beak elbow along the inside bottom with connecting pipeline are fitted at the
outside bottom at equal distance to keep the eggs in circulatory flow. It also has drainage out
let at the center and the outer chamber fro draining and cleaning. The eggs are introduced in
the outer chamber of the system and water flows continuously through the duck beak. The
excess water flows out through the mesh cloth of the inner chamber to the outlet pipe. The
eggs hatche out in 14-18 hours and remain in the tank for 72 h. the spawn is collected in the
spawn collection tank .The capacity is about 9-10 lakhs eggs per operation.
Egg /Spawn collection tank
This is a rectangle tank of size 1x0.5x0.5 m size of 250 l capacity made of FRP with uniform
wall thickness .To drain the excess water PVC pipe of the required size is fitted at the height
of 0.4 m from the bottom. Cotton inner hapa of the same size is fixed inside the tank to
collect spawn/egg from the incubation /breeding pool.

3. Broodstock Development of Indian major carp (IMC) and Exotic Carps

The Indian major carps, grass carp and silver carp naturally breed in rivers during monsoon.
For breeding they require running water and river conditions in nature. They do not breed
naturally in confined waters but can be induced to do so by fish pituitary gland, HCG,
ovaprim or ovatide. For successful induced breeding at the farm following steps are essential.
Management of brood fishes
Prior to breeding season, the fishes are kept under captivity for 3-6 months in stocking ponds.
The size of the brood fish pond may be around 0.2 to 0.5 ha, with a minimum of 1.2-1.5 m
depth during summer season. The ponds should be having inlet and outlet and should be
drainable. The brood fish ponds have to be suitably managed to produce natural food. Good
brood fishes weighing 1-3 kg are stocked at 1500-2000 kg/ha. To ensure good growth and
gonadal development, artificial feeding (oilcake and rice bran at 1:1) is given at 3-5% of body
weight daily. Freshwater is also added time to time to maintain the depth of the pond. For
grass carp suitable aquatic weeds are to be provided in culture ponds.
Selection of Brood fishes
Good brood stock is considered very important for successful breeding. Generally the Indian
major carps mature after two years of age. The brood fish are required to be selected very
carefully. Usually the fishes are kept for breeding in sets, which means combination of one
female and two males. As a matter of fact it is a single male which participates in breeding
and the second is kept as standby. Breeding sets could also be in different combination (1:2,
2:3 or 3: 5). Care should be taken while selecting the brood fish. The male and female fishes
can be selected on the basis of the following Characters. Carps generally breed in the
monsoon period (June – August ) in most parts of the country.

Source of brood fish:

􀁹 Selected mature fish of different species, from the stocking ponds
􀁹 Adult fishes of different species from rivers, lakes and resources or other fish farms.

Care for selection of Brood fishes

1. Selected brood fish stock should be examined periodically for their condition.
2. The gonads sometimes fail to develop due to following factors.
􀁹 Inadequate food.
􀁹 Unfavourable ecological conditions.
􀁹 Genetic defects.
3. Both the age and size of the broodfishes are important
4. Carps of 2- 4 years old and weighing 2-5 kg are the best for hypophysation
5. Careful transport of brood fish is equally important.
Organic fertilizer
In aquatic system, natural fish food is produced by the application of manures and fertilizers.
In fish ponds traditionally cheap and best source of manuring is raw cow-dung. After
application of optimum level of RCD, the colour of pond water becomes light green or grey.
It indicates that the pond water has sufficient quantity of natural fish food organisms. Raw
cow dung should be applied at the following rate.
New pond: 10,000 - 12,000 kg/ha
Old Pond: 1,250 - 8,500 kg/ha
Raw cow dung is applied in installments. First installment of RCD is applied (20%) 15 days
prior to the stocking. If mahua oil cake is applied to poison the fish pond, it is not essential to
apply be first installment. Rest 80% of RCD is divided in 11 equal installments and is applied
every month. Slowly it gets dissolved.
Inorganic fertilizers
To increase the fertility of the pond, chemical fertilizers are also applied in addition to RCD.
It mainly includes urea, single super phosphate, etc. The doses are given below:
Urea = 25 kg/ha/year
Ammonium sulphate = 15 kg/ha/year
Single super phosphate = 300 kg/ha/year
Murat of Potash = 40 kg/ha/year
Food for fish
When the amount of natural food is insufficient, artificial or supplementary feed is applied.
The conventional supplementary feed is composed of rice bran, oil cake (ground nut or
mustard), silkwarm pupae, dried fish or shrimp. Generally when rice bran and oil cake are fed
in the ratio of 1:1, the feed contains about 20-30% protein and all essential components like
protein, fat and carbohydrate. Artificial supplementary feed is given from the next day of
stocking the seed fish. It is applied @ 2-3% of the body weight of fish per day. Food balls are
kept in the tray placed in the pond at specific place.
If grass carp seed is stocked then aquatic weeds are given in the pond. Grass carp is a
voracious feeder and it consumes grass more than its body weight daily. If aquatic plants are
not available, then terrestrial grass, Napier, Barseen and banana leaves, etc. are fed. Feeding
time and place should be fixed. In this system approximately 4-5 ton fish per hectare per year
can be produced in a village pond. This technology is economically viable and provide
employment to the unemployed youths apart from improving their socio-economic
conditions. In ponds, natural food called plankton are available for the fishes. In good fish
production ponds, the quantity of plankton should be 2.5 ml. To know the quantity of
plankton, 50 l of pond water from different parts of pond should be filtered by plankton net.
Add a bit of salt (sodium chloride). All the plankton will settle and quantity of plankton can
be determined.
Precautions
1. Avoid much handling of Brood fishes.
2. Observe the male and female fishes carefully.
3. Do not press male fish abdomen repeatedly.
4. Select the good breeders without disturbing the fishes.
5. Flow of water should be maintained in the hatchery.
6. Transportation of fish is equally important
7. The brood fish should be disinfected with 3 ppm solution of KMnO4

4. Seed Production of Indian Major Carps and Chinese carps

Freshwater fishery resources and scope for development of inland capture fisheries in the Bay
Islands is limited due to absence of major rivers or large natural water bodies. However, fresh
water fish culture is popular in Andaman mainly because of the Bengali settlers. The major
problem in freshwater fish culture, hampering the pace of development is the scarcity of
quality fish seeds. The estimated annual requirement of fish seed is about 10 lakh fingerlings
and the demand is expected to increase every year. Though Fisheries Department as well as
Central Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair is producing some quantities of seed but
that is not sufficient to meet the total demand of the Island. Also at present there is no well
developed private fish seed producing farm in Andaman which can produce quality fish seeds
and sell to the farmers. Hence, some people are illegally importing fish seed from the
mainland. These seeds are not only costly but also creating vulnerable situation of disease
outbreak to the endemic species of the island. Hence, a general guideline on fish breeding
operation for production of quality fish seed in this island is been attempted in this chapter.
Species selection for breeding purpose
In Andaman and Nicobar Islands the following species are of great demand:
􀁹 Catla – Catla catla
􀁹 Rohu - Labeo rohita
􀁹 Mrigal - Cirrhemmus mrigala
􀁹 Grass carp - Ctenopharyngodon idella
􀁹 Silver carp - Hypophthalmycthys molitrics
The above Indian major carps naturally breed in rivers and in running water conditions. They
do not breed in confined waters. For breeding them in confined water and for getting pure
seeds, these carp fishes are induced to bred using hormone injection. A general time schedule
for successful breeding of carps has been given below. The time required for the maturation
of fishes is about 2 years which can be shortened if we have brooders or brooders can be
collected from adjacent areas.
Area requirement for establishing a small scale breeding unit.

Breeding steps
Pond preparation: 20 days

Collection of yearling & stocking: 2-3 days in the brood stock pond

Feeding & monitoring growth: 2 years (for brooder same year) Till fish matures

Spawning and incubation: May – August

Nursery Rearing: June-July, July – Aug

(Spawn to fry) (15 – 20 days operation)

Selling of fry:

Rearing: 3 – 4 month operation (fry to fingerling)

Selling of fingerling:
Management of brood fish
Indian major carps mature in 2 years of age but it is always better to have brooders about 3
years old weighing around 3 kg. Broodstock management starts from 3-5 months ahead of
breeding season ie., Jan - Feb. Potential brood fishes need to be stocked in ponds at
2000kg/ha (200 kg/1000m2 area). During this period, active feeding starts, somatic growth
slowly ceases and gonadal development is initiated. For growth and gonadal development,
supplementary feeding has to be given by mixing oilcake and rice bran in 1:1 ratio at 1-2% of
the body weight. Freshwater is also added from time to time to maintain the depth of the
pond.
Breeding season
In Andaman, breeding season of fishes starts with the onset of the South West monsoon
(June- August). Generally one breeding cycle, from the collection of brood fish for injection
to 4 days-old hatchling ready to transfer to the nursery ponds requires about 5-8 days based
on the local situation.
Selection of brood fish
Males selected as brood fish will ooze milt when their belly is gently pressed and the dorsal
surface of their pectoral fin will be rough. While dorsal surface of pectoral fin of females
selected for breeding will be smooth and belly soft, rounded and bulging and their genital
opening swollen and pinkish. The male and females will be stocked at 1:1 ratio by weight or
1:2 ratio by number.
Dosages of hormone injection
Both pituitary glands and synthetic hormones are used as spawning agent. The dosage of
injection is calculated in terms of milligram of pituitary gland per kilogram of body weight of
recipient fish or ml per kg of fish for synthetic hormone.
Pituitary Gland
For pituitary gland two injections are to be given. Dosages are determined on the basis of
weight of the female and male fishes. First injection is given to female fish at 2-4 mg/kg body
weight and second injection at 6-10 mg/kg after 4-6 h. Male fishes receive only one injection
at 2-3 mg/kg body weight which is given when the females are given their second dose.
Doses can be increased and reduced as per the condition of fish and climate.
Synthetic hormone
Only one injection is necessary for spawning fishes. This reduces lot of handling time and
stress to the fishes. However, doses have to be appropriate as excess dose may harm the
female fishes which mat sometimes die. The synthetic hormones are available in the market
in ready to- use form (liquid). For common carp breeding no hormone injection is necessary.

Spawning
After injection, fishes are released into the breeding hapas, which are rectangular in size (3.5
x 1.5 x 1m to 1.8 x 0.9 x 0.9m), made up with mosquito net cloths. All the corners are
properly tied in the water column with bamboo poles. There is a small opening through which
hormone administered fishes are released in to the hapa. Environmental conditions play
significant role for breeding. Cool climate, rainy days, good water circulation, ideal
temperature (27- 29°C) and pH (7-8) are very important for successful breeding operation.
Generally spawning takes place 6-8 h after injection. In the morning, rate of fertilization and
total eggs released have to be measured and released to the incubation hapa for hatching.
Incubation
The incubation hapa is double-chambered, where outer hapa (2x1x1m) is made of bolting
cloth (0.5mm) and inner hapa (1.8x0.75x0.75) of mosquito net cloth. Inner hapa is set inside
the outer hapa and fixed in the water column with bamboo pole. The water harden eggs are
released inside the inner hapa at 50,000- 75, 000 eggs per hapa. Hatching time for IMC will
vary from 14-18 h based on temperature. After hatching, the hatchlings will pass out from
inner hapa to outer hapa. After ascertaining complete hatching, the inner hapa with egg
shells, debris, etc. is removed. The hatchlings are left undisturbed in the outer hapa for three
days after hatching. During this period, the spawns will get nourishment from the energy
deposited in the egg yolk. After that period, the spawns are ready for stocking in the prepared
nursery pond.
Spawn collection
After 3rd days the spawns are ready to be released into the nursery ponds for further rearing
to fry or fingerling stage or can be sold to farmers. While collecting the spawns, the hatching
hapa is removed and the spawn concentrated in one corner of the hapa and then scooped out
with small container or tea strainer.
Returns
In a 1000 m2 brood stock ponds 200 kg of brooders can be maintained. With an assumption
that 80% brooders (160 kg) will be available in prime condition during breeding season and
60% will respond to spawning, then during season, 56 kg of female fishes will be used for
breeding operation. General fecundity of IMC female is 1.0 lakh/kg of body weight and with
80% fertilization and 60% hatching, one may get 23 lakh spawns. Hence, in a breeding cycle
of four months, a minimum of 23 thousand rupees (@ Rs 1000/lakh spawns) can be obtained,
if only spawns are sold. If they are further cultured to fry and fingerling stage, much higher
returns can be obtained from a small hatchery cum nursery rearing farm.
5. Management of Nursery and Rearing ponds
Fish hatcheries have nursery and rearing ponds where spawns are reared to fry and fingerling
stages and sold to the farmers. In nursery ponds, spawns are reared to fry stage and in rearing
ponds fry to fingerling. Fish seeds are traditionally classified as hatchlings (1-3 days old),
spawn (up to 8 mm), fry (25 - 40 mm), early fingerling (40 - 100 mm), fingerling (10 - 15
cm) and yearlings (1 year old). This classification is mostly based on size. The management
measures adopted in rearing these seeds will eliminate these factors responsible for killing
and poor growth of fish seeds by providing proper and optimum ecological and biological
conditions in the pond.
Factors responsible for survival and growth
􀁹 Excessive growth of macro vegetation like aquatic weeds, phytoplankton
􀁹 Poor water quality condition specially dissolved oxygen and sudden rise in temperature
􀁹 Presence of aquatic insects
􀁹 Poor quality of spawn
􀁹 Improper handling and transportation
􀁹 High stocking density
􀁹 Presence of weed fishes and piscivorous fishes
􀁹 Disease caused by various causative agents like bacteria, fungal, viral parasite etc.
􀁹 Lack of requisite kind of food in adequate quantity
Stages in nursery and rearing pond management
A. Pre-stocking management
B. Stocking management
C. Post-stocking management

Nursery Pond Management

Nursery ponds are relatively smaller in size (200-500 m2 area), having 1-1.5 m water depth.
Seasonal ponds are preferred in comparison to the perennial one. Direct sunlight to the
bottom of the pond improves pond productivity. Of late, plastic pools and cement cisterns are
also widely used in large scale operation. Aeration, water circulation, water exchange, bio-
filter, etc are provided in Hi-tech super intensive systems of seed production.
A. Pre-stocking management
Indian major carps and Chinese carps can start external feeding only after 3 days of hatching.
From third day onwards they require sufficient quantities of food for growth and survival. In
a well prepared nursery pond with both natural and artificial feeding, spawn will reach fry
stage (25-40 mm) in 2 weeks.
􀁹 Clearing of aquatic weed: Nursery ponds should be free from aquatic weeds. Aquatic
weeds not only decrease oxygen production by giving shade but also hamper free movement
of delicate spawn. These weed may also be a harboring ground of many aquatic insects.
Weeds have to be removed from the ponds by manual labour during summer months.
􀁹 Eradication of unwanted fishes: Predatory fishes, if present, will prey upon the spawn
besides competing with them for oxygen. Weed fishes will compete for food, shelter and
oxygen. Hence, total eradication of unwanted fishes is must for getting higher production.
􀁹 Seasonal ponds those dry up during dry season are generally devoid of unwanted fishes
and require no treatment. However, for perennial ponds, repeated netting of the pond with
small size mesh (mosquito netting) can remove unwanted fishes. Fishes can be killed by
applying fish toxicants. A good toxicant should be effective at minimum dose, leave no
residual effect and have short duration of the toxicity to minimize effect to the environment.
Mahua oil cake is an effective fish toxicant. It kills fishes at 200 -250 ppm in 3-10 h. Toxicity
of this in water lasts for 20-25 days. Hence no spawn stocking should be done before at least
30 days. A trial should be conducted with few spawns to see whether they survive or not.
Fishes killed by mahua oil cake (active component – saponin 4-6%) are fit for human
consumption.
􀁹 Anhydrous ammonia at 20-25 ppm is also very effective and effect last for 30-35days.
Bleaching powder at 25-30 ppm is also equally effective in killing fishes. Toxicity lasts for 7-
8 days. Fishes killed by ammonia and bleaching powder are fit for human consumption. Urea
in combination with bleaching powder can also be used to kill fishes.
􀁹 Application of lime: To increase mineralization of organic matter and for prophylactic use,
quick lime can be used. Soil pH of most of the Andaman soil is slightly acidic hence about
300- 400kg/ha of lime can be applied. Lime can be applied in the pond soil or in water, based
on the form of lime and soil condition. It is better to do liming about a week before manuring
the pond.
􀁹 Manuring of pond: Manuring is done in order to produce fish food organisms particularly
zooplankton. Cattle dung at 10,000/ha about 10 to 15 days prior to releasing spawn gives
copious growth of natural food for the spawn. If mahua oil cake is used then application of
cattle dung can be reduced to half.
􀁹 Aquatic insect control: Aquatic insects and their larvae present in the nursery pond causes
large destruction to the spawn. These insects either prey upon the spawn or compete for food
with the spawn. Hence, it is necessary to kill and eradicate these insects from the nursery
ponds. Soap oil emulsion is an effective method to kill these harmful insects. An emulsion
with any soap (cheap detergent) and vegetable oil at the ratio of 18 kg soap : 56 kg oil per ha
is prepared by heating the mixture for a short while. The emulsion has to be applied during
calm day with minimum wind action about 12-24h prior to introduction of the spawn, which
will kill almost all the insects. Kerosene is also found to be effective in controlling insect
problem in pond at the rate of 80-100l/ha.
B. Stocking management
􀁹 Judging suitability of environment before stocking: If piscicide is used in the pond to kill
unwanted fishes, it is essential to ascertain its complete detoxification before stocking spawn.
This can be done by fixing a hapa in the pond and releasing few spawn into it. If spawns
survive and show healthy movement for 24 h, then the pond is completely detoxified and
ready for release of spawn.
􀁹 Stocking rate: Stocking rate mostly depends on the environmental condition and available
food. Generally well maintained nursery ponds generate sufficient feed for the young ones.
Nursery ponds accommodate about 25-35 lakh spawns of 3-4 days old per hectare water
spread area.
􀁹 Precaution for releasing: Abrupt changes in water quality parameters and water
temperature are highly detrimental to the spawn. It is always suggested that spawn should be
acclimatized to the nursery water by putting the container or the plastic bag in the pond water
for some time and allowing slow mixing with water from the nursery pond. It is always
advised to release spawn either in the morning hours or in the evening hours. In the evening
hours pond water is well oxygenated and spawn will get more time to adjust to the new
condition including hiding place to avoid predators.
C. Post-stocking management
􀁹 Feeding: Feeding is the most crucial step for survival and growth of spawn. Details about
the feeding schedule, nutrition requirement and feeding management are discussed elsewhere
in this manual.
􀁹 Water quality monitoring: General water quality parameters like temperature (25-320 C),
pH (7-9), dissolved oxygen (> 5 ppm), carbon dioxide (8-12 ppm) and alkalinity (80-150
ppm) should be within the acceptable limits. Harmful gases like ammonia, nitrite hydrogen
sulphide, etc., should be absent. Generally seasonal ponds do not have these problems. But
perennial and older ponds with lot of organic matter may have deteriorated water quality
which may cause mass mortality.
􀁹 Harvesting after 15 days: In a well managed nursery pond, spawn becomes fry (25 to 30
mm) in 15 days with a survival rate 50- 60%. The fry can be harvested using fine meshed net
(1.5 mm diameter). Fry harvested are either sold or reared in the rearing tank for fingerling.
Rearing Pond Management
In composite fish farming, stocking fry in a grow-out pond is not advisable because fry are
delicate and may not sustain the conditions of a grow-out pond and many a time they may
perish. Fry should be reared till fingerling stage and then released to the stocking pond. This
will yield better survival and higher production. In a well managed pond, fry requires about
3.5 – 4 months to become fingerling (10 – 15 cm) stage. Rearing pond can be relatively
bigger than nursery pond. Preferred size and depth of rearing ponds are 500-1000m2 and 1.5-
2.0m respectively. Seasonal ponds are better than perennial ones. Management practice for
rearing pond is similar to that of nursery pond.
A. Pre-stocking management
􀁹 Clearing of aquatic weed and eradication of unwanted fishes: Management practices are
same as for the nursery pond management
􀁹 Application of lime: 300- 400kg/ha of lime is sufficient for rearing pond. Total quantity of
lime can be divided into 3 parts. First part has to be applied about 15 days prior to stocking
fry in to the pond. The rest two parts can be applied after one month each.
􀁹 Manuring of pond: Unlike in nursery pond, rearing pond is fertilized with both organic and
inorganic fertilizer. Cattle dung can be applied at 2500/ ha in monthly intervals and the first
dose has to be applied 6-7 days after liming and 15 days prior to stocking fry in the pond.
Combination of urea (100 kg/ha) and single super phosphate (100 kg/ ha) can also be applied
in the nursery pond in monthly intervals (totally three times) to increase productivity. The
first installment generally applied after 2-3 days of stocking and subsequent installments after
one month.
B. Stocking management
􀁹 Stocking rate: Stocking rate in a rearing tank is about 2- 3 lakh/ha. It is better to stock
IMC along with Chinese carps. But if only IMC is stocked, the proportion of catla, rohu and
mrigal can be 2:4:4. If only grass carp and silver carp then the ratio can be 1:1.
However, proportion can slightly vary based on the local conditions and demand of fingerling
in the locality.
C. Post-stocking
􀁹 Feeding: Details about the feeding schedule and feeding management are discussed
elsewhere in this manual.
􀁹 Application of organic and inorganic fertilizer: In post-stocking management, application
of lime, organic and inorganic fertilizers have to be done every month for continuous supply
of sufficient quantities of plankton. Continuous supply of quality feed (natural and artificial)
will enhance growth and survival of fry.
􀁹 Harvesting after 3½ - 4 months: In well managed rearing ponds, fry becomes fingerling
(10 to 15 cm) in 3½ - 4 months with a survival rate of about 80%. Fingerlings can be
harvested using drag net and sold in the local market.
Yearling and carry over seed
Fishes that completed one year are known as yearling. Fishes if maintained in high stocking
density with minimum feed will not die or grow but they will be maintained in stunted
condition. Many farmers produce seeds in excess of their selling capacity and the extra are
dumped in a pond with very minimum care and feed. These fishes look like fingerling but
they are much older. These fishes when released into a well managed stocking pond with
better nourishment they grow much faster than even fingerling. As they are older they are
stronger also. Culturing these fishes in stocking pond can earn much higher returns.
Precautions to be taken in nursery and rearing
• Stocking density of spawn and fry should not exceed the maximum limit
• If pond develops algal film on the surface and/or if cloudy days persist for few days feeding
and fertilizer application should be temporarily stopped.
• If fishes come to the pond surface for gulping atmospheric oxygen in the early morning
hours or in other time, it indicates oxygen depletion. In that condition also feeding and
fertilizer application should be temporarily stopped. Pumping of freshwater from nearby
water source or aeration can solve the problem temporarily. The actual cause for the problem
should be studied and eliminated.
• The ponds and their surrounding must be cleaned. Ducks should not be allowed to enter in
to this pond.
• If pesticide is applied in nearby agricultural area, care should be taken that they do not enter
into the pond.

6. Water Quality Management

Water quality management is one of the most important parameters for success of a fish farm.
A well managed farm having good aquatic environment ensures high rate of survival and
growth of fishes. In a farm, fishes are forced to live in a relatively smaller body in large
numbers; any adverse water quality condition will quickly and significantly irritate and stress
the fishes. Thus growth rate of fishes reduces and fishes become vulnerable to disease. In
adverse situation, poor water quality may even become detrimental to them.
Some of the important water quality parameters have been discussed below.
1. Salinity
The salinity normally is referred to as the total quantity of dissolve salts and expressed as ppt
of water. Salinity of freshwater ponds is generally from 0.00- 0.50 ppt. Body fluids
concentration of fresh water fishes are higher than freshwater and because of osmotic
difference, water is diffusing into fish body. To maintain homeostasis fish has to remove the
excess water in the form of diluted urine. In Andaman many freshwater ponds having been
constructed in nearby shore area and develop seepage problem. Slight salinity is tolerable
even by freshwater fishes but beyond certain limit problem will start and even fishes may die
due to salt stress. Before construction of pond salinity of soil and water of that area has be
tested.
2. Dissolved oxygen
It is the most important water quality parameter for the success of a freshwater aquaculture.
Atmospheric air contains 21% oxygen but dissolution capacity of oxygen in water is very
limited. Dissolved oxygen enters into the pond either through diffusion from atmosphere or
through photosynthetic process. Also dissolution capacity of oxygen is temperature
dependent and it decreases as temperature increases. Demand of dissolved oxygen in a fresh
water pond is increased due to respiration by the plants and animals, decomposition of
organic matters, etc. Dissolved oxygen concentration less than 1 ppm is normally lethal, if
exposure persists for more than few hours. Fishes will survive with DO ranging between 1
and 5 ppm, but there may be sublethal effects with poor growth, reduced reproduction, etc.
When DO is 5ppm and above, it is ideal for growth and survival. It is therefore essential to
maintain high dissolved oxygen level (> 5 ppm) in a pond.
During day time, the DO concentration increases, and reaches peak in the afternoon. While
during the night, utilization continues and DO concentration reaches minimum at dawn. The
magnitude of this dial fluctuation of DO is small when phytoplankton density is low and
increases as phytoplankton density increases. Hence, early morning DO level is often reached
below 2 ppm in ponds with dense plankton bloom. Hence, regular DO concentration in water
should be monitored specially in the early morning hours before sun rise. Cloudy days have
deep impact on DO concentration. If cloudy days persist for few days DO concentration
gradually decreases and may reach to critical level so that the concentration may be
detrimental for the fishes. Sudden die off of phytoplankton and its decomposition may also
cause oxygen depletion. DO concentration can be augmented by using aerator.
3. pH
Water pH is a crucial factor as it influences not only the organisms but also many other water
quality parameters. It is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration
and can be within the range of 0-14, 7 being the neutral pH. In freshwater fish culture pH of a
pond should be between 6.5 and 9 and optimum is around 7.5-8.
Fish in general do not like pH level beyond 5-9 level. Extreme pH affects excretion of CO2
and ammonia and also ion exchange at gill surface. The pH level 4 and below are said to be
acid death point, at 4-6 growth of fish is slow. It is found that pH 6.5-9 is ideal for growth
and survival of fishes. Similarly, pH 9-11 results in slow growth and becomes lethal for fish
if exposed for longer period. Beyond 11, it is alkaline death point. The pH of water can be
adjusted by using lime. The quantity of lime required to neutralize the pH is given below.

4. Temperature
Temperature effects all biological and chemical reactions. Metabolic activity almost doubles
at every 10oC rise in temperature, and simultaneously oxygen demand of the organisms also
increases. But as temperature increases dissolution capacity of oxygen in water decreases
hence, in severe conditions may create stress to the fishes and may cause hypoxia. Sudden
change in temperature, transferring fishes from one temperature condition to other can be
detrimental to the fish. During releasing seeds into a new pond, if the temperature difference
between pond water (where fish seed will be released) and inside medium (where they are
being transported) is too much (>50C), there may be mass mortality due to temperature
shock. Hence, plastic bags in which they are being carried have to be kept on the pond
surface (without opening) atleast for 30 minutes. Then the bags have to be opened and the PL
allowed to go out by themselves into the pond. The temperature of Andaman water is
congenial for fish farming. Temperature is reasonably stable without having too much
fluctuation.
5. Turbidity
Turbidity indicates that water contains suspended materials which interferes light passages.
Turbidity restricts light penetration into the pond and discourages growth of phytoplankton.
Turbidity due to phytoplankton is desirable while due to suspended soil particles is
undesirable. In Andaman raining season lasts for nearly 8 months. During heavy rain, along
with the runoff water lot of suspended materials will gain entry into the pond. Entry of highly
turbid water into the pond will adversely effect the growth of the organisms. Too much of
suspended particles may also clog and damage the gills of fishes. In semi-intensive farming,
light greenish colour due to green algae and diatom population is encouraged. For attaining
this, fertilization is being carried out at regular interval. Desirable level of transparency of
pond water (as measured by secchi disc) should be 23-40cm. Less than 20 cm means very
high growth of plankton and hence not desirable and water has to be exchanged. More than
35-40 cm indicates very low plankton growth.
6. Ammonia
In a fish pond, ammonia is generated from the metabolic processes of the organism and
nitrogenous products like ammonia, urea, uric acid and other nitrogenous byproducts like
protein aminoacids, etc are liberated. The pond fishes are fed with protein rich diets and
during the process, uneaten food particles, faecal matters, byproducts of digested foods, etc
are also deposited at the bottom of the tank. During the degradation of these organic matters
ammonia, is liberated.
Ammonia is highly toxic to fishes and other aquatic organisms. In aquatic environment
ammonia is found in two different forms, unionized ammonia and ionized ammonium. The
unionized ammonia is highly toxic than its counterparts. Added to this, toxicity and
concentration of unionized ammonia increases with increase in temperature and pH.
Continuous monitoring should be done so that ammonia cannot be accumulated in the fish
pond. Unionized ammonia above 0.25 ppm is highly toxic to fish and they will die within 3
days. It is recommended that concentration of unionized ammonia should be below 0.05 ppm.
However, well managed ponds with low stocking density, optimum feeding, etc may not face
problems related to ammonia toxicity, which is more prevalent in case of older and deep
perennial ponds.
7. Nitrite and nitrate
Nitrite form of nitrogen is also toxic to fish. It is accumulated in a pond due to the oxidation
of ammoniacal nitrogen to nitrite. This process is relatively faster in comparison with the
conversion of nitrite to nitrate and because of this initial process, nitrite may be accumulated
in the system. When concentration is substantial, it reacts with haemoglobin and converts to
methemoglobin, because of which the oxygen carrying capacity of blood decreases
drastically and fishes become lethargic and reluctant to consume food. In severe condition,
the fish may die. This disease is called brown blood disease. It is found that nitrite poisoning
is species specific. Nitrite concentration should not be more than 0.1 ppm.
In comparison with ammonia and nitrite, nitrate is less toxic to fish. Except when
concentration of nitrate in water is exceptionally very high, not much problem may arise in a
fish pond. Fishes can tolerate up to 20 ppm of nitrate without showing any side effects.
However, chronic exposure at very high concentration (> 20 ppm) may cause stress to the
fish and expose them to disease infection.
8. Alkalinity and hardness
Alkalinity and hardness are also having a significant role in fish culture practices. Alkalinity
is generally caused by carbonate (Co3 2-) and bicarbonate (HCO3 -) ions and hardness by
mostly calcium (Ca++) and magnesium (Mg++) ions and expressed as mg/l of CaCo3. The
alkalinity is responsible for the buffering capacity of waters. Carbonate and bicarbonate ions
prevent fluctuations of pH. Fishes are sensitive to change in pH, and if buffering capacity of
the water is not very good, fluctuation of pH will be very high and fishes may have problem.
Alkalinity of freshwater ponds should be >20 ppm. Hardness is also equally important in a
pond. Apart from playing an active role in osmotic pressure, it also helps in the process of
bone formulation, blood clotting and other metabolic and biochemical reactions. Hardness of
water can be from 60 to 250 ppm depending upon the species or conditions.
9. Hydrogen sulfide
Hydrogen sulfide is the by-product of metabolic decomposition of organic matter like feed
waste, faecal matter, dead plants and animals in a pond. Unionized hydrogen sulfide is
extremely toxic to fish and hence presence of any detectable level is considered to be
undesirable. If any hydrogen sulfide accumulation in water is come across, water has to be
exchanged immediately. After harvest, the pond has to be dried and racked properly to
eliminate harmful gases accumulated at the bottom.
Summary
1. Regular monitoring of water quality parameters of a pond is very much essential. The
parameters of importance are pH, unionized ammonia, nitrite, dissolved oxygen and salinity.
2. Quality of the source of water has to be ascertained by a thorough examination especially
for sewages, pesticides or heavy metals.
3. Stocking density in a pond has to be maintained (@ 6000- 8000 number).
4. If any disease symptom is observed fishes has to be removed and treated separately.
5. Avoid overfeeding as this will create degrade the water quality.
6. When environmental conditions are not congenial like cloudy days persist for few days,
development of heavy algal bloom, etc., feeding and fertilization should be temporarily
stopped.

7. Economics of Small scale Fish Hatchery of Indian Major Carps

Fishery is the fastest growing food producing sector in the world. In India this sector has
grown at the rate of about 4.1% in last fifty years. The freshwater sector has increased by
16.2 times during this period and this is mainly due to the standardization and easy to adopt
seed production technology. Fish hatcheries have been established in all parts of India and
producing seeds to satisfy local demand as well as supplying to neighbouring states. Because
of easy to operate and lucrative returns, it is becoming an important business opportunity for
the people.
Establishment of a fish hatchery can not only generate self employment avenues but also will
trigger development of many subsidiary industries. Freshwater fishery resources and scope
for development of inland fisheries is limited in these island states. This is mainly due to
absence of major rivers or large natural water bodies. However, fresh water fish culture is
popular in Andaman. There is heavy demand for IMC fishes and the average price of IMC is
always above Rs.140 per kg. Because of high rate of annual rainfall many farmers have
constructed ponds for conservation of rain water and use either for either agricultural purpose
or for water source for human or animal use. Total demand of fish seed for Andaman is
around 10 lakh fingerling. However, at present there is no well established private fish seed
producing farm in South Andaman that can produce and supply fish seeds are not only costly
but also creating vulnerable situation of disease outbreak to the indigenous species of this
island. The article explains the economics of small scale fish breeding unit through hapa
breeding techniques. This will not only help to increase freshwater fish production in these
islands but will also be an avenue of self employment.
Technical Details
Fishes generally mature when they become 2 + years of old. In the brood stock pond healthy
yearling can be procured and regular feeding and management techniques should be taken up
till they mature. The breeding season starts in Andaman from the month of May to August.
Special care has to be taken from January onwards as from this season development of eggs
is in progress. If the farmers can procure brooders itself in the months of March-April
breeding can starts in the same year itself after through acclimatization. Mature male and
female can be identified through secondary sexual characteristic or by gently pressing the
belly of the fishes. Fully ripe male freely ooze milt and female with swollen abdomen and
pinkish genital opening. The carp should be selected with body weight of 2-5 kg for breeding.
In small scale hapa breeding operation breeding and incubation will be carried out in the
brood stock pond itself.
The breeding operation last for about 3½ months. During the whole season, two-three times
nursery management can be repeated. Note that from second year on wards more that two
times nursery management can be practiced and production of the last one can be raised in
the nursery pond itself to fingerling or yearling. These fingerling and yearling will give an
additional income to the farmer.
Particulars
Total investment in 16 months: Rs. 140000
Pond preparation: 20 days
Spawning and incubation: May – August
Nursery Rearing: June-July, July-Aug
Selling: 2 sets of fry production