Kreatryx Measurements PDF

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Manual for K-Notes
Why K-Notes?
Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters from his /
her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is specifically intended for
Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive study material.
What are K-Notes?
ww
A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
w.E
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It is highly
useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing for GATE as it
comes handy while traveling long distances.
asyWhen do I start using K-Notes?
En
gin
It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).
ee
How do I use K-Notes?
rin
g.n
Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the respective
Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters to make best use
of it.
et

Measurement & Instrumentation

State characteristics of measuring system
1) Accuracy
Degree of closeness in which a measured value approaches a true value of a quality under
measurement .
When accuracy is measured in terms of error :
 Guaranteed accuracy error (GAE) is measured with respect to full scale deflation.
 Limiting error (in terms of measured value)
wwLE 
GAE * Fullscaledeflation
Measuredvalue
w.E
2) Precision
asy
Degree of closeness with which reading in produced again & again for same value of input
quantity.
3) Sensitivity En
gin
Change the output quantity per unit change in input quantity.
qo
4) Resolution
S
qi
ee rin
Smallest change in input which can be measured by an instrument
g.n
5) Threshold
Minimum input required to get measurable output by an instrument et
6) Zero Drift
Entire calibration shifts gradually due to permanent set

7) Span Drift
If there is proportional change in indication all along upward scale is called span drift.
ww
8) Dead zone & Dead time
w.E
The range of input for which there is no output this portion is called Dead zone.
To respond the pointer takes a minimum time is called dead time.
TYPES OF ERROR asy

En
a) Gross Error : Error due to human negligency, i.e. due to loose connection, reading the value
etc.
gin
b) Systematic error : Errors are common for all observers like instrumental errors,
ee
environmental errors and observational errors.
rin
c) Random errors : Error due to unidentified causes & may be positive or negative.
Absolute Errors :
A  Am  Ar
g.n
Am  Measured value et
Ar  True value
Relative Errors :
AbsoluteErrors  A
r = 
Truevalue AT
Am
 A  A  A 1 
1 r  T T m r

Composite Error :
i) Sum of quantities
X  X1  X2
x    x1  x2 
ii) Difference of quantities

X  X1  X2
x    x1  x2 
ww
So for sum & difference absolute errors are added.
w.E
iii) Multiplication of quantities
X  X1  X2  X3
X
X
 X X X 
  1  2  3 
 X1 X2 X3  asy
iv) Division of quantities
X En
X 1
X2
gin
X
X
 X
 X1
X 
  1  2 
X2  ee rin
So, for multiplication & division, fractional or relative errors are added.
X1m Xm2 g.n

If X 
X  X
Xp3
X X 
  m 1  n 2  p 3 
et
X  X1 X2 X3 
Precision Index
Indicates the precision for a distribution
1
h
2

Probable Error
r = 0.6745 
0.4769
r
h
Standard deviation of combination of quantities
2 2 2
 X  2  X  2  X  2
x    x1    x2  ......    xn
 X1   X2   Xn 
wwProbable Error
w.E
rx  
2
 X  2  X  2
 rx1  
 X1 
2
 rx2  ......  
 X 2 
2
 X  2
 rxn
 Xn 
asy
Electro-Mechanical Instruments
En
1) Permanent magnet moving Coil (PMMC)
Deflecting Torque
Td = nIAB gin
Where n = no. of turns
I = current flowing in coil

ee rin
A = Area of coil g.n
B = magnetic flux density
G
et
Deflection   I
k
G = NBA & K = Spring constant
 Eddy current damping & spring control torque in used.

 For pure AC signal, the pointer vibrates around zero position.
 It is used to measured DC or average quantity.
 It can directly read only up to 50mV or 100mA.

Enhancement of PMMC
i) Ammeter
For using PMMC as an ammeter with wide range, we connect a small shunt resistance in
parallel to meter.
I
 m  multiplication factor
Im
ww
w.E
Basically, ‘m’ is ratio of final range (as an ammeter) to initial range of instrument.
R sh 
Rm
; R m = meter resistance
m  1 
asy
ii) Voltmeter
En
gin
A series multiples resistance of high magnitude is connected in series with the meter.
M = multiplication factor
m
V
Vm
ee rin
R s  Rm m  1  g.n
Sensitivity of voltmeter
Rs  Rm   / V
et
1
Sv  
Ifsd V
Application of PMMC
1) Half wave rectifier meter

I
I  Iavg  m


2VRMS

Rs  Rm  Rf  
0.45VRMS
 Iavg   ; For Ac input
R s  R m  R f 
For DC input
VDC
 Iavg  
Rs  Rm  Rf 
ww  I 
avg AC  0.45 Iavg
DC
(Assuming VDC  VRMS )
w.E (Sensitivity)AC  0.45(Sensitivity)DC
2) Full wave rectifier meter
 Iavg  2 2VRMS
asy
AC

Rs  Rm  2R f  
En

0.9VRMS
Rs  Rm  2R f  gin
 Iavg DC 
VDC
Rs  Rm  2Rf 
ee rin
 Iavg   DC (Assuring V
 0.9 Iavg RMS  VDC ) g.n
et
AC
Sensitivity AC  0.9 Sensitivity DC
2) Moving iron meter
1 2 dL
Deflecting torque, Td  I
2 d
I = current flowing throw the meter
L = Inductance
 = deflection
Under steady state

1 2 dL
K  I
2 d
  I2
 MI meter measures both ac & dc quantities. In case of AC, It measures RMS value.
1
1 T  2
IRMS    i2  t  dt 
T 0 
 If i  t   I0  I1 sin wt  I2 sin2wt  .......
ww IRMS  I20 
1 2 2
2
 I1  I2  ....... 
w.E
 Air friction Damping is used
 Condition for linearity

dL
d
 cons tant
asy
En
 MI meter cannot be used beyond 125Hz, as then eddy current error is constant.
3) Elector dynamometer
gin
Deflecting Torque, Td  i1 i2
For DC, i1  i2  I
dM
d ee rin
Td  I2
dM g.n
  I2
d
et
For AC, i1  Im1 sin t
i2  Im2 sin  t  
dM
Tdavg  I1I2 cos 
d
Im1 I2
Where I1  & I2 
2 2

Applications of dynamometer
1) Ammeter
Fixed coils are connected in series.
I1  I2  I
0 (Angel between I1 & I2 )
dM
Td  I2
d
At balance, Tc  Td
ww K  I2
dM
w.E   I2
d
asy
It reads both AC & DC & for AC it reads RMS.
En
gin
2) Voltmeter
Rs  Series multiplier resistance

ee rin
I2  I1 
V
Rs
, 0 g.n
cos   1 et
V 2 dM
Td 
R 2s d
At balance, Td  Tc
V 2 dM
K     V2
R s2 d
It reads both AC & DC & for AC it reads RMS.

3) Wattmeter
Fixed coils carry same current as load & as called as current coils.
Moving coil is connected across voltage and thus current  voltage, a high non-inductive
ww
load is connected in series with MC to limit the current.
w.ETd  I1 I2 cos 
dM
d
I
V
Rs
cos 
d

asy
dM Pavg dM
R s d
At balance, k  Td En
  Pavg gin
Symbol : ee rin
g.n
Two wattmeter method et
W1  VRY IR cos  VRY & IR 
 VL IL cos 30   
W2  VBY IB cos  VBY & IB 
 VL IL cos 30   
Where VL is line to line voltage

IL is line current
These expression remain same for  -connected load.
P3  W1  W2
 3VL IL cos 
Q3  3  W2  W1 
 3VL IL sin 
Q3 3  W2  W1 
ww tan  
P3

 W1  W2 
w.E  3  W2  W1  
  tan1  
  W1  W2  
for lag load
 3  W2  W1  
   tan1  
  W1  W2   asy for lead load
En
= Remember, In our case W1 is wattmeter connected to R-phase and W2 is wattmeter
connected to B-phase.
gin
Errors in wattmeter
ee
= If one of the wattmeter indicates negative sign, then pf < 0.5
rin
a) Due to potential coil connection
g.n
% r 
IL2rc
PT
* 100 et
IL = load current
rC = CC Resistance
PT = True Power
V2
% r  * 100
R sPT
V = voltage across PC

Rs = Series multiplier resistance
PT = True Power
b) Due to self inductance of PC
If PC has finite inductance
 
Zp  Rp  R s  jwLp
Rp  R s Zp  R s  jwLp
ww
% r  tan  tan *100
w.E
 = load pf angle
  tan1 
  Lp 
 Rs 



asy
4) Energy meter En
Energy = Power * Time gin
WT 
VIcos 
*
1000 3600
t
kwhr ee rin
WT = True energy
g.n


It is based on principle of induction.
It is an integrating type instrument.
t
et
 Wm  VIsin     * kwhr
3600
Where Wm = measured Energy
 = angle between potential coil voltage & flux produced by it.
 = load pf angle
 Error = Wm  WT
No.of Re voluations N
 Energy constant = 
kwhr P.t
Totalno.ofrevolutions
 Measured Energy = Wm 
K

VI cos  t
 True Energy = WT  * kw.hr
1000 3600
W  WT
 Error = % r  m * 100
WT
Creeping Error in energy meter
 If friction is over compensated by placing shading loop nearer to PC, then disc starts rotating
slow with only PC excited without connecting any load is creeping.
 Otherwise if over voltage is applied on pressure coil then also creeping may happen due to
 ww
stray magnetic fields.
To remove creeping holes are kept on either side of disc diametrically opposite & the torque
w.E
experienced by both holes is opposite & they stop creeping.
% creeping error =
TotalNo.of Re w / kwhr due to creeping
TotalNo.of Re w / kwhr due to load
* 100
Thermal Instruments asy


En
These instruments work on the principle of heating and are called as Thermal Instruments.

 They can measure both AC & DC. gin
These are used for high frequency measurements.
 In case of AC, they measure RMS value.

ee rin
Electrostatic voltmeter
1 2  dc  g.n
Deflecting torque, Td 
At Balance,
2
V  
 d 
et
Td  Tc
1 2 dc
V  k
2 d
  V2
Condition for linearity

dc
  cons tant
d
For increasing the range, we connect another capacitor in series
To increase the range from Vm to V
Cm V
Cs  ; m
m  1  Vm
ww
Potentiometer / Null Detector
w.E Iw = working current
Iw 
VB
Rh  l.r asy
_____________(1)
Switch at (A) En
If Ig  0 gin
Vs  I w l1r ee rin
Vs
Iw 
l1r
_____________(2)
g.n
Switch at (B)
Vx  I w l2r
et
Vx
Iw  ________(3)
l2r
Vs Vx

l1r l2r
l2
Vx  Vs
l1

r = resistance of slide wire (Ω/ m)
l = Total length of slide wire (m)
l1 = length at which standard cell ( Vs ) is balanced
l2 = length at which test voltage ( Vx ) is balanced
Measuring a low resistance
ww
w.E
R
VR
Vs
S
asy
Instrument Transformer
En
 Current transformer
Equivalent circuit gin
ee rin
g.n
et
N2
Turns Ratio = Nominal Ratio  n 
N1
 X  Xs 
  tan1  l 
 Rl  R s 
I cos   I sin 
R = Actual Ratio  n 
Is

Errors in current transformer
1) Ratio Error :
Ip
Current ratio is not equal to turns ratio due to no-load component of current.
Is
K R
% r  * 100
R
K = n = Nominal Ratio
R = Actual Ratio
ww
2) Phase Angel Ratio :
Ideally, Phase difference between Ip & Is should be 1800 but due to no-load component of
w.E
current, it deviates from that value.
Phase angle error =  

I cos   I sin  180
* degrees
asy nIs
Phase angle between primary & secondary currents

En
= 180    degrees
 Potential Transformer
gin
Equivalent circuit
ee rin
g.n
Turns Ratio = n =
N2
N1
VP
et
Actual Transformation Ratio = R =
VS
1  IS  X 
R  n  RP cos   XP sin    I RP  I XP  , Where   tan1 
R 
VS  n   
 IS 
  XP cos   RP sin    I XP  IRP 
Phases angle error    n 
 nVs 
 
 

AC & DC Bridges
 AC Bridges
Balance condition : ID  0
Z1 Z 4  Z2 Z3
 Z1 Z 4  Z 2 Z3
  1  4     2  3 
Z 2 Z3
  2  3  4 
ww
Z1 
Z4
w.E
Quality Factor & dissipation factor
Quality Factor (Q) Dissipation Factor
1 asy Q
wL
D
(D)
R
En R wL
2 gin Q
R
D
wL
ee wL
rin
R
3
Q
1
wCR g.n D =wcR
4 Q = wcR et D
1
wCR
Measurement of Inductance
(i) Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

Here, we try to measure R1 & L1

R2R3
R1 
R4
L2L3
L1 
R4
(ii) Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge
R2R3
R1 
R4
ww L1  R2R3C4
w.E
This bridge is only suitable for coils where 1 < Q < 10
Q = Quality Factor
(iii) Hay’s Bridge

asy
Used for coils having high Q value
R1 
R 2R 3R 4 2 C24
En
1
1 
Q
2
gin
L1 
R 2R3C 4
1 
1
2
ee rin
Q
1
Q
g.n
R 4 C 4
(iv) Anderson’s Bridge

et
This Bridge is used for low Q coils.
R2R3
R1   r1
R4
CR3
L1  R  R 4  r  R2R3 
R4  2 

(v) Owen’s Bridge
R3C 4
R1 
C2
L1  R 2R3C4
Measurement Of Capacitance

ww
De-Sauty’s Bridge
r1  R2  r2 
R3
 R1
w.E
C1 
R4
C2
R4
R3
D = dissipation factor
asy
= C1r1
En
r1 = internal resistance of C1
gin
 Schering Bridge
R1 
R3C 4
C2
ee rin
C1 
R 4 C2
g.n
R3
dissipation factor = D = C4R 4 et
Measurement of frequency
 Wien Bridge Oscillator
Balancing Condition
R3 R1 C2
 
R4 R2 C1
Frequency of Osculation
1
f
2 R1R2C1C2

Measurement of Resistance
Classification of Resistance
1) Low Resistance : R ≤ 1Ω , Motor and Generator
2) Medium Resistance : 1Ω < R < 100kΩ , Electronic equipment
3) High Resistance : R > 100 kΩ, winding insulation of electrical motor
DC Bridges
ww
Medium Resistance Measurement
1. Wheatstone Bridge
w.E
asy
En
gin
Finding Theremin Equivalent ee rin
Vth
Ig 
R th  R g g.n
VTh  V 
 P

R 

P  Q R  S 
et
PQ RS
R Th  
PQ R S
For Balance Condition

Ig  0
 VTh  0
 PS = RQ

Sensitivities

1) Current sensitivity , Si  mm/mA
Ig
 = deflection of Galvan meter in mm

2) Voltage sensitivity, S   mm/V
VTh

3) Bridge Sensitivity , SB  mm
 R /R 
VThS v
ww SB 
 R / R 
w.E SB 
V.S v
R  S 2
S R 
For Maximum Sensitivity
R S = 1 asy
S R
SB, max 
V.S v En
4
gin
2. Carey –foster slide wire Bridge
r = slide wire resistance in 
ee
m .
rin
for case (1).
At balance g.n
P

R  1r
Q S  L  1  r
For case (2)
………….(1)
et
R & S is reversed
P S  2r
 ………..(2)
Q R  L  2  r
From (1) & (2)
R 1r S 2r

S  L  1 r R  L  2 r

3. Voltmeter Ammeter Method
a) Ammeter near the load

Vv
Rm   RX  RA
IA
Vv = voltage across voltmeter
I A = Ammeter current
R X = Test resistance, R A = Animator resistance
ww % error =
Rm  R T
RT
 100 
RA
Rx
 100%
w.E
b) Voltmeter near the load
Vv VX
Rm  
IA IX  Ivasy
Rm 
1
IX I v

En R XR v
RX  Rv

VX VX
gin
% error =
Rm  R X
RX
 100%
ee
If R X  R aR v , voltmeter is connected near the load rin
R X  RaR v , ammeter is connected near the load g.n
4. Ohmmeter et
a) Series Type
when R X  0
Im  IFSD = Full scale deflection

when R X  
Im  0 = zero deflection
for Half scale deflection
 R .Rm 
R X  Rh  R se   sh
 R  Rm 
 sh 

b) Shunt Type
RS = current limiting resistor
If R X  0
Im  0 = zero deflection
If R x  
Im  IFSD = Full scale deflection
For Half scale Deflection
RmRS
R x  Rh 
ww Rm  R S
w.E
Measurement of Low Resistance
 Kelvin’s Double Bridge Method

Unknown resistance asy
P
R  S
Q
qr  P p 
  
pqr Q q En
P, Q = outer ratio arms
p, q = inner ratio arms
gin
S = standard resistance
r = lead resistance
ee rin
R = Test resistance
g.n
High Resistance Measurement
 Loss of charge Method

et
t
VC  t   Ve Rc
0.4343t
R
 V 
C log10  
 VC 
t = time in (seconds)
V = source voltage
VC = Capacitor voltage

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
 The velocity of e is charged by charging the pre-accelerating & accelerating anode

potential
KE =PE
1
mv 2  qVa
2
2qVa

m

wwDeflection sensitivity
w.E
asy
En
gin
D = deflection height on screen
d = distance between plates
ee rin
d = length of vertical deflecting plates
L = distance between centre of plate & screen g.n
Va = anode potential
Vy = Vertical plate Potential et
L d Vy
D V
2dVa mm
deflection sensitivity
D L d
S  V
Vy 2dVa mm
Lissajous Pattern
If both horizontal & vertical deflection plates of CRT is applied with the sinusoidal signal,
the wave form pattern appearing on screen is called Lissajous Pattern.

Case – 1: Both signals have same frequency

Vx  Vm sin  w x t 

Vy  Vm sin w y t   
Vx  Vy  Vm
wx  w y  w
 = variable
S.No  Lissayous Pattern
1
ww
w.E   0 or 360
2
asy
En
0    90
Or
gin
270    360
3
ee rin
  90 or 270
g.n
4
90    270
et
Or
180    270
  180

 Finding 
1) Lissajous Pattern in Ist & IIIrd Quadrant
X  1  Y1 
  sin1  1   sin  
X
 2   Y2 
for clockwise orientation phase difference = (180 –  )
for anti-clockwise orientation
2) Lissahous Pattern in IInd & IVth Quadrant
ww X 
  180  sin1  1 
 X2 
w.E Y 
 180  sin1  1 
 Y2 
asy for clockwise orientation
for anti-clockwise orientation = 360   
En
Case – 2
wx  w y gin
Vx  Vm sinwx t
Vy  Vm sinwy t
ee rin
wy
 
wx fx
fy
Number of horizental tangencies
Number of vertical tangencies g.n
et
fy 4
 2
fx 2

Digital Meters
Type of converter Maximum Conversion Time

1) Dual slope ADC 2n1 Clocks
2) Successive Approximation Register (ADC) n Clocks
3) Counter ADC 2n Clocks
4) Flash ADC 1 Clock
 Dual slope A/D Converter

Va = analog input
ww VR = Reference input
VR
w.E Va 
T1
T1  2n TCLK
 T2  T1 
asy
Maximum conversion time = 2n1 TCLK
En
 Successive Approximation Register
Suppose = VREF  1a V gin
and Va = 12V
D3 D2 D1ee D0
rin
T1
10
1
5
0
2.5
0
1.25
0  10V < 12V g.n
T2
T3
T4
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
 15V > 12 V
 12.5 > 12 V
et
1 0 0 1  11.25 < 12 V
 In first clock cycle, MSB is set to get voltage corresponding to the digital o/p
 If V0 < Va , then in next cycle next bit is set else,
 If V0 > Va , MSB is reset & next bit is set
 We continue the same process till we reach LSB.

Specifications of Digital Voltmeter

1) Resolution
The smallest value of input that can be measured by digital meter is called resolution.
1
R
10n
n = No. of full Digits (0, 1,….., 9)
2) Sensitivity
S = Resolution x Range
3) Over – Ranging
The extra 1
ww 2 digit is called over-ranging
If n = 3, we can measure from 0 – 999
w.E Resolution , R 
1
103
 0.001
if n  3 1 digit, 1 digit can be 0 & 1.

2
asy 2
we can measure from 0 – 1999
En
Resolution, R 
1
2000
 0.005
if 3
gin
4 digit is there than MSB can be 0 – 3.
4) Total Error
ee
Error = (% error in reading) x reading + (NO. of counts) 
Full Scale
rin
Range of meter
Q – meter / Voltage Magnifier g.n

 If works on the principal of series resonance.
At series resonance
et
XL  XC
V
I
R
VC  IX C
XC XL
V V
R R
VC = V. Q
VC  Q

 Practical Q-meter
Also includes series resistance of source (oscillator)
ww True Q T 
wL
R
wL wL QT
w.E
Measured Q, Qm 
R  Rsh 



R  

R  
R 
R  1  sh   1  sh 
R 
asy
 R 
Q T  Qm  1  sh 

En R 
 Measurement of unknown capacitance

gin
Test capacitance is connected at T3 & T4 .
Circuit is resonated at C = C1
fr = 1
ee ………(1) rin
2 2  C1  CT 
C T = Test Capacitance
g.n
 C T is removed & circuit is resonated at C = C2
1
et
fr = ………(2)
2 LC2
from (1) & (2)
CT  C2  C1
 Measurement OF self Capacitance

 Resonance is achieved at C = C1
1
fr1 
2 L  C1  Cd 

At C = C2 , resonance is achieved at fr2

1
fr2  = n fr1,
2 L  C2  Cd 
C1  n2C2
Cd 
n2  1
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t

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Manual for K-Notes

What are K-Notes?

asyWhen do I start using K-Notes?

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Measurement & Instrumentation

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TYPES OF ERROR asy

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ii) Difference of quantities

X1m Xm2 g.n

Indicates the precision for a distribution

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Standard deviation of combination of quantities

I = current flowing in coil

G = NBA & K = Spring constant

 Eddy current damping & spring control torque in used.

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1) Half wave rectifier meter

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w.E (Sensitivity)AC  0.45(Sensitivity)DC

2) Full wave rectifier meter

Sensitivity AC  0.9 Sensitivity DC

2) Moving iron meter

I = current flowing throw the meter

Under steady state

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 If i  t   I0  I1 sin wt  I2 sin2wt  .......

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Rs  Series multiplier resistance

It reads both AC & DC & for AC it reads RMS.

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W2  VBY IB cos  VBY & IB 

Where VL is line to line voltage

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These expression remain same for  -connected load.

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Rs = Series multiplier resistance

b) Due to self inductance of PC

If PC has finite inductance

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Creeping Error in energy meter

Thermal Instruments asy

 In case of AC, they measure RMS value.

Condition for linearity

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For increasing the range, we connect another capacitor in series

To increase the range from Vm to V

w.E Iw = working current

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r = resistance of slide wire (Ω/ m)

l = Total length of slide wire (m)

l1 = length at which standard cell ( Vs ) is balanced

l2 = length at which test voltage ( Vx ) is balanced

Measuring a low resistance

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