READING AND WRITING

What is reading and writing as a subject?

The ability to communicate clearly and effectively forms the foundation of modern life. Reading
and writing skills allow students to seek out information, explore subjects in-depth and gain a
deeper understanding of the world around them. When they cannot read well, they become
discouraged and frustrated by school.

Why are reading and writing skills important?

Reading is important because it develops the mind. ... Understanding the written word
is one way the mind grows in its ability. Teaching young children to read helps them develop
their language skills. It also helps them learn to listen.

Why are reading and writing connected?

A child's literacy development is dependent on this interconnection between reading
and writing. Basically put: reading affects writing and writing affects reading. ... Therefore,
reading plays a major role in writing. At the same time practice in writing helps children build
their reading skills.

CRITICAL THINKING

What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully
conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered
from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a
guide to belief and action.
 Critical Thinking is the ability to analyze the way you think and present evidence for
your ideas, rather than simply accepting your personal reasoning as sufficient proof. You
can gain numerous benefits from mastering critical thinking skills, such as better control
of your own learning and empathy for other points of view.
  Critical Thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-
corrective thinking. It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and
mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem solving
abilities and a commitment to overcome our native egocentrism and sociocentrism.

What are the different qualities of critical thinkers?

It is been observed that all the critical thinkers have some qualities which are common. It is
considered that these qualities make them to think smartly and cleverly than others and thus
allow him to take decisions logically.
The critical thinkers take decisions better than others not because of their educational
qualifications or not because of their experiences. Critical thinkers tend to take better decisions
because in most of the cases they apply their education in practical life.

Some of the qualities which are common to the critical thinkers of the world are:

 Active Listening
 Curiosity
 Self-discipline
 Humility

Active Listening
People who communicate well are not only good speakers, but also good listeners. Though
being a good speaker, if the person goes on speaking without listening to others, the words of
the speaker tends to be irrelevant even though the statements are valuable with good stuff.

A listener tends to be an active listener only when he concentrates and provide full attention
towards speaker. The listener should also able to understand the message that is being
conveyed by the speaker apart from the words he speaks.

Curiosity
A person who seems to be curious implies that the person wants to learn something. People
who love to learn new things have the skills of good decision-making. The curiosity of the
person equips the person with all the updates such that the challenges and problems can be
handled in the best possible way. Curious people usually do not like explanations which are not
grounded with any logic.

It is to be learnt that curious is different from that of inquisitiveness. Being inquisitive implies
that trying to peep into the personal and business life of others for gathering rumors whereas
being curious implies trying to learn new things.

Self-Discipline
A self-discipline person does not entertain others to influence the thoughts, and the self-
discipline person takes the decisions with self-reasoning and rationality. Critical thinkers who
are said to be self-discipline know more about themselves than others as they are more
committed than non-critical thinkers. Critical thinkers are more compassionate and always
think on the lines of quality.

Humility
By humility, it implies that the role played by others towards completion of the task successfully
is being downplayed and others are appreciated for the success. Humility also means always
ready to accept and consider new ideas. Critical thinkers always tend to be humble and accept
new ideas and learn new things irrespective of from whom they are learning.

Importance of Critical Thinking

 A good Critical Thinker knows how to separate facts from opinion,how to examin issue
from all sides,how to make rational inferences and how to withhold personal judgment
of biases.
 Rational critical thinkers are generally the voices of reason in times of mass hysteria or
panic. As Franklin Roosevelt said that, “We have nothing to fear but fear itself”. The
Critical thinker usually has the comprehensive skills to consider all possible options and
solve a problem.
 The critical thinker remains calm and knows when he\she is right. The critical thinkers
are less likely to fall for scams or tricks because they approach everything with te
 healthy amount of skepticism. Those who lack critical thinking skills often assume that
everything they here is true, regardless of the source.

Part4: PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT

Definition
Explains what something is in comparison to other members of its class, along with any
limitations.

Exemplification
Provides typical cases or examples of something.

Description
What something looks like and its characteristics.

Chronology
Is a part of periodization.It is also a part of the discipline of history including earth
history, the earth sciences, and study of the geologic time scale.

Listing
Is a pattern that the writer states the main idea in the forum of a generalization and
gives a list of details or examples to support the general statement.

Comparison and Contrast

Tells how something is like other things or how something is different from other things.

Classification and Division

Groups of items into their parts or types.

Cause and Effects

Details why something happens,what causes it,what are the effects and how it is related
to something else.

Problem solution
 In General is an unsatifctory situation that causes trouble or difficulties.Therefore,it
needs a solution,a way to deal with the situation so that the troubles or difficulties are
removed.

VENN DIAGRAM
a Venn diagram is an illustration of the relationships between and among sets, groups of
objects that share something in common.
SPIDER MAP
a Spider Map (sometimes called a semantic map) is a type of graphic organizer that is used to
investigate and enumerate various aspects of a single theme or topic, helping the student to
organize their thoughts. It looks a bit like a spider's web, hence its name.

PROBLEM SOLUTION MAP

a solution map displays a logical analysis of the way one might arrive from the given data to
the solution of the problem. The solution map includes a statement of all laws and principles
used at every stage, so that students' knowledge base is reinforce

NETWORK TREE DIAGRAM TREE

Diagrams are a type of graphic organizer that shows how items are related to one another.
The tree's trunk represents the main topic, and the branches represent relevant facts, factors,
influences, traits, people, or outcomes. A family tree is an example of a tree diagram.
TIMELINE
a timeline is a type of graphic organizer that shows specific events in sequence, usually with
dates, in a linear fashion. Timelines are particularly useful for studying or reviewing history,
because the timeline will visually display major events over a period of time.

PLOT DIAGRAM
the Plot in a story. Diagram is an organizational tool focusing on a pyramid or triangular shape,
which is used to map the events
SERIES OF EVENTS CHAIN
sequence of events including steps in a linear procedure, the chain of events caused by
some event or the stages of something.

FISHBONE MAP
a fishbone map (sometimes called a herringbone map) is a type of graphic organizer that is
used to explore the many aspects or effects of a complex topic, helping the student to organize
their thoughts in a simple, visual way.

CYCLE
Cycle Diagrams are a type of graphic organizer that shows how items are related to one
another in a repeating cycle.

PERSUASION MAP
The Persuasion Map is an interactive graphic organizer that enables students to map out their
arguments for a persuasive essay or debate. Students begin by determining their goal or thesis.
They then identify three reasons to support their argument, and three facts or examples to
validate each reason.
 LOGICAL FALACIES
FALLACY DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES
is a type of logical fallacy, The animal shelter is a
which is a belief or claim place that values animal
1.False Dilemma
based on mistaken rights and never
reasoning. False Dilemma euthanizes animals, or the
is a fallacy based on an animal shelter is a place
"either-or" type of that kills innocent animals.
argument. Two choices are
presented, when more
might exist, and the claim
is made that one is false
and one is true-or one is
acceptable and the other is
not. Often, there are other
alternatives, or both
choices might be false or
true.
2. Appeal to Ignorance can be found everywhere You can't prove that there
in everyday conversation, aren't Martians living in
in advertising, in politics caves under the surface of
and in history. Mars, so it is reasonable
for me to believe there
are.

3. SLIPPERY SNOPE is a flawed argument. If we allow the children to

There are many different choose the movie this
types of logical fallacy. time, they are going to
Slippery slope is one expect to be able to
example of a fallacy. It is choose the school they go
an argument that suggests to or the doctors they visit.
taking a minor action will
lead to major and
sometimes ludicrous
consequences.
4. Complex Question A question that has a How many school
presupposition built in, shootings should we
which implies something tolerate before we change
but protects the one the gun laws?
asking the question from
accusations of false claims. (The presupposition is that
It is a form of misleading changing the gun laws will
 discourse, and it is a fallacy decrease the number of
when the audience does school shootings. This may
not detect the assumed be the case, but it is a
information implicit in the claim that is implied in the
question and accepts it as statement and hidden by a
a fact. more complex question.
Reactively, when one hears
a question such as this,
one's mind will attempt to
search for an answer to
the question—which is
actually a distraction from
rejecting the implicit claim
being made. It is quite
brilliant but still fallacious.)

5. Appeal to Force When force, coercion, or Melvin: Boss, why do I

even a threat of force is have to work weekends
used in place of a reason in when nobody else in the
an attempt to justify a company does?
conclusion.
Boss: Am I sensing
insubordination? I can find
another employee very
quickly, thanks to
Craigslist, you know.

(Melvin has asked a

legitimate question to
which he did not get a
legitimate answer, rather
his question was deflected
by a threat of force (as
being forced out of his
job.)

6. Appeal to Pity The attempt to distract I really deserve an “A” on

from the truth of the this paper, professor. Not
conclusion by the use of only did I study during my
pity. grandmother’s funeral, but
I also passed up the heart
transplant surgery, even
though that was the first
matching donor in 3 years.

(The student deserves an

 “A” for effort and
dedication but,
unfortunately, papers are
not graded that way. The
fact that we should pity
her has nothing to do with
the quality of the paper
written, and if we were to
adjust the grade because
of the sob stories, we
would have fallen victim to
the appeal to pity.)

7.Appeal to Consequences Concluding that an idea or Example (positive):

proposition is true or false
because the consequences If there is objective
of it being true or false are morality, then good moral
desirable or undesirable. behavior will be rewarded
The fallacy lies in the fact after death. I want to be
that the desirability is not rewarded; therefore,
related to the truth value morality must be
of the idea or proposition. objective.
This comes in two forms:
the positive and negative. Example (negative):

If there is no objective
morality, then all the bad
people will not be
punished for their bad
behavior after death. I
don’t like that; therefore,
morality must be
objective.

(The fact that one wants to

be rewarded, or wants
other people to suffer, says
nothing to the truth claim
of objective morality.
These examples are also
begging the question that
there is life after death.)

8.Bandwagon is a fallacy based on the "Carling Lager, Britain's

assumption that the Number One Lager"
opinion of the majority is (advertising slogan)
 always valid: that is,
everyone believes it, so
you should too. It is also
called an appeal to
popularity, the authority of
the many, and
argumentum ad populum
(Latin for "appeal to the
people"). Argumentum ad
populum proves only that
a belief is popular, not that
it's true. The fallacy occurs,
says Alex Michalos in
Principles of Logic, when
the appeal is offered in
place of a convincing
argument for the view in
question.
9.Attacking the Person/AD is the term for an A politician arguing that
HOMINEM argument with emotional his opponent cannot
appeal, rather than logical possibly be a good choice
appeal. Another use for for women because he has
the term ad hominem is a religious conviction that
for an emotional attack on causes him to be pro-life.
a person or his/her
character rather than
refuting the points he/she
made.
10.Appeal to Authority Insisting that a claim is Richard Dawkins, an
true simply because a valid evolutionary biologist and
authority or expert on the perhaps the foremost
issue said it was true, expert in the field, says
without any other that evolution is true.
supporting evidence Therefore, it's true.
offered. Also see the
appeal to false authority.
(Richard Dawkins certainly
knows about evolution,
and he can confidently tell
us that it is true, but that
doesn't make it true. What
makes it true is the
preponderance of evidence
for the theory.)
11.Anonymous Authority When an unspecified You know, they say that if
source is used as evidence you swallow gum it takes
for the claim. This is seven years to digest. So
commonly indicated by whatever you do, don’t
phrases such as “They say swallow the gum!
that...”, “It has been
said...”, “I heard that...”, (“They” are wrong as
“Studies show...”, or “they” usually are. Gum
generalized groups such passes through the system
as, “scientists say...” relatively unchanged but
When we fail to specify a does not hang around for 7
source of the authority, we years like a college student
can’t verify the source, terrified to get a job.
thus the credibility of the “They” is a common form
argument. Appeals to of appeal to anonymous
anonymous sources are authority.)
more often than not, a
way to fabricate,
exaggerate, or
misrepresent facts in order
to deceive others into
accepting your claim. At
times, this deception is
done subconsciously -- it
might not always be
deliberate.
12.Hasty Generalization is a fallacy in which a My father smoked four
conclusion is not logically packs of cigarettes a day
justified by sufficient or since age fourteen and
unbiased evidence. It's lived until age sixty-nine.
also called an insufficient Therefore, smoking really
sample, a converse can’t be that bad for you.
accident, a faulty
generalization, a biased (It is extremely
generalization, jumping to unreasonable (and
a conclusion, secundum dangerous) to draw a
quid, and a neglect of universal conclusion about
qualifications. the health risks of smoking
by the case study of one
man.)

13.False Analogy When an analogy is used Not believing in the literal

to prove or disprove an resurrection of Jesus
argument, but the analogy because the Bible has
is too dissimilar to be errors and contradictions,
 effective, that is, it is is like denying that the
unlike the argument more Titanic sank because eye-
than it is like the witnesses did not agree if
argument. the ship broke in half
before or after it sank.

(This is an actual analogy

used by, I am sorry to say,
one of my favorite
Christian debaters (one
who usually seems to value
reason and logic.)

14.Accident An accident fallacy is an Many of you would not

error in reasoning caused disagree that it is wrong to
by sweeping cut people with knives,
generalizations. It occurs and this is supported by
when you assume that a the law. However,
rule-of-thumb applies to surgeons use scalpels to
everyone or every cut people open every day,
situation, including and that’s both legal and,
obvious exceptions. While most of us would say,
generalizing helps make moral. In this case, it
the world easier to would be illogical to argue
understand, often that surgery is wrong or
generalizations do not should be illegal based on
apply to every situation. the statement that it’s
An accident fallacy is using wrong to cut people with
such a generalization to knives. Surgery is an
draw an incorrect obvious exception, and
conclusion about an almost all of us know that.
obvious exception.
15.Post Hoc (a shortened form of post Our soccer team was
hoc, ergo propter hoc) is a losing until I bought new
fallacy in which one event shoes. We have not lost a
is said to be the cause of a game since I got my lucky
later event simply because shoes!
it occurred earlier.
Remember, correlation
does not equal causation.
You cannot blame your
friends for a rain delay just
because every time they
go with you to a ballgame
 it storms and play is
delayed. Likewise, because
a baseball pitcher grows a
beard (or wears the same
socks, etc.) during the
postseason doesn't mean
he will pitch better.
16.Wrong Direction is a logical fallacy that The street lights turning on
occurs when a cause is causes the Sun to set.
mistakenly considered an
effect.
17.Complex Cause A single cause is identified The Challenger explosion
when the effect is actually was caused by the cold
caused by a number of weather. (True, however,
interacting objects or it would not have occurred
events. The result is had the O-rings been
oversimplification or properly constructed.)
reductionism. A variation
of this fallacy is the
feedback loop, where the
effect is itself a part of the
cause. Many of the
intractable disagreements
we have debated for
generations are so difficult
because it is so difficult to
isolate the relevant or
primary causes of an
effect.
18.Irrelevant Conclusion Irrelevant Conclusion is the Parents who work full-time
informal fallacy of cannot give ample
presenting an argument attention to their children.
that may or may not be
logically valid, but fails
nonetheless to address the
issue in question. More
colloquially, it is also
known as missing the
point.
19.Straw Man Substituting a person’s Ted: Biological evolution is
actual position or both a theory and a fact.
argument with a distorted, Edwin: That is ridiculous!
exaggerated, or How can you possibly be
misrepresented version of absolutely certain that we
the position of the evolved from pond scum!
 argument. Ted: Actually, that is a
gross misrepresentation of
my assertion. I never
claimed we evolved from
pond scum. Unlike math
and logic, science is based
on empirical evidence and,
therefore, a scientific fact
is something that is
confirmed to such a
degree that it would be
perverse to withhold
provisional consent. The
empirical evidence for the
fact that biological
evolution does occur falls
into this category.

(Edwin has ignorantly

mischaracterized the
argument by a) assuming
we evolved from pond
scum (whatever that is
exactly), and b) assuming
“fact” means “certainty”.)

20.Affirming the Consequent An error in formal logic If taxes are lowered, I will
where if the consequent is have more money to
said to be true, the spend.
antecedent is said to be I have more money to
true, as a result. spend.
Therefore, taxes must
have been lowered.

(I could have had more

money to spend simply
because I gave up crack-
cocaine, prostitute
solicitation, and baby-seal-
clubbing expeditions.)

21.Denying the Antecedent It is a fallacy in formal logic If it barks, it is a dog.

where in a standard It doesn’t bark.
if/then premise, the Therefore, it’s not a dog.
antecedent (what comes
after the “if”) is made not (It is not that clear that a
 true, then it is concluded fallacy is being committed,
that the consequent (what but because this is a
comes after the “then”) is formal argument following
not true. a strict form, even if the
conclusion seems to be
true, the argument is still
invalid. This is why
fallacies can be very tricky
and deceptive. Since it
doesn’t bark, we cannot
conclude with certainty
that it isn’t a dog -- it could
be a dog who just can’t
bark.)

22.Inconsistency In terms of a fallacious "I never said most of the

argument, two or more things I said." - Yogi Berra
propositions are asserted
that cannot both possibly (I know this requires no
be true. In a more general explanation, and I don't
sense, holding two or mean to insult your
more views/beliefs that intelligence, but for
cannot all be true consistency's sake, I will
together. Quotes from explain. If he had said
Yogi Berra (even if those things, then he said
apocryphal) are great them, which is a
examples of fallacies, contradiction to his claim
especially inconsistencies. that he never said them.
This is both an internal
inconsistency and a logical
inconsistency. It is internal
because the inconsistency
is contained within the
statement itself; it doesn't
require any other premises
or arguments.)

Types of Claims
Claim of Fact
existence of something/definition or classification/facts inferences about past present or future.
Claims of Value
taste & morals / good-bad, make value judgments/ resolve conflict between values/ quasi policy,
rightness of it; relative merit.