A Course in Data Structures

and Object-Oriented Design

by Don Sheehy
Overview
Basic Python
Sequence, Selection, and Iteration
Expressions and Evaluation
Variables, Types, and State
Collections
Strings ( str )
Lists ( list )
Tuples ( tuple )
Dictionaries ( dict )
Sets ( set )
Some common things to do with collections
Iterating over a collection
Other Forms of Control Flow
Modules and Imports
Object-Oriented Programming
A simple example
Encapsulation and the Public Interface of a Class
Inheritance and "is a" relationships
Duck Typing
Composition and "has a" relationships
Testing
Writing Tests
Unit Testing with  unittest 
Test-Driven Development
What to Test
Testing and Object-Oriented Design
Running Time Analysis
Timing Programs
Example: Adding the first k numbers.
Modeling the Running Time of a Program
List Operations
Dictionary Operations
Set Operations
Asymptotic Analysis and the Order of Growth
Focus on the Worst Case
Big-O
The most important features of big-O usage
Practical Use of the Big-O and Common Functions
 Bases for Logarithms
Practice examples
Stacks and Queues
Abstract Data Types
The Stack ADT
The Queue ADT
Dealing with errors
Deques and Linked Lists
The Deque ADT
Linked Lists
Implementing a Queue with a LinkedList
Storing the length
Testing Against the ADT
The Main Lessons:
Design Patterns: The Wrapper Pattern
The Main Lessons:
Doubly-Linked Lists
Concatenating Doubly Linked Lists
Recursion
Recursion and Induction
Some Basics
The Function Call Stack
The Fibonacci Sequence
Euclid's Algorithm
Dynamic Programming
A Greedy Algorithm
A Recursive Algorithm
A Memoized Version
A Dynamic Programming Algorithm
Another example
Binary Search
The Sorted List ADT
Sorting
The Quadratic-Time Sorting Algorithms
Sorting in Python
Sorting with Divide and Conquer
Mergesort
An Analysis
Merging Iterators
 Quicksort
Selection
The  quickselect  algorithm
Analysis
One last time without recursion
Divide-and-Conquer Recap
A Note on Derandomization
Mappings and Hash Tables
The Mapping ADT
A minimal implementation
The extended Mapping ADT
It's Too Slow!
How many buckets should we use?
Rehashing
Factoring Out A Superclass
Trees
Some more definitions
A recursive view of trees
Tree Traversal
If you want to get fancy...
There's a catch!
Binary Search Trees
The Sorted Mapping ADT
Binary Search Tree Properties and Definitions
A Minimal implementation
The  floor  function
Iteration
Removal
Balanced Binary Search Trees
A  BSTMapping  implementation
Forward Compatibility of Factories
Weight Balanced Trees
Height-Balanced Trees (AVL Trees)
Splay Trees
Priority Queues
The Priority Queue ADT
Using a list
Heaps
Storing a tree in a list
 Building a Heap from scratch
Changing priorities
Graphs
A Graph ADT
The  EdgeSetGraph  Implementation
The  AdjacencySetGraph  Implementation
Paths and Connectivity
Graph Search
Depth-First Search
Removing the Recursion
Breadth-First Search
Weighted Graphs and Shortest Paths
Prim's Algorithm for Minimum Spanning Trees
An optimization for Priority-First search
Chapter 0
Overview
This book is designed to cover a lot of ground quickly, without taking shortcuts.

What does that mean? It means that concepts are motivated and start with simple examples. The
ideas follow the problems. The abstractions follow the concrete instances.

What does it not mean? The book is not meant to be comprehensive, covering all of data structures,
nor is it a complete introduction to all the details of python. Introducing the minimum necessary
knowledge to make interesting programs and learn useful concepts is not taking shortcuts, it's just
being directed.

There are many books that will teach idiomatic python programming, and many others that will teach
problem solving, data structures, or algorithms. There are many books for learning design patterns,
testing, and many of the other important practices of software engineering. The aim of this book is
cover many of these topics as part of an integrated course.

Towards that aim, the organization is both simple and complex. The simple part is that the overall
sequencing of the main topics is motivated by the data structuring problems, as is evident from the
chapter titles. The complex part is that many other concepts including problem solving strategies,
more advanced python, object-oriented design principles, and testing methodologies are introduced
bit by bit throughout the text in a logical, incremental way.

As a result, the book is not meant to be a reference. It is meant to be worked through from beginning
to end. Many topics dear to my heart were left out to make it possible to work through the whole
book in a single semester course.
Chapter 1
Basic Python
This book is not intended as a first course in programming. It will be assumed that the reader has
some experience with programming. Therefore, it will be assumed that certain concepts are already
familiar to them, the most basic of which is a mental model for programming that is sometimes called
Sequence, Selection, and Iteration.

Sequence, Selection, and Iteration

A recurring theme in this course is the process of moving from thinking about code to writing code.
We will try to shape the way we think about programs, the way we write programs, and how we go
between the two in both directions. That is, we want to have facility with both direct manipulation of
code as well as high-level description of programs.
A nice model for thinking about (imperative) programming is called Sequence-Selection-Iteration. It
refers to:

1. Sequence: Performing operations one at a time in a specified order.

2. Selection: Using conditional statements such as  if  to select which operations to execute.
3. Iteration: Repeating some operations using loops or recursion.

In any given programming language, there are usually several mechanisms for selection and iteration,
while sequencing is just the default behavior.
In fact, you usually have to have special constructions in a language to do something other than
performing the given operations in the given order.

Expressions and Evaluation

Python can do simple arithmetic. For example,  2+2  is a simple arithmetic expression. Expressions
get evaluated and produce a value. Some values are numerical like the  2 + 2  example, but they
don’t need to be. For example,  5 > 7  is an expression that evaluates to the boolean value  False .
Expressions can become more complex by combining many operations and functions. For example,
 5 * (3 + abs(-12) / 3)  contains four different functions. Parentheses and the order of operations
determine the order that the functions are evaluated. Recall that in programming the order of
operations is also called operator precedence. In the above example, the functions are executed in
the following order:  abs ,  / ,  + ,  * .

Variables, Types, and State

Imagine you are trying to work out some elaborate math problem without a computer. It helps to have
paper. You write things down, so that you can use them later. It's the same in programming. It often
happens that you compute something and want to keep it until later when you will use it. We often
refer to stored information as state.

We store information in variables. In Python, a variable is created by an assignment statement. That

is a statement of the form:

 variable_name = some_value 

The equals sign is doing something (assignment) rather than describing something (equality). The
right side of  =  is an expression that gets evaluated first. Only later does the assignment happen. If
the left side of the assignment is a variable name that already exist, it is overwritten. If it doesn’t
already exist, it is created.

The order of evaluation is very important. Having the right side evaluated first means that
assignments like  x = x + 1  make sense, because the value of  x  doesn’t change until after  x + 1 
is evaluated. Incidentally, there is a shorthand for this kind of update:  x += 1 . There are similar
notations for  -= ,  *= , and  /= .

An assignment statement is not expression. It doesn’t have a value. This turns out to be useful in
avoiding a common bug arising from confusing assignment and equality testing (i.e.  x == y ).
However, multiple assignment like  x = y = 1  does work as you would expect it to, setting both  x 
and  y  to  1 .

Variables are just names. Every name is associated with some piece of data, called an object.
The name is a string of characters and it is mapped to an object. The name of a variable, by itself, is
treated as an expression that evaluates to whatever object it is mapped to. This mapping of strings to
objects is often depicted using boxes to represent the objects and arrows to show the mapping.
Every object has a type. The type often determines what you can do with the variable. The so-called
atomic types in Python are integers, floats, and booleans, but any interesting program will contain
variables of many other types as well. You can inspect the type of a variable using the  type() 
function. In Python, the word type and class mean the same thing (most of the time).

The difference between a variable and the object it represents can get lost in our common speech
because the variable is usually acting as the name of the object. There are some times when it's
useful to be clear about the difference, in particular when copying objects. You might want to try
some examples of copying objects from one variable to another. Does changing one of them affect
the other?

x = 5 
y = 3.2 
z = True 
print("x has type", type(x)) 
print("y has type", type(y)) 
print("z has type", type(z)) 

x has type <class 'int'> 
y has type <class 'float'> 
z has type <class 'bool'> 

You should think of an object as having three things: an identity, a type, and a value. It’s identity
cannot change. It can be used to see if two objects are actually the same object with the  is 
keyword. For example, consider the following code.

x = [1, 2, 3] 
y = x 
z = [1, 2, 3] 
 
print(x is y) 
print(x is z) 
print(x == z) 

True 
False 
True 

An object cannot change its identity. In Python, you also cannot change the type of an object. You
can reassign a variable to point to different object of a different type, but that's not the same thing.
There are several functions that may seem to be changing the types of objects, but they are really just
creating a new object from the old.

x = 2 
print("x =", x) 
print("float(x) =", float(x)) 
print("x still has type", type(x)) 
 
print("Overwriting x.") 
x = float(x) 
print("Now, x has type", type(x)) 

x = 2 
float(x) = 2.0 
x still has type <class 'int'> 
Overwriting x. 
Now, x has type <class 'float'> 

You can do more elaborate things as well.

numstring = "3.1415926" 
y = float(numstring) 
print("y has type", type(y)) 
 
best_number = 73 
x = str(best_number) 
print("x has type", type(x)) 
 
thisworks = float("inf") 
print("float(\'inf\') has type", type(thisworks)) 
infinity_plus_one = float('inf') + 1 

y has type <class 'float'> 
x has type <class 'str'> 
float('inf') has type <class 'float'> 

This last example introduced a new type, that of a string. A string is a sequence of characters. In
Python, there is no special class for a single character (as in C for example). If you want a single
character, you use a string of length one.

The value of an object may or may not be changed, depending on the type of object. If the value can
be changed, we say that the object is mutable. If it cannot be changed, we say that the object is
immutable. For example, strings are immutable. If you want to change a string, for example, by
converting it to lowercase, then you will be creating a new string.

Collections
The next five most important types in Python are strings, lists, tuples, dictionaries, and sets. We call
these collections as each can be used for storing a collection of things. We will see many other
examples of collections in this course.

Strings ( str )
Strings are sequences of characters and can be used to store text of all kinds. Note that you can
concatenate strings to create a new string using the plus sign. You can also access individual
characters using square brackets and an index. The name of the class for strings is  str . You can
often turn other objects into strings.

s = "Hello, " 
t = "World." 
u = s + t 
print(type(u)) 
print(u) 
print(u[9]) 
n = str(9876) 
print(n[2]) 

<class 'str'> 
Hello, World. 
r 
7 

Lists ( list )
Lists are ordered sequences of objects. The objects do not have to be the same type. They are
indicated by square brackets and the elements of the list are separated by commas. You can append
an item to the end of a list  L  by using the command  L.append(newitem) . It is possible to index into
a list exactly as we did with strings.
 L = [1,2,3] 
print(type(L)) 
L.append(400) 
print(L) 

<class 'list'> 
[1, 2, 3, 400] 

Tuples ( tuple )
Tuples are also ordered sequences of objects, but unlike lists, they are immutable. You can access
the items but you can’t change what items are in the tuple after you create it. For example, trying to
 append  raises an exception.

t = (1, 2, "skip a few", 99, 100) 
print(type(t)) 
print(t) 
print(t[4]) 
t.append(101) 

<class 'tuple'> 
(1, 2, 'skip a few', 99, 100) 
100 
Traceback (most recent call last): 
  File "/Users/don/Dropbox/work/research/books/datastructures/docs/1nldyjxm8_code_chunk.py", lin
    t.append(101) 
AttributeError: 'tuple' object has no attribute 'append' 

Dictionaries ( dict )
Dictionaries store key-value pairs. That is, every element of a dictionary has two parts, a key and a
value. If you have the key, you can get the value. The name comes from the idea that in a real
dictionary (book), a word (the key) allows you to find its definition (the value). Notice that the keys can
be different types, but they must be immutable types such as atomic types, tuples, or strings. The
reason for this requirement is that we will determine where to store something using the key. If the
key changes, we will look in the wrong place when it's time to look it up again.

Dictionaries are also known as maps, mappings, or hash tables. We will go deep into how these are
constructed later in the course. A dictionary doesn't have a fixed order.
 d = dict() 
d[2] = "two" 
d[5] = "five" 
d["pi"] = 3.1415926 
 
print(d) 
print(d["pi"]) 

{2: 'two', 'pi': 3.1415926, 5: 'five'} 
3.1415926 

Sets ( set )
Sets correspond to our notion of sets in math. They are collections of objects without duplicates. We
use curly braces to denote them and commas to separate elements. As with dictionaries, a set has
no fixed ordering. We say that sets and dictionaries are nonsequential collections.

Be careful that empty braces  {}  indicates an empty dictionary and not an empty set. Here is an
example of a newly created set. Some items are added. Notice that the duplicates have no effect on
the value as its printed.

s = {2,1} 
print(type(s)) 
s.add(3) 
s.add(2) 
s.add(2) 
s.add(2) 
print(s) 

<class 'set'> 
{1, 2, 3} 

Some common things to do with collections

There are several operations that can be performed on any of the collections classes (and indeed
often on many other types objects).

You can find the number of elements in the collection (the length) using  len .
 a = "a string" 
b = ["my", "second", "favorite", "list"] 
c = (1, "tuple") 
d = {'a': 'b', 'b': 2, 'c': False} 
e = {1,2,3,4,4,4,4,2,2,2,1} 
 
print(len(a), len(b), len(c), len(d), len(e)) 

8 4 2 3 4

For the sequential types (lists, tuples, and strings), you can slice a subsequence of indices using
square brackets and a colon as in the following examples. The range of indices is half open in that
the slice will start with the first index and proceed up to but not including the last index. Negative
indices count backwards from the end. Leaving out the first index is the same as starting at 0.
Leaving out the second index will continue the slice until the end of the sequence.

Important: slicing a sequence creates a new object. That means a big slice will do a lot of copying.
It's really easy to write inefficient code this way.

a = "a string" 
b = ["my", "second", "favorite", "list"] 
c = (1, 2,3,"tuple") 
print(a[3:7]) 
print(a[1:‑2]) 
print(b[1:]) 
print(c[:2]) 

trin 
 stri 
['second', 'favorite', 'list'] 
(1, 2) 

Iterating over a collection

It is very common to want to loop over a collection. The pythonic way of doing iteration is with a  for 
loop.

The syntax is shown in the following examples.

 mylist = [1,3,5] 
mytuple = (1, 2, 'skip a few', 99, 100) 
myset = {'a', 'b', 'z'} 
mystring = 'abracadabra' 
mydict = {'a': 96, 'b': 97, 'c': 98} 
 
for item in mylist: 
    print(item) 
 
for item in mytuple: 
    print(item) 
 
for element in myset: 
    print(element) 
 
for character in mystring: 
    print(character) 
 
for key in mydict: 
    print(key) 
 
for key, value in mydict.items(): 
    print(key, value) 
 
for value in mydict.values(): 
    print(value) 

There is class called  range  to represent a sequence of numbers that behaves like a collection. It is
often used in for loops as follows.

for i in range(10): 
    j = 10 * i + 1 
    print(j,) 

Other Forms of Control Flow

Control flow refers to the commands in a language that affect the order or what operations are
executed. The  for  loops from the previous section are classic examples if this. The other basic
forms of control flow are  if  statements,  while  loops,  try  blocks, and function calls. We’ll cover
each briefly and refer the reader to the python documentation for more detailed info.

An  if  statement in its simplest form evaluates an expression and tries to interpret it as a boolean.
This expression is referred to as a predicate. If the predicate evaluates to  True , then a block of code
is executed. Otherwise, the code is not executed. This is the selection of sequence, selection, and
iteration. Here is an example.

if 3 + 3 < 7: 
    print("This should be printed.") 
 
if 2 ** 8 != 256: 
    print("This should not be printed.") 

This should be printed. 

An  if  statement can also include an  else  clause. This is a second block of code that executes if
the predicate evaluates to  False .

if False: 
    print("This is bad.") 
else: 
    print("This will print.") 

This will print. 

A  while  loop also has a predicate. It is evaluated at the top of a block of code. If it evaluates to
 True , then the block is executed and then it repeats. The repetition continues until the predicate
evaluate to  False  or until the code reaches a  break  statement.

x = 1 
while x < 128: 
    print(x) 
    x = x * 2 

1 
2 
4 
8 
16 
32 
64 

A  try  block is the way to catch and recover from errors while a program is running. If you have
some code that may cause an error, but you don’t want it to crash your program, you can put the
code in a  try  block. Then, you can catch the error (also known as an exception) and deal with it. A
simple example might be a case where you want to convert some number to a  float . Many types
of objects can be converted to  float , but many cannot. If we simply try to do the conversion and it
works, everything is fine. Otherwise, if there is a  ValueError , we can do something else instead.

x = "not a number" 
try: 
    f = float(x) 
except ValueError: 
    print("You can’t do that!") 

You can’t do that! 

A function also changes the control flow. In Python, you define a function with the  def  keyword. This
keyword creates an object to store the block of code. The parameters for the function are listed in
parentheses after the function name. The  return  statement causes the control flow to revert back to
where the function was called and determines the value of the function call.

def foo(x, y): 
    return 8 * x + y 
 
print(foo(2, 1)) 
print(foo("Na", " batman")) 

17 
NaNaNaNaNaNaNaNa batman 

Notice that there is no requirement that we specify the types of objects a function expects for its
arguments. This is very convenient, because it means that we can use the same function to operate
on different types of objects (as in the example above). If we define a function twice, even if we
change the parameters, the first will be overwritten by the second. This is exactly the same as
assigning to a variable twice. The name of a function is just a name; it refers to an object (the
function). Functions can be treated like any other object.
 def foo(x): 
    return x + 2 
 
def bar(somefunction): 
    return somefunction(4) 
 
print(bar(foo)) 
somevariable = foo 
print(bar(somevariable)) 

6 
6 

Modules and Imports

As we start to write more complex programs, it starts to make sense to break up the code across
several files. A single  .py  file is called a module. You can import one module into another using the
 import  keyword. The name of a module, by default, is the name of the file (without the  .py 
extension). When we import a module, the code in that module is executed. Usually, this should be
limited to defining some functions and classes, but can technically include anything. The module also
has a namespace in which these functions and classes are defined.

For example, suppose we have the following files.

# File: twofunctions.py 
 
def f(x): 
    return 2 * x + 3 
 
def g(x): 
    return x ** 2 ‑ 1 

# File: theimporter.py 
import twofunctions 
 
def f(x): 
    return x ‑ 1 
 
print(twofunctions.f(1)) # Will print 5 
print(f(1))              # Will print 0 
print(twofunctions.g(4)) # Will print 15 
The  import  brings the module name into the current namespace. I can then use it to identify the
functions from the module.

There is very little magic in an import. In some sense, it’s just telling the current program about the
results of another program. Because the import (usually) results in the module being executed, it’s
good practice to change the behavior of a script depending on whether it is being run directly, or
being run as part of an import. It is possible to check by looking at the  __name__  attribute of the
module. If you run the module directly (i.e. as a script), then the  __name__  variable is automatically
set to  __main__ . If the module is being imported, the  __name__  defaults to the module name. This
is easily seen from the following experiment.

# File: mymodule.py 
print("The name of this module is", __name__) 

The name of this module is __main__ 

# File: theimporter.py 
 
import mymodule 
print("Notice that it will print something different when imported?") 

Here is how we use the  __name__  attribute to check how the program is being run.

def somefunction(): 
    print("Real important stuff here.") 
 
if __name__ == '__main__': 
    somefunction() 

Real important stuff here. 

In the preceding code, the message is printed only when the module is executed as a script. It is not
printed (i.e. the  somefunction  function is not called) if the module is being imported. This is a very
common python idiom.

One caveat is that modules are only executed the first time they are imported. If, for example, we
import the same module twice, it will only be executed once. At that point, the namespace exists and
can be accessed for the second one. This also avoids any infinite loops you might try to construct by
having two modules, each of which imports the other.

There are a couple other common variations on the standard  import  statement.
1. You can  import  just a particular name or collection of names from a module:
 from modulename import thethingIwanted . This brings the new name  thethingIwanted  into
the current namespace. It doesn’t need to be preceded by  modulename  and a dot.
2. You can import  all the names from the module into the current namespace:
 from modulename import * . If you do this, every name defined in the module will be accessible
in the current namespace. It doesn’t need to be preceded by  modulename  and a dot. Although
easy to write and fast for many things, this is generally frowned upon as you often won’t know
exactly what names you are importing when you do this.
3. You can rename module after importing it:  import numpy as np . This allows you to use a
different name to refer to the objects of the module. In this example, I can write  np.array 
instead of  numpy.array . The most common reason to do this is to have a shorter name. The
other, more fundamental use is to avoid naming conflicts.
Chapter 2
Object-Oriented Programming
A primary goal of object-oriented programming is to make it possible to write code that is close to
the way you think about the things your code represents. This will make it easier to reason about the
code and think through its correctness.

A class is a data type. In python type and class are (mostly) synonymous. An object is an instance
of a class. For example, python has a  list  class. If I make a list called  mylist . Then,  mylist  is
an object of type  list .

mylist = [] 
print(type(mylist)) 
print(isinstance(mylist, list)) 
print(isinstance(mylist, str)) 

<class 'list'> 
True 
False 

There are all kinds of classes built into python. Some you might not expect.

def foo(): 
    return 0 
 
print(type(foo)) 

<class 'function'> 
For the advanced students, here is a more exotic example called a generator. In python you can
 yield  instead of  return . If so, the result will be something called a generator and not a function.
This powerful idea shows up a lot in python, but we won't really be able to get our head around it
until we understand how classes are able to package up data and code.

def mygenerator(n): 
    for i in range(n): 
        yield i 
 
print(type(mygenerator)) 
print(type(mygenerator(5))) 

<class 'function'> 
<class 'generator'> 

A simple example
One of the first ways that we learn about to combine multiple pieces of information into a single
object is in calculus or linear algebra, with the introduction of vectors. We can think of a 2-
dimensional vector as a pair of numbers. If we are trying to write some code that works with 2-
dimensional vectors, we could just use tuples. It's not too hard to define some basic functions that
work with vectors.
 u = (3,4) 
v = (3,6) 
 
def add(a, b): 
    return (a[0] + b[0], a[1] + b[1]) 
 
def subtract(a,b): 
    return (a[0] ‑ b[0], a[1] ‑ b[1]) 
 
def dot(a, b): 
    return (a[0] * b[0] + a[1] * b[1]) 
 
def norm(a): 
    return (a[0] * a[0] + a[1] * a[1]) ** 0.5 
 
def isvertical(a): 
    return a[0] == 0 
 
print(norm(u)) 
print(add(u,v)) 
print(u + v) 
print(isvertical(subtract(v, u))) 

5.0 
(6, 10) 
(3, 4, 3, 6) 
True 

This could be fine if that's all we wanted to do, but as we fill out the code, things will start to get
messier. For example, suppose we want to make sure that the inputs to these functions really are
tuples that contain two numbers. We might add some code to every method to check for this error or
recover otherwise, but this is not great, because we really just want to operate on vectors. Moreover,
we might want to  add  other types of things besides vectors. This would probably require us to make
the add function much more complicated, or rename it something more descriptive such as
 vectoradd .
 class Vector: 
    def __init__(self, x, y): 
        self.x = x 
        self.y = y 
 
    def norm(self): 
        return (self.x ** 2 + self.y ** 2) ** 0.5 
 
u = Vector(3,4) 
 
print(u.norm()) 
print(Vector(5,12).norm()) 

5.0 
13.0 

A function defined in a class is called a method. It is a standard convention to use  self  as the
name of the first parameter to a method. This parameter is object that will generally be operated on
by the method. When, calling the method, you don't have to pass a parameter explicitly for  self .
Instead, the dot notation fills in this parameter for you. That is  u.norm()  is translated into
 vector.norm(u) .

The  __init__  method is called a initializer. Methods like this one that start and end with two
underscores are sometimes called the magic methods or also dunder methods. You should not
make up your own methods starting and ending with two underscores. That's how python sets them
apart so you don't actually call your own methods the same thing. Also, dunder methods are usually
not called explicitly, but instead provide some other means of calling them. In the case of a initializer,
calling the name of the class as a function invokes the initializer. You've seen this before, such as in
 float("3.14159") .

We will use another magic method to implement addition.

 class Vector: 
    def __init__(self, x, y): 
        self.x = x 
        self.y = y 
 
    def norm(self): 
        return (self.x ** 2 + self.y ** 2) ** 0.5 
 
    def __add__(self, other): 
        newx = self.x + other.x 
        newy = self.y + other.y 
        return Vector(newx, newy) 
 
u = Vector(3,4) 
v = Vector(3,6) 
 
print(u + v) 

<__main__.Vector object at 0x102985160> 

That output is pretty weird. It's telling me that u + v is a vector object at some memory address, but
doesn't tell me what vector it is. We need to implement  __str__  in order to print the vector nicely.
This magic method is called by the print function to convert its parameters into a string. It is not
obvious how a string ought to be printed for a given class. We have to specify it ourselves.

In the example below, I added a  __str__  method as well as some type checking on the inputs. The
result will guarantee that a vector has two floats as coordinates.
 class Vector: 
    def __init__(self, x, y): 
        try: 
            self.x = float(x) 
            self.y = float(y) 
        except ValueError: 
            self.x = 0.0 
            self.y = 0.0 
 
    def norm(self): 
        return (self.x ** 2 + self.y ** 2) ** 0.5 
 
    def __add__(self, other): 
        newx = self.x + other.x 
        newy = self.y + other.y 
        return Vector(newx, newy) 
 
    def __str__(self): 
        return "(%f, %f)" %(self.x, self.y) 
 
u = Vector(3,4) 
v = Vector(3,6) 
 
print(u + v) 

(6.000000, 10.000000) 

Encapsulation and the Public Interface of a Class

The word encapsulation has two different, but related, meanings. The first is the idea of
encapsulating or combining into a single thing, data and the methods that operate on that data. In
Python, this is accomplished via classes, as we have seen.

The second meaning of encapsulation emphasizes the boundary between the inside and the outside
of the class, specifying what is visible to the users of a class. Often this means partitioning the
attributes into public and private. In Python, there is no formal mechanism to keep one from
accessing attributes of a class from outside that class. So, in a sense, everything is public. However,
there is a convention to make it clear what ought to be kept private. Any attribute that starts with an
underscore is considered private. Think of it like someone’s unlocked diary. You can read it, but you
shouldn’t.
 class Diary: 
    def __init__(self, title): 
        self.title = title 
        self._entries = [] 
 
    def addentry(self, entry): 
        self._entries.append(entry) 
 
    def _lastentry(self): 
        return self._entries[‑1] 

In the example above, the  addentry  method is public. Anyone can add an entry. However, the
 _lastentry  method is private. One should not call this method from outside of the  Diary  class.
(Again, you can, but you shouldn’t.) The  title  is also public, but the list  _entries  is private. The
collection of all public attributes (in this case,  addentry  and  title ) constitute the public interface
of the class. This is what a user of the class should interact with. For example, one can use the class
above as follows.

mydiary = Diary("Don’t read this!!!") 
mydiary.addentry("It was a good day.") 
print("The diary is called ", mydiary.title) 

The diary is called  Don’t read this!!! 

Notice that in this example, the encapsulation of the class is not about security. Heck, if it’s my diary,
I should be able to read it, right? The reason to respect the private attributes and stick to the public
interface is really to help us write working code that continues to work in the future. Code gets
changed all the time. If you are modifying a class that is being used elsewhere in the code, you have
to be careful not to break that code. If the public interface and its behavior doesn’t change, then one
can be confident that the changes don’t affect the other code. One could change the name of a
private variable, say changing  _entries  to  _diaryentries  and be confident that this won’t cause
some other code somewhere else to break.

Inheritance and "is a" relationships

Whenever we talk about the types of things in our everyday life, it’s possible to talk about them at
different levels of generality. We can talk about a specific basketball player, say Kylie Irving, or we can
talk about professional basketball players, or all basketball players, or people or living creatures. The
specific player we started with could be said to belong to any of these classes. The same principle
applies to code that we write.
Consider this example from a geometry program.

class Triangle: 
    def __init__(self, points): 
        self._sides = 3 
        self._points = list(points) 
        if len(self._points) != 3: 
            raise ValueError("Wrong number of points.") 
 
    def sides(self): 
        return 3 
 
    def __str__(self): 
        return "I’m a triangle." 
 
class Square: 
    def __init__(self, points): 
        self._sides = 4 
        self._points = list(points) 
        if len(self._points) != 4: 
            raise ValueError("Wrong number of points.") 
 
    def sides(self): 
        return 4 
 
    def __str__(self): 
        return "I’m so square." 

These are obviously, very closely related classes. One can make another class for which these two
classes are subclasses. Then, anything common between the two classes can be put into the larger
class or superclass.
 class Polygon: 
    def __init__(self, sides, points): 
        self._sides = sides 
        self._points = list(points) 
        if len(self._points) != self._sides: 
            raise ValueError("Wrong number of points.")    
 
    def sides(self): 
        return self._sides 
 
class Triangle(Polygon): 
    def __init__(self, points): 
        Polygon.__init__(self, 3, points) 
 
    def __str__(self): 
        return "I’m a triangle." 
 
class Square(Polygon): 
    def __init__(self, points): 
        Polygon.__init__(self, 4, points) 
 
    def __str__(self): 
        return "I’m so square." 

Notice that the class definitions of  Triangle  and  Square  now indicate the  Polygon  class in
parentheses. This is called inheritance. The  Triangle  class inherits from (or extends) the
 Polygon  class. The superclass  Polyon  and the subclasses are  Triangle  and  Square . When we
call a method on an object, if that method is not defined in the class of that object, Python will look
for the method in the superclass. This search for the correct function to call is called the method
resolution order. If a method from the superclass is redefined in the subclass, then calling the
method on an instance of the subclass calls the subclass method instead.

The initializer of the superclass is not called automatically when we create a new instance (unless we
didn’t define  __init__  in the subclass). In this case, we manually call the  Polygon.__init__ 
function. This is one of the few times where it’s acceptable to call a diner method by name.

When using inheritance, you should always remember the most important rule of inheritance:

Inheritance means is a.

This means that if  ClassB  extends  ClassA , then a  ClassB  object is a  ClassA  object. This should
be true at the conceptual level. So, in our shapes example, we followed this rule, because a triangle is
a polygon.
In total, this might look like more code. However, it has less duplication. Duplication is very bad. Even
though it’s easy to copy and paste on a computer, this is a source of many bugs. The reason is
simple. Bugs are everywhere. If you copy and paste a code with a bug, then now you have two bugs.
If you find the bug, you have to hope you remember to fix it both places. Anytime you are relying on
your memory, you are going to get yourself in trouble.

Software engineers use the acronym DRY, to mean Don’t Repeat Yourself. They will even use it as
an adjective, saying "Keep the code DRY". The process of removing duplication by putting common
code into a superclass is called factoring out a superclass. This is the most common way that
inheritance enters a codebase. Sometimes, opportunities for inheritance are identified at the design
stage, before coding begins.

Duck Typing
Inheritance is considered a staple of object-oriented programming, and it’s important to understand
it. That said, it’s not nearly as useful in Python as it is in other languages. The reason is that python
has built-in (parametric) polymorphism. That means we can pass any type of object we want to a
function. For example, suppose we have a class to store collections of polygons as follows.

class PolygonCollection: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._triangles = [] 
        self._squares = [] 
 
    def add(self, polygon): 
        if polygon.sides() == 3: 
            self._triangles.append(polygon) 
        if polygon.sides() == 4: 
            self._squares.append(polygon) 

Notice that the  add  method would work equally well with either version of the  Triangle  and
 Square  classes defined previously. In fact, we could pass it any object that has a method called
 sides . We didn’t need inheritance in order to treat Triangles and squares as special cases of the
same object. Sometimes, inheritance is the right way to combine classes so they can be treated as a
single class, but in Python, it’s not as necessary as it is in other languages.

Python’s polymorphism is based on the idea of duck typing. The name comes from an old
expression that if something walks like a duck and quacks like a duck, then it is a duck. In the
 PolygonCollection  example, if I call the  add  method with an argument that has a  sides  method
that returns something that can be compared to an integer, then the code will run without error.
Having the right methods is equivalent to "walking and talking like a duck". This means that although
inheritance should always mean is a, not every “is a” relationship in your code needs to be expressed
with inheritance.

This idea that not only inheritance means “is a” is very important in Python and will be very important
throughout this course. We will discuss this more when we look in more depth at abstract data types.

One example that we have already seen is the  str  function. Different types objects can be
converted to strings, including objects of classes that we have defined ourselves. As long as we
implemented the  __str__  method on our class, then we can call  str  on an instance of that class.
That function calls the corresponding method, i.e.,  str(t)  for a  Triangle   t  calls  t.__str__() 
which is equivalent to  Triangle.__str__(t) .

Composition and "has a" relationships

There are many cases where we want objects of different types to share some functionality.
Sometimes, inheritance is used to allow for this sharing, but more often we use something called
composition. This is where one class stores an instance of another class. It allows us to produce
more complex objects. The most important rule about composition is the following.

Composition means "has a".

Consider the case where we want a class to behave like a  list . For example, we’d like to be able to
append to the list and access items by their index, but we don’t want any of the other list stuff. In this
case, it would be wrong to use inheritance. Instead, we would make our class store a list internally
(composition). Then, the public interface to our class would contain the methods we want while
making calls to the stored  list  instance to avoid duplicating the list implementation. Here is an
example.

class MyLimitedList: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._L = [] 
 
    def append(self, item): 
        self._L.append(item) 
 
    def __getitem__(self, index): 
        return self._L[index] 

Here, the magic method  __getitem__  will allow us to use the square bracket notation with our class.
As with other magic methods, we don’t call it directly.
L = MyLimitedList() 
L.append(1) 
L.append(10) 
L.append(100) 
print(L[2]) 

100 
Chapter 3
Testing
Python is an interpreted language. This gives it a great deal of flexibility, such as duck typing.
However, this can also lead to different types of common bugs. For example, if you pass a  float  to
a function that really should only receive an  int , Python won’t stop you, but it might lead to
unexpected behavior. In general, we have to run the code to get an error, but not all bugs will
generate errors. Towards the goal of writing correct code, we use tests to determine two things:

1. Does it work? That is, does the code do what it’s supposed to do?
2. Does it still work? Can you be confident that the changes you made haven’t caused other part
of the code to break?

Writing Tests
Testing your code means writing more code that checks that the behavior matches your
expectations. This is important:

Test behavior, not implementation.

You have some idea of what code is supposed to do. You run the code. Did it do what you expected?
How about some other inputs? In the simplest case, you could simply add some code to the bottom
of the module.
 class Doubler: 
    def __init__(self, n): 
        self._n = 2 * n 
 
    def n(self): 
        return self._n 
 
if __name__ == ‘__main__’: 
    x = Doubler(5) 
    assert(x.n() == 10) 
    y = Doubler(‑4) 
    assert(y.n() == ‑8) 

  File "/Users/don/Dropbox/work/research/books/datastructures/docs/wc8d005ii_code_chunk.py", lin
    if __name__ == ‘__main__’: 
                            ^ 
SyntaxError: invalid character in identifier 

The  assert  statement will raise an error if the predicate that follows it is  False . Otherwise, the
program just continues as usual. Assertions are much better than just printing because you don’t
have to manually check to see that it printed what you expected it to print. Also, people have a
tendency to delete old print statements to reduce clutter in their test output. Deleting tests after they
pass is a very bad idea. Your code is going to change, and you will want to know if a change breaks
something that used to work.

The line  if __name__ == ‘__main__’:  makes sure that the tests will not run when the module is
imported from somewhere else.

For some, learning to test their code runs into a substantial psychological block. They feel that testing
the code will reveal its flaws and thus reveal the programmer’s flaws. If you feel the slightest
hesitation to testing your own code, you should practice the OGAE protocol. It stands for, "Oh Good,
An Error!". Every time you get an error, you say this with honest enthusiasm. The computer has just
done you a huge favor by identifying something wrong, and it has done so in the safety of your room
or office. You can fix it before it becomes any bigger.

Unit Testing with  unittest 

The simple kind of testing in the module described above is fine for tiny programs that will not be
needed again, but for anything remotely serious, you will need proper unit tests. The word unit in unit
testing is meant to imply a single indivisible case. Thus, unit tests are supposed to test a specific
behavior of a specific function. This means you will have many tests and you will run them all, every
time you change the code.

To make the process go smoothly, there is a standard package called  unittest  for writing unit tests
in Python. The package provides a standard way to write the tests, the ability to run the tests all
together, and the ability to see the results of the tests in a clear format. In modern software
engineering, tests are also run automatically as part of build and deployment systems.

To use the  unittest  package, you will want to import the package in your test file. Then, import the
code you want to test. The actual tests will be methods in a class that extends the
 unittest.TestCase  class. Every test method must start with the word "test". If it doesn’t start with
"test", then it will not run. Tests are run by calling the  unittest.main  function.

Here is an example that tests a particular behavior of a hypothetical  DayOfTheWeek  class.

import unittest 
from dayoftheweek import DayOfTheWeek 
 
class TestDayOfTheWeek(unittest.TestCase): 
    def testinitwithabbreviation(self): 
        d = DayOfTheWeek(‘F’) 
        self.assertEquals(d.name(), ‘Friday’) 
 
        d = DayOfTheWeek(‘Th’) 
        self.assertEquals(d.name(), ‘Thursday’)    
 
unittest.main() 

  File "/Users/don/Dropbox/work/research/books/datastructures/docs/gc7xntwe3_code_chunk.py", lin
    d = DayOfTheWeek(‘F’) 
                       ^ 
SyntaxError: invalid character in identifier 

Notice that even if we have never seen the code for the  DayOfTheWeek  class, we can get a good
sense of its expected behavior from reading the tests. In this case, we see that it can be instantiated
with the abbreviation  F  and the  name()  function will return the value "Friday". It often happens that
unit tests like this give the clearest specification of a data structure’s expected behavior. Moreover,
because the tests can be executed, one can be certain that the class really has the expected
behavior. With documentation, one sometimes finds that changes in the code are not reflected in the
documentation, but passing tests don’t have this problem.

Test-Driven Development
Test-Driven Development (TDD) is based on the simple idea that you can write the tests before you
write the code. But won’t the test fail if the code hasn’t been written yet? Yes, if it’s a good test. What
if it passes? Then, either you’re done (unlikely) or there is something wrong with your test.

Writing tests first forces you to do two things:

1. Decide how you want to be able to use some function. What should the parameters be? What
should it return?
2. Write only the code that you need. If there is code that doesn’t support some desired behavior
with tests, then you don’t need to write it.

The TDD mantra is Red-Green-Refactor. It refers to three phases of the testing process.

Red: The tests fail. They better! You haven’t written the code yet!
Green: You get the tests to pass by changing the code.
Refactor: You clean up the code, removing duplication.

The terms "Red" and "Green" refer to many testing fameworks that show failed tests in red and
passing tests in green.

Refactoring is the process of cleaning up code, most often referring to the process of removing
duplication. Duplication in code, whether it comes from copy-and-paste or just repeating logic can be
a source of many errors. If you duplicate code with a bug, now you have two bugs. If you find the
bug, you will have to find it twice.

Here is a simple example of refactored code:

Original Code with Minor Duplication:

avg1 = sum(L1)/len(L1) 
avg2 = sum(L2)/len(L2) 

Then, it is observed that there should be some default behavior for empty lists so (a test is added
and) the code is updated as follows.

Updated Code Before Refactoring:

 if len(L1) == 0: 
    avg1 = 0 
else: 
    avg1 = sum(L1) / len(L1) 
 
if len(L2) == 0: 
    avg2 = 0 
else: 
    avg2 = sum(L2) / len(L2) 

Refactored Code:

def avg(L): 
    if len(L) == 0: 
        return 0 
    else: 
        return sum(L) / len(L) 
 
avg1 = avg(L1) 
avg2 = avg(L2) 

In the refactored code, the details of the  avg  function are not duplicated. If we want to later modify
how the code handles empty lists, we will only have to change it in one place.

The refactored code is also easier to read.

What to Test
Step away from the computer. Think about the problem you are trying to solve. Think about the
methods you are writing. Ask yourself, "What should happen when I run this code?". Also ask
yourself, "How do I want to use this code?"

Write tests that use the code the way it ought to be used.
Then write tests that use the code incorrectly to test that your code fails gracefully. Does it give
clear error messages?
Test the edge cases, those tricky cases that may rarely come up. Try to break your own code.
Turn bugs into tests. A bug or an incorrect behavior can reappear after you fix it. You want to
catch it when it does. Sometimes you notice a bug when a different test fails. Write a specific
test to reveal the bug, then fix it.
Test the public interface. Usuually you don’t need to or want to test the private methods of a
class. You should treat the test code as a user of the class and it should make no assumptions
 about private attributes. This way, if a private gets renamed or refactored, you don’t have to
change the tests.

Testing and Object-Oriented Design

In object-oriented design, we divide the code into classes. These classes have certain relationships
sometimes induced by inheritance or composition. The classes have public methods. We call these
public methods the interface to the class.

To start a design, we look at the problem and identify nouns (classes) and verbs (methods). In our
description, we express what should happen. Often these expectations are expressed in "if...then"
language, i.e., "if I call this method with these parameters, then this will happen.". A unit test will
encode this expectation. It will check that the actual behavior of the code matches the expected
behavior.

When writing a class, it helps focus our attention and reduce the number fo things to think about if
we assume each class works the way it is supposed to. We try to make this true by testing each class
individually. Then, when we compose classes into more complex classes, we can have more
confidence that any errors we find are in the new class and not somewhere lurking in the previously
written classes.

At first it may seem like a waste of time to thoroughly test your code. However, any small savings in
time you might reap early on by skipping tests will very quickly be spent in the headaches of
countless hours debugging untested code. When you have lots of untested code, every time there is
an unexpected behavior, the error could be anywhere. The debugging process can virtually grind to a
halt. If and when this happens to you: Stop. Pick one piece. Test it. Repeat. Being careful and
systematic will take you substantially less time overall. It is faster to go slow.
Chapter 4
Running Time Analysis
Our major goal in programming is to write code that is correct, efficient, and readable. When writing
code to solve a problem, there are many ways to write correct code. When the code is not correct,
we debug it. When the code is inefficient, we may not notice when running small tests because we
only see the problem when inputs get larger. It can be much harder to track down problems with
efficiency.

We want to develop a vocabulary for describing the efficiency of our code. Sentences like "This code
is fast" or "This code is slow" tell us very little. How fast or slow is it? Moreover, the same code will
take different amounts of time and memory depending on the input. It will also run faster on a faster
computer. So, our goals are challenging:

We want to give a nuanced description of the efficiency of a program that adapts to different
inputs and to different computers.

We will achieve both goals with asymptotic analysis. To develop this theory, we will start by
measuring the time taken to run some programs. By simple experiments, we can observe how the
running times change as the inputs get larger. For example, a program that takes a list as input may
run slower if that list has a million items than if it only has ten items, but maybe not. It will depend on
the program.

Next, we will give an accounting scheme for counting up the cost of a program. This will assign costs
to different operations. The cost of the whole program will be the sum of the costs of all the
operations executed by the program. Often, the cost will be a function of the input size, rather than a
fixed number.

Finally, we will introduce some vocabulary for classifying functions. This is the asymptotic part of
asymptotic analysis. The big-O notation gives a very convenient way of grouping this (running time)
functions into classes that can easily be compared. Thus, we'll be able to talk about and compare the
efficiency of different algorithms or programs without having to do extensive experiments.

Thinking about and analyzing the efficiency of programs helps us develop good habits and intuitions
that lead to good design decisions. The goal of increasing efficiency in our data structures will be the
primary motivation for introducing new structures and new ideas as we proceed.

Timing Programs
To start, let's observe some differences in running time for different functions that do the same thing.
We might say these functions have the same behavior or the same semantics.

Here is a function that takes a list as input; it returns  True  if there are any duplicates and  False 
otherwise.

def duplicates1(L): 
    n = len(L) 
    for i in range(n): 
        for j in range(n): 
            if i != j and L[i] == L[j]: 
                return True 
    return False 
 
assert(duplicates1([1,2,6,3,4,5,6,7,8])) 
assert(not duplicates1([1,2,3,4])) 

A basic question that we will ask again and again is the following?

How fast is this code?

The simplest answer to this question comes from simply running the program and measuring how
long it takes. We could do this as follows.

import time 
 
for i in range(5): 
    n = 1000 
    start = time.time() 
    duplicates1(list(range(n))) 
    timetaken = time.time() ‑ start 
    print("Time taken for n = ", n, ": ", timetaken) 
 Time taken for n =  1000 :  1.768204927444458 
Time taken for n =  1000 :  0.5799880027770996 
Time taken for n =  1000 :  0.29141712188720703 
Time taken for n =  1000 :  0.3541839122772217 
Time taken for n =  1000 :  0.28881096839904785 

Notice that we see some variation in the time required. This is caused by many factors, but the main
one is that the computer is performing many other tasks at the same time. It is running an operating
system and several other programs at the same time. Also, if run on different computers, one could
expect to see wildly different results based on the speed of the processor and other differences
between the computers. For now, let's run the code several times and take the average to smooth
them out for a given computer. We'll wrap this idea in a general function that takes another function
as input, and a length. It runs the given function on lists of the given length and averages the time
take per run.

import time 
 
def timetrials(func, n, trials = 10): 
    totaltime = 0 
    start = time.time() 
    for i in range(trials): 
        func(list(range(n))) 
        totaltime += time.time() ‑ start 
    print("average =%10.7f for n = %d" % (totaltime/trials, n)) 

We can now look at the average running time as the length of the list gets longer. It's not surprising to
see that the average time goes up as the length n increases.

for n in [50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200]: 
    timetrials(duplicates1, n) 

average = 0.0021407 for n = 50 
average = 0.0908700 for n = 100 
average = 0.3752073 for n = 200 
average = 0.9885244 for n = 400 
average = 1.0313177 for n = 800 
average = 3.6447403 for n = 1600 
average =10.2119338 for n = 3200 

Let's try to make our code faster. Simple improvements can be made by eliminating situations where
we are doing unnecessary or redundant work. In the  duplicates1  function, we are comparing each
pair of elements twice because both  i  and  j  range over all n indices. We can eliminate this using
a standard trick of only letting  j  range up to  i . Here is what the code would look like.

def duplicates2(L): 
    n = len(L) 
    for i in range(1,n): 
        for j in range(i): 
            if L[i] == L[j]: 
                return True 
    return False 

for n in [50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200]: 
    timetrials(duplicates2, n) 

average = 0.0008308 for n = 50 
average = 0.0032146 for n = 100 
average = 0.1651818 for n = 200 
average = 0.5998756 for n = 400 
average = 0.8179687 for n = 800 
average = 1.4752307 for n = 1600 
average = 5.3372463 for n = 3200 

There is a python shortcut the kind of loop used in  duplicates2 . The  any  function takes an iterable
collection of booleans and returns  True  if any of the booleans are true. You can make an iterable
collection in an expression in the same way one does for comprehensions. This can be very handy.

def duplicates3(L): 
    n = len(L) 
    return any(L[i] == L[j] for i in range(1,n) for j in range(i)) 

for n in [50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200]: 
    timetrials(duplicates3, n) 

average = 0.0013405 for n = 50 
average = 0.0040719 for n = 100 
average = 0.2546202 for n = 200 
average = 0.7848900 for n = 400 
average = 0.7762019 for n = 800 
average = 1.9343629 for n = 1600 
average = 6.9433553 for n = 3200 
This last optimization reduces the number of lines of code and may be desirable for code readability,
but it doesn't improve the speed.

If we want to make a real improvement, we'll need a substantial new idea. One possibility is to sort
the list and look at adjacent elements in the list. If there are duplicates, they will be adjacent after
sorting.

def duplicates4(L): 
    n = len(L) 
    L.sort() 
    for i in range(n‑1): 
        if L[i] == L[i+1]: 
            return True 
    return False 

def duplicates5(L): 
    n = len(L) 
    L.sort() 
    return any(L[i] == L[i+1] for i in range(n‑1)) 
 
def duplicates6(L): 
    s = set() 
    for e in L: 
        if e in s: 
            return True 
        s.add(e) 
    return False 
 
def duplicates7(L): 
    return len(L) == len(set(L)) 
 
def duplicates8(L): 
    s = set() 
    return any(e in s or s.add(e) for e in L) 

for n in [50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200]: 
    print("Quadratic: ", end="") 
    timetrials(duplicates3, n) 
    print("Sorting:   ", end="") 
    timetrials(duplicates5, n) 
    print("Sets:      ", end="") 
    timetrials(duplicates7, n) 
    print('‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑') 
 Quadratic: average = 0.0011065 for n = 50 
Sorting:   average = 0.0000775 for n = 50 
Sets:      average = 0.0000285 for n = 50 
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ 
Quadratic: average = 0.0042603 for n = 100 
Sorting:   average = 0.0901838 for n = 100 
Sets:      average = 0.0000417 for n = 100 
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ 
Quadratic: average = 0.1273815 for n = 200 
Sorting:   average = 0.0002328 for n = 200 
Sets:      average = 0.0000553 for n = 200 
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ 
Quadratic: average = 0.8189750 for n = 400 
Sorting:   average = 0.0005166 for n = 400 
Sets:      average = 0.0001085 for n = 400 
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ 
Quadratic: average = 0.7011927 for n = 800 
Sorting:   average = 0.0009663 for n = 800 
Sets:      average = 0.0002346 for n = 800 
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ 
Quadratic: average = 1.9467959 for n = 1600 
Sorting:   average = 0.0018906 for n = 1600 
Sets:      average = 0.0005612 for n = 1600 
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ 
Quadratic: average = 6.9215881 for n = 3200 
Sorting:   average = 0.0038410 for n = 3200 
Sets:      average = 0.0009937 for n = 3200 
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ 

Some key ideas: The Data Structures really matter. The speed of the set membership testing or set
construction gives a big improvement. We made assumptions about the elements of the list, that they
were comparable or hashable. These assumptions can be thought of as assumptions about the type
of the elements. This is not the same as the class. It's duck typing. The assumption is that certain
methods can be called. The example also gives some practice using generator expressions.

The main important idea is that the running time depends on the size of the input. The time goes up
as the length goes up. Sometimes, the gap between two pieces of code will increase as the input size
grows.

Example: Adding the first k numbers.

Below is a program that adds up the first k positive integers and returns both the sum and time
required to do the computation.
 import time 
 
def sumk(k): 
    start = time.time() 
 
    total = 0 
    for i in range(k+1): 
        total = total + i 
    end = time.time() 
 
    return total, end‑start 

for i in range(5): 
    print("Sum: %d, time taken: %f" % sumk(10000)) 

Sum: 50005000, time taken: 0.000938 
Sum: 50005000, time taken: 0.000867 
Sum: 50005000, time taken: 0.000862 
Sum: 50005000, time taken: 0.000867 
Sum: 50005000, time taken: 0.000862 

Notice that we see some variation in the time required. This is caused by many factors, but the main
one is that the computer is performing many other tasks at the same time. It is running an operating
system and several other programs at the same time. Also, if run on different computers, one could
expect to see wildly different results based on the speed of the processor and other differences
between the computers. For now, let's run the code several times and take the average to smooth
them out for a given computer.

def timetrials(func, k, trials = 10): 
    totaltime = 0 
    for i in range(trials): 
        totaltime += func(k)[1] 
    print("average =%10.7f for k = %d" % (totaltime/trials, k)) 

timetrials(sumk, 10000) 
timetrials(sumk, 100000) 
timetrials(sumk, 1000000) 
timetrials(sumk, 10000000) 
 average = 0.0008783 for k = 10000 
average = 0.1099289 for k = 100000 
average = 0.2226608 for k = 1000000 
average = 1.3007366 for k = 10000000 

Seeing the times for different values of  k  reveals a rather unsuprising pattern. As  k  goes up by a
factor of 10, the time required for  sumk  also goes up by a factor of  10 . This makes sense, because
it has to do about  k  additions and assignments. To say it another way, the time is proportional to  k .
We will often be more concerned with finding what the running time is proportional to than finding the
exact time itself. We expect to see this relationship between the running time and the input  k 
regardless of what computer we run the code on.

The code we wrote seems to be correct, however, there is another, much simpler way to compute the
sum of the numbers from  1  to  k  using a formula that is very important for this class. It will show up
again and again. To prove that

k
∑ i = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + k = k(k + 1)/2,
i=1

it suffices to observe that you can add the numbers in pairs, matching i with k − i + 1 starting with
1 and k . There are k/2 such pairs and each adds up to k + 1. Let's use this formula to rewrite our
 sumk  function and time it.

import time 
 
def sumk2(k): 
    start = time.time() 
    total = (k*(k+1)//2) 
    end = time.time() 
    return total, end‑start 
 
timetrials(sumk2, 10000) 
timetrials(sumk2, 100000) 
timetrials(sumk2, 1000000) 
timetrials(sumk2, 10000000) 
timetrials(sumk2, 100000000) 

average = 0.0000006 for k = 10000 
average = 0.0000004 for k = 100000 
average = 0.0000004 for k = 1000000 
average = 0.0000003 for k = 10000000 
average = 0.0000004 for k = 100000000 
This is much much faster. Even as  k  becomes very large, it doesn't seem to slow down.

Modeling the Running Time of a Program

We will introduce a general technique for describing and summarizing the number of operations
required to run a piece of code, be it a single line, a function, or an entire program. Along the way, we
will develop a vocabulary for comparing the efficiency of algorithms that doesn't require us to run
them and time them.

It's not enough to count lines of code. A single line of code can do a lot of stuff. Here's a one line
function that does all kinds of stuff. It creates a list of 200 items and sums all the entries for each of
value of i from 0 to k-1 and returns a list of the results.

def f001(k): 
    return [sum([i, i + 1] * 100) for i in range(k)] 
 
print(f001(9)) 

[100, 300, 500, 700, 900, 1100, 1300, 1500, 1700] 

Instead, we will want to count operations a little more carefully. The unit we will use to describe the
running time of an algorithm is the number of atomic operations. This is not exactly a unit of time,
but at some level, the atomic operations that we will describe can all be performed in a small number
of clock cycles on your CPU and so correspond to a real amount of time.

(Please don't say "runtime" as a replacement for "running time". These are not the same thing!)

Atomic operations include

arithmetic and boolean operations

variable assignment
accessing the value of a variable from its name
branching (jumping to another part of the code for if/for/while statements)
calling a function
returning from a function

Below, there is listings of the asymptotic running time of the most common operations on the
standard python collections classes. You should familiarize yourself with these listings. In particular,
you should be aware of which operations on collections produce a new copy of the collection. For
example, concatenation and slicing both produce a new collection and thus the running times are
proportional to the length of the newly created collection. In almost all cases, one can see the reason
for the running times by understanding what work the algorithms must do and also how the data
structure is laid out in memory.

List Operations
Operation Name Code Cost

index access  L[i]  1

index assignment  L[i] = newvalue  1
Append  L.append(newitem)  1
Pop (from end of list)  L.pop()  1
Pop (from index  i )  L.pop(i)  n−i
Insert at index  i   insert(i, newitem)  n−i
Delete an item (at index  i )  del(item)  n−i
Membership testing  item in L  n
Slice  L[a:b]  b−a
Concatenate two lists  L1 + L2  n1 + n2
Sort  L.sort()  n log2 n

Note that these running times are the same for the other sequential collections,  list  and  str 
assuming the operation exists for those immutable types. For example, index access, membership
testing, slicing, and concatenation all work. Remember that slicing and concatenation produce new
objects and don't change the originals.

Dictionary Operations
Unlike the  list  operations, the costs of  dict  operations are a bit mysterious. Some may seem
downright impossible. Should it really cost just one atomic operation to test if a given item is in a set
of a billion elements? There are three things to remember:

1. We will study how dictionaries are implemented and how they exploit one of the wonderful,
clever ideas of computer science.
2. This is just a model, albeit a useful and accurate one.
3. The actual cost is a kind of average. It could take longer sometimes.
 Operation Name Code Cost

Get item  D[key]  1

Set item  D[key] = value  1
(key) membership testing  key in D  1
Delete an item by its key  del D[key]  1

Set Operations
A  set  is very much like a  dict  where the entries have keys but no values. They are implemented
the same way and so, the running times for their common operations are the same. Some set
operations that correspond to our mathematical idea of a set do not correspond to operations on
dictionaries. Operations that produce a new set will leave the input sets unchanged. Below, let nA be
the size of set  A  and let nB be the size of set  B .

Operation Name Code Cost

Add a new item  A.add(newitem)  1

Delete an item  A.delete(item)  1
Union  A | B  nA + nB
Intersection  A & B  min{nA , nB }
Set differences  A - B  nA
Symmetric Difference  A ^ B  nA + nB

Asymptotic Analysis and the Order of Growth

The goal is not to predict exactly how much time an algorithm will take, but rather to predict the
order of growth of the time as the input size grows. That is, if we have algorithm that operates on a
list of length n, the running time could be proportional to n. In that case, the algorithm will take 100
times longer on a list that is 100 times longer. A second algorithm might have a running time
proportional to n2 for inputs of length n. Then, the algorithm will take 10000 times longer on a list
that is 100 times longer. Notice, that the exact constant of proportionality is not important for these
facts.
The size of the input refers to the number of bits needed to encode it. As we will be ignoring constant
factors, we could just as easily refer to the number of words (a word is 64 bits) needed to encode it.
An integer or a float is generally stored in one word. Technically, we can store some really big
numbers in a python integer which would require many more words, but as a convention, we will
assume that ints and floats fit in a constant number of bits. This is necessary to assume that
arithmetic takes constant time.

Focus on the Worst Case

Usually, different inputs of the same length may have different running times. The standard
convention we will use most of the time is to consider the worst case. We are looking for upper
bounds on the running time. If the algorithm has a running time that is better than the analysis
predicts, that's okay.

Big-O
We will almost always describe running times as a function of the input size. That is, the running time
on an input of size n might be 5n2 + 3n + 2. If we were to write this as a (mathematical) function of
n, we could call it f and write f (n) = 5n2 + 3n + 2. In this example, the 5n2 is by far the most
important

The formal mathematical definition that allows us to ignore constant factors is called the big-O
notation. As a warmup example, we say that

f (n) = O(n2 )

if there exists a constant c such that

f (n) ≤ cn2 for all sufficiently large n.

This is correct for f (n) = 5n2 + 3n + 2 because if we take c = 6, we see that as long as n > 4,
we have

f (n) = 5n2 + 3n + 2 < 5n2 + 4n < 5n2 + n2 ≤ 6n2 .

The above inequalities came from repeated using the fact that n > 4.

We can now state the formal definition of the big-O notation: Given (nondecreasing) functions f and
g , we say f (n) = O(g(n)) if there exist constants c and n0 such that for all n > n0 we have
f (n) ≤ cg(n).
The most important features of big-O usage
1. The big-O hides constant factors. Any term that does not depend on the size of the input is
considered a constant and will be suppressed in the big-O.
2. The big-O tells us about what will eventually be true when the input is sufficiently large.

These two features are present in the formal definition. The constant c is the constant that stands in
for all other constant factors. This constant also allows us to suppress lower order terms. The
constant n0 is the threshold after which the inequality is true.

Practical Use of the Big-O and Common

Functions
Even though the definition of the big-O notation allows us to compare all kinds of functions, we will
usually use it to simplify functions, eliminating extraneous constants and low order terms. So, for
example, you should write O(n) instead of O(3n) and O(n2 ) instead of O(5n2 + 3n + 2). There
are several functions that will come up so often that we will want to have them in our vocabulary.

Constant Functions, O(1)

Logarithmic Functions, O(log n)
Linear Functions, O(n)
"n Log n", O(n log n)
Quadratic Functions, O(n2 )
Polynomial Functions, O(nk ) for some constant k .
Exponential Functions, O(2n ) (this is different from 2O(n) )
Factorial Functions, O(n!)

Bases for Logarithms

You may have noticed that we didn't give a base for the logarithm above. The reason is that inside
the big-O, logarithms of any constant base are the same. That is, loga (n) = O(logb (n)), where a
1
and b are any two constants. Here's the proof. Let c = logb (a) and n0 = 0.

logb (n)
loga (n) = ≤ c logb (n) for all n > n0 .
logb (a)
Practice examples
In each of the following examples, assume the input is a list of length n.

def f002(L):     
    newlist = []  # 2 creating a new list and variable assignment 
    for i in L:   # loops n times 
        if i % 2 == 0:  # 1 
            newlist.append(i) # 1 (append is constant time on lists) 
    return newlist  # 1 return 

Let's count up the cost of each line of code. The costs are in the comments. So, the total cost is
something like 2n + 3 in the worst case (i.e. when all the items are even). We would report this as
O(n) and we would call this a linear-time algorithm, or sometimes simply a linear algorithm.

def f003(L): 
    x = 0   # 1 
    for i in L:   # loop n times 
        for j in L:   # loop n times 
            x += i*j  # 3 two arithmetic operations and assignment 
    return x # 1 

Again, let's count up the cost of each line of code. The costs are in the comments. The inner loop
costs 3n and it runs n times, so the total for the whole method is 3n2 + 2. We would report this as
O(n2 ) and call this a quadratic-time algorithm, or sometimes simply a quadratic algorithm.

Here's an example we've seen several times.

def f004(L): 
    x = 0 # 1 
    for j in range(1,len(L))  # loops n‑1 times 
        for i in range(j) # loops j times 
            x += L[i] * L[j] # 5 two list accesses, two arithmetic operations and assignment 
    return x # 1 

It's a little trickier to figure this one out because the number of times the inner loop runs changes with
each iteration of the outer loop. In this case, it's not hard to add up the cost of each of the outer
loops one at a time. The first costs 5, the second costs 10, and so on to that the j th costs 5j . The
total costs (including initializing  x  and returning is

n−1 n−1
5n(n − 1)
2 + ∑ 5i = 2 + 5 ∑ i = 2 + = O(n2 ).
2
i=1 i=1
We will see this kind of sum often so it's worth recognizing it (both in the code and as a mathematical
expression).
Chapter 5
Stacks and Queues

Abstract Data Types

Throughout the book, we will use abstract data types or ADTs as a starting point for any discussion
of a particular data structure. An ADT is not a data structure, but it does tell us about data structures.
The way we use the term ADT, it will be very similar to the term interface. An ADT answers two main
questions:

1. What is the data to be stored or represented?

2. What can we do with the data?

These together describe the behavior or semantics of the data structure. When we give an ADT, we
will list the names of the methods that will be present, what kind of input they take, and what is their
expected output. The ADT may also describe error situations and what should happen if they occur.
A data structure is an implementation of an ADT. To make, this distinction, it is sometimes useful to
call them concrete data structures, though we will usually omit the word "concrete".

The ADT tells us what methods the data structure will implement. However, the ADT does not give an
hints or prescriptions for how the data structure is implemented. This is important both as a
definition, but also as a guiding design idea in object-oriented programming, that I will write it again:

The ADT should be independent of all concerns about its implementation.

You may have noticed that the two questions ADTs answer are related to the definition of
encapsulation we gave in our earlier discussion of object-oriented programming. As such, when we
implement data structures in python, we will package them as classes.

The Stack ADT

 push - add a new item to the stack.
pop - remove and return the next item in Last In First Out (LIFO) ordering.
peek - return the next item in LIFO ordering.
size - returns the number of items in the stack (we'll use the pythonic  __len__  method)
isempty - return  True  if the stack has no items and return  False  otherwise.

This ADT can be implemented quite easily using a  list . We will implement it with a class called
 ListStack . Here, we are giving hints about the implementation in the name. This is more common in
Java programming, but we adopt the convention in the book to help us distinguish between different
implementations of the same ADT.

class ListStack: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._L = [] 
 
    def push(self, item): 
        self._L.append(item) 
 
    def pop(self): 
        return self._L.pop() 
 
    def peek(self): 
        return self._L[‑1] 
 
    def __len__(self): 
        return len(self._L) 
 
    def isempty(self): 
        return len(self) == 0 
 

The  Stack  class above illustrates the object-oriented strategy of composition (the  Stack  has a
 list ). It is also an example of the Wrapper Pattern. The Python builtin  list  is doing all the heavy
lifting, but from the user's perpective, they don't know or care how the methods are implemented.
This is not exactly true. The user would start to care if the performance is bad. It wouldn't be too hard
to make this inefficient. For example, we could have implemented the Stack by pushing new items
into the front of the list. Here we use inheritance to avoid rewriting the methods that will not be
changing.
 class BadStack(ListStack):     
    def push(self, item): 
        self._L.insert(0, item) 
 
    def pop(self): 
        return self._L.pop(0) 
 
    def peek(self): 
        return self._L[0] 
 

A simple asymptotic analysis shows why this implementation is far less efficient. Inserting a new item
into a list requires that all the other items in the list have to move over to make room for the new item.
If we insert at the beginning of the list, then every item has to be copied to a new position. Thus, the
 insert  call in  push  takes O(n) time. Similarly, if we pop an item at the beginning of the list, then
every other item in the list gets moved over one space to fill in the gap. Thus, the  list.pop  call in
our  pop  method will take O(n) time as well. So,  push  and  pop  both take linear time in this
implementation. It really earns its name.

The Queue ADT

enqueue - add a new item to the queue.
dequeue - remove and return the next item in First In First Out (FIFO) ordering.
len - returns the number of items in the queue.
isempty - return  True  if the queue has no items and return  False  otherwise.

class Queue: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._L = [] 
 
    def enqueue(self, item): 
        self._L.append(item) 
 
    def dequeue(self): 
        return self._L.pop(0) 
 
    def __len__(self): 
        return len(self._L) 
 
    def isempty(self): 
        return len(self) == 0 
"But wait," you say. "I thought calling  pop(0)  was a bad thing to do."

Yes, it takes time proportional to the length of the list, but what can we do? If we dequeue off the end
of the list, we would have to enqueue by inserting into the front of the list. That's bad too.

Here's a different idea. Let's not really delete things from the front of the list. Instead, we'll ignore
them by keeping the index of the head of the queue.

class Queue: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._head = 0 
        self._L = [] 
 
    def enqueue(self, item): 
        self._L.append(item) 
 
    def dequeue(self): 
        item = self._L[self._head] 
        self._head += 1 
        return item 
 
    def __len__(self): 
        return len(self._L) ‑ self._head 
 
    def isempty(self): 
        return len(self) == 0 

There is something a little odd about this code: it never gets rid of old items after they have been
dequeued. Even if it deleted them, it still keeps a place in the list for them. This is a kind of lazy
update. Shouldn't we clean up after ourselves? Yes, but let's wait. Here's the idea. If the list ever gets
half empty, that is, if  _head  is more than half the length of  _L , then we will bite the bullet and
replace  _L  with a slice of it. "Biting the bullet" is an especially good turn of phrase here if you view
this process as a kind of amputation of the old gangrenous stump of the list.

class ListQueue(Queue): 
    def dequeue(self): 
        item = self._L[self._head] 
        self._head += 1 
        if self._head > len(self._L)//2: 
            self._L = self._L[self._head:] 
            self._head = 0 
        return item 
So, it looks like we lost all the benefits of our lazy update, because now we have a  dequeue  method
that sometimes takes linear time. However, we don't do that every time. How expensive is it really? If
we do all our  enqueue  operations first, and then dequeue all our items afterwards, then some items
at the end of the list get moved (i.e. copied to a new memory location during the slicing operation)
many times. The first half of the items don't get moved at all. The next quarter of the list (from 1/2 to
3/4) gets moved exactly one time. The next eighth of the list moves exactly twice. Of n total items,
there are n/2i items that get moved i − 1 times. Thus the total number of moves for n items is at
log n
most n ∑i=1 i−1 2i
< n. So, "on average", the cost per item is constant.

This kind of lazy update is very important. In fact, it's how python is able to do  list.pop  quickly.
Technically,  pop()  can also take linear time for some calls but on average, the cost is constant per
operation. The same idea makes  append  fast. In that case, python allocates extra space for the list
and every time it fills up, the list is copied to a bigger area, that roughly doubles in size.

Dealing with errors

Often, we make assumptions about how a class can or ought to be used. This is also considered part
of the semantics of the class and it affects how we program it. We would like to write error-free code.
We'd like to make it so that it always works no matter how it gets misused, but sometimes, an error
message is the correct behavior.

In python we raise an error the way one might throw an egg. Either someone gently catches it or it
crashes. Depending on the situation, either might be the right thing to do.

In the case of a stack, it is never correct usage to  pop  from an empty stack. Thus, it makes sense
that someone using our  Stack  class should have their program crash and see an error message if
they attempt to call  pop  when there are no items left on the stack. In the list implementation above,
this does happen:

s = ListStack() 
s.push(5) 
s.pop() 
s.pop() 

Traceback (most recent call last): 
  File "/Users/don/Dropbox/work/research/books/datastructures/docs/km4t2scas_code_chunk.py", lin
    s.pop() 
  File "/Users/don/Dropbox/work/research/books/datastructures/docs/km4t2scas_code_chunk.py", lin
    return self._L.pop() 
IndexError: pop from empty list 
If we look at the error message, it even seems pretty good. It says we tried to  pop from empty list .
But if you look at the code, you might ask, "What list?" We know how the  ListStack  class is
implemented, and the name even gives a hint at its implementation, so we might guess what's going
on, but the user does have to search up the stack trace a little to see the line of their own code that
caused the problem. We could catch the exception in our  pop  method and raise a different error so
the source of the problem is more obviously the user's code. Otherwise, the stack trace reports the
error in our code. Then, a user, might have to try to understand our class in order to backtrack to
understand what they did wrong in their code. Instead, give them an error that explains exactly what
happened.

class AnotherStack(ListStack): 
    def pop(self): 
        try: 
            return self._L.pop() 
        except IndexError: 
            raise RuntimeError("pop from empty stack") 
 
s = AnotherStack() 
s.push(5) 
s.pop() 
s.pop() 

Traceback (most recent call last): 
  File "/Users/don/Dropbox/work/research/books/datastructures/docs/atzll6npg_code_chunk.py", lin
    return self._L.pop() 
IndexError: pop from empty list 
 
During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred: 
 
Traceback (most recent call last): 
  File "/Users/don/Dropbox/work/research/books/datastructures/docs/atzll6npg_code_chunk.py", lin
    s.pop() 
  File "/Users/don/Dropbox/work/research/books/datastructures/docs/atzll6npg_code_chunk.py", lin
    raise RuntimeError("pop from empty stack") 
RuntimeError: pop from empty stack 
Chapter 6
Deques and Linked Lists
A deque (pronounced "deck") is a doubly-ended queue. It acts like both a stack and a queue, storing
an ordered collection of items with the ability to add or remove from both the beginning and the end.
Here is the ADT.

The Deque ADT

addfirst(item) - add  item  to the front of the deque.
addlast(item) - add  item  to the end of the deque.
removefirst(item) - remove and return the first item in the deque.
removelast(item) - remove and return the last item in the deque.
len - return the number of items in the deque.

As a start, let's see what a deque implementation would look like using a list.
 class ListDeque: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._L = [] 
 
    def addfirst(self, item): 
        self._L.insert(0, item) 
 
    def addlast(self, item): 
        self._L.append(item) 
 
    def removefirst(self): 
        return self._L.pop(0) 
 
    def removelast(self): 
        return self._L.pop() 
 
    def __len__(self): 
        return len(self._L) 

The code is simple enough, but a couple of operations will start to get slow as the deque gets large.
Inserting and popping at index 0 takes O(n) time. This follows from the way lists are stored
sequentially in memory. There is no way to change the beginning of the list without shifting all the
other elements to make room or fill gaps. To make this work, we are going to have to give up on the
idea of having the items laid out sequentially in memory. Instead, we'll store some more information
with each item that we can use to extract the order.

Linked Lists
Linked lists are a simple data structure for storing a sequential collection. Unlike a standard python
list, it will allow us to insert at the beginning quickly. The idea is to store the items in individual objects
called nodes. A special node is the head of the list. Each node stores a reference to the next node in
the list.

We will use the usual trick of looking back into our intuitive description above to find the nouns that
will be the types we will need to define. In this case, there is the list itself and the nodes. Let's write a
class for a  ListNode .

class ListNode: 
    def __init__(self, data, link = None): 
        self.data = data 
        self.link = link 
Now, to start the  LinkedList , we will store the head of the list. We will provide two methods,
 addfirst  and  removefirst  both of which modify the beginning of the list. These will behove
roughly like the push and pop operations of the stack. This first implementation will hide the nodes
from the user. That is, from a users perspective, they can create a linked list, and they can add and
remove nodes, but they don't have to touch (or even know about) the nodes. This is abstraction
(hiding details)!

class LinkedList: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._head = None 
 
    def addfirst(self, item): 
        self._head = ListNode(item, self._head) 
 
    def removefirst(self): 
        item = self._head.data 
        self._head = self._head.link 
        return item 

Implementing a Queue with a LinkedList

Recall that even our best list implementation of a Queue required linear time in the worst case for
 dequeue  operations (though constant on average). We could hope to do better with a linked list.
However, right now, we have no way to add to or remove from the end of the linked list. Here is an
inefficient, though simple and correct way to do it.
 class LinkedList: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._head = None 
 
    def addfirst(self, item): 
        self._head = ListNode(item, self._head) 
 
    def addlast(self, item): 
        if self._head is None: 
            self.addfirst(item) 
        else: 
            currentnode = self._head 
            while currentnode.link is not None: 
                currentnode = currentnode.link 
            currentnode.link = ListNode(item) 
 
    def removefirst(self): 
        item = self._head.data 
        self._head = self._head.link 
        return item 
 
    def removelast(self): 
        if self._head.link is None: 
            return self.removefirst() 
        else: 
            currentnode = self._head 
            while currentnode.link.link is not None: 
                currentnode = currentnode.link 
            currentnode.link = None 
            return currentnode.data 

The new  addlast  method implements a very common pattern in linked lists. It starts at the head of
the linked list and traverses to the end by following the  link s. It uses the convention that the  link 
of the last node is  None .

Similarly,  removelast  traverses the list until it reaches the second to last element.

This traversal approach is not very efficient. For a list of length n, we would need O(n) time to find
the end.

A different approach might be to store the last node (or tail) of the list so we don't have to search for
it when we need it. This requires a bit of overhead to make sure it always stores the correct node.
Most of the special cases happen when there is only one item in the list. We will be able to use this to
get some improvement for  addlast , because we will be able to jump right to the end without
traversing. We will also be able to clean up the code for  removelast  a little by eliminating the
 link.link  stuff and instead just check if we reached the tail.

class LinkedList: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._head = None 
        self._tail = None 
 
    def addfirst(self, item): 
        self._head = ListNode(item, self._head) 
        if self._tail is None: self._tail = self._head 
 
    def addlast(self, item): 
        if self._head is None: 
            self.add(item) 
        else: 
            self._tail.link = ListNode(item) 
            self._tail = self._tail.link 
 
    def removefirst(self): 
        item = self._head.data 
        self._head = self._head.link 
        if self._head is None: self._tail = None 
        return item 
 
    def removelast(self): 
        if self._head is self._tail: 
            return self.removefirst() 
        else: 
            currentnode = self._head 
            while currentnode.link is not self._tail: 
                currentnode = currentnode.link 
            item = self._tail.data 
            self._tail = currentnode 
            self._tail.link = None 
            return item 
 

Now we can implement the Queue ADT with a linked list. It will be surprisingly easy.
 # linkedqueue.py 
from linkedlist import LinkedList 
 
class LinkedQueue: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._L = LinkedList() 
 
    def enqueue(self, item): 
        self._L.addlast(item) 
 
    def dequeue(self): 
        return self._L.removefirst() 
 
    def __len__(self): 
        return len(self._L) 

Storing the length

With our  ListQueue , we implemented  __len__  to give the number of items in the queue. To
implement the same method on the  LinkedQueue , we will want delegate the length computation to
the  LinkedList .

Let's add the ability to get the length of the linked list. We'll do it by storing the length and updating it
with each operation.
 class LinkedList: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._head = None 
        self._tail = None 
        self._length = 0 
 
    def addfirst(self, item): 
        self._head = ListNode(item, self._head) 
        if self._tail is None: self._tail = self._head 
        self._length += 1 
 
    def addlast(self, item): 
        if self._head is None: 
            self.addfirst(item) 
        else: 
            self._tail.link = ListNode(item) 
            self._tail = self._tail.link 
            self._length += 1 
 
    def removefirst(self): 
        item = self._head.data 
        self._head = self._head.link 
        if self._head is None: self._tail = None 
        self._length ‑= 1 
        return item 
 
    def removelast(self): 
        if self._head is self._tail: 
            return self.removefirst() 
        else: 
            currentnode = self._head 
            while currentnode.link is not self._tail: 
                currentnode = currentnode.link 
            item = self._tail.data 
            self._tail = currentnode 
            self._tail.link = None 
            self._length ‑= 1 
            return item 
 
    def __len__(self): 
        return self._length 

We still have to iterate through the whole list in order to remove from the end. It seems very hard to
avoid this. As a result, our  removelast  method still takes linear time. We won't fix this until the next
chapter and it will require a new idea. So, instead of testing the deque ADT methods now, we'll
instead see how to implement an efficient queue using a linked list.
Testing Against the ADT
Recall that the Queue ADT specifies the expected behavior of a Queue data structure. It describes
the public interface to the class. Now that we can use our  LinkedList  class to implement a Queue
with worst-case constant time operations, we have multiple distinct implementations of the ADT.
Good tests for these data structures would only assume that they implement what is provided in the
ADT. In fact, we probably want to test both implementations with the same tests.

If we rename our first Queue implementations  ListQueue , we might have had the following tests for
it.
import unittest 
from listqueue import ListQueue 
 
class TestListQueue(unittest.TestCase): 
    def testinit(self): 
        q = ListQueue() 
 
    def testaddandremoveoneitem(self): 
        q = ListQueue() 
        q.enqueue(3) 
        self.assertEqual(q.dequeue(), 3) 
 
    def testalternatingaddremove(self): 
        q = ListQueue() 
        for i in range(1000): 
            q.enqueue(i) 
            self.assertEqual(q.dequeue(), i) 
 
    def testmanyoperations(self): 
        q = ListQueue() 
        for i in range(1000): 
            q.enqueue(2 * i + 3) 
        for i in range(1000): 
            self.assertEqual(q.dequeue(), 2 * i + 3) 
 
    def testlength(self): 
        q = ListQueue() 
        self.assertEqual(len(q), 0) 
        for i in range(10): 
            q.enqueue(i) 
        self.assertEqual(len(q), 10) 
        for i in range(10): 
            q.enqueue(i) 
        self.assertEqual(len(q), 20) 
        for i in range(15): 
            q.dequeue() 
        self.assertEqual(len(q), 5) 
 
if __name__ == '__main__': 
    unittest.main() 

..... 
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ 
Ran 5 tests in 0.128s 
 
OK 
Now that we have another implementation, we might be tempted to just copy and paste the old tests,
changing the references from  ListQueue  to  LinkedQueue . That is a lot of code duplication and
code duplication leads to problems. For example, suppose we realize that our code has issues if we
try to  dequeue  from an empty queue. If we decide on the right behavior, we will enforce it with a test.
Do we also copy the test to the other (copied) test file? What if one implementation is fixed and the
other is not?

This is a standard situation where inheritance is called for. We wanted to copy a bunch of methods to
be included in two different classes ( TestListQueue  and  TestLinkedQueue ). Instead we want them
to share the methods. So, we refactor the code, by extracting a superclass. Our new class will be
called  TestQueue . Both  TestListQueue  and  TestLinkedQueue  will extend  TestQueue . Remember
extending means inheriting from.
 # testqueue.py 
class TestQueue: 
    def newQueue(): 
        raise NotImplementedError 
 
    def testinit(self): 
        q = self.newQueue() 
 
    def testaddandremoveoneitem(self): 
        q = self.newQueue() 
        q.enqueue(3) 
        self.assertEqual(q.dequeue(), 3) 
 
    def testalternatingaddremove(self): 
        q = self.newQueue() 
        for i in range(1000): 
            q.enqueue(i) 
            self.assertEqual(q.dequeue(), i) 
 
    def testmanyoperations(self): 
        q = self.newQueue() 
        for i in range(1000): 
            q.enqueue(2 * i + 3) 
        for i in range(1000): 
            self.assertEqual(q.dequeue(), 2 * i + 3) 
 
    def testlength(self): 
        q = self.newQueue() 
        self.assertEqual(len(q), 0) 
        for i in range(10): 
            q.enqueue(i) 
        self.assertEqual(len(q), 10) 
        for i in range(10): 
            q.enqueue(i) 
        self.assertEqual(len(q), 20) 
        for i in range(15): 
            q.dequeue() 
        self.assertEqual(len(q), 5) 

The new class looks almost exactly the same as our old  TestListQueue  class exactly for a couple
small changes. Instead of creating a new  ListQueue  object in each test, we call a method called
 newQueue . In this class, that method is not implemented and you can see it will raise an error telling
you so if you were to try to call it. This method will be overwritten in the extending class to provide
the right kind of Queue object. There is another important difference between the  TestQueue  class
and our old  TestListQueue  class---the  TestQueue  class does not extend  unittest.TestCase . It
just defines some methods that will be mixed into  TestListQueue  and  TestLinkedQueue . Here are
our new test files.

# testlistqueue.py 
import unittest 
from testqueue import TestQueue 
from listqueue import ListQueue 
 
class TestListQueue(unittest.TestCase, TestQueue): 
    def newQueue(self): 
        return ListQueue() 
 
if __name__ == '__main__': 
    unittest.main() 

..... 
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ 
Ran 5 tests in 0.123s 
 
OK 

# testlinkedqueue.py 
import unittest 
from testqueue import TestQueue 
from linkedqueue import LinkedQueue 
 
class TestListQueue(unittest.TestCase, TestQueue): 
    def newQueue(self): 
        return LinkedQueue() 
 
if __name__ == '__main__': 
    unittest.main() 

..... 
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑ 
Ran 5 tests in 0.123s 
 
OK 

The classes,  TestListQueue  and  TestLinkedQueue , extend both  unittest.TestCase  and

 TestQueue . This is called multiple inheritance. In other languages like C++ that support multiple
inheritance, it is considered a bad design decision. However, in python, it is appropriate to use it for
this kind of mix in. The only thing to remember is that the golden rule of inheritance should still be
observed: inheritance mean 'is a'.

The Main Lessons:

Use the public interface as described in an ADT to test your class.
You can use inheritance to share functionality between classes.
Inheritance means 'is a'.

Design Patterns: The Wrapper Pattern

In the last two chapters, we saw several different implementations of the Queue ADT. The main ones,
 LinkedQueue  and  ListQueue  were very simple. In both cases, we used composition, the class
stored an object of another class, and then delegates most of the operations to the other class.
These are examples of something called the Wrapper Pattern. The Queue in both cases is a wrapper
around another data structure.

Design patterns also known as object-oriented design patterns or simply patterns are ways of
organizing classes in to solve common programming problems. In the case of the Wrapper Pattern,
we have a class that already "sort of" does what we want, but it has different names for the
operations and it possibly has many other operations that we don't want to support. So, we create a
new class that has an instance of another class (a  list  or  LinkedList  in our example) and then
provide methods that operate on that object. From outside the class, we don't have to know anything
about the wrapped class. Sometimes, this separation is called a layer of abstraction. The user of our
class does not have to know anything about our implementation in order to use the class.

The Main Lessons:

Use design patterns where appropriate to organize your code and improve readability.
The Wrapper Pattern gives a way to provide an alternative interface to (a subset of) the methods
in another class.
Composition means 'has a'.
Chapter 7
Doubly-Linked Lists
Previously, we introduced the Deque ADT and we gave two implementations, one using a list and one
using a linked list. In our linked list implementation, all of the basic operations ran in constant time
except  removelast . In this chapter, we're going to introduce a new data structure that allows us to
do all the Deque operations in constant time. The key idea will be to store two links in each node, one
forwards and one backwards so that we can traverse the list in either direction. In this doubly-linked
list, removing from the end will be symmetric to removing from the beginning, with the roles of head
and tail reversed.

When we create a new  ListNode , we can specify the nodes before and after so that the appropriate
links can be established. We want it to always be true that  b == a.link  if and only if  a = b.prev 
for any two nodes  a  and  b . To help ensure this invariant, we set  self.prev.link = self  and
 self.link.prev = self  unless  prev  or  link  respectively are  None .

class ListNode: 
    def __init__(self, data, prev = None, link = None): 
        self.data = data 
        self.prev = prev 
        self.link = link 
        if prev is not None: 
            self.prev.link = self 
        if link is not None: 
            self.link.prev = self 

First, we'll look at adding items a  DoublyLinkedList . These operations are very similar to the
 addfirst  operation on a  LinkedList . One has to do a little more work to update the  prev  node
that was not present in our  LinkedList .
 class DoublyLinkedList: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._head = None 
        self._tail = None 
        self._length = 0 
 
    def addfirst(self, item): 
        if len(self) == 0: 
            self._head = self._tail = ListNode(item, None, None) 
        else: 
            newnode = ListNode(item, None, self._head) 
            self._head.prev = newnode 
            self._head = newnode 
        self._length += 1 
 
    def addlast(self, item): 
        if len(self) == 0: 
            self._head = self._tail = ListNode(item, None, None) 
        else: 
            newnode = ListNode(item, self._tail, None) 
            self._tail.link = newnode 
            self._tail = newnode 
        self._length += 1 
 
    def __len__(self): 
        return self._length 

The code above is begging for refactoring. It's clear that there is a lot of shared logic between the two
methods. We should use this as an opportunity to simplify the code. In this case, we might consider
the more general problem of adding a node between two other nodes. We will just need to consider
those cases where the nodes  before  or  after  or both are  None .

    def _addbetween(self, item, before, after): 
        node = ListNode(item, before, after) 
        if after is self._head: 
            self._head = node 
        if before is self._tail: 
            self._tail = node 
        self._length += 1 
 
    def addfirst(self, item): 
        self._addbetween(item, None, self._head) 
 
    def addlast(self, item): 
        self._addbetween(item, self._tail, None) 
Symmetry is also apparent in the code to remove an item from either end. As with the  add  methods,
we factor out a (private) method that both use to remove a node and return its data. It includes a little
logic to detect if the head or tail or both change with the removal.

    def _remove(self, node): 
        before, after = node.prev, node.link 
        if node is self._head: 
            self._head = after 
        else: 
            before.link = after 
        if node is self._tail: 
            self._tail = before 
        else: 
            after.prev = before 
        self._length ‑= 1 
        return node.data 
 
    def removefirst(self): 
        return self._remove(self._head) 
 
    def removelast(self): 
        return self._remove(self._tail) 

Concatenating Doubly Linked Lists

There are several operations that are very fast on doubly linked lists compared to other lists. One of
the most useful is the ability to concatenate two lists. Recall that the plus sign can be used to
concatenate two  list  objects.

A = [1,2,3] 
B = [4,5,6] 
C = A + B 
print(A) 
print(B) 
print(C) 

[1, 2, 3] 
[4, 5, 6] 
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] 

For lists, concatenation creates a new list. It takes time proportional to the length of the newly
created list  C  and it doesn't modify the lists  A  or  B . For doubly linked lists, we could achieve the
same asymptotic running time by incrementally building up a new list. However, if we are allowed to
modify the lists, the concatenation can be accomplished by pointing the tail of the first list at the head
of the second.

    def __iadd__(self, other): 
        if other._head is None: return 
        if self._head is None: 
            self._head = other._head 
        else: 
            self._tail.link = other._head 
            other._head.prev = self._tail 
        self._tail = other._tail 
        self._length = self._length + other._length 
 
        # Clean up the other list. 
        other.__init__() 
        return self 

L = DoublyLinkedList() 
[L.addlast(i) for i in range(11)] 
B = DoublyLinkedList() 
[B.addlast(i+11) for i in range(10)] 
 
L += B 
 
n = L._head 
while n is not None: 
    print(n.data, end = ' ') 
    n = n.link 

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 

We have to be a bit careful about the differences between this concatenation operation and
concatenation of regular lists. With the doubly-linked list, concatenation empties the other list. It does
this so that we don’t have multiple doubly-linked lists with the same  ListNode s. That would be a
problem if we tried to edit just one of the lists, because the changes would be reflected in the other
list as well, possibly with disastrous consequences.
Chapter 8
Recursion
Recursion is an important idea across computer science. For us, in learning data structures and basic
algorithms, there are several ways to both think about and use recursion. At its simplest, one can
think of recursion as: when a function calls itself.

Although true, this definition doesn't really tell us how or why to use it, and what to do with it when
we find it in the wild. Our objectives for this chapter are three-fold:

1. Understand how recursion is implemented in a computer and translate this into a model for how
to think about recursive functions.
2. Use recursion as a problem solving technique, recognizing the role of "subproblems" as a
primary motivation for recursion.
3. Be able to analyze the running time of recursive functions.

Here is an example of a recursive function.

def f(k): 
    if k > 0: 
        return f(k‑1) + k 
    return 0 
 
print(f(5)) 

15 

This is actually just our familiar  sumk  function in disguise. How does it work? To find the sum of
numbers from 1 to k , it just finds the sum of the numbers from 1 to k − 1 and then adds k . Yes, we
know there is a better way to compute this sum, but there is something satisfying about this
approach. We were asked to solve a problem given some input k and we pretended we already had a
solution for smaller numbers (k − 1 in this case). Then, we used that solution to construct a solution
for k . The magic comes from the fact that the "pretended" solution was actually the same function. I
call this the pretend someone else wrote it approach to recursion. It's very handy for both writing and
analyzing recursive functions.

Recursion and Induction

The function  f  above does the same thing as our  sumk  function that we saw earlier. You can check
it using something called induction. In fact, this checking process is exactly what it means to "do a
proof by induction". There, you prove a fact, by checking that it is true in the base case. Then, you
prove that it's true for  k  assuming it's true for  k-1 . In the special case of checking that our function
k(k+1)
 f  is identical to the  sumk  function that simply returns , it looks as follows. First, check that
2
indeed

0 ∗ (0 + 1)
f (0) = 0 = .
2
Then observe that

(k − 1)(k − 1 + 1) (k − 1)k + 2k k(k + 1)

f (k) = f (k − 1) + k = +k = = .
2 2 2
We won't get many opportunities to do such proofs in this class, but it's worth remembering that
there is a strong connection between recursion and induction and working through this connection
can enrich your understanding of both concepts.

Some Basics
Here are some basic rules that you should try to follow to make sure your recursive algorithms
terminate.

1. Have a base case. If every function call makes another recursive call, you will never terminate.
2. Recursive calls should move towards the base case. This usually means that the recursive calls
are made on "smaller" subproblems. Here, "smaller" can mean different things.

It's not hard to write a recursive function that never stops in theory. However, in practice, so-called
infinite recursion is pretty quickly discovered with a  RecursionError . Python has a limit on the
recursion depth. This limit is usually around 1000.

The Function Call Stack

To think clearly about recursion, it helps to have an idea of how recursion works on a real computer. It
is easiest to first understand how all function calls work and then it should be clear that there is no
technical difference in making a recursive function call compared to any other function call.

def f(k): 
    var = k ** 2 
    return g(k+1) + var 
 
def g(k): 
    var = k + 1 
    return var + 1 
 
print(f(3)) 

15 

The following code gives a  RecursionError  even though none of the functions call themselves
directly. The error is really just signaling that the call stack reached its limit.

def a(k): 
    if k == 0: return 0 
    return b(k) 
 
def b(k): 
    return c(k) 
 
def c(k): 
    return a(k‑1) 
 
a(340) 

An interesting recursive example con be constructed by creating two lists, each one containing the
other.

A = [2] 
B = [2] 
A.append(A) 
B.append(B) 
A == B 
 Traceback (most recent call last): 
  File "/Users/don/Dropbox/work/research/books/datastructures/docs/o0gy5s49o_code_chunk.py", lin
    A == B 
RecursionError: maximum recursion depth exceeded in comparison 

In this case, the recursive function is  list.__eq__ , the method that compares two lists when you
use  == . It compares the list by checking if the elements are equal. The lists  A  and  B  each have
length 2. The first elements match. The second element of each list is another list. To compare them,
there is another call to  list.__eq__ . This is a repeat of the first call and the process repeats until the
recursion limit is reached.

The Fibonacci Sequence

Here is a classic example of a recursively defined function. It was originally named for Leonardo
Fibonacci who studied it in the context of predicting the growth of rabbit populations.

def fib(k): 
    if k in [0,1]: return k 
    return fib(k‑1) + fib(k‑2) 
 
print([fib(i) for i in range(15)]) 

[0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377] 

This works, but it starts to get really slow, even for small values of  k . For example, I tried to run it for
 k = 40  and gave up on it.

This is a case that we will encounter many times in this course. Once we embrace recursion as a way
to think about breaking problems into smaller pieces, we may find very short recursive algorithms,
but for one reason or another, we may want to rewrite them without recursion. Here's a version that
uses a loop instead.

def fib(k): 
    a, b = 0,1 
    for i in range(k): 
        a, b = b, a + b 
    return a 
 
print(fib(400)) 
 176023680645013966468226945392411250770384383304492191886725992896575345044216019675 

This is much better! At first look, it might seem like the only difference in the total work is just in the
extra overhead of making function calls rather than updating local variables. This is wrong. Let's work
out in more detail exactly what function calls are made in the recursive implementation. Let's say we
called  fib(6) . This makes calls to  fib(5)  and  fib(4) . This, in turn makes calls to  fib(4)  and
 fib(3)  as well as  fib(3)  and  fib(2) . Each of these four function calls will make two more
function calls each. We can draw them out in a tree. Notice, that already, we have multiple calls to
 fib(4)  as well as to  fib(3) . We might as well ask, how many times will we call the same function
with the same value? If we compute  fib(k) , the answer, interestingly enough is related to the
Fibonacci numbers themselves. Let T (k) denote the number of calls to  fib  when computing
 fib(k) . It's easy to see thatT (k) = T (k − 1) + T (k − 2) + 1. In this case, the result is nearly
exactly the Fibonacci numbers (T (1) = 1, T (2) = 2, T (3) = 4, T (4) = 7, ...). In each case, the
value of T is one less than a Fibonacci number. Thus, the running time of  fib  will grow like the
Fibonacci numbers, or equivalently, it will grow like ideal rabbit families, exponentially. The k th
Fibonacci number is about ϕk , where ϕ = 1+2 5 ∼ 1.618 is known as the Golden Ratio.

Euclid's Algorithm
Euclid's algorithm is a classic in every sense of the word. The input is a pair of integers  a, b  and the
output is the greatest common divisor, i.e., the largest integer that divides both  a  and  b  evenly. It is
a very simple recursive algorithm. We'll look at the code first and then try to figure out what its doing,
why it works, and how we can improve it.

def gcd(a, b): 
    if a == b: 
        return a 
    if a > b: 
        a, b = b, a 
    return gcd(a, b ‑ a) 

Like all recursive algorithms, there is a base case. Here, if  a == b , then  a  (or equivalently,  b ) is the
answer and we return it. Otherwise, we arrange it so  a < b  and make a recursive call:
 gcd(a, b - a) .

When we walk through some examples, by hand, it seems like the algorithm makes many recursive
calls when  b  is much bigger than  a . In fact, it's not hard to see that we'll need at least  a // b 
recursive calls before we swap  a  and  b . These calls are just repeatedly subtracting the same
number until it gets sufficiently small. This is known to elementary school students as division. This is
actually a deep idea that's worth pondering. Division is iterated subtraction the same way that
multiplication is iterated addition, exponentiation is iterated multiplication, and logarithms are iterated
⋆
division. Theoretical computer scientists even have a use for iterated logarithms (we call it log ,
pronounced "log star").

We can just do the division directly rather than repeatedly subtracting the smaller from the bigger. The
result is a slight change to the base case and replacing the subtraction with the modulus operation.
Here is the revised code.

def gcd(a, b): 
    if a > b: 
        a, b = b, a 
    if a == 0: 
        return b 
    return gcd(a, b % a) 
 
print("GCD of 12 and 513 is", gcd(12, 513)) 
print("GCD of 19 and 513 is", gcd(19, 513)) 
print("GCD of 19 and 515 is", gcd(515 ,19)) 

GCD of 12 and 513 is 3 
GCD of 19 and 513 is 19 
GCD of 19 and 515 is 1 

Incidentally, if  a  and  b  are allowed to be arbitrary numbers, you might try find examples where the
gcd algorithm gets caught in an infinite recursion. In this way, you might discover the irrational
numbers. If  a  and  b  are rational, then the algorithm is also guaranteed to terminate.

If you wanted to find an example that was as bad as possible, you might try to find a pair  (a,b) 
such that after one iteration, you get the pair  (b-a, a)  where the ratio of the numbers is the same.
Then, you can check that this will continue and therefore, you'll never get closer to that base case.
But is that possible? Is there a pair of numbers with this property? The answer is yes. One could use
a = 1 and b = ϕ, the Golden Ratio.
Chapter 9
Dynamic Programming
The term dynamic programming refers to an approach to writing algorithms in which a problem is
solved using solutions to the same problem on smaller instances. Recall that this was the same
intuition behind recursive algorithms. Indeed, there are many instances in which you might arrive at a
dynamic programming algorithm by starting with a recursive algorithm that is inefficient because it
repeatedly makes recursive calls to a function with the exact same parameters, wasting time.

We start with the problem of giving change using the fewest coins. Imagine that you have a list of
coin amounts [1, 5, 10, 25] and an amount of change that you want to produce. A first attempt at
such a solution might be to assign the change in a greedy way. In that approach, you would simply
try to add the largest coin you can until you are done. Here is an implementation. (Notice the
relationship to Euclid's GCD algorithm)

A Greedy Algorithm

def greedyMC(coinvalueList, change): 
    coinvalueList.sort() 
    coinvalueList.reverse() 
    numcoins = 0 
    for c in coinvalueList: 
        # Add in as many coins as possible of the next largest value. 
        numcoins += change // c 
        # Update the amount of change left to return. 
        change = change % c 
    return numcoins 
 
print(greedyMC([1,5,10,25], 63)) 
print(greedyMC([1, 21, 25], 63)) 
print(greedyMC([1, 5, 21, 25], 63)) 
 6 
15 
7 

Clearly, this does not work. The second example returns 15 and the third returns 7. In both cases, the
right answer should have been 3 as can be achieved by returning three 21 cent coins. The problem is
not a bug in the code, but an incorrect algorithm. The greedy solution does not work here. Let's try
recursion instead.

A Recursive Algorithm

def recMC(coinValueList, change): 
   minCoins = change 
   if change in coinValueList: 
     return 1 
   else: 
      for i in [c for c in coinValueList if c <= change]: 
         numCoins = 1 + recMC(coinValueList,change‑i) 
         if numCoins < minCoins: 
            minCoins = numCoins 
   return minCoins 
 
# print(recMC([1,5,10,25],63)) # Seriously don't even try to run this 
print(recMC([1, 21, 25],63)) 
print(recMC([1, 5, 21, 25],63)) 

3 
3 

This works, but it's very slow. A natural thing to try here is to memoize solutions from previous
recursive calls. This way, we don't repeat work by computing the number of coins for a specific
amount of change more than one time. Don't forget to pass along the dictionary of known results
when making recursive calls.

A Memoized Version
 def memoMC(coinValueList, change, knownResults): 
    minCoins = change 
    if change in coinValueList: 
        knownResults[change] = 1 
        return 1 
    elif change in knownResults: 
        return knownResults[change] 
    else: 
        for i in [c for c in coinValueList if c <= change]: 
            numCoins = 1 + memoMC(coinValueList, change‑i, knownResults) 
            if numCoins < minCoins: 
                minCoins = numCoins 
                knownResults[change] = minCoins 
    return minCoins 
 
print(memoMC([1,5,10,25],63, {})) 
 
knownresults = {} 
print(memoMC([1, 5, 10, 21, 25], 63, knownresults)) 
print(knownresults) 

6 
3 
{1: 1, 5: 1, 6: 2, 7: 3, 8: 4, 9: 5, 10: 1, 11: 2, 12: 3, 13: 4, 14: 5, 15: 2, 16: 3, 17: 4, 18

This is much faster and now can work with much larger instances. It was slightly awkward that we
had to pass in an empty dictionary to get things started, but that's not a big deal. Let's look at the
dictionary  knownresults  that gets populated by the algorithm. It contains all but a few of the values
from 1 to 63. Maybe instead of recursive calls, starting with the full amount of change and working
our way down, we could build up the dictionary of values starting with the small values and working
our way up. This is the essence of dynamic programming.

It happens that a list makes sense here because we want to access the items by their integer indices
starting from 1. In each step, the next best answer can be found by trying each coin, subtracting its
value from the current value, and checking the list to find how many coins are needed to make up the
rest of the change if that coin is used.

A Dynamic Programming Algorithm

Finally, we can repackage this into a dynamic programming algorithm. The idea is to explicitly fill in
the table of all values, using previously computed values to compute new values.
 def dpMakeChange(coinValueList, change): 
    # Create a list to store the answers to the subproblems 
    minCoins = [None]*(change + 1) 
 
    # For each value from 0 to change, compute the min number of coins needed. 
    for cents in range(change+1): 
        # Assume at first that all 1's are used. 
        minCoins[cents] = cents 
        # Check if any coin leads to a better solution to our current best. 
        for c in coinValueList: 
            if cents >= c: 
                minCoins[cents] = min(minCoins[cents], minCoins[cents ‑ c] + 1) 
 
    # Return just the element in the table corresponding to the desired value. 
    return minCoins[change] 
 
print(dpMakeChange([1,5,10,21,25], 63)) 
print(dpMakeChange([1,5,10,21,25], 64)) 
 

3 
4 

A major difference between the dynamic programming approach and the memoized recursion
approach is that the dynamic program builds the results from the bottom up, while the recursive
version works top down, starting work on the largest problem first and working down to the smaller
problems as needed. Do either of these approaches correspond to the way that you solve
programming problems?

Another example
In order to see dynamic programming as a general approach to solving problems, we need to see
another example. As with recursion, the key is to look for smaller problems to solve. This is really a
theme throughout this course. All problems must be broken into smaller problems. If those smaller
problems are instances of the same problem we started with then maybe recursion or dynamic
programming are appropriate.

The next problem we'll solve with dynamic programming is called the longest common subsequence
(LCS) problem. A subsequence of a string  s  is string  t  such that the characters of  t  all appear in
 s  in the same order. For example  'abc'  is a subsequence of  'xxxxxaxxxbxxxcxxxx' 
The input to the LCS problem is a pair of strings, we'll call them  X  and  Y . The output is the longest
string that is a subsequence of both  X  and  Y .

One view of this problem is that we want to find the smallest set of characters to remove from  X  and
 Y  so that the results will be equal. However, we don't want to try all possible subsequences. There
are 2 subsequences of a string of length n. That's too many! Our code would never finish for even
n

n = 100.

Here is the trick that cracks open this problem. If  X  and  Y  end in the same character, then that
character is the last character in the longest common substring. That is, if  X[-1] == Y[-1]  then the
 LCS(X,Y)  is  LCS(X[:-1], Y[:-1]) + X[-1] . On the other hand, if  X[-1] != Y[-1] , then at least
one of  X[-1]  or  Y[-1]  is not in the LCS. In that case,  LCS(X,Y)  is the longer of  LCS(X[:-1],Y) 
and  LCS(X,Y[:-1]) . We could turn this into a very tidy recursive algorithm.

def reclcs(X,Y): 
    if X == "" or Y == "": 
        return "" 
    if X[‑1] == Y[‑1]: 
        return reclcs(X[:‑1], Y[:‑1]) + X[‑1] 
    else: 
        return max([reclcs(X[:‑1], Y), reclcs(X, Y[:‑1])], key = len) 

However, when we run this on moderately size inputs, it seems to run forever. It's not hard to see that
if we had two long strings that didn't match any characters, then the tree of recursive calls would be
a complete binary tree of depth n. That's 2n recursive calls. However, there aren't that many distinct
recursive calls. Each such call is of the form  reclcs(X[:i], Y[:j]) , i.e. it takes the first  i 
characters of  X  and the first  j  characters of  Y  for some  i  and  j . This means that there should
only be O(n2 ) distinct recursive calls. As n2 is much smaller than 2n , many recursive calls are being
repeated. That's wasted work that we can avoid. We could add memoization as before, but really,
what we want is dynamic programming. We'll store solutions to subproblems in a dictionary  t  so
that  t[(i,j)] == LCS(X[:i], Y[:j]) . We initialize the table with  ""  for subproblems with  i = 0 
or  j = 0  (the base case). Here is the code.
 def lcs(X, Y): 
    t = {} 
    for i in range(len(X)+1): t[(i,0)] = "" 
    for j in range(len(Y)+1): t[(0,j)] = "" 
 
    for i, x in enumerate(X): 
        for j, y in enumerate(Y): 
            if x == y: 
                t[(i+1,j+1)] = t[(i, j)] + x 
            else: 
                t[(i+1,j+1)] = max([t[(i, j+1)], t[(i+1, j)]], key = len) 
    return t[(len(X), len(Y))] 

The initialization takes linear time and the main pair of loops iterate O(n2 ) times. The inner loop
takes time proportional to the LCS in the worst case, because we will concatenate strings of that
length. The total running time is O(kn2 ) where k is the length of the output.

Can you think of a way to get the running time down to O(n2 )? This would require a different way to
store solutions to subproblems.
Chapter 10
Binary Search
Binary search is a classic algorithm. It is particularly nice to think about as a recursive algorithm. If
you are looking for an item in a sorted list, you break the list in half and repeat the search on
whichever side could contain the missing element, which can be found by comparing with the
median element. Then, repeating on the smaller list is just a single recursive call.

def bs(L, item): 
    if len(L) == 0: return False 
    median = len(L) // 2 
    if item == L[median]: 
        return True 
    elif item < L[median]: 
        return bs(L[:median], item) 
    else: 
        return bs(L[median + 1:], item) 

This code, although correct, is not nearly as efficient as it could be. To analyze it, we use the same
technique as we will use for all recursive algorithms in this course. We will count up all the operations
that will be performed by the function except the recursive calls. Then we will draw the tree of all
recursive calls and add up the cost of each call.

In this case, the worst-case running time of  bs  on a list of length n is n/2 plus a constant. So, the
first call costs n/2. The second costs n/4. The third costs n/8. Adding them up gives a number
close to n. So, we are taking linear time to test membership. We would be faster to just iterate one
time through the list by using the  in  function (i.e.  list.__contains__ ).

If we're going to do faster, we have to avoid all that slicing. Let's only pretend to slice the list and
instead pass the indices defining the range of the list we want to search. Here is a first attempt.
 def bs(L, item, left = 0, right = None): 
    if right is None: right = len(L) 
    if right ‑ left == 0: return False 
    if right ‑ left == 1: return L[left] == item 
    median = (right + left) // 2 
    if item < L[median]: 
        return bs(L, item, left, median) 
    else: 
        return bs(L, item, median, right) 

Note that we had to do a little work with default parameters so that we can still call this function as
 bs(mylist, myitem) . This involves a check to see if  right is None  and sets it to be the length of
the list if necessary.

When we analyze this recursive algorithm just as before, we see that all the operations take constant
time, so the total running time will be proportional to the total number of recursive calls. The tree of
function calls is a single chain of length at most O(log n). (Why log(n)? This is the number of times
you can cut n in half before it gets down to 1.) So, we see that the asymptotic running time is
O(log n).

In the analysis, we observed that the tree of function calls is a single chain. This is called linear
recursion. Here, we have a special case in which the function directly returns the result of the
recursive function call. That is called tail recursion.

In general, tail recursion can always be replaced by a loop. The idea is to simply update the
parameter variables and loop rather than making a recursive call. Here is the idea in action.

def bs(L, item): 
    left, right = 0, len(L) 
    while right ‑ left > 1: 
        median = (right + left) // 2 
        if item < L[median]: 
            right = median 
        else: 
            left = median 
    return right > left and L[left] == item 

Note that this solution is simpler to write than our original, and is also probably slightly faster. It does
require a little more thought to see why it's correct and why it runs in O(log n) time.

The Sorted List ADT

 add(item)  - adds  item  to the sorted list.
  remove(item)  - removes the first occurrence of  item  from the sorted list. Raise a  ValueError 
if the  item  is not present.
 __getitem__(index)  - returns the item with the given  index  in the sorted list. This is also
known as selection.
 __contains__(item)  - returns true if there is an item of the sorted list equal to  item .
 __iter__  - returns an iterator over the sorted list that yields the items in sorted order.
 __len__  - returns the length of the sorted list.

Here is a very simple implementation of the sorted list ADT.

class SimpleSortedList: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._L = [] 
 
    def add(self, item): 
        self._L.append(item) 
        self._L.sort() 
 
    def remove(self, item): 
        self._L.remove(item) 
 
    def __getitem__(self, index): 
        return self._L[index] 
 
    def __contains__(self, item): 
        return item in self._L 
 
    def __len__(self): 
        return len(self._L) 
 
    def __iter__(self): 
        return iter(self._L) 

This is a classic example of the Wrapper pattern. The  list  storing the items is kept private so we
can enforce that it stays ordered. It looks a bit like a cheat to implement  add  in this way, but we'll
see later as we cover sorting algorithms that this might be an efficient approach after all.

The one algorithm in this mix that seems most relevant to improve is the  __contains__  method.
Even though, we are just calling out to python's built-in method for checking membership in a list, we
have some hoping of improving the efficiency because we know that the list is sorted.

Let's replace it with binary search as we implemented it above.

 class BSSortedList(SimpleSortedList): 
    def __contains__(self, item): 
        left, right = 0, len(self._L) 
        while right ‑ left > 1: 
            median = (right + left) // 2 
            if item < self._L[median]: 
                right = median 
            else: 
                left = median 
        return right > left and self._L[left] == item 

We might also try to use binary search to find the index at which we want to insert a new node in
order to speed up  add . Unfortunately, after finding the index, we still need to spend linear time in the
worst-case to insert an item into a list at a particular index.
Chapter 11
Sorting

The Quadratic-Time Sorting Algorithms

Before we dive into particular sorting algorithms, let's first ask an easier question:

Given a list  L , determine if  L  is sorted or not.

After a little, thought, you will probably come up with some code that looks like the following.

def is_sorted(L): 
    for i in range(len(L)‑1): 
        if L[i]>L[i+1]: 
            return False 
    return True 
 
print(is_sorted([1,2,3,4,5])) 
print(is_sorted([1,4,5,7,2])) 

True 
False 

This is much better than the following, more explicit code.

def is_sorted_slow(L): 
    for i in range(len(L)‑1): 
        for j in range(i+1, len(L)) 
            if L[j] < L[i]: 
              return False 
    return True 
The latter code checks that every pair of elements is in the right order. The former code is more clever
in that it only checks adjacent elements. If the list is not sorted, then there will be two adjacent
elements that will be out of order. This is true because ordering relations are transitive, that is, if
 a < b  and  b < c , then  a < c . It's important to realize that we are using this assumption, because
later, we will define our own ways of ordering items, and we will need to make sure this is true so that
sorting even makes sense (if  a < b < c < a , then what is the correct sorted order?).

Let's use the  is_sorted  method to write a sorting algorithm. Instead of returning False when we find
two elements out of order, we'll just fix them and move on. Let's call this (for reasons to become
clear)  dumberSort .

def dumberSort(L): 
    for i in range(len(L)‑1): 
        if L[i]>L[i+1]: 
            L[i], L[i+1] = L[i+1], L[i] 

The main problem with this code is that it doesn't sort the list.

L = [5,4,3,2,1] 
dumberSort(L) 
print(L) 

[4, 3, 2, 1, 5]

We should probably do it twice or more. We could even repeat the algorithm until it works.

def dumbSort(L): 
    while (not isSorted(L)): 
        dumberSort(L) 

L = [5,4,3,2,1] 
dumbSort(L) 
print(L) 

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Will it ever get the list sorted?

How many times will we  dumberSort  the list?

After some thinking, you will notice that if  n = len(L) , then looping  n-1  times is enough. There are
several different ways to see that this is correct. You may see that every element in the list moves at
least one place closer to its final location with each iteration.

Another way to see that this works is to check that after calling  dumberSort(L)  one time, the largest
element will move all the way to the end of the list and stay there through all subsequent calls. Calling
 dumberSort(L)  a second time will cause the second largest element to bubble up to the second to
last to last place in the list. We are uncovering what is called an invariant, something that is true
every time we reach a certain point in the algorithm. For this algorithm, the invariant is that after  i 
calls to  dumberSort(L) , the last  i  items are in their final (sorted) locations in the list. The nice thing
about this invariant is that if it holds for  i = n , then the whole list is sorted, and we can conclude
the algorithm is correct.

At this point, we would test the code and think about refactoring. Remember the DRY (D on't R epeat
Y ourself) principle. Because we know how many times to loop, we could just use a  for  loop.

def bubbleSort(L): 
    for iteration in range(len(L)‑1): 
        for i in range(len(L)‑1): 
            if L[i]>L[i+1]: 
                L[i], L[i+1] = L[i+1], L[i] 
 
alist = [0, 100000,54,26,93,17,77,31,44,55,20] 
bubbleSort(alist) 
print(alist) 

[0, 17, 20, 26, 31, 44, 54, 55, 77, 93, 100000]

At this point, we have a correct algorithm and it's quite easy to bound its running time. It's O(n2 ), a
quadratic time algorithm.

We lost something compared to  dumbSort , namely, we no longer stop early if the list is already
sorted. Let's bring that back. We'll use a flag to check if any swaps were made.

def bubbleSort(L): 
    keepgoing = True 
    while keepgoing: 
        keepgoing = False 
        for i in range(len(L)‑1): 
            if L[i]>L[i+1]: 
                L[i], L[i+1] = L[i+1], L[i] 
                keepgoing = True 

Now, that we know an invariant that leads to a correct sorting algorithm, maybe we could work
backwards from the invariant to an algorithm. Recall, the invariant was that after  i  iterations of a
loop, the  i  largest elements are in their final positions. We can write an algorithm that just makes
sure to achieve this, by selecting the largest among the first n-i elements and moving that element
into place.

def selectionSort(L): 
    n = len(L) 
    for i in range(n‑1): 
        max_index=0         
        for index in range(n ‑ i): 
            if L[index] > L[max_index]: 
                max_index = index 
        L[n‑i‑1], L[max_index] = L[max_index], L[n‑i‑1] 

There is another invariant that we have implicitly considered previously when working with sorted
lists. Recall there, we assumed that we had a sorted list and one new element was added that had to
moved into the correct position. We saw several different variations of this. We can turn this invariant
into yet another sorting algorithm. To keep it as close to possible as the previous attempts, we will
say that the invariant is that after  i  iterations, the last  i  elements in the list are in sorted order.

Do you see the difference between this and our previous invariant?

There are many ways we could enforce this invariant. We'll do it by "bubbling" element  n-i  into
position in the  i th step. Note this is not the final position, but rather the position that satisfies the
invariant.

def insertionSort(L): 
    n = len(L) 
    for i in range(n): 
        for j in range(n‑i‑1, n‑1): 
            if L[j]>L[j+1]: 
                L[j], L[j+1] = L[j+1], L[j] 

As before, we can make this algorithm go faster if the list is already sorted (or almost already sorted).
We stop the inner loop as soon as the element is in the right place

def insertionSort(L): 
    n = len(L) 
    for i in range(n): 
        j = n ‑ i ‑ 1 
        while j < n ‑ 1 and L[j]>L[j+1]: 
            L[j], L[j+1] = L[j+1], L[j] 
            j+=1 
There is an important point to remember in the code above. If  j == n-1 , then evaluating
 L[j] < L[j+1]  would cause an error. However, this code does not cause an error, because the
expression  j < n - 1 and L[j]>L[j+1]  evaluates the first part first. As soon as  j < n-1  evaluates
to False, it doesn't need to evaluate the other clause of the  and . It skips it.

You often see  insertionSort  written in a way that keeps the sorted part of the list in the front rather
than the end of the list.

Could you write such an insertion sort? Try it.

Sorting in Python
Python has two main functions to sort a list. They are called  sort()  and  sorted() . The difference
is that the former sorts the list and the latter returns a new list that is sorted. Consider the following
simple demonstration.

X = [3,1,5] 
Y = sorted(X) 
print(X, Y) 
 
X.sort() 
print(X) 

[3, 1, 5] [1, 3, 5]
[1, 3, 5]

When working with your own classes, you may want to sort elements. To do so, you only need to be
able to compare elements.

In the following example, the elements are sorted by decreasing value of  b . Then, the list is sorted
again, but the key function is supplied give a different comparator. Notice that the parameter is the
function itself and not the evaluation of the function.
 from random import randrange 
 
class Foo: 
    def __init__(self, a, b, c): 
        self.a = a 
        self.b = b 
        self.c = c 
 
    def __lt__(self, other): 
        return other.b < self.b 
 
    def __str__(self): 
        return "(%d, %d, %d)" % (self.a, self. b, self. c) 
 
    def geta(self): 
        return self.a 
 
L = [Foo(randrange(100),randrange(100), randrange(100)) for i in range(6)] 
L.sort() 
for foo in L: 
    print(foo) 
 
print("‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑") 
 
for foo in sorted(L, key = Foo.geta): 
    print(foo) 
 

(28, 89, 84)

(65, 51, 96)
(55, 44, 60)
(89, 36, 25)
(57, 35, 84)
(2, 5, 93)
--------
(2, 5, 93)
(28, 89, 84)
(55, 44, 60)
(57, 35, 84)
(65, 51, 96)
(89, 36, 25)

If the key function returns a tuple, it will sort by the first element and break ties with subsequent
elements. This kind of sorting is called lexicographic because it is how you would sort words in
alphabetical order.
Here is an example of sorting strings by their length (longest to shortest) using the alphabetical order
(ignoring case) to break ties.

strings = "here are Some sample strings to be sorted".split() 
 
def mykey(x): 
    return ‑len(x), x.upper() 
 
print(sorted(strings, key=mykey)) 

['strings', 'sample', 'sorted', 'here', 'Some', 'are', 'be', 'to']

Chapter 12
Sorting with Divide and Conquer
Previously, we saw some simple quadratic algorithms for sorting. We saw  bubbleSort ,
 selectionSort , and  insertionSort . We considered all these algorithms from the perspective of
correctness. We wanted to have ways to argue that the result was indeed a sorted list, and only
afterwards applied some optimizations (such as stopping early). We used the idea of an invariant.
Specifically, it was a loop invariant, something that is true on each iteration of the loop. We started
with the invariant that after  i  iterations, the last  i  elements are in sorted order.

Invariants help us to reason about our code the same way we do with recursive algorithms. Once the
code is written, we assume the algorithm works on small examples in the same way we assume a
loop invariant holds from a previous iteration of the loop.

Now, our goal is to write a faster sorting algorithm.

Divide and Conquer is a paradigm for algorithm design. It usually consists of 3 (plus one) parts. The
first part is to divide the problem into 2 or more pieces. The second part is the conquer step, where
one solves the problem on the pieces. The third part is the combine step where one combines the
solutions on the parts into a solution on the whole.

The description of these parts leads pretty directly to recursive algorithms, i.e. using recursion for the
conquer part. The other part that appears in many such algorithms is a base case, as one might
expect in a recursive algorithm. This is where you deal with inputs so small that they cannot be
divided.

Mergesort
The most direct application of the Divide and Conquer paradigm to the sorting problem is the
mergesort algorithm. In this algorithm, all the difficult work is in the merge step.
 def mergeSort(L): 
    # Base Case! 
    if len(L) < 2: 
        return 
 
    # Divide! 
    mid = len(L) // 2 
    A = L[:mid] 
    B = L[mid=] 
 
    # Conquer! 
    mergeSort(A) 
    mergeSort(B) 
 
    # Combine! 
    merge(A, B, L) 
 
def merge(A, B, L):    
    i = 0 # index into A 
    j = 0 # index into B 
    while i < len(A) and j < len(B): 
        if A[i] < B[j]: 
            L[i+j] = A[i] 
            i = i + 1 
        else: 
            L[i+j] = B[j] 
            j = j + 1 
      # Add any remaining elements once one list is empty 
      L[i+j:] = A[i:] + B[j:] 

That last line might look a little strange. The right side of the assignment is concatenating the
remaining elements from the two lists (of which one should be empty). Then, this list is assigned into
a slice. In its wonderfulness, python allows you to assign into a slice the same way you would assign
into an index.

We could also use some more logic in the loop to avoid this last step, though I have found students
disagree as to which approach is simpler.
 def merge(A, B, L):    
    i, j = 0, 0 
    while i < len(A) or j < len(B): 
        if j == len(B) or (i < len(A) and A[i] < B[j]): 
            L[i+j] = A[i] 
            i = i + 1 
        else: 
            L[i+j] = B[j] 
            j = j + 1 

The complex  if  statement above relies heavily on something called short-circuited evaluation of
boolean expressions. If we have a boolean operation like  or , and the first operand is  True , then we
don't have to evaluate the second operand to find out that the overall result will be  True . Using this
fact, python will not even evaluate the second operand. Similarly, if we have an  and  expression and
the first operand is  False , then the second operand is never evaluated. The key to remember is that
the order does matter here. The expression  (i < len(A) and A[i] < B[j]) or j == len(B)  is
logically equivalent, but if we use this expression instead, it will raise an IndexError when
 j == len(B) .

Short-circuit evaluation is not part of python magic, it's a standard feature in most programming
languages.

An Analysis
The analysis of  mergesort  will proceed in the usual way for recursive algorithms. We will count the
basic operations in the methods, not counting recursive calls. Then, we will draw the tree of recursive
calls and write down the cost of each function call in the tree. Because the input size will change from
call to call, the cost will also change. Then, we add them all up to get the total running time.

The  merge  function for two lists whole length add up to n takes O(n) time. This is because we only
need to do a comparison and some assignment for each item that gets added to the final list (of
which there are n).

In the tree of recursive calls, the top (or root) costs O(n). The next level has two calls on lists of
length n/2. The second level down has four calls of lists of length n/4. On down the tree, each level
i has 2i calls, each on lists of length n/2i . A nice trick to add these costs up, is to observe that the
costs of all nodes on any given level sum to O(n). There are about log2 n levels. (How many times
can you divide n by 2 until you get down to 1?)

So, we have log n levels, each costing O(n), and thus, the total cost is O(n log n).
Merging Iterators
The merge operation is another example of using some structure on our data (that two lists are
themselves sorted) to perform some operation quickly (find the minimum overall element in constant
time). However, after you've written enough python, you might start to feel like you are doing
something wrong if you are messing around with a lot of indices. When possible, it is much nicer to
use iterators. We'll use this problem as an example to motivate some deeper study into iterators.

Recall that an object is an Iterable in python if it has a method called  __iter__  that returns an
iterator, and an Iterator is a object that has an  __iter__  method and a  __next__  method. These
magic methods are called from the outside as  iter(my_iterable)  and  next(my_iterator) . They
are most commonly used by the  for  keyword either in for loops or in generator expressions as in
comprehensions.

class SimpleIterator: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._count = 0 
 
    def __iter__(self): 
        return self 
 
    def __next__(self): 
        if self._count < 10: 
            self._count += 1 
            return self._count 
        else: 
            raise StopIteration 
 
iterator1 = SimpleIterator() 
for x in iterator1: 
    print(x) 
 
iterator2 = SimpleIterator() 
L = [2 * x for x in iterator2] 
 1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

Iterators are a fundamental pattern in object-oriented programming and they appear in other
programming languages with slightly different methods. For example, some programming languages
have iterators that support a  hasnext  method that can tell in advance whether there is another item
to iterate over. In a standard python iterator, you simply try to get the next item and it will raise
 StopIteration  if there isn't one. This is an example of python's easier to ask forgiveness than
permission (EAFP) approach. Checking in advance is like asking for permission. However, such a
method can be handy. With it, one might also want a method called  peek  that will return the next
item without advancing past it.

Here is how one might implement these methods in python. The  BufferedIterator  class below is
built from any iterator. It stays one step of the iteration ahead of the user and stores the next item in a
buffer.
 class BufferedIterator: 
    def __init__(self, i): 
        self._i = iter(i) 
        self._hasnext = True 
        self._buffer = None 
        self._advance() 
 
    def peek(self): 
        return self._buffer 
 
    def hasnext(self): 
        return self._hasnext 
 
    def _advance(self): 
        try: 
            self._buffer = next(self._i) 
        except StopIteration: 
            self._buffer = None 
            self._hasnext = False 
 
    def __iter__(self): 
        return self 
 
    def __next__(self): 
        if self.hasnext(): 
            output = self.peek() 
            self._advance() 
            return output 
        else: 
            raise StopIteration 

We can use this  BufferedIterator  to implement another iterator that takes two iterators and
merges them as in the  merge  operation of  mergesort .

def merge(A, B): 
    a = BufferedIterator(A) 
    b = BufferedIterator(B) 
    while a.hasnext() or b.hasnext(): 
        if not a.hasnext() or (b.hasnext() and b.peek() < a.peek()): 
            yield next(b) 
        else: 
            yield next(a) 

This iterator looks very different from our previous one. First of all, it's not a class, but appears to just
be a method. This is a slick python way of defining a simple iterator. The "method" here has  yield 
statements instead of  return  statements. Python recognizes this and creates a generator object.
Calling  merge  will return an object of type  generator . A  generator  is an iterator. The easiest way
to think of it is as a method that pauses every time it reaches  yield  and resumes when asked for
the next item. The magic here is explained by understanding that this really is packaged into an
iterator object that is returned.

We can use this new  merge  iterator to write a new version of  mergesort .

def mergesort(L): 
    if len(L) > 1: 
        m = len(L) // 2 
        A, B = L[:m], L[m:] 
        mergesort(A) 
        mergesort(B) 
        L[:] = merge(A, B) 

Quicksort
The  mergesort  code does a lot of slicing. Recall that this creates a copy. Eventually, we will try to
get to a version that doesn't do this. A sorting algorithm, that just rearranges the elements in a single
list is called an in-place sorting algorithm. Before we get there, let's see the easiest version of
 quicksort . One way to think about the motivation for  quicksort  is that we want to do divide and
conquer, but we want the combine step to be as easy as possible. Recall that in  mergesort , most of
our cleverness was devoted to doing the combining. In  quicksort , the harder step is the dividing.

def quickSorted(L): 
    #base case 
    if len(L) < 2: 
        return L[:] 
 
    # Divide! 
    pivot = L[‑1] 
    LT = [e for e in L if e < pivot] 
    ET = [e for e in L if e == pivot] 
    GT = [e for e in L if e > pivot] 
 
    # Conquer 
    A = quickSorted(LT) 
    B = quickSorted(GT) 
 
    # Combine 
    return A + ET + B 
Let's do an in-place version. For this, we want to avoid creating new lists and concatenating them at
the end.
def quicksort(L, left = 0, right = None): 
    if right is None: 
        right = len(L) 
 
    if right ‑ left > 1:     
        # Divide! 
        mid = partition(L, left, right) 
 
        # Conquer! 
        quicksort(L, left, mid) 
        quicksort(L, mid+1, right) 
 
        # Combine! 
        # Nothing to do! 
 
def partition(L, left, right): 
    pivot = right ‑ 1 
    i = left        # index in left half 
    j = pivot ‑ 1   # index in right half 
 
    while i < j: 
        # Move i to point to an element >= L[pivot] 
        while L[i] < L[pivot]: 
            i = i + 1 
 
        # Move j to point to an element < L[pivot] 
        while i < j and L[j] >= L[pivot]: 
            j = j ‑ 1 
 
        # Swap elements i and j if i < j 
        if i < j: 
            L[i], L[j] = L[j], L[i] 
 
    # Put the pivot in place. 
    if L[pivot] <= L[i]: 
        L[pivot], L[i] = L[i], L[pivot] 
        pivot = i 
 
    # Return the index of the pivot. 
    return pivot 
 
# Simple test to see if it works. 
L = [5,2,3,1,4] 
quicksort(L) 
print(L) 
 [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] 

Here is a version without all the comments. It uses a helper function rather than using default
parameters to handle the initial call. It's helpful to look at at two different implementations of the
same function and compare the different choices that were made between the two.

def quicksort(L): 
    _quicksort(L, 0, len(L)) 
 
def _quicksort(L, left, right): 
    if right ‑ left > 1:     
        mid = partition(L, left, right) 
        _quicksort(L, left, mid) 
        _quicksort(L, mid+1, right) 
 
def partition(L, left, right): 
    i, j, pivot = left, right ‑ 2, right ‑ 1 
    while i < j: 
        while L[i] < L[pivot]: 
            i += 1 
        while i < j and L[j] >= L[pivot]: 
            j ‑= 1 
        if i < j: 
            L[i], L[j] = L[j], L[i] 
    L[pivot], L[i] = L[i], L[pivot]     
    return i 
Chapter 13
Selection
Consider the following problem.

Given a list of numbers, find the median element.

Recall that the median element is the one that would be in the middle if we sorted the list. So, the
following could would be correct.

def median(L): 
    L.sort() 
    return L[len(L) // 2] 

The code does rearrange the list and we'd have to decide if that was okay for our given list. If we use
a fast sorting algorithm, we can expect this algorithm to run in O(n log n) time.

Can we do better? How about a linear time algorithm?

Let's consider a related problem, first. If our goal is to find the second largest item in a list, we could
do this in linear time as follows.

def secondsmallest(L): 
    a, b = None, None 
    for item in L: 
        if a is None or item <= b: 
            a, b = item, a 
        elif b is None or item <= a: 
            b = item 
    return b 

We just stored a variable for each of the two largest we've seen so far and update them as we look at
new items. You could probably make this work for the third largest or more, but it would start to get
cumbersome and slow, especially if you wanted to extract the median.

Some other approach will be necessary to compute the median in linear time. Let's try divide and
conquer. To make this work, we're going to take an approach that often appears when dealing with
recursion:

To solve a problem with recursion, sometimes it's easier to solve a harder problem.

So, rather than solving the median problem directly, we will solve the selection problem defined as
follows.

The Selection Problem: Given a list of numbers and a number k , find the k th smallest number
in the list.

The  quickselect  algorithm

We can use a divide and conquer approach derived from  quicksort  to do selection. The idea is to
partition the list and then recursive do the selection on one part or the other. Unlike  quicksort , we
only have to do a recursive search on one half of the list (as in binary search). (Note that the smallest
element will be returned for k = 1, not k = 0, so there are several cases where we add one to the
pivot index.)
 def quickselect(L, k): 
    return _quickselect(L, k, 0, len(L)) 
 
def _quickselect(L, k, left, right): 
    pivot = partition(L, left, right) 
    if k <= pivot: 
        return _quickselect(L, k, left, pivot) 
    elif k == pivot + 1: 
        return L[pivot] 
    else: 
        return _quickselect(L, k, pivot + 1, right) 
 
def partition(L, left, right): 
    pivot = randrange(left, right) 
    L[pivot], L[right ‑1] = L[right ‑1], L[pivot] 
    i, j, pivot = left, right ‑ 2, right ‑ 1 
    while i < j: 
        while L[i] < L[pivot]: 
            i += 1 
        while i < j and L[j] >= L[pivot]: 
            j ‑= 1 
        if i < j: 
            L[i], L[j] = L[j], L[i] 
    L[pivot], L[i] = L[i], L[pivot]     
    return i 

Just as with  quicksort , we use a randomized pivot so that we can expect to eliminate a constant
fraction of the list with each new step. Unlike  quicksort , we will not make a recursive call on both
sides. As a result, we'll see that the average running time is only O(n). That means we can do
selection faster than we can sort, which makes sense, but it is not obvious how to do it. We'll make
the analysis formal below.

Analysis
The  quickselect  algorithm is a randomized algorithm.
The worst-case running time is bad. If we are trying to select the largest element and the pivots all
land on the smallest elements, then the running time will be quadratic.

Instead, we'll analyze the expected running time. The word expected comes from probability and
refers to the average over all random choices the algorithm makes.

Given a list of n numbers, the partition function will pick a random element to serve as the pivot. We
say a pivot is good if it lands in the range of indices from n/4 to 3n/4. So, choosing randomly, there
is a 50% chance of picking a good pivot.
With each recursive call, we get a smaller list. Let's say that ni is the size of the list on the ith
= n0 > n1 > ⋯ > nk , where k is the (unknown) number of recursive calls.
recursive call, so n
There is a 1/2 probability of a good pivot at any step, so the expected value of ni can be bounded
as follows.

3E[ni−1 ] 7
E[ni ] ≤ (1/2) ( ) + (1/2)(E[ni−1 ]) = ( ) E[ni−1 ].
4 8

This bound combines two bounds, each that holds at least half the time, first the good pivot case
where ni ≤ 3ni−1 /4 and second, the bad pivot case, where at least ni ≤ ni−1 . The actual
expectation will be smaller, but this upper bound suffices.

Repeating this fact by plugging it into itself (recursively) for smaller values gives the next bound in
terms of n.

2 3 i
7 7 7 7
E[ni ] ≤ ( ) ni−1 ≤ ( ) ni−2 ≤ ( ) ni−3 ≤ ⋯ ≤ ( ) n.
8 8 8 8

Each recursive call takes linear time, so the total running time will be

k k
T (n) = ∑ O(ni ) = O(∑ ni ).
i=0 i=0

So, we need to bound the sum of the ni s, but we only need to bound the expected (average) sum.
The most important fact in all of probability is the linearity of expectations. It says that the sum of
two expected values is the expected value of the sum. We use it here to finish our analysis.

E[T (n)] = O (∑ E[ni ]) ≤ O (∑ ( ) n) = O(n).

k k i
7
8
i=0 i=0

The last step follows by the well-known equation for geometric series. You should have seen it in a
math class by now, but don't hesitate to look it up if you forgot it.

One last time without recursion

The  quickselect  algorithm is an example of linear recursion. Each function call makes just one
more function call. It's also tail recursive because that single recursive call is the last operation prior
to returning. So, as we've seen several times before, it's possible to eliminate the recursion and
replace it with a single loop. The code is below, but you might want to try to write this yourself to see
if you understand both the algorithm and the process of tail recursion elimination.
 def quickselect(L, k): 
    left, right = 0, len(L) 
    while left < right: 
        pivot = partition(L, left, right) 
        if k <= pivot: 
            right = pivot 
        elif k == pivot + 1: 
            return L[pivot] 
        else: 
            left = pivot + 1 
      return L[left] 

As long as the difference between left and right shrinks by a constant factor every couple of pivots,
we can be sure to prune enough of the search to get a linear time algorithm.

Divide-and-Conquer Recap
There are three main classes of divide-and-conquer algorithms and analyses that we've seen for lists.

The first,and perhaps simplest, were those like binary search, where each recursive step takes
constant time and makes a single recursive call on a list that is a constant times smaller. The total
running time in those cases is proportional to the depth of the recursion, O(log n).

The second class of recursive, divide-and-conquer algorithms we saw were binary recursion
associated with sorting. In those, the running time is linear plus the time to make recursive calls on
shorter lists whose total length is O(n). In those cases, as long as the depth of the recursion is
O(log n), the total running time is O(n log n).

Now, we have a third class of divide-and-conquer algorithms, those like  quickselect . Here, like in
the sorting algorithms, the running time is linear plus the cost of recursive calls. However, like in
binary search, there is only one recursive call. In these cases, as long as the subproblems shrink by a
constant factor at each step, the running time will be O(n).

A Note on Derandomization
An algorithm that does not use randomness is called deterministic. So far, all the algorithms we have
covered are deterministic so we didn't need to make the distinction. In the case of the selection
problem, it's possible to solve it in linear time in the worst-case, without randomness.

If you recall the  quickselect  algorithm depends on getting an approximate median in order to
reduce the length of the list by a constant fraction. So, if you had an algorithm for finding the median
in linear time, you could use it to choose the pivots in  quickselect  in order to get a linear-time
algorithm.

That should sound a little wrong. We started this whole section with the idea that we can solve the
median problem using an algorithm for selection. Now, we want to solve the selection problem using
an algorithm for median. Will we be stuck with a chicken and egg situation?

The algorithm is sometimes called the median of medians algorithm. You can find more info about it
online.
Chapter 14
Mappings and Hash Tables
A mapping is an association between two sets of things. It associates a value to a key. We refer to
these associated pairs as key-value pairs. Keys must be unique, so that there can only be one value
associated with a given key.

The standard built-in data type in python for mappings is the dictionary ( dict ). This kind of mapping
is used by python itself to associate names of variables (strings) with objects. In the notation for
dictionaries, we would write  d[some_key] = some_value . This either creates a new key-value pair if
 some_key  was not already in the dictionary, or it overwrites the existing pair with key  some_key .

Not all programming languages come with a built-in data type for mappings. We're going to pretend
for a short time that we don't have a python dictionary available to us and go through the process of
implementing one ourselves. This will allow us to resolve one of the major unsolved mysteries from
earlier in the course:

Why does accessing or assigning a value in a dictionary take only constant time?

The Mapping ADT

A mapping is a collection of key-value pairs such that the keys are unique (i.e. no two pairs have the
same key). It supports the following methods.

 get(k)  - return the value associate to the key  k . Usually an error ( KeyError ) is raised if the
given key is not present.
 put(k, v)  - Add the key-value pair  (k,v)  to the mapping.

These are the two main operations. They are what make a mapping, and are generally implemented
as  __getitem__  and  __setitem__  in python in order to support the familiar square bracket
notation. We will put off anything more elaborate for now. When we get into some implementations,
we will put some other conditions on the keys.

A minimal implementation
Here is a very lightweight method for using a  list  as a mapping. We start with a little class to store
key-value pairs, then give two methods to implement get and put.

class Entry: 
    def __init__(self, key, value): 
        self.key = key 
        self.value = value 
 
    def __str__(self): 
        return str(self.key) + " : " + str(self.value) 
 
def mapput(L, key, value): 
    for e in L: 
        if e.key == key: 
            e.value = value 
            return 
    L.append(Entry(key, value)) 
 
def mapget(L, key): 
    for e in L: 
        if e.key == key: 
            return e.value 
    raise KeyError 

m = [] 
mapput(m, 4, 'five') 
mapput(m, 1, 'one') 
mapput(m, 13, 'thirteen') 
mapput(m, 4, 'four') 
assert(mapget(m, 1) == 'one') 
assert(mapget(m, 4) == 'four') 

Traceback (most recent call last): 
  File "/Users/don/Dropbox/work/research/books/datastructures/docs/nmxxolvxe_code_chunk.py", lin
    mapput(m, 4, 'five') 
NameError: name 'mapput' is not defined 
At this point, it seems that the only advantage of the  dict  structure is that it provides some useful
syntax for adding and getting entries. There are some other advantages, but we'll only reveal them by
trying to build a map ourselves.

First, let's put our new data structure in a class. This will allow us to encapsulate the underlying list so
that users don't accidentally mess it up, for example, by appending to it rather than using  put . We'd
like to protect users from themselves, especially when there are properties of the structure we want
to maintain. In this case, we want to make sure keys stay unique.

class ListMappingSimple: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._entries = [] 
 
    def put(self, key, value): 
        for e in self._entries: 
            if e.key == key: 
                e.value = value 
                return 
        self._entries.append(Entry(key, value)) 
 
    def get(self, key): 
        for e in self._entries: 
            if e.key == key: 
                return e.value 
        raise KeyError 

This is an okay start. It supports  get  and  put  and that's enough to be a mapping, but we'd like
several more interesting methods to really put such a structure to use. Let's extend the ADT with
more features.

The extended Mapping ADT

As with any collection, we might want some other methods such as  __len__ ,  __contains__ , or
various iterators.

The standard behavior for iterators in dictionaries is to iterate over the keys. Alternative iterators are
provided to iterate over the values or to iterate over the key-value pairs as tuples. For a  dict  object
this is done as follows.
 d = {'key1': 'value1', 'key2': 'value2'} 
 
for k in d: 
    print(k) 
 
for v in d.values(): 
    print(v) 
 
for k, v in d.items(): 
    print(k, v) 

key2 
key1 
value2 
value1 
key2 value2 
key1 value1 

We'll add the same kind of functionality to our Mapping ADT. So, the extended Mapping ADT
includes the following methods (with get and put renamed for python magic).

 __getitem__(k) ** - return the value associate to the key  k . Usually an error ( KeyError ) is
raised if the given key is not present.
 __setitem__(k, v)  - Add the key-value pair  (k,v)  to the mapping.
 __len__  - return the number of keys in the dictionary.
 __contains__(k)  - return true if the mapping contains a pair with key  k .
 __iter__  - return an iterator over the keys in the dictionary.
 values  - return an iterator over the values in the dictionary.
 items  - return an iterator over the key-value pairs (as tuples).

It is very important to recall from the very beginning of the course that the  dict  class is a non-
sequential collection. That is, there is no significance to the ordering of the items and furthermore,
you should never assume to know anything about the ordering of the pairs. You should not even
assume that the ordering will be consistent between two iterations of the same  dict . This same
warning goes for the mappings we will implement and we'll see that the ability to rearrange the order
of how they are stored is the secret behind the mysteriously fast running times. However, this first
implementation will have the items in a fixed order because we are using a  list  to store them.
class ListMapping: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._entries = [] 
 
    def put(self, key, value): 
        e = self._entry(key) 
        if e is not None: 
            e.value = value 
        else: 
            self._entries.append(Entry(key, value)) 
 
    def get(self, key): 
        e = self._entry(key) 
        if e is not None: 
            return e.value 
        else: 
            raise KeyError 
 
    def _entry(self, key): 
        for e in self._entries: 
            if e.key == key: 
                return e 
        return None 
 
    def __str__(self): 
        return str([str(e) for e in self._entries]) 
 
    def __getitem__(self, key): 
        return self.get(key) 
 
    def __setitem__(self, key, value): 
        self.put(key, value) 
 
    def __len__(self): 
        return len(self._entries) 
 
    def __contains__(self, key):     
        if self._entry(key) is None: 
            return False 
        else: 
            return True 
 
    def __iter__(self): 
      return (e.key for e in self._entries) 
 
    def values(self): 
        return (e.value for e in self._entries) 
 
     def items(self): 
        return ((e.key, e.value) for e in self._entries) 

Note that I took the opportunity to factor out some duplication in the  get  and  put  methods.

It's Too Slow!

Our goal is to to get the same kind of constant-time operations as in the  dict  class. Right now, we
are very far from that. Currently, we need linear time to get put, and check membership. To do better,
we're going to need a new idea. The  ListMapping  takes linear time because it has to iterate through
the list. We could make this faster if we had many short lists instead of one large list. Then, we just
need to have a quick way of knowing which short list to search or update.

We're going to store a list of  ListMappings . For any key  k , we want to compute the index of the
right  ListMapping  for  k . We often call these  ListMapping s buckets. This term goes back to the
idea that you can quickly group items into buckets. Then, when looking for something in a bucket,
you can check all the items in there assuming there aren’t too many.

This means, we want an integer, i.e. the index into our list of buckets. A hash function takes a key
and returns an integer. Most classes in python implement a method called  __hash__  that does just
this. We can use it to implement a simple mapping scheme that improves on the  ListMapping .

class HashMappingSimple: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._size = 100 
        self._buckets = [ListMapping() for i in range(self._size)] 
 
    def __setitem__(self, key, value): 
        m = self._bucket(key) 
        m[key] = value 
 
    def __getitem__(self, key): 
        m = self._bucket(key) 
        return m[key] 
 
    def _bucket(self, key): 
        return self._buckets[hash(key) % self._size] 

Let's look more closely at this code. It seems quite simple, but it hides some mysteries.

First, the initializer creates a list of 100 ListMaps. These are called the buckets. If the keys get spread
evenly between the buckets then this will be about 100 times faster! If two keys are placed in the
same bucket, this is called a collision.

The  __getitem__  and  __setitem__  methods call the  _bucket  method to get one of these buckets
for the given key and then just use that ListMap's get and put methods. So, the idea is just to have
several list maps instead of one and then you just need a quick way to decide which to use. The
 hash  function returns an integer based on the value of the given key. The collisions will depend on
the hash function.

How many buckets should we use?

The number 100 is pretty arbitrary. If there are many many entries, then one might get 100-fold
speedup over ListMap, but not more. It makes sense to use more buckets as the size increases. To
do this, we will keep track of the number of entries in the map. This will allow us to implement
 __len__  and also grow the number of buckets as needed. As the number of entries grows, we can
periodically increase the number of buckets. Here is the code.
 from listmapping import ListMapping 
 
class HashMapping: 
    def __init__(self, size = 2): 
        self._size = size 
        self._buckets = [ListMapping() for i in range(self._size)] 
        self._length = 0 
 
    def __setitem__(self, key, value): 
        m = self._bucket(key) 
        if key not in m: 
            self._length += 1 
        m[key] = value 
 
        # Check if we need more buckets. 
        if self._length > self._size: 
            self._double() 
 
    def __getitem__(self, key): 
        m = self._bucket(key) 
        return m[key] 
 
    def _bucket(self, key): 
        return self._buckets[hash(key) % self._size] 
 
    def _double(self): 
        # Save a reference to the old buckets. 
        oldbuckets = self._buckets 
        # Double the size. 
        self._size *= 2 
        # Create new buckets 
        self._buckets = [ListMapping() for i in range(self._size)] 
        # Add in all the old entries. 
        for bucket in oldbuckets: 
            for key, value in bucket.items(): 
                # Identify the new bucket. 
                m = self._bucket(key) 
                m[key] = value 
 
    def __len__(self): 
        return self._length 

Rehashing
The most interesting part of the code above is the  _double  method. This is a method that increases
the number of buckets. It's not enough to just append more buckets to the list, because the
 _bucket  method that we use to find the right bucket depends on the number of buckets. When that
number changes, we have to reinsert all the items in the mapping so that they can be found when we
next  get  them.

Factoring Out A Superclass

We have given two different implementations of the same ADT. There are several methods that we
implemented in the  ListMapping  that we will also want in the  HashMapping . It makes sense to
avoid duplicating common parts of these two (concrete) data structures. Inheritance provides a nice
way to do this.

This is the most common way that inheritance appears in code. Two classes want to share some
code, so we factor out a superclass that both can inherit from and share the underlying code.

There are some methods that we expect to be implemented by the subclass. We can enforce this by
putting the methods in the subclass, but raising an error if they are called. This way, the error will only
be raised if the subclass does not override those methods.

Here is the code for the superclass.

class Entry: 
    def __init__(self, key, value): 
        self.key = key 
        self.value = value 
 
    def __str__(self): 
        return "%d: %s" % (self.key, self.value) 
 
 
class Mapping: 
 
    # Child class needs to implement this! 
    def get(self, key): 
        raise NotImplemented 
 
    # Child class needs to implement this! 
    def put(self, key, value): 
        raise NotImplemented 
 
    # Child class needs to implement this! 
    def __len__(self): 
        raise NotImplemented 
 
    # Child class needs to implement this! 
    def _entryiter(self): 
        raise NotImplemented         
 
    def __iter__(self): 
      return (e.key for e in self._entryiter()) 
 
    def values(self): 
        return (e.value for e in self._entryiter()) 
 
    def items(self): 
        return ((e.key, e.value) for e in self._entryiter()) 
 
    def __contains__(self, key): 
        try: 
            self.get(key) 
        except KeyError: 
            return False 
        return True 
 
    def __getitem__(self, key): 
        return self.get(key) 
 
    def __setitem__(self, key, value): 
        self.put(key, value) 
  
    def __str__(self): 
        return "{%s}" % (", ".join([str(e) for e in self._entryiter()])) 

There is a lot here, but notice that there are really only four methods that a subclass has to
implement:  get ,  put ,  __len__ , and a method called  _entryiter  that iterates through the entries.
This last method is private because the user of this class does not need to access  Entry  objects.
They have the Mapping ADT methods to provide access to the data. This is why the  Entry  class is
an inner class (defined inside the  Mapping  class).

Now, the  ListMapping  can be rewritten as follows.

from mapping import Mapping, Entry 
 
class ListMapping(Mapping): 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._entries = [] 
 
    def put(self, key, value): 
        e = self._entry(key) 
        if e is not None: 
            e.value = value 
        else: 
            self._entries.append(Entry(key, value)) 
 
    def get(self, key): 
        e = self._entry(key) 
        if e is not None: 
            return e.value 
        else: 
            raise KeyError 
 
    def _entry(self, key): 
        for e in self._entries: 
            if e.key == key: 
                return e 
        return None 
 
    def _entryiter(self): 
        return iter(self._entries) 
 
    def __len__(self): 
        return len(self._entries) 
All the magic methods as well as the public iterators and string conversion are handled by the
superclass. The subclass only has the parts that are specific to this implementation.

The  HashMapping  class can also be rewritten as follows.

from mapping import Mapping 
from listmapping import ListMapping 
 
class HashMapping(Mapping): 
    def __init__(self, size = 100): 
        self._size = size 
        self._buckets = [ListMapping() for i in range(self._size)] 
        self._length = 0 
 
    def _entryiter(self): 
        return (e for bucket in self._buckets for e in bucket._entryiter()) 
 
    def get(self, key): 
        bucket = self._bucket(key) 
        return bucket[key] 
 
    def put(self, key, value): 
        bucket = self._bucket(key) 
        if key not in bucket: 
            self._length += 1 
        bucket[key] = value 
 
        # Check if we need more buckets. 
        if self._length > self._size: 
            self._double() 
 
    def __len__(self): 
        return self._length 
 
    def _bucket(self, key): 
        return self._buckets[hash(key) % self._size] 
 
    def _double(self): 
        # Save the old buckets 
        oldbuckets = self._buckets 
        # Reinitialize with more buckets. 
        self.__init__(self._size * 2) 
        for bucket in oldbuckets: 
            for key, value in bucket.items(): 
                self[key] = value 
Chapter 15
Trees
Trees data types are ideal for representing hierarchical structure. Trees are composed of nodes and
nodes have 0 or more children or child nodes. A node is called the parent of its children. Each node
has (at most) one parent. If the children are ordered in some way, then we have an ordered tree. We
are concerned primarily with rooted trees, i.e. there is a single special node called the root of the
tree. The root is the only node that does not have a parent. The nodes that do not have any children
are called leaves or leaf nodes.

There are many many examples of hierarchical (tree-like) structures:

Class Hierarchies (assuming single inheritance). The subclass is the child and the superclasses is
the parent. The python class  object  is the root.
File folders or directories on a computer can be nested inside other directories. The parent-child
relationship encode containment.
The tree of recursive function calls in the execution of a divide-and-conquer algorithm. The
leaves are those calls where the base case executes.

Even though we use the family metaphor for many of the naming conventions, a family tree is not
actually a tree. The reason is that these violate the one parent rule.

When we draw trees, we take an Australian convention of putting the root on the top and the children
below. Although this is backwards with respect to the trees we see in nature, it does correspond to
how we generally think of most other hierarchies.

Some more definitions

A path in a tree is a sequence of nodes in which each node is a child of the previous node. We say it
is a path from x to y if the first node is x and the last node is y . There exists a path from the root to
every node in the tree. The length of the path is the number of hops or edges which is one less than
the number of nodes in the path. The descendants of a node x are all those nodes y for which there
is a path from x to y . If y is a descendant of x, then we say x is an ancestor of y . Given a tree T
and a node n in that tree, the subtree rooted at n is the tree whose root is n that contains all
descendants of n.

The depth of a node is the length of the path to the node from the root. The height of a tree is the
maximum depth of any node in the tree.

A recursive view of trees

A tree can be defined recursively as a root with 0 or more children, each of which is tree. This will be
convenient at first and will be important later on as we think about doing more elaborate algorithms
on trees, many of which are easiest to describe recursively. Be warned however, that our object-
oriented instincts will later kick in as we separate the notions of trees and nodes. Having two different
kinds of things will lead us to use two different classes to represent them.

We can use lists to represent a hierarchical structure by making lists of lists. To make this a little more
useful, we will also store some data in each node of the tree. We'll use the convention that a list is a
tree in which the first item is the data and the remaining items are the children (each should be a list).

Here is a simple example.

['a', ['p'], ['n'], ['t']] 

This is a tree with  'a'  stored in the root. The root has 3 children storing respectively,  'p' ,  'n' ,
and  't' . Here is a slightly bigger example that contains the previous example as a subtree.

T = ['c', ['a', ['p'], ['n'], ['t']], ['o', ['n']]] 

We can print all the nodes in such a tree with the following code.

def printtree(T): 
    print(T[0]) 
    for child in range(1, len(T)): 
        printtree(T[child]) 
 
printtree(T) 

Whenever I see code like that above, I want to replace it with something that can work with any
iterable collection. This would involve getting rid of all the indices and using an iterator. Here's the
equivalent code that uses an iterator.

def printtree(T): 
    iterator = iter(T) 
    print(next(iterator)) 
    for child in iterator: 
        printtree(child) 

Here we use the iterator to extract the first list item, then loop through the rest of the children.

The information in the tree is all present in this list of lists structure. However, it can be cumbersome
to read, write, and work with. Let's package this into a class that allows us to write code that is as
close as possible to how we think about and talk about trees.

class Tree: 
    def __init__(self, L): 
        iterator = iter(L) 
        self.data = next(iterator) 
        self.children = [Tree(c) for c in iterator] 

The initializer takes a list of lists representation of a tree as input. A  Tree  object has two attributes,
 data  stores data associated with a node and  children  stores a list of  Tree  objects. The recursive
aspect of this tree is clear from the way the children are generated as  Tree 's.

Let's add our print function to the class.

def printtree(self): 
    print(self.data) 
    for child in self.children: 
        child.printtree() 

This is the most common pattern for algorithms that operate on trees. It has two parts; one part
operates on the data and the other part applies the function recursively on the children. Here is
another example of the same pattern. Let's check if two trees are equal in the sense of having the
same shape and data. We use the  __eq__  method so this method will be used when we use  ==  to
check equality between  Tree 's.

def __eq__(self, other): 
    return self.data == other.data and self.children == other.children 

Here, it is less obvious that we are doing recursion, but we are because  self.children  and
 other.children  are lists and list equality is determined by testing the equality of the items. In this
case, the items in the lists are  Tree 's, so our  __eq__  method will be invoked for each one.
Here's another example. Let's write a function that computes the height of the tree. We can do this
by computing the height of the subtrees and return one more than the max of those. If there are no
children, the height is 0.

def height(self): 
    if len(self.children) == 0: 
        return 0 
    else: 
        return 1 + max(child.height() for child in self.children) 

Hopefully, you are getting the hang of these generator expressions.

Tree Traversal
Previously, all the collections we stored were either sequential (i.e.,  list ,  tuple , and  str ) or non-
sequential (i.e.,  dict  and  set ). The tree structure seems to lie somewhere between the two. There
is some structure, but it's not linear. We can give it a linear (sequential) structure by iterating through
all the nodes in the tree, but there is not a unique way to do this. For trees, the process of visiting all
the nodes is called tree traversal. For ordered trees, there are two standard traversals, called
preorder and postorder, both are naturally defined recursively.

In a preorder traversal, we visit the node first followed by the traversal of its children. In a postorder
traversal, we traverse all the children and then visit the node itself. The visit refers to whatever
computation we want to do with the nodes. The  printtree  method given previously is a classic
example of a preorder traversal. We could also print the nodes in a postorder traversal as follows.

def printpostorder(self): 
    for child in self.children: 
        child.printpostoder() 
    print(self.data) 

It is only a slight change in the code, but it results in a different output.

If you want to get fancy...

It was considered a great achievement in python to be able to do this kind of traversal with a
generator. Recursive generators seem a little mysterious, especially at first. However, if you break
down this code and walk through it by hand, it will help you have a better understanding of how
generators work.
 def preorder(self): 
    yield self.data 
    for child in self.children: 
        for data in child.preorder(): 
            yield data 

You can also do this to iterate over the trees (i.e. nodes). I have made this one private because the
user of the tree likely does not want or need access to the nodes.

def _preorder(self): 
    yield self 
    for child in self.children: 
        for descendant in child._preorder(): 
            yield descendant 

There's a catch!
This recursive generator does not run in linear time! Recall that each call to the generator produces
an object. The object does not go away after yielding because it may need to yield more values. If
one calls this method on a tree, each value yielded is passed all the way from the node to the root.
Thus, the total running time is proportional to the sum of the depths of all the nodes in the tree. For a
degenerate tree (i.e. a single path), this is O(n2 ) time. For a perfectly balanced binary tree, this is
O(n log n) time.

Using recursion and the call stack make the tree traversal code substantially simpler than if we had to
keep track of everything manually. It would not be enough to store just the stack of nodes in the path
from your current node up to the root. You would also have to keep track of your place in the iteration
of the children of each of those nodes. Remember that it is the job of an iterator object to keep track
of where it is in the iteration. Thus, we can just push the iterators for the children onto the stack too.

def _postorder(self): 
  node, childiter = self, iter(self.children) 
  stack = [(node, childiter)] 
  while stack: 
    node, childiter = stack[‑1] 
    try: 
      child = next(childiter) 
      stack.append((child, iter(child.children))) 
    except StopIteration: 
      yield node 
      stack.pop()          
In the above code, I don’t love the fact that I am reassigning  node  and  childiter  at every iteration
of the loop. Can you fix that so that it still works?
Chapter 16
Binary Search Trees
Let's start with an ADT. A SortedMapping is a mapping data type for which the keys are comparable.
It should support all the same operations as any other mapping as well as some other operations
similar to those in a  SortedList  such as predecessor search.

The Sorted Mapping ADT

A sorted mapping stores a collection of key-value pairs (with comparable keys) supporting the
following operations.

 get(k)  - Return the value associate to the key  k . An error ( KeyError ) is raised if the given
key is not present.
 put(k, v)  - Add the key-value pair  (k,v)  to the mapping.
 floor(k)  - Return a tuple  (k,v)  corresponding to the key-value pair in the mapping with the
largest key that is less than or equal to  k .
 remove(k)  - Remove the key-value pair with key  k  from the sorted mapping. An error
( KeyError ) is raised if the given key is not present.

Binary Search Tree Properties and Definitions

A tree is called a binary tree if every node has at most two children. We will continue to assume that
we are working with ordered trees and so we call the children  left  and  right . We say that a
binary tree is a binary search tree if for every node  x , all the keys in the subtree  x.left  are less
than the key at  x  and all the keys in the subtree  x.right  are greater than the key of  x . This
ordering property, also known as the BST property is what makes a binary search tree different from
any other kind of binary tree.
 3
1 5
0 2 4 6

The BST property is related to a new kind of tree traversal, that was not possible with other trees.
Previously we saw preorder and postorder traversal of trees. These traversals visit all the nodes of the
tree. The preorder traversal visits the root of each subtree before to visiting any of its descendants.
The postorder traversal visits all the descendants before visiting the root. The new traversal we
introduce here is called inorder traversal and it visits all the nodes in the left child prior to visiting the
root and then visits all the nodes in the right child after visiting the root. This order results in a
traversal of the nodes in sorted order according to the ordering of the keys.

A Minimal implementation
We're going to implement a sorted mapping using a binary search tree. As we have already written an
abstract class for packaging up a lot of the magic methods we expect from a mapping, we will inherit
from that class to get started.

Also, unlike in the previous section, we're going to distinguish between a class for the tree
( BSTMapping ) and a class for the nodes ( BSTNode ). We will maintain a convention that the
operations on the  BSTNode  class will operate on and return other  BSTNode  objects when
appropriate, whereas the  BSTMapping  class will abstract away the existence of the nodes for the
user, only returning keys and values.

Here is just the minimum requirements to be a  Mapping . It's a top down implementation, so it
delegates all the real work to the  BSTNode  class.
 from mapping import Mapping 
 
class BSTMapping(Mapping): 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._root = None 
 
    def get(self, key): 
        if self._root: 
            return self._root.get(key).value 
        raise KeyError 
 
    def put(self, key, value): 
        if self._root: 
            self.root = self._root.put(key, value) 
        else: 
            self._root = BSTNode(key, value) 
 
    def __len__(self): 
        return len(self._root) if self._root else 0 
 
    def _entryiter(self): 
        if self._root: 
            yield from self._root 
 
    def floor(self, key): 
        if self._root: 
            floornode = self._root.floor(key) 
            return floornode.key, floornode.value 
        else: 
            return None, None 
 
    def remove(self, key): 
        if self._root: 
            self._root = self._root.remove(key) 
        else: 
            raise KeyError 
 
    def __delitem__(self, key): 
        self.remove(key) 
 

The code above gives us almost everything we need. There are a couple of mysterious lines to pay
attention to. One is the line in the  put  method that updates the root. We will use this convention
extensively. As methods may rearrange the tree structure, such methods return the node that ought
to be the new root of the subtree. The same pattern appears in the  remove  function.
One other construct we haven't seen before is the  yield from  operation in the iterator. This takes
an iterable and iterates over it, yielding each item. So,  yield from self._root  is the same as
 for item in iter(self._root): yield item . It implies that our  BSTNode  class will have to be
iterable.

Let's see how these methods are implemented. We start with the initializer and some handy other
methods.

class BSTNode: 
    def __init__(self, key, value): 
        self.key = key 
        self.value = value 
        self.left = None 
        self.right = None 
        self._length = 1 
 
    def __len__(self): 
        return self._length 

The  get  method uses binary search to find the desired key.

    def get(self, key): 
        if key == self.key: 
            return self 
        elif key < self.key and self.left: 
            return self.left.get(key) 
        elif key > self.key and self.right: 
            return self.right.get(key) 
        else: 
            raise KeyError 

Notice that we are using  self.left  and  self.right  as booleans. This works because  None 
evaluates to  False  and  BSTNode 's always evaluate to  True . We could have implemented
 __bool__  to make this work, but it suffices to implement  __len__ . Objects that have a  __len__ 
method are  True  if and only if the length is greater than  0 . This is the default way to check if a
container is empty. So, for example, it's fine to write  while L: L.pop()  and it will never try to pop
from an empty list. In our case, it will allow us to write  if self.left  to check if there is a left child
rather than writing  if self.left is not None .

Next, we implement  put . It will work by first doing a binary search in the tree. If it finds the key
already in the tree, it overwrites the value (keys in a mapping are unique). Otherwise, when it gets to
the bottom of the tree, it adds a new node.
     def put(self, key, value): 
        if key == self.key: 
            self.value = value 
        elif key < self.key: 
            if self.left: 
                self.left.put(key, value) 
            else: 
                self.left = BSTNode(key, value) 
        elif key > self.key: 
            if self.right: 
                self.right.put(key, value) 
            else: 
                self.right = BSTNode(key, value) 
        self._updatelength() 
 
 
    def _updatelength(self): 
        len_left = len(self.left) if self.left else 0 
        len_right = len(self.right) if self.right else 0 
        self._length = 1 + len_left + len_right 

The  put  method also keeps track of the length, i.e. the number of entries in each subtree.

The  floor  function

The  floor  function is just a slightly fancier version of  get . It also does a binary search, but it has
different behavior when the key is not found, depending on whether the last search was to the left or
to the right. Starting from any node, if we search to the right and the result is  None , then we return
the the node itself. If we search to the left and the result is  None , we also return  None .

    def floor(self, key): 
        if key == self.key: 
            return self 
        elif key < self.key: 
            return self.left.floor(key) if self.left else None 
        elif key > self.key: 
            return (self.right.floor(key) or self) if self.right else self 

To parse the expressions above, it's helpful to remember that boolean operations on objects can
evaluate to objects. In particular  False or myobject  evaluates to  myobject . Use the python
interactive shell to try out some other examples and to see how  and  behaves.

Iteration
As mentioned above, binary search trees support inorder traversal. The result of an inorder traversal
is that the nodes are yielded in the order of their keys.

Here is an inorder iterator for a binary search tree implemented using recursive generators. This will
be fine in most cases.

    def __iter__(self): 
        if self.left: 
            yield from self.left 
        yield self 
        if self.right: 
            yield from self.right 

Removal
To implement removal in a binary search tree, we'll use a standard algorithmic problem solving
approach. We'll start by thinking about how to handle the easiest possible cases. Then, we'll see how
to turn every case into an easy case.

The start of a removal is to find the node to be removed using binary search in the tree. Then, if the
node is a leaf, we can remove it without any difficulty. It's also easy to remove a node with only one
child because we can remove the node and bring its child up without violating the BST property.

The harder case come when the node to be removed has both a left and a right child. In that case,
we find the node with the largest key in its left subtree (i.e. the rightmost node). We swap that node
with our node to be removed and call  remove  again on the left subtree. The next time we reach that
node, we know it will have at most one child, because the node we swapped it with had no right child
(otherwise it wasn't the rightmost before the swap).

A note of caution. Swapping two node in a BST will cause the BST property to be violated. However,
the only violation is the node to be removed will have a key greater than the node that we swapped it
with. So, the removal will restore the BST property.

Here is the code to do the swapping and a simple recursive method to find the rightmost node in a
subtree.
     def _swapwith(self, other): 
        self.key, other.key = other.key, self.key 
        self.value, other.value = other.value, self.value 
 
    def maxnode(self): 
        return self.right.maxnode() if self.right else self 

Now, we are ready to implement  remove . As mentioned above, it does a recursive binary search to
find the node. When it finds the desired key, it swaps it into place and makes another recursive call.
This swapping step will happen only once and the total running time is linear in the height of the tree.

    def remove(self, key): 
        if key == self.key: 
            if self.left is None: return self.right 
            if self.right is None: return self.left 
            self._swapwith(self.left.maxnode()) 
            self.left = self.left.remove(key) 
        elif key < self.key and self.left: 
            self.left = self.left.remove(key) 
        elif key > self.key and self.right: 
            self.right = self.right.remove(key) 
        else: raise KeyError 
        self._updatelength() 
        return self 

from drawtrees import draw 
from bstmapping import BSTMapping 
 
T = BSTMapping() 
for i in [3,2,1,6,4,5,9,8,10]: 
    T[i] = None 

draw(T) 
 3
2 6
1 4 9
5 8 10

T.remove(6) 

draw(T) 

3
2 5
1 4 9
8 10

T.remove(3) 

draw(T) 

2
1 5
4 9
8 10
Chapter 17
Balanced Binary Search Trees
In the previous chapter, we saw how to implement a Mapping using a BST. However, in the analysis
of the main operations, it was clear that the running time of all the basic operations depended on the
height of the tree.

A BST with n nodes can have height n − 1. It's easy to get such a tree, just insert the keys in sorted
order. On the other hand, there always exists a BST with height O(log n) for any set of n keys. This
is achieved by inserting the median first, followed by the medians of each half and so on recursively.
So, we have a big gap between the best case and the worst case. Our goal will be to get as close as
possible to the best case while keeping the running times of all operations proportional to the height
of the tree.

We will say that a BST with n nodes is balanced if the height of the tree is at most some constant
times log n. To balance our BSTs, we want to avoid rebuilding the whole tree. Instead, we'd like to
make a minimal change to the tree that will preserve the BST property.

The most basic such operation is called a tree rotation. It comes in two forms,  rotateright  and
 rotateleft . Rotating a node to the right will move it to be the right child of its left child and will
update the children of these nodes appropriately. Here it is in code.

def rotateright(self): 
    newroot = self.left 
    self.left = newroot.right 
    newroot.right = self 
    return newroot 

Notice that  rotateright  returns the new root (of the subtree). This is a very useful convention when
working with BSTs and rotations. Every method that can change the structure of the tree will return
the new root of the resulting subtree. Thus, calling such methods will always be combined with an
assignment. For example, if we want to rotate the left child of a node  parent  to the right, we would
write  parent.left = parent.left.rotateright() .

A  BSTMapping  implementation
Here is the code for the  BSTMapping  that implements rotations. We make sure to also update the
lengths after each rotation. The main difference with our previous code is that now, all methods that
can change the tree structure are combined with assignments. It is assumed that only  put  and
 remove  will rearrange the tree, and so  get  and  floor  will keep the tree structure as is.
from mapping import Mapping, Entry 
 
 
class BSTNode: 
    def __init__(self, key, value): 
        self.key = key 
        self.value = value 
        self.left = None 
        self.right = None 
        self._length = 1 
 
    def newnode(self, key, value): 
        return BSTNode(key, value) 
 
    def get(self, key): 
        if key == self.key: 
            return self 
        elif key < self.key and self.left: 
            return self.left.get(key) 
        elif key > self.key and self.right: 
            return self.right.get(key) 
        else: 
            raise KeyError 
 
    def put(self, key, value): 
        if key == self.key: 
            self.value = value 
        elif key < self.key: 
            if self.left: 
                self.left = self.left.put(key, value) 
            else: 
                self.left = self.newnode(key, value) 
        elif key > self.key: 
            if self.right: 
                self.right = self.right.put(key, value) 
            else: 
                self.right = self.newnode(key, value) 
        self.updatelength() 
        return self 
 
    def updatelength(self): 
        len_left = len(self.left) if self.left else 0 
        len_right = len(self.right) if self.right else 0 
        self._length = 1 + len_left + len_right 
 
    def floor(self, key): 
        if key == self.key: 
            return self 
        elif key < self.key: 
            return self.left.floor(key) if self.left else None 
        elif key > self.key: 
            return (self.right.floor(key) or self) if self.right else self 
 
    def rotateright(self): 
        newroot = self.left 
        self.left = newroot.right 
        newroot.right = self 
        self.updatelength() 
        newroot.updatelength() 
        return newroot 
 
    def rotateleft(self): 
        newroot = self.right 
        self.right = newroot.left 
        newroot.left = self 
        self.updatelength() 
        newroot.updatelength() 
        return newroot 
 
    def maxnode(self): 
        return self.right.maxnode() if self.right else self 
 
    def _swapwith(self, other): 
        """ 
        Swaps the key and value of a node. 
        This operation has the potential to break the BST property. 
        Use with caution! 
        """ 
        self.key, other.key = other.key, self.key 
        self.value, other.value = other.value, self.value 
 
    def remove(self, key): 
        if key == self.key: 
            if self.left is None: return self.right 
            if self.right is None: return self.left 
            self._swapwith(self.left.maxnode()) 
            self.left = self.left.remove(key) 
        elif key < self.key and self.left: 
            self.left = self.left.remove(key) 
        elif key > self.key and self.right: 
            self.right = self.right.remove(key) 
        else: 
            raise KeyError 
        self.updatelength() 
        return self 
 
    def __iter__(self): 
        if self.left: yield from self.left 
        yield Entry(self.key, self.value) 
        if self.right: yield from self.right 
 
    def preorder(self): 
        yield self.key 
        if self.left: yield from self.left.preorder() 
        if self.right: yield from self.right.preorder() 
 
    def __len__(self): 
        return self._length 
 
class BSTMapping(Mapping): 
    Node = BSTNode 
 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._root = None 
 
    def get(self, key): 
        if self._root is None: raise KeyError 
        return self._root.get(key).value 
 
    def put(self, key, value): 
        if self._root: 
            self._root = self._root.put(key, value) 
        else: 
            self._root = self.Node(key, value) 
 
    def floor(self, key): 
        if self._root: 
            floornode = self._root.floor(key) 
            if floornode is not None: 
                return floornode.key, floornode.value 
        return None, None 
 
    def remove(self, key): 
        if self._root is None: raise KeyError 
        self._root = self._root.remove(key) 
 
    def _entryiter(self): 
        if self._root: 
            yield from self._root 
 
    def preorder(self): 
        if self._root: 
            yield from self._root.preorder() 
 
    def __len__(self): 
        return len(self._root) if self._root else 0 
  
    def __str__(self): 
        return str(list(self.preorder())) 

Forward Compatibility of Factories

We are looking into the future a little with this code. In particular, we want this class to be easily
extendable. To do this, we don't create new instances of the nodes directly. In the  BSTMapping  class,
we have the assignment  Node = BSTNode  and create new nodes by writing
 self.Node(key, value)  rather than  BSTNode(key, value) . This way, when we extend this class
(as we will several times), we can use a different value for  Node  in order to produce different types of
nodes without having to rewrite all the methods from  BSTMapping . Similarly, we use a  newnode 
method in the  BSTNode  class. A method that generates new instances of a class is sometimes called
a factory.

With regards to forward compatibility, it's a challenge to walk the fine line between, good design and
premature optimization. In our case, the use of a factory to generate nodes only came about after the
need was clear from writing subclasses. This should be a general warning to students when reading
code in textbooks. One often only sees how the code ended up, but not how it started. It's helpful to
ask, "Why is the code written this way or that way?", but the answer might be that it will make later
code easier to write.

Weight Balanced Trees

Now, we're ready to balance our trees. One way to be sure the tree is balanced is to have the key at
each node  x  be the median of all the keys in the subtree at  x . Then, the situation would be
analogous to binary search in a sorted  list . Moving down the tree, every node would have have as
many nodes in its subtree than its parent. Thus, after log n steps, we reach a leaf and so the BST
would be balanced.

Having medians in every node a nice ideal to have, but it is both too difficult to achieve and too
strong an invariant for balancing BSTs. Recall that in our analysis of  quicksort  and  quickselect ,
we considered good pivots to be those that lay in the middle half of the list (i.e. those with rank
between n/4 and 3n/4). If the key in each node is a good pivot among the keys in its subtree, then
we can also guarantee an overall height of log4/3 n.

We'll say a node  x  is weight-balanced if

 len(x) + 1 < 4 * (min(len(x.left),len(x.right)) + 1) .

It's easy enough to check this condition with our  BSTMapping  implementation because it keeps track
of the length at each node. If some change causes a node to no longer be weight balanced, we will
recover the weight balance by rotations. In the easiest case, a single rotation suffices. If one is
rotation is not enough, then two rotations will be enough. We'll have to see some examples and do
some simple algebra to see why.

The  rebalance  method will check for the balance condition and do the appropriate rotations. We'll
call this method after every change to the tree, so we can assume that the unbalanced node  x  is
only just barely imbalanced. Without loss of generality, let's assume  x  has too few nodes in its left
subtree. Then, when we call  x.rotateleft() , we have to check that both  x  becomes weight
balanced and also that its new parent  y  (the former right child of  x ) is weight balanced. Clearly,
 len(x) == len(x.rotateleft())  as both contain the same nodes. So, there is an imbalance at  y 
after the rotation only if its right child is too light. In that case, we rotate  y  right before rotating  x 
left. This will guarantee that all the nodes in the subtree are weight balanced.

This description is not enough to be convincing that the algorithm is correct, but it is enough to write
code. Let's look at the code first and see the rebalance method in action. Then, we'll go back and do
the algebra to prove it is correct.
 from bstmapping import BSTMapping, BSTNode 
 
 
class WBTreeNode(BSTNode): 
    def newnode(self, key, value): 
        return WBTreeNode(key, value) 
 
    def toolight(self, other): 
        otherlength = len(other) if other else 0 
        return len(self) + 1 >= 4 * (otherlength + 1) 
 
    def rebalance(self): 
        if self.toolight(self.left): 
            if self.toolight(self.right.right): 
                self.right = self.right.rotateright() 
            newroot = self.rotateleft() 
        elif self.toolight(self.right): 
            if self.toolight(self.left.left): 
                self.left = self.left.rotateleft() 
            newroot = self.rotateright() 
        else: 
            return self 
        return newroot 
 
    def put(self, key, value): 
        newroot = BSTNode.put(self, key, value) 
        return newroot.rebalance() 
 
    def remove(self, key): 
        newroot = BSTNode.remove(self, key) 
        return newroot.rebalance() if newroot else None 
 
class WBTreeMapping(BSTMapping): 
    Node = WBTreeNode 

The  toolight  method is for checking if a subtree has enough nodes to be a child of a weight
balanced node. We use it both to check if the current node is weight balanced and also to check if
one rotation or two will be required.

The  put  and  remove  methods call the corresponding methods from the superclass  BSTNode  and
then rebalance before returning. We tried to reuse as much as possible our existing implementation.

Height-Balanced Trees (AVL Trees)

The motivation for balancing our BSTs was to keep the height small. Rather than balancing by weight,
we could also try to keep the heights of the left and right subtrees close. In fact, we can require that
these heights differ by at most one. Similar to weight balanced trees, we'll see if the height balanced
property is violated and if so, fix it with one or two rotations.

Such height balanced trees are often called AVL trees. In our implementation, we'll maintain the
height of each subtree and use these to check for balance. Often, AVL trees only keep the balance at
each node rather than the exact height, but computing heights is relatively painless.
from bstmapping import BSTMapping, BSTNode 
 
def height(node): 
    return node.height if node else ‑1 
 
def update(node): 
    if node: 
        node.updatelength() 
        node.updateheight() 
 
class AVLTreeNode(BSTNode): 
    def __init__(self, key, value): 
        BSTNode.__init__(self, key, value) 
        self.updateheight() 
 
    def newnode(self, key, value): 
        return AVLTreeNode(key, value) 
 
    def updateheight(self): 
        self.height = 1 + max(height(self.left), height(self.right)) 
 
    def balance(self): 
        return height(self.right) ‑ height(self.left) 
 
    def rebalance(self): 
        bal = self.balance() 
        if bal == ‑2: 
            if self.left.balance() > 0: 
                self.left = self.left.rotateleft() 
            newroot = self.rotateright() 
        elif bal == 2: 
            if self.right.balance() < 0: 
                self.right = self.right.rotateright() 
            newroot = self.rotateleft() 
        else: 
            return self 
        update(newroot.left) 
        update(newroot.right) 
        update(newroot) 
        return newroot 
 
    def put(self, key, value): 
        newroot = BSTNode.put(self, key, value) 
        update(newroot) 
        return newroot.rebalance() 
 
    def remove(self, key): 
        newroot = BSTNode.remove(self, key) 
         update(newroot) 
        return newroot.rebalance() if newroot else None 
 
class AVLTreeMapping(BSTMapping): 
    Node = AVLTreeNode 
 

Splay Trees
Let's add in one more balanced BST for good measure. In this case, we won't actually get a
guarantee that the resulting tree is balanced, but we will get some other nice properties.

In a splay tree, every time we get or put an entry, its node will get rotated all the way to the root.
However, instead of rotating it directly, we consider two steps at a time. The  splayup  method looks
two levels down the tree for the desired key. If its not exactly two levels down, it does nothing.
Otherwise, it rotates it up twice. If the rotations are in the same direction, the bottom one is done first.
If the rotations are in opposite directions, it does the top one first.

At the very top level, we may do only a single rotation to get the node all the way to the root. This is
handled by the  splayup  method in the  SplayTreeMapping  class.

A major difference from our previous implementations is that now, we will modify the tree on calls to
 get . As a result, we will have to rewrite  get  rather than inheriting it. Previously, get would return the
desired value. However, we want to return the new root on every operation that might change the
tree. So, which should we return? Clearly, we need that value to return, and we also need to not
break the tree. Thankfully, there is a simple solution. The splaying operation conveniently rotates the
found node all the way to the root. So, the  SplayTreeNode.get  method will return the new root of
the subtree, and the  SplayTreeMapping.get  returns the value at the root.
from bstmapping import BSTMapping, BSTNode 
 
class SplayTreeNode(BSTNode): 
    def newnode(self, key, value): 
        return SplayTreeNode(key, value) 
 
    def splayup(self, key): 
        newroot = self 
        if key < self.key: 
            if key < self.left.key: 
                newroot = self.rotateright().rotateright() 
            elif key > self.left.key: 
                self.left = self.left.rotateleft() 
                newroot = self.rotateright() 
        elif key > self.key: 
            if key > self.right.key: 
                newroot = self.rotateleft().rotateleft() 
            elif key < self.right.key: 
                self.right = self.right.rotateright() 
                newroot = self.rotateleft() 
        return newroot 
 
    def put(self, key, value): 
        newroot = BSTNode.put(self, key, value) 
        return newroot.splayup(key) 
 
    def get(self, key): 
        if key == self.key: 
            return self 
        elif key < self.key and self.left: 
            self.left = self.left.get(key) 
        elif key > self.key and self.right: 
            self.right = self.right.get(key) 
        else: 
            raise KeyError 
        return self.splayup(key) 
 
class SplayTreeMapping(BSTMapping): 
    Node = SplayTreeNode 
 
    def splayup(self, key): 
        if key < self._root.key: 
            self._root = self._root.rotateright() 
        if key > self._root.key: 
            self._root = self._root.rotateleft() 
 
    def get(self, key): 
        if self._root is None: raise KeyError 
        self._root = self._root.get(key) 
        self.splayup(key) 
        return self._root.value 
 
    def put(self, key, value): 
        BSTMapping.put(self, key, value) 
        self.splayup(key) 
Chapter 18
Priority Queues
We're going to discuss a versatile and fundamental data structure called a priority queue. It will
resemble a queue except that items all have a priority and will come out ordered by their priority
rather than their order of insertion.

By this point, we know enough about different data structures that we will be able to implement this
data structure in several different ways. Eventually, we will introduce a data structure called a heap
that will give good performance in many respects, but it won't be

The Priority Queue ADT

The Priority Queue ADT is a data type that stores a collection of items with priorities (not necessarily
unique) that supports the following operations.

 insert(item, priority)  - Add  item  with the given  priority .

 findmin()  - Return the item with the minimum priority. If there are multiple items with the
minimum priority, ties may be broken arbitrarily.
 removemin()  - Remove and return the item with the minimum priority. Ties are broken arbitrarily.

Using a list
As with every ADT presented in this book, there is a simple, though not necessarily efficient,
implementation using a list. Let's start with a list and put all the entries in the list. To find the min, we
can iterate through the list.
 class SimpleListPQ: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._L = [] 
 
    def insert(self, item, priority): 
        self._L.append((item, priority)) 
 
    def findmin(self): 
        return min(self._L, key = lambda x : x[1])[0] 
 
    def removemin(self): 
        item, priority = min(self._L, key = lambda x : x[1]) 
        self._L.remove((item, priority)) 
        return item 

Although this code will work, there are a couple design decisions that are not great. First, there is
something we might call magical indices. As the data are stored as tuples, we have to use an index to
pull out the priority or the item as needed. This is an undocumented convention. Someone reading
the code would have to read the insert code to understand the  findmin  code. Also, there is some
duplication in the use of  min  with the same  key  lambda expression for both  removemin  and
 findmin . These shortcomings can be our motivation to go back and clean it up, i.e. refactor it.

We'll make a class that stores the entries, each will have an  item  and a  priority  as attributes.
We'll make the entries comparable by implementing  __lt__  and thus the comparison of entries will
always just compare their priorities.

class Entry: 
    def __init__(self, item, priority): 
        self.priority = priority 
        self.item = item 
 
    def __lt__(self, other): 
        return self.priority < other.priority 

Now, we can rewrite the list version of the priority queue. It's almost the same as before, except, that
by using the  Entry  class, the code is more explicit about the types of objects, and hopefully, easier
to read and understand.
 class UnsortedListPQ: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._entries = [] 
 
    def insert(self, item, priority): 
        self._entries.append(Entry(item, priority)) 
 
    def findmin(self): 
        return min(self._entries).item 
 
    def removemin(self): 
        entry = min(self._entries) 
        self._entries.remove(entry) 
        return entry.item 

Let's analyze the running time of the methods in this class. The  insert  method will clearly only
require constant time because it is a single list append. Both  findmin  and  removemin  take O(n)
time for a priority queue with n items, because the  min  function will iterate through the while list to
find the smallest priority entry.

The  findmin  would be much faster if the list were sorted. Then we could just return the first item in
the list. An even better approach would sort the list backwards. Then  removemin  could also be
constant time, using the constant-time  pop  function on a list.

class SortedListPQ: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._entries = [] 
 
    def insert(self, item, priority): 
        self._entries.append(Entry(item, priority)) 
        self._entries.sort(reverse = True) 
 
    def findmin(self): 
        return self._entries[‑1].item 
 
    def removemin(self): 
        return self._entries.pop().item 

I used a nice feature of the python  sort  method, a named parameter called  reversed  which, as
one might guess, reverses the sorting order.

The asymptotic running time of both  findmin  and  removemin  is reduced to constant-time. The
 insert  method no longer runs in constant time, because it sorts. This means that the running time
will depend on the time it takes to sort. In this case, assuming no other methods rearrange the
(private!)  _entries  attribute, there will be only one entry out of sorted order, the one we just
appended. In this case, a good implementation of insertion sort would run in linear time (it only has to
insert one item before everything is sorted). Although, for code brevity, we called out to python's
 sort  method, (which could take O(n log n)-time) this is really a linear-time operation).

What we have with our two list implementations of the priority queue ADT is tradeoff between two
operations. In one case, we have fast  insert  and slow  removemin  and in the other we have slow
 insert  and fast  removemin . Our goal will be to get all of the operations pretty fast. We may not
achieve constant time for all, but logarithmic-time is achievable.

Heaps
The data structure we'll use for an efficient priority queue is called a heap. Heaps are almost always
used to implement a priority queue so that as you look at other sources, you might not see a
distinction between the two ideas. As we are using it, the priority queue is the ADT, the heap is the
data structure.

Matters are complicated by two other vocabulary issues. First, there are many different kinds of
heaps. We'll study just one example, the so-called binary heap. Second, the usual word used for the
priority in a heap is "key". This can be confusing, because unlike keys in mapping data structures,
there is no requirement that priorities be unique. We will stick with the word "priority" despite the
usual conventions in order to keep these ideas separate.

We can think of a binary heap as a binary tree that is arranged so that smaller priorities are above
larger priorities. The name is apt as any good heap of stuff should have the big things on the bottom
and small things on the top. For any tree with nodes that have priorities, we say that the tree is heap-
ordered if for every node, the priority of its children are at least as large as the the priority of the node
itself. This naturally implies that the minimum priority is at the root.

Storing a tree in a list

Previously, we stored trees as a linked data structure. This means having a node class that stores
references to other nodes, i.e. the children. We'll use the heap as an opportunity to see a different
way to represent a tree. We'll put the heap entries in a list and let the list indices encode the parent-
child relationships of the tree.

For a node at index  i , its left child will be at index  2 * i + 1  and the right child will be at index
 2 * i + 2 . This means that the parent of the node at index  i  is at index  (i-1) // 2 . This
mapping of nodes to indices puts the root at index  0  and the rest of the nodes appear level by level
from left-to-right, top-to-bottom. Using this mapping, we say a list is heap-ordered if the
corresponding binary tree is heap-ordered. This is equivalent to saying that for all i > 0, the priority
of the entry at index i is greater than or equal to the priority at index (i − 1)//2.

We will maintain the invariant that after each operation, the list of entries is heap-ordered. To insert a
new node, we append it to the list and then repeated swap it with its parent until it is heap-ordered.
This updating step will be called  _upheap  and is similar to the inner loop of an insertion sort.
However, unlike insertion sort, it only does at most O(log n) swap operations (each one reduces the
index by half).

Similarly, there is a  _downheap  operation that will repeatedly swap an entry with its child until it's
heap-ordered. This operation is useful in the next section for building a heap from scratch.
class HeapPQ: 
    def __init__(self): 
        self._entries = [] 
 
    def insert(self, item, priority): 
        self._entries.append(Entry(item, priority)) 
        self._upheap(len(self._entries) ‑ 1) 
 
    def _parent(self, i): 
        return (i ‑ 1) // 2 
 
    def _children(self, i): 
        left = 2 * i + 1 
        right = 2 * i + 2 
        return range(left, min(len(self._entries), right + 1)) 
 
    def _upheap(self, i): 
        L = self._entries 
        parent = self._parent(i) 
        if i > 0 and L[i] < L[parent]: 
            L[i], L[parent] = L[parent], L[i] 
            self._upheap(parent) 
 
    def findmin(self): 
        return self._entries[0].item 
 
    def removemin(self): 
        L = self._entries 
        item = L[0].item 
        L[0] = L[‑1] 
        L.pop() 
        self._downheap(0) 
        return item 
 
    def _downheap(self, i): 
        L = self._entries 
        children = self._children(i) 
        if children: 
            child = min(children, key = lambda x: L[x]) 
            if L[child] < L[i]: 
                L[i], L[child] = L[child], L[i] 
                self._downheap(child) 

Building a Heap from scratch

Just using the public interface, one could easily construct a  HeapPQ  from a list of item-priority pairs.
For example, the following code would work just fine.

pq = HeapPQ() 
pairs = [(10, 10), (2, 2), (30, 30), (4,4)] 
for item, priority in pairs: 
    pq.insert(item, priority) 

The  insert  method takes O(log n) time, so the total running time for this approach is O(n log n)
time. You should double check that you believe this claim despite the fact that for each insertion,
there are fewer than n entries.

Perhaps surprisingly, we can construct the  HeapPQ  in linear time. We call this heapifying a list. We
will exploit the  _downheap  method that we have already written. The code is deceptively simple.

def _heapify(self): 
    n = len(self._entries) 
    for i in range(n): 
        self._downheap(n ‑ i ‑ 1) 

Look at the difference between the  heapify  code above and the  _heapify_slower  code below.
The former works from the end and "downheaps" every entry and the latter starts at the beginning
and "upheaps" every entry. Both are correct, but one is faster.

def _heapify_slower(self): 
    n = len(self._entries) 
    for i in range(n): 
        self._upheap(i) 

They may seem to be the same, but they are not. To see why, we have to look a little closer at the
running time of  _upheap  and  _downheap . Consider the tree perspective of the list. For  _upheap ,
the running time depends on the depth of the starting node. For  _downheap , the running time
depends on the height of the subtree rooted at the starting node. Looking at a complete binary tree,
half of the nodes are leaves and so  _downheap  will take constant time and  _upheap  will take
n
O(log n) time. Thus,  _heapify_slower  will take at least 2
log2 n = O(n log n) time.

On the other hand, to analyze  _heapify , we have to add up the heights of all the nodes in a
log n
complete binary tree. Formally, this will be n ∑i=12 i/2i . There is a cute trick to bound this sum.
Simply observe that if from every node in the tree, we take a path that goes left on the first step and
right for every step thereafter, no two paths will overlap. This means that the the sum of the lengths of
these paths (which is also to the sum of the heights) is at most the total number of edges, n − 1.
Thus,  _heapify  runs in O(n) time.
Changing priorities
There is another "standard" operation on priority queues. It's called  reducepriority . It does what it
says, reducing the priority of an entry. This is very simple to implement in our current code if the index
of the entry to change is known. It would suffice to change the priority of the entry and call  _upheap 
on that index.

However, the usual way to reduce the priority is to specify the item and its new priority. This requires
that we can find the index of an item. We'll do this by storing a dictionary that maps items to indices.
We'll have to update this dictionary every time we rearrange the items. To make sure this happens
correctly, we will add a method for swapping entries and use this whenever we make a swap.

The full code including the  _heapify  method is given below. This full version of the priority queue
will be very useful for some graph algorithms that we will see soon.
class PriorityQueue: 
    def __init__(self, entries = None): 
        entries = entries or [] 
        self._entries = [Entry(i, p) for i, p in entries] 
        self._itemmap = {i: index for index, (i,p) in enumerate(entries)} 
        self._heapify() 
 
    def insert(self, item, priority): 
        index = len(self._entries) 
        self._entries.append(Entry(item, priority)) 
        self._itemmap[item] = index 
        self._upheap(index) 
 
    def _parent(self, i): 
        return (i ‑ 1) // 2 
 
    def _children(self, i): 
        left, right = 2 * i + 1, 2 * i + 2 
        return range(left, min(len(self._entries), right + 1)) 
 
    def _swap(self, a, b): 
        L = self._entries 
        va = L[a].item 
        vb = L[b].item 
        self._itemmap[va] = b 
        self._itemmap[vb] = a 
        L[a], L[b] = L[b], L[a] 
 
    def _upheap(self, i): 
        L = self._entries 
        parent = self._parent(i) 
        if i > 0 and L[i] < L[parent]: 
            self._swap(i,parent) 
            self._upheap(parent) 
 
    def reducepriority(self, item, priority): 
        i = self._itemmap[item] 
        entry = self._entries[i] 
        entry.priority = min(entry.priority, priority) 
        self._upheap(i) 
 
    def findmin(self): 
        return self._entries[0].item 
 
    def removemin(self): 
        L = self._entries 
        item = L[0].item 
        self._swap(0, len(L) ‑ 1) 
        del self._itemmap[item] 
        L.pop() 
        self._downheap(0) 
        return item 
 
    def _downheap(self, i): 
        L = self._entries 
        children = self._children(i) 
        if children: 
            child = min(children, key = lambda x: L[x]) 
            if L[child] < L[i]: 
                self._swap(i, child) 
                self._downheap(child) 
 
    def __len__(self): 
        return len(self._entries) 
 
    def _heapify(self): 
        n = len(self._entries) 
        for i in reversed(range(n)): 
            self._downheap(i) 
 
Chapter 19
Graphs
The graph is a fundamental mathematical object in computer science. Graphs are used to abstract
networks, maps, program control flow, probabilistic models, and even data structures among many
other computer science concepts.

A good mental model to start with is a road map of a country. There are cities and roads connecting
those cities. Graphs are ideal for describing such situations where there are items and connections
between them.

Formally, a graph is a pair (V , E) where V is any set and E is a set of pairs of elements of V . We
call V the vertex set and E the edge set. Just using the definition of a graph and the standard
python collections, we could store a graph as follows.

G = ({1,2,3,4}, {(1,2), (1,3), (1,4)}) 

The graph  G  has 4 vertices and 3 edges. Such a graph is often depicted 4 labeled circles for vertices
and lines between them depicting the edges. Because tuples are ordered, we would add arrowheads.
This indicates a directed graph or digraph. If the ordering of the vertices in an edge does not matter,
we have an undirected graph. There will be no major difference between an undirected graph and a
digraph that has a matched pair (v, u) for every (u, v) in E .

Usually, we will disallow self-loops, edges that start and end at the same vertex, and multiple edges
between the same pair of vertices. Graphs without self-loops and multiple edges are called simple
graphs.

If two vertices are connected by an edge, we say they are adjacent. We all call such vertices
neighbors. For an edge e = (u, v), we say that the vertices u and v are incident to the edge e. The
degree of a vertex is the number of neighbors it has. For digraphs, we distinguish between in-
degree and out-degree, the number of in-neighbors and out-neighbors respectively.

A Graph ADT
First, let's establish the minimal ADT for a simple, directed graph. We should be able to use any
(hashable) type for the vertices. We want to be able to create the graph from a collection of vertices
and a collection of ordered pairs of vertices.

 __init__(V, E)  : Initialize a new graph with vertex set  V  and edge set  E .
 vertices()  : Return an iterable collection of the vertices.
 edges()  : Return an iterable collection of the edges.
 addvertex(v)  : Add a new vertex to the graph. The new vertex is identified with the  v  object.
 addedge(u, v)  : Add a new edge to the graph between the vertices with keys  u  and  v .
 nbrs(v)  : Return an iterable collection of the (out)neighbors of  v , i.e. those vertices  w  such
that  (v, w)  is an edge. (For directed graphs, this is the collection of out-neighbors.)

There are several error conditions to consider. For example, what happens if a vertex is added more
than once? What happens if an edge  (u,v)  is added, but  u  is not a vertex in the graph? What if
one calls  nbrs(v)  and  v  is not a vertex in the graph? We will deal with these later. For now, let's
get something working.

The  EdgeSetGraph  Implementation

Cleverness comes second. First, let's write a Graph class that is as close as possible to the
mathematical definition of a graph. It will store a set for the vertices and a set of pairs (2-tuples) for
the edges. To get the neighbors of a vertex, it will iterate over all edges in the graph.
 class EdgeSetGraph: 
    def __init__(self, V, E): 
        self._V = set() 
        self._E = set() 
        for v in V: self.addvertex(v) 
        for u,v in E: self.addedge(u,v) 
 
    def vertices(self): 
        return iter(self._V) 
 
    def edges(self): 
        return iter(self._E) 
 
    def addvertex(self, v): 
        self._V.add(v) 
 
    def addedge(self, u, v): 
        self._E.add((u,v)) 
 
    def nbrs(self, v): 
        return (w for u,w in self._E if u == v) 

To make an undirected version of this class, we can simply modify the  addedge  method to add an
edge in each direction. We also change the  nbrs  method to work with unordered pairs (sets).

class UndirectedEdgeSetGraph(EdgeSetGraph): 
    def addedge(self, u, v): 
        self._E.add((u,v)) 
        self._E.add((v,u)) 
 
    def edges(self): 
        edgeset = set() 
        for u,v in self._E: 
            if (v,u) not in edgeset: 
                edgeset.add((u,v)) 
        return iter(edgeset) 

The  AdjacencySetGraph  Implementation

The major problem with previous implementation is that it's very slow to enumerate the neighbors of
a vertex. It should not be necessary to go through all the edges, just to find the ones incident to a
given vertex.
An alternative approach is to store a set with each vertex and have this set contain all the neighbors
of that vertex. This allows for fast access to the neighbors. In fact, it means that we don't have to
store the edges explicitly at all.

class AdjacencySetGraph: 
    def __init__(self, V, E): 
        self._V = set() 
        self._nbrs = {} 
        for v in V: self.addvertex(v) 
        for u,v in E: self.addedge(u,v) 
 
    def vertices(self): 
        return iter(self._V) 
 
    def edges(self): 
        for u in self._V: 
            for v in self.nbrs(u): 
                yield (u,v) 
 
    def addvertex(self, v): 
        self._V.add(v) 
        self._nbrs[v] = set() 
 
    def addedge(self, u, v): 
        self._nbrs[u].add(v) 
 
    def nbrs(self, v): 
        return iter(self._nbrs[v]) 

G = AdjacencySetGraph({1,2,3}, {(1,2),(2,1),(1,3)}) 
print("neighbors of 1:", list(G.nbrs(1))) 
print("neighbors of 2:", list(G.nbrs(2))) 
print("neighbors of 3:", list(G.nbrs(3))) 

neighbors of 1: [2, 3] 
neighbors of 2: [1] 
neighbors of 3: [] 

Let's do a very simple example to make sure it works as we expect it to.

One design decision that may seem rather strange is that we do not have a class for vertices or
edges. As of now, we are exploiting the polymorphism of python, which allows us to use any
(hashable) type for the vertex set. Recall that polymorphism (in this context) is the ability to call the
same function on different types of objects. This can be very convenient as it allows one to put a
graph structure on top of any set.

As written, there is no clear reason to use a set for the neighbors rather than a list. One case where
the set is better is if we want to test if the graph contains a particular edge. With the
 AdjacencySetGraph  above, this method could be implemented as follows.

    def hasedge(self, u, v): 
        return v in self._nbrs[u] 

If  self._nbrs[u]  were a list, the method could take time linear in the degree of  u .

Paths and Connectivity

A path in a graph G = (V , E) is a sequence of vertices connected by edges. That is, a nonempty
sequence of vertices (v0 , v1 , … , vk ) is a path from v0 to vk as long as (vi−1 , vi ) ∈ E for all i ∈
{1, … , k}. We say a path is simple if it does not repeat any vertices. The length of a path is the
number of edges. A single vertex can be seen as a path of length zero.

A cycle is a path of length at least one that starts and ends at the same vertex. The length of a cycle
is the number of edges. A cycle is simple if is is a cycle and removing the last edge results in a
simple path, i.e., there are no repeated vertices until the last one.

To solidify these definitions, we could write a couple methods to check them.

def ispath(G, V): 
  """Return True if and only if the vertices V form a path in G.""" 
  return V and all(G.hasedge(V[i‑1], V[i]) for i in range(1, len(V))) 
 
def issimplepath(G, V): 
  """Return True if and only if the vertices V form a simple path in G.""" 
  return ispath(G, V) and len(V) == len(set(V)) 
 
def iscycle(G, V): 
    """Return True if and only if the vertices V form a cycle in G.""" 
    return ispath(G, V) and V[0] == V[‑1] 
 
def issimplecycle(G, V): 
    """Return True if and only if the vertices V form a simple cycle in G.""" 
    return iscycle(G,V) and issimplepath(G, V[:‑1]) 

We say that u is connected to v if there exists a path that starts at u and ends at v . For an
undirected graph, if u is connected to v , then v is connected to u. In such graphs, we can partition
the vertices into subsets called connected components that are all pairwise connected.

For a directed graph, two vertices u and v are strongly connected if u is connected to v and also v
is connected to u.

Let's consider a simple method to test of two vertices are connected. We will add it to our
 AdjacencySetGraph  class. As a first exercise, we could try to work recursively. The idea is simple: in
the base case, see if you are trying to get from a vertex to itself. Otherwise, it suffices to check if any
of the neighbors of the first vertex are connected to the last vertex.

    def connected(self, a, b): 
        if a == b: return True 
        return any(self.connected(nbr, b) for nbr in self.nbrs(a)) 

Can you guess what will go wrong? Here's an example.

G = AdjacencySetGraph({1,2,3}, {(1,2), (2,3)}) 
assert(G.connected(1,2)) 
assert(G.connected(1,3)) 
assert(not G.connected(3,1)) 
print("First graph is okay.") 
 
H = AdjacencySetGraph({1,2,3}, {(1,2), (2,1), (2,3)}) 
try: 
    H.connected(1,3) 
except RecursionError: 
    print("There was too much recursion!") 

First graph is okay. 
There was too much recursion! 

It's clear that if the graph has any cycles, we can't check connectivity this way. To deal with cycles,
we can keep a set of visited vertices. Recall that this is called memoization.

    def connected(self, a, b): 
        return self._connected(a, b, set()) 
 
    def _connected(self, a, b, visited): 
        if a in visited: return False 
        if a == b: return True 
        visited.add(a) 
        return any(self._connected(nbr, b, visited) for nbr in self.nbrs(a)) 
Now, we can try again and see what happens.

H = AdjacencySetGraph({1,2,3}, {(1,2), (2,1), (2,3)}) 
try: 
    assert(H.connected(1,2)) 
    assert(H.connected(1,3)) 
except RecursionError: 
    print('There was too much recursion!') 
print('It works now!') 

It works now! 
Chapter 20
Graph Search
Now that we have a vocabulary for dealing with graphs, we can revisit some previous topics. For
example, a tree can now be viewed as a graph with edges directed from parents to children. Given a
graph that represents a rooted tree, we could rewrite our preorder traversal using the Graph ADT.
Let's say we just want to print all the vertices.

def printall(G, v): 
    print(v) 
    for n in G.nbrs(v): 
        printall(G, n) 

This is fine for a tree, but it quickly gets very bad as soon as there is a cycle. In that case, there is
nothing in the code to keep us from going around and around the cycle. We can take the same
approach as Hansel and Gretel: we're going to leave bread crumbs to see where we've been. The
easiest way to do this is to just keep around a set that stores the vertices that have been already
visited in the search. Thus, our  printall  method becomes the following.

def printall(G, v, visited): 
    print(v) 
    for n in G.nbrs(v): 
        if n not in visited: 
            visited.add(n) 
            printall(G, n) 

This is the most direct generalization of a recursive tree traversal into something that also traverses
the vertices of a graph. Unlike with (rooted) trees, we have to specify the starting vertex, because
there is no specially marked "root" vertex in a graph. Also, this code will not necessarily print all the
vertices in a graph. In this case, it will only print those vertices that are connected to the starting
vertex. This pattern can be made to work more generally.
Depth-First Search
A depth-first search (or DFS) of a graph G starting from a vertex v will visit all the vertices
connected to v . It will always prioritize moving "outward" in the direction of new vertices,
backtracking as little as possible. The  printall  method above prints the vertices in a depth-first
order. Below is the general form of this algorithm.

def dfs(self, v): 
    visited = {v} 
    self._dfs(v, visited) 
    return visited 
 
def _dfs(self, v, visited): 
    for n in self.nbrs(v): 
        if n not in visited: 
            visited.add(n) 
            self._dfs(n, visited) 

With this code, it will be easy to check if two vertices are connected. For example, one could write
the following.

def connected(G, u, v): 
    return v in G.dfs(u) 

It's possible to modify our  dfs  code to provide not only the set of connected vertices, but also the
paths used in the search. The idea is to store a dictionary that maps vertices to the previous vertex in
the path from the starting vertex. This is really encoding a tree as a dictionary that maps nodes to
their parent. The root is the starting vertex.

It differs from the trees we've seen previously in that it naturally goes up the tree from the leaves to
the root rather than the reverse. The resulting tree is called the depth-first search tree. It requires
only a small change to generate it. We use the convention that the starting vertex maps to  None .
 def dfs(self, v): 
    tree = {v: None} 
    self._dfs(v, tree) 
    return tree 
 
def _dfs(self, v, tree): 
    for n in self.nbrs(v): 
        if n not in tree: 
            tree[n] = v 
            self._dfs(n, tree) 

Removing the Recursion

The  dfs  code above uses recursion to keep track of previous vertices, so that we can backtrack (by
 return ing) when we reach a vertex from which we can't move forward. To remove the recursion, we
replace the function call stack with our own stack.

This is not just an academic exercise. By removing the recursion, we will reveal the structure of the
algorithm in a way that will allow us to generalize it to other algorithms. Here's the code.

def dfs(self, v): 
    tree = {} 
    tovisit = [(None, v)] 
    while tovisit: 
        a,b = tovisit.pop() 
        if b not in tree: 
            tree[b] = a 
            for n in self.nbrs(b): 
                tovisit.append((b,n)) 
    return tree 

Breadth-First Search
We get another important traversal by replacing the stack with a queue. In this case, the search
prioritizes breadth over depth, resulting in a breadth-first search of BFS.
 def bfs(self, v): 
    tree = {} 
    tovisit = Queue([(None, v)]) 
    while tovisit: 
        a,b = tovisit.dequeue() 
        if b not in tree: 
            tree[b] = a 
            for n in self.nbrs(b): 
                tovisit.enqueue((b,n)) 
    return tree 

A wonderful property of breadth-first search is that the paths encoded in the resulting breadth-first
search tree are the shortest paths from each vertex to the starting vertex. Thus, BFS can be used to
find the shortest path connecting pairs of vertices in a graph.

def distance(G, u, v): 
    tree = G.bfs(u) 
    if v not in tree: 
        return float('inf') 
    edgecount = 0 
    while v is not u: 
        edgecount += 1 
        v = tree[v] 
    return edgecount 

Weighted Graphs and Shortest Paths

In the single source, all shortest paths problem, the goal is to find the shortest path from every
vertex to a given source vertex. If the edges are assumed to have the same length, then BFS solves
this problem. However, it is common to consider weighted graphs in which a (positive) real number
called the weight is assigned to each edge. We will augment our graph ADT to support a function
 wt(u,v)  that returns the weight of an edge. Then, the weight of a path is the sum of the weights of
the edges on that path. Now, simple examples make it clear that the shortest path may not be what
we get from the BFS tree.

One nice algorithm for the single source, all shortest paths problem on weighted graphs is called
Dijkstra's algorithm. It looks a lot like DFS and BFS except now, the stack or queue is replaced by a
priority queue. The vertices will be visited in order of their distance to the source. These distances will
be used as the priorities in the priority queue.

We'll see two different implementations. The first, although less efficient is very close to DFS and
BFS. Recall that in those algorithms, we visit the vertices, recording the edges used in a dictionary
and adding all the neighboring vertices to a stack or a queue to be traversed later. We'll do the same
here except that we'll use a priority queue to store the edges to be searched. We'll also keep a
dictionary of the distances from the start vertex that will be updated when we visit a vertex. The
priority for an edge  (u,v)  will be the distance to  u  plus the weight of  (u,v) . So, if we use this
edge, the shortest path to  v  will go through  u . In this way, the tree will encode all the shortest
paths from the start vertex. Thus, the result will be not only the lengths of all the paths, but also an
efficient encoding of the paths themselves.

def dijkstra(self, v): 
    tree = {} 
    D = {v: 0} 
    tovisit = PriorityQueue() 
    tovisit.insert((None,v), 0) 
    while tovisit: 
        a,b = tovisit.removemin() 
        if b not in tree: 
            tree[b] = a 
            if a is not None: 
                D[b] = D[a] + self.wt(a,b) 
            for n in self.nbrs(b): 
                tovisit.add((b,n), D[b] + self.wt(b,n)) 
    return tree, D 

Prim's Algorithm for Minimum Spanning Trees

Recall that a subgraph of an undirected graph G = (V , E) is a spanning tree if it is a tree with
vertex set V . For a weighted graph, the weight of a spanning tree is the sum of the weights of its
edges. The Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) Problem is to find a spanning tree of an input graph with
minimum weight. The problem comes up naturally in many contexts.

To find an algorithm for this problem, we start by trying to describe which edges should appear in the
minimum spanning tree. That is, we should think about the object we want to construct first, and only
then can we think about how to construct it. We employed a similar strategy when discussing sorting
algorithms. In that case, we first tried to write a function that would test for correct output. We won't
go that far now, but we will ask, "How would we know if we had the minimum spanning tree?"

One thing that would certainly be true about the minimum spanning tree is that if we removed an
edge (resulting in two trees), we couldn't find a lighter weight edge connecting these two trees.
Otehrwise, that would be a spanning tree of lower weight.
Something even a little more general is true. If we split the vertices into any two sets A and B , the
lowest weight edge with one end in A and the other end in B must be in the MST. Suppose for
contradiction that this edge is not in the MST. Then, we could add that edge and form a cycle, which
would have another edge spanning A and B . That edge could then be removed, leaving us with a
lighter spanning tree. This is a contradiction, because we assumed that we started with the MST.

So, in light of our previous graph algorithms, we can try to always add the lightest edge from the
visited vertices to an unvisited vertex. This can easily be encoded in a priority queue.

def prim(self, v): 
    tree = {} 
    tovisit = PriorityQueue() 
    tovisit.insert((None, v), 0) 
    while tovisit: 
        a,b = tovisit.removemin() 
        if b not in tree: 
            tree[b] = a 
            for n in self.nbrs(b): 
                tovisit.add((b,n), self.wt(b,n)) 
    return tree 

An optimization for Priority-First search

The implementation above, although correct, is not technically Dijkstra's Algorithm, but it's close. By
trying to improve its asymptotic running time, we'll get to the real Dijkstra's Algorithm. When thinking
about how to improve an algorithm, an easy first place to look is for wasted work. In this case, we
can see that many edges added to the priority queue are later removed without being used, because
they lead to a vertex that has already been visited (by a shorter path).

It would be better to not have to these edges in the priority queue, but we don't know when we first
see an edge whether or not a later edge will provide a short cut. We can avoid adding a new entry to
the priority and instead modify the existing entry that is no longer valid.

The idea is to store vertices rather than edges in the priority queue. Then, we'll use the
 reducepriority  method to update an entry when we find a new shorter path to a given vertex.
Although we won't know the distances at first, we'll store the shortest distance we've seen so far. If
we find a shortcut to a given vertex, we will reduce it's priority and update the priority queue.
Updating after finding a shortcut is called edge relaxation. It works as follows. The distances to the
source are stored in a dictionary  D  that maps vertices to the distance, based on what we've
searched so far. If we find that  D[n] > D[u] + G.wt(u,n) , then it would be a shorter path to  n  if
we just took the shortest path from the source to  u  and appended the edge  (u,n) . In that case, we
set  D[n] = D[u] + G.wt(u,n)  and update the priority queue. Note that we had this algorithm in
mind when we added  reducepriority  to our Priority Queue ADT.

Here's the code.

def dijkstra2(self, v): 
    tree = {v: None} 
    D = {u: float('inf') for u in self.vertices()} 
    D[v] = 0 
    tovisit = PriorityQueue([(u, D[u]) for u in self.vertices()]) 
    while tovisit: 
        u = tovisit.removemin() 
        for n in self.nbrs(u): 
            if D[u] + self.wt(u,n) < D[n]: 
                D[n] = D[u] + self.wt(u,n) 
                tree[n] = u 
                tovisit.reducepriority(n, D[n]) 
    return tree, D 

An important difference with our DFS/BFS code is that the main data structure now stores vertices,
not edges. Also, we don't have to check if we've already visited a vertex, because if we have already
visited it, we won't find an edge to relax (vertices are visited in order of their distance to the source).