Introduction To Disinfection Study Guide: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Wastewater Operator Certification
Introduction To Disinfection Study Guide: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Wastewater Operator Certification
Introduction To Disinfection Study Guide: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Wastewater Operator Certification
Subclass E
http://dnr.wi.gov/org/es/science/opcert/
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Introduction to Disinfection Study Guide - February 2010 Edition
Preface
This operator's study guide represents the results of an ambitious program. Operators of
wastewater facilities, regulators, educators and wastewater businesses, jointly prepared the
objectives and exam questions for this subclass.
2. Use the resources listed at the end of the study guide for additional information.
3. Review all key knowledges until you fully understand them and know them by memory.
It is advisable that the operator take classroom or online training in this process before attempting
the certification exam.
Before you choose a test date, consider the training opportunities available in your area. A listing
of training opportunities and exam dates is available on the DNR Operator Certification home
page http://dnr.wi.gov/org/es/science/opcert/. It can also be found in the annual DNR "Certified
Operator" or by contacting your DNR regional operator certification coordinator.
Acknowledgements
This Study Guide is the result of the efforts of the following workgroup individuals:
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Introduction to Disinfection Study Guide - February 2010 Edition
Table of Contents
Part 1 - Disinfection Introduction - Chlorination
Chapter 1 - Theory and Principles
Section 1.1 - Definitions pg. 1
Section 1.2 - Pathogen Knowledge pg. 1
Section 1.3 - Chlorine/Dechlorination Chemistry pg. 2
Section 1.4 - Process Understanding/Performance Limiting Factors pg. 2
Chapter 2 - Operation and Maintenance
Section 2.1 - Definitions pg. 3
Section 2.2 - Methods pg. 3
Section 2.3 - Equipment pg. 4
Section 2.4 - Handling & Storage pg. 7
Section 2.5 - Preventive Maintenance pg. 8
Chapter 3 - Monitoring, Process Control, and Troubleshooting
Section 3.1 - Definitions pg. 9
Section 3.2 - Sampling & Testing pg. 10
Section 3.3 - Data Understanding & Interpretation pg. 10
Chapter 4 - Safety
Section 4.1 - Definitions pg. 12
Section 4.2 - Regulations & Procedures pg. 12
Section 4.3 - Equipment pg. 13
Section 4.4 - Chemical Considerations pg. 14
Chapter 5 - Calculations
Section 5.1 - Calculating chlorination chemical feed rates and amount of chlorine pg. 16
used
Part 2 - Disinfection Introduction - Ultraviolet
Chapter 6 - Theory and Principles
Section 6.1 - Definitions pg. 18
Section 6.2 - Pathogen Knowledge pg. 18
Section 6.3 - Process Understanding/Performance Limiting Factors pg. 18
Chapter 7 - Operation and Maintenance
Section 7.1 - Definitions pg. 19
Section 7.2 - Methods pg. 19
Section 7.3 - Equipment pg. 19
Section 7.4 - Preventive Maintenance pg. 20
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Introduction to Disinfection Study Guide - February 2010 Edition
Table of Contents
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Introduction to Disinfection Study Guide - February 2010 Edition
1.1.2 Define dechlorination and why it is required at wastewater treatment plants using chlorine.
Dechlorination is the process of removing chlorine from treatment plant effluent prior to
discharge to surface water. Dechlorination is used to remove potentially toxic chlorine
compounds that could injure fish and other aquatic life in the receiving water.
1.1.4 Define geometric mean and why it is used to average fecal coliform counts.
Geometric mean is a statistical measure of central tendency which minimizes the effect of
outliers. It is different from an arithmetic average and is used because of geometric growth
rates of bacteria (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc). When calculating a geometric mean, a zero value
cannot be used in the calculation and therefore all zeros should use one (1) as the value.
1.2.1 Identify prevalent diseases that can be contracted through wastewater exposure.
- Gastroenteritis
- Dysentery
- Hepatitis
- Giardiasis
- Upper respiratory illnesses
In the disinfection process, the destruction of the indicator organism would mean the likely
destruction of pathogenic organisms. The indicator bacteria, fecal coliform, are not
pathogenic, but are much easier and less costly to detect than individual pathogens. If fecal
coliform bacteria are adequately controlled, it can be expected that other pathogenic
bacteria are proportionally inactivated. The inactivation of viruses cannot be expected at the
same rate as the indicator organism because viruses are more difficult to destroy.
Section 1.3 - Chlorine/Dechlorination Chemistry
1.3.1 Explain the relationship between chlorine dosage, chlorine demand and chlorine residual.
Dosage: The amount of chlorine fed to achieve disinfection. This is normally reported as a
concentration in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or pounds per day (lbs/day).
Demand: The amount of chlorine used to disinfect wastewater after a given contact time.
1.3.3 Describe the relationship between total chlorine residual and the dosage of sodium bisulfite
for dechlorination.
The dosage rate of sodium bisulfite (NaSO2) to chlorine residual is 1 mg/L active sulfite ion
to 1 mg/L of chlorine residual. The lower the chlorine residual, the less sodium bisulfite is
needed for dechlorination.
1.3.4 Describe the relationship between total chlorine residual and the dosage of sulfur dioxide
for dechlorination.
The dosage rate of sulfur dioxide (SO2) to chlorine residual is 1 mg/L sulfur dioxide to 1
mg/L of residual chlorine. The lower the chlorine residual, the less sulfur dioxide is needed
for dechlorination.
Section 1.4 - Process Understanding/Performance Limiting Factors
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2.1.1 List the most common methods for disinfecting treated wastewater.
- Hypochlorination
- Gaseous Chlorination
- UltraViolet Radiation
- Ozonation
Section 2.2 - Methods
2.2.3 Describe the procedure for opening the valve on chlorine cylinders and tanks.
Use only wrenches specially designed for the valve by the manufacturer (do NOT use an
extension). An oversized wrench could cause too much torque and damage the valve. If the
valve does not open easily, strike the end of the wrench to unseat the valve. Rotate the valve
stem in a counter-clockwise direction. One full turn provides maximum discharge.
2.2.5 List the steps for removing an empty 150 pound chlorine cylinder.
1. Close the chlorine cylinder outlet valve completely (with the chlorine injector operating and
making vacuum).
2. Allow the chlorine system to withdraw all chlorine gas out of the vacuum regulator. The
chlorine gas flow indicator ball will drop to the bottom of the flow tube and the loss of
chlorine pressure indicator button will be sucked in flush or indicator dial will be allowed to
spin.
3. Remove the vacuum regulator from the chlorine outlet valve.
a. Replace the outlet valve cap.
b. Replace the chlorine cylinder protective hood.
c. Move the empty chlorine cylinder to the empty cylinder storage area. Secure the empty
chlorine cylinder with safety chain.
2.2.7 Describe how to get a good mixing of the chlorine solution with the plant effluent and why it
is important.
The chlorine solution is generally fed through diffusers designed to provide good dispersion.
Good mixing can be obtained in open channels where there is sufficient turbulence to mix
the chlorine solution with the plant effluent. Good mixing is important because it optimizes
contact between the chlorine and the organisms thus allowing for the optimum use of
chlorine and reliable reduction in pathogenic organisms. The chlorine contact basin
provides the necessary time, once the chlorine is mixed into the effluent, to allow the
chlorine time to affect the organisms and reliable reduction in pathogenic organisms.
Section 2.3 - Equipment
2.3.1 Explain the following for chlorine and sulfur dioxide 150 pound cylinders and 1 ton tanks:
3500 pounds.
2.3.3 Describe the location of fusible plug(s) on 150 pound cylinders and one ton tanks.
The fusible plug for 150 pound cylinders is located on the cylinder valve. The fusible plugs
for one ton tanks are located on the tanks ends, with three or four on each end.
2.3.5 Explain the purpose of the following parts of a vacuum operated gas
chlorinator/dechlorinator:
C. Rotameter
A rotameter is a graduated vertical tube containing a ball or float used to visually measure
the flow rate of gas to the system.
D. Injector
An injector is a water jet aspirator creating a vacuum which pulls the gas from the cylinder or
tank through the system.
2.3.6 Explain why sulfonator and chlorinator equipment are NOT interchangeable.
The two look identical except the internal components (o-ring plastic material and valve seat
material) are different. The valve seat material for the sulfonator is stainless steel; the
chlorinator uses titanium silver. The o-ring material for the sulfonator is Hypalon and for the
chlorinator it is Viton.
2.3.7 Describe the difference between chlorine and sulfur dioxide cylinders.
The cylinders and tanks are identical except they are color coded. Chlorine is color coded
silver or blue and sulfur dioxide is color coded red.
C. Application Pump
- Typically a centrifugal pump that conveys the chlorine solution from the storage tank to the
diffuser.
D. Solution Diffuser
- A perforated PVC pipe used to disperse the chlorine solution over the contact area.
2.3.9 Given the following problems with a gas chlorination system, state the cause (IF) and the
solution (THEN) for each:
A. Low Gas Flow
B. Frosting of the Cylinder
C. Loss of Vacuum
A. Low Gas Flow
C. Loss of Vacuum
- IF inadequate injector water supply, THEN check injector water pump and service as
needed.
- IF injector diaphragm is damaged, THEN repair injector.
- IF the diffuser or diffuser discharge line is plugged, THEN clean the diffuser and discharge
piping.
Section 2.4 - Handling & Storage
2.4.2 Explain how chlorine is withdrawn as a gas or liquid from one ton tanks.
For a one ton tank, the chlorine is delivered as a gas from the upper valve and as a liquid
from the bottom valve.
2.4.3 Discuss the following requirements for the storage of chlorine gas:
B. Solution/Storage Tank
- Sodium hypochlorite is supplied as a liquid. Liquid storage tanks should be protected
against heat, light and iron compounds, all of which will cause deterioration of the chlorine
solution. Storage tanks should be plastic or fiberglass.
C. Solution Diffuser
- The diffuser is a peforated PVC pipe used to disperse the chlorine solution in the contact
area.
Section 2.5 - Preventive Maintenance
2.5.2 List the maintenance tasks for gas chlorinator and sulfonator systems.
- Weigh the containers on a regular basis.
- Inspect and clean the vacuum regulators.
- Inspect and replace seal O-rings and gaskets if needed. Inspect and replace the
temporary flexible connections to the main pipeline on a routine basis. Immediately replace
any temporary connection that has any discoloration or kinking.
- Inspect and clean the pressure relief valves (if a pressure system).
- Clean the rotameter when deposits are noticed in the glass tube or the float sticks.
- Clean the gas flow rate valve (v-notch variable orifice) when cleaning the rotameter.
- Inspect, service and test the leak detection system (if the system is so equipped).
- Inspect and clean the injector system and pump.
- Check all equipment and piping for leaks, discoloration, apparent moisture and
repair/replace if necessary.
3.2.1 Describe the laboratory test method most commonly used to measure fecal coliforms in
wastewater treatment plants.
The most commonly used test method is the membrane filter technique (Standard Method
9222D). The colonies for fecal coliform are various shades of blue.
3.2.2 List reasons why fecal coliforms are used as an indicator organism.
- Always present in domestic wastewater
- Easy, fast and economical laboratory test
- Indicative of pathogen destruction
3.2.5 Explain the type of fecal coliform sample to be taken, what the sample holding time would
be, and sample preservation requirements.
The type of sample to be collected is a grab sample taken in a sterile bottle after
dechlorination. Sodium thiosulfate is added to the sample if any residual chlorine is present.
The holding time is 6-24 hours, preferably 6 hours. Preservation of the sample is cooling
immediately to 6ºC.
3.2.6 Explain the type of residual chlorine sample to be taken, where to collect the sample, and
the recommended holding time.
The type of sample to be collected is a grab sample collected after dechlorination. The
analysis should begin immediately upon sample collection (no longer than fifteen minutes
from the time of collection) as chlorine dissipates rapidly.
3.2.8 List the three recommended testing methods for total chlorine residual.
1. Iodometric back titration (Standard Method 4500* CL C.), using amperometric endpoint
detection method (Standard Method 4500* CL D.)
2. DPD spectrophotometric method (Standard Methof 4500 CL G.)
3. Specific ion electrode method (Standard Method 4500 CL I.)
3.3.1 Discuss WPDES permit reporting and effluent compliance for total chlorine residual.
Test methods for total residual chlorine normally achieve a limit of detection of about 20 to
50 micrograms per liter (ug/L) and a limit of quantitation of about 100 micrograms per liter.
Reporting of test results and compliance with effluent limits for chlorine residual shall be as
follows:
- Sample results which show no detectable levels of chlorine are in compliance with the limit.
These test results shall be reported on wastewater Discharge Monitoring Report (DMRs)
forms as “<100 ug/L”. (note 0.1 mg/L = 100 ug/L)
- Samples showing detectable traces of chlorine are in compliance if measured at less than
100 ug/L, unless there is a consistent pattern of detectable values in this range. These
values shall also be reported on wastewater Discharge Monitoring Report (DMRs) forms as
“<100 ug/L”. The facility operating staff shall record actual readings on logs maintained at
the plant; will take action to determine the reliability of detected results (such as sampling
and/or calculating dosages), and will adjust the chemical feed system if necessary to reduce
the chances of detectable levels of chlorine.
- Samples showing detectable levels greater than 100 ug/L shall be considered as
exceedances and shall be reported as measured. To calculate average or mass discharge
values, a “0” (zero) may be substituted for any test result less than 100 ug/L. Calculated
values shall then be compared directly to the average or mass limitations to determine
compliance.
3.3.2 Discuss the management and environmental concerns of overdosing chlorine and
dechlorination products.
- Dissolved oxygen depletion and lower pH in the effluent and receiving stream
(dechlorination chemicals are acidic and oxygen scavengers).
- Chlorine toxicity in the receiving stream that can affect fish and aquatic organisms.
- Biomonitoring (whole effluent toxicity) impacts.
- Increased effluent BOD (due to oxygen uptake of dechlorination chemicals).
3.3.3 Discuss the causes and solutions for wide variations in chlorine residuals in the final effluent
caused by:
tank problems would include: sufficient detention time; additional baffles to stop short
circuiting; routine cleaning to minimize deposition of solids; adding mechanical mixers to
improve dispersion of chlorine within the effluent.
3.3.4 List the possible causes of fecal coliform levels that exceed the discharge permit levels for
chlorination systems.
- Poor upstream treatment
- Chlorine feed rate too low
- Inadequate capacity of chlorination equipment
- Solids build up in the contact tank
- Short circuiting in the contact tank
- Detention time in the contact tank too short
- Poor mixing in the contact tank
3.3.5 List the possible causes of high chlorine residuals following dechlorination.
Successful dechlorination results in very low to non-detectable total residual chlorine. If
chlorine residuals are too high following dechlorination, the problem may be :
- The chlorine feed rate is too high for the dechlorination dosage
- Inadequate dechlorination feed rate
- Dechlorination equipment malfunction or failure
- Inadequate mixing of the dechlorination chemicals
- Chlorine demand of the treated wastewater has decreased with no change in chlorine
3.3.6 Discuss the ways one might determine if mixing is a problem in the chlorine contact tank.
Inadequate mixing can lead to fluctuating chlorine residuals, and violations of the fecal
coliform discharge limit. Samples taken along the length of the contact tank should show a
consistant chlorine residual and low numbers of fecal coliform bacteria.
Chapter 4 - Safety
4.2.1 Discuss the response an operator should take if there is a chlorine leak.
Chlorine leaks must be taken care of immediately or they will become worse. Corrective
measures should be undertaken only by trained personnel wearing proper safety
equipment. All other persons should leave the danger area until conditions are safe.
4.2.2 List the items that should be included in safety programs for chlorine and sulfur dioxide
usage.
- Establish a formal plant safety program
- Provide written specific safety procedures
- Provide Material Safety Data Sheets
- Develop a preventive maintenance program
- Set up a training plan for leak detection equipment, leak repair kits, respiratory protection
- Establish a written emergency procedure plan that includes emergency phone
- Know and follow pertinent local, state and federal requirements as appropriate
4.2.3 Explain the importance of having a stand-by person available when working with chlorine or
sulfur dioxide systems.
In the event of an accident or an emergency, a second person can assist, be available to
obtain emergency help, and provide first aid.
4.2.4 Describe how to locate small leaks of chlorine gas or sulfur dioxide.
Small leaks of chlorine gas can be located using a squeeze bottle or atomizer filled with
ammonia hydroxide solution. When this solution reacts with chlorine gas, a white smoke of
ammonium chloride forms indicating a leak. Small leaks of sulfur dioxide can be located
using a squeeze bottle or atomizer filled with sodium hypochlorite solution. In both instances
a white cloud or smoke indicates a leak.
Section 4.3 - Equipment
4.3.1 Describe the type of respiratory protection that should be provided when working with
chlorine or sulfur dioxide leaks.
Respiratory protection should be a Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) or some
other form of positive pressure air breathing device. The SCBA must fit properly and be
used by trained personnel.
4.3.4 Discuss what items should not be in a chlorine storage room for chlorine gas and
hypochlorites.
Paints, solvents, gasoline or other organic material should not be stored in a chlorine
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storage room. Any of these materials could cause a violent chemical reaction if a chlorine
leak occurs because chlorine is such a strong oxidizing agent.
B. Cylinder Valves
Cylinder valves should not be used to regulate flow. Flows are regulated with a gas flow rate
valve. Do not open the cylinder/tank valve more than one turn. One full turn provides
maximum discharge and forcing the stem beyond the full open position could damage the
internal valve stem threads. This could possibly cause a leak and might make it impossible
to close the valve.
C. Gaskets
Always change gaskets when changing any connections, because once a gasket is used, it
is compressed and not reusable. These gaskets are made or compressed asbestos or
lead.
D. Protective Hood
Never transport cylinders or tanks without fastening the cylinder protective hood. Accidental
striking on the unprotected valve end could cause breakage and a possible leak.
E. Fusible Plug
Never tamper with a fusible plug. The fusible plug is designed to melt and release pressure
under high temperatures.
4.3.6 Describe what should be done if you discover a chlorine leak around a valve stem.
Contact your chlorine supplier because new Teflon packing material has high torque
requirements. Operator adjustment is dangerous because the entire valve may loosen from
the cylinder or tank.
Section 4.4 - Chemical Considerations
4.4.1 Explain what effect chlorine or sulfur dioxide gas has when released into a moist
environment.
If chlorine or sulfur dioxide gases are mixed with moist atmospheres they form hypochloric
or sulfuric acid, respectively. These two acids are very corrosive compounds that can attack
metals and other equipment causing severe damage. This is why an operator should never
use water on a chlorine or sulfur dioxide leak, as the acids formed will only make the leak
worse.
A. Chlorine Gas
B. Sodium Hypochlorite (liquid bleach)
C. Calcium Hypochlorite (tablets and granules)
D. Sulfur Dioxide
E. Sodium Bisulfite
A. Chlorine Gas
Chlorine gas is 2.5 times heavier than air; is extremely toxic and very corrosive in moist
environments. The characteristic sharp odor of chlorine is noticeable at low concentrations.
The gas is detectable at 1 part or gas per million parts of air (ppm). With large leaks, high
concentrations may be fatal after only a few breaths. Extreme care must be exercised when
working with chlorine.
D. Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur dioxide is a colorless gas and has about the same density as chlorine, about 2.4
times heavier than air. It has a very strong pungent odor. The gas is detectable at low
concentrations and is immediately dangerous at high concentrations. Inhaling sulfur dioxide
will cause sulfurous acid to form on mucous membranes (eyes, throat, lungs, skin), causing
severe irritation and may be fatal after only a few breaths. Extreme care must be exercised
when working with sulfur dioxide.
E. Sodium Bisulfite
Sodium bisulfite is an acidic liquid solution. It is an oxygen scavenger which decreases
oxygen levels in an enclosed environment. If sodium bisulfite (an acid) is mixed with sodium
hypochlorite (a base), an immediate uncontrolled release of chlorine gas will occur.
Cleaning any sodium bisulfite equipment with any base will result in an acid-base reaction
producing heat and possible explosion.
4.4.3 Explain why a release of liquid chlorine is much worse than a gas leak.
When liquid chlorine is released, one volume of liquid will evaporate to produce almost 460
volumes of gas because of liquid chlorine’s high rate of evaporation.
Chapter 5 - Calculations
Section 5.1 - Calculating chlorination chemical feed rates and amount of chlorine
used
5.1.1 Given data, calculate the amount of chlorine used per day in pounds.
GIVEN:
Flow = 0.60 MGD and Chlorine Dosage = 8 mg/L
5.1.2 Given chlorine scale readings, calculate the amount of chlorine used per day in pounds.
GIVEN:
Chlorine scale readings: Day 1 = 204 pounds; Day 2 = 167 pounds
= 10 mg/L - 3 mg/L
= 7 mg/L
5.1.5 Given data, calculate the amount of available chlorine by weight (pounds) in a gallon of
sodium hypochlorite (bleach).
GIVEN: Percent (%) of active chlorine = 12.5% and Weight (lbs) of gallon of solution = 10
lbs/gallon
5.1.6 Given fecal coliform test results, calculate the fecal coliform geometric mean.
GIVEN:
Weekly Fecal Coliform Sample Results (cfu/100mL) = 10, 20, 18, 50
Formula:
Geometric Mean = nth root of [FC1 × FC2 × FC3 × FC4...)
Alternate Formula:
Geometric Mean = AntiLog [Sum of Log Data ÷ Number of Values]
Log of 10 = 1.000
Log of 20 = 1.3010
Log of 18 = 1.2553
Log of 50 = 1.6989
6.3.2 Describe the effluent characteristics that can inhibit the effectiveness of ultraviolet
disinfection.
The main effluent characteristics that can inhibit ultraviolet disinfection are dissolved,
colloidal and particulate materials that interfere with the passage of light through water.
Suspended solids, in particular, can block the transmission of the ultraviolet rays, thus
reducing the effectiveness of disinfection.
7.3.3 Discuss the reason for UV lamp replacement, and state the expected life of UV lamps.
As UV lamps age, the intensity of the UV radiation is gradually reduced and the lamps will
need to be replaced. The determining factor for lamp replacement would be increasing
fecal coliform density. The lamps can have an operating life of greater than 14,000 hours.
When using routine fixed time replacement, the time of lamp replacement can vary from
7,500 - 12,500 hours.
7.4.3 List the types of chemicals that can be used to clean quartz sleeves.
Citric acid, phosphoric acid and commercial bathroom cleaners are the main chemicals
used for cleaning the sleeves. Food grade cleaning solutions are recommended so that the
spent solution can be returned to the plant headworks. Identifying the fouling material can
help determine the best cleaning solution to use for removal.
Chapter 8 - Monitoring, Process Control, and Troubleshooting
8.3.1 List the possible causes of fecal coliform levels that exceed the discharge limits for
ultraviolet disinfection units.
8.3.2 Describe how UV is affected by effluent turbidity, especially dissolved and particulate
suspended solids
The main effluent characteristic that can inhibit ultraviolet disinfection is suspended solids.
Suspended solids can block the transmission of the ultraviolet rays, reducing the
effectiveness of disinfection. For best ultraviolet disinfection results, the effluent suspended
solids should be as low as possible.
Chapter 9 - Safety
9.2.1 Discuss the personal protective equipment (PPE) requirements when working with UV
disinfection equipment.
Protective clothing should include a full-face shield, gloves and have all exposed skin
covered. Long pants and long-sleeved shirts should always be worn around UV equipment.
9.3.2 Discuss the safety concerns with cleaning solutions used to clean equipment.
Many of these cleaning solutions are acidic, so the proper personal protection equipment
should be used when working with them. Acid resistant gloves, face shields, rubber aprons,
and boots are recommended. The cleaning solutions should be used in a well-ventilated
area. If using strong acids, training and the proper spill kits are recommended.
Chapter 10 - Calculations
8. Manufacturers’ Manuals