The n e w e ng l a n d j o u r na l of m e dic i n e

Review Article

Julie R. Ingelfinger, M.D., Editor

Adrenal Crisis
R. Louise Rushworth, M.B., B.S., Ph.D., David J. Torpy, M.B., B.S., Ph.D.,
and Henrik Falhammar, M.D., Ph.D.​​

G
From the School of Medicine, Sydney lucocorticoid replacement therapy, available since the 1950s,
(R.L.R.), the University of Notre Dame has prolonged the survival of patients with adrenal insufficiency.1 How-
Australia, Darlinghurst, NSW (R.L.R.),
the Endocrine and Metabolic Unit, Royal ever, adrenal crises, which are life-threatening medical emergencies, still
Adelaide Hospital and University of Ade- develop in many affected patients. Adrenal crisis appears to be increasing in fre-
laide, North Terrace, Adelaide, SA (D.J.T.), quency, despite the availability of effective preventive strategies.2-4 This review exam-
and the Menzies School of Health Research
and Royal Darwin Hospital, Tiwi, NT (H.F.) ines the definitions, pathophysiology, epidemiology, and treatment of adrenal crises.
— all in Australia; and the Department of
Endocrinology, Metabolism and Diabe-
tes, Karolinska University Hospital, and Defini t ions of A dr ena l Cr isis
the Department of Molecular Medicine
and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stock- There is no universally accepted definition of an adrenal crisis, also called acute
holm (H.F.). Address reprint requests to adrenal insufficiency or addisonian crisis.5 Generally, acute physiological distur-
Dr. Falhammar at the Department of Mo-
lecular Medicine and Surgery, D2:04, Karo- bances in patients with known hypoadrenalism are labeled as adrenal crises on
linska Institutet, SE-171 76 Stockholm, the basis of clinical assessment.2,5,6 Diagnostic misclassification may not alter im-
Sweden, or at ­henrik​.­falhammar@​­ki​.­se. mediate management but, at the epidemiologic level, can impede an understand-
N Engl J Med 2019;381:852-61. ing of the nature of adrenal crises.
DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra1807486 Given the lack of a research-based classification and in recognition of the
Copyright © 2019 Massachusetts Medical Society.
physiological changes that distinguish an adrenal crisis from a milder episode
of hypoadrenalism,5-11 pragmatic definitions of adrenal crisis have generally
been adopted.2,5,8,9 An adrenal crisis in an adult is defined as an acute deteriora-
tion in health status associated with absolute hypotension (systolic blood pressure
<100 mm Hg) or relative hypotension (systolic blood pressure ≥20 mm Hg lower
than usual), with features that resolve within 1 to 2 hours after parenteral gluco-
corticoid administration (i.e., a marked resolution of hypotension within 1 hour
and improvement in clinical symptoms over a period of 2 hours).
Since identification of hypotension in infants and young children during an
emergency may be difficult, an adrenal crisis in this age group is defined as an
acute deterioration in health status associated with an acute hemodynamic distur-
bance (hypotension or sinus tachycardia relative to age-related normative data) or
a marked electrolyte abnormality (e.g., hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, or hypoglyce-
mia not attributable to another illness). After parenteral glucocorticoid adminis-
tration, the features ascribed to adrenal crisis resolve substantially.12-16
Concomitant features in patients of all ages include acute abdominal symp-
toms; delirium, obtundation, or both; and hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, hypo-
glycemia, and pyrexia.5-11 When hypotension ascribed to an adrenal crisis does
not respond or responds poorly to glucocorticoid administration, the coexistence of
other illnesses associated with hypotension, such as sepsis, should be considered.
Adrenal crises are the most severe manifestation of adrenal insufficiency, but
they share symptoms with milder hypoadrenal states. These symptoms include
anorexia, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, postural dizziness, abdominal pain, limb and
back pain, and impaired consciousness. Shared biochemical perturbations include

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 Adrenal Crisis

hyponatremia, hyperkalemia (in primary adrenal Table 1. Symptoms, Signs, and Biochemical
insufficiency [Addison’s disease and congenital Characteristics of Adrenal Crisis.*
adrenal hyperplasia]), and hypoglycemia (more
common in children than in adults) (Table 1).5-8,11 Symptoms
However, an acute illness in a patient who has Gastrointestinal: anorexia, nausea, vomiting
previously received a diagnosis of primary adre- Pain: abdominal, limb, back
nal insufficiency without evidence of hemody- Severe fatigue
namic compromise or hypotension (or in young Severe weakness
children, delayed capillary refill or tachycardia
Postural dizziness, syncope
as alternative physical manifestations) should be
Confusion
considered physiologically distinct from an adre-
nal crisis and instead classified as symptomatic Signs
adrenal insufficiency, a precursor of adrenal Abdominal tenderness or guarding
crisis, or an incipient adrenal crisis.2,5,7,8 Marked Hyperpigmentation (only in primary adrenal insufficiency)†
symptoms in the absence of hypotension prob- Pyrexia
ably signal an incipient adrenal crisis, and treat- Hypotension: systolic pressure <100 mm Hg in adults or
ment with hydrocortisone and intravenous fluids ≥20 mm Hg lower than usual in adults, acute hemo-
may avert the development of an actual adrenal dynamic disturbance according to age-related norma-
tive levels in children, delayed capillary refill or tachy-
crisis. cardia in young children, circulatory collapse
Impaired consciousness: delirium, obtundation, coma
Pathoph ysiol o gic a l Fe at ur e s Biochemical abnormalities on routine blood tests
Adrenal crises arise from an absolute or a rela- Hyponatremia
tive deficiency of cortisol, an endogenous gluco- Hyperkalemia
corticoid; in that circumstance, there is insuf- Hypercalcemia
ficient tissue glucocorticoid activity to maintain Hypoglycemia (more common in children than in adults)
homeostasis. The contributing pathophysiologi-
Altered immune-cell populations: neutropenia,
cal processes are depicted in Figure 1. eosinophilia, lymphocytosis
Cortisol has a circulating half-life of 90 min- Mild normocytic anemia
utes; hence, tissues become deficient within
several hours after cortisol deprivation. Corti- * An adrenal crisis is defined as an acute deterioration in
sol has highly pleiotropic effects that are due to health status associated with hypotension (absolute or
relative), with features that resolve within 1 to 2 hours
transcriptional modulation of genes bearing a ­after parenteral glucocorticoid administration (i.e., a
glucocorticoid response element (29% of all marked resolution of hypotension within 1 hour and im-
genes).17 The physiological consequences of cor- provement in clinical symptoms over a period of 2 hours).
Since hypotension may be more difficult to identify in in-
tisol deficiency are extensive and start with loss fants and young children than in adults, an acute hemo-
of the normal suppressive action of endogenous dynamic disturbance, a marked abnormality in one or
glucocorticoids on inflammatory cytokines, re- more electrolytes, or hypoglycemia not attributable to
­another illness can be used for identification.
sulting in rapid increases in cytokine levels, † Hyperpigmentation develops slowly and can be a specific
which cause fever, malaise, anorexia, and bodily sign of undiagnosed primary adrenal insufficiency (Addi­
pain. Consequently, cortisol deficiency leads to son’s disease or congenital adrenal hyperplasia) or of an
insufficient dose of glucocorticoid replacement over a long
altered immune-cell populations (neutropenia, period in a patient with primary adrenal insufficiency.
eosinophilia, and lymphocytosis); loss of the syn-
ergistic action of cortisol with catecholamines
on vascular reactivity, leading to vasodilatation vation of genes that produce inflammatory pro-
and hypotension; hepatic effects on intermedi- teins, since the normal cortisol inhibition of the
ary metabolism, with reduced gluconeogenesis, binding of NF-κB to the glucocorticoid receptor
hypoglycemia, or both; and reduced circulating is lost.17,18 Furthermore, mineralocorticoid defi-
free fatty acids and amino acids.18-21 ciency, which is prominent in primary but not
At the cellular level, loss of cortisol depresses secondary adrenal insufficiency,3,22,23 is likely to
the action of activator protein 1 (AP-1) and nuclear exacerbate adrenal crises through sodium and
factor κB (NF-κB), leading to the unfettered acti- water loss and potassium retention.

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 The n e w e ng l a n d j o u r na l of m e dic i n e

Epidemiol o gic Fe at ur e s Mor ta l i t y

Each year, approximately 6 to 8% of patients Adrenal crises contribute to mortality among

with adrenal insufficiency have an incident adre- patients with hypoadrenalism23,28,32-36; the adre-
nal crisis.2,3 Adrenal crises are slightly more fre- nal crisis–associated rate of death may reach 6%
quent in patients with primary hypoadrenalism of crisis events.28 Adrenal crises may contribute to
than in those with secondary adrenal insuffi- the increased mortality attributed to infectious
ciency, probably because of partial preservation disease among patients with hypoadrenalism.33
of cortisol secretion in some patients with second- Fatal adrenal crises have occurred in patients
ary adrenal insufficiency,3 as well as the absence without a preceding diagnosis of hypoadrenal-
of mineralocorticoid secretion in those with pri- ism, although symptoms may have been over-
mary hypoadrenalism.22-24 Adrenal crises are un- looked before the fatal episode.1,37-40
common in patients with hypoadrenalism due to
long-term glucocorticoid therapy, despite a vari- E v en t s Th at Pr ecipi tate
able degree of consequent adrenal suppression.25 A dr ena l Cr isis
Susceptibility to adrenal crises varies among
patients with hypoadrenalism. Risk factors in- Infections, which act as inflammatory stressors,
clude older age, a history of prior adrenal crises, commonly precipitate adrenal crises.2,3,22,26-28 Gas-
the presence of autoimmune polyglandular syn- troenteritis is frequently cited as a precipitant
dromes, type 1 diabetes mellitus, and nonendo- and can be particularly hazardous, since vomit-
crine coexisting conditions such as asthma and ing and diarrhea impair the absorption of oral
cardiac disease. However, the mechanism of ac- medication and may also exacerbate dehydra-
tion of these various factors in adrenal crisis is tion. However, the abdominal symptoms of ad-
unclear and may be specific to coexisting condi- renal crisis may lead to an erroneous diagnosis
tions.22,23,26,27 In addition, unknown factors may of gastroenteritis.2,5,22 Bacterial infections pre-
potentiate the risk of adrenal crisis, since some dominate among infection-related precipitat-
patients have numerous episodes, whereas others ing events in older patients, whereas viral infec-
have few, if any, episodes.28 An association be- tions are more common precipitating events in
tween the occurrence of an adrenal crisis and children.12,22,27,28,41,42
the chronic asthenia that is characteristic of Other pathophysiological states may precipi-
hypoadrenalism is plausible but not established. tate an adrenal crisis if the body cannot mount
However, a recent prospective, multicenter study an increase in endogenous cortisol and if the
using questionnaires to obtain data from 110 pa- amount of replacement therapy is not increased.
tients with primary adrenal insufficiency showed Such conditions include serious injury and major
a positive association between episodes of in- surgery, but situations that generally are associ-
cipient adrenal crisis and a poor quality of life.29 ated with the need for milder cortisol increases
It has been suggested, on the basis of epide- (exercise and emotional upset) have been reported
miologic data, that rising rates of adrenal crisis as crisis precipitants in up to 10% of episodes,
may be due to current use of lower-dose, short- according to the results of patient surveys in which
acting glucocorticoid regimens (hydrocortisone no specific precipitant was identified.3,22,24,27,28
or cortisone acetate) in patients with hypoadre- Adrenal crises have been reported in association
nalism.2,4,30,31 This hypothesis is supported by with the release of acute-phase cytokines and
evidence from a longitudinal analysis involving other substances after certain relatively minor
156 patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia medical procedures such as vaccinations and
who received care at a referral center. The study zoledronic acid infusion.43,44
showed that a low baseline hydrocortisone re- Some types of immunotherapy or chemother­
placement dose was associated with more fre- apy may precipitate adrenal crises. For example,
quent episodes of various illnesses, requiring immune-checkpoint inhibitor therapy, typically
supplemental doses (“stress doses”) of glucocor- used in the treatment of melanoma and certain
ticoids.30 other cancers, may cause adrenal insufficiency

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 Adrenal Crisis

Immune cells

Activation of cellular
inflammatory pathways

TNF-α

Interleukin-1
Impaired brain function,
Interleukin-6 delirium, and fatigue

Vasodilatation, impaired
effect of catecholamines
Increased inflammatory
cytokines, sickness syndrome,
fever, and fatigue

Increased capillary
Hyponatremia Increased potassium permeability
reabsorption
Reduced sodium (hyperkalemia) NE E
reabsorption

Zona
fasciculata
Zona
glomerulosa

Decreased
gluconeogenesis
Aldosterone
deficiency

Hypoglycemia

Cortisol
deficiency

O OH

HO OH
H Reduced production Reduced amino
of free fatty acids acid liberation
H H
O

Figure 1. Pathophysiology of Adrenal Crisis.

Cortisol and aldosterone deficiency leads to an adrenal insufficiency syndrome as a result of effects on most of the body’s organs and
tissues. Severe adrenal insufficiency, with hypotension (i.e., adrenal crisis), often develops at times of an increased cortisol requirement
or physiological stress, leading to derangements of the physiological processes depicted. E denotes epinephrine, NE norepinephrine,
and TNF-α tumor necrosis factor α.

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 The n e w e ng l a n d j o u r na l of m e dic i n e

(risk <1%) due to induction of hypophysitis (and nisolone (25 mg as a bolus, followed by two
pituitary hormone deficits) or adrenalitis.45 If 25-mg doses, for a total of 75 mg in the first 24
these serious adverse events occur, prompt glu- hours; thereafter, 50 mg every 24 hours), may be
cocorticoid replacement is required.45,46 used. In children, hydrocortisone should be ad-
Nonadherence to glucocorticoid replacement ministered as a parenteral bolus of 50 mg per
therapy may also precipitate an adrenal crisis.22,28 square meter of body-surface area, followed by
Patients need to be educated about the dangers 50 to 100 mg per square meter every 24 hours
of dose omission or cessation, particularly during (administered as a continuous intravenous infu-
a perioperative period and during long-term glu- sion or as intravenous or intramuscular boluses
cocorticoid therapy for other illnesses in which every 6 hours). Hydrocortisone (cortisol) is the
the daily dose is higher than the replacement preferred drug for treatment of an adrenal crisis
dose (3 to 5 mg of prednisone or the equivalent because of its physiological glucocorticoid phar-
per day), since sudden discontinuation can act as macokinetics, plasma protein binding, tissue dis-
a precipitant.22,47 Clinician-initiated abrupt cessa- tribution, and balanced glucocorticoid–mineralo-
tion of glucocorticoid therapy has also been re- corticoid effects.
ported as a cause of adrenal crisis.48 The doses suggested for prednisolone and
Undiagnosed coexisting thyrotoxicosis, or the dexamethasone are based on their glucocorti-
initiation of thyroxine therapy in a patient with coid potency relative to hydrocortisone, in agree-
undiagnosed hypoadrenalism, may precipitate ment with current treatment guidelines for pri-
an adrenal crisis.2,49,50 Furthermore, cytochrome mary adrenal insufficiency.7 Fludrocortisone is not
P-450 3A4 (CYP3A4) inducers such as avasimibe, required if hydrocortisone doses exceed 50 mg
carbamazepine, rifampicin, phenytoin, and St. given every 24 hours. As a practical matter, in
John’s wort extract may increase hydrocortisone patients with primary adrenal insufficiency,
metabolism, necessitating an increase in the glu- fludrocortisone therapy is usually resumed once
cocorticoid dose in patients being treated for the adrenal crisis has resolved and oral hydro-
adrenal insufficiency, or may induce an adrenal cortisone replacement is feasible.
crisis in patients with undiagnosed adrenal in- During an ongoing adrenal crisis in an adult,
sufficiency.51 In contrast, CYP3A4 inhibitors such intravenous normal saline should be adminis-
as voriconazole, grapefruit juice, itraconazole, tered (1000 ml within the first hour), with crys-
ketoconazole, clarithromycin, lopinavir, nefazo- talloid fluids (e.g., 0.9% isotonic sodium chlo-
done, posaconazole, ritonavir, saquinavir, telapre- ride) given according to standard resuscitation
vir, telithromycin, and conivaptan may inhibit guidelines and with adjustment for the patient’s
the metabolism of hydrocortisone, increasing circulatory status, body weight, and relevant co-
cortisol levels and thereby enhancing the adre- existing conditions.2,5,6 Intravenous dextrose 5%
nal suppressive effect of ongoing glucocorticoid in normal saline is given for hypoglycemia (i.e.,
therapy,51,52 but the risk of adrenal crisis may be when the glucose values are less than 3.9 mmol
increased once the agent has been discontinued. per liter [70 mg per deciliter]). In children, a bolus
of normal saline is given at a dose of 20 ml per
kilogram of body weight, with repeated doses at
T r e atmen t
up to 60 ml per kilogram the first hour. If there
Treatment of an adrenal crisis is effective if ad- is hypoglycemia, dextrose at a dose of 0.5 to 1 g
ministered promptly, before prolonged hypoten- per kilogram is administered.
sion leads to irremediable effects.6,27,41 Treatment On rare occasions, patients have both adrenal
includes prompt administration of intravenous insufficiency and diabetes insipidus, most often
hydrocortisone, given as a 100-mg bolus, followed in those with lymphocytic hypophysitis. Fluids
by 200 mg every 24 hours, administered as a should be administered with caution in patients
continuous infusion or as frequent intravenous (or with diabetes insipidus, whether or not they are
intramuscular) boluses (50 mg) every 6 hours, receiving treatment for it, since excessive free
with subsequent doses tailored to the clinical water may cause hyponatremia and too little may
response (Table 2). If hydrocortisone is unavail- cause hypernatremia. Careful matching of urine
able, another parenteral glucocorticoid,7 such as output and normal saline infusion generally
dexamethasone (4 mg every 24 hours), methyl- maintains isonatremia.2
prednisolone (40 mg every 24 hours), or pred- Concomitant investigation and treatment of

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 Adrenal Crisis

Table 2. Management of Adrenal Crisis.

Treatment Dose and Procedure

Adults
Hydrocortisone* Provide prompt administration at a dose of 100 mg intravenously (or intramuscularly if intrave-
nous access is not feasible), followed by 200 mg every 24 hr, given as a continuous infusion or
as intravenous (or intramuscular) boluses (50 mg) every 6 hr; if initial treatment is successful
(usually after 24 hr), oral hydrocortisone at 2 to 3 times the usual dose can be given, with
tapering down to the usual dose over the next 2 to 3 days†
Fluids Provide intravenous administration of 1000 ml of normal saline (0.9% isotonic sodium chloride)
in the first hour, with intravenous dextrose to 5% concentration in normal saline added if the
patient has hypoglycemia; subsequently, administer crystalloid fluids according to standard
resuscitation guidelines‡
Children
Hydrocortisone Provide prompt administration at a dose of 50 mg per square meter of body-surface area intrave-
nously (or intramuscularly if intravenous access is not feasible), followed by 50–100 mg per
square meter every 24 hr, given as a continuous infusion or as intravenous (or intramuscular)
boluses (12.5–25 mg per square meter) every 6 hr; if initial treatment is successful (usually
after 24 hr), oral hydrocortisone at 2 to 3 times the usual dose can be given, with tapering
down to the usual dose over the next 2 to 3 days†
Fluids Give a bolus of normal saline at a dose of 20 ml per kilogram of body weight, with repeated doses
up to a maximum of 60 ml per kilogram in the first hour, along with intravenous dextrose,
0.5–1 g per kilogram, if the patient has hypoglycemia; provide subsequent administration
of crystalloid fluids according to standard resuscitation guidelines‡
Adults and children
Possible additional Antibiotic therapy, admission to intensive care or high-dependency unit, administration of low-
measures dose heparin
Prompt investigation of other causes when hypotension persists despite adequate initial
treatment
Consideration of precipitating events (e.g., sepsis, gastroenteritis)

* If hydrocortisone is unavailable, another parenteral glucocorticoid, such as dexamethasone (4 mg every 24 hours),
methylprednisolone (40 mg every 24 hours), or prednisolone (25 mg bolus followed by two 25-mg doses, for a total
of 75 mg in the first 24 hours; thereafter, 50 mg every 24 hours), may be used.
† Fludrocortisone replacement is not required if hydrocortisone doses exceed 50 mg every 24 hours but is typically admin-
istered in adults and children with primary adrenal insufficiency when oral hydrocortisone is started.
‡ Circulatory status, body weight, and relevant coexisting conditions should be taken into account.

the precipitating illness are required in all pa-tive patient education, so that the patient can
tients with adrenal crisis. Persistent shock de- initiate glucocorticoid dose escalation if needed.
spite specific treatment for adrenal crisis sug- However, case reports (see the illustrative case in
gests another cause of hypotension. the Supplementary Appendix, available with the
After successful management of an adrenal full text of this article at NEJM.org) and, more
crisis, hydrocortisone doses should be tapered, recently, systematic studies of the timeliness of
typically over a period of 3 days, to the patient’s
the assistance provided by health care profes-
usual maintenance dose. An assessment for pre- sionals have exposed a range of potential delays
ventable precipitating events should be made, and difficulties that may affect the incidence
and preventive strategies should be explained to and outcome of adrenal crisis.5,48,53 Some envi-
the patient, including self-administration of par-
ronmental factors, such as the slow arrival of an
enteral hydrocortisone.2,6 ambulance, may be unavoidable but are never-
theless important to address.54 For example, en-
suring that ambulances have hydrocortisone
M a nagemen t Issue s
available for injection, a policy adopted by emer-
Health Care Milieu gency services in some regions, may be very
Adrenal crisis prevention relies on responsive useful in the management of an adrenal crisis.
and informed health care professionals (ambu- Of great concern are published reports of re-
lance, nursing, and medical staff) and on effec- fusal by medical staff to administer hydrocorti-

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 The n e w e ng l a n d j o u r na l of m e dic i n e

sone because of the mistaken belief that the for the use of supplementary glucocorticoid ad-
adverse effects of glucocorticoids are greater than ministration for physiological stress; use of par-
the risk of withholding hydrocortisone from an enteral hydrocortisone, preferably at home, when
ill patient with hypoadrenalism.2,5,48,53,54 Indeed, oral glucocorticoids cannot be taken; and the
recent evidence of unsatisfactory levels of knowl- provision of devices, such as a MedicAlert brace-
edge about adrenal insufficiency and adrenal let or necklace (discussed below), that can warn
crisis among various types of clinicians highlights caregivers of the risk of adrenal crisis when pa-
the importance of continuing education.55-58 tients cannot communicate verbally.
Hospital reviews of time-critical events in the Oral stress dosing of glucocorticoids, designed
treatment of patients with adrenal insufficiency, to replicate the cortisol stress response, involves
particularly the time to intravenous hydrocorti- doubling or tripling the replacement dose, de-
sone administration, can be used for quality- pending on the intensity of the stress (e.g., a dou-
assurance purposes and benchmarking.54,59 Audits ble dose for a lower fever [temperature <38.5°C]
of hospital treatment (inpatient admissions, ad- and a triple dose for a higher fever [temperature
missions to the intensive care unit [use of me- ≥38.5°C]), until the illness has abated. Stress
chanical ventilation], adverse sequelae, and mor- dosing is based on mimicking the physiological
tality) may help ensure adequate outcomes. In the response to illness, but oral hydrocortisone phar-
hospital, use of a “red flag” system to indicate macokinetics are highly variable, and patients
hypoadrenalism should encourage the adminis- with rapid metabolism may have a less marked
tration of glucocorticoid replacement therapy and response to modest dose manipulations than
of appropriate doses of glucocorticoids for surgi- patients with slower metabolism.70 Higher doses,
cal procedures.25,58 On a national basis, regular administered parenterally, may be needed in
evaluation of hospital admissions and data on cases of severe stress such as major surgery
pharmaceutical prescriptions can identify other and may perhaps reach maximal adrenal secre-
problems, such as variations in the incidence of tory output (approximately 200 mg of hydro-
adrenal crises4,31,60 due to, among other issues, in- cortisone every 24 hours [8.5 times the normal
terruption in the supply of glucocorticoid tablets.60 output], as used in intervention studies of septic
shock).72-74
Patient Factors In patients with vomiting or diarrhea, paren-
Patients with hypoadrenalism often report dis- teral hydrocortisone (100 mg in adults) is recom-
satisfaction with medical care; reasons for their mended.2,5,6 Patients and their family members
dissatisfaction include demanding glucocorticoid should be taught how to perform intramuscular
replacement schedules, a delay in the initial diag- injection of hydrocortisone and should be pro-
nosis, post-treatment impairment of well-being vided with vials, needles, and syringes.2,5,12 Omis-
(in up to 40% of patients), and adrenal crisis– sion of stress dosing may result in progression
related anxiety.26,54,61-67 Functional impairment in to adrenal crisis and may contribute to the ob-
patients with adrenal insufficiency, manifested by served lack of efficacy of current preventive
fatigue and by reduced participation in work ow- measures.41,48 Parenteral administration of hydro-
ing to sick leave and disability,68 may be related cortisone at home may prevent progression of an
to noncircadian69 or nonindividualized glucocor- early adrenal crisis.3,5
ticoid replacement. Moreover, there is a marked However, injectable hydrocortisone is not of-
interindividual variation in hydrocortisone phar- fered to, or may not be obtained by, all pa-
macokinetics,70 and hydrocortisone treatment af- tients.54,57 Barriers to hydrocortisone use by
fects mental and physical health through altered patients include reluctance to inject the drug
tryptophan metabolism.71 Furthermore, reduced intramuscularly,26,41 impaired dexterity,48 and ad-
quality of life may lead to an elevated risk of vanced age.26 Subcutaneous administration of
adrenal crisis among those most severely affected.29 hydrocortisone is an alternative to the intramus-
cular route, and although this is an off-label
method of administration, it may be more ac-
Pr e v en t ion
ceptable to patients.2,75 Pharmacokinetic data
Key strategies that can prevent adrenal crisis indicate that subcutaneous and intramuscular
include an individualized prescription and plan injections in nonobese patients with adrenal

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 Adrenal Crisis

insufficiency, albeit without shock, have similar Future Approaches

effects.75 Rectal hydrocortisone suppositories may A preloaded hydrocortisone syringe, similar to the
be an alternative in some circumstances. epinephrine autoinjector, has been recommended2
Measures that enhance communication may but is not yet generally available. It may be pos-
be simple but are important. For example a “ste- sible to devise other products or routes for hydro-
roid card,” MedicAlert card, or the equivalent cortisone administration that are simpler for
(Fig. S1 in the Supplementary Appendix) and a patients to use in emergencies, such as an intra-
subscription service that uses medical jewelry nasal or inhaled spray or powder. Ultimately,
inscribed with a patient’s diagnosis and linked alternative delivery systems for adrenal hormone
by an identification number to a call center for replacement such as a “bioartificial adrenal cor-
further information are recommended.76,77 Non- tex,” as a cell-based solution, are appealing. Such
use of these measures is common,57,77 but use constructs may use adrenal allogeneic or xeno-
may be improved through patient education.77 geneic cells in an implanted container such as an
Despite efforts directed at encouraging pa- alginate capsule; alternatively, a method in which
tients to manage their glucocorticoid treatment the cells can evade the patient’s immune system
in order to prevent adrenal crises, only some pa- may become feasible. If successful, these ap-
tients initiate dose escalation effectively.41,48,57,78 proaches will improve the quality of life for pa-
Outcomes from intensive patient education tients with adrenal insufficiency and eliminate
programs are disappointing and contribute to adrenal crises.80,81
the persistent or increasing rates of adrenal
crises.4,31,79 Sum m a r y
Adrenal crises are life-threatening episodes of
R educing the Incidence
of A dr ena l Cr ise s adrenal insufficiency, which continue to occur
despite preventive interventions. Patient educa-
Available Approaches tion in the use of oral stress dosing, parenteral
Broader application of preventive strategies may hydrocortisone administration when required,
decrease the incidence of adrenal crises, and and communication devices to inform health
prompt domiciliary and health service–based care workers of the risk of adrenal crisis and
treatment may lessen their severity and sequelae. required treatment are the current approaches to
Pre-emergency injection of intramuscular or off- preventing adrenal crises. New solutions to this
label subcutaneous hydrocortisone may avert persistent problem are needed.
many episodes of adrenal crisis. Formal regula- No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was
reported.
tory approval for subcutaneous hydrocortisone Disclosure forms provided by the authors are available with
may increase its home use. the full text of this article at NEJM.org.

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 Adrenal Crisis

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