Dynamics of Research:

A Prelude to Scientific
Investigation
Assoc Prof Nathaniel Vincent A. Lubrica
Director, Research and Innovation Office
University of th Cordilleras
Baguio City, Philippines
Summary of Presentation

I. Problem Conceptualization
II. Literature Review
III.Formulating Data Gathering Tools
I. Problem Conceptualization
What Research Is Not?

• Is not just information gathering

• Is not re-arranging of facts and
organizing into a paper

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What is Research?
It is a systematic, objective, and
critical investigation directed to search for new
knowledge, or its advancement including its
practical applications
It is a process for collecting, analyzing and
interpreting facts aimed for knowledge

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Introduction

 The most intriguing intellectual

exercise of the research is
selecting a problem.
 Research starts with the
formulation of a problem.
 Sometimes it takes a considerable
amount of time for a researcher to
formulate his problem.
Introduction
 …the search for truth and the solution of
problems according to Best and Kahn
(1998) take a great deal of time and
energy and the intensive application of
logical thinking…”research makes its
contribution to human welfare by
countless small additions to knowledge”.
What is research problem?
 According to Fraenkel and Wallen
(1994), a research problem is
exactly that – a problem that
someone would like to research
(p.23).
What is research problem?
 …involves the areas of concern of
researchers which they wish to
improve, eliminate certain
difficulties, or seek answer to
questions or existing conditions
What is research problem?
 The difficulty of choosing a
problem is sometimes premediated
by lack of understanding of the
nature of research and systematic
problem solving activity (Best and
Kahn, 1998)…
A researcher according to Best and
Kahn (1998:99)
 Researchers are specialists rather than
generalists…A researcher’s problem
must be in line with his/her ability,
capability, and expertise…A researcher
must fall in love with his/her problem,
thus, there is a motivation to
undertake research and see its
completion.
The criteria of a research problem according to
Tuckman, 1972; Kerlinger, 1972; Selltiz, et.al.,
1976)

1. It should express a relationship

between two or more variables.
2. It should be stated clearly and
unambiguously, usually in question
form.
3. It should be feasible to carry out such
operations or activities.
A good research problem must be
SMART!

S - Specific
 M - Measurable
 A - Achievable
 R - Realistic
 T – Time-bound
Guidelines or Criteria in the Selection of
a Research Problem or Topic

The problem must be:

1. Interesting
2. Relevant to the needs of the people
3. Innovative
4. Cost effective
5. Measurable and time-bound
6. It must be within the specialization of the
researcher
Non-researchable questions according
to Cortes (1986:37)
1. Those that deal with ethical (or
moral) questions.
2. Questions that do not require a
mental struggle.
3. When a machine can take the place
of a researcher to provide answers to
questions.
Non-researchable questions according
to Cortes (1986:37)
4. Quanswered by “yes” or “no”.
5. Metaphysical questions where it is
impossible to collect publicly
verifiable data and information in
order to answer to questionestions
whose answers are already known or
available, or can be.
Non-researchable questions according
to Leedy (1974:48)
Comparison” problems are not
6. “

research.
How do you narrow the range of
problems?
 A researcher must take into
consideration his limitations, time,
and resources.
 A researcher must evaluate his/her
skills and interests in pursuing his/her
problem.
 A researcher must be open minded.
The Value of the Problem and the
Hypothesis
The problem and the hypothesis are
the bases of theory.
 Kerlinger (1972:21) states that the
problems and hypotheses advance
scientific knowledge by helping the
researcher confirm or disconfirm
theory.
The Value of the Problem and the
Hypothesis
 According to Bailey (1994:41),
explanations and predictions are
provided by theories.
 The problem and the hypothesis are
the basis of any research… they
provide direction to the study.
PROBLEMS :

1. research idea is not scholarly enough

 developmental and intervention studies
 assessment or feasibility studies

Examples:
 Developing research culture in a private Higher Education
Institutions: The XXX University Experience  
 Needs assessment of the employees of Company XXX
 The comparative efficiency and cost effectiveness of the selected
academic programs in five State Universities and Colleges
 The ecological status of XXX river
 Improving water Productivity in Water-scarce Areas of XXX

2. there’s no problem at all or it is ill-defined

- research with clear objectives but the purported problem is not
really a PROBLEM or is not very well established

When is a problem a PROBLEM?

If it is clearly arising from the literature (valid publications) and
is framed vis-à-vis identified issues therein.
3. ‘very local’ issues and problems: insufficient review and framing
within existing literature (not grounded on or touching base with issues
raised in the discipline)

4. the key elements of the research paper are not aligned/integrated:

PROBLEM, OBJECTIVE/S, METHODS, RESULTS, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION

5. methods (research logic) faulty, inappropriate or insufficient

6. low significance or contribution of study to the discipline (no

novelty)
INTERVENTIONS

I. Put emphasis on FRAMING OF PROBLEM (problem as the

cornerstone of a proposal).

 Ensure that proposals have real problems arising from or touching

base with issues in the disciplinal literature.
- If problem/proposal is not literature-based (i.e., VALID
PUBLICATIONS), the output is not also literature-bound (not
PUBLISHABLE).

 Refocus literature review towards valid publications (refereed

journals.)
Problem conceptualization: BASIC STEPS

STEP 1: Choose a tentative topic.

STEP 2: Survey the literature (valid publications).

KEY: Start with the literature and then look for a research problem
there. Don’t start with a research problem and then look for the
literature.

Basic questions to answer:

 What studies were done on this topic? What’s known and not known?
 What did these studies look at? Issues? Findings? Methods? Locus?
Limitations?
STEP 3. Identify and state your specific problem.

‘Problem’ signals: On the basis of the literature, ask –

 Are the findings conclusive?

 Are there unresolved issues? Controversies?
 Are there deficiencies in data and method?
 Are there areas not tackled?

2. Ensure the research’s significance in terms of its contribution to

the LITERATURE in the discipline
= mainly DISCIPLINAL rather than practical
RESEARCH PROBLEM vis-à-vis RESEARCH
CONTRIBUTION

A problem revolves around: research contribution

(novelty):
- a gap in the literature on the - a new study
topic
- a controversy in the claims - a solution to the controversy
made by various studies
- a deficiency or error in data - additional data; rectified
and interpretation data; re-interpretation
- a deficiency in method or - a superior method; an
design improved design
- a lack of integration in data, - a synthesis of data, methods
methods
INTERVENTIONS (next):

3. Shift research proposal assessment from FORM to

SUBSTANCE

Things to ask:
q a CLEAR PROBLEM (issue)
- Is there an issue being addressed? Is there a well-
defined problem? Is it framed within the existing
literature?

q an ARGUMENT (thesis)
- Does the proposal propound a thesis vis-à-vis the
problem? This is to be seen in the research’s
objective/s.
q a NOVEL/DISTINCT CLAIM (scholarly significance/
contribution)
- Does it contribute something new to the existing
discourse on the topic?

q a SOUND EVIDENCE /ARGUMENT (method/design:

logic)
- Can the claim be adequately supported? Is it well
argued? Are the methods and analysis sound?

q an AUTHORITATIVE/ REPRESENTATIVE reference list

- Is the list of references exhaustive and up-to-date?
4. Familiarize your graduate students with scholarly
proposals (or, in fact, journal articles).

- Let them read, read and read journals

Ø how problems are framed
Ø how objectives and methods are fleshed out
Ø how arguments are structured
Ø how articles are written.

- Guide them how to read and critique journal articles

 Statement of the Problem

 Research Problem must respond to a research

agenda (FA’s agenda; NUHRA, NERA, CRHRDC
Research Agenda, etc)
 Stated in such a way that its importance is
apparent to the reviewer
 Researcher should not promise more than what
can be produced
 A broad and complex problem is unlikely to be
solvable or manageable
 Significance of the Problem

 The proposal needs to describe clearly how the

proposed research will make a contribution to
knowledge.
 Then proposal should indicate the expected
generalizability of the research, its contribution
to theory, its potential for improving practice,
quality of life, services, care,etc and possible
applications or consequences of the knowledge to
be gained.
Ethical consideration
Legal basis:
RA 10532 – An Act Institutionalizing the
Philippine National Health Research System

CHED Memo 34 Series of 2007: Endorsing

DOST AO 001 Series of 2007
- Review of all researches involving human
subjects, requires ethics review of researches
Ethical consideration:
Scientific Soundness (Validity)
 Of social value for the primary beneficiaries
and/or with sustainable improvement in
local structure
 Achieve scientific objectives while
guaranteeing participant’s healthcare
 Feasible with social, political, and cultural
context
 Clear attainable objectives
Ethical consideration:
Scientific Soundness (Validity)
 Moral certitude of success unattainable by
safer means
 Rigorous and reproducible method and
conditions of study
 Prior literature, laboratories, animal
studies
 Adequate representative sample, control
Ethical consideration:
Scientific Soundness (Validity)
 Valid, reliable, objective evaluation tool
 Adequate provisions for monitoring and auditing
 Meticulous data gathering, accurate recording
 Appropriate statistics
 Qualified and suitable researcher
 Approved by Institutional Review Board and
Ethics Committee
 Independent Peer reviewed
 Published with Correct Authorship
II. Literature Review
What is a literature search?
 A systematic, thorough,
detailed and organized,
step-by-step search for
all the material available
on a topic
 Why Write a Review of Literature

To know what work has been already done on your topic

To avoid inadvertent duplication of any previous research

To increase your knowledge of your chosen research topic

To open up new avenues for you to explore

To lend validity and substance to your work

 To identify gaps, inconsistencies and errors in previous

research which you may exploit

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When should you carry out a literature
search?

While
Before writing the
starting study
protocol

While
During the writing the
study research
paper
When should you carry out a literature
search? BEFORE STARTING
 Increased breadth of knowledge

 Identify other researchers

 Identify seminal works

 Identify questions, controversies or

gaps
When should you carry out a literature
search? WHILE WRITING THE STUDY
PROTOCOL
 Helps justify the study
 Selecting a study population
 Estimating sample size
 Identify potential confounders
 Identify methods
 Identify problems
When should you carry out a literature
search?
DURING THE STUDY
 Identify alternative methods
 Overcoming problems
 Compare results with others
 Helps interpret results
When should you carry out a literature
search? WHILE WRITING THE RESEARCH PAPER
 Identify new materials

 Compare results with others

 Help interpret results

Six Cs of Writing a Literature Review

1. Conduct exhaustive bibliographic

searches
2. Categorize, or organize, the
collected information logically
3. Critique, or evaluate, the literature
rather than just summarizing it
4. Compare, or contrast, the sources
to each other rather than writing
discrete sections
5. Connect, or relate, the literature to
your research
6. Cite all sources mentioned

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There are five steps to an effective
literature search
 Define your search topic.

 Choose the sources to search.

 Choose your search terms.

 Compile your search strategy and run

your search.
Step 1: Define your search topic.

 Have a clear idea about what you

are searching for

 Should be focused and andselective

How to Select Literature for Review

 Relevance – the source material should

be pertinent to the development of your
topic; a smaller number of
quality sources is preferable than a long
list of irrelevance
 Authority - should be published in a
reputable journal, or be a recognized
authority in the area
 Currency – should be recent research;
some disciplines require information as
current as possible; a survey of the
history of literature may be needed by
the research; perspectives may change
over a time period

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Define the extent of your search.

 Determine exactly what

information you are looking for.

 “Search limiters”

 “Inclusion and exclusion criteria”

What areas of the world are you
interested in?
Is there anything about the population
that is important?
How recent do you need the information
to be?
Literature Review

 The key to a successful literature

review lies in your ability to digest
information from different sources,
critically evaluate it and present
your conclusions in a concise, logical
and reader-friendly manner.
 Sources of Information
 Scientific papers in technical journals including
refereed on-line journals
 Higher degree dissertations/theses
 Science citation index
 Abstract journals
 Grey literature
 Review articles in scientific journals
 Popular science journals (e.g. New Scientist)
 Non-refereed journals
 Popular magazines (e.g. New Agriculturist)
 Scientific books
 Newspaper articles
 The World Wide Web or Internet

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Categories of Source Materials

 Primary sources – original articles in

journals, conference reports, etc.

 Secondary sources - reports of

evaluations and reviews, or synthesis
of original works (compendium)

 Tertiary sources – broadly scoped

materials put together from secondary
sources, e.g. textbooks

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Decide which tools you are going to use
to find relevant information.

Peer-reviewed
Grey
academic
literature
literature

Unpublished
literature
Grey literature is information which is
not formally published.

Government
NGO reports Ph.D. thesis
publications

Conference Patient
proceedings information
Databases are the best tools to find
peer-reviewed academic literature.
 Electronic indexing tools

 Store and provide access to large

amounts of bibliographic data

 Some are free, some require a

subscription
III. Formulating Data Gathering Tools
“This is the information
age…Better information
usually leads to better
decision”
Walonick, David S. (2013)
 http://www.grahamtall.co.uk/Scientific%20paradigm.htm
Summary of Presentation
I. Theories, Concepts, and Propositions
II. Variables
III. Theoretical, and Conceptual Framework
IV. Research Design
V. Data Gathering Tools
I. Theories, Propositions,
and Models

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What is a theory?
A theory is a set of systematically interrelated
concepts, definitions, and propositions that are
advanced to explain and predict phenomena
(facts).

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What are concepts?
A concept is a generally accepted collection of meanings
or characteristics associated with certain events, objects,
conditions, situations, and behaviors.
 Concepts may be impossible to observe directly, such as
justice or love, or they may have referents that are
readily observable, such as tree or a table (Bailey,
1994:41).
 Concepts
may contain several categories, values or
subconcepts.
Examples. self-esteem, altruism, social class, prejudice,
GDP
 http://www.childhealth-
explanation.com/personality-development.html
 Variables, constants, attributes

 A variable is a concept that can take on more

than one value;
 A constant is a concept that can take on only one
value.
 An attribute is the particular value of a variable
in a particular instance

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Four Types of Measurement Scales

SCALE EXAMPLE

Nominal Gender

Ordinal Position in
race

Interval Temperature
(in Fahrenheit)

Ratio Money

edweb.sdsu.edu/people/tphan/690/ppt/Instrument
ation.ppt
Operationalizing Variables
 A variable can be defined and measured based on literatures or a researcher may
construct it

Example
Self Esteem
Concept: definition
Indicator: the 10 items that make up the Rosenberg
self-esteem scale and their answer categories
Attribute for any given individual is the score s/he
gets on the scale
www.ssc.wisc.edu/~jpiliavi/357/theory.white.pdf
 THEORIES AND MODELS
Deterrence Situational System Argumentation Social
Theory Leadership Theory Theory Cognitive
( Cesare (Blanchard (Hegel) (Perelman & Theory (Miller
Beccaria) Hershey) Toulmin) & Dollard)
Network and
Social Management Theory Modernization Health Brief
Identity by Objectives Analysis Theory Model
Theory (Drucker) (Barnes) (Hochbaum,
(Tajfel & Mental Models Rosenstock, &
Turner) Change Information Kegels)
Equation Theories
Contagion (Beckhard) (Shannon and Theory of
Theories Weaver) Planned
Behavior and
Reasoned
Action (Ajzen
and Fishbein )
Cesare Beccaria
What are propositions?
 The basic components of theory are concepts and
variables, which are related in statements
generally known as propositions (Bailey, 1994:41)
 Statements of fact about one or more variables
 Propositions are basis for scientific research and
the validity of a study is evaluated on this
criteria
Propositions
- At least 30% of the people living in the community are poor.
Economic poverty: poverty in terms of money or economics
Non economic poverty: poor in terms of food, right\s

- Poverty is a state of being deficient in money.

- Poverty is a state of lack of shelter food or clothing.

 Those families whose children cannot attend school due to financial reasons
would be considered to be in a state of poverty in the community

- Poverty could be assessed by GDP. GDP is the total output of good and
services produced by a country or economy.
edweb.sdsu.edu/people/tphan/690/ppt/Instrumentation.ppt
What are constructs?
A construct is an image or abstract idea
specifically invented for a given and/or theory-
building purpose.
 Abstractionsthat cannot be observed directly but
are helpful when trying to explain behavior

Examples. Intelligence, teacher effectiveness, self

esteem
Variables

http://myweb.stedwards.edu/brianws/3328fa09/dep_inde
_variables_sm.gif
What are variables?

 The term variable is used as a synonym for

construct, or the property being studied.
 A variable is a symbol of an event, act,
characteristic, trait, or attribute that can be
measured
 Kerlinger (1972:29) states that a variable is a
property that takes different values .
Flow of Activities in Collecting Data
Flow of Activities Example
Identify the variable Self-efficacy for learning from
others

Operationally define the

variable Level of confidence that an
individual can learn something
by being taught by others

Locate data (measures, 13 items on a self-efficacy

observations, documents with attitudinal scale from Bergin
(1989)
questions and scales)

Scores of each item ranged

Collect data on instruments from 0-10 with 10 being
yielding numeric scores “completely confident.”

edweb.sdsu.edu/people/tphan/690/ppt/Instrumentation.ppt
Theoretical and
Conceptual Framework

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Research framework
Aframework can be the basis of developing
the instrument
Aresearch framework is developed as a
guide to the researcher
Aframework provides an illustration in the
conception and relationship of various
phenomena in a research
What is a theoretical framework?
 The theoretical framework shapes the justification of the
research problem in order to provide the basis of the
parameter.
 Itserves as the basis to describe properly the process of the
study.
 Itis a symbolic construction which uses abstract concept,
facts or laws, variables and their relations that explains and
predicts how an observed phenomena exists and operates.
 Itshapes the justification of the research problem
objectives in order to provide the basis or its parameter. It
serves as the legal basis to describe the process of the study.
 Itis a structure of concepts that exists in the literature, a
ready-made map for the study.
USES OF THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

1) Narrows down the research area.

2) Suggests ways that yield the meaning of
findings.
3) Predict facts that can be found through
investigation.
4) Organizes data gathering procedure since the
study is anchored on a theory.
5) Guides the discovery of new knowledge and
generalizations.
 What is a conceptual framework?
 The conceptual framework presents specific and
well-defined concepts which are called constructs.
 Its
function is similar with theoretical framework
because the constructs used are derived from
abstract, concept of the theoretical framework.
 Conceptualframework refers to the set of
concepts used for the research study.
 It
is a structure of concept and/or theories pulled
together as a map for the study.
Theoretical Framework VS. Conceptual
Framework

A conceptual framework is a structure of concept

and/or theories pulled together as a map for the
study.
A theoretical framework is a structure of concepts
that exists in the literature, a ready-made map for
the study.
What is a Research Paradigm?
 Researchparadigm is a descriptive analogy or a visual
presentation of interrelationship of concepts in a stated
theory.
 It
organizes the research process and indicates the overall
approach used in the study.
 Research Paradigm is a descriptive analogy or a visual
presentation of the interrelationship of concepts in a stated
theory. It organizes the research process and indicates the
overall approach used in the study.
 Theparadigm of conceptual networks gives people reading
the research a bird’s eye view of what the research is all
about, usually presented in a chart or diagram form.
• SIGNIFICANT FACTORS AFFECTING SATISFACTION AND PARTONAGE OF
GRADUATE SCHOOL STUDENTS TO JOSE RIZAL UNIVERSITY by Cortes

• http://www.slideshare.net/MELJUN2009/mba-thesis-presentation-jose-rizal-univeritiy
Implementation of the Special Program in the Arts in the
Secondary Schools of Region 2 (Sebastian, 2013)

 http://www.slideshare.net/basteroger/implementation-of-the-special-program-in-the-arts-of-the-secondary-schools-of-region-2
Dr. Kumar’s Thesis on Virtual Reality Modeling: Research Framework

http://www.joelsolkoff.com/chapter-3-dr-kumars-thesis-on-virtual-reality-modeling/
 http://www.joelsolkoff.com/chapter-3-dr-kumars-thesis-on-virtual-reality-modeling/
Research Design

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Research Design

 Research design is the blueprint of research

that guides the researcher on the process
of collecting, analyzing and interpreting
possible solutions to a research problem
Survey Research Design
• “Most commonly used method in research and
has roots in social sciences.” (Abao, Ramos,
and Lubrica; 2012)
• Covers probability and non-probability sampling
• The most common instruments are interview
and questionnaire
Content Analysis
 “Study of media text by systematically and
objectively identifying the specified
characteristic of the message.” (Abao,
Ramos, and Lubrica; 2012)
 Develops categories and implements coding
 Combines qualitative and quantitative data
in teh analysis
 Works with secondary data
Descriptive Study
 “Descriptive studies are re-interpretation of
already known understanding in an aim to present
a new finding or new conclusion.” (Abao, Ramos,
and Lubrica; 2012)
 Presents state and reason of an event (historical)
or gives a critical evaluation of events, ideas or
people behind the event (critical)
 Includes biographical studies, movement/ideas
study, regional studies, institutional study, case
history/study, selected studies
Feasibility Study
 “This is considered the most advanced of
all research design because of its
forecasting component, the researcher
predicting whether a project, event or a
concept is feasible in a certain
timeframe.” (Abao, Ramos, and Lubrica;
2012)

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 TYPES OF RESEARCH
Based on Inquiry Based on Purpose Based on Method

Basic/ Fundamental
Rationalistic Historical
Pure

Naturalistic Applied / Action Descriptive

Developmental Correlational

Ex Post Facto
(casual comparative)

Evaluation

Experimantal
“The twentieth century has seen
conflict between two main
paradigms employed in researching
educational problems.”  (Husén,
1988, p17)
 http://www.grahamtall.co.uk/Scientific%20paradigm.htm
V. Data Gathering
Tools
“Pay attention to the questions you
need to ask, not the answers you
want to hear.”
- Leonard Hirsch, American
Consultant
 DATAis defined as the pieces of information that
are collected to examine the research topic
 DATA collection is a major research activity.
 DATAgathered will reveal answers to the research
problems
 INSTRUMENTATION is the entire process of data
collection
Ways to get information (Walonick,
2013)

 Literature search
 Talking with people
 Focus groups
 Personal interviews
 Telephone surveys

• http://vpnexpress.net/wp-
content/uploads/2013/07/Metadata-gathering.jpg
Considerations in selecting data
gathering tools
1. Cost – What tool can meet budgetary constraints?
2. Time – Will the tool match the time frame of the study?
3. Sample size – Can the tool capture the target responses
with respect to cost and time?
4. Kind of data – Will the tool be appropriate to measure
the data type?
5. Validity – Will the tool give warranted conclusions
about the respondents?
6. Reliability – Does the tool give consistent results?
7. Objectivity – Will the tool minimize or eliminate any
bias?
8. Usability – Is the tool easy for respondents to answer
and for the researcher to interpret?
Record and Administer Data Collection:
Obtain Reliable and Valid Data
 Validity: the ability to draw meaningful and
justifiable inferences from the scores about a
sample or a population
 Types of validity
 Content (representative of all possible questions that
could be asked)
 Criterion-referenced (scores are a predictor of an
outcome or criterion they are expected to predict
 Construct (determination of the significance, meaning,
purpose and use of the scores)
Record and Administer Data Collection:
Locate or Develop an Instrument

 Develop your own instrument

 Locate an existing instrument
 Modify an existing instrument

edweb.sdsu.edu/people/tphan/690/ppt/Instrumentation.ppt
Acknowledgement

A number of slides were adopted

from the presentations of Dr.
Erlinda Palaganas of UP Baguio, Dr.
Johny Domantay of SLU, and Dr.
Sonwright Maddul of BSU.