Functional Systems

in the CNS
1. Afferent (sensory) pathways:

general sensation – superficial and deep (proprioceptive)

interoceptive sensation

special sensations – vision and hearing
2. Efferent (motor) pathways:

pyramidal system

extrapyramidal system
3. Meninges and cerebrospinal fluid
4. Blood supply of the brain
 CNS Pathways
Functional systems in the CNS
 Sensory (afferent) systems
 Motor (efferent) systems
 Limbic system
 Reticular system
 Central transmitter systems:

cholinergic system

monoaminergic system

amino acid transmitters

peptidergic system

central neuroendocrine system

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 2

 CNS Pathways
Sensory (afferent) pathways
 Sensory (afferent) systems:
systems

general (somatic) sensations:
sensations
 superficial (exteroceptive) – skin
• pain and temperature
• vibration, touch and pressure
• stereognosia

 deep (proprioceptive)
• joints and tendons

 interoceptive (visceroceptive)
• organs and blood vessels

special sensations:
sensations
 visual system
 vestibulocochlear system
 gustatory system
 olfactory system

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 3

 CNS Pathways
Mechanoreception system
 posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway
(lemniscus medialis):
medialis)

touch, pressure and stereognosia
 І neuron – ganglion spinale
 ІІ neuron – nucl. gracilis et cuneatus
 ІІІ neuron – nucleus ventralis posterolateralis thalami
 gyrus postcentralis (upper 2/3)

low touch and pressure

 tractus spinothalamicus anterior (ventralis)

 trigeminal lemniscus
(lemniscus trigeminalis):
trigeminalis)

orofacial touch and pressure
 І neuron – ganglion trigeminale
 ІІ neuron – nucl. pontinus (sensorius principalis)
 ІІІ neuron – nucleus ventralis posteromedialis thalami
 gyrus postcentralis (lower 1/3)

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 4

 CNS Pathways
Pain and temperature system
 Ascending nociceptive pathways
(anterolateral system):
system

pain (nociception) and temperature
 І neuron – ganglion spinale
 ІІ neuron – spinal laminae І, ІІ and V  tractus
spinothalamicus lateralis  lemniscus medialis
 ІІІ neuron – nucleus ventralis posterolateralis thalami 
gyrus postcentralis (middle and upper 1/3), rostral part
of gyrus cinguli, insular cortex (limbic system)
 Spinal pain system:
system

lateral pain system – “rapid pain”
(“neospinothalamic system”)
 tractus spinothalamicus lateralis

medial pain system – “slow pain”
(“paleospinoreticulothalamic system”)
 tractus spinoreticularis et tractus spinotectalis

tractus spinotectalis  colliculi superiores
 Dorsolateral system: laminae ІІІ and ІV, І and V

tractus spinocervicalis  nucleus cervicalis lateralis

tractus spinomesencephalicus 
substantia grisea centralis

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 5

 CNS Pathways
Pain and temperature system
 Head pain and temperature system:
system

І neuron – ganglion trigeminale

 tractus spinalis n. trigemini

ІІ neuron – nucl. spinalis n. trigemini

 lemniscus trigeminalis

ІІІ neuron –

nucleus ventralis posteromedialis thalami

 gyrus postcentralis

(lower 1/3)

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 6

 CNS Pathways
Proprioceptive pathways
 from the lower limb to the cerebral cortex:

posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway:
 І neuron – ganglion spinale
 ІІ neuron – nucl. thoracicus (Clarke-Stilling)
 ІІІ neuron – nucleus Z in the medulla
 ІV neuron – thalamus  cerebral cortex
 from the trunk to the cerebellum:

tractus spinocerebellaris posterior
 І neuron – ganglion spinale
 ІІ neuron – nucl. thoracicus (Clarke-Stilling)
 tractus spinocerebellaris posterior (Flechsig) 
cortex cerebelli

tractus spinocerebellaris anterior
 ІІ neuron – nucl. thoracicus (Clarke-Stilling)
 tractus spinocerebellaris anterior (Gowers) 
rostral part of cortex cerebelli

tractus bulbocerebellaris – from the upper limb
 І neuron – ganglion spinale
 ІІ neuron – nucl. cuneatus accessorius 
tractus cuneocerebellaris  cortex cerebelli

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 7

 CNS Pathways
Proprioceptive pathways
 proprioceptive pathways of the head:

І neuron –
nucl. mesencephalicus n. trigemini
 tractus mesencephalicus n. trigemini
 nucl. motorius n. trigemini

ІІ neuron –
nucl. ventralis posteromedialis
 gyrus postcentralis

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 8

 CNS Pathways
Ascending interoceptive pathways
 Sensitivity from body’s viscera (organs) –
predominantly nociceptive,
nociceptive common way
with pain and temperature pathway:

conventional visceroceptive pathway:
pathway
 І neuron – ganglion spinale
 ІІ neuron – subst. intermedia medialis
 tractus spinothalamicus lateralis
 ІІІ neuron – nucleus ventralis
posterolateralis thalami 
somatosensory cortical areas

accessory visceroceptive pathway:

pathway
 І neuron – nervus vagus
 ІІ neuron – nucl. tractus solitarii
 ІIІ neuron – nucl. ventralis posterolateralis

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 9

 CNS Pathways
Motor (efferent) pathways
 Pyramidal motor system – two neuron system:
system

tractus corticospinalis (pyramidalis)

tractus corticonuclearis
(corticonuclear system)
 Extrapyramidal motor system
(basal ganglia system)
– multineuronal and polysynaptic

 Oculomotor system:

frontal eye area
(area 8, parts of 6 and 9 areas)

prefrontal cortex
Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 10
 CNS Pathways
Pyramidal motor system
 corticospinal (pyramidal) tract – 1 million fibers:

controls all of our voluntary movements 
spastic cerebral palsy

1/3 of the fibers from gyrus precentralis (“motor strip”
strip”)
and lobulus paracentralis (Brodmann’s area 4)

1/3 from the premotor areas (areas 6 and 8)

1/3 from somatosensory cortex (areas 3, 1 and 2)

posterior limb of internal capsule

crus cerebri  fibrae pontis longitudinales

pyramidal decussation – 85% decussate
 lateral (crossed) corticospinal tract 
to the contralateral side in the medulla oblongata
 anterior corticospinal tract  15% uncrossed
to the ipsilateral side in the medulla oblongata

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 11

 CNS Pathways
Lateral and anterior corticospinal tracts

NB: The corticospinal tract terminates predominantly on interneurons,

interneurons,
final common pathway, only rarely – directly on the large motoneurons!
Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 12
 CNS Pathways
Pyramidal motor system
 corticonuclear (corticobulbar) tract:
tract

from the lower 1/3 of gyrus precentralis

genu of internal capsule

crus cerebri 

pars ventralis pedunculi cerebri

corticonuclear axons innervate

cranial motor nuclei bilaterally

they directly innervate the nuclei for cranial nerves

V, VII, XI and XII

indirectly innervate nuclei for nerves III, IV and VI

via interneurons
NB: The 'bulb' is an archaic term for the medulla oblongata.
Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov In clinical usage, it includes the pons as well ! 13
 CNS Pathways
Extrapyramidal motor pathways
 Feedback multineuronal and polysynaptic circuits through “subcortical nuclei”:

striopallidal system

substantia nigra

subthalamic nucleus

cerebellum
 Pathways to peripheral motoneurons:

cortico-rubro-spinal tract – extremities:
extremities
 tractus frontorubralis  nucleus ruber
 tractus rubrospinalis

cerebello-rubro-spinal tract:
tract
 cerebellar cortex  deep cerebellar nuclei
 tractus cerebellorubralis  nucleus ruber
 tractus rubrospinalis

cortico-reticulo-spinal tract:
tract
 fibrae corticoreticulares  nuclei reticulares
 fibrae reticulospinales – medial and lateral parts

cerebello-reticulo-spinal tract:
tract
 cerebellar cortex  nucleus dentatus
 tractus cerebelloreticularis  nuclei reticulares
 tractus reticulospinalis

cerebello-vestibulo-spinal tract:
tract
 flocculo-nodular cerebellar cortex  nucleus fastigii
 tractus cerebellovestibularis  nucleus vestibularis lateralis
tractus vestibulospinalis
Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 14
 CNS Pathways
Basal ganglia pathways
 Closed reverberating circuits
of the basal ganglia:

striatum is the main acceptor

pallidum is the main effector

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 15

 Meninges
Meninges of the brain

- protective tissue

 Dura mater (Pachimeninx),

(Pachimeninx)
dura mater encephali
 Leptomeninx
(Lepto- from the root meaning thin in Greek):

Arachnoid mater,
arachnoidea mater encephali

Pia mater,
pia mater encephali

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 16

 Meninges
Cerebral dura mater structures
 sickle-shaped falx cerebri
 tentorium cerebelli
 falx cerebelli
 diaphragma sellae
 cavum trigeminale (Meckeli)

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov NB: dura mater (Latin "hard mother" ) 17
 Meninges
Cranial dural venous sinuses

superior sagittal sinus

inferior sagittal sinus

transverse sinuses 

sigmoid sinuses 
confluence of the sinuses

occipital sinus

straight sinus (sinus rectus)

petrosquamous sinus

superior petrosal sinuses

inferior petrosal sinuses

cavernous sinuses 
intercavernous sinuses,
anterior and posterior

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 18

 Meninges
Arachnoid mater
 Arachnoid granulations (or arachnoid villi) – in the sinuses
Pacchioni's granulations or pacchionian bodies
Antonio Pacchioni (1665–1726)
 spiderweb-like layer (hence the name)
 subarachnoid space  filled with
cerebrospinal fluid
 subarachnoid cisterns:

cisterna cerebellomedularis
posterior et lateralis

cisterna pontocerebellaris

cisterna ambiens

cisterna trigeminalis

cisterna cruralis

cisterna interpeduncularis

cisterna carotidis

cisterna chiasmatis

cisterna fossae lateralis cerebri

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 19

 Meninges
Cerebrospinal fluid
 liquor cerebrospinalis – secreted by the choroid plexuses (~ 50-70%)
into the ventricles and in the subarachnoid space:

clear, colorless liquid

slightly alkaline

specific gravity ~1.007

similarly to blood plasma:
 inorganic salts
 traces of proteins
 glucose

serves to:
 support and cushion
the CNS against trauma
 remove waste products
of neuronal metabolism

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 20

 Meninges
Pia mater
 very thin membrane, Latin "tender mother"
 neural crest derivative
 vascular membrane – nourishing the brain:

superficial epipial layer – sheet of flat cells

inner membranous layer – fibrous tissue,
intima pia

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 21

 Blood vessels
Blood supply of the brain
 Vertebrobasilar system:
system

aa. vertebrales  a. basilaris
 Carotid system:
system

a. carotis interna
 Communication:

circulus arteriosus cerebri

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 22

 Blood vessels
Arterial blood supply
 Vertebrobasilar system:

vertebral artery:
 posterior inferior cerebellar artery

basilar artery:
 anterior inferior cerebellar artery
 superior cerebellar artery
 labyrinthine artery
(internal auditive artery)
 pontine arteries
 posterior cerebral artery

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 23

 Blood vessels
Arterial blood supply
 Carotid system:
system

internal carotid artery
(cerebral part):
 anterior cerebral artery 
anterior communicating artery
 middle cerebral artery 
“a. haemorrhagica” (of Charcot)

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 24

 Blood vessels
Circulus arteriosus cerebri (circle of Willis)

Thomas Willis
(1621-
(1621-1675)

 Heptagon of Willis:
Willis

anterior communicating artery

anterior cerebral arteries

posterior communicating arteries

posterior cerebral arteries
Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 25
 Blood vessels
Venous drainage of the brain
 superficial cerebral veins:
veins

vv. superficiales cerebri 
into dural venous sinuses
 deep cerebral veins:
veins

vv. profundi cerebri 
v. magna cerebri (Galeni)
 communication:

vv. emissariae

vv. diploicae
 cerebellar veins
 v. magna cerebri

 brainstem veins:

medulla oblongata 
sinus occipitalis, sinus petrosus
inferior, v. jugularis int.

pons  sinus petrosus superior,
sinus transversus

midbrain  v. magna cerebri
Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 26
 Thank you…

Prof. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 27