Course: Comparative Education (6466)

Level: B.Ed (4 Years)

Semester: Autumn, 2018
ASSIGNMENT No. 1

Q.1 Discuss historical perspective of comparative education with your two teachers
and write a report.

Answer:

Comparative education is a discipline in the social sciences which entails the scrutiny and
evaluation of different educational systems, such as those in various countries. Professionals

in this area of endeavour are absorbed in advancing evocative terminologies and guidelines

for education worldwide, enhancing educational structures and producing a context to which

the success and affectivity of education programs and initiatives can be assessed.

Comparative education is a loosely bounded field that examines the sources, workings, and

outcomes of education systems, as well as leading education issues, from comprehensive,

multidisciplinary, cross-national, and cross-cultural perspectives. Despite the diversity of

approaches to studying relations between education and society, Arnove, et al. 1992 (cited

under General Overviews) maintains that the field is held together by a fundamental belief
that education can be improved and can serve to bring about change for the better in all

nations. The authors further note that comparative inquiry often has sought to discover how

changes in educational provision, form, and content might contribute to the eradication of

poverty or the end of gender-, class-, and ethnic-based inequities. A belief in the
transformative power of education systems is aligned with three principal dimensions of the

field. Arnove 2013 (cited under General Overviews) designates these dimensions as

scientific/theoretical, pragmatic/ameliorative, and global/international understanding and

peace. According to Farrell 1979 (cited under General Overviews), the scientific dimension of
the field relates to theory building with comparison being absolutely essential to

understanding what relationships pertain under what conditions among variables in the

education system and society. Bray and Thomas 1995 (cited under General Overviews) point

out that comparison enables researchers to look at the entire world as a natural laboratory in
viewing the multiple ways in which societal factors, educational policies, and practices may

vary and interact in otherwise unpredictable and unimaginable ways. With regard to the
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pragmatic dimension, comparative educators have studied other societies to learn what works

well and why. At the inception of study of comparative education as a mode of inquiry in the

19th century, pioneer Marc-Antoine Jullien de Paris (b. 1775–d. 1848) aimed at not only

informing and improving educational policy, but also contributing to greater international
understanding. According to Giddens 1991, Rivzi and Lingard 2010, and Carney 2009 (all cited

under General Overviews), international understanding has become an even more important

feature of comparative education as processes of globalization increasingly require people to

recognize how socioeconomic forces, emanating from what were previously considered
distant and remote areas of the world, impinge upon their daily lives. The priority given to

each of these dimensions varies not only across individuals but also across national and

regional boundaries and epistemic communities. Yamada 2015 (cited under General

Overviews), for example, finds notable differences between the discourses and practices of
North American and Japanese researchers, with the former tending to locate their research in

existing theories and the latter trying to understand a particular situation before eventually

finding patterns or elements applicable to a wider situation. Takayama 2011 (cited under

General Overviews) notes that one reason for differences in research traditions is the
Japanese emphasis on area studies. The evolution of comparative education as a scholarly

endeavor reflects changes in theories, research methodologies, and events on the world stage

that have required more sophisticated responses to understanding transformations occurring

within and across societies.

The references cited here include leading English-language textbooks in the field that

introduce readers to the principal dimensions of comparative education, including its

contributions to theory building, more informed and enlightened educational policy and

practice, and international understanding and world peace. They illustrate the increasing
focus of the field on how globalization impacts national education systems and, in turn, are

refracted and changed by local contexts. Japan, which has one of the longest traditions of

comparative studies, is included to point out differences in scholarly traditions.

Objectives and Scope

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According to Harold Noah (1985), and Farooq Joubish (2009),] comparative education has

four purposes:

1. To describe educational systems, processes, or outcomes.

2. To assist in the development of educational institutions and practices.

3. To highlight the relationships between education and society.

4. To establish generalized statements about education that are valid in more than one

country.

5. To help the current generation, understand the nowardays education systems, with
reference to the past.

Comparative education is often incorrectly assumed to exclusively encompass studies that

compare two or more different countries. In fact, since its early days researchers in this field

have often eschewed such approaches, preferring rather to focus on comparisons within a
single country over time. Still, some large scale projects, such as the PISA and TIMSS studies,

have made important findings through explicitly comparative macroanalysis of massive data

sets. Recent examples in this regard include studies analyzing intra-European and intra-

American teacher education.

Rationale for the Field

Many important educational questions can best be examined from an international and

comparative perspective. For example, in the United States there is no nationwide certificate

of completion of secondary education. This raises the question of what the advantages and
disadvantages are of leaving such certification to each of the 50 states.] Comparative

education draws on the experience of countries such as Japan and France to show how a

centralized system works, and what the advantages and disadvantages of a centralized

certification are.

Critics of comparative education refer to it as Policy Borrowing

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Q.2 Discuss different approaches of comparative education. Which approach do like
the most and why?

Answer:

In the various methods of the study of comparative education the following are noteworthy
Quantitative, Descriptive, Sociological, Historical, Analytical and Synthetic.

1. The Quantitative of Statistical Method:

The study of comparative education we analyse the similarities and factors inherent in the

education systems of various countries. Hence, it is necessary to use the statistical method for
finding out the progress or decline of education in a country. In this method various type of

educational data are collected about a country. For example, the data about the number of

students at a certain stage of education, expenditure on them, the percentages of passes and

failures at various stages of education, expenses on teachers’ salaries, school buildings and
other items are collected, and the same are compared with the identical data of another

country. Thus the progress or decline of education in any country is statistically analysed.

Bat the greatest difficulty of the statistical method is to procure reliable data. Generally, due

care is not taken in the collection of data. Consequently, many of them are false. Another

difficulty in this connection is that the various educational terms used in different countries
do not connote the same sense. Therefore, their statistical analysis is falsified.

Moreover, through the statistical method we cannot understand the educational

characteristics that are the result of social, cultural, economic, political and religious situations

of a country. Evidently the use of the statistical method is very limited.

2. The Descriptive Method:

This method was used in the nineteenth century because the main purpose of comparative

education then was to incorporate the good points of another country. For this, a detailed

description of educational affairs of another country was necessary.

So many educationists presented detailed descriptive accounts of educational systems of

other lands. John Griscom of U.S.A. is worthy of mention in this connection. In 1918-19 he

visited Great Britain, France, Holland, Switzerland and Italy and wrote a book entitled “A Year

in Europe” describing their educational systems.

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An attempt was made in U.S.A to incorporate some of the special characteristics of the

educational systems as described in this book. In 1831, Victor Cousin of France published a

Report on the educational system of France. Some of the educational characteristics of

Prussia as described in this Report were imitated in Great Britain and France. Victor Cousin did
not make a comparative study of educational systems of other lands in his Report.

Therefore, his Report could be evaluated by only those persons who had a good knowledge

of educational systems of other countries. Thus, in the nineteenth century only those people

were able to understand comparative education that had a good knowledge of educational
system of their own country.

Matthew Arnold of Great Britain and Horace Man of U.S.A did some work in the area of

descriptive method. Mathew Arnold studied the educational systems of France and Germany

and published a report about France in 1859 and about Germany in 1865.

Mathew Arnold in his description drew our attention also to those factors which distinguish

the educational system of one land from that of another. Sir Michael Sadler and Paul Monroe

followed Arnold’s method. Thus, the study of comparative education became better

organised.

Horace Man visited Germany, Ireland, Great Britain, France and Holland and in 1843 published

a Report on the educational systems of these countries. Horace Man in this Report pointed

out the special characteristics of the educational systems he had studied and also mentioned

the specific element that should be imitated by others.

Thus in his descriptive method Horace Man paid attention to the evaluation of the

characteristics and their utilities. As a result, the later educationists also paid attention to the

evaluation and utilities of characteristics of educational systems of other countries.

Henry Bernard, between 1856 and 1881, published thirty one volumes of “The American
Journal of Education”. In these volumes he described the educational systems of the various

states of U.S.A. and of many foreign countries. And so he placed before us standard data. In

this process he also interpreted the historical background of each educational system he

described.

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In his study of comparative education, Michael Sadler emphasized the point that we should

study all those national factors that influence the educational system of a land and are

responsible for its development and decline. He considered the study of comparative

education as useful for one’s national system of education.

The above account indicates that the descriptive method of comparative education was

advocated by those educationists who wanted to promote and popularise the study of

comparative education.

3. The Sociological Method:

In the sociological method the educational problems are studied in a social context. This is

done with the belief that the educational system of a country is conditioned by its social,

cultural, economic, political and religious situations. Hence the educational problems of a

country have their origin in some social problems and they do not exist by themselves as
there is a close relationship between education and society. The sociological method of the

study of comparative education does not emphasise only the past causative factors, but also

those social and cultural aspects which may be responsible for the problem.

It may be mentioned that the educational system of a country becomes useless when it does
not run parallel to the social situation of the country and the aspirations of the people.

The education in India as obtained during the British rule may be cited as a case in point,

because the same did not satisfy the social needs in the country or the aspirations of the

people. Hence the establishment of Kashi Vidyapith (Varanasi), Jamia Milia, Delhi and Visva-
Bharti, Bolpur (West Bengal), in the country.

The sociological method suffers from the limitation that it ignores the contributions of

individuals towards the growth of education. We know that in each country there are some

individuals who have contributed immensely towards the growth of education in their
countries.

3. The Historical Method:

In the historical method we study the modern educational problems. This method reveals the

basis on which the modern educational system is based. Needless to say that this knowledge

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may help us in eliminating undesirable elements in the system and further strengthening the

desirable ones. It will be wrong to think that we employ the historical method only to know

the past in order that we may understand the present better. In fact, our purpose is also to

improve the future by hinting at those factors which may be more useful. In the historical
method we try to understand all those geographical, social, racial, political, religious and

linguistic factors which influence the educational system of a country. Nicholas Hans,

Schneider and Kandel have emphasized this method.

But one of the great limitations of the historical method is that the data on which we base our
study may not be reliable because in the collection of the same, due care is not observed.

Therefore, conclusions derived cannot be very useful. We have to keep in mind that the

historical materials about educational systems of various countries are generally not very

reliable. This limits the utility of the historical data. Hence more research is needed for making
them reliable. Another difficulty with the historical method is that historians generally are not

impartial in their accounts. They want to conceal undersirable elements about the history of

their own country and look on facts relating to other countries with prejudice.

Thus, the truth is not known. Consequently, by the historical method we cannot reach the
right conclusions. The third difficulty of the historical method is that the past is unduly

emphasized. Consequently, the study of comparative education becomes unbalanced

5. The Analytical Method:

In the foregoing pages we have remarked several times that the educational system of a
country has a close relationship with its social, political and economical conditions. It is

because of this relationship that a comparative study has become necessary. In any

comparative study we have to use analysis. Because through analysis we can separate the

various elements and understand the importance of each independently. Analytical method
can be useful only when the social and educational organisations are compared. For this

comparison the following four factors are necessary—

1. To Collect Educational Data:

To collect all the educational information through descriptive and statistical methods is
necessary for analytical method.
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2. Interpretation of Social, Political, Economic and Historical Data:

This is necessary in order to understand similarities and differences found in the educational

systems of various countries.

3. Determination of Standard for Comparison:

After finding out the similarities and differences of the various educational systems, we have

to compare the same according to certain standards. It is the business of the analytical

method to formulate these standards. Political philosophy, aims of education and the method

of control of education may be cited as some standards for comparison.

In the context of these standards, we shall understand the similarities and differences of

educational systems of various countries. For example, we can say that since there is a

difference between the political philosophies of India and China, therefore, we find

differences in their educational systems.

4. Interpretation and Conclusion:

On the basis of the above three aspects we interpret the collected data and reach certain

conclusions on the basis of comparison.

Limitations of the Analytical Method:

The above account indicates the utility of the analytical method but this method suffers from

the difficulty that in the process of analysis no adequate attention is paid to the totality of the

educational systems.

The analytical method is prone to close our eyes to this inherent similarity. Therefore, in the
study of comparative education the necessity of synthetically method has been conceived.

We shall study this method below.

The Methods of Synthesis:

We have already noted that in the study of comparative education, international point of view
is now considered important. The method of synthesis emphasises this point of view. In this

method the problems of education are studied on an international plane. Edmund King in his

book “World Perspective in Education” has advocated this method.

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When we study the problems of education of various countries, we find some universal truths

in their inherent differences, because there is much similarity in the needs and aspirations of

the people of the world.

The United Nations Organisation has contributed much towards the consciousness of this
similarity. The method of synthesis is still in its infancy and needs further development.

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Q.3 Write down the salient feature of primary education of UK?

Answer:

Education in England is overseen by the United Kingdom's Department for Education. Local

government authorities are responsible for implementing policy for public education and

state-funded schools at a local level.

England also has a tradition of independent schools (some of which call themselves "public

schools") and home education; legally, parents may choose to educate their children by any

permitted means. State-funded schools are categorized as selective grammar schools or

comprehensive schools. Comprehensive schools are further subdivided by funding into free
schools, other academies, any remaining Local Authority schools and others. More freedom is

given to free schools, including most religious schools, and other academies in terms of

curriculum. All are subject to assessment and inspection by the Office for Standards in

Education, Children's Services and Skills, or Ofsted.

The state-funded education system is divided into stages based upon age:[10] Early Years

Foundation Stage (ages 3–5); primary education (ages 5 to 11), subdivided into Key Stage 1

(KS1) Infants (ages 5 to 7) and Key Stage 2 (KS2) Juniors (ages 7 to 11); secondary education

(ages 11 to 16), subdivided into Key Stage 3 (KS3; ages 11 to 14) and Key Stage 4 (KS4; ages
14 to 16); Key Stage 5 is post-16 education (ages 16 to 18); and tertiary education (for ages

18+).

At age 16 the students typically take exams for the General Certificate of Secondary Education

(GCSE) or other Level 1/2 qualifications. While education is compulsory until 18, schooling is
compulsory to 16, thus post-16 education can take a number of forms, and may be academic

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or vocational. This can involve continued schooling, known as "sixth form" or "college",

leading (typically after two years of further study) to A-level qualifications (similar to a high

school diploma in some other countries), or a number of alternative Level 3 qualifications

such as Business and Technology Education Council (BTEC), the International Baccalaureate
(IB), Cambridge Pre-U, WJEC or Eduqas. It can also include work-based apprenticeships or

traineeships, or volunteering.

Primary schools admit children from the ages of 5 through to 11. Some primary schools are

split up into Infant and Junior levels. These are usually separate schools on the same site. The
infant age range (Key Stage 1) is from age 5 to 7. The Junior age range (Key Stage 2) is from

age 7 to 11.

The year groups at primary School level are:

Year R (Reception) (age 4 – 5)

Year 1 (age 5 - 6)

Year 2 (age 6 - 7) The year when SATs testing takes place for Key Stage 1

Year 3 (age 7 - 8)

Year 4 (age 8 - 9)

Year 5 (age 9 - 10)

Year 6 (age 10 - 11) The year when SATs testing takes place for Key Stage 2

Please note that in some areas of England (Eg Suffolk and Sussex) First and Middle Schools

replace Primary Schools. First Schools go from age 5-9, whilst Middle Schools go from age 9-
13.

Other Primary Issues

Homework - Most primary schools now set some form of homework for most children. At

the lower end of the primary age range it might be basic reading practice at home, or finding
out about a certain subject. Higher up the primary age range, homework will probably involve

learning spellings and times tables for a test each week, or doing research on a certain topic.

Most schools now provide their children with a homework diary so that the parents can be

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certain what homework their child has been given that week. Usually this is checked and

signed by the class teacher. The parents should be informed at the beginning of the school

year just how much time their child should be spending on their homework. Obviously if the

homework is causing anxiety and stress it would be a good idea to clarify with the class
teacher what it is your child should be doing and how long this should be taking him/her.

More and more schools are starting homework clubs where the children can stay behind

once normal school has finished. Apart from completing their homework, the children might

do some sort of physical exercise and/or be fed, before their parent arrives to take them
home.

Bullying - Bullying is an issue which thankfully most schools take more seriously than ten or

twenty years ago. All schools should have in place a school "bullying policy" which states how

the school and the teachers deal with incidents of bullying. Some primary schools now have
"mentors" or "watchers" who are specially trained older childer, who keep a watch on the

younger children at playtimes. The idea is to make sure that all the children are safe and

happy when they are on the playground. Most primary schools now have a "school council"

which operates to give the viewpoints of all the children in the school through specially
elected representatives from each class. Again the issue of bullying is one which can

discussed at this level.

Walking Bus - The walking bus scheme has been sponsored by Kia Motors in the UK since

June 2000 and has supported over 230 routes.

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Q.4 Pakistan is having a weak system of primary education? Critically analyze this

statement keeping in view of prevailing structure and issues of primary

education in Pakistan?

Answer:

Education is an important factor both in the day-to-day success of the child and in

contributing to the personal, social, cultural and economic fulfillment of the future adult.

Primary Education in Pakistan aims to develop each child’s potential to the full, encourage a
love of learning and help children to develop their skills that they will use all their lives. The
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primary stage of education is of prime importance for the building of career. This stage

enables a child to raise a standard of his/her personality.

Improving quality of education is just as important as increase access to it for Pakistan.

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Education for All (EFA) programs are global
commitments of Pakistan for the promotion of literacy. Pakistan is also signatory to the MDG

declaration. These goals form the basis for national development efforts for the increase of

literacy level in Pakistan.

Primary Education in Pakistan is accepted as a basic right of everyone both at national and
international level. The constitution of Islamic Republic of Pakistan, 1973 clearly lays down

the provision in Article 37 (b) that:

“The state of Pakistan shall remove illiteracy and provide free and compulsory primary

and secondary education within minimum possible period.”

The primary literacy gross enrolment rate stands at 85.9% by 2012 while Pakistan requires

increasing it up to 100% by 2016 to fulfill EFA goals.

Economic Survey of Pakistan confirms that during the year 2013-14 literacy remained much

higher in urban areas and the enrolment rate improved to 89%.

Pakistan is facing challenges in targeting the net primary enrolment rate. In 2005, 67%

children enrolled in primary schools nearly 30% dropped out before completing 5 years of

formal education. Net primary enrolment of Pakistan remains the lowest in South Asia and

the same is true for the annual primary completion rates.

Primary education in Pakistan helps the person how different things are working and how

they should be improved and operated.

Pakistani Educational System allow a child to grow with his aim but there are some issues, and

problems are also laying that makes our educational system tough for every class of people.
The literacy rate of Pakistan is less than other successful countries and that is the main reason

that education is facing the challenges in Pakistan. The challenges that lead to the

comprehension of the problems which are faced in the development of educational system

and promotion of literacy. The study outlines seven major problems such as:

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  Lack of proper planning

 Social restrictions

 Cost of education

 Gender gap

 War on terror

 Funds for education

 Technical education

These are the main problems that Pakistan is facing to improve its educational system. Since
education is a provincial subject, the provincial education secretariats need to be

strengthened. Special policy planning units should be established in provinces’ education

departments of implementation of educational policies and formation of new policies

whenever needed.

EAST’s primary education aim revolves around a concept of “every child has a right to good

education”. After discussing the importance and significance of primary education in

Pakistan, it is easy to conclude that it is very important for every child to get primary

education to gain more confidence and it is considered to be the main root of every
education. Every educated man and woman should be filled with the strong sense of pride

and honor for our common cultural tradition and history. Education is an art and technique to

draw out full and the best of the boys and girls.

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Q.5 Define concept of secondary education. Also analyze the purpose and structure

of secondary education system of Malaysia?

Answer:

Secondary education covers two phases on the International Standard Classification of

Education scale. Level 2 or lower secondary education (less common junior secondary

education) is considered the second and final phase of basic education, and level 3 (upper)

secondary education is the stage before tertiary education. Every country aims to provide

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basic education, but the systems and terminology remain unique to them. Secondary

education typically takes place after six years of primary education and is followed by higher

education, vocational education or employment. Like primary education, in most countries

secondary education is compulsory, at least until the age of 16. Children typically enter the
lower secondary phase around age 11. Compulsory education sometimes extends to age 19.

Since 1989, education has been seen as a basic human right for a child; Article 28, of the

Convention on the Rights of the Child states that primary education should be free and

compulsory while different forms of secondary education, including general and vocational
education, should be available and accessible to every child. The terminology has proved

difficult, and there was no universal definition before ISCED divided the period between

primary education and university into junior secondary education and upper secondary

education.

Secondary education is the stage of education following primary education. Except in

countries where only primary or basic education is compulsory, secondary education includes

the final stage of compulsory education, and in many countries it is entirely compulsory. The

next stage of education is usually college or university. Secondary education is characterized

by transition from primary education for minors to tertiary, "post-secondary", or "higher"

education for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period or a part of it may be

called secondary schools, high schools, gymnasia, lyceums, middle schools, sixth-form, sixth-

form colleges, vocational schools and preparatory schools, and the exact meaning of any of
these varies between the systems.

econdary education is in most countries the phase in the education continuum responsible

for the development of the young during their adolescence, the most rapid phase of their

physical, mental and emotional growth. It is at this very education level, particularly in its first
cycle, where values and attitudes formed at primary school are more firmly ingrained

alongside the acquisition of knowledge and skills.

From UNESCO Towards a Convergence of Knowledge Acquisition and Skills Development

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The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) (1997) describes seven levels

that can be used to compare education internationally. Within a country these can be

implemented in different ways, with different age levels and local denominations.

 Level 0 – Pre-primary education

 Level 1 – Primary education or first stage of basic education

 Level 2 – Lower secondary or second stage of basic education

 Level 3 – (Upper) secondary education

 Level 4 – Post-secondary non-tertiary education

 Level 5 – First stage of tertiary education

 Level 6 – Second stage of tertiary education

Within this system, national governments can call levels 2, 3 and 4, levels 2 and 3 or just level

2, secondary education. Level 1 and Level 2, that is primary education and lower secondary
together form basic education. These definition were put together for statistical purposes,

and to allow the gathering of comparative data nationally and internationally and approved

by the UNESCO General Conference at its 29th session in November 1997. Though they may

be dated they do provide a universal set of definitions, and remain unchanged in the 2011
update.

Purpose and Structure Secondary education system of Malaysia:

Public secondary education in Malaysia is provided by National Secondary Schools (Sekolah

Menengah Kebangsaan, SMK). National Secondary Schools use Malay as the main medium of
instruction because Malay language is the National language of Malaysia while English is a

compulsory subject in all schools. Since 2003, Science and Mathematics had been taught in

English, however in 2009 the government decided to revert to use Malay starting in year

2012.

As in primary schools, a National Secondary School must provide teaching of Chinese and

Tamil languages, as well as indigenous languages wherever practical, on request of parents of

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at least 15 pupils in the school. In addition, foreign languages such as Arabic or Japanese may

be taught at certain schools.

Secondary education lasts for five years, referred to as Form (Tingkatan) 1 to 5. Form 1 to

Form 3 are known as Lower Secondary (Menengah Rendah), while Form 4 and 5 are known as
Upper Secondary (Menengah Atas). Most students who had completed primary education are

admitted to Form 1. Students from national-type primary schools have the additional

requirement to obtain a minimum C grade for the Malay subjects in UPSR, failing which they

will have to attend a year-long transition class, commonly called "Remove" (Kelas/Tingkatan
Peralihan), before proceeding to Form 1. As in primary schools, students are promoted to the

next year regardless of their academic performance.

Co-curricular activities are compulsory at the secondary level, where all students must

participate in at least 2 activities for most states, and 3 activities for the Sarawak region. There
are many co-curricular activities offered at the secondary level, varying at each school and

each student is judged based in these areas. Competitions and performances are regularly

organised. Co-curricular activities are often categorised under the following: Uniformed

Groups, Performing Arts, Clubs & Societies, Sports & Games. Student may also participate in
more than 2 co-curricular activities.

At the end of Form 3, the Pentaksiran Tingkatan 3 (PT3) or Form Three Assessment is taken by

students. Based on PT3 results and choice, they will be given three streamed to choose,

(1)Academic Stream (Science/Art), Technical and Vocational Stream, and Religious Stream.
The Academic stream is generally more desirable. Students are allowed to shift to the Arts

stream from the Science stream, but rarely vice versa. In 2013, the government announced to

replace Lower Certificate of Education (LCE) evaluation system or "Penilaian Menengah

Rendah" with another assessment system which is the Form 3 Assessment or Pentaksiran
Tingkatan 3 (PT3).

At the end of Form 5, students are required to take the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) or

Malaysian Certificate of Education examination, before graduating from secondary school.

The SPM was based on the old British 'School Certificate' examination before it
became General Certificate of Education 'O' Levels examination, which became the GCSE

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(General Certificate of Secondary Education). As of 2006, students are given a GCE 'O' Level

grade for their English paper in addition to the normal English SPM paper. (Previously, this

was reported on result slips as a separate result labelled 1119, which meant students received

two grades for their English papers.) This separate grade is given based on the marks of the
essay-writing component of the English paper. The essay section of the English paper is

remarked under the supervision of officials from the British 'O' Levels examination. Although

not part of their final certificates, the 'O' Level grade is included on their results slip.

Shortly after the release of the 2005 SPM results in March 2006, the Education Ministry
announced it was considering reforming the SPM system due to what was perceived as over-

emphasis on As. Local educators appeared responsive to the suggestion, with one professor

at the University of Malaya deploring university students who could not write letters, debate,

or understand footnoting. He complained that "They don't understand what I am saying. ... I
cannot communicate with them." He claimed that "Before 1957 (the year of independence),

school heroes were not those with 8As or 9As, they were the great debaters, those good in

drama, in sport, and those leading the Scouts and Girl Guides." A former Education Director-

General, Murad Mohd Noor, agreed, saying that "The rat race now begins at Standard 6 with
the UPSR, with the competition resulting in parents forcing their children to attend

private tuition." He also expressed dismay at the prevalence of students taking 15 or 16

subjects for the SPM, calling it "unnecessary". A subset of the public secondary schools are

known as National-type Secondary Schools (Sekolah Menengah Jenis Kebangsaan, SMJK). At

Malayan Independence (1957), it was decided that secondary education would be provided in

Malay-medium National Secondary Schools and English-medium National-type Secondary

Schools. Fee paying, English-medium schools owned and administered by

missionaries/religious bodies were offered government aid provided that they adopted the
national curriculum. Secondary schools using other languages as medium of instruction, most

of them Chinese schools, were offered government aid on the condition that they convert

into English-medium schools. In the 1970s, as the government began to abolish English-

medium education in public schools, all National-type Secondary School were gradually
converted into Malay-medium schools. The term "National-type Secondary School" is not

present in the Education Act of 1996, which blurred the distinction between SMK and SMJK.

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However, Chinese educational groups are unwelcoming of the new development and

continue to push for the distinction to be made between the 78 formerly Chinese-medium

schools and other secondary schools. The schools continue to have "SMJK" on the school

signboards and boards of directors continue to manage the school properties, as opposed to
schools that are directly managed by the government. Most former Chinese-medium SMJK

continue to have a majority Chinese student and teacher population, usually only accept

students from Chinese-medium primary schools, have Chinese language as a compulsory

subject and have bilingual (Malay and Chinese) school announcements.

{==============}

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