Knjiga

FO X AN D M CD O N A LD 'S
In tr o d u c ti o n to F lu id M e c h a n ic s
9t h ed iti on
Ph ili p J. Pr itc ha rd Ma nlw rwn Col lege

John w. Mi tch ell Univers ity of Wis co11sin- lvla dison
~Viti, sp ecial com ribu tions fro m : /
John C. Leylegian 1\tla1 1ha mm Col lege
W IL E Y
All mode m racing cars, such as the ones show n on the cover , are aerod ynam ically des'.g ned to mi_nimize
drag and gener ate a down force . As show n in the photo graph , there are front and ~ar wmg s that,_ differ ent
from an airpla ne, produ ce a down ward force rathe r than lift. This aerod ynam ic down force tmpro ves
ht to the car. Altho ugh you cann ot see it., the u ndercarriage_ of
traction witho ut addin g signi fican t weig
the vehic le is also desig ned to route the airllo w caref ully and devel op an addit ional down force . Usmg
down force allow s high corne ring speed s on the twisti ng, turnin g road cours es typic al of F?rrn ula 1
races. The ma.xi mum down force can excee d twice the weig ht of the car at 200 mph st:ra.1ghtaway
speed s! TI1e aerod ynam ic drag is reduc ed by the caref ul desig n of the fusela ge, the drive r's helm et, the
steeri ng linkag es, and all of the other parts of the ciµ" expo sed ~o airflo w that migh t cause turbu lence .
There is a trade off betwe en in that a high down force also incre ases the drag soQ1ewhat, "".hich reduc es
straig htawa y speed . Racin g cars are desig ned to optim ize this t:rodeoff for each type of racm g cours e.
VICE PRES IDEN T AND EXEC UTIV E fUB~ ISHE R Don.F owley
EXEC UTIV E EDIT OR Linda Raus . .
SPON SORI NG EDIT OR Mary O'Sul livan
PROJ ECT EDIT OR Ellen Keoh ane
EDIT ORIA L PROG RAM ASSI STAN T Emily Meuss ncr-
MAR KETI NG MAN AGER ·Chris tophe.r- Ruel
SENl OR PROD UCT DESI GNER Jenni fer Welte r
DESI GN DIRE CTOR Harpl d Noinn
SENl OR DESI GNER Made lyn Lesur e
SENT OR PHOT O EDIT OR Billy Ray
SENT OR CONT ENT lv1AN AGER Ellinp r Wagn er
SENI OR PROD UCTI ON EDIT OR Timo thy Lindri ei:
COVE R DESI GN Made lyn Les.u re .
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-- ..___ ., --:.---:-- __ ----- --- . - -~--- , .- ~------ . ___.. -- ·--- -
Pref a ce
Introdu ction effects produced when varying input parameter s. Thns eacfr
class period can be used ia the· manner most appropria te to·
'.This text is written for an introducto ry course in fluid mechan- meet student n-eeds.
ics. Our approach to the subjecL, emphasize s the physical When students finis!Hhe ·fluid mechanics course, we expect
concepts .o f fluid mechl!Ilics _and methods of analysis that them to be able to apply the governing equaciqns to a variety o.f
begin from qasi~ principles. The primacy objective pf this text problems, including those they have not encotinter:edi p_re.yi:..
is to help useq, develop an orderly approach to pr9blem sol- ously. We particularl y emphasize ph}'sical cortcepts-t fuoiighou t
ving. Thus we always start from governing equations, _state to help students model the variety o.fphenot nena that occur in
assumptio ns clearly. and try to relate mathemat ical results real fluid flow situations-. Although we collect.use ful equations
_to CQrresponding physical behavior. We emphasize_ the us_e at the end of each chapter.. we· stress· that our·philos opby. is to
of control vblu~~ _1 9 1:m µntaµi a p,:actical proplem-sc il.ving minimize the use ofsoc-cal l¢!'magic,_formulas"·and emphasiz e
approach that is also theoreticii.lly incJm;ive. the systematic and fund~ent aJ approach to problem solving_
By follo\1/ing this format, we b _eHeve scudeqts develop co~
dence in their ability to apply the lIJaterial and to find. that they
Proven Prop/e m-Solv ing Method ology can .reason out solutions to nuher t:hall@gin g .PJOble,iµs._.
The Fox-McDo nald solution methodolo gy -used in-this text is The book is well suited for lnde~nd¢ nt stl,J,dy by ~tufl¢_g~
illusttated- in numerous examples in each •chapter. Solutions or p~cticiµg engineers . Its readabilit y and.clear ~J!:ai:J;lf>Icl; b~lp
presented in ·the-examp les have been prepared to illustrate good bui!g coripderic e. Answers· to selected problems are irt<;:Iuc!e~t
solution technique and to explain difficult points of tl:ieory. so studen_ts i:ii~y check their own work.
Examples are set apart in format .from. the text so that
they are easy to identify and follow. Additiona l important
infomi11.tion about the· text and· our procedure s is given in
Topica l Covera ge
"Note· ta-Students~• in Section 1. L We ui:ge you to study this The material has been selected carefully to include a broad
section carefully and to integrate the suggested pi;oc_e dures into range of topics suitable fo_t a · one~ or two-semes terc c:ou~ ~
your problem-so lving and results-pre sentation-a ppro·a cbes. the junior or senior level. We assume a backgroun d in ngid-
body dyn~cs, mathemat ics through differentia i ·equations .
and thermodyn amics.
SI and English Units More advanced material. not typii;:,ali¥ 'cqve~::in a1 first--
SI units are used in about 70 perc·e ttt ofboth example and erid- course, has been moved to the website ($esei · sections 'are
of-chapter problems. English Engineeri ng units are
.~ t$ed identified in: the Table or Contents as beilig dn: tpe website).
in the remaining problems to provide ex:perieric;e with this Advanced -material is available online at ·www.wi_l ey~f:Om/
lriiclition~ system arid to liig!jlight conversion s amcing unit college/pri tGbartl so that it · does no~:intem ipt die: topic flow
systems. of the prio:tel'i.te xt.
Material in,-the.prir ited,tex~·h as been- or:gmrlz~d·mto broad
topic• areas,
Goals an(;I Advant ages -of Using This Text • futroc;IQ~tQry concepts, sc:qpe. 9f,.f).uid mechani~ , ~g. :fluid
Complete ~xpJWJations p~ente9- in tnf! text, togeth¢r with statics (Chapters l, 2, ang 3)
numerous d_¢_tajl¢,d <;Xc)Jllples, make this b<>o.k underst~fi a.ble
0
• Developm ent and applic;~9 µ, gf CO.QO:Ol v<;>_ll,llP~ J•EIDS .o.f
f~r,studen ts,_free4'g th.e. iQst:rµctor to d,epart from conv.enti.9µzj basic eqµatjons (Chapter 4)
l_e!;QJi;:e teaching 111eth9ds. Classroom time can be used t<> r b,~fu
• .bevelop~ ¢.n.t an,d, 81)plic~ti.9q pf,dif(ere ntial fo~)<)_
bnpg.jri o.µtside materiii.I. expiµid on speci~ topics (such ~
equations (G:hapters 5 -and; 6)
ficin~N¢wtonian fiow, boundary- layer flow, lift and drag, or
experimen tal methods). solve exllll1p1e proble~. or explain • • P4nell$io nal ~alysis aod correlatio n. of e-xpe@.eo bil daia
·difficult pain~ of assigned homework problems. In addition~ (Chapter? )
many examp•e.E xcelworkb ooks have.been developed.for pre- • Applicatio ns, for internal,- ·viscoµs . incom ~ible flows
sentinga.viµiecy of fluid mechanics ph~nomen a; esp¢_c ially the (Chapten 8)
V
,i Preface
• Applications for extern,!.] viscous incompressible flows • Examples: Several of the examples include E.xcel work-
(Chapter 9) books, available online at the text website, m·a king them
• Analysis of fluid machinery and system applicatio_ns useful for "what-if" analyses by students or by the
(Cbapter I 0) iristructor.
• Anolysis and appUcations ofopen-channel flows (Chapter 11)
• Analysis and applications of one-dimensionai compressible
New to This Edition
flows (Chapter 12) This edition incorporates a nutnber of significant changes:
Chapter 4 deals with analysis using both finite and differ- Many new end-of-chapter homework pro_blems have been
ential control volumes. The Bernoulli equation is derived as developed., with the .result that about 30 percent of the pro-
art example application of the basic equations to a differential blems have not appeared in previous editions. These new pro-
control volume. Being able to use the Bernoulli equation in blems were selected to require a spectrum of skills and
Chapter 4 allows us to include more challenging problems deal- concepts. At one end of the spectrum are those problems that
mo with the _mi;)rrientum equation for finite control volumes. focus on a single concept, which allows students to test their
c Another derivation of the Bernoulli equation is presented understiin!iing of basic material. At the other end are challeng-
in Chapter 6, where it is of:>tained by integrating Euler's equa- ing situations that bring in several concepts and advanced
tion along a sireamline. If a.n ins~c_tor chooses to delay intro- prob'lem-solving skills, which allows students to assess their
ducing the-Bemoulliequation, the challeoging-problems from ability to integrate the: material, This wide spectrum allows
Chapter 4 may be assigned during study of Chapter 6. the. "instructor to match the complexity of the problem to stu-
dent ability, facilitating die assignment of more challenging
problems as students master the subje_cL
Text Features Each c}i;ipt~r is introducect with a case study that is an
This edition incorporates ·a number of features that enhance interesting and novel aeplicalion,ofthe material in the chapter.
Out goai-is.t o-illustrate the broad rnnge:,of areas that fall withiri
learning: tlle d.iscipli11e,9f fli,i.i:d mechanics. in general, these are special-
• Chapter Summary and Us_eful Eq11a1io11s: At the,"n<J ofea:ch iz~d_ sul;>j¢cts that c_a.tinot·be .covered in ,depJh in a text such as
chapter we collect for the student's convenience the most this one, We,hope,thatthese;case styclies stimulate the student
used or most significant equations of the chapter. Although to explore.further ~d. no~ fe~J limitec:l by the_t9pics tl:lat ciµl be
this is a convenience, we cannot stress en_o ugh the. need for cov.ered'.in thls texl,
the student to understand the assimiptioils and lim.itatiorts,of Often, fll.iid.be))a:v\9tcan·oestbe:understood though visu-
each equ_atio_n before usin& it! alization techniques ,that capture _the dynamics of a, flowing
• D~sign Problems_: Wher.e appropriate, we have. pro~ided fluid. For many'of.the·chaBter·sul:>ject:s. short videos are.avail,-
opensended design problems. StudenJs could. be assigned ablc,,_t,batciUustfate;a,speo1fi¢·pbc;q9_inenog. ·These videos, which
ro work in teams to. solve these problems. Design ptobl~ll1S are i,wailabl~J>rilli:ie.:to" !:>o!-1;,.uie·suidentao(l the insll:l)ctor on·the
encouraoe stude_nts to spend more time exploring a.pplica- text' s companii;l)i;wel;,si(y;Jife inqJt:;,.t~dby an jq.:>n-4'.t tlle rriargifi
tio~ offluid mech~cs principli;s to the desi!pl of devices of the text. We also-include references to much mote extensive
and syste~s. As in Ille previo1,1s edition, design. pr9f:>lems co]lt!ctlons,of videQs.onawide ~~e of fluid mechanics t9pjc::s,
are included with the end-of-chapter problems. We,encpllfllge bpthsPJ-qem:s aod:-instructors touse,these videos
togairi~nsight;i_i:i:t_i'.> tli~i1,9t(ial -b.el1avioroffluids.
• Op<m-Ended Proble1ns: We have included_ many oi:ien-
endi;c:I problems. Some are thought-provoking quesuons
The su-6Jtc,~ qf¢0I_IjpJiis!(iJ:>I~_J;tuid,flqw was.covered in two
:chapters in previous edipoij~, To~e twq chapters have now
intended to test undersl,l)Jlcling of funda.II1eptal concepts,
peen combined into .o ne and the mo£¢ advanced material
and some require creative thought, synthesi~. ·and/0~ nan-a~
(Fannofk,>),V, Ecayle1~h flow, a.nd,0Q)lqu~· s11ock aho exp~sion
rive discussion. We hope these problems will help.mstruc-
wav~) h;:i# be~n remove4:i'rontth¢·t¢xt.,These-sedibns and the
tors to ertcourage their students to think and ~orkin more
correspc>nding prgblelllS areavailable-~11 the cc:>mpwiion ~eb-
dynamic ways, as well as_ to inspire each llistructor to.
site for instrtic:tqfs 'aj'icl stµdents. They j:flj)yidi; a.n e~c¢11¢nt
develop and use more opi;;n-eilded problems.
introduclibn-.for: thifs¢ :iJ:iJ~$t~d.in a more in.:deptli :study -of
• E;nd-,aj-C/iapter Prov.Lenis: Problems _~- each c~apter -~ c;qmpressible flow. Toe:_c;qve@_ge_, of C0lllpressible flow in
amu1g_i;d by topic. and _irouped according to tlie_chapter th¢ current ed.ition paralJ~ls/ tlie coverage of •open-cflannei
section ~eacli.Iigs. Within each topic they ge~ei:ally mcrease flow, empb.~izi_ng, the' sirttllwitY ,!:>etween the -tv.rp topics.
in compl~X:ity gr pjffic::ulty. This makes n easy for _the
instructor to assign,l16rriewotk,problems at the appropnate
difficulty leve1 for ea~h sec11on of ¢e book.
Resources far lnstrµ~to.rs-
• Answers to. Sel_~cu:dProblems: Answers to odd-numbered Toe fqllowing reso.ut:ces ':aJ:e·- available ,to instruc;tors who
problems are listed at the end of the book a$ a osef~ ai~ for adppt !ftj_s -texL Visit the ,q¢"iij_p.11llion we~si(~ w~:wifoy.com/
st~dents to check their understanding of the m_a tenal. colleg¢/pntc:liarcl ·tQ _-regjster'-fpf aJ>asswoti:l..
Preface' vii
• Solll,tion,s Manual: The solutions manual for this edition • Excel Files: These Excel files and add-ins. are -for use with•
conta,ins a complete, detailed solution for all homework specific examples from the text.
problems. The expected soluJion difficulty is indicated, • Online~Only Chapter Content: The same additional topics
and -each solution is prepared in the same systematic way provided to instructors are also available to students.
as the example solutions in the printed 1ext. Each solution • Videos: The videos referenced by icons througl:n;,u.t ttie text
begins from govertting equations. clearly states assump- and in Appendix B are accessed from the we_b~i{e.
tions. reduces governing equations to computing equations.
obtains ah algebraic result, and finally substi.t utes.numeric_al
values to obtain a quantitative answer. Solutio.ns may be
.reproducecJ for clas.sroorn. Ot librwy use, elinilrtating the WileyPLUS
labor of problem solving-for the instructor.
WileyPLUS is•an online learning andassessmentenvir onnicnt,
• Problem key:- A list of all problems that are renumbered where students test their understanding:of con·eepts,. get feed,,.
from the eighth edition of this title, to the ninth edition. back on their answers, and access .learning materials· like the
• PowerPoitit b!cltire Slides:- Lecture slides-ouUiiie the con- eText and multimedia resources. Tostrudo~ can. automate
cepts in the book and iriclude,c1rppropriate .i,llustrations and assignments. cre~te practice·q4i27.c:is, assess ~~~ents'' progress,·
equations. and intervene with tho:se falling b:etfrnd. - ·
• Image G.a!(ery: Illustrations are taken from.the text-in a for~
mat appropriate to include in Jecrure presen,ta!:i,q11s.
• Sa1i1ple Syllabi: Syllal::ii apptopriat~ ·for ti"~e in teaching a
one-semester course in fluid mechanics are provided. AcknQwled·g ments
First-timeinstrucJor swiil find .these a-helpful guide lo.creat- This nin~ editic;m represents an·otherstep inc tfie,evolution ·of
0
ing an -app(Oprilite emphasis on .tlte differeQt topics. this clas~ic, t~·Xt to meet the·ne.e ds pf srudents and lJlStruCto.r s
• Online-61115, Chapter Co111ent: These. addiJionaj topics sup- in. flu_id mechanics. _It continues µi¢: traditio.n. of providing:
plemenuhe materi.aJ in the text. The topics coverep are a peda~ogical).y so~1:1d 1ntroqµc::tjon tq t,l:J:e ·sul?ject..of:fhlids
fluids in rigid boc!y 111otion. accelerating control volum~. as created by the orlgµial au.mots; R;o.1:ieri F9jt M!i .Nan
the . unsteady l3erilotilli equation, the · classicai laminar McDonald. Their focus on the fli~da¢¢il@$ pt<iv:i:cl~ ~
boundary layer solU:tiQ!l, and q;m:ip~sit.ile. floJV ~anno solid grounding forchose students wJlo tiJke:Q.@.Y :q~e-'«6~~
flow. Rayleigh flow, and oblique shoe~ ,arid ,e}!;pansion in fl,tiids, artd ·1,1.dditionally gives tbciSe s_t:1J4~!its wb.Q( CQil'"
waves). The~e onJine-onJy sections alstl.ih¢liide apptpprlate tiotie th¢ir studie~ in. the subJ~ct,a-sttong base for ~d~AA!-';~
end~of-chapter problems. topics,
• Vic{eos: The videos referenc~d by icons ~hrougbout the text Even thoµgh the origjnal 11uthors have' not been iµvolv~
(and in Appendix B) can be accessed fyoqi:the texfs compan_.. with the latered.iti6~. we·!Ja,ve·irii;dto p.reserve -theit,~Q~µsi-
0
ion website. In Appendix B there is a refer¢11¢e to-lhe ''classic asm for the.subject·and.tfteµ; p~rsoi:lal-ins1ghts into:fluid ~~y,-
videos" developed _by the National Com:mjrt~ Jqr Fluid ior. Theit cpmments:.ad<;1' a.,d.µnynsion npt npIIlllill,y (olin4Jii
Mechanics Films a_nd to lhe J~g~ number of videos ._1.Vail~le textbooks l,lllQ enhance·stwienci' UI).Jl~t:aILding:of'tlu s .impc;,r-
from the Cambridge University Press. ExcerptS from these tant subject. ···
ltjnget~ !!,reo(ten helpful in:e~plainin8 flu.i d phenomena. Over the yellrS, many student$ apd.:(ac4lty l1av~j,roY:i.cied
• Appendix <;: A Bnef Review ofMictoson '!::-r:<:e.l: Prepared additional eiid-9f-chapter probJetns,liJici ijew;~¢rla'lrtbafhav:e
by Philip Pritc:,.i'iard; @s cirtline~only resource cq_?.ches sru- shaped subseqµeiit editions of thls :book:.. 'rji¢ ;¢ ~ t:editi.en;
dents in setting up 04c:1. ,solving fluid mechanics problems !ftus c.ontains the i,ppµ~ of many instrllt:~Of-'S •~~ .~~her,s,
using .J::,w:el spreadsheets'. · i.i:1tfie fluids .field th.at sµppl~ments and suppQ~ _t}:ie::?,.p.prpach:
of the original aLitjiors, · ··
• ExcelFil<fcs: TheseE:.YcelfilC§.c).lld iidd.-ins·.are·fot use With
It, is not.possible co ·~kJIQwledge au of th,¢ ¢i;>p_fr.iputqm·
specific.ex.a rilpl¢s frgm._the ·text.
m:oividua.lly. · but their c:olle¢tive ·efforts ' .h ave pe_~n:-_@ .tjal to/
the· suc;:cess of ttu.s text. In patti.9µlar, Piulip J. Ri;ili,;1$:d,, ,the:
author of tile previous ed,iµop, igtIPduc_e d rt;@Ifl 'sjgiiif;iquit-
Res.our(:es for S,tµ<Je:nts. revisions iri. th.~ ~e"t-.an:d tiie·oi:tline. material that-care included
TI'!e;foUowing res9.li~~sci1p,; available on yie texfs.co.m panion in this ni.I;iqi e4jti_o n. We · b~P~- tbir .~olle~gU~ · ~im<! :~1qers.
weqsitt .at. www.wil~y.c_e >m/co1Je~e/pritcha¢ for studeni:s
enrolled 41 #asses that adqpJ this text.
°' App"i!nt!ix· G: A Brief ~~yie.w of Mictosot} ~we/: This
E::!~~:J~::~::~tit:yi:~~d:ft:~::tJ-tl::
0
otilili~-oli.ly material \Viil aic:i_stµo.ents. in. µsjng Excel tc:i John w..·ivt'itJh~u
sol:v.e, the ¢nd-ofchapter prc>blems. - · ·.. ju1j"2Q14,
·-- -- --:- .--<- ~ - -- - -~--
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·c·:..: . .. . ··t·e:- n
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C:ffP.PTER:1 'INTRODUCfldf{j 1 -~HAPT~Jl j i :IH)JJJ~hS:XAT.i(:~ 47

I. i h}Lrodii~tion to :F luid Mec hani cs 2 ~'-i <fii~ :a.ast<f ~qQ'anefr ttf'.f_J\iiiLS(?:dc·$ :48
~t~ tP-~tiJqe'ij~ Z
Sg.Qp)~ •,Qf F:Ju~d M!!'<lliµ,tics 3. i:~:_·1:~~~,~:~1~;:~~tif:;.yig,
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#~ooiij;i\t~Wltf't'.u.il?JJ.l~n.1 Fl9$~~;, ,a~, c&fi:stant•·· .. ~
=,$:tii~e:Ws.
C~1-L®1.''\Toiume Mov in•g wjtb
Veleeity 109
i c~ -its Mor oliit ti'm Equ atio n for Con trol
\f6jOJ;ne with Rec tilin ear
References, 4.ti
·· · .·4'.·o-- Acc e)~r atio n 1 I I
Probfo
-.• .II!S .. .
4-t:i Momentum Equation for Control Volume 5.6 Summary anp Useful Equations· 190
with Arbitrary Acceleration (on the Web) 117 References 192
4 .7 The Angufar.:Mortientu m Principle 117 Problems· 192·
Equation for Fixed Control Volume 117
4.~ The .First and Second Laws of CHAPTER 6 - INCOMPRESSI BLE INVISCH)
Thecmodynainics 121 FLOW 198
Rate of Work Done by a Con.t rol Volume (22 6.1 Mornentum·Equat ion for Frictfonless F10,'.11f: ·
Control. Volume Equation 123 Eul~r•s Equation 19))
4 :9 Sumnuiry and Useful Eqtiati<;>11$' l28 6.2 B'etnoolli Equation: l:iitegrafiort·of.Euler?'s
Problems 129 ,a
Egu·a:tion Aiong -Streamline for
steady Flow ioi
CHAPTER .5. INTRODUCTIO N TO Oeriva:tion Using.$1:re~mlin~ Qoordii;ia~. 702
DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSfS Derivation Using' Re.ctal!jttfliW'°~QPf4iii:t~J¢.s· 203
OF FLUID MOTION , 144 . Static, Stagnation, and Dynamic Pressures 20$
5.1 Conserv.ai:ion of Mass 145 Applications 207
Rectangular Coorclj.nate Syst!:;m: J.4,5, Cautions on Use· of the Bemoulii
Gylln.c;lf:.i<;.aj,J;;gordinate System 149 .Eqg~ti•n ·'.4Ji .
*5.'2 Stream Function fo.r Tw9,.p.µp.eQSi_ppal 6:3 The Bernoulli Equation htteqm;~ ~ a,p•Eu.erg'}•
li:!~pmpf~~_iple F_lp~ J51 Equ,,tQon 213
5 .3 Moµgp 9.f a Fh1id Particle (Kinematics} 15~ .6 .4 Energy -O ~pe -Line and Ify<½tµlig Qi'ag~ ~
0
Fluid'Translation: Acceleration 9.f a _F).~id Particle Li;Il.¢ 2};7

.in: .a Ve:l6city Fjeld 154 6.5 Unsteady Bernoulli Equ~ti9n~ µltegta.li,tjij of
Fluid Rotation 160 );)!lei's Eqµ_~J;ioa, Alonga-Streariilihe
Fluid Defonnatloo 163 (on the Web) 219
~A Mo.Qient_um ,Eqµation 167
Forces. Acting on a Fluid :PattiGle HP Bernoulli ~quatio.n.A,gpµ~~to. ntm~tj.pp_al
Di.ff~r~q_tial Mom.e1:1tyrp Equation f6& Flovv 219
Newtonian Fluid; Navier~Stok¢.s ~1.mtions 168 Velo~ity l?ot~DJiaj ?_?Q,
*5.5 Introduction tq Cpp:1p.utJ1,ti.0Qp.l_Fluid S~_am.Fup§ tion and V~loqty. :P•l~i;iJiaj:f:Q' r:
I;>ynaini!=s 176 Two-Di!l)e¢,j9i;i_a.I, It:rotati.on~ In~o_mp_~;~ipJ.¢.
The Need for CFD 176. :FI.ow-, L.apla~e' s Equ;itip.n: · <tZJ
Applications of CFD 177 Elememaey Phµ1~ pl~ws· 243\
~oiJie ,B.iisic CFD/Nui::t;1eri~aj M~tllods .U~.ipg a, Sv,perposition of El~ID~rj.__@Y•;i:?Uuie EJ.(:),W.S: ~7$.i
S_prea:dsheet 178 .(;;7 S,urQ,:nary, :@-9-:lJseful,EqJJation~:.• gj4-, .
Tfie Sg-ategy of CFD 182 R~feye_nc;,¢s 23:5
Discretization Using tht: Finite-i:-Differeni:;¢ Problems. 2i$~-
N,fethp:c!.. 183
AS:semoly of Disci;'ete S)'st~m and Appli.cati6n of CHAPTER 7 OJM:fEN,Sl.,QNAE-ANAL¥S·i$
.naundW Coaclitions 1$4 AND SI M.1LITU DE 244. ... - ..
Solution of. Discr¢(e Syst~rir 185 1.1 Nondim:~rt;sioMliz wg.:the B8$ic;,_ ~iffetentlat
Gdd ·eonvei:gence, i'8$, ~qu~tions ·-221-$ ·· ·
1)¢:alirtg wlth-Noµlinefuity 186' 7 .z N:atury .Q f P.u:t!~psionai:J\:i!alysi's: 2i61:.. '
Direc;ni(t~ Iter~tiye Solvers 187 7 ,3: l3:U.¢ kin~am-)>,f 'Uie!ii¢in ·248i ·
it¢:qttjve Convet_gerit,:e 188' 7A S.i_gw.ij.c;:~t Di.inen§,i0,Q],¢ss.·Gm.u ps,-~ ffil'w'ci
Condµdi.Qg Remarks 189- Mecbariiits
- . - . . .
.
?54
~. .
·· · · ·
•section· ITI!lY·,b_!l QIJf.it.ti:~ ~vithout .lg~i;_,pf ~!l.n!inuity _in, ~-e-\~~~ 1"::_itcrint

x Conten ts
7 .5 Flow Similarity and Model Studie s 256

Incomplete Similar ity 258 8.10 Summ ary and Useful Equati ons 337
Refere nces 340
Scaling with Multip le Depen dent Param eters 263
Proble ms 341
Comments on Model Testin g 266 ·
7.6 Summa ry ru;id Useful Equati ons 267
Refere nces 268 CHAP TER 9 EXTE RNAL INCO MPRE SSIBL E
Problem s 268 VISC OUS FLOW 353
PART A. BOUN DARY LAYERS 355
CHAP TER 8 INTER NAL INCO MPRE SSIBL E 9.1 The Bound ary-La yer Conce pt 355
VISCOUS FLOW 275 9.2 Lamin ar Flat-P late Hound ary Layer: Exact
8.1 Internal Flow Charac teristic s 276 Soluti on (www. wiley. com/co llege/
Lamina r·versu s Tutbul erit Flow 276 pritcha rd) 359
The Entran ce Region 277 9.3 Mome ntum Integra l Equati on 359
9.4 Use of the Mome ntum Integra l Equati on for Flow
PART A. FULLY DEVELOPED LAMIN AR with Zero Pressu re Gradie nt 363
FLOW 277 Lamin ar Flow 364
8.2 Fully Develo ped Lamin ar Flow Betwe en Infinit e Turbu lent Flow 368
Parallel Plates 277 · Summ ary of Result s (or Bound ary-La yer Flow
Both Plates Sti,ttiona.ry 278 with Zero Pressu re Gradie nt 371
Vpper Plate Movin g with Consta nt Speed , U 28'.3 9.5 Pressu re Gradie nts in Bou~d ary-La yer
8.3 Fully Develo ped Lamin ar Flow in a Pipe 288 Flow 371
PART B. FLOW IN PIPES AND DUCT S 292 PART B. FLUID FLOW ABOU T IMME RSED
BODIE S 374
8.4 Shear Stress Distrib ution in Fu!Jy Devel oped
Pipe Flow 293 9.6 Drag- 374
8.5 Turbul ent Veloci ty Profile s in Fully Devel oped Pure Fric,tio p Drag: Flow over a Flat Plate Paralle l
Pipe Flow 294 to the Flow 375 - .
·
8.6 Energy Consid eration s in Pipe Flow 297 Pure Pressu re Drag, Flow 6\re.r aFJ.QtPlate Norma l
to the· Flbw 378
.Kinetic Eneq~y Coeffi cient 298
Head Loss 29~ Frictio n and Pressu re Drag: Flow ·over a Sphere
8.7 Calcula tion of Head Loss 299 and Cylind er 378
Stream lini1Jg 384.
Major Losses : Frictio n Factor 299
9.7 Lift 386
Minot Losses 303
9.S Summ ary and Usefu l Equati ons 400
fwµps, Fans, and Blowe rs in Fluid Syst~m s 308
Refere nces 402
Noncir cular Ducts 309
Proble ms 403
8,8 Solution .o f Pipe Flow Proble ms 309
Siilgle~Patb System s 310
Multiple-PaUi System s. 322 CHAP Tf:R 10 FLUID MAC HiN_ERY 412
I 0.1 Jiltrod uction and Cl~s.inc,1,l.tion of. Fluid
PARTC. FLOW MEASUREMENT 3:?(5 Mac.li mes 413
8.9 R:estp.~tion Flow Meters for: Intern al Flows 326 Machi nes for Doing : Woi;:Ic on a ,Fluid· 413
The Orifice PlaJe 329 Machi nes for :ex!J-cac.tin~ Work @'-o.wtjr) from a
The Fi9~ Nozzle 330 Fluid 4'15
Tlie Ventur i 332. Scope of dove::iil:g~ 4.17
The Larnwar Flow Eleme nt 3;32 10.2 Turbo machi nery A'.DlJJ.Yl?iS 417
Linear flow Mete~ 335 The Angula r-:-Mb mentum Princip le: The Euler
Traver sing Method s 336 Turbo machi ne Equati op: 417
Contents. xi
Vefocity Diagrams 419 Head Loss Across a Hydraulic Jump 532

Perform ance- · Hydraulic Power 422 I l.5 Steady Uniform Flow 534
Dirneµsiq n~ Analysis and Specific Speed 423 The Manning Equation for Uniform Flow 536·
10.3 Pumps, Fans, a.nd Blowers 428 Energy Equation for Uniform Flow 541
Applicati on of Euier Turboma chine Equation to Optimum Channel Cross S¢c;tion 54~
. Centrifug al Pt1mps 428 11.6 Flow with Gradually Varying Depth 5.4A
Applicati on of the EuJ.er. Equation to Axial Fk>w Calculati on of Surface Profiles $45·
Purpps and :Fans 429 11.7 Discharg e Measurem ent Using Weirs: ~4-~~
J:>erformanqe Chara.cter istics 432 Suppress ed Rectangu lar Weir 548
Sinii:iarity Rtiles 437· Contracte d Rectangu lar Weirs 549.
Cavitatio n and Net Positive Suction Head 441 Triangula r Weir 549
Pump Seleciiou : Appli~ati~ n~ to Fluid Broad-Cr ested Weir 550
Systews 444 11.8 Summary and Useful EquationS ' 551
13~q,wers a.nd. F.ans 455 Referenc es 552
10.4 Positive Displacem ent Pumps 461 Problems. 553
10.5 Hydiaulic: Tm;bines 464
.Hydr,mlic Turbine Theory 464 CHAPT ER 12 INTROD UCTION TO
Performa nce Gharaet¢q stics for Hydraulic COMPR ESSIBL E FLOW 556 ..
Turbines.. 466 12.l Review of Thermod ynamics .557
Sizini .Hydrauli c Turbines for Fluid
12.2 Propagat ion of Sound Waves 563:
Systems 470
Speed of Sound 563
10;6 Pt9peller s and Wind-Pow er Machines 474
Types of Flow-T he Mac;h Cone• :f6ft
Prop_e llers 474
12.3 Referenc e State: Local Isenttc,j,iig $t4~atlb n
Wfud-Po wer Machines 482
Propertie s 570 - :···
l0.7 Cor.i:tpressiQle Flow 'rurbomac bines 490
Local Isentropi c Stag:Qati on-Pi6ped ies fqrJJie.
Applicati on of the Energy Equation to ~
Flow of an Ideal Gas $!ti -· ·-
Compres'.sil;,le Flow Machine 490
12.4 Critical Conditio ns $77
Cqj:iipres sors 491
12.5 B .i lsic Equation s fot Oµe-J;)ilp:eiisianaf
Compress ioie,,Flow TurQines 495
Compres sible Flow: 577
10,8 St11DII)aty and Useful Ei:J.uations 495
:R.¢fe:rences 497 Continui ty Equation 577
Puii&iem:s 499 M9mentu m Equation ~7;,~
First Law of 'Th¢rnio dyn~~s; ~;z:a,;
Second Law <;>fTu~p:ii¢4ynainiGS, ~79
CHAPT ER 11 FLOW IN OPEN
Eqqa,tion of State 5 '.(J~,
n.l ,~l,i~~;r~;g:
CHANNELS ;,07
509
12.6 Isentrop~ ¢ Fk~w. of·~.rdeaf@a.st¥A c:ea
V~ation ,sijp· - -~ -
Su~soru.¢' Flo:w~ M<.l 5.si
-·
i.$~!!it!;~1;t!·W~~~i. ·and· the Frgude· ~:::.:r!::~.:'~~;~ i$tf3

Re{~~b¢ ¢ 8.ta;_gµ_Mt_og;.;-_@.'4,,-~ ptii:al Condition s
=::~;::==~~-~r:::m:89
t 1.z: ;&9.§t-ey-:Eq.:uati9£1 ft>.~Open-Channel Flows 516 for rs~p:tiQpit Flow' 9f@::[,4#aj, Gas 584
'Specific;: En:etcry, srs
lL~ ~i~=~:!~~f!!c En~ 521
LL4 ~~~:~~:::;:ui~!~ $;~8

'.D~f>tl;i lriereas~ /,\!;;toss ~J jyp,rauli¢ Jµp:ip
1zj Nonnaji sho:qt s,, {$$,8
B.~ic,Eq1;1~tj'.Q.1,)§;-f.ot ':a Normal Shock 599
N,q~filjsS~o~tJ\ g:-w F unctions for
.Qfl~':-l)im¢p.siboiil Flow of an Iqs:_<!)._,G:~ .601
xii Contents
12.S Supersoni c Channel Flow with Shocks 605 APPEND IX C SELECTED PERFORMANCE
12.8 Supersoni c Channel Flow with Shocks CURVES FOR PUMPS AND FANS 629
(continued , at www.wile y.com/co llege/
pritchard) 607 APPEND IX D FLOW FUNCTIONS FOR
12.9 Flow in a Constant- Area Duct with Friction COMPUT ATION OF COMPRESSIBLE
(www.wil ey.com/co llege/pritc hard) 607 FLOW 640
!2.10 Frictionles s Flow in a Constant~ Area Duct with APPEND IX E ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL
Heat Exchange (www. wiley ;com/coll ege/
UNCERT AINTY 643
pritchard) 607
12.11 Oblique Shocks and Expansio n Waves APPEND IX F ADDITIO NAL COMPRESSIBLE
(www.wil ey.com/co llege/pritc hard) 607 FLOW FUNC:TIONS (WWW.W ILEY.CO M/
12.12 Surilmacy and 1Jseful Equation s 607 COLLEG E/PRITC HARD) WF-1
Reference s 610
Problems 610 APPEND IX G A BRIEF REVIEW OF MICROSOFT
EXCEL (WWW.WILEY.CO M/COLLE GE/
PRITCHA RD). WG-1
APPEND IX A FLUID PROPERTY DATA 615
APPEND IX B VIDEOS FOR FLUID Answers to Selected Prol;?lems 649

MECHANICS 627 Index <556
C H APT E R 1
lntrodu ctio,n
.. . ~ ... _,, _ - - --
1.1
. .lh. • ~ :::r ~- -,,- ·.·- -· -.· to
t r:oduttio,1
··- -••-,. -- - fio,d
- · M'eahanks.
1.4 bimension$ and·:V.o.i~-
1.2· i3a~k Equati~:ms·, 1.5 Aoaly.s.is·:_pf Exp'e tith¢.ntal Erro r
-·, .3, 'iVletfi"od~,i;WAnalysi s;• 1-0 Sdm rh afy
Case. Study_
M the beginning c,f ea.ch. cha.ptef we presei;ita ·c;a~e stuc!y thaqiia~s frozen nor forested and also <m ·shallow offshore .loqit_ion:S, ;;ind:
how the matetialin·tfre thap_ter is incorporated into modern_.technol- · · it iridµdes a con$ervative 20·pertent:e~timate for t.fpadty.factot ,
og_y. We have· trier! to present ni,iie/"developmerifs that show tfie• which·i~ a' measure cif how muc:h_energy-a given turl;>ine-actuaUy
ongoing imporiance o( the field pf fluid mechanics, Perhaps, as a produces. lt· lia~ b_~en estiriiat~~-tfiadhe tqtal po~E!_r from:.¢.~-
creative new engineer,.you'll- be. gble to._u se t/:i_e icl~as yqu learn in wind that could conceivably be extracted is about-7,Ltera)Njltts-
this CO!,J(S~ tQ i111prc,11e •current flyid-m_e chaniq ~~viies qr jnven_t (TW 72 x 1012 wat:ts), Bearing_in mind that tfie totai pQwet·cori~
new on.es! sumptio·n by all hom·a ns was a bout"T6 TW (as of 2006}, it is•:d ear
that Vl(_in4ener-gy c91;1IQ ~up ply al! t!ie·world's nee.di; -fo_r the fore:- ·
Seeable futureC --
Wind Ptjwer .. . dne r~~sori for· the· new· estimate is dlJe to the incFeasi_r(gly
Atcordlng'to the July 1i5, :i._6 09,edltion pfi:f\e:NewYor/<T1,nes, the C:Qninioii ils.E!·of .;iery large turbrnes that rise to almost t QP:m,
global winit energy potentii!Hs.rn_u tli higher:than previoiislye:Sti.--' where· w11i d speeds are _g reater. Previous wind studies were·
mated by botli windJndQstfy grqi,ip~_\arij:I gi;ivernme.nt agende:s, base_d on tlie useof'50- ti, 8o~ rritur6ines. In addttiorr,J:Q l'.e<!~.b
Using' data . from thousands_.of rneteorolQgital. station~; the e~en h-i gher-elevations{and heri-teWind Speecl),, two a"fi"P,fqi11Cl;i~s.
reseatcl:l:inditat_e s that th_e.-w,o,rld's winc;l.p9v-,'~f. p9.tent_iaLis_about ha;ve ·been' pi'<ij:icf~ec;ls: lr:i i;1 re·,;ent papi:!r, Professor Archer at:
40 times.gre~ter than tc;,tal cur.rent-power c.onsur'r)P,t;ion; ptevic;,4s califomja · State Univet.si~ and Profe~sor C_alde1ra aJ ttie•
$(l-!diesl1ad _punhat niultipie at; ab9ut_s~v~n ..,trn.~s!,ll"l -~h~ low~J Car,negie 111.~tituti.!;m ·.of Wai hii)gton, S_tanfard, discussed,. some-
41:J-Str,ltE:S, the p9~enti~) fr9m wind,pp_w~d i. 1.6 time~
more than :P.o~sibiHti.es-_ One-.of-thesie is a Q§igfi·,of Kit~:§en ($1,o~n il'l..t;i;!_~·
ig\af el~c:tritity d¢mand iii .the Uniteq_St~·te~, ~!( re~e~rf hec:S fjgµrE!), ~~i\ s,i ~ting <>nethered ,i;tirloi(s (kites) manipulated -i?Y- ~;
suggested, again milch hignerth_ana 200_8 bepartmeiieofEnergy control unit and connected 1;0 agrq1.1n~~ based, carggse!~sh~ped'
S!l!dY that.proje.<;ted wind co.uld suppiya _fif~ti of ~II e,l~;<:trl~_i,tyin ,ge'nf!i@.to_r; tlie ~it~ -~"e: maneuvered so that they, ·(l_r,iv~ jh ~:
the -country by ~J>30. -The findings iildic;ate the:-va:lidity of. the carousel, generating P.<>vv~r. p:9s~il?ly a~.. mu~h.as.1Cil.O MW: This-
'r iff~rf n'ia'cl~·-ch1im that ''the United States i~-th·e :S_a·udi:'A"iabia··of approa'c h wc:>1,11d: be,liest:'fqr-'tlie iow_e ~t f~W ki_lqrne t;~r~ .Qf Jh!;!'
windY The new-estimate is l:>ased _th_e idea pf d.e ploying·-2.s-:-- to atmosphere. An 11:PPt~Jacfl ·using-further increases: 1n··1il~'@tjp_ii'.
3- rr,eg1'Watj! (IV)Wl y,.,i_hd ·turbines ih rural ;;,reas tnat;;ife n~ither ·
l
2 Chapter 1 Introduction
is to. generate electricity aloft and then transmit it to the surface· would lift themselves into place with supplied electricity to
with a tether. In th_e design proposed by Sky Windpower, four reach the desired altitude but would then generate up to
r.otors are·mounted on· an·airfram·e ; the rotors both provide lift 40 MW of power. Multiple arrays could be used for large-scale
for the device and power electricity ·g eneration. The aircraft electricity gene'ration.
~~~~~~~ - -----
1.1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
We decided to title this textbool< "Introduction to ..." for the following reason: After studying the text,
you will i 1ot be able to design the streamlining of a new car or an airplane, or design a new heart valve, or
select the correct air extractors and ducting for a $100 million b.u ilding; 110wever, you will have devel-
oped ~ _go~d underst;inding of the concepts behind all of these, and many other applications, and have
made s,gmficant progress towarcl being ready to work on such state-of-the-art fh1id mechanics projects.
To ~tart toward this ~oal, in this chapter we cover some very ba~ic topi_cs: a case study, what f_luid
m:ec::han1 cs encqmp_;isses. the. standard engineering definition of a fluid, and. the ba~ic equations and
methods of analysis. F inally, we clis.c uss sqme common engineering student pitfalls in areas such as unit
systems and experimental analysis.
Note to Students
This is a student-oriented book: We believe it is quite comprehensiv·e for an introductory text, :i,nd a
student can succ~sfuUy self-tea.ch from it. However, most students will use the text in conjunction·with
one or two undergraduate co-q.rses. In either case, we recommend a thorough reading of the relevant
chapters. In fact, a good approach is to read a chapter quickly once, then reread more carefully a.se,c.9ruf
and everi a third time, so that concepts develop a context and meaning. While students often fin.cl flip.cl
mechanics q1,1.ite challenging, we believe this approach, supplemented by your instructor's lectures that
will hopefully amplify and expand Lipon the text material (if you are taking a course), will reveal fluid
mechanics to be a fascinating and varied field of study.
Other sources of information on fluid mechanics are readily available. In addition to your professor,
there are many other fluid mechanics texts andjouma)s as well as the Internet (a recent Google search
for "fluid mechanics" yielded 26.4 million links, including many with fluid mechanics calculators and
animations!).
There are some prereq11isites for reading this text. We assume you have.already smdied-introductory
thermodynl)mics, as weU as statics, dyna.rmcs,.1µ1cl calculus; however; ~ ~e.e ded, we will review some of
this material.
It is our strong belief that one learns best by doing. This is. true whether the subject -under study is
fluio mech.a nics, thermodynamics, or soccer. The fundamentals in any of these. are few, and mastery of
to¢'m ,c omes through practice. Thu.r it is extremely important th4t you -sol11e problems. The numerous
pi:tj!,:,}~Jii5. iiic}ude_q at the ·~nd cif¢!lcl) chapt¢.r p_i:ovide UJe oppo@rµfy to J,)I'!!cCP.ce applying fundamentals
to .fue solution of problems, Eveb though \V¢ prpvidefor you.r: ¢q,O:vefii~n¢e a.s!fljirb!li)' of usefu.J equa-
l.ions.at theend.ofea:cb chapter (except this one), you shoiild:avoid the temp~tioh to adopt a so-¢a:lled
plgg,a1µ1d.,chu~ .approach to solving,problems. Most of the problems ate. such ilia~•this approac~ simply
·:rn
will:riot.w.o *. $9lving piv.t>lems we Sb:O~~ly recQmmend that.:yo.u prot;eed µsm~· the follow mg log-
ic~ steps: . . ..
J State oriefi),'. a:ndcondsely (iii y9ur own words)·tll~ µtfoqriation gi:V¢n.

2 Suite the.-i nfonnatlon t0·be f"c>und.
3 Dra~·,a ~6hemaiic :Qf uie:· lly~te¢ or GOntmi y(>)ume ·CO .be used in the an:al'ysis. Be sure lQ )j~~~l. the
. JioAn<W:i~ :gf'i~ 'i Y$.t~in qr
c:;;9ntrql volume @d label ai;,propriate coordinate directions,
4' ;{iye,the apprqgf.i}:1.t,.~:,~ a,ie!i)~p'd il fonnµlati~;i:t( c:>f i;he pp~i<f. Ii;.__w~ithat >'°',1 consider necessary to solve
rhe··probforo: .
5' :L.isi:-ilie simplifying assumptions that you fec{l ·-~ appropriat~J O: .t ht rffoblei:fi..
~.:- .;"-:
1.1 Introduction to Fluid Mechank,s 3
6 Complete the analysis algebraically before substituting numerical values.

7 S1,1bstitute numerical values (using a consistent set of units) to obtain a numerical answer.
(a) Reference the source of values for any physical properties.
(b) Be sure the significant figures in the answer are consistent with the given data.
S Check the answer and review the assumptions made in the soiution to make sure they are reasonable.
9 Label the answer.
In your initial work this problem format may seem unnecessary and even long-winded. However. it is
our experience that this approach to problem solving is ultimately the most efficient; it will also prepare.
you to be· a successful .professional, for which a major prerequisite is to be able to communicate infor-
mation and the results of an analysis clearly and .precisely, This fonnat is used in all. examples presented
in this te.,l."l; answers to examples are rounded to three significant figures .
.finally, we strongly urge you to rake advantage ofthe many Excel tools availablefor this book on
the text website for use in solving problems. Many problems can be solved much more quickly using
tbese tools; occasional problems ·can only be solved with the. tools ot with an equivalent computer
applii::ation.
Scope of Fluid Mechanics

As the name implies, fluid mechanics is the study of fluids at rest or in motion. It has traditionally beeri
applied in Such are·as as the design bfc:ailiil, levee, and d.µn syste¢s; the design of pumps, compressors, and
piping and ducting used in the wat~~ fuld ai~ conditioning systems olhomes and businesses, as well as the
piping systems needed in chemical plants; the aerodynamics of automobiles and sub'- and supersonic air-
planes; and the. de.vi':lopment of many different flow measurement c:Jevices such as gas pump meters.
Whiie these are sl:iU ~~t.remely impqrtiin~ ~~ (witnes$, fot example, the tµrrent emphasis on
autom~bile strearrilining and the levee failyres in New Orle_ans in 2005), fluid mecl:iaajcs is truly a
"high-tech" or "hof' discipline, and marty exciting areas have developed in tbe last quarter-century.
Some examples inclu~e em,ironmental and energy issues (e.g., containing oil slicks, large-scale winc:J
turbines, energy generalion from ocea.n waves, the aerodynamics of large buildings, and the fluid
mechanics of the atmosphere and ocean and of phenon;iena such as tornadoes, hQrricanes, and·tsunamis);
biomechanics (e.g.• art:incial hearts arid valves and other oi;gans such as tlie liver; understanding of the
fluid mechanics cif blooc!, synovial fluid in the j oints, the.respiratory sys~em, the circulatory system, and
the urinary system); sport (d¢.sign of bicycles and bicycle hel.Iiiets, skis, and sprintilig and swimming
clothing, and the aerodynamics oftlie golf, tennis, and soccer ball); "smart fluids" (e.g., in auiomobile
susperisiQn systems to optimize motion under all terrain conditions, military uniformscontitining.~fluid
layer that is "thin" until combat, when it can be "Stiffe11ed" .t o give the soldier strength ~d pJ:Qte¢tj.on,
and fluid lenses with humanlike properties for use in cameras and c;~ll phones); and microfluid$(e.gc,:.fo,:
extremely precise administratic;m of me<;lications). ·· ·· ···
These are just a small sampling of the newer areas of fluid mechanics. They ill~trate how the dis-
cipline is still highly relevant, and increasingly diverse, even though' it may bt thousands of years old.
Definition of a Fluid
We already have a corrimon-sense iclea of when we are working With a fluid, as opposed.to.a.solid: fluids
tendti:i flow wheJ1.we interact.w.ith th'em(e.g., whenyo1,1 stir your mpming coffee); solids ~nd t<;>,deform
or bend (e.g., when you type on3 keyboard, the springs under the keys compress). Engineers.need a~ore
formal and preci~e d_efin11:i911.of a fluid:.Aflztid i~ a substance that deforms continuously under the appli-
cation of a shear (ta11ger:itial) ~ti-¢ss no matter bow small the shear streSs may be. Because the fluidmotion
c':cuitinues,under the applic;;ation of a shear stress; we~= also define a fluid.as any, sµbstan:ce thiit .caimot
sustaip ,a ,shear stress when. at rest. . .
Hence liquids and gases {()r vapors) are the-forms, ·Qr phases, that tltii9s can_ take. We wish to dis,.
cinguish these phases from the solid phase of matter, We can .s~ the.difference Ile.tween so1id and fluid
L
beha.viorin Fi g. l. l. l:f we place a .specimen of either stibStru:ice between;two piat~ {Fig. la~ and_th~p
apply:a shearing force F-•.ea~h, will initially defonn (Fig. .l , lb); h<;>wever; wfiere:as· a,solid .w ill·UJ,e11 be
at ~t (assuming the fore~ is ·not. large eno.ugh to ~o beyond: il$..~ _a stic. limit),, a fluid will aonti'!ttf! ,t 9
4 Cha pte r t Intr odu ctio n
Tim e
F F
--F
:0:
(al Soli d or fluid (bl Soli d or fluid
Fig. 1.1 Diff eren ce in beha vior of a solid and a fluid due to a shea r force.
(cl Fluid only
-~
:::»: ;~
'~->.-. . ..-,,,._
(cf) Fluid only
--
defo nn (Fig . 1.1 c, Fig. l. ld, etc) as lon g as the forc e is app lied . Not e that a fluid in con tact with
a solicl
surfac:;:e doe s not slip -'-it has d1e sam e velo city as -drnL surf ace bec aus e of the 110-slip con ditio n,
an exp er-
ime ntal f;icL
The amo unt of defo m1a tion of d1e soli d dep end s on the soli d's mod ulus of rigid ity G; in
Ctia pter i
we will len.m tlm tthe rate ofdefo rma tion of d1e flui d dep end s on the flui d's visc osit y,,. We refe
r to soli ds
as bein g elas tfc and flui ds as bein g visc ous .. Mo re info rma lly, we say that soli ds exh ibit "spr ingi
ness .»
For ·e xam ple, whe n you driv e ove r a pom o'le , Lhe car bou nce s up and dow n due to the car susp
ens ion' s
met al coil spri ngs com pre ssin g and e x pan ding . On tlle oili er han d, flui ds exh ibit friction effe
cts so iliac
tlle susp ens ion' s -sho ck abs orb ers (con tain ing a flui d that ·is forc ed tluo1,1gh ·a sma ll ope ning
as the car
bou nce s) diss ipa_te ene rgy due to tlle flui d fric tion , whi ch stop s the bou ncin g afte r a few osci
llati ons. If
you r sho cks are "sh ot," me flui d Lhey con tain ed has leak ed out so mat tl1ere is alm ost no friction
as Lhe car
bou nce s, and it bou nce s sev eral tim es ralh er d1an quic kly com ing to cest . The if:!e11. tha~ subs;tanc
es can be
cate gor ized a.s bein g eilh er ;i soli d or a liqu id hold s for mos t sub stan ces, bi.It a m,im_l:>er 9f sub
s~i :.e~
exh ibit bor n spri ngin ess and fric_tion ·; they are visc oelas tic. Man y biol ogic al tissu es are viscb
elast..i:¢.,
For exa mpl e, tl1e syn ovia l flui d iil hum an kne e join ts lubr icat es Lhose join ts but also abso rbs
som e oi'
Lh~ sho ck occ urri ng dur ing wal king or run nin g. Not e that Lhe syst em C>f spri ngs and shoc\c
ab_ spr~ ~-
cqm pris ing Lhe car sus pen sion is also visc oela stic , alth oug h me indi vidu al com pon ents are noL
'?fl~-W:ill
hav e mor e to say on dtis topi c in Cha pter 2.
1.2 Ba sic Eq ua tio ns

Ana lysi s of any pro blem in flui d .me cha nics nec essa rily incl ude s stat eme nt of the basi c law s
gov erni ng
the fltii d, mi;,tion. The bas ic Jaw s, whi ch are app lica ble to any flui d, are:
The cqnsei:-vation df mas s

2 - New ton 's seco nd law of met ion
3 The prin cipl e of an~ uJar mom entu m:
4 The_~ t )f,l'N ef thet jnoc lyn; µ:m cs
5 The seco nrJ h1.w .df ~erm qdy n.i.m Jes
Not all basi c law s are alw ays requ ired to solv e.an y one pro blem . On the othe r h:;,.n9, in ipan y proo
h;m s i_l
is -n~cessi,u;y t~ brit1g .i nto me ana iysi s add itio nal rela tion s ,tha t des crib e me beh avio r.of phy sica
l pro per-
ties of fh,t i~ lllid ¢r giv en c.onditio.ns, _ _. . .
· For exa mpl e; you _pit> baij ly x;ec;all stµdyi.Q~ properti\.'!$ of gas es m b;is1c phy sics or ther mod .
yna mic s.
The idea l gas equ atio n of stat e
(1.1 )
· · mo d e·1th.a l relat
.. es_ . .dellS
. l·ty to . . ·pre
1s-a ..ssu .. re.a nd.-.tem pera rure·for man y gas ... es .und er noa nal 'c ond _ ition
. s. In
R
Eq: Ll, is th~ ga.s .~on stan t: Val !l.~ df R are ,giv en in App end ix A fo~' se.v.eral ;cot nm~ rt gas es;p·and
!
jn Eq; 1.i .are ,the abs olut e p~u.i:*-3.lld: .µjs 9l~t e.te mp_ e ratu re, resp ~cll vely ; p 1s-.dens1ty (ma ss. per um t
v.ofo me) . ·E x~ ple Ll -illu s~t esu s~o f di¢ ld~Jµ gas eqllat\Qfl ofs_w.t~-- _ _ .. . __.
· 'b • •'- ~., e ,bas·1•c ·11 a·w--s· ·w·1··
I t ·JS o v.1ous-..u,a •• . l_h·,w"':.c·h :we
•• • , sha llde. • •al• •ate_ ilie,s
... wn_
.. .. • ·e .as .. o. • se·u
• . . tll. sed m mec ham cs.a nd
t
.h
~ . .. . .. ... . . • _
rq~riri:q4yn~q,$, QµF task wiiLbe to-f cmn ul~t ~ ·th~ ¢ J,aW~:iµ s1;1~ta.bJ~.fptnis;to .$Qlv~_.flirid-flow ,pro blem s
~d tq app ly U:!,ei:l'l. tp.a w~d e v~e w of situ atio ns,
1.3 Methods of Analysis S
Example 1.1 FIRST LAW APPLICATION TO CLOSED SYSTEM
A piston,-t:ylioder device contains 0.95 kg of oxyg~n initi_a lly at a temperature of 27°C iµid a pressure due to th~ Weigh~ 0f
150.kPa{abs}. Heat js added to the gas until ~l reac;hes a temperature of 647°C. Determine the amount of heat added durm~
the process;
Giy~n: Piston~_c yliqder q:mtairµng 02, m:;:: 0.95 ~g.

Ti ="27- -C
0
T2-=627°C
Fin_d : '2i-2 , I
I
I
Sc;,lutj~n: p = constant= 150 kPa {al5s) Q
I •. : I
We~ de~l.4ig .wi,tb., a syst1cm, ni=0.95 kg.

I
I_________ J'
I
<.jb_verhing equation: F~t_law for th¢ ~y~tem, .Q, 2 ~W,2 .= E2~E,

Assumptions: I E ·= U, since th¢ system is stationary.
2 Ideal ~as,- w_ith cons.t ant specific .heats.
U.rid¢t the al:!_ovc;_~si.iinp)ions,
£2 - ~ 1 = Uz -U,1 = 111(112 ...,.u,).= mc.,(Ti-T,)
-The -work d9n~,·_c;h,uing the process. is -mo,v ing boundacy wotk
·¥,
~-.
Wiz= ·1 -pd¥=PWt- ¥1)
F'Q'r ·aj'l ideal'gas; p¥ =mRTi Hence ~V.i-=mR(t2 :--TiJ Then from thJ:: f4,snaw ~q_µ~ticin,
Q,2 =E2-Ei +W12=m{;.,{T2 -oT,~.+ mR{T2,-T.i)
Q 12.= m(Ti-T,)(e,,+l?) __ -
Q12=mc;,(T2-I'1) {R ~ :c;,:-¢,J
Frotti the Appen~~. Table A :6, for b 2t
~~~
c,, =9'09.4i/{kg-k), Sblvi,ng for Q
. .
12,
. . . -- j .• ' ' . . . -~ii_-

Q12=;0.95k&x909.k~-R x600K.=5t8:kJ· ·:;;..,,.....,.:'-=- - - - - - - ' - ' - - - ' - '
0
We mµst emphasize that there are, as we shall see, many apparen_tly simple problems in fluid
mechanics that cannot be solved analytically. In §UCh cases we must resort to more complicated numer-
ical solutions andior resuHs of experimental tests.·
1.3 Methods of Analysis

The first step in solving a problem is to define the system that you are attempting to analyze. In basic
mecha,nics, wr; made extensive use of the free-body diagram. We will use a system or a control volume,
de"pending oi:i I.be problem being studied. These concepts are identical to the ones you used in thermo--
dynamics (except you may have called them closed system and open system, respectively). We .can use
either one to get mathematical expressions for each of the basic laws. In th~rmodynamics they were
mostly used to obtain expressions for conservation of mass _a nd the first and second laws of.thetII10.dy-
DAIT1ics; in our study of fluid me_chanics, we will be most interested in con$ecvation of m~s a.pd
S)'5tem Cylinder
bOundary
Fig. 1.2 Piston-cylinder assembly.
Newton's second law of motion. In tl1em1odynamics our focus was energy; in fluid mechanics it will
mainly be forces and motion. We must always be aware of whether we are using n system or n control
volume approach because each leads to different matliematical expressions of these laws. At this point
we review the definitions of systems and control volumes.
System and Control Volume

A system is defined as a fixed, identifiable quantity of mass; the system boundaries separate the system
from the surroundings. The boundaries of the syst~m may be fixed qr movable; however, no mass
crosses the system boundaries.
In the familiar piston-cylinder assembly from thermodynamics, Fig. l.2, the gas in the cylinder is
the systerp. If the gas is hel),ted, me piston will lift the weight; the bound~ 9f the system thus moves.
Heat and work may cross me boundaries of me system, but me quantity of matter within the system
boundaries remains fixed. No mass crosses me system boundaries.
In mechanics courses you used me fn!e-body diagram (system approach) extensively. This was log~
ical because.you were dealing wim. an ~asily identifiable rigid body. B:i:>wever, in. fluid mechanil;:~ V✓.e'
nonnally are concerned.wim the flow of fluids tllrough devices such aS c,omp~s.sors, turbi.I)es, pipe;li)ies~.
nozzles, and so on. In these cases it is difficult to focus attention on a fixed identifiable qµanticy .o f,IJ1ass,.
It is much more convenient, for analy~is, tp focus attentiqn on a volume in space thrgygh.v,,Qiqh(lliiJlw.Q.J
flows. Consequently, we use .tl!e control volume approach. ·. · · · ·· ·
A conrrol volume is an arbitrary volwne in space through \vhich fluid flows. The geofnet:ricbo(!Iiclru:y
of the control volume is called me control surface. The control surface may be real or imaginary; it may be
at rest or in motion. Figure 1.3 shows ·flow tlrrough a pipe jun.Ctfon, with a control surface drawn on it.
Note that some regions of the surface cm:r¢sp0nd tci physjc:al boundaries (the; walls of the pipe) and others
(at locations Q), Q), and 0)) are parts of the surface that are imaginary (inlets or outlets). For the control
vqlume defined by this surface, we could write equations for the basic Jaws and obtain results such as the
flow @te at outlet.a) given the flow rat~ at i.nlet (D and m1tlet 0) (si.m ilar to a problem we will analne in
Example 4.1 in Chapter4), the force required to hold me junction in place, and so on. Example 1.2 illus-
trates how we use a control volume. to determine the mass flow rate in a section of a pipe. It is
always important to take care in selecting a control volume, as the choice has a big effect on Lhe matlle-
matical form of the basic laws. We will illustrate me use of a control volume with an exan1ple.
Control surface
,.t :
Fig. 1.3 Fluid flow through.;:i pipejunqion.
!
1.3 Methods of Analysis 7
E xample 1.2 MASS CONSERVATION APPLIED TO CONTROL VOLUME

A reducing water pipe section has an inlet di~meter of 50 mm and exit diameter of 30 mm. If the steady inlet speed (averaged
across the inlet area) is 2.5 m/s, find the exil speed.
Given: Pipe, inlet D; = 50 mm, exil D., = 30 mm. Inlet~, Exit

Inlet speed, V; = 2.5 m/s. ~ , ' I
~
! :
Find: Exit speed, V.,. It _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I
_J
Control volume
Solution:
Assumption: Water is incompressible (density p = constant).
The p!1ysical law we use here is the conservation of mass. which you learned in thermodynamics when studying turbine$,. ~oiler$,
and so on. You may have seen mass flow ·at an inlet or outlet expressed as either, m = VA/v orm=pVA where V,A; v andp ~ tlitf
speed, area, specific volume, and density, respectively. We will use tpe density form of the ~quation.
Jience tJ:ie mass flow -is: ·
m=pVJ\
Applying in!l$.s cow;ei:vation, from our study of thermodynamics,
p V;A; = p V..Ac
(Note: p, =p., =p by our fitst assumption.)
(Note: Even though we are already -fam.iiiar with this equation from thermodynamics, we will derive it in Cb.apter. 4.)
SqJving for V.,,
v., =2.7: G~) ·=1.s; - - - ---~---~v"

2
Differential versus Integral Approach

The basic laws that we apply in our study of fluid mechanics can be formulated in terms of infinitesimal
orfinite systems and control volumes. As you might suspect, the equations will look different in the two
cases. Both approaches are important in the study of fluid mechanics and both will be developed in the
course of our work.
In the first case the resulting equations are differential equations. Solution of the differential equa-
tions of morion provides a means ofdetemiining the detailed behavior of the flow. An ex ample might be
the pressure distribution on a wing surface.
Frequently the infom1ation sought does not require a detailed knowledge of the flow. We often
are interested in the gross behavior of a device; in such cases it is more appropriate to use integral
formulations of Lhe basic laws. An exaniple might be the overall lift a wing produces. Integral formula-
tions, using finite systems or control volumes, usually are easier to treat analytically. The basic laws of
mechanics and Lherrnodynamics, formulated in terms of finite systems, are the basis for deriving the
control volume equations in Chapter 4 .
Methods of Description
Mechanics deals almost exclusively wilh systems; you have made extensive use of the basic equations
applied to _a fixed, identifiable quantity of mass. On the other hand, attempting to analyze thermody-
namic devices, you often found it necessary to use a control volume (open system) analysis. Clearly,
lhe type of analysis depends on the problem.
8 Cha pter 1 Intr odu ctio n
Whe re il is easy lo keep track of iden tifia ble elem ents of mas s (e.g. , in parti cle mec:hanics), we use a
melh od of desc ripti on that follo ws the parti cle. This som etim es is refer red to as tbeL agra ngia n meth od
of desc ripti on.
Con side r, for exam ple, the appl icati on of New ton' s seco nd law to a parti cle of fixed mass . Mat he-
mati cally , we can writ e New ton's seco nd law for a syst em of mass mas
- _ dv d2 r
'J:.F =111 a =11 1- =m - (1.2 )
dr d,2
In Eq. 1.2, "i:.F is the Sl!_m of all exte rnal forc es actin g on lhe sys tem, a is the acce lerat ion of lhe cent er
of mass of lhe syst em, Vis the velo city of the cent er of mass of lhe syste m, and r is lhe posit ion vect or of
the c.e nter of mass of the sysl em relat ive to a fixed coor dina te syste m. In Exam ple 1.3, we show bow
New ton's seco nd law is appl ied to a falli ng obje ct to dete mun e its spee d.
.f;cample 1.3 FRtE FALL O'F BALL IN AIR

Tbea itres istan ce(d ragfQ J:Ce )pn a20 0 g bal.l in free fligh t is _give n by F0 =2X 10-4 V 2 , whe re Fo is in newt ons and
Vis iii mete rs
is
per S~Q nd. Ifthe"!;>all qtbp ped -from rest 500 m. apov e th¢ grOQ()Q, dete rmin e the spee d-at whlc h it hits the grou nd. Wha t.~r -
c_enui:ge of µ_je tenh lifal sp:ee o is tti_e resu lt? (The tem1 in~l spe_e_d is tbe st~iJ..d y spee d a falli ng body even tuall y
attai ns.)
·Give n: Ball, m :;= 0.:2 kg, re1eii.se4 from ~~~ at Yo =SO() m .
_F ind:
Air:t esist ance , F°iJ-=;=kv"~. whe re b=2 x l0~4 N -s'!-/m2 •
t,Jni~: Fo(N ). V(m /s).
(~) Speecr at whlc h the ba1l hits the ~rpu nd.

Yo..,___
y
6, -
Ft;
.
.0>) :E,atip of§p e.ep!-~Q t~r:$.inal sp~t ;l. L.,

,~ql.ufi.o.ri:-
Go.ve.r:ning_ _e_qudt.ion: .'I:.F =;m a
~~µ,iJptiQl'I: Ne~ l~t bQPYIUlCY fol½.e,
Toe .llio_tion :of the ball is gov~l'Jied by the eql_lation
. dV
!:.F>, = ·md3, = -ni. dt
•sinc e V=- V(y) we -

wnt ·• "'F r;JV <!Y ··vd Y The n
.. . •. · • · e--
··· · ·.,_,_f= -111 . - -=i
dy c/.t n. -d
.Y · •
2
. dV
J:.FY = F O - mg = ·kY - mg:= ; 11~V dy°
1 y.
)'O.
dy= }
.
{.v mV dV
0
: m
p
kV1 - 11ig.
.
.· 2 . ·J_v m . kV2-1_11-g
) ,-y··.o·= [-"-l
2k n(kV -mg ) . o = k ln ·
2 -mg
,Tjlq i:ig.aritilogarithros, w,e obta in
kV2 -mg = -11ig el(2k/m)(y-yo)]
Solv in$J qr V _g~v.es
V == { '!g ( . 1/2
l -e[(2 k/m)( :)''""Yo)J) } . -
1.4 Dimensions and Units 9
Substituting. numerical values with y = O yields

V = {o?
·-
k
gX
9 81 m
• s2 X
m2
2X. 10-4N -s-,,
X N. sz (1-ef2x2x 10-•/o,2(-SOO)l)}
k g·m
V=78.7 m/s ,__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ V
At terminal speed, a,-==0 and X.F,-=D-=kV/--.1i1g.

mg 112 m m- -s- ,,]1/2
V,=[--k-.]
,, N.
Then, = Q.2kgx9.81-;;X -·- ... _ 4 x-

. k
[
· s- 2 x 10 N · s 2 g, m
="99.0m/s
The ratio ·of actual speed to terminai speed is

V
V 78.7 . . V,
V, = - _ =0.795, or79.5%+--- - - ------------
99 0
We could use this Lagrangian approach to analyze a fluid flow by assuming the fluid to be com-
posed of a very large number of particles whose motion must be described. However, keeping track of
the motion of each fluid particle would ·become a horrendous bookkeeping problem. Consequently, a
particle description becomes unmanageable. Often we find it convenient to use a different type of
description. Particularly with control volume analyses, it is convenient to use the field, or Eulerian,
method of description, which focuses attention on the properties ()f a flow l).t a given point in space
as a function of Lime. In the Eulerian method of description, the properties of a flow field are descooed
as functions of space coordinates and time. We shall see in Chapter 2 that this method of description is a
logical outgrowth of the assumption that fluids may be treated as continuous media.
1.4 Dimensions and Units

Engineering problems are solved LO answer specific questions. It goes without saying that the answer
must include units. In 1999, NASA;s ·Mars Climate Observer crashed because the JPL engineers
ass.u rned that a measurement was in meters, but the supplying company's engineers had actually made
the measurement in feet! Consequently, it is appropriate to present a brief review of dimensions and
units. We say "review" because the topic is famjliar from your earlier work in mechanics.
We refer to physical quantities such as length, time, mass. and temperature as dimensions. In terms
of a particular systent of dimensions, all measurable quantities are subdivided into two groups-primary
quantities and secondary quantities. We refer to a small group of dimensions from whi¢h all others can
be formed as primary quantities, for which we set up arbitrary scales of measure. Secondary quantities
are those quantities whose dimensions are expressible in terms of the dimensions of the primary
quantities.
Units are the arbitrary names (and magnitudes) assigned to the primary dimensions adopted as
standards for measuremenL For example, the primary dimension of length. may be measured in units
of meters, feel, yards, or miles. These units of length are related to each other through unit conversion
factors (1 mile=5280feet= 1609 meters).
Systems of Dimensions
Any valid equation that relates physical quantities must be dimensionally homogeneous; each term in the
equation must have the same dimensions. We recognize that Newton's second law (F oc ma) relates Ute
fout dimensions, F , M , Land r. Thus force and mass cannot both be selected as primary dimensions
without introducing a constant of proportionality that has dimensions (and units).
L¢ngth and time are primary dimensions in all dimensional sys tems in common use. In some sys-
tems,. mass is taken as a primary c;limension. In others, force is selected as a primary dimension; a third
system cho.o ses both force and mass as primary dimensions. Thus we have three basic systems of dimen-
sions, corresponding to the different ways of specifying the primary dimensions.
(n) Mass (M], leng th (L], time [r], temperature [T]
(b) Force [F], le ngth [L], time [r], temperature (T]
(c) Force [F], mass [M], length [L], time [1}, temperature [T]
In system a, force (F] is a secondary dimension and the constant of proponionality in Newton's second
law is dimensionless. In system b, mass [M] is a secondary dimension, and again the constant of propor-
tionality in Newton• s second law is dimensionless. In system c, both force [F] and mass [M] have been
selected as primary dimensions. In this case the constant of proportionality, 8c (not to be confused
witl1 g , the·acceleration of gravity !) in Newton's second law (written F =ma /gc) is not dimensionles_s .
The dimensions of Cc must in fact be [ML/Ft2 ] for the equation to be dimem;ionally homogerieous. The
numerical value of the cons tant of proponionality depends on the units of measure chosen for each of
the primary quantjties.
Systems of Units
There is more than one way to select the unit of measure for each primary dimension. We shall present
only the more common enginee ring systems of units for each of the basic systems of climer.isions.
Table 1.1 shows the basic units assigned to the primary dimens~o1_1s for thesi systems.The _utj,itscin;P~: .
entheses are those assigned to that unit system's secondary dimension. Fc:>µchvipg ._the ~ble is ~-;p tj~f-
description of each of them.
a. MLtT
SL which is the official abbreviation in all languages for the Systeme·Iritemationa l d'Unites, 1 is an exten-
sion and refinement of the traditional metric system. More than 30 counaies have declared it to be the
only legally accepted system.
In the SI system of units, the unitofmass is the kilogram (kg), the unit of length is the meter(m), the
unit of time is the second (s), and the unit of temperature is the kelvin {K). Force is a secondary dimen-
s ion, and its unit, the newton (N), is defined from Newton' s second law as
1 N = I kg · m/s 2
In the Absolute Metric sys tem of units, the unit of mass is the _gram, thi! unit of length is-the centi-
meter, th~ ~DJt of time is the second_, aJid the unit of temperature is the kelvin. Since force is a secondary
dime~ion, the unit of force, the dyne, is defined in terms of Newton's second law as
1 dyne= 1 g · cm/s2
Table 1.1
common Unit Systems
System of Unit System Force. Mass Length Time Temperature
Pimensions F M L t T
a.MLtT Sys1eme International (N) kg m s K

_d '. Unites (SI)
b. FLtT British Gravitational (BG) lbf (i,l\1g) ft s OR
c. FM.Lff English Engineering (EE) lbf lbm ft s OR
I •
Ami;m:1111 -s,o_c 1·e_ty -,pr
r. -rcso nnd. Mn1en·n1·s ,,.,,,,,
•·: ·ng·- -• • =M-Srandardflor
•' .. . M e.n:i,; Prticric_e , E380-,97. Conshohocken, PA; ASTM, L997.
1.4 Dimensio ns and Units 11
b. FLtT
In the British Gravitatio nal system of units, the unit of force is the pound (lbf). the unit of length is the
0
foot (ft), the unit of time is the second, and the unit of temperatur e is the degree Rankine ( R). Since
mass is a secondary dimension , the unit of mass. the slug, is defined in terms of Newton's second Jaw as
I slug= l lbf · s 2 /ft
c. FMLtT
In the English Engineerin g system of units, the unit of force is the pound force (lbf), the unit of mass is
the pound mass (lbm), the unit of length is the foot, the unit of time is the second, and the unh of tem-
perature is. the degree Rankine. Since both force and mass are chosen as primary dimension s, Newton's
second law is written as
- n1a
F=-
Cc
A force of one pound (1 lbf) is the force that gives a pound mass (I lbm) an acceleratio n equal to the
standard acceleratio n of gravjty on Earth, 32.2 ft/s2 • From Newton's second law we see that
2
I lbf = I lbm x 32.2 ft/s
gc
or
g" = 32.2 ft · lbm/ (Ibf · s
2
)
The constant of proportion ality, Cc, has both dimension s and units. The dimension s arose because we
selected both force and mass as primary dimension s; the units (and the numerical value) arc a conse-
quence of our choices for the standards of measureme nt.
Since a force of l lbf accelerates l lbm at 32.2 ft/s 2 , it would accelerate 32,2 lbm at 1 ft/s2 • A slug
also is accelerated at 1 ft/s2 by a force of 1 lbf. Tl;!¢refore,
l slug= 32.2 lbm
Many te.r:tbooks and references use Ill Instead of /bf Qr lbm, Leaving it up to the reader to determine
from the context whether a force or mass i$ being referred co.
Preferre d Systems of Units

In this text we· shall use both the Si and the British Gravitatio nal systems of units. lit either case, the
constant of proportiori alicy in Newton's :second law is dimension less and has a value of unjcy. Conse-
quently, Newton's second law.is written as F =ma. lit these systems, it follows that the gravitation al
fqrt;e (the "weigbt"2) on an opJ¢ct qf mass 111 is given by W =mg.
-~ f units and prefixes, together with other defined units and useful conversion factors, are on the
ins'ide cover of the boo¼:. In Example i.4, we show how we convert betwe.e n mas$ and. weigl)t in.th¢.
clifferenr uni.t sysf~m~ th,11t we u.s e.
Dimens ional Cc;>n!;is1;el'Iczy and "Engine ering" Equatlo.ns

In engineerin g, wesuive to make equations and formulas have consistent dimension s. That is, each term
in an equation, and obviously both sides of the equation, should be reducible to the same dimension s.
For example, a very important equation we will derive later on is the Bernoulli equation
Pi 2 2
V . . Pi. V.
-P + -1. + g,-i = ,- + 2 + gz2
2 ~ p. 2
"Noic: th111· in the English Engineering system, ·the weighc of m· o!>jecc is given by W ::,mg/g,.
12 Chapter 1 Introduct ion
&ample 1.4 USE OF UNITS
The label on a jar of peanut butter states its net weight is 5l0 g. Express its mass and weight in SI, BG, and EE units.
Given: Peanut butter •,,,eight,'' m = 510 g.

Find: Mass and weight in SI,.BG, ~d EE uriits.
StJlution: . .conversion
This problem involves ..unit . . use. of the equation
-s and . · h t and mass:
relatt·n g we1g
W=mg
The !µV(:n ·•weight" is actually the mass because it is expressed in units of mAss;
ms,= 0.~10 kg ..._____ _____ _"...:'S~1
Using lhe co11vei:sions given inside the book cover;
. ( l lbm ) .. - - ( l lbm )
ml;E. = ms, b.454 kg. = 0.510 k~ 0.454. kg = 1.12 lbm . ___________
+- n.:.IEE:::::·
UsiIJg the fact that i slug= 32.2 lbm,

mno = mEE (321 ~lulbg ..) = 1 . l J lbm ( 1 slug )
-- m 32,2lbm
= 0.0349 slug _ mac;
To find the_weight, we µse

W=mg
In SI uriits, anQ using the d~finition of a newton,
·
Ws1=- .::> · -k·g.x ·9-s1·
0-10 · --:,=::>. - -- .,- ( - N .,.) _
m -o·o (kg·m)
s- s- _kg •m/sc-
Ws1
=5,00 N.--- - - - - - - ' - -
'fu l;lO urii_ts, !llld using the (Jefinition of a slug;
_ .. ft . .slµg · ft
.• x 32.2 2s
.._=0.0349 slug
Wao = t. 12---s-, , -
- . -.,- -
-- 1.12 ($iug-ft)
. - s-
(s 2
-ibf/ft)- - -
1
- - - ' - -- - . .
slug
IZ'lbf Wac;;
-----'-- "-
IilJ~p uriits; we use tpe form W=·mg/g c, and using the definition of gc,
.. . ft . 1 36. I lbm•ft
WEE.;;; ,Ll2lbmx 32.2--:,X ~=-- ---.,-
.. s- 8c 8c s-
=36.l(lbn~:~)_. ( - E_E
lpf•s2 ) =l.12lb f+-----" "-
s- - 32.2 ft· Lbm
which relates the_pressure p, velo_~i ty V, and f:]evation z between points I and 2 along a streantline for a
steady, frictionles s incompres sible flow (density p). This equation is dimension ally consistent because
2
each tean in the equation can be reduced to dimension s of l} / 1 (die pressure term dimension s are
2 2 2 2 2
FL/M, but from Newton's law we find F=M/Lt , so FL/M=M L /Mr =L /t •
Almost all equations you are likely to encounter will be dimension ally consistent. However, you
sl:lould be !.dert to some still c_o mmonly used .equations that are not; these we often "engine~i ing"
1.5 Analysis of Experimental Error 13
equations derived many years ago, or arc empirical (based on experiment rather than theory), or are pro-
prietary equations used in a particular indusf.I)' or company. For example, civil engineers oft.en use the
semi-empirical Manning equation
which gives the flow speed Vin an open channel (such as a canal) as a function of the hydraulic radius Rh
(which is a measure of the flow cross-section and contact surface area), the channel slope So, and a con-
stant 11 (the Manning resistance coefficient). The value of this constant depends oh the surface condition
of the channel. For example, for a canal made from unfinished concrete, most references given ~ 0.014.
Unfortunately, tJ1e equation is dimensionally inconsistent! For the right side of the equation, Rh has
dimensions L, and So is dimensionless, so with a dimensionless constant n, we end up with dimensions
of L 213 ; for the left side of the equation the dimensions must beL/r! A user of the equation is supposed to
know that the values of 11. provided in most references will give correct results only if we ignore the
dimensional inconsistency, always use R,, in meters, and interpret V co. be in mis ! (The alert student will
realize that this means that even though handbooks provide n values as just constants,. they must. have
units of s/m 113 . ) Because the equation is dimensionally inconsistent, usiil_g the same value for n with Rh
in ft does not give the:correct value for V in ft/s.
A second type of problem is one in which the dimensions of an equation are consistent but use of
units is not. The commonly used EER of an air conditioner is
· coolina rate
EER= electnc
. . a'i .
111puc
whi!.'1 i11dicates how efficiently the AC works- a higher EER value indicates better performance. The
equation is dimensionally consistent, with the EER being dimensionless (the cooling rate and elecnical
input are both measured in energy/time). However, it is used, in a sense, incorreccJy, because the units
iradicionally used in it are not consistenL For example, a good EER value is 10, whicn would appear co
imply you receive, say, 10 kW of cooling for each 1 kW of electrical power. In fact, an EER of 10 means
you receive 10 Bill/hr of cooling for each 1 W of electrical power! Manufacturers, retailers. and Custo-
mers all use the EER, in a sense, incorrectly in that they quote an EER of, say, 10, rather than the correct
way, of 10 Bcu/hr/W°. (The EER, as used, is an._everyday, inconsistent unit version of the coefficient of
performance, COP, studied in thermodynamics.)
The Lwo examples above illustrate the dangers in using certain equations. AIInosc all the equations
encouocered in this text wiU be climensionally ·consistent. but you should be aware of the occasional
troup_lesome equation you wiU encounter in your engineering studies.
As a final note on units, we stated earlier that \Ve will use SI and BG units in this text. You will
become very familiar with their use. through using this text but should be aware that many of the u~ts
used, although they are scientifically and engineeringa.wise. correct, are nevertheless not units yoli will
use in everyday activities, and vice .v ersa; we do not recommend asking your grocer to give you, say;
22· newtons, ot Q.16 slugs, of potatoes;- nor should you be expected to irt:unediately know what,·say, ·a
motor•oii viscosiLy of 5W20 means!
SI units and prefixes, other defined units, and useful con versions are given on the inside of the
book cover.
1.5 Analysis of Experimental Error

Most co.nsumers are.unaware,of it but, as· with most foodstuffs, soft drink containers _l!,re filled to.plus or
minus a certain amount, as·allowed by law. Because it is difficult co precisely tneas.1,1re che filling of a·
container in a rapid production process, a I 2~fl-oz container may acrually contain 12. l , or 12-.7; .fi..oz. Toe
cpanufiicturer is never supposed to supply less than the-specified amount; and it will reduce profits if it
is µnnec;essarily generous. $imilarly, the supplier of components. fc~t the interior of a. c~ must satisfy
riiinin'!u{Jl .iind· maximum dim~ns_ioos (each component has what are called· tolerances) so that the·finai
appearance of the interior is visually ;ippeaJing. Engineers performing experiments musc.ni_eas~ not
just data but also the uncertainciesin their measurements., Tb_e y must aiso somehow detertnine l:iowthese·
uncertainties aff<;ct cJ1e uncertainty in the final result. · · ·
All of these examples illustrate the imponance of experi111e11tal uncertainty, that is, the study of
uncertainties in measurements and their effect on overall results. There is always a tradecoff in exper-
imentl)l work cir in mnnufacruring: We can reduce the uncertainties to a desired level, but the smaller the
uncertainty (the more precise the measurement or experiment), the more expensive the procedure will be.
Furthermore, in a complex manufacture or experiment, it is not always easy to see which measurement
uncena:ii:ity has the biggest influence on the final outcome. -
Anyone involved in man\.!.facturing, or in experimental work, should understand experimental
uncertaintiei;. Appendix E has details on this topic; there is a selection of problems on this \opic at
the end of this chapler.
1.6 Summary
In this c_l~apter we introduced or reviewed a number of basic concepts and definitions, including:
✓ How fluids are defined, and the no~slip condition
✓ System/control volume-concepts ·
✓ Lagrangian and Eulerian descriptioM
✓ Units _and dimensions_(includ ing SI, British Gravitational, and English Engineeringsyst:em s)
✓ Experimental .uncertainty ·
Definition of a Fluid: Basic Equations 1.7 A rocket payload· ,v.ith a ·weight-on earth of 2000 Jb is 1hndeil
1.1 A number 9f c_o mmon substances are ·on the moon where-·the acceleration due to the moon's ignivJ~
g,,,p,:g,,/6. Find the .m ass of the payload on the earth and the mo·o n
Sand and the p;i.yload's [!lCJQn weighL
Tar
"Silly Putty" Jello , ·.s·Acubicmea:eofai rat.101 kPaabsoluteand 15°Cweighs 12.0N.
Mod~ling clay Toothpaste What is its specific volume? What is the specific volume if it is
Wµ Shaving <;:ream co_oleci to -1Q°C at constunt p~_simre?
1-. 9 Calculate the specific weight:, _specific volu_me. and density of air
Some of.tl;i~e materials exhibit characteristics of both solid and fluid at 40°F and 50 psia. What nre these values if tbe air is then c_o m-
behavior under different conditions. Explain ancl give examp!es. pressed is•e otropical)y tQ !90 ps,a?
1.2-Give-a word_statemt;nt ofeach of the five basic conser-vation laws 1 . 1 o For Problem- 1.6, find the·distunce the partlc!es, tr.;1.vel before Q
s ~ -in S~tion 1.2. as they apply to a system. reaching -99 percent of term'inal sp_e cd. Plot·the distartce tra:veled as
a function of time.
M_ethods of Analysis 1.11 A sky diver with a milss of 70 kg jumps from an aircmft The Q
1
.3 Toe _b arrel of a t;,icycle ~ pump becomes qui1e- wann during.use. aerodynamic_ drag f91'!;e a~ting on the sky diver is known lo be
Expllilii .t he mei;hanisms responsible for t,he temp=.t~ increas_i;. Fi,= kV2 , where k =Q.25 N-s~ /in2 • Detemiine. the milximilm sp·e ed
1. 4 very smi!,11 particles moving in fl~ids are kn?wn 10 expc~erice a of free fall for the sky diver and the.speedreached.af~r 100 m of fall.
d(ag,fQrce-pi:qport.ional to spe~. Cons~cier a parucle.of net weight W Plot the speed of the.sky cijv_er as a function of lime arid as a function
c:b'Qp¢4 i'111 .flui(I. The particle expenences_ a dra,g ~orce. Fo=kV. of distance fullen.
:wh~ ·vis.the particles~- Detennine the tune requ~dfor the p~- 1.12 The English perfected the longbow as a weapon after
·ii.cl~-U> accelerate from rest to 95 percent of its terminal speed, V,. in the Medi~val period. In the hands of a skilled archer. the IQngbQW
terms of k, W. and g. was reputed to be_ accurate at ranges lo 100 m or more. If the
maximum ahirude of an arrow is less. than h = 10 m while ~veling
g ~ ~5 Io-~ corol;,ustioil process. gasolirie particles ~ t~ be dropped in
-- air at 20<>°F; Tb_e panic;!~ mµst drop at least 10 m. c1.r1 1 ·s. F~d ~e i9-a target 100m away fiom-the_;u-chei;-; and neglecting air resistance,
~eter d .ofdroplets rcquire<i.for this, (The drag on these p~cles ~ .estini,ite the speed and angle at which the nrrQW must_Ieav_e the bqw.
given, by F O = Ji./!- Vd, wbe~ V is the·-pru:1,icle speed anq,µ ts the air Plo.t the requir¢ rele~e speed and angle as a function of heig!1t Ji.
viscosity. To solve this proble!D; .use.E:ccel-'s Goal Seek.)
1.6 Io_~ _poUu!io~ cootrQI ~D!ll~ni...cpin_u te $Olld p;utictes (typi9al D.imensions and Units
mass 1 x10- ·13 slilg). ari; ~p~in_*• Tbe ten.nimi.l s~. of~e 1.13 For each quantity- -listed, indicate dimensions using mass as a
particles is measured to be 0.2.ft/s. The -~ of ~ese parocles 1s pcimaty:-dimen•sion, and give typical SI and English units:
given by·Fo_ =kV, wh.e _rc '(}!iJP,C.-~uww.µe~_~ s pw:t,15,Je s ~ . F~d (a) Power
\the.value ofthe.constant-k, Fllid.the ttme reqwred to reach.9 9 percent
(b} P~sui:e
#t~s~.
Problems 15
(c) Modulus of elnst.iciLy propane versus the actual tank size. Find the liquid propane voluine
(d) Angular velocity when full (the weight of the propane is specified on the tank). Com-
pare this to the tank volume (take some measurements, and approx-
(e) Energy
imate the tank shape as a cylinder with a hemisphere on each end).
( f) Momem of a force Explain the discrepancy.
(g) MomenLum 1.24 Derive the following conversion factors:
(h) Shear stress (a) Conven a volume flow rate in cubic inches per minute to cubic
(i) SLra.in millimeters per minute.
(j) Angular momentum (b) Convert a volume flow rate in cubic meters per second ro gal-
lons per minute (gpm).
1.14 The density of a sample of sea warer is 1.99 slugs/fr3. What are
the vnlues in SI and EE units? (c) Conven a volume flow rate in liters per minute 10 gprn.
1.15 A pump is rate.d at 50 hp. What is the rating in kW and Btu/hr?

(d) Conven a volume flow rate of air in standard cubic feet pet
minute (SCFM) to cubic meters per hour. A standard cubic foot
1.16 A fluid occupying 3.2 m 3 has amass of4 Mg. Calculate its den• of gas occupies one cubic foot at standard temperature and pre£-
siry and specific volume in SI, EE, and BG units. sure (T= 1s·c and p= 101 .3 kPa absolute).
1.17 If n power plant is rated nt 2000 MW output and operates (on 1.25 The kilogram force is comrimnly used in Europe as a uriit of
average) at 75% of rated power. how much energy (in J and ft.lbs) force. (As in the U.S. customary system. where I !bf is the fo~
does it put out in n year? exerted by a mass of I lbm in standard gravity. 1 kgf is the Jon:e
1. 1 8 For each quant.ity listed, indicate dimensions using force as a exerted by a mass of I kg in standard gravity'.) Moderate pressures.
primary dimension, nnd give typical SI and English unilS: such as those for auco or ttuck tires. are conveniently expressed in
(a) Power units of kgf/cm2 • Conven 32 psig to these units.
(b) Pressure 1. 26 From thermodynamics. we know that the coefficient of perfor-
(c) Modulus of elasticity mance of an ideal aii- conditioner ( COP;dc>J) is given by
(d) Angular velocity TL
(e) Energy COP;<km.= .
Tn-TL
(f) Momentum
where TL and TH are the room and o.utside cemperacures.(;il:>solure). If
(g) Shear stress an. AC is 10 keep a room at 2o·c when it is 40' C outside, .find th~
(h) Specific hent COP;,JeJJJ. Convert co an EER vahle,. and compare this to..a rypic;u
(i) Thermal expansion coefficient Energy Star-compliant EER value.
(j) Angular momentum 1.27 The maximum theoretical flow rare (slug/s) throu~ a super-
sonic nozzle is
1 .1 9 Derive the following conversion factors:
(a) Conven a pri:ssure of 1 psi to kPa. . =? 38A,po
(b) Conven a volume of l liter to gallons.
m= -· ../To
(c) Conven a viscosity of I lbf·s/fr toN-s/m2 • where A,(fc2) is the noztle throat area, Po (psia) is t h e ~ pressure,
Q 1.20 Express the following in SI unilS: and To(R) is the tank remperann:e. Is this equation dimensional,ly cor-
(a) 5 acre-ft rect? If not. find the units of the 2.38 term. Wri~ the equivalent equa~
tion in SI units.
(b) 150 in. 3 /s
(c) 3 gpm
1.28 The mean free path ..l of a molecule of gas is the average dis.,.
tance it travels before collision with another moJecule. lt is given, by
(d) 3 mph/s
1.21 Express the following in SI units:
(a) 100 cfm(fr3/min)
(b) S gal where m and dare the molecule' s mass and diameter, respectively,
ang p is the gas density. What are the dimensions of constant C
(c) .65 mph for a dimensionally consistent equation? · · · ····
(d) 5.4 acres 1.29 A container weighs 3.5 Jbf when empty. When fil.leif with
1.22 Express tlie follmving -in BG units: water at 90°F, the mass of the container and its c<ii:J.rerits is
(a) 50 m2 2.,5 slug. Find the weight of water in the container, •and its v~lliiile
in cubic feet, using data from Appendix A. · · ··
(b) 250c;c
(c) l00kW 1.30 A pru:ume,t er .that is often used jn describing p~p perfoirom:i~
2
is th.e specific speed. Ns,. , given by · ·
(d) 5kg/m
1. 23 While you're waiting for the ribs lo cook, you muse about the N., = N(rpm)[(2(gpm)) l/2
propane tank of your barbecue. You're curious nbout the volµme of "' [H(ft:)]3/4
16 chapter 1 Introduction
Vlhnt are the units of specific speed? A pnnicular pump has a spe- 1.36 The mass oftbe standard British golf ball is 45.9 ±0.3 g and its
cific speed of 2000. ·w hat will be the specific speed in SI units (angu- mean diameter is 41. 1 ± 0 .3 mm. De1ermine the density and specific
lar ,,clocity in rnd/s)? gravity of Lite British golf ball. Eslima1e !he uncenainlies in lhe cal-
culated values.
Analysis of Experimental Error 1.37 From Appendix A. the viscos11y 1,(N-s/m2 ) of wa1er at tem-
31 CnJculaie the density of smnd:ird nir inn lnboratory from the ideal perature T(K) can be computed from 1, =A 108 l(T-C), where
~ equation of smte. Estimate the e.x~~mcntal u~ccnuinty in the air A=2.414x 10- 5 N -s/m~,8=247.8K, and C=l40K. Detennine
density calculated for smndnm co~diuons (29.9 m. of i:11erc~ry nnd Lite viscosity of water at 30"C. and estimate its uncertainty if Lite
59"F) if the uncerulinty in meas~ng _the barom~1er he1glu 1s ±0._I uncenainty in lemperature measurement is ±0.5'(;:.
- of mercury and the uncenrun1y m measunng temperature 1s
:().5"F. (Nole thnl 29.9 in. of.mercury co~ponds lo 14.7 psia.) 1.38 An entlmsiasl magazine publishes da1a from its road tests on the
lateral acceleration capability of cars. The measurements ~ made
1 •3 :i The mass of !he s1andnrd Ameri~an golf ba_ll is 1.62±~-01 oz using a I 50-ft-diameter skid pad. Assume Lite vehicle palh deviates
- 0 its mean diameter is 1.. 68±0.01 m. De1ermme 1.he density and fTom tlte circle by ±2 ft and tltat the vehicle speed is read from a fifth-
~ c-gcivity of the American golf ball. Estimgle the u11cer1.:1inties wheel speed-measuring system to ±0.5 mph. Estimate the experi~
in dte calcl!lnred values. mental uncertainty in a reported lateral acceleration of 0.7 g. How
1 . 3 3 A cnn of ~I foc;,d has !he following internal dimensions: would you improve the experimemal procedure to reduce the
f02 mm height and 73 mm dinme1er (each ±1 mm nt odds of uncertainty?
20 to 1). The inbel lists the mass of the con1ents as 397 g. Evaluate
1.39 The height of a building may be eslimaled by measuring Q
th~ magnitude and eslim,11e\1 uncenainty of the density of the pe_1 food
the horizonial dis1ance to a point on the ground and the angle
if the innss value is accura1e to ± I g ·at the same qdds. from tltis point to the lop of the. building. Assuming these mea-
1 _3 4 Toe moss now rate ill a ~vater ~ow system determined by col- surements are L = I 00 ± 0.5 ft and 0 = 30 ± 0.2·. estima1e the height
lecting- the discharge over a ume~ mterval ts 0 .2 kg/s. :11e scales H of the builcUng and the uncertainty in I.he esumate. For c.i1e
used c~ be rea5! to th_t: nearest 0,0::, kg ~d the stopwatch IS accurate same building height and measurement uncertainties. use Exce/'s
~6 0.2 ~-·Esu.m ate the precision with which I.he fl~w rate cnn be cal- Solver to determine the angie (and tlic corresponding distallC¢
culaied for Li.me intervals of (a) 10 s and (b) 1 mm. from the building) at which measurements should be m11de - to
miniri1ize Lite tincenuincy in estimated heighL Evaluate and" p!tjt
1 , 3 5 The ml!Ss flowrateof,,,!l~erin a rube is me~ured using a beak~r
catch water during I) Limed m1erval. The nonunal mass flow ra1e 1s tl1e optimum mensurement angle as a function of buiiding heig.bt
0
~OO g/s . .As_sume iha1 mass is measti':d using a balance with a ~eas1 for 50 :SH:£ 1000 ft.
count of .J _g nnd a maximum capacity of l kg, and th_a,t 1he umer 1. 40 An American golf ball is described in Problem I .32 Assum-
has ·a least count of 0.1 ·s. Estimate the time iruervills and uncertainties ing the measured mass and its uncenainty as given, determine the
• m~urcd mass now rate that would result froni using l 00, 500, and precision to which the diameter of the bull must be measured so
~000 ~=-
rriL Would there be any a:dvan1.age in using th~ largest
.~er.•t A.5?um~ the tare rna,ss of the empty 1000 mL beaker 1s 500 g.
the density of the ball may be estimated with.in an unc:er1ainty of
±1 perceliL
C HAPT ER 2
Fun dam enta l Concepts
2.1 Fluid as a Continuum 2.5 Surface Tension
2.2 Velocity Field 2 .6 Descriptio n and Classifica tion of Fluid Motions
2.3 Stress Field 2.7 Summary and Useful Equatio.ns
2.4 Visco_s ity
Case Stud y
audio player; you can thank fluid mechanics for your ability to
Fluid Mechani cs and Your Au_dio Player do this! The tiny hard disk drive (HOD) in many of these devices
Some people have the impression that fluid mechanics is old- or typically holds about 250 gigabytes (GB) of data, so the disk plat~
low-tech: water flow in a household pipe, the fluid forces acting ter must have a huge density (greater than 100,000 tracks per
on a dam, and so on. While it's true that many concepts in inch); in addition, the read/write head must get very close to
fluid mechanics are hundreds of years old, there are still lots the platter as it transfers data (typically the head is about
of exciting new areas .of research and developme nt. Everyone o .05µm above the platter surface-a human hair is about
h;:is heard of the relatively high- tech area of fluid mechanics 1ooµm). The platter also spins at something greater than 500
called streamlinin g (of cars, aircraft, racing bikes, and racing revolutions per second! Hence the bearings in which the spindle
swimsuits, to mention a few), but there· are many others. All of the platter spins must have very low friction but also have vir-
of these developme nts depend on understand ing the basic ideas tually no play or looseness- otherwise , at worst, the head will
behind what a fluid is and how it behaves, as discussed in this crash into the platter or, at best, you won't be able to read the
chapter. data (it will be too closely packed). The friction is due to both
If you're a typical engineering student, there's a-decent chance the effect of air viscosity on the spinning disk and oil viscosity
that while reading this chapter you're listening to music on an in the bearings. ·
Designing such a bear-ing presents quite a challenge. Until a
few years ago, most hard drives used ball bearings (BBs), which
are essentially just like those in the wheel of a bicycle; they work
on the principle that a spindle can n;>tate if it is held by a ring of
sm;;il( spheres that are supported in a cage. The problems with
BBs.are that they have a lot of componen ts; they are very difficult
to build to the precision needed for the HDD; they are vulnerable
to shock (if you drop an HDO with such a drive, you're likely to
den tone of the spheres as ithits the spindle, destroying the bear~
ing); and they are relatively noisy.
Hard-drive makers are increasingl y moving to fluid dynamic
bearings (FOBs). These are mechanical ly much simpler than
BBs; they consist basically of the spindle directly mounted in the
bearing opening, with only a specially formulated viscous lubri-
cant (such as ester oil) in the gap of only a few microns. The spin-
dle and/or bearing surfaces have a herringbon e pattern of grooves
to maintain the oil in place. These bearings are extremely durable
(they can often survive a shock of 500 g!) and low noise; they will
also allow rota_tion speeds in excess of 15,000 rpm in the future,
making data access even fa.s ter than with current devices. FDBs
have. been used before, in devices such as gyroscopes , !_,ut making
them at such a sm_all scale is new. Sarne FOBs even use pressurized
air as the lubrication fluid, but one of the problems with these is
that they sometimes stop working when you take them c;>n an air-
plane flight-the cabin pressure is insufficien t to maintain ·!Jte
An iPod audio player. pressure the bearing needs!
17
18 Chapter 2 Fundamental Concepts
In recent times the price and capacity of flash memory have will also switch to flash memory, but at least for the next few
improved so much that many music players are switching to this years HDDs will be the primary storage medium. Your PC will still
technology from HDDs. Eventually, notebook and desktop PCs have vital fluid-mechanical components!
~ --------- . ~ . - ~~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ > - - ~ ~ : : . - - . . . . . . --------- .-~~~~
-...._/° -------- ·-
.-.:..-.....
. -
. . . . --~ -~~>=<..~--.;>-<::.,.,-- -----------------~--=
In Chapter I we discussed in general terms what fluid mechanics is about and described some of the
approaches we will use in analyzing fluid mechanics problems. In thls cha~ter we will be more specific
in defining some important properties of fluids and ways in which flows can be. described and
characterized.
2.1 Fluid as a Continuum

We are all familiar with fluids-the most common being air and water-and we experience them as
being "smooth," i.e., as being a continuous medium. Unless we use specialized equipmenl, we are
not aw~e of the underlying molecular nature of fluids. This molecular structure is one in which the mass
is not continuously distributed in space, but is concentrated in molecules that are separated by relatively
large regions of empty s pace. The sketch in Fig. 2. la shows a schematic representation of this. A region
of space "filled" by a stationary fluid (e.g., air; treated as a single gas) looks like a continuous medium,
b1,1t if we zoom in on a very small cube of it, we can see that we mostly have empty space, with gas
molecules scattered around, moving at high speed (indicated by the gas temperafurr;). Note that the size
of the gas molecules is greatly exaggerated (they would be almost invisible even at this scale) and that we
have placed velocity vectors only on a small sample. We wish to ask: What is the minimumvolume, W\
that a "point'' c; must be, so that we can talk about continuo1,1s fluid prnperties such ~- the density at a
point? In other words, under what circumstances can a fluid be treated ~ a continuum, for w!1ich, by
definition, properties vary smoothly from point to point? This is an important question because the con-
cept of a continuum is the basis of classical fluid mechanics.
Consider how we determine the density at a point. Qensity is defined as mass per unit volume; in
Fig. 2.1 a the mass 8m will be given by the instantaneous number of molecules in ,5¥ (and the mass of
each molecule), so the average density in volume ,5¥ is.given by p=om/8¥. We say "average" because
the number of molecules in 8¥, and hence the density, fluctuates. For example, if the gas in Fig. 2.la was
1
air at standard temperature and pressure (STP ) and the volume ,5-\,L was a sphere of diameter 0.Ol11m.
there ~ght be J 5 molecules in 8¥ (as shown). but an instant later there might be 17 (three might enter
while one leaves). Hence the density at "point" C randomly fluctuates in time, as shown in Fig. 2.lb. In
this fioure each vertical dashed line represents a specific chosen volume, ,5¥, and each dat,1. point repre-
sents tlle ~easured density at an ins~L For very small vo.lumes, the density varies greatly, but above a
"¥' , the density
· · volume , u.
ceruun . . becomes
. . stable-the.volume now encloses a huge number of molecules.
I I I I I I I I
6m/6.Y
*::II: I:
*f
I X I
I
I
I
I
11::
I I I
t:½l##-
,t::: i: i
I I, I I I I I
6V' 6\1
{al {bl
Fig. 2.1 Definition of density at a poinL
1 STP for air are 1s•c (59°F) and JOI .3 kPa absolute (14.696 psia), respectively.
2.2 Velocity Field 19
=
For examp!e, if 6¥ 0.001 mm3 (about the size of a grain of sand), there will on average be 2.5 x I 0 13
molecules present. Hence we can conclude that air at STP (and other gases, and liquids) can be treated as
a continuous medium as long as we consider a ..point" to be no smaller than about this size; this is suf-
ficiently precise for most engineering applica tions.
The concept of a continuum is the basis of classical fluid mechanics. The continuum assumption is
valid in treating the behavior of fluids under nonnal conwtions. It only breaks down when the mean free
path of the molecules2 becomes the same order of magnitude as the smallest significant characteristic
dimens.i on of the problem. This occurs in such specialized problems as rarefied gas flow (e.g ., as encoun-
tered in flights into the upper reaches of the atmosphere). For these specialized cases (not covered in this
text) we must abandon the concept of a continuum in favor of the microscopic and statistical points of view.
As a consequence of the continuum assumption, each fluid property is assumed t<;> have a definite
value at every point in space. Thus fluid properties such as density, temperature, velocity, and so on are
considered to be co_n tinuous functions of position and time. For example, we now have a workable def-
inition of density at a point,
. 8m
p= lim - (2.1)
-.W-- 6¥'8¥
Since point C was arbitrary, the density at any other point in the fluid could be determined in the same
manner. If density was mell.Sured simultaneously at an infinite number of points in the fluid, we would
obtain an expression for th¢ density disttibution as a function of the space coordinates, p =p(x,y;z.), at
the given instant.
The density at a point ma:y also vary with time (as a result of work done on or by the fluid and/or heat
transfer lo the fluid). Thus the complete repres.e ntation of density (the field representation) is given by
p=p(x,y,z.,t) (2.2)
Since density is a scalar quantity. requiring only the specification of a magnitude for a complete descrip-
tion, the field represented by Eq. 2.2 is a scalar field.
An alternative way of expressing the density of a substance (solid or fluid) is co compare it co
an accepted reference value, typically the majmum density_ of water, PH,o (1000 kg/m3 at 4°C or
1.94 slug/ft3 at 39°F). Thus, the specific gravity, SG, of a substance is expre$sed as
SO.,=. . ~ --.
Ptt;o·
For example, the SG of mercury is typically 13.():--mercury is 13.6 times as d~nse ~ -water.Appendix. A
contains specific gravity data for selected epgineering materials. The specific gr.i.vicy of 1.iquic;is is a
function of tempe~~; for most liquids specific gn,i.vity d1;c;reas!;:S with increa,sing t¢mpefl!-~,
The specific weight, r, of a substance is another useful material pr::operty. It is defined as the weight
Qf:a su_bstance per unit volume and given. as
For example, the specific weight of water is approximately 9.81 kN/m3 (62.4 lbf/ft3) .
2.2 Velocity Field

Jo the _p re.v imis section we.saw uiat the continuunp 1ssurnption led directly to the notion of the density
field. Otber fluid pr()per:ties $:lso may be descril;>ed by fields.
A very important prope·n y defined b:y a field is. the velocity field, given by
V = V(x,y, z, r) (2.5)
2
Approximately 6x io-s rn -nt STP (St.anllnnl Tempcratwc and Pressure) for gas moleculcs ·thnt show idenl gas bc,havi"or ['IJ,.
20 Chapt er 2 Funda menta l Conce pts
Velo~ity is a vector qu~tit y, requirin g a magnit ude and directio n for a comple te descrip tion, so the
velocity field (Eq. 2.5) 1s a vector field.
The vel~cit y vector, V, als? cai:i be written in terms of its three scalar compon ents. Denotin g the
compon ents m the x, y, and :z: d1recuo ns by 11, v, and w, then
V =11i+ u]+wk (2.6)

In general , each compo nent, 11, 11,_and w, will be a functio n of\: y · d t
· • • z. an ·
We eed to b Ie~
. n ec
· h V( a
on w at _ x,~•• z. r) measur es: It indicat es the velocity of fluid particle that is
~nssmg through tl~e pomtx , Y, z at nrne Jf\Stan t,, in the Euleria n sense. We can keep measur ing the veloc-
ity nt the same pomt or choose any other- point x y ., at the ne t tim · · · th · · · th
one~in<> o~ition of an indi11id I . . . • '..- . x e mstant; e pomt x, y, ' is ll~t e
- e P . ua pamcle . but a pomt we choose to look aL (Hence x y and z are inde-
. ·
penden. t vanable s. ln Chapte r 5 we will d 1scuss- · · ive
· l derivat
the materia • of velocity ' • we choose
• •m' which •
x=xp(r ), )'._=)~(1:· and z= Zp(t), where xp(r),Y p(t},zp (t) is the positio n of a specific particle.) We con-
clude that V (x,y.~. r) should be though t of as the velocit y field of a 11 p...
~...: 1es, not • o f an
• · th·eveIoc1ty
· JUSt
· e.
· d.1v1·du al parnc uC
m 1
If propert ies at every ~?int in a flow field do not ·c hange with time, the flow is tem1ed steady. Stated
If1athem aucally , the defimu on of steady flow is ·
017
iJt =O
where '7 represe nts any fluid propen- y. Hence, for steady flow,
iJp
01
=0 or p = p(x,y,z )
and
~~ =0 or V= V(x,y,z)
In steady flow, any proper ty may vary from point to point in the field, but ail propert ies remain constan t
with time at every point.
One- , Two- , and Thre e- Dime nsion al Flows

A flow is classifi ed as one..:, two-, or _tl1ree-d imensio nal depend ing on the number of space coordin ates
3
.require d to specify the velocit y field. Equ·a tion 2.5 indicat es that the velocity field may be a functio n of
three space coordjn ates and time, Sucli a flow field is termed rltree-d imensio nal (it is also 1111steady)
becaus e the velocit y at any point in the -flow field depend s on the· three coordin ates required to locate
the point in space.
Althou gh most flow fields are inheren tly three-d imensio nal, ami)ysi s based on fewer dimens ions is
frequen tly meanin gful. Consid ~r. for examp le, the steady flow through a long straight pipe that has
a diverge nt section , as shown in Fig. 2.2. In this examp le, we are using cylindr ical coordin ates
(r,0,x) . We will learn (in Chapte r 8) that under certain circum stances (e.g., far from the entranc e of
the pipe and from the diverge nt section , where the flow can be quite compli cated), the velocity distri-
bution may be describ ed by
(2.7)
This is shown on the left of Fig. 2.2. The velocit y u(r) is a functio n of only orie ccicirdinate, and so tlie
flow is one-dim ension al. On the other band, in the divc;rg ing section , the velocity decreas es in the x
directio n, and the flow becom es two-dim ensiona l: 11 = u(r,x).
3 Some author.; choose to classify a flow as one-. lWO·, or three-dim ensional o~ the basis of 1he number of space coordina tes
required to specify all fluid propertie s. In this text. classificar.ion of flow fields will be based on the number of space coordina tes
required tospecif y th_c veloc;ily field only.
'-----v---- --'
ll(r)
-m------
'---y----J
11(r,:r)
Fig. 2.2 Examples of one~ and cwo-dlmens lonal flows_.
Fig. 2.3 Example .o f uniform flow -at.a section.

-"--JfMi-----
As you might suspect,th e complexity of analysis increases considerab ly with the number of dimen-
sions of the flow field: For rnany problems encountere d in engineerin g, a one-dimen sional anaiysis is
adequate to provjde approxima te solutions of engineerin g accuracy.
Since all fluids satisfying the continuum assumption must have zero relative velocity at a solid sur-
face (to satisfy the no-slip condition) , most flows are inherently two- or three-dime nsional. To simplify
the analysis itis often convenien t to use the notion of 11nifom1fl ow at a given cross section. In a flow that
is uniform at a given cross section, the velocity ·is constant across any section normal to the flow. Under
this assumpti.on.4- the two-dimen sional flow of Fig. 2.2 is modeled as the flow shown in Fig. 2.3. In the
flow of Fig. 2.3, the velocity field is a function of x alone, and thus the flow model is one-dimen sional.
(Other properties, such as density or pressure, also may be assumed uniform at a section, if appropriat e.)
The term uniform flow field (as opposed to uniform flow at a cross section) is used to describe a
flow in which the velocity is constant, i.e .• independe nt of all space coordinate s, throughou t the entire
flow field.
Timelin es, Pathlin es, Streakli nes, and Str-eam lines

Airplane iµid .a uto companies and college engineerin g laboratorie s, among .others, frequently use wind
tunnels to visualize flow fields [2]. For example, Fig. i.4 sh9ws a flow pattern for flow around a c;u-
mounted in a wind tunnel, generated by .releasing smoke into the flow at five fixed upstream pain~.
Flow patterns can be visualized using timelines, pathlines, Streaklines , or streamline s.
U a number of adjacent fluid particles i1;1 a JJow field are mar~ed at a giv:en instant, they form a line in
the fluid at tha~ instant; this line is called a time/ine. Subsequen t observµtio I)s of the line may provide
infommtlo n about the flow field. For example, in discu~sjng the behavior of a fluid under the action of
~ constant shear force (Section 1.1) timelines Were introcjµced to demonstratt.:: the .d~formati on of a fl.ttl9
at succes!iive instants.
Apathli11e is the path ottraje_ctory traced.out.by a moving fluid particle. To make a p_a thline visible,
we might identify a. tlutd particle at a given instant, e.g., by the use ofdye or smoke, and then.t*e a long
exposure photqgrap_l) of Jts sµbsequen t motion. The: line traced oµt by the particle is a pathline. ThiS
approach might be used to study, for example, the trajectory of a contamina nt leaving a smqkt::.stack.
On the other hand, we might choose to focus our au.e ntion. on.a fixed location in.space arid identify,
agail) 1:,y the µse of dye or smoke, all fluid particles p!!Ssing thro.ugh this po~nt. After a short p_e riod of
~ 1bismny sccin like nn unrealistic sin1plilicution, but ac1~nlly in muny cases len4s to uscful.resuhs . s,..;eeping_ assumptiQ115·_su_
c;µ-as
uniform llow at a cross sec1ion should nlwnys be re,•1cwcd enrefully 10.be sure.they provi~c n rcg.sonable nrinlytical mo!l.c;l pf the
real flow.
22 Cha pte r 2 Fun dam ent al Con cep ts
.~ ·-·~---.. '.,
-·~----
1'---- -
..-~...)--·· .
Stre aklin es over an auto mob ile in a wind tunn el.
e -tim e
time we wou Jd hav e a num ber of iden tifia ble flui d part icle s in the flow , all of whi ch had at som
pass ed thro ugh one fixe d loca tion jn spa ce. The line join ing Lhes e fluid pan icle s i; defi ned as · ~
srre akli ne.
line s dra wn in lhe flow field so Lhat at a _g iven inst anl Lhey are tang ent LO Lhe dire ctio n
Stre aml ines are
Vide o: Strc...·t1111-
t in lhe flow field . Sin, ce the stre aml ines are tang ent to the velo cily vect or at eve ry
of flow al eve ry poin
mon ly
poin l in the flow fiel d, lher e can be no flow acro ss a stre amJ ine. Stre aml ines are the most com
visu aliz atio n tech niqu e. For exa mpl e, they are use d to stud y flow ove r an auL omo bile in a com pute r
used
The pro ced ure use d to obla in the equ atio n for a stre aml ine in two -dim ensi onal flow is illu s-
sim ulat ion.
trate d in Exa mpl e 2.1.
, lhe velo city at eac h poi nt in the flow field rem ains con slan t wilh time and, con se-
In stea dy flow
part icle
que ntly , the stre aml ine sha pes do not vary from one inst ant to the nex t. Thi s implies that a
led on a give n stre amJ ine will aJw ays mov e alon g the sam e stte aml ine. Fun herm ore, cons ecuL ive par-
loca
lhro ugh a fixe d poin t in spa ce will be on the sam e stre aml ine and , subs eque ntly , will rem ain
ticles pass ing
Thu s in a stea dy flow , path Jine s; stre akli nes, and stre aml ines are iden tical line s in the
on thls stre aml ine.
flow field.
Vide o, S1rcak- 2.4 sho ws a pho tog rap h of ten stre ak/i nes for flow ove r an auL omo bile in a win d LUn nel.
Fig ure
line pro duc ed in a flow whe n all part icle s mov ing Lhro ugh a fixe d poin t are
A stre akli ne is I.he
ked in som e way (e . g., usin g smo ke, as sho wn in Fig ure 2.4) . We ca n also defi ne stre aml ines.
mar
line s dra wn iri the flow fiel d so that at a give n inst ant they are tang ent lo the dire ctio n of
The se are
at eve ry
flow at eve ry poi nt in the flow fiel d. Sin ce Lhe stre aml ines are tang ent to the velo city vect or
flow fiel d, ther e is no flow acro ss a stre aml ine. P<1 thli1 1es are as the nam e imp lies: The y
poin t in the
ttim e
sho w, ove r Lime, the path s indi vidu al part icle s take (if you 've seen time -lap se pho tos of nigh
fic, you get the idea ). Fin ally , tim elin es are crea ted by mar king a line in a flow and wat chin g how
Lraf
it evo lves ove r tim e. am-
We men tion ed that Fig . 2.4 sho ws stre akli nes , but in fact the patt ern sho wn also represents stre
fixe d
line s and path line s! The stea dy patt ern sho wn will exis t as lortg as smo ke is rele ased from the five
wer e som eho w to mea sure the velo city at all poin ts at an inst an~ to gen erat e stre aml jnes ,
ppin:ts. If we
d get the sam e patt ern; if we wer e insL e~d to rele ase onJ y one smo ke part icle at each loca tion , and
we'
r tim e, we' d see the paru cles foll ow the sam e curv es. We con clud e that for stea dy
film its mot ion ove
flow, stte akli nes, stre aml ines , and path line s are iden tica l .
Example 2.1 STREAMLINES AND PATHLINES IN TWO..,.OIMENSIONAL FLOW
A velocity field is given by V =Axi-Ay}: the units of velocity are mis: x and y are given in meters; A= 0.3 s- 1 •
(a) Obtain an equation for the streamlines in the .:ry plane.
(b) Plot the stre;unline passing through the point (xo,Yo) =2.8.
(c) Determine the velocity of a particle at the point (2, 8).
(d) If the particle passing through the point (x0 ,y0 ) is marked at timer= 0; determine the location of the particle at time t= 6 s.
(e) What is the velocity of this particle at ti.me t = 6 s?
(f) Show that the equation of the particle path (the pathline) is the same as the equation of the str~line.
Given: Velocity field, V =Axi-Ax,: x and y in meters; A= 0.3 s- 1 •

Find: (n) Equation of the streamlines in the .,1,y plane.
{b) Sn-eamline plot through point (2, 8).
(c) Velocity of particle at point (2, 8).
(d) Position at t =6 s of particle located at (2, 8) at t = 0.
(e) Velocity ofparticle at position found in (d).
(f) Equation ofpathline of particle located at (2, 8) at t = O.
Solution:
(a) Streamlines are lines drawn in tbc; flow field such that, at a given instant, they are tangent to the direction of flow at every
point. Conll~uently,
dy) V -fly -y
cb:
- stn:nmlinc
=-;;= A'7 =x
16
Separating ·variables:and integrating, we obtain
J =-id,"):
dy
y ._ X
12
or
I a
This cari be written as xy = c·..,. - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - -

(b) For the stteari;IJine passing through the point (io,Yo) == (2, 8) tlie i:onstant,
c, has a value of I 6 and ib~ equ;,iticm of the strearriline, thtt>ugh the point
(2, 8) is
.xy=,ToYo = 16 m2+-.-~~--~-~~~~.,..,...=-.....,.,~-~.....,.,~-~~
The_..plot is as sketched above.
(c) The velocity field is V =Axi-~Ay]. J\t tlte point (2, 8) the velocity js
V =A(xi-y]) =0.3s- 1 (2i~8J)m=0.6i-2A]m/s<---------
(d) A particle moving in the flow fiel(] will have velocity given by
V =A'7i-Ay]
'fhus
24 Cha pter 2 Fun dam enta l Con·c epts
S~pa:mru.igvarinbles and in1egr:1ting (~ -e·nc:h ,equa tlon):'gjY ~
1 1J X.'dx
.,,.:..~
- :Iii"• X.
. A.dr :liiid
' -Q . - -- .•. --
Then ,
~~! 11 ~iJC?.i)f ~ )~:. tm-. a.nd .y,=8 rp,,-r (Q;~l§•:::;,:·l: itm-

(~):!~;$:;';. ~·Jt~i;~.:ii.t~~~~:-,•t~.i).m;.;-·--~---~-"--~=----~~~~=-~a.., . ~-
m;
v '=f=X(iit-in -::;;'Q".;l;;~ 1-(ltl:f-•,=,'f ,~~J)_
~-it/Jf-Q,3,&'§Jrnh•...-~-~----s--:-----~-....,,._,____ _,~- -'-= -~-, ,,.... a.--, .,,... .=-
~n 'f9/dete ®1n e the ~quation ,of. the· J_:iatlilin·e , ·weeuse··'ilie para metr ic -eqµ~tfons ,.
,x=xoeA• and y;;;: y6e~A,
anci-- ~iii;w~ate, t. ·S.o lvin g fQ.r e"( fu>m ho¢ eqii~tjqos
e"' ~-YQ = ·'"
. Y ~o
Thin gs ~ quit e diffe rent for unst eady flow . For unst eady flow,-streaklines, strel).11l]ines, and path -
lines will in gene ral have diffe ring shap es. For exam ple, cons ider hold ing a gard en hose and swin ging it
side to side as wate r exits at high spee d, as show n in Fig. 2.5. We c;,btain a cont inuo us shee t of wate r.
If we cons ider indi vidu al wate r p~c les, we see ¢at each parti cle, once eject ed, follows a strai ght-l ine
path (her e, for simp licit y. Wf? ignor-¢ wav ily): The path lines are strai sht lines , as shown. On th~ othe r
hand , if we start injec ting dye into the wate r as it exits the hose , we will ge~e rate a streakline, and thls
take s the shap e of an expa ndin g sine wav e, a,s show n. Clea rly, path lin~ and s~ak line s do not coin cide
for this unst eady flow (we le.i,ve dete rmin ation of strea mlin es to an exer cise) .
We can use the velo city field to deri ve the shap es of strea kline s, palh lines , and streamlines. Star ting
with strea mlin ~s: l3ec ause the strea mlin es are para llel to the velo city vect or, we can write (for 2D)
dy)
d.-r:
v(x, y)
= u(X, )1)
(2.8 )
sllTwn hne
~Palhllnesof
ual
. . - )- Individ
~llutdpartlcle>
.Jt
Streak line al
~Streakline at a
lalerln slanl
some mstanl
Fig. 2.5 Pachlines·a nd screa kline s for flow from the exit of.an oscill ating i:arden ho_se.
2.3 Stress Field 25
Note that streamlines are obtained at an instant in time; if the flow is unsteady, time t is held constant in
Eq. 2.8. Solution of this equation gives the equation y = y (x), with an undetermined integration constant.
the value of which determines the panicular strearn)jne.
For pathlines (again considering 20), we let x=xp(t) and y=yp(L), where xp(t) and Yp(t) are the
ins tantaneous coordinates of a specific panicle. We then get
dx)
dt = u(x.y.t) dy)
d _ = v(x,y, t) (2.9)
p:in,clc t pnruclc
The simultaneous solution of these equations gives the path of a particle in parametric form :cp(t), Yp(t) .
The computation of streak.lines is somewhat tricky. The first step· is to compute the pathline of a
particle (using Eqs. 2.9) that was released from the streak source point (coordinates xo, Yo) at time to,
in the form
Xp:in,c1c{t) =x(t,xo,Yo, to) YpnrticJc{t) = y(t,xo,Yo, to)
Then, instead of interpreting this as the position of a particle over time, we rewrite these equations as
Xstn:akJinc(to) =x(t,xo,Yo, to) YslJC4kline{to) = y(t,Xo,Yo, to) {2.10)
Equai:ions 2. 10 give the line generated (by time t) from a strea}c source at point (xo,yo) . Tn these equa-
tions, to (the release times of particles) is varied from O to t to show the instantaneous position·s of all
particles released up to time t!
2.3 Stress Field

In our study of .fh1id mechanics,.we will need 10 understand what kinds of forces act on fluid particles.
Each fluid particle can expetience: swfaceforces (pressure, friction) that are generated by contact with
other particles or .a solid surface; and body forces (such as gravity and electromagnetic) char <!-le expe-
rienced throughout the particle.
The gravitational body force acting on an element of volume, d:V-, is given by pgd¥-, where pis the
density (mass per unit volume} and g is the local gravitational acceleration. Thus the gravitational body
force per unit volume is pg and the gravitational body force per unit mass is g.
Surface forces on a fluid particle lead to sLresses. The concept of stress is useful for describing how
forces acting on the boundaries of a medium (flujd or solid) are transmitted throughout the medium. You
have probably seen stresses discussed in solid mechari.ics. For example, when you stand on a diving
board, stresses are generated within the board. On the other: hand, when a bo4y moves through a fiend,
stresses are developed within the fluid. The difference between a fluid and a solid is, as we' ve seen. that
stresses ma fluid are mostly generated by motion rather than by deflectio11.
Imagine the surface of a fluid particle in contact with other-fluid particl~, and consider the contact
force being gen~rated between the particles. Consider a portion, 8A, of the surfacear.~ome point C. Toe
orientation ofi5A is given by the unit vector. 11, shown in Fig. 2.6. The vector;; is the outwardly drawn
unit normal with respect to the particle.
The force, 8F, acting on t5A may be resolved into two components, one normal to add the other
tangent to the area. A 11onnal stress Un and a shear stress T 11 are du:n defined as
. 8F;,
a,.= .s.1.-0 t5A,.
hm -.- (2.11)
Fig. 2.6 The conceptoJ sJress.ln,a contin\luin.

26 cha pte r 2 Fun dam ent al Con cep ts
y )'
~6F,
oF_
_,, r-- --- --- -~ ?- -- -- -- -x

z
(a} Forc e com pon ents (b) Stre ss com pone nts
Fig. 2.7 Force and sa-ess com pone nts on the elem ent of area M,.
and
- l5F,
•11= lill.- 0 /5An
1lffi - - (2.1 2)
pt on the stre ss is incl ude d as a rem inde r that the str • • the surf ace /5 A-
Sub scri 11
,- . . _ esse s are asso ciat ed with
h C I an outw ard nor mal m the n dire ctio n Tile fl ·d - all · we cou l d
thro ug
. •_ 1a, mg . . • u1 1s actu y a con tinu um, so
d brea king 1t up any num ber of diff eren t way s into flu-d · d pom • t C , and th ere-
hav e 1ma•gme d _ 1 pan ic 1es arou n
fore obta me any num ber of diff eren t stre sses at poin t c .
with vec tor qua ntit ies suc h as forc e we usu ally con s·id er co ts - an o rth ogo nal
. ling .
In. dea . •
r the
mpo nen m
stresse s actm · g on pIanes wh ose
coo rdin ate syst em. In rect ang ular . coo
. rdm ates we mig ht con side
outw. ardl y draw n nor mal s (aga in with resp ect to the mat eria l acte d upo n) are m · thex,. y,, or <-- d-1rect1on
· s.
? 7 , -d th duecti:ori_
In F 1g. -· \\~ cons1 er e stre ss on the elem ent/ 5A., , who se outw ardl y draw n norm al is in lhex
idin g the
The f?rc e, 6F, has bee n reso lved into com pon ents alon g eac h of the coo rdin ate directions. Div
zero we
mag nitu de of eac h forc e com pon ent by the area , l5A_., and roki ng the limi t as 8A_. approaches
e stre ss com pon ents sho wn in Fig . 2_7 b: '
defi ne the thre
a,_,:= Lim l5F;c

. &1,- p {jA_T
(2.1 3)
- l5Fy • 6F,
• .' )•= hm - - T.c,: = IU0 - -
5,1, -0 l5A;c ,.
.SA,- 0 6A_
ble sub scri pt nota tion to labe l the stre sses . The ftrs r subs crip t (in this case , x) indi -
We hav e use d a dou
whi ch the stre ss act,s (in this case , a surf ace perp end icul ar to the x axis ). The seco nd
cate s the plane on
sub scri pt indi cate s the dire ctio n in whi ch the stre ss acts_
rati on of area elem ent oA> ' wou ld lead to the defi niti ons of the stre sses , a,,., '>"' and ry,; use
Conside
of area elem ent 6Az wou ld sim ilar ly lead to the defi niti ons of a:::., '::.<• ' ZJ·•
h we jus t look ed at thre e orth ogo nal plan es. an infi nite num ber of plan es can be pas sed
Alth oug
resu ltin g in an infi nite num ber of stre sses asso ciat ed with plan es thro ugh that poin t.
thro ugh poin t C,
tely , the stat e of stre ss at a poi nt can be des crib ed com plet ely by spec ifyi ng the stres ses acti ng
For tuna
e mut uall y per pen dicu lar plan es thro ugh the poin t. The stre ss at a poin t is spec ified by the
on any thre
nine com pon ents
used to den ote a nor mal stre ss, and r to den ote a she ar stres s- The nota tion for des -
whe re q has bee n
i ona tina stre ss is sho wn in Fig . 2_8_ es (tw o
"' Ref enin g to the infi nite sim al elem ent sho wn in Fig. 2 .8, we see that ther e are six plan
y plan es. and two z plan es) on whi ch stre sses may act. In ord er to desi gna te the pla ne
x phm es, two
is mo re
ofin tere st, we cou ld use term s like fron t and bac k, top and bott om, or left and right. However, it
e plan es in te rms of the coo rdin ate axe s. The plan es are nam ed and den oted as pos itiv e
logi cal to nam e d 1
acc ord ing to the dire ctio n of the outw ar~l y draw n nor
_ mal to the plan e . Thu s the top plan e, for
or neg ativ e
exa mpl e, is a pos itiv e y plan e and the bac k plan e 1s a neg auv e z plan e.
_,
2.4 Viscosity 27
~l.T-
X
~
I ,,
I ,,
-r~,· I "~-
T.:.r /
/ /
, ✓ azz. / /~T, . . .
~ ;_..~ ~,~ __. .·
: '
'
~,·
Fig. 2 .8 Notation for stress.
It also is necessary to adopt a sign convention for s tress. A stress component is pos itive when the
direction of the stress component and the plane on which it acrs are both positive or both negative. Thus
-i-y..- = 5 lbf/in. represents a shear stress on a positive y plane in the positive x direction or a shear srress
2
on a negative y plane in the negative x direction. In Fig. 2.8 all stresses have been draw n as positive
stresses. Stress components are negative when the direction of the stress component and the plane
on whic h it acrs are of opposite sign.
2 .4 Viscosity
Where do stresses come frQm? For a solid, stresses develop when the material is elastically deformed
or strained; for a fluid, shear stresses arise due to viscous flow (we will discuss a fluid's normal stresses
shortly). Hence we say solids are elastic, and fluids are viscous (and it' s interesting to no te that many
biological tissues are viscoelastic , meaning they combine features of a solid and a fluid). For a fluid at
rest, there will be no shear stresses. We will see that each fluid can be categorized by examining the
relation between the applied shear stresses and the flow (specifically the rate of deformation) of
the fluid .
Consider the behavior of a fluid element between the two infinite plates shown in Fig. 2.9a. The
rectangular fluid element is initially at rest at time t . Let us now suppose a constant rightward force
l>Fx is applied to the upper plate so that it is dragged across the fluid at constant velocity l>u. The relative
•.:M
T :=·=---"--,, _-_ -, ,
6y
1
N
j
...i
0
. .
p
-.
N
tAi
Z --V ..
M M'
-, _....,,., ..
P
..:
0
P'
-'--~
I, 261 , I
1\,/
N
M' M "
:v _-_-_l;1/
lf-:ivxr ~
P
0
P' P"
··" -: __ . ,....Ef....
6u
I-+-- 6:r---+1
(a) (bl (cl
Fig. 2 .9 (a) Fluid element at time t, (b) deformation of fluid element at time t+ot, and (c) deformation of fluid element
at time t + 2ot .
28 cha pter 2 Fun dam enta l Con cept s
shea ring actio n of the infin ite plate s prod · h acts on the fl u1·ct eIemen t and 1s
uces a shea r stres s, ~• yx, w Iuc ·
. b
give n y
. oFx dF.
I1m - - = --
'>" = &1¥- 0 6Ay ·
dAy
wher e oA,, is the. area of cont act of the. fluid elem ent with -the PIate and u"Fx 1s· the force exerted by the- plate
S
on that e Iemen L naps hots of the fluid elem ent show n in F. igs. ?-.9a -c, •illus trate the defo rmau•on of the
fluid elem ent from posi tion MNO P . ' ,
er,to MN OP' att:J mer +2/3 t, t o M"N OP'' · · ? " d
atnm
the impo sed shea r stres s As m tioned .m Sect ion . . . - at ume l + _ut, ue to
- . · en · ft"uy de1orm
1.1, It is the fact that a fl w·ct cont muu '-
sm
·
resp onse to. an apph ed shea r Str Ll . . - .
. . _ . ess 1at sets 1t apar t fr<;>m sohd s.
Focu sing on tile time inter val 01 (Fig· ?- -9b) , tl1e d e,on " nauo · n of tile fluid is give n by
defo rmat ion mte = lim oa = da

61-0 6t dt
·
We wan t to expr ess da/d 1 in tenn s of read ily mea sura ble q uant ities. This ·
. n by
. give
'·1' 1s
dista nce, 6/, betw een t11e poin ts M and ,v, can be done easily. The
ol=o u/3t
Alte rnati vely , for sma ll angl es,
81= 8yoa
Equa ting thes e two expr essio ns for ol give s
8a 8u
l>i = 8y
Taki ng the limi ts of botll side s of the equa licy, we obta in

da du
dt = dy
Thu s, tile fluid elem ent of Fig. 2.9, whe n subj ecte d to shea r stres s -r,"·• expe rienc es a rate of defo rmat ion
(she ar rate ) give n by du/ dy. We have esta blish ed that any fluid tllat expe rienc es a shea r stress will flow
(it will have a shea r rate) . Wh_ a t is the relat ion betw een shea r stres s and shea r rate? Fluid s in whic h shea r
srres s is direc tly prop ortio nal to rate of defo rmat ion are New 1oni a11j luids . Th,e term no11-New1011ia11 is
used to class ify all fluid s in whic h shea r stres s is not direc tly prop ortio nal to shea r rate. ·
New ton ian Flu id

.Mos t com mon fluid s (the ones disc usse d in this text) such as wate r, air, and gaso line are New toni an
unde r norm al cond ition s. If the fluid of Fig. 2.9 is New toni an, then
du (2.1 4)
Tyx CX: -d
)'
we are fami liar witll the fact that som e fluid s resis t moti on mor e than othe rs. For exam ple, a cont aine r of
SAE 30W oil is muc p hard er to stir than one of wate r. Hen ce SAE 30W oil is muc h more viscous-i t has
t?
a high er visc osity . (No te tha~ a cont aine r_of merc ury is also hard er sli~, but_for a differe'.1l reaso n!) The
cons tant of prop ortio nalit y m Eq. 2 .14 1s tile abso lme (or dyna1111c) wsco s,ry, µ . Thus_m term s of tl1e
-1
~
coor dina tes of Fig. 2.9, New ton' s law of visc osity is give n for one- dime nsio nal flow by
(2.l-5)
Note_that, sin~ e the dim ensi ons of-r are [F/ .(.,2] and tile dirr)ensi_ons of d_11/dy are [l/t), JI has dime nsio ns
(Ft/Li).Sinc e tile dim ensi ons of forc e, F, mass , M , leng th, L, and time , t , are related by New ton' s
2.4 Viscosity 29
second law of motion, the dimensions of Jt can also be expressed as [M / Lr]. In the British Gravitational
system, the units of viscosity are )bf• s/ft2 or slug/ ( ft - s). In the Absolute Metric system. the basic unit of
viscosity is called a poise [ l poise= I g/(cm. s)); in the SI system the units of viscosity are kg/(m -s)
or Pa-s ( l Pa• s = 1 N •s/m2 ). The calculation of viscous shear stress is illustrated in Example 2.2.
In fluid mechanics the ratio of absolute viscosity, Jt. to density, p. often arises. This ratio is given the
name kinematic viscosity and is represented by the symbol v. Since density has dimensions [M/ L 3 ] ,
the dimensions of v are (L2 /t]. In the Absolute Metric system of units. the unit for v is a
stoke ( 1 stoke= 1 cm 2 /s).
Viscosity data for a number of common Newtonian fluids are given in Appendix A. Note that for
gases, viscosity increases with temperature, whereas for liquids. viscosity decreases with increasing
temperature.
Example 2.2 VISCOSITY AND SHEAR STRESS IN NEWTONIAN FLUID
An i.n.finite plate is moved over a second plate on a layer of liquid as shown. For small gap width, d, we assume a linear veloc.j:ty
distribution in the .Hgtiidi The liquid Viscosity is 0.65 centipoise and its specific
gravity is 0.88. Determine: · y
(a) TIJe a!:>.solute viscci~ity qf tile Uqµjci, in Ibf •s/fr.

(b) The.kinematic vi$ce>sii.y of the Jiquicl, in ml/$.
~· -·.. t - ' ~U=0.3m/s
(c) The sl):ear s~ss on the 11ppecplate, in Ibf/ft2. d= 0.3 mm

(d) The she.i,u:·$ti:ess 911 ti.!,e lower plate, in Pa. t
p··""'rnv:tc:i-z:::::::::z:tt..•:r:tor37 X
(e) The dire~tion of each $h¢iir s~s·c!)lcillate~lin Parts (cl arid (d).
Giyeh: Linear ~eloieity prg.l:ile in the liquid .between infinite parallel plates as shown.
w=0.65 cp
SG=0,88
Find: (a) 11in units of ibf- s/rt2.

(b) v in units of m 2/s.
(c) • on upper plate in l!nits of lbf/fr.
(d) • on lower plate iri units of Pa:;
(e) Direction of stresses in parts (c) aricl (d).
Solution:
Governing equation: Definition:
'• v == !!.p
Assumptions:
l 'Line.m- velocity distribution .(giv~n)
2 Steady flow iffl
3 µ=constant
poise, g lbm slug . cm ·· rbf - s 2
(a) µ=0.65cpx-..- .-.. x ..·. x-
- -.-
. -x .. .. x30.5-x . _
· ·- · · · 100 c:p cm • s - poise 454 g 32.2 lbrrt · · · ft slug . ft
5
µ =. I.36 x 10- lbf • s/fF + - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - ~ - - - µ -
(b.); v== i= ;$(3:H,b
. .· .. . _ 5 ibf ·-~ . fl3 . Sll,lg · fl . 2m 2

= l.'.3 6 X lO . ~ x (Q,88)i.94slug x !bf· s2 x (0-3 0 5 ) ft2
zi-=7 .41 X 10- 7
m /S .-·- - , - - - - - - - ~ - - - . . ; ; . I !
2
30 Chap ter 2 Fund amen tal Conc epts
(c) ,r:...-= -.~rc.u ppe,

du)
:.;µ.;,,_;
,..J
· Y"7'd
.~rr.-
sm~ ·u varie s liilear ly-wi't h-y,:
·::: ~-1; ~ ~t~ ~ :;=

.,l
-0'3m .·. - t . ·1000

~ • s X ();3.,;m m.x
· ,- mm - · --·
::rti ::;:":l OOQs-'J
J:t
-1
~ - l/ _ _ 5 Ibf · s 1000 . . j,,
'<upp cr-µd -1.36 x 10 . fll x -·s·-- =0.Q l3~lb f/ft'2 -..,___ _~ - - -- -pcr=-
-----'•--t•:·".'.:~
C/ ··0 ·01"6 !bf "'4 ,,._ .N X .. . :ff "' Pa,• tn2
.·cl), -.1owu=-'P. d· ·=;·
(_ '· "' ·ft·2 '<" ·"""'!bf (·..
o···'i" _. -m-:.,·..,,.. N'
__,_.o·,.,c)·2·
:(~l Dire djo~. o{ s~e:ar S:II'e$ses oi)~~ppe r'~d !9.°wer J>la.t~ -
•{···'Th~ ~J?j:)er _plate ~s a_i:legative ys).it fa_c;:~ ; s.Q. }

y ,. i:ios111:y_e -~ :r aq~-HH:li.e·n e~afr vex direc tion, ·
·" .l ~- ... . ..__ • -- ·
Nor i-Ne wto nian Flui ds

Flllid s in which shear stress is nQt direc tly propo niona l to defoi:q1atj.9.q µit_i; ~-non-Newtonian . Altho ugh
we will not discu ss these much in this text, many cm:nm on fluids exhib it non-N ewton ian behavior. Two
5
famil iar exam ples are tooth paste and Lucit paint. The latter is very "thick " when in lhe can, but
e
becom es "thin " when shear ed by brush ing. Tooth paste behav es as a "fluid " when squeezed from the
rube. Howe ver, it does notru n.o,tit by itself when "th¢ cap is ~01o ved. There is a thresbold or yield stress
b¢!9w w bich. t<;>othpaste l;>eh~ves as a soliq . Slrict ly speak i,ng. our defin ition of a fluid is valid only for
:1
matei ial_s that have zero yield sttess; Non- Newt onian fluids comm only are classified as having time-
indep enden t .o r time- depen dent behav ior. Exam ples of lime- indep enden t behav ior are shown in the f
1
rheol ogica l diagr am of'Fi~- 2 , 10. 1
Niim et9 u·s empi rical equat ions hav<! beeil propo sed [3, 4] to mode l the obser ved rel;itions betwe en
'y the power Jaw mode.I , wpie!1,for one-d nnens 1onal flow beco m~
-..,~=k d;:
(
d )" (2.16 )
where tbe expo! lept, n , is c_a lled the flow behav ior indel!- an(! the coeff icient , k, the consistency index .
Tois equat i9n .f1:!·l ju~es to N ewto rt's law of visc!'>siJ:Y for n = I wi_th k = µ .
.
.
5T11!d.emnrk. E. J. du Pont de -Nemours & C ompany.
1)
2 . 5 Surface Tension 31
Bingham
plastic
- _ Pseudoplastic
Pseudoplastic
------
"' ---
"'
.c
en ,---Dil~;nt
Newtonian Newtonian
Deformation rate, ~''. Deformation rate, ~"

Ca) :> {bl y
Fig. 2.1 o (a) Shear stress, r, and (b) apparent viscosity,,,, as a function of deformation rate for one-dimensional flow of
various non-Newtonian fluids.
To ensure that -ry., has the same sign <1,s d11/dy, Eq. 2 . 16 is rewritten in the form
(2'.17)
The tem117 =kld11/dyln-t is referred to as tpe apparent viscosity, The idea behindEq. 2.17 is that we end
up with a viscosity 17 that is used in a formula thatis. the. same form as Eq. 2.15, in which the l':-lewtonian
viscosity Jt is used. The big difference is· that while µ is constant (except for temperarure· effects),
11 depends on the shear rate, Most non~Newtonian fluids have apparent viscosities that are relatively high
compared with the viscosity i;>f water.
Auids in which the apparent viscosity decreases with increasing deformation rate ( n < l) are called
pseudop/asric (or shear thinning) fluids. Most non-Newtonian fluids fall into this group; examples
include polymer solutions, colloidal suspensions, and paper pulp in water. If tJ:ie apparent viscosity
increases with increasing defom1ation rate (n > i) the fluid is termed dilatam (or shear thicl<ening). Sus~
pensions of starch and of sand are examples of dil.a tant fluids. You can get an idea of the latter when
you're on the beach-if you walk slowly (and hence generate-a low shear race) on very wet sand,
you sink into it, but if you jog on it (generating a high shear rate), it's very firm.
A ''fluid" that behaves as a.· solid until .a minimum _yield stress, ry, is exceeded and subsequently
exhibits a linear relation between scress and rate of deformation is l'efecred to .as an ideal or Bingham
p/asr;c. The corresponding shear stress model is
dii
r,.,,=-ry +Jip dy (2.18}
Clay suspensions, drilling muds. and toothpaste are ex,amples of substances exhibitjng this behavior.
The study of non-Newtonian fluids is ftn:ther complicated by the fact that the apparent viscosity.may
be time-depem;lent. Thixottopic fluids show a decrease in 17 with time under a consta,nt' applied shear
stress; many painis are thixotropic. Rheopeqtic fluids show an increase in T/ with time. After clefqmilltion
some fluids partially return to their original shape when the applied stress is released; such ftp.ids are:
called viscoelastic (many biological fluids work this way).
2.5 Surface Tension

You can tell when your car needs waxing: Water droplets tend to appear somewhat fh;mene.d out. After
waxing, you get a nice "Beading" effect. These two cases are shown in Fig. 2.11 . We c{efipe a liquid as
"wetting" a surface when the contact angle 0 < 90°. By this definition, the c.ar' s surface was wetted
before waxing, and not wetted after. This is an example of effects due to surfa.ce tension. Whenever
a :liquid is in contact with other liquids or gases, or in this case a gas/solid suqac;e, an interface develops
chapter 2 Fundame ntal Concep.ts
32
.
'!
(a) A "wetted" surface (b) A nonwetted surface

Fig. 2.11 Surface tension effects·on water droplets.
tJ1at acts like a stretche_d elastic membrane , creating surface tension. There are two features to this IPCPl-
brane: the contact angl~, ~• and the magnitude of the surface tension, <T(N/m or ]bf/ft). Both of these
depend on me type of liquid and the type of solid surface (or otJ1er liquid or gas) will}. which it shares an
interface. In tJ1e car-waxin g example, the contact angle changed from being smaller than 90°, to larger
~1
tJ1an 90°, because, in effect, the waxing changed the nature of the solid surface. Factors that affect-the
contact angle include the cleanlines s of the surface and the purity of the liquid.
Other examples qf sµrface tension effects arise wij_e n YO!J are. able to place a needle. on a wat¢r
surface and, similarly, wben small water insects are able to walk on the surface of the water.
Appendix A contains data for surface tension and contact angle for co~m~~ liquids in the presence
of air and of water.
A force balance on a segment of interface shows that ·there is- a pressure jump across the imagi_rie_d
elastic I11embrane whenever the interface is curved. For: a water dr:oplet in air, prei;sure in the wat~(is
higher than ambienr, the same is true for:a .g as bti):ibie in liquii:l~For a soap bubble in air, surface tension
acts on born inside and outside intetfaces between the soap film and air along the curyed,bub.ble,sµqal;::e ~
Sµrface tension also. le;ids _ti? me phenomen a of capillary (i;~ .• very small wav.~leiigth)w!lves tin a f.rquid
~face rs]. and capillary rise. or de(.>~$si~n; discus~e.~ \:>e19~·.m.E xajµple 2.~, ··
In engineerin g, probably the n1ost important :~ffecf.,of ·surface tensj<;in·-ls'. $ i;."g~ion of a c urved
Vide~: Capillary ·meniscus that appears in manomete rs or barometer s, :leadirig.-:.t o .a.:.(usµaii!Y •".QiiW@l~'.d) cap iJLai) • rise
Rise (otdepress ion), as shown in Fjg; i.12_. Tm$ ~e -ma:y: l;>e)?&nPili;i.i;:e.4if-i!i'~til.quic.i•;is ' iffa· sma)1~~™;n e.c~1r
tube or narrow gap, as sho\vn in Example 2.;3 . . __
Folson1 [6) shows that the simple ailalysis. of .1Exaµ1ple=·2 ,3 .o:v~i:pre.ili~ts: Ui'~;~aj_jillncy ,effect and
gives reasonable results only for tube: diametei:- l~s ~-:in
~:~I! 1;nj~,~S,ik~)-~<D.:v.e~· ii,~dfameter range
0. 1 < D < I. I ii).,.. experimen tal data,for tl'!e .cll.p1Hany•.q5e:-w~fQ.i:11- wa!~J:1~ mtei::fnce; are correlated by
0
• L- ~ ~~-:-·-- 4 3
-~ -----
'
----------
=-- the empirical expression ti.h-=OAO O/e · 7D.. · . , _- . _ . ·
Manomete r and barometer readings should b ~ made,a.~~tb-~"le,.y~Lof'~he"J:ruddle of the meniscus. This
is away from-the maximum effectS of ·sUFface tensioR-ru\Q:.th_u$iil~.~ st_ to ~e proper ~quid level, . .
. _
All surface tension-d ata-in Appendix A-wereme asured:far·p~:liq~uds m contact w!th ~l~an vert1~al
surfac.es. Impuriti~ -in the liquid, dirt·on.(be surface, or-surf~ce m_cli1_1a1J.on can cause an md_1sn~ct meru~-
~us; · uncler S!JCb coni:ijtiqns it it,ay 1:>'e q.if.ficolt ti? detemuoe hq~~d level accurately. L1qu_•~ !evel _1s
. · ··
·di · · t • a "e'rtical tube When inclined tubes are used to. mcrease manometer
. sens1ttv1ty
. (see
most stwc m •· · . . ' .
· :
·Secuon -i. 3.· ) .1
-"· ·
• rmp
• t 1s. -an·t to make each· reading·
0 •·• · at the same p.omt on me memscus and to avoid use
Qftupes i,nclined less tban about ).:5° from horizontal .
/tube
.9.,._ · ,,,, Ah
.(a) <;apiJ!ar:y ri~e .CO. < S!0°) .(b) CapJlla'}'. pepression CO> 90°)
·uacy dep1"ession i.n.s ide:and outsTde a;cir.czufar.tuo e;-

Fig. .:2.. J2- c:c1pifla(Y:rI~e ;10d. ~P 1 • · . .
2.5 Surface Tension 33
Example 2.3 ANALYSIS OF CAPILLARY EFFECT IN A TUBE

Create a graph showing the capillary rise or fall of a column of water or mercury, respectively, as a function of tube_diameter D .
Find the minimum diameter of each column required so that the height magnitude will be less than I mm.
fjg.
~I:
Given: Tube dipped in liquid as in 2.12
t=(nd:- A genera. exp$i;io11 for A/! as. a func:tion of D.
Solution: Apply free-body diagram analysis, and sum vertical forces. r---..... /
Goyerning equation: TAh
z
Assumptions:
1..
pg.Ml
l=
I..Measure to niiddle of meniscus
2. N¢~!ect v.ohm1e in. meni~c:tis ~gion
Summin_g forces in the z direction~
(1}
If we _neglect the volume inJhe meriisc1.1s region:
Stil>$tituting in Eq. 1 and solving for iSh ~iv:es ·

-4ucos0
Ah:::::. .... · Ah
. - -- pgD ·
For.water-, o-:;:::72.8 mN/m .and 0~0°,, and--for iµe~_IJ.i;y,.o-=484 mN/m and 0= 140° (Table A.4).. Plotting,
Capillary effect in small tubes

30 ,--,------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
25
- - Water
E 20 - - - Mercury
5
~ 15
:E
"" lO
·cu
.s::
2:- 5
~
·g-
e.>
0 Il-
0
-----l----=:;:====+==:::::;::::
/--7,-------10 15
+:::::::~;:::;:d
20 25
-5 /
I
-10'-'- - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - . J
Diameter, D (mm)
Usjng the above equation to c9mpute Dnun foJ: 4h.= 1 mm, we. find for
r\:ie,rcucy and water
Chapter 2 Fundame ntal Concep1:!i
34
Surfactant compound s reduce surface tension significant ly (more than 40 percent with little change
in other properties [7]) when added to water. They have wide commerci al application: Most detergents
contain surfactants to help water penetrate and lift soil from surfaces. Surfactant s also have major indus-
trial application s in catalysis, aerosols, and oil field ~covery.
2.6 Descrip tion and Classif ication of Fluid Motion s

In Chapter l and in this chapter, we have almost completed our brief introductio n to some concepts and
ideas that are often needed when studying fluid mechanics . Before beginnina detailed aoaiysis of fluid
mechanics in the rest of this text, we will describe some interesting exampl~ to illustrate a broad cl~-
sificat,ion of fluid mechanics on the basis of important flow characteris tics. Fluid mechanics is a liuge
discipline: It covers everytl1ing from the aerodynam ics of a supersonic m,.nsport vehicle to the lubrica-
tion ofhuman joints by sinovial fluid. We !')Ced to break fluid mechanics down into manageable propor-
tions. It turns out iliat tl1e two most difficult aspects ·ofa fluid mechanics analysis to deal with are: ( 1) the
fluid's viscous nature and (2) its compressi bility. In fact, the area of fluid mechanics theory ¢at first
became highly developed (about 250 years ago!) was i.hat dealing with a qictiqi)less , i.ncomp~;,_it,le
fluid. As we will see shortly (and in more detail later on), this theory, while exµ-emety elegant. led
to the famous result called d' Alembert 's paradox: All boclies experience no drag as they move through
such a fluid-a result not exactly consistent with any real behavior!
Although noi the only way to do so, most engineers subdivide fluid m,echanics in terms of wh~tb~r
or not -viscous effects ~d compressi bility effects are prese_l')t, as shown ih J;-ig. 2.l~- AJso shown are:
classificati ons in te rms of whether a flow is laminar or turbulent, and i,ntemal ot ·external, W.e,-w.ilL
now discuss each of these.
Viscous and Inviscid Flows

"When you send a ball flying through the air (as in a game ofbasep,i.11, soccer, or any numb~r of ~th~r
sports), in addition to gravity the ball ex~e~el')c: es the aerodynam ic drag ofth~ air. The quesnon_1!nses:
What isilie natµ~ of the drag fore:¢ ofthe.lilro n the ball? At first glance, we m1ghtconc lude that_it s due
to friction ofthe air as it flows over the ball; a little more reflection might lead to the conclus1on ~at
b~cause air has such a low viscosity, friction might not c:ontrib_u te much to the Q~g. ai1d the ~g ~ght
be due to the pressure puild-up in ft.on~ of the ball as it pushes the air oµt of the way. The quesuon ar1ses:
Can we predict ah~d of time the relatjv~ importanc e of ~e, viscous fo~e, and force due to the press~
uild : ·rro t of the ball'? Can we make similar predictfon s for any obJect,Jor.example, an automobil e,
b . -\lP m n · · · · · . ? Th
bl d p Iasma.
b · · a red blood cell, moving through any flmd, for example, air, water, . . QO e
su mann(
aanswer h<:• h e'U discuss in much more detail
· · · · in Chapter 7) is that we can! IL rums out tliat we
w 1c w . . · ·
Continuum
fluid mechanics
Invrsc1a
µ=0
Laif,i)_iiar Tiirtmlent
Incompress ible Internal Ex~~rnal

.€om pr.essible
Fig. 7.13- Possible di!ssificatic;m·.<>f i:ontinuum·f luid me¢1anlcs.

2.6 Description and Classification of Fluid Motions 35
can estimate whether or not viscous forces, as opposed to pressure forces. are negligible by simply com-
puting the Reynolds number
VL
Re=p-
µ
where p and Jt are the fluid density and viscosity, respectively, and V and Lare the typical or ..charac-
teristic" ve_locity and size scale of the flow (in this example the ball velocity and diameter), respectively.
If the Reynolds number is. "large," viscous effects will be negligible (but will still have important con-
sequences, as we'll soon see), at least in most of the flow; if the Reynolds number is sma!J, viscous
effects will be dominarfr. Finally, if the Reynolds number is neither iarge nor small, no genenµ conclu-
sions can tie drawn.
To illustrttte this very powerful idea, consider two simple examples. First. the drag on your ba:ll:
Suppose you kick a soccer ba1J (diameter= 8.75 iii.) so it moves at 60 mph. The Reynolds number (using
air properties from Table A.10) fot this case is about 400,000-by any measure a lar$e number; hence
the .drag on the so·c cer ba1J is almost entirely due to the pressure build~up in front of it. For our sec.and
example, consider a dust particie (modeled· as a sphere of diameter 1 mm) falling under gravity at a ter~
minal velocity ofl cm/s: In this case Re~O. 7-a quite sma1J number; hem:.e th¢ drag is.mostly due to th¢
friction of the au:. Of course, in both of these examples, if we wish to deteniline the drag force, we would
have to do substa11tia1ly more analysis.
These examples illustrate an important point: A flow is considered to be friction dominated (or not)
basej:I. 11otjust on the fluid's viscosity, but on the complete flow system. In these examples, the airflow
was lo,;v friction {or the soccer ball, but was high friction for the dus.t particle.
Let's retilm for a moment to the idealizednption Of frictionless .Oow, called i.n11iscidflow. This is the
branch shown on the left in Fig. 2~ 13. This branch ~ncompasses mos~ aervdynainics, and a,mong other
things explains, for example, why sub~ !Uld s11personic aircraft have differing shapes, how a wing gen-
erates lift. and so forth. If this theory ts applied t:o the bail flying through the arr (a flow that is also incom-
pressible), it predicts streamlines (iri coordinates attiiched to the sphere) as shown in Figs 2.14a.
The streamlines.are symmetric fronr-to-back. l3ecause the mass flow between any cwo streamlines ts
const~t, wherever streamlines open up, the velocity must decrease, and vice versa. Hence we can see
that the velocity in the vicinity of points A and C must be relatively low; at point Bit will be high. In fact,
th«;: air comes to rest at points A and C: They are $lag11ation poinrs. It turns out that (as w~•u·Ieam in
Chapter 6) the pressure in this flow is high wherever the velocity is low, and vice versa Hence, points
A arid C have relatively large (and equal) pressures; point 8 wiU be a point oflow pressure. In fact, the
·pressure distribution on the sphere is symmetric front-to-back, and there is no net drag force due to pres.c..
sure. Because we're assun:i.ing invis.cid flow, there can be no drag due to friction either. Hence we ha.ve Vid.eo: £ UJJJ1ples
d'Alembert's paradox of 1752: The ball experiences no drag! , of Flow oii#a,
This· is obviously unrealistic: On the other hand, everything seems logically consistent: We estab- Sphere
lished tifa.t Re for th~ sphere was very large (400,000), indicating friction is negligible. We then used
inviscid flow theory to obtain our no-cltag result. How c:an we reconcile this theory with reality? It took
about 150 years.after the parado>. first appeared for the answer, obtained by Prandtl in 1904: The no-slip
condition.(Sec:tion 1.1) requires ~'iat the velocity everywhere on the surface of the sphere be zero (in
sphere coordinates), but inviscid theory stii.tes that it's high at point.8. Prandtlsuggested tha.t even though
friction is negligible in general for high-Reynolds number flows, there will always be a thin boundary
(a) Inviscid flow (b) Viscou.s flow

Fig. 2.14 Qualitative picture of incom11ressible flow over a sphere.
-Chapter 2 Fundamen tal·Conce pts-.
36
lnviscid
!low
-- ---- --
j Viscous
Fig. 2.15 Schematic cif a boundary layer.

-- 7 boundary
li!Yer
/(Iyer, in which _friction is signi"fic:ant and across the w idth of which the velocity increases rapidly. frotn
zero (at the surface) to the value inviscid flow theory predicts (on the outer edoe of the boundary layer).
This is _shown in. Fjg. 2.~4b fro_m point A to point B, ~d in more detail in Flg. 2.15. ·. ·
Tlus bc;mndary layer _,mrnediate ly allows us to reconcile theory and experimen t: Once we have friction
in a boundary lay~r we w_ill have drag. However, this boundary layer has.anothe r impotta,nt consequ_e~c:e: It
often leads to bodies havmg a wake, as shown in Fig. 2.14:f? fro,~ point D onwards. Point Dis a separatio.n
poinr, where fluic;I particles are p1.1shed off the object ~q ca4s·e ..i "v*e to dev.e lop. Consider once·ag ai,n
the original inviscid flow (Fig. 2 . 14p ): A,s a particle n:iove~nilo ng .the surface fro~ point B to C, it mc;,v~
from low to high pressure. This adverse pressure gradient (a pressure d1ange opposing fluid m<;;tiol)-)
causes the particles to s lc;,w down as they move along the reiu- o ( the. sphei:e. )f we i)ow add to this the:fac t
Ow1 the particles a.re moving in a ooundary layerwit11 ftj.ction that~sosl ows,d(iWri-~e:·n uid;tlle part.ides
will eventually be brought to rest and then pushed off the sphere by the f'oli~~ving p~cles;Jor.mir;ii ,~ e
wake. This is generally very bad news: lt .t urns out that the wake wili aiw9,ys.be~ fotiY¢,lyJqw'I:ii! M~;
but the froni of the sphere will still have ~latively high pressure. B.eqce, thC: sph.fi~ ~J.1:1. ~-~)~:!i}ij~~arqµitei
large p ressure drag (or form qrag-so_called J:>ecriuse it's ~h:ie-fo the shape <;>f th¢.obj~ct). · - - .
Vidt1o: S1ream· This c;lescription reconciles 1J1e inviscid flow no-drag ·resuit with th~ experim~ntal resuli. of°si"~ -
/inetl Flow 01·cr icaiit dhig on a: sphere. It's. interestin$ J O note that although the boul)dary layer. is necessary to expl~i.fl th_e ·
a,i ,\i,foil drag on the sphere, ¢e drag is .icwaUy d1,1e mos_tly to the asy1:ru:nettiG press\lre distribution created by the
boundary layer separa~ion ---'Qrag.direcqy d1.1_e (a friction, is still negligible!
- ·w e can_also 110w begin to see how streamli11i11g of a body works. The drag fo["9~ in 111ost aerqdynaq i-
ics is due to .the l~w-press ure wake: if we c.an reduce or eliminate the w~e.-drag will be gre_ally ':d_uc~d.
If we consider once again why the sei;>aralioil oc_c_u~d., we recall two features: Boundary layer fric?on
slowed dQwn the p_articles, but sQ. djd qie adve,;se pressure gradien~. The pressure increa~ea very m131dly
across cpe back half of the sphere in Fig, 2.14a because the s~mes opened \lp..so rap1()Jy. :If w_e Jl)~e
th~ sphere teardrop shaped, as in Fig. 2.16, thestreaQ1 ~nes open up gradually ,~d hence th~ pressu~w1 ll
in~rease slowly, 10 s.u ch an extent that. fl,µicl particles ~<; µot f:c;>q;ed t<> separa~e from the obJect unul th:Y
. h· the end of the obiect. as &howJ'.i. The wake is much smaller (and 1.t rums out the pcessure will
almost reac . . "· . - . . f•'-' ·1· •
Y:-uleo: s,rcam~ no~be as low.a s before), leading to much less pressure drag. The only ne~at1ve ~peel o_· u_us sJ.I:eam •~mg
l imes around a · · · · .
tal ,.c, ·area on · i
wh· ch· frica·on occurs is Iaraer so drag due to frictiori will mcrease a little.
Car is that the to su,-.1ace . - . . -· .. o , . . . . .
· We s· h ou · ld pom ·· t ·out .that none
. - this
of · - ·· applies
· ·· discussion ·, · tQ the . · . . .of a fallmg
. example . dust parucle:
. · R 1'c1s mb · er fiow was viscous throuahpu t- there 1s no mv1sc1d region.fl (µ-0) d
This low- eyno nq_ · -- · ·· --· · , . . ·· ."' · • · · ·.d
Fino.lly, t1:tls c;iiscµssiqn il1µ5:tta~~ Ult; v~ry significan t difference between mv1sq ow - . an.
f)qws)n which v~p::>sity is n.~gligible but not zero (µ - +O).
Lamina r and Turbul.e nt Flows

. . (th d 0 't have a:n aerator or other attachmen t) at a very low flow rate the w a ter
If you tum on a Jauce.t · thlat -~ s t " glass-like." If you increase the flow rate, the waler will exit in a
will flow our very smoo y - - o .
Point of.
s1iparaliqn
Fig. .2., 6 Flow over a screamlined .obJect.

2.6 Description and Classification of Fluid Motions 37
V=uf
Laminar V-rdeo : u ,minur
and Turh 1dc nf
F low
Turbulent
Fig. 2.17 Particle pathlines In one-dimensional laminar and turbulent flows.
chu111ed-up, cha<;>tic manner. These are examples of how a viscous flow can be laminar or turbulent,
respectively. A laminar flow is one in which the f11,1 id parti'"les move in smooth layers, or laminas; a
wrbulent 'i'iow is one in which the flµid particl~s rapidly mix as they move aloni due to random
three-dimension·a1 velocity fluctuations. TiP-icl!-1 ex_a mples of pathlines of each of these are illustrated
in Fig. 2.17, which shows~ one-_d imensional flow. In most fluid mechanics problems-fc;>r e)!:ainple,
.tlo,~ of water in a pipe-turbulence is an un~anted but often lm;ivoidal;,le phenomenon, becaus~ it gen-
erates more resistance to flow; in oth~r pro!:>lems-for example, the flow of blood through blood
vessels- it is desirable because the random mixing allows all of the blood cells to contact the walls
of the blood vessels to exchange oxygen and other nutrients.
The velocity of the laminar flow is simply 11; the velocity of the turbulent flow is given by the mean
velocity ii plus the three components of randomly fluctuating velocity t/, 1/, and w'.
Altj1c;mgh many turqulerit flows of interest are s_te._idy in the mean (ii is not a function of time), the
presence of the rru;idom, higlt-frequency vel~ity fluctuations makes the an_a lysis Qf turbQl_e nt flows
exire.mdy difficulL In a one-;.dirnensional laminar flow, . the shear stress is related to the velocity gradient
by the simi>le relatio11
du
-i-,"=µ- (2.15)
. dy
For a turbulent flow in which the m~an velocity fieidis one-dimensional, n_o suc_lt simple relation is valid.
Random,. three-dim_en_sional velocity flµctuations (rl, v', and w') cransport momentum .across the mea:i::t
flow·streamlines. increasing the effflctive ·s hel!l' StreliS. (This apparent stress is discussed in mote detail in
Chapter 8.) Conse.q ueritiy, in rutbui~nt flow there. js no µni\iersal relationship between the stress field ang
the m~an-velocity field. Thus in turbulent flows we must o::IY heavily on semi-empiricai theories and on
experimental d_a ta.
Compressible and lncompn~ssibl~ Flows

Flo,vs in which vi,.riations in density are ·negligible are termed incompressible; when density variations
within a flow are no_t negligible, the flow is called compressible. The most corriinori example of com-
pressible flo\v ctmcems th¢ flow of -~ases, while d1e flow ·of liquids may frequently be treated as
incompressible.
For majly liquids, density is 0nly·a weiµc funct;ion of temperature. At modest pressures, liquids may
be •considered incompressible. However'; at high pressures, compressibility effects in liquids can be
imponant. Pressure and denslt;y changes -in liquids are related by the bi1lk compressibiliry moduli~.
ot. Qlodlilus of elasticity, ·
E - .dp (2.19)
v= (dp/p)
Ifthe,buikm9dulus is independent ofteillpentture, then-density is only a-function of pressure (the fluid is

barotropic). (Julk modulus data for some COCJ1J11On liquids are given in Append.ix A.
Water hammer and cavitation are examples of the importance -of compressibility effec:.ts-in liquid
flc:>"ws. Waier hammer is caused by acoustic -waves propagating and reflecting in a confined liquid;
f0r•exarqple, when a valve is dosed abruptly. The resulting noise can be similar to " ha;o:u:Jier-intf' :on
the,pipes, ·hence the term.
Cmiitdtioii·occ;:urs when vapor poekets form in a liquid flow because 0f"lp<;:al reduction~ in pressure
(for-·exampleat the tip of a boat's propeller blades). Dependi!lg on the numb.er-:. and-distri!>uJ:ion, of par-
_i.ie~¢s in the Jiquidlo whieh verr small poc\(el:$ of.undissolve9 gas or air m_a y attaclt,.the I0cl)l precssur.e,a:t
38 Chapter 2 Fundamental Concep~
the onset of cavitation may be at or below the · . . . · .·

ation sites to initiate vaporization. vapor pressure of the hqmd. These particles act as nucle-
Vapor pressure of a liquid is the partial re · . th .
given temperature. When pressure in a r .Pd •ssure of e vapor m contact wilh lhe saturated liquid at a
1qu1 1s reduced to less lh th th 1· ·ct
change phase suddenly and "llnsh" to vapor. an e vapor pressure, e 1qm may
The vapor pockets in a liquid flow ma alt t1 .
adjacent to a surface the growth and y er le geometry of tile flow field substantially. When
tlle surface material.' - co 11apse of vapor bubbles can cause serious damage by eroding
Very pure liquids can sustain laroe necrati . ·
· ;e l?ressuTell-as much as -60 atmospheres for distilled
O
water-before the liquid ·•ruptures" ~d
. · · vaponzauon occurs Undiss · i d • . . . bl . · ..
tlle free. surface of water or seawater so ca . l . • . . • o ve air 1s mvana y present ne.ar.·
the. va:j:>or pressure. , v1 atmn occurs where the Ioca1 total pressure. 1s
. qu11i::
. c1ose. to
_ It turns out that gas flows with negligible heat tran . . . . .. ·.

v1ded tllat the flow speeds are small relati th. ··_ sfer _also may be considered mcompress1ble pro-
local speed of sound, c, in the g_as is defive ~o . · ethspeed of sound; the ratio of me flow speed, V; to the
me as e Mach number,
_V
M=-
c
For M < 0.3, the maximum density variation is less th · 5 . · · - . . . . ·
treated as incompressible· a value of M _ O . . an percent. Thus gas flows '.".1th M < 0.3 can be
, - •3 m air at standard · · ··ct· · · •.•• · f
approximately 100 m/s. For example, althoua-h it . 0
con m~ns ~~rresponds to a ~peed. ~-
• _
car at 65 m h the air flowi • . 0

• ~,,ht be a li~tle countenntumve; when you dnve·yoµr
- P . . _ng arou nd 1t has negligible change m density: As w·e,i;hiill seifln·Cfor iert2
the speed of sound m an . ideal gas is given by c = vFkfFT
"~u , w h ere k 1s
. the rallo . of-· specific
· · ,.· ; ','. ·;:· ·~P.;:.~_.:
nealS··,RJ. ·-~;
1s ,llie-
gas constant, and T 1s the absolute temperature F · S 4 ·.. i · _·· · · · ···' · -- ·,-'.·" ··ce
{53.33ft-lbf/lbm- 0 R). Values f k d R . '. _or :11r at T~. k=L 0 and R = 2.8(5'9J/kg,,~
_. . . - . . . . . 0 . an . are supplied m Append1X A for' several selected common
gases at STP. In add1t1on, Appendu A contains ·some useful dat · l:Iri h · ;
temperature, at various elevations. a on a osp enc propemes. s_u ch · as
-.. .•C_ompressible
. _ . . __ flows
_ occur freq_
. .ue.iltly_
_ .·. ih en.
. gineerin<>
. _ s.• c·. ommon
. "'. ap,..pUtati'o·n.
. · · ·. . examp
·· l es me
· Iu d e com-
presse!i arrsystems us~d to po~~r shop tools and dental drills; transmission of gases in pipelines at high
pres~ure, and ~neumauc or flu1?1c control and sensing systems. Compressibility effects are
very impor-
tant m the design of modem !ugh-speed aircraft and ·missiles, power plants, fans, and compressors.
Internal and External Flows

Flows completely bounded by solid surfaces are called internal or duct flows. Flo,vs over bodies
immersed in an unbounded fluid are termed f!Xlemal jl()w~. B,oth inte_mal and external flows may be
laminar or turbulent, c9mpressible or·!nco01p~sible.
We mentioned,~ exarripJe.ofintemal flow when we discussed the flow out of a faucet-the flow in
the pipe leading to the faucet is an lnternal fl.ow. It turns out that we have a Reynolds number for pipe
flows defined ,i.s_Re==pVD/µ, wb.¢re Vis the average flow velocity and Dis th.e pipe cliU111eter(note that
we do n,ot ~se the pipe length !). This Reynolds. number indicates whetbera pipe.flow will be. l~n,ir or
turbulenL Flow will generally be laminar for:Re ~ 2300 and turbulent for larger v alues: Flo:,v in a pipe of
constant diameter ,vill be entirely laminar or entirely turbulent, depending on the value of the.velocity V.
We will explore internal Oows in detail in Chapter 8.
We already saw s_ome exampl~ of external flows when we discussed the flow over a sphere
(Fig. 2.141?) and a streirm.lined qbject (Fig. 2 . 16). What we didn't mention was that these flows could
be laminar or LurbulenL In additiop, we mentioned boundary layers (Fig. 2.15): It turns out these also
can be laminar or tur buienL When we discuss these in detail (Chapter 9); we'll start with the simplest
kind of boundary layec~that over a flat pJate,--and learn that just as we.have a Reynolds number for the
overall external flow that indicates the relative.significance of·viscous forces, there will also be a bound-
ary:.layer,Reynolds number Rex= pUoo~/µ:where i,n this case the cbiµ-acteristic velocity U,,, is lhe veloc,--
ity immediately outside the boundary layer and the ch~acterisLjc length xis the.distan_c e along the plate.
E{e0,ce, at t;J:ie leadip.g edge of Jbe p]ate Rex= 0, and at the;; end_of J! plate of -length L, it will be
R¢-.,=pUooL/J,. Th_e significJmc.e. 9f this Reynolds m1ml;>er: is illat (as.we'll learn) the. boundary layer
will belam.inarfod~ex~5 x .JO5 .and,turbulent foda.rgec v.alues:--AbolindatyJayerwill.start out laminar,
and if thi:. plate is long enough the boundary layer will transition to become turbuient
2.7 Summary and Useful Equations 39
I~ is clear by now that computing a Reynolds. riumbet is ofteit very infonnative for both internal and
external flows. We wiU discuss this and other important dimensionless groups (such as the Mach num-
ber) in. Chapter 7.
The internal flow through fluid machines is considered in Chapter lO. The principle of angular
momentum is applied to develop fundamental equations for fluid machines. Pumps, fans, blowers, com-
pressors, and propellers that adcl energy to fluid streams are considered, as are turbines and windmills
that .extract energy. The chapter features detftiled discussion of operation of fluid systems.
The internal flow of liquids in which the duct does not flow full-where there is a free surface sub-
ject to a constant pressure-is termed open-channel flow. Common examples of open-channel flow
include flow in rivers, irrigation ditches, and aqueducts. Open-channel flow will be treated in Chapter 11 .
Both internal and external flows can be compressible or incompressible. Compressible tiows can be
divided into subsonic and supersonic regimes. We wiU study compressible flows in·Chapters 12 and· 13
and see among other things that supersonic flows (M > l) will behave very differently tha:n s11bson_ic
]lows (M< I). For example, supersonic fiows. can experience." oblique and pQa;i)aj shoc!q;, and c,an ,µso·
i?¢li~ve iRil ¢o_µnJ¢rintJ.Litive wa.y--e.g,, a supersonic rroµle(a t!~vice to _acce1¢rat~ a flow) must be·divet~
gent (~.e., it has increasing cross-sectional area) in the direction of flow! We note here also that in a
·s ubsonic ·n·o zzle (which hns a convergent cross-sectional area), the pressure of the flow at the exit plane
will always be the ambient pressure; for a s onic flow. the exit pressure can be higher than ambient; and
fQr a: !lu·p ersonic flow the eiit pressure can be greater than, equal to, or less .than the ambient pressµre!
2. 7 Summary and Useful Equations

In this cha·pterwe have completed·oor-revie w ofsorne ofthe fundamental concepts we will utilize
in our study of fluid mechanics. Some of thes¢ ar¢:,
✓ How to desqil:>e flows (tii:nelines, pa:t hlines, streamlines, streaklines).
✓ Forces (surface, body)and stresses (st:i~ar, nPrmal).
✓ Types .of flLiids(NeJNtonian, ii.on-Newtcm,i_cin-. dlfatant; pseudoplastic, thixotropic, rheopectic,
B_ingham plastic) and viscosity {kinematic; c,lyrialTlk; apparent),
✓ Types of flow (.viscot,Js/invig;id, l_a minar/torbulent, compressible/incom pressible, internal/
external).
We a_lso l;>riefly discussed some interes_ting phenomena, such as surface tension, boundary layers,
wakes, and streamlining. Fjna(!y, w_e introduced two very useful dimensionless groups-the Rey~
nolc;fs number and the Mach number.
NQte: Most of the equations in the table below have a m.irriber of constraints or limitations-be sure to
refer to rlzeir page numbers fo.r detqils!
Useful Equations ..
-
Definition of SG=_f!_ (2.3) Page l9
specifjc wvicy: /?H-,0
Definition·of mg_ ..
.specific weight:
r= ,v-·
• r=Pg
(2.4) Page 19
D¢p.riitjon of dy) ~ Q(x,y) (2.8) Page24

stteatil.lfoes (2D): dx s!fC'imliri_c ~ u(x,y)
-
J;)efoution of
patl-)Iirtes (2D):
dx)
d ·_ · = u(x,y,_r) dy)
,t =u(x,y,t)
(2.9) Paie25
t p:uti~!c t particle
Definition t:>! Xst~tinc(to) =x(r,xo,Yo,tq) Ystialklinc(to) =y(t,Xo,Yo,to) (2. 10) Page25

stre.akfuies ('.~D):
N~wton's law .of du (2.15) Page28
v.is~osit:y (ID flo',\i): -r;,,.=µd
. y
- .. -·
Sh'e,ar stress for a ... klduln-l ,du d1{ (2.17)" :p~ge,31
non-:Newro.nian -r ;, = · - -=q-
>' dy dy dy
fluid (1D flow):
-
40 chapter 2 Fundame ntal Concepts
1. Vincenli, W. G .• and C. a. Kruger Jr., Inirbducricm 10 Physical

Gas Dynamic.~. New York: Wiley,. 1965. 5- Loh, W . H. T .• "Theory oflh_e Hydraulic Analogy forSleady
and Unsleady yas Dynnmics," in Modem Peve/opmell ls it.1 Gqs
2. Merzkirch, W .• Flow Vis11aliza1ion, 2nd.ed. New York: Aca- Dynamics, W . H. T. Loh, ed. New York: Plenum,. 1969.
demic Press. 1987.
6. Folsom, R. G,. .. Manomeler Errors Due lo Capillarity, /nstnt-
3 . Tanner, R. I.. Engineering Rheology. Oxford: Clarendon ments, 9, I, 1937, pp. 36-37.
Press, 1985.
7- Wa_ugh, J. G ., and G. W. Stubstad, Hydroballis tics.Moc/elin g.
4. Mn<;osko, C W., Rheology; Pri'.'ciples, Measureme nts, and San Diego: Naval Undersea Cenler, ca. 1972.
Application s. New York: VC!i Pubhsh\:rs, 1994.
Velocity Field ~ lhe d~ens.ions of .t his velocily fieJd'? Does lhis vclocicy fie.Id
2 . 1 For the velocity fields given below. determine: satisfy appropriate_physical boun_dacy _c onditions? Whal ore they?
(a) whether lhe flow field is one-. two-. or lhree.:c!ime ilsional, 2 .4 F:oi: th.e v:e.lociLy :field v ==A\. yi +BJO;!.} ; wbci:e A =2·m- s-J Q
2 2
and why. and B= I m~ 2 s- 1• and the coordinates ore
measured in meters,
(b) whether the flow is su~ac!y or unsteady, and why. obtain an equation for.the flow streamlines . Plol sevei:nl strem'nlines
(Th~ qu~tities a on~ ·b are constants.} in the first quad~µt;
2 ,5 A fluid_flow. hos _lhe.Jo_llQWing-veloc;i~y c;oi;npcm.enlS; ,1i,;;;'1, Q1/s:
V ='= [(ax+r)e"'"Ji and -u =!:a.ri1/s. Find. ail equation.-'for and ikeld1 Ifie sire:millnes- ;iif
this flow. · ·· · · · · -· · · ·· --·· ·· - ·. -..·.~----~·
2 V =(ax-by)i
V =axi + (e"'l} 2.~ When an <inc.ompressii:iie, •n·onv.iscous tfmdc,'.l}l?,is :~gair\st a
3
4
5
V = axl+ b:r'-]+ axk
V =axt+ [eb•lJ
t;:~!:~.~~::l~t~i::;;;;~t:!~l'l!!1:!;;!
poim .o. where UI~ OC!W dh•ici;es;lli],c(,di~-lQc;~ yei~it:S, is zero. Pipl the
streamlines in lhe flow.
V =.axi-+ bA2} + ayk ·
6
7 V =axi+(etn]]+ayk )'
8 V =a.Ti+ [eb-'"]] + azk

2.2 For the velocity fields given below, determine: . _ .
(a). wh¢ther the flow field is one-, two-. or three-d1men s1onol,
ood why.
-(b) wb~th~r lhe flow is steady or unsteady. and why.
(The quantities a and b arc c;oosuuus,) liii---iiiiili iiiiiil..iiiii iiiiiiill--iii iiiii • .T
0
'V :: (ay2e-b1]i P2.6
2 v =fL~i+b.~+ck ·_-;2..7 For '11!f!fr.ee vortex flow the velocities ore u,=5/r3Ild
Msume that lengths are in feel or meters and times :iJ:e·in·secon ds.
u,=O.
3 V= d.tj.l'-byt} Plot the slreamlines of this flow. How does the vel9~iJ:y \'ary wi_th
dlstance from lhe.origin? Whal is lhe velocity at the origin (0,0)?
4 ii =~r:i--'by}+c;rk
2.8 For the forced vorte,--c flow the velocities.are u, =wr 3Ild. u,:;:: 0 .
5 v =(ae-t-..Jf+br2j Pl~t the streamlines of lhis flow. How does the.velocity vary with
.distance from lhe c;,rigin? What is the vel~ity al the origin (0,0)?·
6V =a(:c2+y2) 112(1/z3)k
2~~ ;.. velocity field is specified as V =a.\)'i+b>;!.J,
where a = _Q
1 V,;: (ax+t)i-b /]· 2m·- 1s- 1, b=-6m- 1s- 1• and the· coordinates are measured 'i n
8 V =a.ri+ b~+cyk meters. Is the flow field one;., lW0-, or three-dimensi·oil'D.l? Why?
Calculate the velocity compo11ents at the point (2, 1/2). Develop .an
2.3 A viscous.liquid is sh~d ~ tween lWQ. P~~l disks; the upper
equatii>Ii. for the stieanµirie passing through ctiis_poinL Plot several
disk rotates and the lower obe,is fixed. The velocny-~eldJ,e.~w.ee~ !he
streauilines in lhe first quadrant including the cine that passes thrm1gh
·,disks is.givett by V = eor(l)z/lj. (The Qrigin ofc;.Q ordinates,1slocaWbted
the _p Qint (2; 1/2},
·:ill•jbs~nll!r oflhelower disk;-the·up
· . . 18-r9-C.
per disk" · atedal--11 ) · ' · al·
- -· ·. -~- · -~-·
Problems 41
2.10 A velocity field is g:ivcn by V =cu3 l+b.\ y }. where 1.5 s. Comp·are this pathline with tlte stream.lines plotted tltrough
2
CJ = I m- s- 1 and b= I m- 3 s- 1 • Find the equation of the stream-
the same point at the ins tants r = 0, I . and 1.5 s.
lines. Plot several streamlines in the first quadrant. 2.20 Cons ~er tit': flow _field given in Eulerian description by the Q
e xpression V =axi+bytj. where a=0.2s- 1• b=0.04s- 2 , ancl the
2.11 The velocity for a steady, incompressible now m the .\y plane is
coordinates are measured in meten;. Derive tlte Lagrangian position
given PY V =iA/:r+}Ay /.i1. where A =2 m 2 / s. and the coordinates
functions for tlte fluid particle that was located at the point
are measured in mete rs. Obtain an equation for the streamline that
passes through the point (x.y) = (I, 3 ) . Calculate the time required
=
(:r,y) = (I.I) at tlte instant r 0. Obtrun an algebraic expression
for the path line followed by this particle. Plot tlte pathline and· com~
=
for a fluid pruticle to move from :r= I m to x 2 min this flow field.
pare witlt the streamlines plotted tltrough tlte same point at the
_Q 2 . 12 TI1e flow field for an atmospheric flow is given by instants t = 0. 10. and 20 s.
2.21 A velocity field is given by V -=axti-by}, where A =0. 1 s-2 Q
=
and b I s- 1 • For the parti(:le that passes tltrough the poili-t
=
(:r,y) (I, I) at instant r = 0 s , plol the path line during tlte interval
from r = 0 10 r = ~ s. Compare with the streamlines plotted through
=
where K 105 m 2 /s. and the x an(! y coordinntes are parallel to die the same point at the instants 1 = o. r, and 2 s.
locnl latitude -and longicude. Plcit the velocity magnitude along th·e
;-r.axis, along they-axis, and alongthe liney=x, and discuss the veloc- 2.22 Cons ider the gatden hose of Fig. 25. Suppose the velociry·peJd Q
ity direction with respect to these three axes . F or each plot us·e a·range is given by V =11oi+ u0 sin(m(r-x/uo)Jl, where the-.xdii'ection is hor-
:c or y = -1 km to 1 km, excluding lxl or IYI < 100.m . Find I.be equa- izonro.l and tlte origin is ar the mean position of the hose, uo-= I0'lll/S.
tioi:i for the stre;unlines ~_d sketch several of them . What .does this u0 =2 m/s, and "'=5cycle/ s .-Find and plot on one graph-the instan~
.flow field model? raneous stream.lines tltat pass through tlte oiigin -ar t=0 s, Q.05 ·s,
0.1 s, and 0.1.5 s. Also. find and plot on one' grapl;l the ~ .es of
2.13 For the velocity fie!~ V =Axi-Ay}.where A=2s- 1• which
particles tltat lef:c tlte origin ~t tlte same four times.
can be. interpreted to represent flow in a comer. s how I.bat the para-
melric equations for pai:ticle_motion ¥C given by Xp = c, !?'' ' and 2.23 Consider the·velocity field of Problem-2.18. Plot the streakline Q.
Yp = ci-e-' 1'. Obtain the equation· for the pathli_
formed by particles tltat passed through tlte point (l, I) durin_g the
n e of the partic;le
located at the point (x,y)=(2,2) at the instanu,=0. Comp.are this interval from I = 0 to I= 3 s. Compare with tlte stre~lin:es plotted.
through tlte same point at the instants r=O, l, and 2 s.
path line with the streamline-through the same point.
2 . 14 A velocity field in pol¥ coorrlinau~s is g iven with the radial 2.24 Streaklines are traced out by neutrally buoyant llllllkei;.. llgid •
=
veloci\y as V, -A/rand the tangentfa.l velocity,as Vo = ~1/r, where inj~cted in~o a flow field from a futed point in space. A partjd~ o_f
the marker fluid that is at point .(x,y) at. time c 111usr baye passed
r is in meters andA=JQm2 • Plot the. streamlines passing through
tlu; location.0 = 0 for r ,= 1 m, 2 m; and 3 m. What does the .flow field
through the injection point (:c0 ;y0 ) at some earlier instant 1=_-r.
~odel ? -. - The time history of a marker particle may be found by solving the
palbline equations for the initial .conditions that x=xo, y= Yo when
2. 1 5 The flow of air near the Earth'.s surface is affected both by the r = r. The present locations of particles on the streakline are obtained
wind and thermal currents. In certain circums tances tlte -v elocity.field by setting r equal to values in the range Os-.- 5'.t. Consider the :Dow
can be represented by ii =ai +b(l-f,)}for y<h and by V =ai for field V=ax(l+br)i+ cy}. where a=c=ls- 1 and b=0.2s- 1 •
y> t,_ Plot the streamlines, for tlte flow for
b/a =0..0~. 0.L, and J. Coordinates nre measured in meters. Plot the stre;ikliµe tbat· passes
Q 2.16 A velocity field is given by V =ayti~bxj. where a= I s ~ 2 -and through tlte initial point (xo,Yo)=(l.l), durin-g the in~i:\i;tl from
b=4 s- 1 • Find the equation· of the streamlines at any· timer. Plot c = 0 to r = 3 s. Compare with the streamline plocted through the saxn~
seve·ra1 stream.lines at t-=0 s, /·= 1 s, and r = 20 s . point at.the instants , = 0. l, and ·2 s. -·
g 2.17 Air·flows downwatd toward iui-i~nitely ~ide honzontaf flat 2.25 Consider the Dow field V =a:cri+b}, where a= I/4's_- ~}U~9 Q
pljite. The velocify field is given by V =(axi~ a)i)(2+c9sm1), b = l /3 m/s. Coordina tes are measured in im;ters. For the particle ·
where a= 5 s- 1 , ·a,= 2tr s- 1, x arid y (measun;:ci in meters) are hori- that passes through the point (x,y) = (l. 2) at th'e irls~t ( ,.;:()';
zontal and vertically upward, respectively, and (. is, i_n s .· Obtain an plot tlte pathline during the ti.Die interval.from r=O: to 3 s. Compare
algebraic equation. for a streilinline au= 0. Plot the·streamline I.bat this palbline. with• the st;reakline through the same po.int ~ Jbe
passes through poin·t (x,y) = (3, 3) ·at this instariL ·wm the -streamline =
instant r 3 s.
change with time? Explain briefly. Sho,v the·veiocity vectoton your
pior-ut the saine point ilnd time. ls tlte velocity vector tangent to the
2.26 A flow i.s d_es<:ribed by velodty field Y =ar-I+b]; where
a= l m- 1 s- 1 and b = 2 m/s. Coordinates are m~u,:ed: in .n:ie.te:ts.
·st:rerunlinc? Explain.
0.btain the equatiO!l for the streamllI!e passing through pp~t .((;,,JD-
g ·2.18 ¢on.:'ider ~tlte _flow described by the velo<;:ity fie.Id V= Att = l s. what are the s;o.ordinates of the particle that passed-tliroiiglj
Bx(L+At)i+C>i, with A =0.5 s- 1 and B=C= l s - 1 • Coordinates point (I, 4) at r = 0? At r = 3 s, what are the·co.o rdinates_c;,fthe p~c:1¢
l!CC measured in meters. Plot tlte pathline traced out by the pniticle that that passed through point (-3,0) 2 s e.µ:lier? Show that patp.llij~,
·pas$es tltrough the p•oint (I, I) at time 1 = 0. Compare with the stream- srre~cs. and s trenklines for this. flow coihcicl_e.
=
iines·· ploued through tlte same point al the instants r o. l ; arid 2 s . 2.27 Tiny hy~geQ bubbles are being useo as a:ac;eis rq vis11111i:?~ _Q
.Q :u.9 C QQSider the v~l5)Cit)' fielc:1 v = axi + by ( 1 + <;l )]. where a flow. All the bubbles ~ generatecl :it the prigin: (x = ,0 .j,=="9),
a==b=2s-• and c=0.4s- 1 • Coordinates .are measured in meters. The velecity field is unsteac_ly_atiit obeys the eq~tig~:
F9r. ~1e· p~tticl~ 1J10t passes tJuougi1 the poin~ (.~;),) ::; ( I, I) a t th.e u=lIJ)./s u=.2m/s ,0.:SJ~c2 .$..
instant , = 0, plot the pathline during the interval (rom r = 0 to u=0 u=..:..l m/s O::,;t.:S.:4s
Plot the palhlines of bubbles that le.a ve the origin at r = 0, I, 2. 3. and

4 s. Mark !he locations of these five t>Ubbles at t =4 s. Use a dashed bTl/2
line to indicate !he position of a streakline at r = 4 s. }I
1 +S/T
=
2.28 A now is described by velocity field V ai + b.yj, where
a== 2 m/s and b = I s- 1 • Coordinates are measured in meters. (where T is in kelvin) and obtain values for constants b and S.
2 ·34 11,e velocity distribution for laminar flow between parallel
Obtain the equation for the slreamline passing through point
(2, 5). At r= 2 s. what are the coordinates of the particle that plates is given by
passed lhrough point (0, 4) al r =O'> At r =3 s. what are the coordi-
nates of the particle that passed through point (I, 4 .25) 2 s earlier?
What conclusions can you draw about tl,e pathline, slreamline, and
u =1- -
--
Uma.'<
(2y)Ji
2
streakline for !his flow"

Q 2.29 A now 1s described by velocity field V = ayi + br}, where W~lere Ir is tlle distance separating the plates and the origin is placed
a=0.2s- 1 and b=0.4m/s2 • At t=2s. what are the coordinates midway betwe.en tl,e plates. Consider a flow of wmer at !5°C, with
11
of the particle that pl!Ssed ilirough point (1. 2) at , = O? At r = 3 s, rruu=O.JOm/s and lr=O.I mm. Calculate the shear stress on t11e
what are the coordinates of the particle tl,at passed tl1rough poi,u upper plate and give its direction. Sketch the variation of shear stress
{I, 2) at , = 2 s'> Plot the patl1line and streakline tlirough point across the channel.
(I. 2). and plot the srreamlincs through the same point at tl1e instanlS 2.35 What .is the ratio between tl1e viscosities of air and water at
t=0. I. 2, and 3 s. I0°C? What is .the ratio between their kinematic viscosities at this
Q 2.30 A now is described by velocity field V =ad+ b]. where temperature and standard barometric pressure?
a= 0.4m/s2 and b=2 m/s. At r =2 s, what are the coordinates of 2.36 Calculate velocity gradients and shear stress for y=0. 0.2,
=
the particle that passed through point (2. I) at r O? At , = 3 s, what ?.4· =d 0.6 m, if tlle velocity profile is a qunner-circle havUJg
w:e the coordinates of the particle tllat passed through point (2, 1) at its center 0.6 m from tlle boundary. The fluid viscosity is
r = 2 s? Plot the path line and streakline tllrough point (2. I) and com- 7.5x 10-~ Ns/m2 •
pare with the streamlines tl1rough tlle s_ame point at the instanlS r = o.
l.nnd2s.
Viscosity
Q 2.31 The variation wit~ temperature o_f the visc~sity of air is repre-
sented well by the empincal Sutherland correlauon
2.37A very large tllin plate is centered in a gapofwidlh 0.06 m witll
bTl/2 different oils of unknown viscosities above and below; one viscosity
is lwice me oilier. When tlle plate is pulled at a velocity of 0.3 m/s.
JI= 1+S/T
tlle resulting force on one squnre meter of plate due to the viscous
Best-fit ,·alues of band Sare given in Appendix A. Develop an equa- shear on botll side's is 29 N. Assuming ,•iscous now and neglecting
ti~n in SJ uniLS for kinematic viscosity versus temperature for air at all end effects,.calculate the viscosities of the oils.
atmosp]:leric pressure. Assume ideal gas behavior. Check by using 2.38 A female freestyle ice skater. weighing JOO lbf, glides on one
the equation to compute tlle kinematic viscosity of .air at o•c and skate nt speed V = 10 ft/s. Her weighl is supported by a thin film of
at l00°C and comparing to the data in Appendix A (Table A. IO); plot liquid water melted from the ice by tl1e pressure of the skate blade.
the kinematic viscosity for a temperature range of 0°C to I 00°C. Assume the blade is L= 11.5 in. long and w=0.125 in. wide, and
using the equation and the data in Table A.JO. tl1at the water film is /r = 0.0000575 in. thick. Estimate the decelera-
2.32 The variation with temperature of the viscpsity of :µr is corre- tion of tlle ska1er that results from viscous shenc in the water film. if
la1ed well by the empirical Sutller!and equation end effects are neglected.
2.39 A block of mass 10 kg and measuring 250 mm on each edge
bT112 is pulled up an inclined surface on which there is a film of SAE
µ= 1 +S/T !OW-30 oil at 30~F (the oil film is 0.025 mm thick). Find the steady
Best-fit values of b and S are given in Appendix A for use ~itll ~I speed .o f the block.if itis released. If a force of75 N is applied to pull
units. Use these values to develop an equation for calculaung air tlle block up the incline, find the steady speed of tl1e block. If the
viscosity in British Gravitational units as a functio~ of absolute force is now applied 10 push tl1e block down the incline, find the
temperat~ in de~es Rankine. Check your result usmg data from steady speed of tlle block. Assume the velocity distribution in
tlle oil film is linear. The surface is inclined al an angle of 30Q from
Appendix A.
tlle horizontal.
Q 2.33 S.o.r:ne e,c:periment.tl data for the viscosity of helium at I atm are
2.40 A 73,mm-diameter aluminum (SG = 2.64) piston of 100-mm
T,•C Q lOQ 200 300 400 lengtll resides in a st;niomuy 75~mm-inner-diameler ste"I tube lined
with. SAE IOW-30 oil at 25QC. A mass m=2kg is suspended from
µ,~ •s/m.?('>f..llh 1.~6 ·~;;31 '.i,.Ti. 3.1 l 3.46
the free end of the piston. The piston is set into motion by cutting a
support cord. What is the terminal velocity ofmnss m? Assume a lin-
Using the appro.ach described in Appendix A.3, correlate tllese data
ear velocity profile within the oil.
to the empirical Sutherland equation
Problems 43
after 0.1 s . If we want the mass to instead reach a s ~ ·o f

0.3 m/s at this time, find the viscosity µ of the oil we would have
to use.
I r 2.47 A torque of 4 N - m is required to rotate the intennedi;ne
1 cylinder at 30 r /min. Calculate the viscosity of the oil. All cylinders
"L
- - - - Piston
•< are 450 mm long. Neglect end effects.
I
·1
I Oil mm
I
• I
; J
j Tube
0 ~003 m
·--'--+--'-" 0 . 15 m R
!v
P2,40, P2;44
2.41 A verticnl gap. 25 mm wide of infinite extent contains oi.1

P2.47
of specific gravity 0.95 arid viscosity 2.4 Pa-s. A metal plate
1.5 m x 1.5 m x 1.6 mm weighing 45 ·N is to be lifted through ·1he 2.48 A circular disk of diameter d is slowly rotated in a liquid of
large viscosityµ, at a small distance h from a fixed surface. Derive
gap at a constant speed of0.06·m/s. Estimate the force required.
an expression for the torque T necessary to maintain an ang1,1l;ir
2,42 A cylinder 8 in. in diameter and 3 ft long is concentric with a velocity w. Neglect centrifugal effects.
pipe of 8.25 in. i.d. Between cylinder and pipe there is an .o il film.
What force is required to move the cylinder along the pipe at a 2.49 The fluid drive shown transnii_ts a torque T for s~dy-
constant velocity of 3 fps? The kinematic viscosity of the oil is state conditions (w 1 and Ct'2 constant). Derive an expression fot
the slip (w 1 -w2 ) in terms of T, µ. d; and h . I:or valµes 4= 6 in,.,
0.006 ft2 /s: the specific gniviLy is 0.92.
/r=0_.2in., SAE 30 oil at 75°F, a shaft rotation of 120 rpm. and a
2.43 Crude 9il at 20°C fills the space betweeinwo concentric cylin- torque c:,f 0.003 f!;-lbf. determine the slip.
ders 250 mm high 11.nd·with diameters of 150 mm and 156 mm. What
torque is required to rotate the inner cylir!der,at 12 r /min, the outet
cylinder remaining .stationary? Fluidµ
2.44 The piston in Problem 2.40 is traveling.at terminal speed. The ,Driver D'riven ·
mass m now disconnects from the piston. Plot the piston speed vs. d
time. How long does it take the piston to come within l percent of
its · new terminal speed?
__L ,
P2.49
Q. 2.45 _A block of mass M slides on ri thin film qfoil. The film thick-
ness is II and the area of the block isA_. Wheq released. mass m exerts 2.50 A block that is a mm. squ.are·,slides across a flat plate_on a
tension on the cord, ca_u sing. the··b lock to accelerate. Neglect friction thin film of oil. Toe oil bas viscosity µ and ·the film· is h mrn thick.
in the pulley and afr resistance. I;)eveJop an algebraic .expression for The.block of m!!,\is /Jlf moves at seemly speed ·U under the influenCI!
the Niscous force that acts on the:blockwhen it moves a,_t speed V. of constant force F. Indicate· the ma~tude and direc!-ion ·of the
Derive a differential ·eqlii11iori for the block speed as a function ·of shear stresses on the bonom of the block and the:: plate.. If the fo~
time. Obtain ail expression for, the·block speed as a .function of Lime. is removed suddenly and the block begin$ to slow, sketch the.
I:§@~
The mass/VI =5 kg, in·= I kg_;A=25 cm2 , and,/1-=0.5.mrtL Ifittajces ing speed versus time curve fur theblock: Obpnn an expression
i s for th'e speed to reach J m/s, fi.nd the oil.viscosityµ. Plotthecuzye for the time required fol' tb~ b19ck to lose. 95 peice11t· of i~ iiµ:..
for V(1). tiril speed.
2.5_1 In afood:.;processing plant,.honey,is pum~d through an ;µinuiar
Block~
tube. The tube is-L = 2 cil.lolig; witliinrier,and o.uter: radii 6fR; =Sriim
,'vi and R 0 ==25 mm, resp~tively. The applied press_ure difference is
Ap.= 12,5 kPa, and the honey viscosity isµ =:5 N-s/m2 • The tbeoretc-
ical v~ocity profile for laminar flow thrP!lgh·.an annulus is;
I, Oil film
(viscosity,µ>
Q 2 ;46 A blc,ck O.lm squ~, with 5 kg mass, slides down_a smooth

i.qdine; 30° below the honzontal, on a film of SAE 30·oil at 20°C Show that the no-slip condition is satis_fied by this e,cpre~sion. F:m9,
that-is·0.20mm thick. !ft.lie block is released from rest at t=O, what the location at which the sliear s.~ s is zero; Find the viscous.foroeis
ides:initial accelel1!tion? I'.>erive an expression for. the speed of the acting on the inner and outer slirfnc_e s, and cqmpare these ~o t,he fcu:¢ '
bio·ckri~ a funi:lion ciftime. Plot the curve forV(t). F'i,nd the speed Ap1r(R~ ~R'f). Explajn.
44 chapter 2 Fundam~m:~I c~nc;~p~
th_ickness~ ore .I( 1-= 0 .5 mm and Ii? :::;: 0_;3 riun_; re~ctively. FmQ
~e.fon:e F to make··i he :upper phile move at a s·peecLof I m/s: Whet
1s Lhe fluid velocity :it the interface -bet:ween. the t\vo fluid~?
F,V
·p2·;·5_1
,,,
2.52:SAE IOW-30oil•a t JQO~C ispuinpecl through a tube L= 10 m
)orig, dinm1;1¢r D=-1.Q-mm. 'Illi¢..applied pressure difference is
l!.p-a;:5·'~il: Oil j.he centerline or-the lube is !I.metal filament of diMi-
'et~r d -= 1 Jim, The thecireticlil ·v elocity profile for Jnminnt flow
~~-~~ . .
2 •57 A c·o9¢..e,nuji: ~ylindei:- visc;qrni;ter m_~y .be fortn~d by 'rQµitiQ&.
tlJe •~i:ien ne~Qer- of n pliir of closely. fitµng cylinders. Th~ 1µ1nu.J;iµ-
gap IS. sfuaU S() !h*
a liri~ iµ- velRci!Y profile· will exist in the liquid
,. . i·
(l!.p)·
V(r) == i(iµ C d
[ 2 D7- -d
.,
~4r ~ Iq
(2r)]
1
(!},~ d snn,ple. C:9nsider n visc;9m1:ter wit_ti nn i'nner cylinde~ of4 in• .dinm-,.
et~r and 8 in. height; arid o:-clearniii:~·giip width t>f0.001 in,, fil.led -
~v1th CllSl~r oil at:9Q~F; I?eiennme -the· ti:>t'que requ~cj to tiim' itj~.
mner. cylinder at 400•rprti; · · ·
-Snow·th:litllieiio-slip ceindiiion is satisfied by thls expression . Ffnd
't h~:!o~tion.i f:W(iich\li.~.s lie!!l's~s-i s zen:;,, !!lld the SO'CSS on th~·tube
and 00;tife.fillimenL Plo.r tlic -velocity di.slriblitfoii and the stre'ss-dis-
tiil>utioii': (Fot t,lie s(#ss curv~ set an upper limit on stress of? Pa)
Disc~ss. th.e ~)ts;
~i5.3 'fl!e)ubrici_mt hl)5,.a ~~emntic viscosity of 2.8 x 10-s m2 /s and
specific gravity of 0,92,. If-ihe mean velocjty of the piston i.J.·6._m/s,
,ippn:;>:itjr!l.1!1¢Ly Wlia.iji; th~ power gissjpµtlld in liictjon'?
/ Lubricant
,~--E ii : ; 'U,,{ ::
1:,<-_3 P0 mm---=----i
P2.57' P2·, S.~
'2,S'f!-A c911<;enltji: cyljniJ.e.t visqorn~ter is.cjriven·by.·n,falling mnss-M

cOilllecteci-by a-c_orci. and puliey to. the-.iniler cylinder; as shown. The
1'.:z.53
liquid to b¢=ieljt#l,f.i)Js._the,1UUJularg;ip'Qf ,vidlh a -and heightH. After:
~•5-.4.Qaji.;aj~te the ,npprc:>iµp,_~ ~ V:i.scgsjtr of the .o il. a-brief stµI:ting transient, the.mnss.ful.ls nt·constnnt-speed V;,,. Develop
nn-ajgel;iqu c exp¢ssioir fot the :v iscosity of the.liquid i11 the· device
jn !f:rms.of.M , .g. V.,.., r ; R. a ; and if. evaluate the· viscosity . of the
liqilid. using: ··
M=. 9~10 k;g. r ·= 2~.mm
.,n=-=.:5Q•mm· a'= 0.20,rijni
P-~-~4 }I. = ·8() l'!lfl Y:m.:=: ~!hrn'!ls
·::.:iu.~!~J=:~«i~ipilite :powe_r-lost•in fitctjpn in ® •sfiip -~~5.9 A ~h_nft wftli c;>,!,iJ:side di~ecer of l·S. mm tums;it.20:~ vgJµtioos
.pet second .inside :n ·stationary jourtuil beiirint ~O miµ long. -A lhi~
:film.ofQil 0.7 m,m·cpickfi lls. i.h_e copc;entric nnn1,1lusbetweeil the shn(t
~dJo~al. The:totque (!~e_(fe~ t_o .liJtµ th~_shim.is Q.Q036 N - m. ~ti~
~l!te the;. viscosiiy•o f ti1e oil that rtlfs the ~ap.
2060 A shock;free co1,1pling for~ tow-pC>\YC'lr mech@ir,:al drivi;: is to
~ i.!:ll:a.de from a ·•pair oLc.oncent tic 1':Y,lind,e~. Th¢. li(lnulnr space
be_cw.e~~th~c;y!Ji:i~fa~~s tct JJef!U~4-wJ~h,o,iL. Tile drivem.u st lnlnsmit
p:o_
\\,;~; ,(!}>~ 10w: 6ih.er-,ditj)~~i9il s. 11J1Q.P.JO.Ptffit;_s _are, Bl! .S PQ.Wn.
~ ~_gl~.l#!..ni1Y QeW;ingif6c ti9n;;and~enci effects, Assum¢ t,h~ l;I!inii:nuro
ptactici~tgift:>.·£l~ii.i-aji_¢~ :iH..c:>.nA~·deviii~i s Q:=U'. ZS,mm..Dow manu'-
facttii:es sili¢o,;i¢ .O(li~ 'IV!~ ~v~cositi~ :1$ i-ii~ii as 106 ce ntipoise.
P'roblem~ 45
.Dc.ti;r:]hlm~•the v.iscosity lhnt should-be specificd,to sntisfy the requ1te- the ,vlilue of k and n. in-Eq. 2, 17• and from this examine ·the.aph:9ri$..qr
inenr.for ·lhis·device. "Bloocl is thickel' lhl111 wa!~r:·
/ ' !!J' = 10 W .d~(;I,j'(s= 1~ 5· TO 25 50 100 ''.foo 300 400

~·(Fa) :tto;(s:¥ ·0.1,19 0.24 1 0.3.75 0 .934 1.06 1.46 I 78
2~64-A concentric-cylinder viscometer is shown, Visc<>us ·1cirqtiei s-
produeed by the·=annu_lar .gap around the-:inner cylinder; A~!'ii!ion~
viscous torque is produced by the flat bouom dnhe inner cyttndtj'
:. ·•t_.· as .it rotates above the' fl1>t' bouom of !,he: stationaxy ·011.t ~=cyliild~.-
Qptain, ah nlgeprajc. exp~~ieii;i {or; (QC' vis~Ol,IS ~fgl).~ ~-~~itp flow
-'=c6:·,;; Gap cle.aran~e i.lJ .ihe annular gnp,.Of width; (,J. Qptain, !lll i!,lgebrafo expressiQn fo.r
:pi;~tj tJ:ic; Vil,!CQIIS 101'.C)!,JCdil,eto flow iil .thel'>pitorn de~i;egap Of~gljl
. . . .
b. Prepare-a plot showing the ratio, !;,/a~ require<I· to. hoid -lhe b;ottom:
2 ; ~1 A .pi:i;,pos.;il ~~ ,bt;:~I), ll!D9~ tp,, JJSe n; P.!lir. of.p~)~I d_is~ 19
iorque to I_pe~e* o.r less of:the !iil~tilus iimiue, v_eisµs lhe'.oth.c;r g~
measure .the..v.iscosity:.of a,licjuid .s~ple. The. upper. disk .ro.tmes at
0
metric•variables·. What are the·design implieaboiis1 What mo4ifiea:=

h:eighJ ~! _'}P9Ve, th~ low.er .d is~ 11:i_e; ".'iS~$:~~ity: qf ~~ !iq!,licl, iii Jli~
9011S IQ., !1Je ~esign 'cari·you [.e~O!iii-n~_ nq?
~a~ is.. to be~calcullited from. measurements. of\ he torque. neede4 IQ
fud} .!fie lclP.~r clisk:~t~di.,lx- :99W,in @ , _
nlg~gr'aj~ ~t.P~s.JQ'ri for•tti~
~f>"9',!,C,n~.ded.Jo llll11 lhe,disk.-.Cpuld-we· use 't his device. to me~µ~-
·r
ilie"Vlscdsio/ of a .non-New'!ori!tin fliiid? ~x.pJajii,
R- -p
L t=::::=::;;:t=::=:;;::=-=i
::; --71·-,
b
= J~
Q 2 :The ,cq_ri¢ w;i_d ::pinJ~ yis~opt,!ljer·s.hown .i.s..an.insiniment used

2 -,.~ 2.65- Design "a. coocenttic-cyliiidet ·'vis'i;omerer- :tq . mea:stire' ·the
fi;¢9P~.n ~y _r:o c!Jµ.qictetjz¢ •noriA1le\V(oi'limf fhiids. J t consists -of a ha'c ~cosity ·o f a liqµjd siµul~ io water~ Th-;;: go~ is to :~~l;ii~ve ,a
~;eti:;~~:~~>;\~
·to.
:!e;l,,lJi:e~::t:;
;!~i~~l~!\~ft!~~-
~ t!·
Dilf,I'. th_eJtq_uip be,tested"fill~.UJ~ taj:i;Q)V, gi:ip,fo_~ed by- the.co_ne.!lfld
measurement accuracy· of ±1 pi;J~~iit S~ify tii~;.c'on:fi~on
and ~i!l!~!!~lO.QS .Q f lb~ v.is~om~ter. Jndicatewpat•~ k ~ ~ ~ ~· ·
will tie used to infer: tl;ie visco~i.cy,.of the liqµid sample.
plate. ·Th¢ visC:qriii;t~ds _used to·mensure t.he.lippili:erir_vjsc:osity ·ofa
2 .i 66 A c¾ss/sectio!l .of. a rotating bearing is ~Jlowr'!. ~e·sph¢rlca]
~i~~f.4ff§t;if~[t~t]J memb!!I' rQtateS' wicb.angu!at"·s_pee4 w •. a smail dlsta:n~. a.-@<>.v,¢,#.:i~

plane surfaif.~:'. :··nie• nOITQw .gap. is fille4 "1ilh. -v ~i;oµs :oii,.:ba.v.iil}t
µ;= 01250:cp:.Obtain ~ algebraic ~xpression, for the•sfi~i~ $'-_
:i:t:tJ:~s::::~~m;;~;~~:~i:~!~==:~~:s~~
i;i,c·t-e
'.~I,J.cc:ci !r ,em) JO 2_0 30 40 50 60 70 sci:
2 irrtim;I.ne<;¢.s~iUilY loc;ared ac the ~ r;u:li1,1s?)'iJevelo_p ~ :.:!11m.c
i CN,·,s~ ) o.q1Q,!~~ 9, l=?.'.3.-..Q.,Q9. J).f.72 9.Jfac9.~J;§;3, :Q,JS~ pr;µc expressitjii (iri th~ f9rm.of 11,n:-integt;tl):tbi: ~eJo~v~ous:sheat
t¢'rq~~;µia~ 11,C,l:; on the·sp!l~ri¢~ membeL ChlcuJateslh~:tt.>!mJ.e .~~g.
-!. me·ditne.iisi9ris shown. ..
.§ . 3,§;f A viscometer ~-·µ_~e«:Uo IIICasute- th~ viscos!~ of ii par;ie1n's

·· - - l'>Ioocl, Th<f..d~('Qqnntion rate (she';µ- race)"'-shear:s ~j i!l.l!l :i.$. shpwn I'--"'-'-_,.,._.:,... . ifo ='~Q;,mi:n·
p~low.,. F!lo.t·. th~ lippiifeni: visc.o:sit:y, v~rsii_s:_ilef~i;mati'o n• rate. f~(i l>~~§:li
surface Tension to cut concrete and other composite materials. Would constant
density be a reasonable assumption for engineering calculations
2 .67 Small gas bubbles fonn in spdn·when n bottle or can is opened.
The a,,crage bubble dinmeter is about 0.1 mm. Estimate 1'te p~!;SUfC for cutting jets?
difference between the inside and outside of suc_h n bubble. 2.7 4 The viscous boundary layer velocity profile shown in Fig. 2.15
2.68 You intend to gently plnce·seven;ll steel needles on the free sur- can be approximated by a cubic equation,
face of the wnr.er in n large tank. The needles come in two lengths:
Some are 5 cm long, and some are IO cm long. Needles of each length u(y) =a+b(i) +c(~"/
are available with diameters of I -mm, 2,5 mm, and 5 mm. Mnke a
prediction as to whicli needles. if any. ,vill flont. =
The boundary condilion is 11 U (lhe free stream veiocily) at the
boundary edge o (where the viscous friction becomes zero). Find
Q 2.69 Accord'.ng 10_Folso_m [6]. the cnpilhiry rise 6/, (i~.) ofa ,~n~er- tl1e values of a. b. and c. ·
air in1er(11c·e m a rube 1s correlated by the following empmcaJ
2 •75 In a food industry process, carbon tetrachloride at 20°C flows
expression:
ll.h =Ae-b·D through a tapered nozzle from an il!-let diameler D;n = 50 mm lo an
outlet diameter of D 0 u, . The atea varies linearly with distance along
where D (in.) is the robe diameter, A =0.400, and b=4.37. You do lite nozzle, ilnd the ex.it area is one-fiftlt of the inlet area: the nozzle
an -~xperiment to measure ll.h versus D and obtain: length is 250 mm. The flow rate is Q =2 L/min. lt is important for tlie
process that the flow exits the nozzle as a tutbulenl flow. "'Does it? ff
-D-(iiJ.) <n 0~ cp 0.4 0;5 0.6 0 .7 0 .8 0 .9 I I.I so, at what point along the nozzle does the flow become turbulent?
~ -(in.) o.:p2 0.183 (i.09_ 0;059 ~-0~ 0.033 0.017 0'.01 0 .006 0 .OOI 0.003 2 -76 What is lite Reynolds number of water a1 :20°c D~wing 9t
0 .25 m/s through a 5-mm-diameter l\!be7 If the pipe. is riow heated;
'Whal are the values of A and b that best fit this data using £,:eel's at what mean water temperature will the flow transition lo turbu-
Treru!line feature? Do they agree with Folsom·s values? How good is lence? Assume lite velocity of the flow remains -constant. -
the data?- 2. 77 A supersonic aircraft travel:, at 2700 km/hr at an :ihiiude of
2. 70 Calculate and plot the·m·axunurrfcapillnry rise of water (20°C) 27 km. Wl1at is the Mach number of the aircraft? Al wtiat'apj;>~~-j~,
to be expected in a vertical" glnss tube as a function of tube diameter mate distance measured from the leading ecjge of the ain:raft'~--wiiig_·
for.diameiers from 0.5 to 2.5 mm, does the boundary layer change from laminar to turbulent? ·-
2. 71 Calc11la1e the mnximum capillary rise of water (20°C) lo 2. 78 SAE 30 oil at 100°C flows through a 12-mm-diametet stain~
be ~peclCQ ~tween two vertical, cl_ean glass plates spaced I mm less-steel tube. What is the specific gravity and specific weight of
apart. the oil? If the oil discharged from the tube fills a 100-mL graduated
2. 72 Ciµculate the II)aximum capillary depression of mercury to be cylinder in 9 seconds, is the flow laminar or turbulent?
expected-in a vertical glass tuoe l mm in diameter at 15.5~C. 2. 79 A seaplane is flying_at 100 m ph through air at 4;i°F. At what
distance from the leading edge of tlie underside of the fuselage does
o,~scr:jptioli and Classification of Fluid Motions the boundary layer 1n111sitj9q 10 lurbul<mce? How docs Lhis b6U:ridruy
layer lrarisition change·as the un·c ierside of the fuselage touches the
Q 2·;73 Water usunlly is assumed to be !n~ompri:5sible when evnluat- water during landing? Assµme the ·water temperature is also 4.5°F.
iilg-static pressure variations. _A ctually 1t JS 100 umes mo~ comp~s-
ible. thai:t .s~l. Asswning the bulk modulus of wate_r 1s constunt, 2.80 An airliner is cruising at an altitu<!e of 5.5 km with a speed
compute the percentage change in density for wa~er raised t<;> a_gage of 700 ~/hr. As the airllifer increases it:s altitude, it adjusts its
sure of JOO aun. Plo_t the percentage change 1D water densuy as s peed· so that the Mach number r«;:~ains constant Provide a sketch
:~~ti~~ -~f p/p~ up. lo a pressure .of 50,0D_O p~i, which is of speed vs. altitude. Wh"aL is the speed of the airliner al an altitu!'.J_e
.tJle approxima~ press~ 1.1sed for higbaspeed cutung JetS of water of 8 km?
CHA P T E R 3
Fluid Statics
3.1 The Basic Equation of Fluid Statics 3.5 Buoyancy a11d St~l;>ility
3.2 The Standard Atmosphere 3.6 Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion (on the Web)
3~3 Pressure Variation in a Static Flui_d 3.7 Summary and Useful Equations
~-4 1;-fydrosta~[c force on Submerged Surfaces
Ca se St udy
>'--~ - .__;,-.'Sc..---~'--- :------ ~
-----·~· ~------ ----
------
. -=>-::::.....-=-
work can thus be done on an electrical generator.
The.two components of the machinery contain elec-
-
~ --.-----._-.....:
~ ---------- ~--::----.--~
._..-~
tronic systems that can be controlled remotely or

Wave Power: Wavebob
self-regulating, and these make the internal mei;:h-
Humans have been interested in tapping the anism automatically react to changing ocean and.
immense power of the ocean for centuries, but with wave conditions by retuning as needed, so that
fossil fuels (oil and gas) becoming depleted, the at all times the maximum amount of energy is
development of ocean energy technology is becom- harvested.
ing important.-Wave power in particular is attractive
to a number of countries with access to a suitable
resource. Geographically and commercially it's
beliiwed the richest wave energy resources currently
are off the Atlantic coast of Europe (in particular
near Ireland, the UK, and Portugal), the west coast
of North America (from San Francisco to British
Columbia), Hawaii, and New Zealand.
A family of devices called point absorbers Is being
developed by a number of companies. These are
usually axisymmetric about a vertical axis, and by
definition they are small compared to the wave-
length of the waves that they are designed to
exploit. The devices usually operate in a verticaf
mode, often referred to as heave; a surface-piercing
float rises and falls with the passing waves and
reacts against either the seabed or something
attached to it. These devices ultimately depend on
a buoyancy force, one of the topics of this chapter.
A company named Wavebob Ltd. has develdped
one of-the simplest of these devices. This innovative
eponymous device, as shown iri the figure, is proving Schematic of W~vebob.
to be s.u ccessful for extracting.wave energy. The.fig-
ure does not indicate the.size of the device, but it is It has already been tested in the Atlantic Ocean off
quite large; the upper chamber has a diameter of the coast of Ireland and is designed to have a 25-year
20 m. It looks like just another buoy floating on life span and to. be able to survive all but the very
the surface, but underneath it i_s constantly harvest- worst storms. Each Wavebob is expected to produce
ing energy. The lower component of the Wavebob is about 500 kW of power or more, sufficient electricity
tethered to the ocean floor and so remains in its for over a thousand homes; it is intended to be part
verti<::al location, while the section at the surface of a large array of such devices. It seems likely this
oscillates as the waves move over it. Hence the dis- device will become ubiquitous because it is relatively
tance between the two components is constantly inexpensive, very low maintenance, and durable,.and
ch_a nging, with a significant force between them; it takes up only a small area.
~ --·- ~ ------
47
48 Ch ap ter 3 Fl uid St at ics
In Ch ap ter I, we de fin ed a flu id as an y su bs tan ce th at flo

ws ·(c on tin uo us ly de fo rm s) wh en it ex pe rie nc es
a sh ea r str es s; he nc e fo r a sta tic flu id (Cir on e un de rg oin
g "ri gi d- bo dy " mo tio n) on ly no nn al str es s is
pre s·e nt~ in ot he r wo rd s, pr es su re. W e wi ll stu dy the top ic
of flu jd sta tic s (o fte n ca lle d hy dr os tat ics , ev en
tho ug h it is no t re sn ict ed to wa ter ) in lh is ch ap ter.
Al tho ug h fluic;I sta tic s pr ob lem s ar e th e sim pl es t kin d of
flu id me ch an ics pr ob lem s, this is no t th e
on ly rea so n we wi ll stu dy the m. Th e pr es su re ge ne rat ed
wi thi n a sta tic flu id is an im po rta nt ph en om en on
in ma ny pr ac tic ai sit ua tio ns . Us in g th e pr inc ipl es of hy dr
os tat ics , we ca n co mp ute forces on su bm er ge d
ob jec ts, de ve lo p ins tru me nts fo r me as ur in g pr es su res ,
a:nd de du ce pr op ert ies of the atm os ph ere an d
oc ea ns. Th e pr inc ipl es of hy dr os tat ics als o ma y be us ed
to de ten ni ne the fo rce s de ve lop ed by hy dr au lic
sy ste ms in ap pli ca tio ns su ch as in du slr ial pr es se s or au
to mo bi le br ak es .
In a sta tic , ho mo ge ne ou s flu id, or in a flu id un de rg oi
ng rig id- bo dy mo tio n, a fluid particle ret ain s its
ide nti ty fo r all tim e, an d flu id ele me nt s do no t de fo rm . W
e ma y ap ply Ne wt on 's se co nd law of mo tio n to
ev alu ate th e fo rce s ac tin g on th e pa rti cle .
3.1 The B as ic E qu at io n o f Fluid S ta ti cs

1l1 e fir st ob jec tiv e of thi s ch ap ter is to ob tai n an eq ua
tio n fo r co mp ut in g the pre ssu re field in a sc ati c
flu id. W e wi ll de du ce wh at we alr ea dy kn ow fro m ev er
yd ay ex pe rie nc e, th at th e pre ssu re inc rea ses wi t:h
de pth . To do thi s, we ap pl y Ne wt on 's se co nd law to a di
ffe re nt ial flu id ele me nt of ma ss dm =p d¥ ,. w.j.tn
si d~ dx , dy , an d dz. as sh ow n in Fi g. 3. 1. Th e flu jd
ele me nt is sta tio na ry rel ati ve to tJ.:ic; s1.ati,onary
rec tan gu lar co or di na te sy ste 01 sh ow n. (F lu id s in rig id
-b od y mo tio n wi ll- be tre ate d iµ. Se cti on-3, 6,..on
the we b.)
Fr om ou r pr ev io us di sc us sio n, rec all th at tw o ge ne ra l _L
ypes off<;>cces m_a y be:ap pli e~ ·.t9Iafli1Jd.i _.1i9!Jy
fo rce s an d su rfa ce fo rce s. Th e on ly bo dy fo rce th at m us
t be co ns id er ed in mo st erigirteering'p{9bWI'q$.•~
du e to gr av ity . In so m e sit ua tio ns bo dy fo rce s ca us ed by
ele cn ic or ma gn eti c fie lds'm igh tbe_pr es en t;" tbe t
wi ll no l be co ns id er ed in thi s rex t.
Fo r a dif fer en tia l flu id ele me nt , th e bo dy fo rc e is
dF8 = gd m = gp d¥
wh ere g is th e lo ca l gr av ity ve cto r, pi s th e de ns ity , an
d d¥ - is th e .vo lum e of the ele me nt. In Ca rte sia n
=
co or di na tes d¥ dx dy .dz , so
dF B= pg dx dy dz
In a sta tic flu id the re are no sh ea r str es se s, so _the on ly
su rfa ce fo r~ e is th~ pr es s~ r~ force. Pi:essure is a
- (•· y -)-
sc alarfieId,p -p ., , ,< -,· in oae ne ra l we ex pe ct th e pr es su re to va ry w1 th_pqs11:lon w.1thm the -fluid. Th e ne t
.- .
pr es su re ,o rc e tha l re s uJ ts fro m th ls v.a
·
ria tio n ca n be fo un d by su mm in g th e fo rce s tha t ac t on the . ,,
six ,a ce s
of the flu id eJ em en L
-, d:
(p _ iJy
iJp d>•) (,LT Jz).U)
2
O
•.
-4 --1 -(p + iJp
~ ~- 2
.'.!I.)
(<Lr c/z) (-j)
Pre ssu re. p

J - - - - - -- - Y
.T
Fig . 3.1 Oifferen tia l fluid. ele me nt an d pre ssu re forces in th ey
dir ect ion_.
'·
3.1 The Basic Equation of Fluid Statics 49
Let the pressure be p al the center, O. of the element. To determine the pressure,at each of the six
faces of the element, we use a Taylor series expansion of the pressure about point 0. The pressure at the
left face of the differential element is
ap op ( dy) ap dy
PL=P+ ay<.YL-y)=p+ ay - 2 =p- ay 2
(Terms of higher order are omitted because they will vanish in the subsequent limiting process.) The
pressure on the right face of the differential elemenL is
ap ap dy
PR=p+-(YR - y)=p+--
oy · ay 2
The pressure forces ac.ting on the two y surfaces of the differential element are shown in Fig. 3.1.
Each pressure force is a product of three factors. The first is the magnitude of the pressure. This mag-
nitude is multiplied by the area oftlle face to give the magnitude of the pressure force, and a unit vector is
in_trod~ced to indicate direction. Note:also in Fig. 3.1 that the pressure force on each face acts against the
face. A positive pressure corresponds to a co111pressive nonnal stress.
Pressure forces on the other faces of the element are obtained in the same way. Combining all such
forces gives the net surface force acting on the element. Thus
dFs = (p- :~1:) (dydz)(i) + (p+ :~') (dydt)(-i)

+ (p-:t)(dxdz)U )+(p+ :t)(cli:dz)(-j)
+ (p-:~z)(<Li:d,Y)( k)+ .(p+Z:~)(axdy) (-k)

Collecting and canc:eling terms, we obtain
.dFs=
- - (ap ., . op.,. op.~)
-1+-1+-k dxdydz . (3. la)
ax ay az
The term in parentheses is called the gradient of the pressure or simply the pressure gradient and may be
written grad p or Vp. In rectangular coordinates
.,ap
ax
.ap
gradp::Vp:: ( 1-+1-+k- =
ay i)z
.ap) ("1-+1-+k-
a ., a .i}za) p
iJx iJy
The gradient can be viewed as a vector operator; talcing the gradient of a scalar field gives a vector field.
Usin•g the gradient designation. Eq. 3.la can be written as
dFs= -gradp(dxdydz) = -Vpd.-r:dydz. (3.lb)

Physically the gradient of pressure is the· negative of the,s.u rface force per·unit volume due to pressure,
Note that. the-pressure magnitude itself.is not relevant in computing-the net p~sure force; instead what
councs is the rate of change of pressure with distance,-thepr~ssur egradierzt. We shall encounter- this term
throughout our study of fluid mechanics.
We·c·o mbine the formulations for surface and body:fotces that we have developed to obtain the total
force acting on a fluid element. Thus
dF =dFs+dFs= (-Vp+pi)dxdydz= (-Vp+pi)d:V-

or on a per unit volume basis
dF -
-=-Vp+pg
d¥-
{3.2)
For a fluid particle, Newton's second law gives F = a dm= 'cjpd:V-. For a static;: fl\).iq, a =0. Thus
dF -
,d1/- =pa =O
50 chapter 3 Fluid Statics
Substituting .fordF /d¥ from Eq. 32, \:Ve ·obtain

-Vp+pg=O (3.3)
Let us review this equntic,,n briefly. The physical significance of each term is
-Vp + pg =0
ne_t p~sure force ·} { bod.~ force per } _
{
per unit volume + unit volume =O
at a point at a point
This is a vector equatic:m, wlµch means_that ins equivalent to three component equations that must. be
satisfied individually. The component equations are
-
ap -
- · +pg_..= o. .\' direction
0X . -
op
- i}y + pgy = 0 y. i;li~ctiotj (3A-)
op -
- ch. + pgz = 0 z direction
Equations 3.4 describe the pressure variation in each -of the three coordinate.directions in a static
fluicJ. It is convenient to choose a .coordinate system such that the .gravity vector is align~ -w:i.tli oo'~-
of the coordinate axes. If the coordinate system is c;:hosen wi~b the i: axis
d,u:e¢ted v~rtically upwat<t:
as in Fig. 3.1, then g~ = 0, g,. == 0, and g" = - g. Under these conditi9Qs,_the c(>mi?911~nt e_gl,iatloi;is .be:c;gme,
:=o : =O : = -pg
Equations 3.5 indicate that, !1:nder the assumptions made, the p~sure is indep_e nde_n t of cocirdiiilit~
(3,'.~i:
x
and y; it depends on z alone. Thus since p is a function of a Single variable, a total derivative may be used
instead of a partial derivative. With these simplifications,. Eqs. 3.5 finally reduce to
Resaictions:
Static fluid.
2 Gravity is the only body fon;:¢.
3 The z axis is vertical and upward.
in Eq. 3.6. r is the specific we_ight_pf the f11,1id. This ecj~ation is tb_e b~sic pressure-height rel;iti?n _o f fluid
to
. 1 · . b" ct the restrictio,ns.note,<;L Therefore 1t m1,1~t b_e <'!pplie.d only :where,tbese reslnctions are
sJatl!=S. · _tli_s__-!,u ~ilieh.- 8 -1-~alsiru~tion To determici_e_-the pressure.distribution in a static-fluid,Eq. 3,6 may
reasonab e .1._or ~ P . Y . . -- . - • -- - -. . · . _
be
-
int¢grat~d and appropriate:bciund ~ ~ondition~ applie?·· . . •
-· _ ·derin sp
·. -
· ecific applicanons of this equation, .1t IS. rmportant to remember that pressµre
.
Before cons1 g - r - - · .I I · - --- · - ··
values -must b_e -stated. w.1 ·- -·th--respect to. a, reference level. If _
t he: r<;:_
L erence . eve JS a.vacuum, pressures are
. -- · - ·-
teCJDed qbso(ut~. as shown in Fig. 3.2.
_ _. . , . . . - - - - - - , - - - - - Pr~µre le'-'.el
- - - - - - - Atmospheric pres_ s_u re,

101.3 icPa C·,J.4.69E\ psial
at standard sea leVel
.conditi_orts
Fig. ~ -. 2 Alisolute and gage Rre_ssunis, showing

V11cuLiril refliirence -le\tels. 7
3.2 The Standard Atmosphere 51
Most pressure gages indicate a pressure dijference-tlie difference between the measured pressure
and the ambient level (usually atmospheric pressure). Pressure levels measured with respect to atmos-
pheric pressure are termed gage pressures. Thus
Pi;ogc = Pobsolutc - Paunos phcn:.
For example, ~ tire gage might indicate 30 psi; the absolute pressure would be about 44.7 psi.
Absolute pressures must be used in all calculations with the ideal gas equation or oilier equations
of state. ·
3.2 The Standard Atmospner~

Scientists and engineers sometimes need a numerical or analytical model of the Earth's atmosphere in
order to simulate climate variations to study, for example, effects of global warming. There is no single
stanc!ard model. An lntemational Standard.Atmosph(;r e (ISA) has been defined by the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO); there is also a similar U.S. Standard Atmosphere.
TI1e temperature profile of ilie U.S. Standard Atmosphere is shown in Fig. 3.3. Additional property
values are tabulated as functions of elevation in Appendix A. Sea level conditions of ilie U .S. Standard
Atmosphere are summarized Ta/Jle 3.1.m.
80
70
60
Jso
C:
52..4 km
47.3 km
0
~ u
i.i 40 ;i.,
;:;:;
~32.2 km
30
20 0 20.1 km
;i.,
:81 .. il.0 ~m
10
V
e
.:..120 -100 --<16 ""60 -40 -20 0

'°
b. ,.___--,-,,.___--"...,__ __,b-----''c---J'--- ~L...::=·;..:"':...1
TemP..fllra.l ~re.(°C)
Fig.>j•;3 'rempfi!rature variatlonwi~h altitude fn the U.S, St;mdard Atmosphere.
Table 3. 1
sea Level c;::onditions of the U.S._Standard Atmosphere
Propeny Symbol SI English
Temperau..\re T 1s c0
59°F
P¢s.sure p. 101.3.kPa (abs) 14.696 psi.a
Density p 1.225 kg/m3 0.002377 sl'-1g/ft3
Specific weight y O.Q76~! 1.Qf/if
Viscosity µ l.789xl0- 5 kg/(m•s)(Pa•s) 3.737 ~ ro-1 1b( s/rr .
Chapter 3 Fluid Sta~ics
52
3.3 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
we proved that press~ variation in any static fluid is described by the basic pressure-height relation
dp
dz= -pg (3.6)
Although pg may be defined l!S the specific weight, r, it has been written as pg in Eq. 3.6 to emphasize
chat both p and g _must_.be_ considered v:n1_ables_- In order to integrate Eq. 3.6 to find the pressure djsrri-
bution, we need mformatJon about vanauons m both p and g.
Fo~ most practic~I engineering situations, the variation in g is negligible. Only for a purpose such as
compuung very precisely ~e pressure change over a large elevation difference would the variation in g
need to be included. Unless we state otherwise, we shall assume g to be cori~tailt with ;;lev;tio~ at any
gi~~~~ .
Incompressible Liquids: Manometer,s

For an incompressible fond, p = cons_tanL Then fo(cotjstarit gravi_ty,
dp
~
dz.
= - pg= constant.
Todeterm.ine _the pressµ~ variation, w e must integrate and apply appropriate boundary conditions, If th,e
pressure· at the reference level, zo, is designated as po; then the pressure, p, at level z is foUfig 6y
integration:
1 PO
P dp=-1.: pgdz
"<>
p - po= =pg(z-zo)=pg(zo -:i)

For liquids, it is often convenient to talce tlie origin of!-lle coordin~te system at the free surface (i:efetence
level) and to measure (;l,istances.1-)S· positive downward from the free s urface as in Fig. 3.4.
With_h measured positive t;lownward; we have
ZQ-z_= h
and obtain
(3..7)
Eqtiatfon 3. 7 indicates .t hat the pressure dy-fere?ce_ between Lwpp_oints in a sta~c tncomrressible fluid c3:11
be decenn:i.ned by measµ.rin~ th!! .e)eva!ipn c:1.ifforence between ~e _rwo pomts_- Devices usi;d for ~s
·u _ ose are called manQf!l~ter$. U~~-9f Eq. _3.7 for~ manometer 1s 1Uustrati;d JQ Eisample 3.L _
p rpManometers ~ simpJ~ and i_{ i¢xpens_1 ve devices u~ed ~e~µently for pressure me;isuremen~s,
- th - li ·d le:vel cbanae is small at low pressure:d1fferent1aJ, a U 0 wbe manometer may be dif-
Becaus_e e qw_ --· - · , ··
0 - • fh-- - - ·· ·-· d
- ·· · _ ·_ d - _ - - rely The sensiiiviry ofa: mapometer-JS a -measm:~-9
-
ow sens1t1ve Jt 1s compare to .a
~cult .to. rf!a. _·afillccurad
_u
·t_u·· ·be ~""·o roeter' Specifically it is the ra1:19-6f the deflection of the manometer io
sunple wiiter,; e -- -u ....., -· _- - - ' · - · ·
- R.~f~renc e
-Pu _ level .arid ::-
{
r
. pr~s_ur!;!_
l z<Zo-
Location aiiil
pressure -of
{ inter~t
I
~
3.3 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid 53
Example 3.1 SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC PRESSURE
No.r mal ·blqodpressure fora human is J 20/80 mm Hg. By modeling.a sphygmomanometer pressure gage as a U-tube manometer,
con:vert these pressures to psig. ·
Given: Gage pressures of J 20 and 80 mm H$,

Blood A1r----
Find: The-corresponding pressures in p•s ig.
pressure
T
B
Solution: Apply hydrostatic equation to points A, A', and B.
Gpverning equation: A A'
p-pp=~p=pgh (3 . 1)
Assumptions: . Hg
I Stati¢ fluid.
2 Incompressible fluids .
.3 Ne$1ect air density-(« Hg density).
Applying the goverhiilg equation between points A' and B {and p 8 is atmospheric and therefore zero gage):
PA' =po+ PHs$fi = SGfisfh1.,08h

In addition, the pressure increases ·as we go downward from po.int fl' to the bo~om of the manometer, and decreases by
an equal linioiiijt as we r~tiifn llj> the lel;t Jjranch ·to. point A. This means points A ariq A' hi;i.ve the same presSU(e, so we end
up with
PA =p"' =SGttsPt1,08h
Substituting. SGHQ= 13.6 .artc:I PH,o =;, l.~4slug/fr1 from Appendix A.J yields for the systolic pressure (h;;: 120mm Hg)
P systolic = PA =;c 13.6 X L94 s~g X ~2.2: X l20:I!llll X '.2.5.:~

ft lb.f· si
.x -· -. --- x-__-- - .
l2ir/. slug-ft
.Psysrolic = 334 lbf/fr='2;32 psi.,.-- ~ ~ - - - - - - - ~ - - P _s_Y•_ _li_-~
10
By a sin:iiH,ir proc~s. the diastolic p¢ss_.;ire (h = 80 mm Hg) 1s
thl\t of a water-filled U-tube.maIIometer, due to the same applied pressure difference.~p. Sensitivity can
be increased by changing the manometer desigp or by using two immiscible liquids of slightly different
density. Analysis of an inclined manometer is illus1I11.t ed in Example 3.2.
Student$ sometimes have trouble analyzing multiple-liquid manometer situations. The following
rules of thumb are usefµJ:
1 Any two points a~ the same elevation in a continuous region of the same liquid are a~ the same
press1,1re.
2 Pressure increases as one goes down a liquid column (remember the pressure change on diving mto a
sw.imming pool). ·
54 Ch apt er 3 Flu id Sta tics
Ex am ple 3.2 AN AL YS IS OF INC LIN ED -TU ~E MA NO ME TE R
be rese rvo ir ma nom ete r is con sln lcte d as sho wn . De riv ml .

An inc line d,tu sm n for the liqu id def lect ion , L, in the
nce , llp . Als ~ obt ain an e a gen e_ . ';xp res
inc line d rube, due to the applied pre ssu re diff ere exp res sio n ior the ma no t . . . • . cus s the
d dis
effe ct o·n · n
se· .
smv. .
1ty o r D , d , 8 , and - .
SG me er sens 1t1v 1ty, an
Given: Inclined-rube rese rvo ir m~ nom eter .

Find: Exp ress ion for Lin term s of t1p.
General expression for ma nom ete r sen siti vity .
Eff ect of par am eter val ues on sen siti vity. -o-
Sol uti on: Use the equ ilib rium liqu id lev el as a ref ere nce. -- -- -- --
Gove.ming equations:
p-p o= llp =p gh SG = ...! !_
PH? O
Assumptions:
Sta tic fluid.
2 Jnc om p~s ibl e fluid.
_,~]_ ~-
--
) t -- --
Equ ilibr ium "-f -~a .... ~-- 2.
Appl'yin~ the ~ov em ing equ atio n bet we en poi nts J and 2 hqu1d leve l
Gag e liqu id, "'
p1- p2= llp =p ,g( h1 +h;?) (1)
the vol um e of ma nom ete r liqu id rem ain s co st . th . fro th · ·•-
Tc> elimina1e·.h1, we rec ogn ize tha
• . • t n ant , e vo1um e disp lace d oir
. m e res erv
mu st equ al .the vol um e tha t nse s m the tub e, so
rrD2 '11 =
,cd2 L or h 1 =L
(d)
I)
2
4 4
1 giv es
Iii acgli_tjoil, fj:om_ the geo me try .o f the ma nom ete r, h2 =L sin 0. Sub stit utin g into Eq.
L= p,t [:, .:: (~ ) '] _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _--= L
To '.f ind the sensitivity of the ina nom ete r, we nee d to com par e this 10 the def lec tion h a sim ple V-t ube man om eter , usi ng wa ter
(de nsi ty p), wo uld exp erie nce ,
The sen siti vity s. is then
L, 1
,- ,; -sa,[mno+ (d)'] _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _s
to SG ,. 8, ~~ fd/ D eac h sho uld be ma de as sm all as
. wh ere we hav e use d SO,= p,/p. Thi s ~i, Ilt sho ws tha~ inc rea se sen siti vity , sin
~i bl e. Thu s the desigQ!!T lll!,ISI ClloQSe.~ gag e.J.igµid ~d two geo me lri,c par ame ter: $ to CO IIlp]ete a des ign , as dis cus sed bel ow .
3.3 Pressu re Variat ion in a Static Fluid 55
Gage Liqui d
Tj:ie.ga ge liquid should have the smalles l possibl e specifi c gravity to increas e sensitiv ity. In additio n, the gage liquid must be safe.
(witho ut toxic fumes or flamma bility), be immisc ible with the fluid being gaged, suffer minima l loss from evapor ation, and
develo p a satis_factoty menisc us. Th.u s th_e gage liquid should have relative ly low surface tension and should accept dye to
improv e irs visibili ty.
Tables A. I, A.2, and A.4 show thal hydroc arbon liquids satisfy many of these criteria . The lowest specifi c gravity is about0 .8,
which increas es manom eter sensitiv ity by 25 percen t compar ed to water.
Diam eter Ratio

The plot shows the.effe ct of diamet er ratio on sensj.tivity for a verti~a l reservo ir ma,toll leter with g11ge liquid ·of unicy •specifi c
gravity . Note that d/l)= l corresp onds to an oajinar y '£.Hupe manom eter; its sensitiv ity is 0.5 becaus e for ~s case the total
deflect ion will be h, and foi;- ei\~h side it will be h/2, so L=h/2 . Sensiti vity double s to 1.0 as d/D approa ches zero becaus e
most of the level change occurs in the measur ing cube.
The minimu m tube diamet er d must be larger than about 6 mm to avoid excessi ve capilla ry effe.c2L The maxim um reser:vo.u:
di~ete FD-is limited by th¢ size of the manom eter. Jf.D js set at60 mm, so thatd/ D is 0.1, then (d/D) =0.01, and the sensitiv ity
increas es to 0.99, very close t_o the maxim um attaina ble value of 1.0. ·
6.-- ---- ---- ---- --,

I - 5 ~
14
.., ~
"
23- 0.6
~ 4i 3
~ 0 .4 :,.
·;;;
~ ~ 2
~
0.2
.,
C:
l
"' u,
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Diamete r ratio, dlD {-) Angle. 0 (degrees )
lndinc ;1tion .4ngJe

The final plot shows th~.effect ofinclina tion angle on sepsitiy ity for (d/D) = 0. Sensiti vity in.creas es sbarply as inclinat ion: angle
is.redu ced below 30 degret j. A pro,ctic ,illimit is reached,auibou t 10 degree s: The menisc us becom es in.distillct .a nd theJev el h.ai:q
to rea_d for smalle r angles.
Surtm iary
Combi ning the best values (SG=P-1:t rJ./D=.b.l, and 0=10 degree s) gives a
mano_meJ~t sensitiv ity of 6.81. Phy~j~il,lly this is the ratio of observ ed gage
liquid deflec;r;ipn tQ eqµiya ient wateF.,c0l11mP.- heig)u, Thus the defle~t io~ in the
ipc:!Jned tube is amplifi ed 6 ,81 !imes compa red t(:):a vemca l water ~Oltiri:in. With
imp~v ecl sensitivity-, a small p_r¢s~i:i.r:e dilfere nte c·a:n b¢r¢iig more ac~i.lrllt~ly than
with a watet manom eter, or .a s¢aller pressur e tiifferen"¢e c_ an he rea:d.wj~ the
same. accura cy.
To find the pressur e differe nce L1p betwee n two points separat ed by a series of fluids, we can use the
follow ing modifi cation of Eq. 3. 1:
where P; and h; represe nt the densiti es and depths of the various fluids, respect ively. Use care in applyin g
signs to the depths h;; they will be positiv e dowC1wards, and negativ e upward s. Examp le 3.3 illustra tes
the use of a multipl e-liquid manom eter for measur ing a pressur e differe nce.
E xa m pl e 3 .3 M U LT IP LE -L IQ U ID M A N O M E T E R
.
Wat er no w th ro ugh pi pe s A an d B. Lu br ic at in o
"'
oiJ is in th
e up pe r po ru on of the in ve ned u • M er cu ry .1s .m th e bottom of th e
th e pr es su re di ff er en c e P • .
rnnnomete r bend . Deren rn ne , ,1 -p o , m un ns of lb f / in .
2
n.
Given: M ul tip le -liqu id m an om e te r as s ho w
f/ in .
-,
- p in lb 2
Fi nd : Pres su re di ffe re nc e, p,, 8 •
So lu tio n:
a·
Governing eq ua tio ns: !'
tip = g L P/I,
Assu m pt io ns :
Static fluid .
2 In co m pres sible fluid .
A pplying th
8 to A
e go vern in g eq ua tio n. w or ki ng fr om
P.4 - pJJ = ti p = g( pH ,o ds + PH gd4 - p 0 ;1 d 3

po in r
(1 )
.,,-oh ;z
1-·'_.--,--©
. ·d \ .10 "
+ PHr;d2 -p H, od i )
ua tio n ca n also be de ri ve d by re pe at ed ly us in g
Th i eq
Eq. 3. 1 in th e fo llo w in g fo rm :
ng at po in t A a nd app.l yi ng th e eq ua tio n
B eg in ni
su cc es siv e po in ts a lo ng d1 e m an om et e r gi ve s
be tween
P c- p, 1 = +P1-1, 0C d1
PD - P c = - P1-1i;Cd 2
P E - P o = +P oitg d 3
PF - PE = - p Hg gd.~
P o -P F = - p H, oCds
n by m in us on e an d ad di ng , w e ob ta in Eq . I
Multiply in g ea ch eq ua tio
CP c -p o) + C P o- pE ) + (p E -p F ) + (p,, - pn )
PA - p o = (p ,1 -p c) +
= - PH, 0Cd1 + P Hg 8d 2 - Po,18d3 + PH ggd4 + P1-1,0 Cd s
Substitut in g p = SG pH, o w ith SGP1-1g = 13 .6 an d S0 0 ,1 = 0 .8 8 (T ab le A .2 ), y ie ld s

d2 -0 .8 8p H , od 3 + 13 .6JJi.1, d4 + PH ,o ds )
p, i -p8 = g ( -P1-1, 0 d 1 + 13 .6 p1-1,o
0
(- dt + 13 .6 d -0 .8 8d3 + 13 .6 d- i + ds)
=g p1-1, 0 2
p,1 - po = gPH, 0 ( - 10 +4 0. 8 - 3. 52 + 68
+ 8 ) in .
p,1 - p o = gpH, O x I 03 .3 i.n .

sl u O ft ft2 !b f· s2
ft . , X - - - -f
= 32.2 - X J. 94 __ ::: X 103. 3 in . X -12 -in , X
l 44 m .- s1ug · 't
§2 ft3
~ -~
:- - -- - - - - -- - - - - -- - -
PA -p8 = 3. 73 lbf / in.- ...
?
3.3 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid 57
Atmospheric pressure may be obtained from a barometer. in which the height of a mercury column
is measured. The measured height may be converted to pressure using Eq. 3 .1 and the data for specific
gravity of mercury given in Appendix A. as discussed in the Notes of Example 3 . 1. Although the vapor
pressure. of mercury may be neglected, for precise work. temperature and altitude corrections must be
applie_d to the measured level and the effects of surface tension must be considered. The capillary effect
in a tube c;:;iused by surfa~~ tension was ·illustrated in Example 2 .3.
Gases
In niany practical engineering ptoblems density will vary appreciably with altitude. and accurate results
will re quire that this variation be accounted fo·r . Pressure variation in a compressible fluid can be eval-
uated by integrating Eq. 3.6 if the density can b~ e,cp·r essed as a function ofp or z. Property information or
an·equation of state may be used to. obtain the required relation for density. Several types of property
variation may be analyzed as shown in Example 3.4.
The density of gases generally depends on pressure and temperature. The ideal g as equatjon of state,
p=pRT (1.1)
where R is the gas conslc<lnt (see Appen4.ix A) and T the aosolute temperature. acc un;itely models
the behavior of most gases under engineering conditions. However. the use of Eq. 1.1 introduces the
gas tempetati.lre as an additional variable. Therefore, an additional assumption must be made about tem-
perature variation before Eq. 3.6 can be integrated.
In the U.S. Standard Atmosphere me temperature decreases linearly w ith altitude up to an
eleva tion of U .Q km. For a linear temperarure varia tio.o with altit1.19e gjven PY T = To -mz. we obtain,
from Eq. 3.6, ·
" dz=~
p=-pg 'pgd
- z=- .pg dz
d
RT R(To-mz)
Separating variables and ·integrating frqm z = 0 where p =Po to elevation z where the pressure is p gives
[Pdp . (" gdz

JP!! P = - lo R(To-mz)
InE.. == L· 1n (To_
-,m.) = _!_,ln (1- mz)
Po 111.W To mR To
and the pressu~ variation, in a gas who.se temperature varies linearly with elevation, is given by
. ( ni;z:) g/mR . ·( T) g/mR

p=po 1 - - =po ~ (3.9)
To To
Hydraulic systems ate used to tran•s mit forces from one location to another using_a fluid as the
niedium. F.or example, automobile hydraulic brakes develop pressures up ~Q 10 MPa (1500 psi); aircraft
and mil~hinecy IJydraulic acti.latiori systems frequently are designed. for pressures up to 40 .l.\1Pa
(600.0 psi), and jacks use pressures to 70 MPa (10,000 psi). Special~purpos~ laboratory test eqµipment
js commercially available for use at pressures to 1000 MPa (150,000 psi)! ·
Although liquids are generally considered incpmpressible at ordinary p~s ures, density· chaages
may be appreciable at high p~sures. Bulle moduli of hydx:aulic fluids also may. vary sharply at hjgh
press,l)r~_s·. In problems inv9lving Qnsteady flow, bgth compressibility of tl)e- f).ui_d and elasticity Qf
the bblind:icy si:ructure (e;g., the pipe walls) n'lust be considered. Anaiysis of problei:QS such as w_ai:er
]lammer noise cmd vibration in hyclnlulic: systems, actuators, and shq_c kabsorbers.qw.,c.lqy becomes com~
.pl¢~. and is l:!eyoncl. the scope of this .book, although !he same prirtcjples apply iis. in this sec.non;
58 Chapte r 3 Fluid Statics
Example 3.4 PRESS UR,EA ND DENSI TY VARIA TION IN THE ATMO SPHER E
Toe maximu m power oucpuc capabil ity of n gasolin e or diesel _e ngine· decreas es wilh altitude because lhe ait density and.hen ce the
mass-flow nne-.of nir decreas e. A truck l,::aves Denve: r (elevati on 5280 ft) on a dny when lhe local tempe~ ttire and barome tric
pr:essure are S0°F and 24.8 in..of me~ury , respective!~• le travels through Vail Pass (elevat ion l 0,600 ft), where l11e temper ature is
62oF. 'Detenni(te the local bnrome cnc pressur e at Vall Pass and ilie percen t change in density .
Givel1: Truck travels from _Denv¢r to Vail Pass.

Denver: z=5280 ft VailPas s: .:=I0.6 00ft
p=24.8 in. Hg T=6?,° F
T=S0° F
Find: Aonos ph~c pressu ~ at Vail Pass.
Percent change in air density betwee n Denve r and VaiL
Solutio n:
dp -
Governing equations: dz = ~ pg p=e=.pRT
Assump tions:
I Static :flui4
.'.?- Air 1>¢haves as an ideal gas.
We -shall ~nside r four assump tions for propert y variatio ns with altitude .
(a). If w~-~ e tt;mp¢r,itilre varies line_;µ-ly with ajtitude , Eq. 3.9 givCli
:O = (~) g /i11R
,E valuatin g the constan t m gives

To-T (SQ- 62)°F : = 3.38.x w-3 OF_-./-_t't_-
n1=--
· z-Zo (l0.6- 5.28)1 03 ft - - - --- ·- --
g _ ft ft _
--
lbm.
---
_ - _
R
-
- x _
slu
- .
.
0
$ x
ihf.·
- ,.
sr·-~sss
·' - ..-.
mR;:::: 32·2 5 2 x 3 _3 8xlQ- 3°px 5:3.3ft·Ibi'. 32.2ib m, · s_lifit·:t( -··
Th:os
J!_ = ( r_ ) g
/mR -. ---
)s.ss
= (4,6_0_+ 6! -_ - = (0.967).s:ss = 0.830
--
Po -r,o- 460+8
- 0
and
p
p= Q"&30po = (Q,83Q )i4.8 m,. H1f= 20.9 in~Hg-- ~ ~ ~ - ~~
.- - -- ed -an absolu te temper atu~ in the idea:I gas equatio n of state.

Note that tei;ilpe.rah!l:e must be express ~ - - - -- .
· Tbe:pe rcentcb ange in ~nsicy is giv~il by
"ilp
P'--Po ~J!..._ - = P T9 .,..J. (>'.830...,,J.= ~0,142
= .gr .-14.2 %..,..: ~-- ~-~'----fJ-,..,
_o_-
- -- - - - -- 1 - · T ·0,967
Po Po PO .- . -
._ ...
3.4 Hydrosta tic Force on Submerg ed Surfaces 59
(b) For p assumed constant ( =p0 ),

g(z.,..,.zo)]
p=po-po g(z-zo)= po Pog~;_~zo) =po[1 RTo
Lip
p.-
P_o
p=20.2in .Hg and ilp =Q,___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Po
(c) If we ~s.ume the temperntu ~ is con~t!:mt, tlie.1:r
(ipi= -pg dt. =. '-- :Tg dz

and
1 P:dp
PO p
=~ lz Ldz
. .., RT
. f~g(~=zo )]·
p:::;poex p[ ·RT' . ,
1!,.jJ
jj, • ~-
p:;:;::i0.6in .Hg, and P_o
Pz=_,i(i_.9% _.__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
(!I) For ~i'l. a<ff<\baiic 'rltriiospµ¢¢·p/pk;;::Go.ristant-,

tJ.p
.
P=po
( ..
T) . .
T,
k/k_~ ,- - L1'p . p,- .-
=2'.2.<;)jn. Hg and ~ -==~8.2% .....- - ~ - -----'-'P'-'-o
.o Po
We note·thato v:er th~ m.ci#~t c_Qange in elevati9n the·p~tli~t ecl pressgre i'~ not
s_i:ti:fngly dependent on Ute ~sl,i_mect property variation; vaiues calcµlated .4 nder
fo1.1rdi.ff::C'It Emta$$l-!I llPtionsvar ybya maximu[ft' 9fapproxim a:tely 9 pe~enL There
is· consid~ra bly ~a(er•var iatlcm ih ·the predictc:;_d.p ~i'.'c;~tit ¢hiln$e in,density . The
~sumptio n of-a lirt~ t¢µiJJ~i:atu.{~ variation with a:lt,i_fucie i)l µie most reasonable
8S!JU¢pti9n. .
3.4 Hydros tatic Force on Subme rged Surfaces

Now that we h_a ve determine d how the p~ssure varies in a static fluid, we can examine the force on a
surface submerge d in a liqµid.
In order to determine corqpletel y the resultant force acting on a submerged surface, we must specify:
The magnitude of the force.

2 The dire!Ztion of the force.
3 The line or' action of the force.
We shall consider both plane and curved submerged surfaces.
Hydros tatic Force on a Plane Submer ged Surface

ApJane submerge d surface, on whose upper face we wish to deter;mine the resultant hydrostati c fon;e, is
hi the.~
·shown in Fi.g. 3.5. The coordinate s are important: They have been chpsen so that the surface lies _
60 Ch ap ter 3 Flu id Sta tic s
Liq uid sur fac e

Am bie nt pressure, Po
l.iq uia ,
~en ~ity =p
)'
)'
Po int of app lica tion of FR

(ce nte r of pressure)
Fig . 3. 5 Plane sub me rge d sur fac e.
pla ne , an d the ori&in O is loc ate d at the int ers ect ion of the pla11e
sur fac e (or its ex ten sio n) an d the fre e,
sur fac e. As we ll as the ma gn itu de of the for ce F n, we wi sh to
loc ate the po inl (w ith co ord ina tes x-, ,y ')
thr ou gh wh ich it ac ts on the su rfa ce.
Sin ce the re are no sh ea r str ess es in a sta tic flu id, the hy dro sta tic
for ce on an y. elerperitJ:>f tije •suf .f~ ces
act s n·o rm al to the sur fac e. Th e pre ssu re for ce act ing on an ele
me nt dA = dx dy of the up pe r su rfa ce,ti;r
giv en by
·· ··
dF =p dA
Th e resultant for ce act ing. on the su rfa ce is fou nd by su mm
for ces ov er the en tir e are a.
Us ua lly wh en we su m for ces we mu st do so in a ve cto ria l sen
ing the co ntr ibu tio ns of the inf ini tes im al
se. Ho we ve r, in thi s ca se all of th e

-.....
inf ini tes im al for ces are pe rpe nd icu lar to the pla ne , an d he nc e so
is the res ult an t force. Its ma gn itu de is
giv en by
(3 ,lO a)
In ord er to ev alu ate the integn!.l in Eq . 3.1 0a , bo th the p~ su re

, p, and the eh;:ment of are a, dA , mu st be
ex pre sse d in terms of the sam e va ria ble s, . .
W e ca n us e Eq. 3.7 ~o ex pre ss tbe pre ssu re pa t de pth h m _ .
the liq uid as
p= po +p gh
In thi s ex pre ssi on po is the pre ssu re a~ clw fre e su rfa ce (h = ~) -
In ad dit ion, we ha ve , fro m the sys.tern ge om etr y, h= ys mO . _ _ _
Us mg th1s ex pre ssi on an d the ab ov e
ex pre ssi on for pre ssu re in Eq . 3.1 0a ,
Fn = 1p dA = f (p0 +p gh )d A= 1 (p o+ pg ys in0 }d A
FR = Po ld A + pg sin o1 y dA = poA + pg sin o1 y dA

A A ,\
. gral • th fir st mo me nt of the su rfa ce are a ab ou t the x ax is,
Th e mt e 1s . e wh ich ma y be wr itt en
Ly dA =y cA
· th ey co ord ina te of the ce ntr oid of the are a, A. Th us,

wh ere )'c 1s
FR==poA +p gs in 0y cA =( po +p gh c)A
or
3.4 Hydro static Force on Subme rged Surfac es 61
where Pc is the absolu te pressur e in the liquid at the locatio n of the centroi d of area A. Equatio n 3. 1Ob
compu tes the resulta nt force due to the liquid- includ ing the effect of the ambien t pressur e p 0 --on one
side of a subme rged plane surface . It does not take into accoun t whatev er pressur e or force distribu tion
may be on the other side of the surface . Howev er, if we have the same pressur e, Po, on this side as we do
at the free surface of the liquid. as shown in Fig. 3.6. its effect on FR c;ancels out, and ifwe wish to obtain
the net force on the surface we can use Eq. 3.10b with Pc expres sed as a gage rather than absolu te
pressu re.
Ambient pressure , Po
Liquid,
density:= .p
Edge view
J'
Fig. 3,6 Pressure distribut ion on plane submerg ed surface.
in compu ting FR we can use either the integra l ofEq. 3.lOao r the resultin g Eq. 3. lOb. It is import ant
to note that even though the force can be:com puted using the pressut e at the center of the plate, this is nor
the point throug h which the force acts! · ·
Our next task is to determ ine (.r,y); the locat;jon<;>fthe resulta nt force. Let's first obtain y by recog-
nizing that the momen t of the resulta nt force about the·x ~xis mus t be ·equal to the momen t due to the
distrib uted pressur e force. T3king the sum (i.e., integra l) of the momen ts of the infinite simal forces
dF about the .\: axis we ob~ir:i
(3.1)..a:)
We can integra te by expres sing p as. a functio n of y as before:
y' FR= iyp dA ;= f y(po + pgh)dA ;= f (poy + pgy2 sin 0)dA

A L, L
=poly dA + pg sin 0 f
JJ\ ydA
,,
The fust integra l is out familia r YcA- The second integra l, JA y2dA, is the second mornen t of area about the
~ .a,itjs, lxx- We can use .the p,il!:IJ]Jel axis theorem , lxx= I~ +A~, to replace I.o: with the standar d secpm;l
mome nt of area, about the centt9i dµl ~ .a xis. Using l)JI 9f these. we find
yFR =poycA +pg sin 0(hi+ A~) =Ycv>o +pgyc sin 0)A+p g sin 0 l.n
=)'c(po +pghc )A +pg sin 01,u=Y cFR +pg sin 0f.u
Finaliy , we obtain fQr i:
Y ' ·.-
-
.C
y + pg
. sin0
• . .
.PR. l.a . .(3,.1 lb:~
·Equati on· 3. Hb •is conven ient for compu ting the locatio n y of the fore¢ on the .submerg!;:ci side of the
$Orf;ice when we include the ambienL pressur e Po• If we .have the same· ambien t pressur e ac~g on
the other side of the surfac¢ ,ve can use Eq. 3.1 Ob with Po neglect ed to compu te the net force.
FR= Pc,_ A= pghc A= P8Y.c sin: 0A.
and Eq. 3.1 lb becom es for this case
Ch apt er 3 flu id Sta tics
62
i'ii,
Y =Y e+ -,.,.:: (3. llc )
nYc
Equ atio n 3.1 la is the inte gra l equ atio n for com put ing the loc atio n l of the resu ltan t for
ce; Eq . 3.11 b is a
use ful alg ebr aic form for com put ing 31 wh en we are interested in the resu ltan t forc e
on the sub me rge d
sid e of the sur fac e; Eq. 3.1 1 c is for com put ing l wh en we are inte rest ed in the net forc
e for the cas e wh en
the sam e po acts at the free sur fac e and on the oth er sid e of the sub me rge d sur fac e. For
pro ble ms tha t ha ve
a pre ssu re on the oth er sid e tha t is nor Po, we can eith er ana lyz e eac h side of the
sur fac e sep ara tely or
red uce the two pre ssu re dist ribu tion s LO one net pre ssu re dist ribu tion , in effe ct cre atin
g a sys tem co be
sol ved usi ng Eq. 3.1 Ob wit h Pc exp res sed as a gag e pre ssu re.
No te tha t in any eve nt. l > Ye -th e loc atio n of the forc e is alw ays bel ow the lev el of
the pla te cen -
troi d. Thi s mak es sen se- as Fig . 3.6 sho ws, the pre ssu res wil l alw ays be larg er on
the low er reg ion s,
mo vin g the res ulta nt forc e dow n the pla te.
A sim ilar ana lysi s can be don e to com put e.\" ', the xlo cat ion of the forc e on the pla te.
Tak ino the sum
of the mo me nts of the infi nite sim al forc es dF abo ut the y axis we obt ain
° ·
X'FR-= 1-
·:
.. j\
X 7f?: ~'
.J;A
We can exp res s p as a fun ctio n of y as bef ore :
.\"'FR= 1x pd A= 1x( po +p gh )dA = 1(p ox+ pgx yS in,0 )4A·
= Po rX
Ji\
dA +p g sin 01.xj• dA
r\
Th e firs t inte grn l is xcf \ (wh ere Xe is the dis tan ce of me cen troi d fro m y axi s). Th
---
e sec ond int egr al is
JA."Q' dA = l_T)'· Usi ng the par nlle l axi s the ore m, Ix;,= /.ry +A-cc
ye, we find
x FR = PoXcA + pg sin 0(/. if +A\"cYc) =x .(p o + pgy . sin 0)A + pg sin 0 lx9
=x c(p o + pgh ,:)A + pg sin 0 l_;y =xc FR + pg sin 0 lxy
Fin a,ll y, we obt ain for x:
(3 .12 b:)
- uau•on - . J?b
Eq 3 ,.., is con ven ien . t for com put•ing
- _ _xw_h en___we inc lud e the am bie nt pre ssu re_p 0 • If we ha ve
am bie nt pre ssu re ~o act ing on the oth er sid e-of the surfa_ce we can aga_m , _
use Eq. 3.1 0b wit h Po neg lec ted
to com pu te the ne. . t 1"or
'
ce
-
and Eq
·
. 3.1 2b bec om es for thLS cas e
- -
-- - lxy
."l!-= xc +---
. · A-Ye (3 . fi~ )
. n -.
Equ atio 12 a ·,s the m·cegral equ atio n for com pt1 ting the Jot atio_n x of the res ulta nt for ce· Eq 3
3 . - - . . ___- . . . • · · 1 ?- b ca n
be use d for com put atio ns wh en we are !nte res te~ rn the forc e on the s_u b~e rge d _side
onl y; Eq . 3 _1 2 c is
· ful .wh en we hav e Po on the oth er ~1de 9f the sur fac e and we.-~ mte res ted in
.t ile net for ce.
use In s~ ar y. Eqs . 3 , lOa tbro ug! l 3.1 2a con stit ute a com ple Je set Qf ~qu_1,1,l;ions for
com pu. ting the ma g-
nitu de and lo~ation- of the for ce due to hy_drostapc pre ssu r~ op ap..y sµb mer g~d p]an
f;_ i;w fac e. Th e d _irec -
tion of the for ce wil l alw ays be pei :pe ndi cul ar;t o the pla ne. . . - -
con sid er sev era l examp les usi ng the se eqµ atJo ns. In _Ex.;unple 3.5 we µse bot h the
W e c an now - • . e-
int
gral and ·a lge bra ic sets of equ atio ns; and in Exa mp le 3 .6 we use onl y th~ algetmµ<;·
. set
3 .4 Hydro static Force on Subme rged Surfac es 63
Exam ple 3.5 RESU LTANT FORCE ON INCLI NED PLANE SUBM ERGE D SURFA CE
The incline d surface shown, hinged along edge A, is 5 m wide. Determ ine the resulta nt force, FR, of the water and the air on the
incline d surface .
Given : Rectan gular gate, hinged along A, w = 5 m.

Find: Result ant focce, FR, of the water and the air on the gate.
Soluti on: In order to comple tely detenn ine FR, we need to find (a) the magnit ude and (b)
the line of action of the force (the directio n of the fr;,rc·e is perpen dicular to the surface ). We
Will solve this proble m by using (i) direct integra tion and (ii) the algebra ic equatio ns.
Direc t Integ ratio n

Govern ing equati ons:
p=po+ pgh FR= 1 pdA ,,'FR= 1,,pd A .rFR.= 1 xpdA
Be¢au se atmosp heric pressu. re p 0 act§ on both

sides of the. plate its effect canceis ,. anc;I we
can work in .g age pressui :es (p=pg h), In .J, . .
·a ddition , while w¢ could integra te using the
y variabl e, it will be more conv~o ient here
.to define a variabl e ,,, as shown in the figure;.
Using ,7 to obtain express ions for h and
dA, then
h = D + 11 sin 30· and d A = w 4'1 Net hydrosta tic pressure distribut ion on gate.
Apply ing these to the govern ing equatio n for

the. resulta nt fotce,
FR= 1pd.A, = 1L
0
pg(.D+ ,,.sin30 ")wd17
=p;w[D ,,+ i, sin 30·}: =pgw[D.t.+ ~.sin 30"]

2 2
kg m .. 1] N •s 2
[. 16m2
=999ir t3x9,8I 57 .x) im 2 .mx4 m+~ x 2 k<>-m
. . . . 0
FR;:;:588.kN.,._...., ...,~ -=-, .---- -~-- ---- ---- ---- ---- ..,:. F~R
F0t the l0cati(m 9f the force we compµt ¢ ;,' (tbe distanc e frc'.!tn the top edge of the plate),
,{FR= 1 TJpdA
Then
,,' = _!_.1 TJPdA = Fl f\,pw d11 == PF,!w {L TJ(D +,; sin 30")dTJ
. R lo
FR A Rio
:;=
pgw[·D11
FR
2
2 + ·3 sm30
3
11 . •]L
9 =
pgw
FR
[DL L
2
.. •]
2+3 sm3 0 .
3
.. .kg
=999 m .
-X 9.•8 --;;-X 5.·m. .. ·[ 2 mx 16. m.
2
~ m
+--X- - -
3
. ·1] N-s2
m~ s- 5.88.x 105 N 2 3 · 2 kg··m
, . m and y' = D , 2m . . .. .
11 =2.22 . _... • +,, = - - : -. -, +2.22 m=6.2 2m_ _
sm 3 0· sm 3 0
_ _ _ _,___ _ y_·. .
~___;..:. ..
64 C h a p te r 3 F lu id S ta ti c s
ouL th e y a x is th ro u g h e d g e A,
c o n si d e ra ti o n o f m o m er its 11,b
A ls o . fr o m
x' =-!-1A.tp d A
FR
e ) re ca ll fr o .I i . th th - . .
f_th e d is tr ib u te d fo rc e (r io fa si d m y o u r e a r e r c o u rs e s in st at i c s, . a t . e
_ ce n tr g 1 g o f th e
_m e n t
fu c a lc u la ti n g th e m o o " ' o n st•a n t .dtl th - _ -
fio r x . S .
m c e tl1e a re a e le m e n t is o f c , e n x = w /2 , a n d
a re a e le m e n t m u st b e u se d . W t _1
J 1w
IF 7 iP d A = ::- ,- F
.1: = - R A -
w
R
1
1\ p d A = =
w
-:
2 -
:: ;: 2 ,. S m .,.__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .r::!
_:
A lg e b r a ic E q u a ti o n s
e c a re in se le c ti n g th e . o n b d th
o n s w e n e e d to ta k m w e h a v e P o = P n,m
fu u si n o th e .a lg e b ra ic e q u a ti a g a g e p re ss u re is u se d fi oa pthp ro pn a;e se t.
,o rc e:
In th is p ro b le .
p la te , so E q . 3 . I O b w it h P c as r e n e t
si d e s o f th e
·
FR =p,,A =[ p g h ;A L ;p g ( D ]+ si ½
n 3 0 " )L w
FR = p g w D L + 2 si n 3.0"
o b ta in e d b y d ir e c t in te g ra ti on.
h is is t11e sa m e e x p re ss io n a s was
T f p re ss u re is g iv e n b y E q . 3 .11-c:
ro
T o·c; i c o o rd in a te o f th e c e n te
I· ·
y '= y c + ~
Aye
a te
F o r th e in c li n e d re c ta n g u la r _g
_ D L _ 4 m
2m
Yc- - - s
·n 310 · + ? = ~ 3 .
0 • + ~2
= 6m
- S in ·
2
A =Lw = 4 m XS: m = -2 0 m
l l 6,7 n12
l_ a = 1 2 w L
3
=12
x 5 m x (4.m )3 = 2
I I . y_'
_ _ _ _::
i 6 m + 2_ .7 m
l x .= 6 4
x0 -m -?.,.,. 6x -m .
- = 6 .2 2 m -
__
.,.. _ _ _ _ __
Ye-
I
y =Yc+A 2
p re ss u re is g iv e n b y E q . 3 , 1 2 d;
r of
T h e x c o o rd in a te o f m e c e n te
/· · (3 .1 2 c }
.i = x c +_=L
A ye
= 2.5. m . ,__ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ .i
_
F o r th e re c ta n g u la r g a te 1-xy = 0 a n d :c' = x c
S U B M E R ~ ~ D SURFACE WiTH
VERTICAL PLANE
E x a m p le 3 .6 FORCE
F
O
RE
N
E S U R F A C E
R E A T
N O N Z E R O G ~ G E PRESSU
ij ed to th e li u . . _
lo n g its b o tt o m e d ~ e. A p res u
s. re o f I 00 p s fg is !l p p
,~ ~ S u rf a c e.
e ta n k is.h in g e d a · · q id
T h e d o o r s h o w n in th e s~de o f th e p th e d o o r c;losec:t.
d 'ti le f.or~ e. F ,, re q u ir e d to k e
Fm
D o o rl -l S si jo w n .in th e ~ g u re .
G iv e n :
e q ~ d to k ~ p d q o i sh l,i ~.
:. :f-igd: - F o re ¢ r
3.4 Hydr ostat ic Force on Subm erged Surfa ces 65
'!ir ·
p 0 (gage)
Pa + PtJlm Patm
.ii , {- ~ F,
,,
F,
.;:
Po+Po tm+ rgL

Ll
-~
A A,
L_i__
Po (gage) + P gL A
Free-b ody diagra ms of door
Solu tion: This probl em requi res a rre·e -body diagr am (FBD) of the door. The press ure distri butio ns ,. F,
on d1e insid e and.outsi de of the door will lead to a netfo rce-(a nd its locati on) that will be inclu ded in the ~
FBD . W~ need to be.ca reful in choos ing the equat ions for comp uting the resul tant force and its loca- ~
tian. We can eith~ r use· absol ute .press ures (as.on the left FBPJ and comp ute two force s (one on each
r·rv L
side) or gage press ures and comp ute one force (as oil the right FBD) . For simpl icity we will 1.1se gage FR
press µres . The right- hand FBD make s clear we shoul d use Eqs. 3.2 and 3. I lb, which were deriv ed fot A A,
probl en1s in whic h we wish t.o inclt1de the effec ts of an ambi ent press ure (po), or in other word s, for
probl ems when we. have a nonze ro -gage pres s~ at the free·-sucl'ace. The comp onent s of force due to .t1,.
the binge are A>, and A,. The force F, can be found l:>y takin g mom ents abou t A (the hinge ). Force free-bo dy diagra m
Governi,:,g equa tions :

~M, ,=0
The resul tant force and its 16cat ion ~
(1)
and
(2)
T ~ g mom ents abou t pqilit A
Usin g E_q s. I. ,and 2 in this equat ion WC} find
2
_ 'L). . [ 1 rL / 12 ]
F,= ( Po+r'i. bL 1- 1- (' _·- . L)'
Po+r --
2.
2
L) bL b{l p 0bL ybL
F,= ( Po+ r- -=-
~+ r-- --. + - -6
2 2 12 2
fr
.
lbf . · __. I . .-lbf _ ., I
= 100- ,, x2 ftx.3 ftx ~ + 100 x2 ftx9. ft' x-6
- r.
= (3)
F, = 600 l b f - -- ~ ~""-'-.....,__ _ _ _----'-- -- ~- ~ - -F..:.1

66 Chapter 3 Fluid Statics
h , olved this problem by considering the two separate pressure distribution s on each side of the door, leading to
We could ;"es and their locations. Summing moments about point A with these forces would also have yielded the same
two rest.dtantN°~~so that Eq. 3 could have been obtained directly (without sep-
value for F,: oFe and y') by using a direct integration approach: • •• - •
aracely findmg R -
~M;.i = F,L-1 ,I
y p dA =0
Hydrost atic Force on a Curved Submer ged Surface

For curved surfaces, we will once again derive expression s for the resultant force by integrating the pres-
sure distribution over the surface. However, unlike for the plane surface, we have a more complicat ed
problem- the pressure force is normal to the surface at e_ach point, but now the infinitesim al area ele~
ments point in varying directions because of the surface curvatll!_e. This means that instead of integratin g
over an element dA we need Lo integrate over vector element d A. This will initially lead to a more com-
plicated analysis, but we will see that a simple solution technique will be qeveloped.
Consider the curved surface shown in Fig, 3.7. The pressure force acting on the element of area, dA,
is given by
dF=-pd A
where the minus sign indicates that the force acts on the area, in the direction opposite to the area normal.
The resultant force is given by
(3.13)
We can write
Fn=iFR, +]FR, +kFR,
!
where F Rx, FR)·• and FR, are the cornponen ~ of R in ~e ~ositive x, y, and z; directions, respective ly.
To evaluate the componen t of the force m _a given direcnon, we take the dot product of the force with
the unit vector in the given direction. For example, taking the dot product of each side ofEq. 3 . 13 with
unit vector l gives
dA · the proiection of dA on a plane perpendicu lar to thex axis (see Fig. 3 .7), and the minus sign
where .r 1s " • • th · d" ·
• th a 1 the ·•,. componen t of the resultant force 1s rn e negatJve x 1rectJon.
indicates
;r:
Fig, 3 •7 curved submerged surface.

3.4 Hydr ostat ic Force on Subm erged Surfa'ce·s 67
Since , in any probl em, lhe direct ion of lhe force comp onent can be-de termi ned by inspe ction, lhe use
of vecto rs is not neces sary. In gener al, the magn itude of the comp onent of the result ant force in the l
direc tion is given by
(3.14 )
wher e dA1 is the proje ction of the area eleme nt dA on a plane perpe ndicu lar to the/ direct ion. The line of
actio n of each comp onen t of the result ant force is found by recog nizin g that the mom ent of the result ant -
force comp onen t abou t a given axis must be equal to the mom ent of the corre spond ing distri buted force
comp onen t abou t the same ·axis.
Equa tion 3.14 can be used for the.ho rizon tal force s F11_, and FRy· We)l ave the inter~ tirig resl.)lt that
the horiz ontal force and its Jocat io,i are the same as for an imag inary vertic al plane smfa~ e ofthe same
proje cted area. This is illust rated in Fig. 3.8 , wher e we have called the horiz ontal force FH.
Figur e 3.8 also illust rates how we can comp ute the vertic al comp onen t of force : With atmos pheri c
press ure at the ·f ree surfa ce -and on .the other side of the curve d surfa ce the net vertic al force will be equa l
to the 1-veig/zt offluid direc t.Ly abov e the surfa ce. This can be seen by apply ing Eq. 3.14 to deter mine lhe
magn itude of the vertic al comp onen t 9f the result ant force , ol>taining
FR,= Fv= J pdA ,
Since p = pgh,
Fv= J pghd At=- J pgd¥
w,h~re pghdA ._ = pg d¥ is.the weigh t of a.diffeµ:ntiaj..cy4 Ilder 9f li9uid_,.tbov,e th~_eJem ent of surfa ce area,
dA.,, exten ding a di~!anCe h from the curve d surl"ace to the rn;e sur(a~ e. The. vertii ;al comp onen t pf the
resul tant force is obtai ned by inte~ tj.ng over the entire subm erged surfa ce. Thus
Fv= 1tgh dA.. =1p gq¥- =pg ¥
In swnm w;y, for a curve d surfa ce,we can use two simpl e. formu las for comp uting the horizon:taj. and
vertic al force comp onen ts due to the fluid only (i:J.o ambi ent press ure),
wl:iere Pc and A are the press ure at the cente r anQ. the area, respe ctivel y, ofa vertic al plane surfa ce of the
,same proje cted area. and ¥ is the volum e of fluid above the CUIVed surfac e.
le can be show n that th.e line of action of the vertic ~ force comp onen t passes throu gh the cente r of
gravi ty 9 f the volum e of liquid :diri;:ctly abov e the curve d si.lrface as show n ib Exam ple 3.7.
We have shpw n that the testilta,ri.t hydro static force on a ciµve d subm erged surfa ce· is speci fied in
terms of its comp onen ts. We.re call froqi our study of static s that the resul tant of any force syst1;:rn can be
~pre sente d by a force -coup le syste m; i.e., th~_reslilt4Dt force appli ed at.a point .and a coup le abou t that
point . lf tbe force and the coup le vecto rs are ortbo gon~ (as is the case fpr. a two~d imen siona l clitve!i
surfa ce), the resul tant can b¢ rep~ented .as a pure fori:e w ith a unique line of action. Othet wis¢ the
resui tant may be repre sente d as a " wrenc h,'' also havin g a uniqu e line of action.
Liquid .volume
--
C.ur:ved surfac;e
F11 = Pc11
+
Fig. 3,8 Forces on curved subme rged surfac e.
68 Gh~pter 3 Fl uid St a t ics
Example 3. 7 FORCE COMPON ENTS ON A CURVED SUBMER GED SURFACE
TI1e ga1e s·!,own 1s hinged

- al O and
. has consrant
. widt11, ,v =
. 5 m. T he equation
.,, of t11e surface
, is
. x = );i./ a , where a= 4 m . The dep. tb
of w;ter 10 the rigl11 of the gate 1s D = ~ m. Find the mag nnude of the f·orce, Fa, applied as shown, required to maintain the gate in
•i·b
equ1 J n ·um ·
1 r 11,e weicrht
o
of 1.he gate s
1 neglected.
-
Given : Gate of constant widtl1, w = 5 m. y

Equaiion of surface in .,y plane is x = ?/a, wl~ere a= 4 m.
Water stands at depth D = 4 m to tl1e nght of the gate. - - - / =5m--- -1
Force Fa is appHed as shown, a nd weight of gate is to be neglected. (Note Lbat for
simplicity we do not show th e reactions at 0 .)
Find: Force Fa required to maintain the gate in equiHbrium .
·I:;;-
< = y2
. a
.y
f· 2- 0: - - -- -- - -- -'--- x
J& _
:Q.·
X
_-·iii,
.x..- ~;c!.~
~
-- .· ,c
·
(a)\System F.BD Cl;i}l'•h.ifl ·(lui~-fori:es ,tel.Fluid' for:ces,
Solution: Vle will take mo ments about point O _a fte r find)ng the magnitudes and locations of tlie horjzontal and venical forces
due to the water. The free body diagram (FB"'?.) of the s{~r~m is shown above in part ~a). Before p ~oceeding we ne_e d to think about
ho w we compute F v, the veaj!:_al SP!PP-9!1.CI\t of,t,h e n1.,1}d fo rce- we have st:,i.t,e~: tp.4.t it is eqV~1'.tiif mffgQ'.i,t'jJde .a nciJocario n) to
e
l h e \V o
·
1 ubt offlo,d
·. -
diretLI)'
..
'";3c•:--
alfQ.vi}_
.. • -. ·
.LJi ~ d,ii-;ve
-:;..,~;;- .
;4 ~
s1,1rf c:e.
"
H owev·er, we have no •.
nu iadlrectly
-, . ••
above rhe.
•
-ga.te~(~V.;;ii-
~-- -"' ••• • - -
.'i1
Ji;Jg -
J1~ ); s\:'fe·a.r
-·
tJ,at the nuid does exert a vemc·aJ_Io~~e! W~ ne·ed r~ do a "th~~_g ht ~xper01en C:' in which we im•if"~neTiµyi ~g .l!~~i ~'ii m w~:t.h
water o n botl1 s ides ofiJi~:.i ~te (wjt~~:~~!}..~~~~t), m~?:US a !~:~tern With w'!Ie~- d1rectly ab?,ve lh~Ajte (,y11foi'i'\~e*~riiTes f1ip.d
fo rces). Tbjs logi_f _i_sfd.s;fo.o,ff.~[A\te d ~9-~Y(,,_,,~ ~~s,tstem FB~,('ra) = the _null_FBTI(b) -the nu~g.{orces FBD'('c) . Tntis"'the verp_cfa]
and horizontal ou1 d f9'-%,~f.?.I) ,W:S.sy~~ ~p,.f F?~(9.)'. are equal ~d opposite ~o those on FBD~c). In s um~ary, the m a,goittfde
and location of the vert:ical n_ Li;9 {or:e F v ~~'~ten. by tl1e we'.g_ht and locauon_of the centr01~ of the fl uid "above" tlie gElie;
the magnitude and locai.ion of t11e horizontal fluid force F H are g iven by the magmtude and locauon o f the force o n an equif 'aTe"ri l
vertical nat plate.
Governing equations:
_ A)t = )' + l.i.i Fv = pg¥ ,l=waterc ente cofgraviry
F N -pc e Aye
For FH. tbe centroid, area, and second moment of the equivalent ve rtical .flat plate are, respectivel y, Ye = he = D /2,A = Dw,
and 1.<i = wD3 / 12.
FH =pcA = pghcA
D D2 kg m (4 m2 ) N -s2
= pg-D w=pg-w = 999-~ x9.8 1-:, x - -- xs mx - -. - ( 1)
2 2 m~ s- 2 kg -m
Fu = 392 kN
and
h .•
) r' =)•
c
+ -
Aye
D wD 3 / 12 D D
=- + . =-+-
2 wDD/ 2 2 6
? ?
I = ~D = j x 4m = 2.67 m (2)
3.5 Buoyancy and Stability 69
For Fv, we need to compute the weight of water "above" the gate. To do this we define a differential column of volume
(D-y)wdx and integrate
01.111 Jy-/a
21
Fv=pgV·=pg 1 (D-y)wdx=pgw1 (D-..jax 1 )dx
?
=pgw [ Dx-j,/ax3f2 o
·] f>'I• [D3 ?
=pgw ~-jvtaa3/2
D3] = pgwD3
~
3 2
ka m . (4)3m l N ·s '(3)
Fv=999__.E.x9.81-x5mx---x- · x - - = 2 61 kN
m3 s2 3 4 m kg · m
The location x' of this foi:ceis given by the location of the center of·gravity of the water "above" the gate, We recall from statics
that this can be obtained by using the notion that the.moment of F v and the moment-of the sum of the differentiai weights about
the y axis mus( be equal, so
(4)
Now that w~ have det.errnined the :fl1,1id forces, we can finally take moments about O (taking c:~ to use the appropriate signs),
using the results of Eqs. 1 t!u:01,1gh 4 · ·
X:MQ== _:_fFa+XFv+(D-y')FH=O
1 .
Fa= l~~ Fv + (0-y')FH]
== ... 1
m
[1.2 mx26i IcN +(4-;2~67)tn-x392kN]
5
Fa= 167 kN.,..- ~ ~ ~ - - - - - - - - - F . _ a
3-5 Buoyancy and Stability

If an object is immersed in a liquid, or floating on its surface, the net vertical force acting on it due co
liquid pr¢ssure is termed buoyancy. Consider an object totally immersed in static liquid, as shown
in Fig. 3.9.
The vertical force on the. body due to hyclrostatic pressure may be found most easily by considering
cylindrical volume elements similar to the one shown in Fig. 3.9.
-y
I!
z .!dci\•id;
,densify'6 p.
i
I I
Fig. 3.9 Immersed body in s fatic liquid.
Cha pter 3 fluid Stat ics
70
We recal l that we can use Eq. 3.7 for com putin g the pres sure p at dept h h in a liqui d,
p=p o+p gh
The net verti cal pres sure force on the elem ent is then
dF, =(p o+ pgh 2)dA -(po + pgh1 )dA =pg( /12 -h 1 )dA
But ('12 -hi) dA = d¥, the volu me of lhe elem ent. Thus
F~ = J dF, = Lpg dV- = pg¥
whe re¥ is the volu me of the obje ct. Hen ce we conc lude that for a subm erge d body the buoy ancy forc e
of the fluid is equa l to the iveig ht of disp lace d fluid, ·
Fbuoynricy =pg¥ (3 .16)

This relat ion repo rtedl y was used by Arch imed es in 220 o.c . to dete nnin e the oold cont ent in the
crow n of King Hier o Il. Con sequ ently , it is often calle d ·'Arc hime des' Princ iple. " rn°m ore curr ent tech -
nicaJ appl icati ons, Eq. 3.16 is used to desi gn disp lace men t vess els, flota tion gear , and subm ersib les [l].
The subm erge d obje ct need not be solid . Hyd roge n bubb les, used to visua lize strea kline s and time -
lines in wate r (see Sect ion 2.2), are posi tivel y buoy ant; they rise slow ly as they are swep t alon g by the
flow . Con vers ely, wate r drop letS in oil are nega tivel y buoy ant and tend to sink.
· Airsl1ips and balloohs are term ed "ligh ter-t han- air" craft . The dens ity of an ideal gas is prop ortio nal.t p
mole c;illa r weig ht, so l)ydr ogen and heliu m are less dens e than air al the.s ame temp eratu re and pres sure·.
Hyd roge n (Mm =2) is less dens e than heliu m (Mm =4) , but extre mely flam mabl e, whe reas heli um is·
inert . Hyd roge n has not been used com merc ially sinc e lhe disas trous expl osio n of the Gem 1an pass eng er
airsh ip Hind enbu rg in I 937. The use of buoy ancy forc e to gene rate lift is illus trate d in Exam ple 3 .8.
E,cample J.8 .BUOYANC:V FORCE IN A HOT AIR BAL LOO N
A hot air- ballppQ (app tQxi ql~.t ed as a sphe ~. of cU$ eter ~0 ft) i~ ·tp lift a bask et lQicld. ,;,f 6()() lbf. To wh~t temp etatµ re mus
t the air
b¢' h.e&~ec:1 lri Oi:4¢! l _o µphi ev¢ lifto ff? _. . _ . .
Give n: Atm osph ere al STP , diam eter of ballo on d :;:50 ft. and load W1oa d = 600 lbf.
Find : The hQt air temp eratµ re co attai n lifto ff.
Soh. 1tion : A;pp ly the buoy ancy e~llation. to ~ete m:rin e ~e
. . · . •i·b ·
the vert ical.f orce equ1 1 ·num equa aon
lif'
~~n¢ rated by atm~ sphe :, and appl y
to obta m the hot air dens ity. The n use the idea l 0 .!IS equa uon
· ·
to obta in the..hot air temp eratu re.
G_qy.erning ~quptions:
Fbuoy :incy = pg· ¥ "F.
L.J
,-=0 j)=jj RT
Assu mpti ons:

:Idea l gas.
2 A~o sph eric pres sllre throu ghou t.
~u(D.Ining vert ical f•rces
.£Fy == Fbuo yun< ;Y- Who1 Dir-W io11d = Pa1r nl:¥- Phot nir8¥ - Wioo d~o
Rearrangirtg and sqlv ingf oi; Phot. aJr (1,1sjng (lata from App end. ix A);
3-5 Buoyancy and Stability 71
W1ow1 6W.ond
Phot:ur=P~tm- .g¥ =Potm- nd3g·
. . slug . 600 lbf . s2 . ~Jug•{t
=0.00238 ft3 -6X ir(S0) 3 ft3 X n.2 :ft X ·s2·. ll>f
. .. . . slug slug
Ph1>~1!ir =(0.00238-'-0.0002 85) f't3 =0.Q02QS) ft3
Finally, tcn,btafo the temperature ofi:ftls hot air; we can use the ideal gas equation
in the'following form ·
. Ph9.1oJr Po!fT!,. .
Pho1w,RTi.1>toi; - R~;,;,~ta,.;.
.tiild with'j:'.hoi:oir-;:::;.Piunf
· Potm • '0.00238
. •. . • .
'.l'hoil)1i·=T,ii,n:- - - . ==.(4.60;+59) Rx (j b0209 =,59J ·.R
Photrur •
Thotajr-
Tiiopur-='1'3 l"F.,..-.......---.,------- ------~~~= "-
Equation 3.16 predicts the net vertical pressure force on a body that is totally submerged in a·single
liquid. ·In cases of partial immersion, a floating body displaces its own weight of the liquid in which
il floats.
·The line of action of the buoyancy force; which may be found ·using the methods of Section 3.4, acts
through the centroid of the displaced volume. Since floating bodies are in equi.l.Jbrium under body and buoy-
ancy forces, the location of the line ofaction of the buoyancy force determines stability, as shown in Fig. 3.10.
F.~Ji1,Y. f.~ ,;g

'(·a)•sti ble ('6)\·l!!l_l~ta_!?!e
.: •. ·:.
Fig. 3 .1o Stability of floating bodies.
Toe weight of an object acts through its center of gravity, CG. mfig. 3.1 0a, the li,n~.Qf action of the
buqyancy and the weight ate offset .in such a way as i:o produce a coupie that tends to right the craft. In
Fig. 3 .10b, the couple tends to capsize the craft.
Ba\.last rnay be needed to ac_hieve roll stability. Wooden warships carried stone ballast low in the hull
to offset the weight of the heavy cannon on upper gun decks. Modern ships can.have stability pi:Qblelll$ as
well: overloaded ferry boars have capsized when passengers all gathered on one side of the uppet dec;l.c,
sp.iftii;ig the CG laterally. In stacking containers high on the deck of a container ship, care is needed to avoid
raising the center of gravity to a level that may result in the unstable condition ~epicfed in Fig. 3. lOIJ.
For a vessel wi_th a relativ¢ly flat .bottom, as shown in Fig. 3. I Oa.. the restoring moment increases as
roll angle becomes larger. At some angle, lypically that at which the edge of the deck goes below water
level, the restoring moment peaks and starts to decre_a se. The moment may become zero at some large
roll UI1gle, known as the angle of vanishing stability. The vessel may capsize if the roll ex,ceeds this angle;
then, if still intact, the ves_sel may find a new equilibrium state upside down.
The actual shape of the restoring moment curve depends on hull shape. A broad.beam gives a large
lateral -shift in the line of action of the buoyancy force and thus a high restoring moment. High freeboard
above the water line increases the angle at which the moment curve peaks, but may make the moment
dr~p rapidly above this angle.
Sailing vessels :ire subjected to large lateral forces as wind engages th~ sails (a boat under sail in a
brisk wind typically operales at a considerab le roll angle). The lateral wind force must be counteract ed by
a heavily weighted keel extended below the hull bottom. In small sailboats, crew members may lean far
over the side co odd additional restoring moment to prevent capsizing [2).
Within broad limits, the buoyancy of a surface vessel is adjusted automatica lly as the vessel rides
higher or lower in the wmer. However, craft that operate fully submerged must actively adjust buoyancy
and gravity forces to remain neutrally buoyant. For submarine s this is accomplish ed usin:g tanks which
are flooded 10 reduce excess buoyancy or blown out with compresse d air to increase buoyancy [ 1). _Air-
ships may venl gas to descend or drop ballast to rise. Buoyancy of a hot-air balloon is controlled by
v;µ-yi:ng the air temperatur e within the balloon envelope.
For deep ocean dives use of compresse d air becomes impractica l because of lhe high pressures (the
Pacific Ocean is over 10 km deep; seawater pressure at this depth is greater than 1000 atmospher es!).
A li_q uid such as gasoline, which is buoyant in seawater, may be used to provide buoyancy. However,
because gasoline is more compressi ble than water, its buoyancy decreases as the dive gets deeper.
Therefore it is necessary to carry and drop ballast to achieve positive buoyancy for the return trip
to the surface.
The .most stiu~rural.ly efficienl hull shape for airships and submarine s has a circular cross-sect ion.
The buoyancy force passes through the center of the circle. Therefore, for roll stabilily the CG must b _e
located below the hull centerline. Thus the crew compartm ent of an airship is placed beneath the hull
to lower the CG.
'.3.6 Fluids in Ri!!id-B qdy Motion (on the Web)
3. 7 Summa ry and Useful Equatio ns

lri this c;hapter we have reviewed tt,e basic concepts of fluid statics. This included:
✓ Deriving the basic equation qf fluid statics in vector form.
✓ Applying this equation to compute the pressur~ variatio~ in a static flui<;I:
• lncompre$ sible liquids: pressure ir:icreases u_niformly ~11th depth. _
• Gases: pressure decreases nonumfor mly with elevation (dependen t on other thermod y-
namic prop~rties ).
✓ Study of:
. Gage and absolute pressure. _
• Use -of manomet ers and baromet~ rs. _
✓ Analysis of the fluid force magnitud e and location on submerge d:
• Plane surfaces.
• Curved surfaces. _
✓ Derivation and u.s ~ of Archimed ¢s' Principle of Buoy~ncy .
✓ Analysis of rigid-bod y fluid motion (on the web).
Note: Most of the equations in the table ·below·hav e a number of constraints or limitation s-be sure
(0 refer {O their page ,mmbers for de/ails!
Useful Equatio ns
dp (3.6) Page 50
Hydroslati c pressure: variation: -=-pg= .-y
dz -
Hydrostati c pressure variation (incompre ssible p-pr;=A. p=pgh (3.7) Page 52
flµid):
Problems 73
Table (Continued)
Hydrostatic pressure variation (several ilp=g"i:,;p1h; (3.8) Page 55
incomi:>ressible fluids):
Hydrostatic force on submerged plane (integral
form):
FR= jpdA
,\
(3 .10a) Page 60
Hydrostatic force on submerged plane: FR=PcA (3. IOb) Page 60

Location y 1 of hydrostatic force on submerged
plane (integral):
)'FR= jypdA (3.1 la) Page 61
Location y' of hydrostatic force on submerged y' pg sin 0h, (3.11 b) Page 61
=ye+
plane (algebraic): FR
Location J' of hydrostatic fotce on submerged , lxx (3.1 lc) Page 62
Y =Ye+--
plane (pc, neglected): Aye
Location .); of hydrostatic force on submerged
plane (integral):
.);FR= jxpdA
,I
(3.12a) Page 62
Location _r of hydrostatic force on submerged , pgsin0/_~ G\.12b) Page 62

plane (algebraic): X =Xe+ FR
Location J.J of hydrostatjc force on submerged l.ey (3.12c) Page 62

plane (po neglected): X=Xc+ Ave
Horizontal and vertical hydrostatic forces on FH=PeA (3.15) Page 67
curved submerged surface: and Fv=pg¥-
Buoyancy force on submerged object: Fbuovnncv = pg¥ (3-16) Page 70
We have now concluded our introduction to the fundamental concepts of fl1.1id mechanics, and the
basic concepts of fluid staties. In the next chapter we will begin our study of fluids in motion-
1. Buecher, R.. and L . Rydill, Concepts. i11 Submarine Design_ 2. Marchaj, C A .• Aero-Hydrodynamics of Sailing, rev_ !:d.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Camden. ME: International M.irlne Publishing. 1988."
Standard Atmosphere descending, how far will the airplane descend b.!!fore your ears
3. 1 Because the press.ure falls, water boils at a lower temperature ''pop" again? AssuQJe a '!).S. Standard Aanosphere.
with increasing altitude. Consequently, cake mixes and boiled eggs. 3.3 When you are oli a mountain face and boil water, you notice tlµi't
among other foods, must be .c ooked different lengths of time. Deter- the water temperatqre is l 95°F. What is your approxima_ce .a ltirude'!
mine 1.he boiling temperature of water at LO00 and 2000 m elevation The next day, yoiJ are at a location where i~ boils at 185~F-: How' higp
on a standard day, and compare wiLb the sea-level value. did you ¢limb between the two days? Assume a. l;J.S. Stan~-
3.2 Ear "popping" is an l!npleasant phenomenon sometimes experi- Almosphere.
enced when a change in :pressure occµrs, for example in a fast- 3.4 Yollr pressure gaug..e indicates that the p~s~ in·your·co~d r;ir;es
moving elevamr or in an airplane. If you are in a two-seater airplane is 0.25 MPil. gage on a mountain at an elevation of350Q m. Wliiu:'i$·
at 3000 m and a descent of 100 m causc;s your ears lO "pqp," what the absolute pressure? After you drive down to sea level. yoiµ: _lµe$
is the pressure change that. yoyr ears "pop" at, in millimeters of hl!,ve wanned to 25°C. What pressure does your.gaug~ now.-i ndic'/i~J,
mercury? If Lhe airplane now rises lo 8000 m and again begins Assume a U.S. Standard Atmosphere ..
74 C h ap te r 3 F lu id S ta ti cs
e. D et er m in e th e de pt h in fe et at w hi ch th e
P re ss u re V a ri a ti o n in a s
·· ta ti c F lu id w ith ~eptl1 be lo w lh e su rf ac
en t.
e ap pr ox im at e so hi tio il is 0. 0 I pe rc
so lid on k is he ld su bm er ge d by a te th er as er ro r m pr es su re pr ed ic te d by th
3 .5 A 1~ -m L cu be o f th e bo tto m su rf uc e in er is lo w er ed sl ow ly be ne at l1 lh e Q
th e ac ru aJ fu rc e of th e w at er on 1
3- 4 A n in ve rt ed cy lin dr ic al co nl .a
sh ow n. C al cu la te pe d in th e co rit ni ne r is co m pr es se d
. ~urfacc of a po ol of w at er . A ir tr ap
o f th e cu be l!lld th e te ns io n in th e te th er re in cr ea se s. D ev el op an ex pr es -
1
~o th en na lly as th e hy dr os ta tic pr es su
he ig ht , )'. in si de lit e co nt ai ne r in te rm s of th e co n-
si on fo r ~1e w at er
_r Oil la m er he ig ht , H , an d de pt h of su bm er si on , ft. Pl ot y/ H ve rs us h fH.
•J•_r:n~~ ,.,,rJ:e d
3. l 5 A ,~ at er ta nk fille · ·w ith w nt er to ad ep th of 16
co ve r (I m · x l ·m . ) at it s ba se . he ld in pl ac e by a plastic bm ck
·
ft ha s an in sp ec ti on
· The
eL
:,:.13 W at er
e br ac ke t st ro ng en ou gh ? If it is
· m
br ac ke t ca n ho ld a lo ad o f9 lb f. Is th '
J.. th h · ea k?
w ha t w ou ld th e w- at er d ep av e. to_ be to ca us e th e br ac ke t to br
.. . · .
3 .1 6 A ·· n co n( ai ns w at er an d m er cu ry . W ha t
. th pa ru uo ne d ta nk as sh ow · ·
,s e .,"a.ge pr es su· re m · the ai r tr ap pe d in th e left ch am be r? W ha t pr es -
P3 ,5 . ·.· .
su re w ou ld th e IU· T on th e le ft ne ed to be pu m pe d to in or de r 10 br in g
d= l0 m m 1 I th
e w at er IIIld m er cu ry fr ee su rf ac es le ve l? ·
D•~T, ~~_l-_ _ ""<
____,· 7
~
;
h= 25 r: nm
~ l:~ I H !2 0 0 m m
-~- -··::· -
0. 75 m -3 .7 5 m
3 in
P3 .6
M er cu ry 3 in
d ,v ith m er cu ry at 20 °C . C al cu la te th e
3.~6 The;: tu ~ sh ow n is fi lle
fo rc e ap pl ie d: tQ the pi st on . P 3. 16
d•ga ~e .p re ss ur e in ,iµ i op en tn nk of q1 1d e
·3 _.7 O µc ul ru e l.heabscilute nn is cl os ed an d pr es sl ir iz ed 1 o- fl ui d m an om et er sh ow n. C al cu la te · ch e
oi f2 ..4 -m !;?elow .th e liq ui d st .ir fa c~ If ~ e· tn iik 3- 7 C on si de r th e tw
ut e.l lil d ga ge pr es su re s at th is lo ca ti on ? ap pl ie d ·p re ss ur e di ff er en ce .
to ·1 90 kP a. w ha t ar e th e·ab~.ol
ns ca rb on te tr ac hl or id e to a de pt h o f 6 ft
3 .a A n op en v ~ e l co nt ai a . de pt h o f 5 ft . W ha r is
rb on te tr ac hl or id e to
an d w ~t er on th e ca
el ?
th e pressure at Ifie bo tt om o f th e ve ss
b~ w it h sid _e s IO O ·m m fl oa ts at th e in te rf ac e W at er
. .9 .A b~l.!i:lw i:netal cu
:'3
:Betwe'etiJi.::Jayer-of:water.a nd aJ ~y er-.o fS A E lO W oi ls uc h th at 19 .% o
:.
renc·e
f
1 ll
ih~ t~ ~:"i$:.'_e;"lC~~AA JP' i.h f/ oi l.- W h~ t is th e pr es su re ci i:f fe
ag e
zo nt !l l sw fa ce s? ·W l11 ,1t i$ th e av er
~t w i: e. n' tb ~:up pe r- rm di ow er ho ri Carbon
te tra ch lo rid e
de,n,sity. o (..~ ¢ cµ ,~ ?
4Q lb m ) is _s to ~ d. in a sp he ri ca J. t.µ lk of /
3. 1 .0 C om pt es s.~ -nio:.oge n (l
a f 77 °F . W ha r is th e pr es su re
:d ia m et er .D = 2. 5f t a:c te m pe ra tu re o
m µm al lo w af i.J e st te ss in ih e ta nk is
~"sic!e · che. tnnJc? If ih e m aj e
· ss . o f th e U lll k.
eo re tic iil w al l lh ic kn
3 0 ks i, fu id ·th e m in im um ih
!i di -. h e ~ p ~ c; w .e I~ Ji _s .r, ,;; w it li z, nn dp at er -a n! i ke rose ne . W it h b o th .
3~1:1 ~1 Jt th e$ ¢1 ic ~9 hJ i. ql n c.o ri la in s w
e.s p~ if ic w ei gh t
_ ,~ c: i:e -re s~ 11 ,re· 3{ !~·Th,:emljrioriietet: sh ow ns di f'r e; b y
bo tf i·.z er o;·s ho w ilm t, it k::;;.c on si an t; .th ph er e, tli e jfye- sµ rfiu: :e el ev at io
rubes Opt':n\ tQ. th e ac m ~s er en ce w he n a pr es su re
e el ev at io n di ff
~~venhY H o = 20 .0.m m.. D et em un c th
E
/.Uld p = ~ E ln ( 1 + ;:J~)
y~
of 98 .0 P a ga ge . is ap pl ie d to th e ri gh t tu be,
ss m :e Il l a !'.)ep th o f 2 km as su m in g lf o =
C al c; :L !l~ s~ if i-~ w ei gh t !U ld J> re 20 m m
r> = J0 .0 lc l'l /m 3
an d E = 20 70 M P a.
: is si gn if ic an t
_I
ih e co m pr es si bi lit y o f se aw at er
3 .1 2 .I n·tb ~-d ~ p -~ en ta ge
in ii s ef fe ct on_ p .a nd p. If E = 2 .0 7 x I 0 9
Pa . fi nd th e. pe rc
re S as
Ke ro se ne
pr es su re at a de pt h o f I 0, 00 0 m !,t
c;:bange in !h e ci.ensity an d de r th e.in co m-
o b ~ e9 - c1,t th e sa m e de ·p th un
co m pa re d to rtJe vajuc;s 3 an d th e ab so lu te pr es -
.. · W at er
pressibi~ .a ss um pt io n. Let 0 = 10 p
20 ,ic g/ m
· ·
su ~ p. , c;: l.0 1. 3 kP a
·m o. du lu s,.i s co ns ta nt fo r se aw at er , de ri ve an
3 ..1-3·:Assi.uiling th e -bu lk e su rf ac ~.
w it h de pt h, /:,, be lo w
. th P.3.18
ex pr es si on fo r thi: dcm~i ty va a
ri_,ti.o n
S ho w th at th e re su it lli iiy be w ri tte n if li qu id A h as
. p -;,:;_p0 + b h pr es su re in kP a at po in t a,
3 .1 9 D et er m in : th~ ga ge d "m g p o·in t
th e su rf ac e. Ev aJ µa te .th e co ns ta nr b. T he n. S.G =-
1.
. 20 an·d hq u1 d ·B ha s SG
· = 0 75
· · T he liq u·
1 d su rr ou n
WhsC!:C Po is th e de ns it y ac . to · th e
_ an no sp he re .
a 1s w at er , an d th e U!-i:tlc on th e le ft is op en
ta jp <!Jl e
_ _q ua lio nf qr th e V :\Qatjon.pf pr es su re
J•.ism~ th ea w to xi .m ¢o n;
ob
Problems 75
3.24 A reservoir manometer has venlcal tubes of diameter

D = I 8 mm and d = 6 mm. The manometc;r liquid is Meri am red
oil. Develop an algebraic expression for liquid deflection L in the
small tube when gage pressure tlp is applied IQ the reservoir. Evaluate
the liquid deflection when the applied pressure is equivalent tQ
25 mm of water gage.
d=6mm
3.20 With the manometer reading as showri. calc.ulate P.T·

__ j~-- Equilibrium level
Oil
(SG 0.85)
i n.
t
3.25 A rectangular tank. opcri to the attnosphere. is fjllcd with water
to a depth of 2 ..5 m as shown. A U-rube manometet·is connected to.
/ the tank at a location 0.7 m above the tank bottom. Ifthe zero level of
Merc1,1ry 60 in.
the Meriam blue manometer fluid is 0.2 m below the cqµne,:;ti9i4
p_.
determine the deflection l after the manometer is connected and· all
-~.-,;
' -~----..L
air has been removed from the connecting leg.
P3.20
3.21 Calculme p_,-py for this inverted U-tube manometer.

~
/ OrHSG 0.90)
3m r
-2 ·. 5 m
I P3.25
P3.21
3.26 The sketch shows a seccionill view through a submari.n:e•. Gal-
3 , 22 An inclined gauge having-a tube of3-mrn bore, laid on a slope culate the depth of SJJbmergem;e. y. Assume the s~cific weight of
of 1 :20. and a reservoir of 25-mm-diameter contains silicon oil (SG seawater is 10.0 kN/m3 • ·
0.84). What distance will the oil move-along the rube when a pressure
of 25-mm of water is connec1ei;i to the gauge? Atmos. pressure 74mm-Hg-
3.23 Warer flows downward along a pipe· that is inclined ai: 30" lII
below the horizontal, as shown. Pressure difference p,,. -p8 is due
partly to gravity and panly to friction. Derive an algebraic expression
for the pressure difference, Evalu~te the pressure difference if L = 5 ft
andh=6~ . .. 50•
Conventional
Water
T
~=rj-
-
Hg
840 mm
_l_
--!-----'
.Hg
a
_:\:-1_ -----· ; 7 ----
T'
h. .
Merq1ry- ~ lL
2 J.2 7 The manometer reading is 6 in. when the.f unnel is c:m.pcy·(:wJi!;er.·
2 surface at A). Calculate the manometer. rea~g when. the. ~ i ;f;is
f!3.23 filled with water. · · ··
Chapter 3 i='iuid Statics
76
3;35.Based a°)?JY,ie:nttno:spli'e ric tem~r]iL-µ~J.!l.~~Qt t11~ U,S,Sfii9d_n rd Q
Atmospl(ere'o(iElig. 3.3, compli\~ rui<J:ploi::tllc,p ~1ru~,v.!ll'i!itiQnwith·
nln~u~e; @!l c9mp~ with .t he pressure.a~oi'T11)?!~tii~.
3.36 Algrt>undJeveLin ~en\iec=i Coloradb;,lhe, atnlOJ;J>llenc;p~sµre Q
lli1d teqip,c:rnajre are '.83.2 KPa, IIJ)d-25°C. -~_ iy_ci!,\afe ilie::pressiire ori
Pike's 'p_eak a_(~- ~le~atio_il of i(i9.(l m lib'ove: lhc:-city: ~su~g
(a) aft ).rigqijlpressil:ile and (b) an·!l!li~bntjc:;j._aj\9:;p_h~cc. fb;1t:t.he ratio
of P.~U~~Q' ID:Oi.iJ1d· le.v el i:ire,ss'i,iie·in·Denvet as n:Junpij.91r.o(.ele-
vatjo1i"for \foiltcnses. · · · ·· · -- -
. 28 A reservoir_ CT)~.QffifJ~t i$5.a,JJ,~&J~f} P~il~ffi:.~'li_~!-\id·:9f5.pi;'-

3_
:f;
- .'? "-!j7. ffi , ·· · ·- ·- ·"'":.·duuiietec01s:;5LS.,m/ and,ihe:vecncnl
~;~gc~-~- ~Ji.§jij:~~~;:~ ,~~~f~f~tiili~~-"~;t\~¢eii
marks on !he ven.i cal scale qh~!~St R.~~ll~-pifferefii;i;.
for-1 ffi.
3.29 The inclined-rube manomer~r;-~!?~ ;h;iS...Q~ :'2,~::~ : llQ~
~~i![~l~~i~
and-a= ,-'.d '.f/4tis .ilitfleinpemtuQ! l~pse i;ute; find p(,) when,:uif'J~
,! *en,~o ~n:,~efe'tj_t.,gii,§, (;iiv~ ipe-11,n.~\vet in terms or Po, a; g, Rand
·~only~
d = mm. Determine !he nng(i;; (ff~~, . :f'
5ff~:J;~ ~
,~1¾BE~-~~ii~~~~~
in Liquid detlecnon. L. compared with: _ ,,;. _,(! ,_ ?lff.~U,Jl:~l~;
U-mbe manometer. Evaluate the seosm vlly of !his mclmecl-tu'!le
manometer.
-to;0.3-litm/Wlilit'isfffic,'t@till & e o f action?

D
-------- t~~~tit!:i;~![lf:J:~Jj ti~:ii:it:,:~{foce
3_:.:4:~__k ijydropneliimitic. el~vntot ,cpiisists (i'.f',n . pis1onc~lir,-de~, Q
P3. 29, P3.30 ~~!;JJ.y to lift:tp~ c;lcvil!Qr,'l:lio.- Hydraulic oil, stored 'iri an:1icci.i,-
o Trie: ~ manometer shown ·ruis D,'#- 76-mm-, arid
fu~4itot iilnk p~stirize.it -~Y-
nfr:, ,~ vaJv°i:<1 :,l o· ih~1ii~ton·
t!S .ne~di!'l
to. M th¢. elevatbr. \Ylje11 tqe, elcvntor·descends, oil is retunii:d to .
:~ mm. and.is@J~' w.!Of~~--~c! 0 ~ ::Q~i#P9,¢ :¢~ ~gl~:Q, ·the accum11li!,tor. D~!gn:-llj!;.' lel!S~ ~1!,pe~siye ~<:c11mii,Jntor µi~i: can·
t.hal will oive a 1$iciim:oi,l(dcfle¢tio1f'a lQ~g •ipe:-mµliped.,WQ.e _
for. 1JA is:
satisfy tJi.e systt~~-, req!tltem~rils.-:~ssume ,the liJ't J flQOIS.,. !-1:i~-
appl.ted P~~ 9.tfis-mrif 'of-~g~~~~!e~i ftl;i_~--ien:sitiviQ' .m~m~ ili~cfis 10·p_~e~g~r.;,:aiJi:llhim!liiij_iµm·sys1~m pfciisu~
of this manom e ter; _ is SOO·kPn-gn:ge, For c.ohmm ~ndlµg s~ngtl),:th~ pis1on ciia,rneter
~~~~ii~rafiiilk:l
~ti~S:~!];tiiiS~Ci
; Jiy~';i!~i: ✓desigri?"Why?
. ---~- -·..? t•'\\'h·.-arwowd

"'ere
ter rube?
·
, . -be.ilie_~ colwnn
.
s h i a l J ~ opea-eiW~ tube
he1gJJ~m"a
• _,.,, 1.~mm-.d1ame~.
_
inserted.:at· th¢
il~:r;:ti:;¥J~ii~u1i~~h~~=
Qtlculate the fon;e f.';(-re9u~.ioi:. e9~11ii>i;iuih. ·
3-33 Co nsider a - . · 7 : .. - - · - - -. ·· ·t - dlffi t densities·
~ E'i1~:~~~~~==~
the two Outd denstt;!_e , p 1___:ujij;c'R_2;!', ~ ~-'~~ .s_Lli:filC;.c _t~DSIOD
an <T H =25 ft
,,
anole e for !he two 11_.µJ!i; ' ~~ .Jf-lhe-n.v.o -flwds ~ ·W.8 ~!'.'.
and me~~. f-µ1.9 the heigltt di~rei.ic,tilH!i~fu,l?:c:.~ ~Js40:.{Dils -,
( I mit;,'cfoo 1 in.). . R = 10 ft
3if34 Compare the he ight due to <:api!:!~ ~Q,i!•, :\V/',~ ~(~~ -¢ ;;:::;:::::::;;;;;;;;;;==-;h,u~--
· - ·• . · ' ~-- ~~ wbe of diameter D=0,5mrn, ·a nd o etween two
to ::ur ~ --:ll, .. .. .. ··• = P314"1
infi.njtc verudiJ•:p ahiJlel plates of gap a = O,:, mm.
Problems 77
3.42 A circular gale 3 m in diameter has its center 2 .5 m below a 3.47 Gates in the Poe Lock at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan. clo~ a
water surface and lies in a plane sloping at 60°. Calculate magnitude. channel W=34m wide, L=360m long. and D=.JOm deep. The
direction, and location of total force on the gate. geometry of one pair of gales is shown; each gate is· hinged at the
3.43 For the situation shown, find the air pressure in the tank in psi. channel wa.11. When closed. the gate edges are forced together ar
Calculate the force exened on the gate at the suppon B if the gate is the center of the channel by water pressure. Evaluate the force
10 fr wide. Show a free body diagram of the gate with all the forces excned by the water on gate A. Determine the magniwde and direc-
drawn in and their points of application located. tion of the force components exerted by the gate on the hinge.
Neglect the weight of the gate.
r.========a.1-Hi nge
Airatp., T'' Plan view: y
2,tt Hinge
Rectangular
gate Pi·N1
IV= 34 m
I
P3.47
3-44 What is the pressu~ at A? Draw a free body diagram of the
I 0-ft wide gate showing all forces and the locacions of their lines
of·action. Calculate the minimum force P necessary 10 keep the gate 3.48 Calculate the minimum force P n~ary to hold a unifonn
closed. 12 ft square gate weighing 500 lb closed on a Ul)lk of water under
a pressure of IO psi. Draw a free body of the gate as part of your
Hinge solution.
Air
Air
at
p= 10 ~i
Air
I 8 ft
Hinge_
\ _:___
)~.,!;;;== P
4====;:;lft Water
-
Oil (SG £ 0: 90)
P3.44
3-45 A plane gate of uniform thickness holds back a· depth of water

as shown. Find the minimum weight rieedec;l to keep I.he gate closed.
3.49 Calculate ~onirude alid locatipri <>f .the ¢suhant fon:e·,.of

water on tllis annular gate.
Water
P3.45
3 .46 A rectangular gate (widtl1 w=2 m) is hinged ns sbo,vn, witll a

stop on tl1e lower edge. At what deptl1 H will the gate tip? 3md
J>3.49
A verticnl rectangular gate 2.4 m wide and 2.7 m high is sub- 3.55 The gate shown is hinged at H . The gate is 3 m wide normal to
.
.ected 10 water pressure on one s1"d e, the water su rf:~ce b emg
3·50 a t th e tl1e plane of the diagram. Calculate the force required at A to hold the
J fthe gate. The gate is hinged at the bottom and 1s held by n hor- gate closed.
top o . tl . . th b . ?
izontal chain at the top. What 1s 1e tenston m e c am .
A window in the shape of nn isosceles Lrinngle and hinged al
g !: 1
top is placed in the ve~c:U wall of a form that comains !iquid
concrete. Determine the m1mmum force that must b~ applied at
inl D 10 keep the window closed for the configurauo n of form
=d concrete shown. Plot the results over the range of concrete depth
o:,;c:,;a
P3.55
3.56 A solid concrete dam is to be built to hold back a depth Q.

D of water. For ease of consuuction the walls of Ille dam must be
. L. .
c=l 0;°25,m
planar. Your supervisor asks you to consider the following dnm
cross-sectio ns: a rectangle, a rigllt triangle will1 the hypotenuse in
contact with the water, and a right triangle with the vertical in contact
with the Willer. The supervisor wishes you to determine which of
D these would require the least amount of concrete. What will your
P3.51 report say'? You decide to look at one more possibility: a nonright tti-
angle, as shown. Develop and plot an expression for Ille cross-sectio n
area A as a function of a, and find the minimum cross-seclit:ma,1 ~~-
.52 A large open tank conUJ!ns waler ~d is connected to a 6-~--
3
diameterco nduit as shown. A c1rculnrplu g 1s used to seal the condu1L
Determine_the magnitude, direction, and location of the force of the
-w~ter on the plug.
Water
..---.,.,,e,= ;:a
ID=61l
P3.56
3.57 For the dam shown, what is the vertical force of the water on
Plug
the dam?
311
311
3,53 Tlle circular acc«;:Ss pon in tho,: side o~ a wnter slillldpipe has a 311
clinmeter-of 0.6 in and is held in place by eight bolts evenly spaced
lTop
around tJ:ie cin::umfere nce. If the slalldpipe diameter is 7 m and the
center of.the port is·located 12 m below the free surface of th_e water,
determine (a) µie total fo_rce on the pon and (b) the appropnate boll :31,:311: 61t :3 ,1:311 : :311:311:
diameter.
3 ft
3.54 The gllte AOC shqwn 1s 6 ft wide and is hinge~ along 0. :.W~t~r · 3ft
Neglecting the weight of the gate, determine the force m bar AB.
3ft
The gate is sealed a t c;.
3ft
311
_I_A
3 ft Fronl Side
P3.57
3.58 The parabolic gate shown is 2 m wide and pivoted al O~

· Water c=0.25 m- 1• D=2 m, and H=3 m. Determine (a) the magnitude
and line of aclion of the vertical force on the gate due 10 the water,
(b) the hopzontal force applied at A required to maintain the gate in
equilibrium , and (c) the venicl!-1 force applied at A required to main-
P3,54 tain the gate in equilibrium .
Problems 79
J'
lJ 1---w.-~t~c,--~✓
LL~- 0
3-59 An open rnnk is filled wilh water to Ihe depth indicated. Aunos-
pheric pressure acts on all outer surfaces of the tank. Determine the
magnitude and line qf action of the vertical component of the force of
Ihe water on the curved part of !he tank bouom. 3 .63 A hemispherical shell 1.2 m in d iameter is connected .to
the vertical wall of a tank coml;iining water. If the ceMer o f the
shell is 1.8 m below the· water s urface. what are the vertical and
horizontal force components on the shell? On the top half of
the shell?
3.64 A gate. in Ihe shape of a quarter•cyiinder, hinged at A and
sealed at B. is 3 m wide. The bottom of ·the gate..is 4 .5 m below
the water surface. Determine Ihe force on the stop at B if !be gate
is made of concrete; R = 3 rri.
P3-5.9
3.60 A dan1 is to be constructed using the cross-section shown.

Assume the dam width is we: 160 f't. For watec height H=9 ft, cal-
culate the magnitude and line of action of Ihe vertical force of water
cin the dam face. Is it possible for water forces to overturn Ihis dam?
B
Under what circumstances will this happen?
A= lit
B= 10112
.,,.-Water
3 .65 A cylindrical weir has a .diameter of3 rt1 and a length of 6 m.
Find the magnirude and directioli of the· resulmnt force acting on the;:
weir from the · water.
I
3 .0 m I
I 1.5 m
I
vz<:+-n--J
3.61 The quruter cylinder AB i.~ .10 ft long. Calculate magnitude. Pj,.65
direction, and location of the resultant force of the water on AB.
3.66 A curved surface is formed as a quarter of a circillar cylinder
with R=0.750mas shown. The surface is. w=3.55m wide. W~r-
staods to the right of .the curved sµrface to depth-H = OA_50 m. Cal:..
'.8.fti
culate the verticai hych:cfs~tic foi:ce on the curve,;! surface . J;v$lilate
·A -
-- ,1..y~- the line of acti<,m of this force. Find the magninide:;aµ_d ~e ofaction
of tbe.horizon1al force QD the surfuce. ·
~~~'~ ,
P3.61
- B
\\'ate r
-,-H
3.<,2 Cnlculate ihe magnitude, direction (horizorilaj and vertical
ci:>mpo(lents ~ acceptnbie), an_d line of action of the resultaot force
exerted by the w ater on the cylindrical gate 30 ft long.
- - ' - - - - :~ : E Z~JI J
80 chapter 3 Fluid Statics
Buoyancy and Stability

_6 If you throw nn unchor out of your canoe bul the rope is loo Water-
3 7 r. the nnchono res1 on the bottom of the pond, will your canoe 0
s h on ,or .,
flonl higher. lower, or sray the srunc. Prove your answer.
6 iri. x-6 ·in. x -20 f
Anchor-__..
Q .68 Toe cylinder shown is sup!'orted by an inco~prcssible liquid
3 density p. nnd is hinged along its le~g~.
,,, 5fCt I
of The cyhnder, of mas~ M.

th L. and radius R. is immersed m liquid to depth H . Obt:no a
1
eng _, -ypression for the cylinder specific gravi1y versus lhe ratio 3-73 Find the specific weight of the sphere shown if its volume
eene, .... -
;;f liquid depth 10 cylinder radius. a= H / R, needed to hold the cyl- is 0.025m3 • State all assumplions. Whal is the equilibrium position
inder in equilibrium for O !:ea< I. Plot the results. of the sphere if the weight is removed?
10 kg
cii Water
P3.73
p3.68
3-7 4 The fat-to-muscle ratio of n person may be determined from a
3.69 A hydrometer is n specific gravity indicator, the value being specific gravity measuremenL The measurement is made by immer-
indicated by the level al which lhe free surface intersects the s te m sing the body in a tank of water and measu_ring the ne.t weig~lt.
when floating in a liquid. The J.0 mark is the level when in dis tiUed Develop an expression for tl1e specific gravity of a person· in terms
,vater. For the .unit shown, the immersed volume in distilled waler is =
of their weight_in air. net weight in wa_ter, and SG /(T). fo_r water.
15 cmJ. Toe stem is 6 mm iii dirum~:t.~r. Find the distance, h, from the 3-7 5 An open tank is filled 10 the top with. water. A steel cy.lindfi~_.µ,·
1.0 mark 10 the surface when the hydrometer is placed in a nitric acid container, wall tl1ickness o= I mni, outside diameter D= 100 n:im, - -::;;;. ..
solution of specific gravity 1.5. and height H = 1 m, with an open top, is gently placed in t11e water.
What is the volume of water thnl overflows from the tank? How many
I kg weights must be placed in the ccinlniner to mnke it sink? Neglect
surface tension effects.
3. 7 6 If the limber weighs 670 N, calculate its angle of inclination
when tl1e water surface is 2 . 1 m above tl1e pivot. Above what depth
•~ltric will the timber stand vertically?
i!Cid
P3.69
3.70 A cyliridrical can 76 mmin diameter and 152 mm hig~. we ig~-

ing I.I I N, contains water to a depth of 76· mm. When this can 1s
place,d in water, how deep will it sink?
3.71 If me· JO-ft-long box is floating on the oil-w_ater system, calcu- P3.76
late how much the box and its contents must weigh.
1------B ft------1
3. 771l1e barge shown weighs 40 tons and carries a cargo of 40 tons.
Calculate its draft in freshwater.
50 ft
Oil (SG = 0 .80)
8 ft
w.ater -~o:n, -
P3.71 P3.77
3.72 The timber weighs 40Jb/ft3 nod is held in a horizontal position 3. 7 8 Quantify the experiment ~rfprmed by Archimedes to idem.i.fy
the material comenl of King Hiero' s crown. Assume you can measure
by the concrete ( 150 lb/ft3) anchor, Calculate the minimum total
the weight of the king"s CT0~\'.11 in air, Wa, and the weight in water,
weight which the 3.Qchc;,r -may have.
Problems 81
\V,... Express the specific gravity of the crown as a function of these 3.84 The stem of a glass hydrometer used to measure s pecific grav-
measured values. ity 1s 5 mm in diameter. The distance between marks on the stem is
3-79 Hot-air ballooning is a popular sport. According 10 a recent 2 mm per 0.1 increment of specific gravity. Calculate the magnitude
article ...hot-air volumes must be large because air heated 10 I 50°F and direction of the error introduced by surface tension 1f the
over ambient lifts only 0.018 lbf/ftJ compared 10 0 .066 and 0 .071 hydrometer floats in kerosene. (Assume the contact angle between
for helium and hydrogen, respectively." Check these s tatements kerosene and glass is 0".)
for sea-level conditions. Calculate the effect of increasing the hot- 3.85 A sphere of radius R is partially immersed to depth d in Q
air maximum temperature 10 250°F above ambienl. a liquid of specific gravity SG. Obtain an algebraic expression
3.80 h is desired to use a hot air balloon with a volume of for the buoyancy force acting on the sphere as- a function of
submersion depth d. Plot the results over the range of water depth
320,000 ftJ for ndes planned in summer morning hours when the
air temperature is about 48°F. The torch will wann the air inside 0:$d :$2R.
the balloon to a temperature of 160°F. Both mside and outside pres- 3.86 A sphere of 1-in.-radius made from material of specific
sures will be ..standard'" (14.7 psia). How much mass can be carried by gravity of SO= 0.95, is submerged in a tank of water. The sphere
tl1e balloon (basket. fuel. passengers. personal items, and the compo- is placed over a hole of 0.075-in.-radius in the tank bottom. When
nent of the balloon itself) if neulrnl buoyancy is 10 be assured? What the sphere is released, will it stay on the bottom of the tank or float
mass can be carried by the balloon 10 ensure vertical takeoff accelera- to the surface?
tion of 2 .5 ft/s 2 ? For this, consider that both balloon and inside air
have 10 be accclem1ed, as well as some of the surrounding air (10 make
way for tl1e balloon). The rule of thumb is that ll1e 101al m ass subject 10
acceleration is the mass oftl1e balloon. all its appuctenances, and twice
its volume of air. Given thnt the volume of hot air is fixed during tbe
flig ht. what can the balloonists do when they want 10 go down?
3.81 The opening in the bottom of the tank is square and slighlly less
than 2 ft on each side. The opening is to be plugged with a wooden
cube 2 ft on a side.
(a) What weight W should be auach·e d to the wooden cube to insure
successful plugging of the hole? The wood weighs 40 lb/ft3 • P3.86
(b) Whal upward force must be exected on the block to lift it and
allow water to drain_from the tank? 3.87 You are in tl1e Bermuda Triangle-when you see a bubble plwni;:
eruption (a. large mass of ai.r bubbles, similar to fqa.m) off to the.side
of the boaL Do you want 10 bead 1owa.rd. it and be pan of the action?
What is tlle effective derujity of the water and air bubbles in the draw-
ft .W!iter ing on tl1e right that will cause the boat co sink? Your boat is 10 ft
5 long, and weight is the same in both cases. ·
l.l'---::?ft.> I _l
T -. lft .Water rushin~ in!
.r.
2ft
-r
7ft
_J
Sea wa~er
r
P3.81
Fh;1at1ng Sinking
3.82 A balloon has a weight (including crew but not gas) of 2.2 kN
and a gas-bug capacity of 566 m 3 • Al the ground it is partiaUy inflated
with 445 N of helium. How high can this ballo<;>n rise in the U.S. 3.88 Three steel balls.(each abo.ut h.µf an inch in diameter) lie at the
Standard Atmosphere (Appendix A) if the helium always assumes bottom of a plastic shell floating on the waler s_urface in a partially
tlu; pressure und tem~niture of tl1e atmosphere? filled buckeL Someone removes the steel 1:ialls from the shell and
3 . 83 A helium balloon is to lift a payload to an altiruc;le of 40 km. carefully lets them fall to _the bottom of tbe bucket, leaving the plastic
where the atmospheric pcessure and temperature are 3 .0 mbar and shell co float empty. What happe_n s to-the water level in the bucket?
-25°C, respectively. The balloon sldn is polyester -wir.h ~pecific grav- Does it rise, go down. or remain unchanged? Explain.
ity of 1.28 and thickness of0.015 :mm. To maimain-a spheri.cal shape. 3.89-A proposed ocea.ri salvage scheme involves pumping air into.
tJ1e balloon is pressurized to a gage pressure of 0.45 mbl!,I'. Detennine "bags" placed within _a nd around a wrecked vessel on the sea-bottom.
the maximum balloon diameter if the allow,ible tensile stress in tl1e Comment on the practicality of this plan, supporting yo_ur c.~ ri~lu-
skin is limited to 62 MN/m2 • Whal payload cµn be carried? sions wilh analyses.
4
CH AP TE R
Basic Equations in In tegr a l Fo rm

fo r a Control Vo lum e
4.6 Mom entu m Equ atio n for Con~rol Volu me
_4."1 Bas ic Laws for a syst em
Reia tion of:s yste m Deri vativ es to the with Ar.bitrary Acc ~leta tion.(¢.n the Web)
4-2
tori trol Voh,1m¢ Foti n~la tion 4. 7 Thi;! Ahgula..t~Moro,entUIJi Prin ciple
4,j ._c ;gn~ e~_tiqil c;,f Ma·ss 4.8 Thi;! f..ir;$t al:id S~~on~ Laws.of Ther;moi;lyn~_m.ics
:4-4 M!> men tum:Equattlln. ~~r tne~iiJL{;;Qi:\t tol V.olµtne 4-.9 Summary, andlisef.1:il Eqµatipn~ ·
4_5_
=~:.=~~~~:~-~~!~i;,;:tf":rto. t RfY.Qi.4me
. -.a...
us·e subm erge d turbi nes. The first figur e show s a hori zo~t a,-,a.~B;
Oce an Cur ren t Pow er: The Vivace turb ine (whi ch is simi lar to a wind ·t urbin e) and a verti caI~axis
The flow .of wate r in the curre nts of the ocea n and river s repr esen t turbi ne. In each case , colu mns, cable s, or anch ors are req·u i.red
a largi fsour c:e of rene wabl e powe r. Alth ough ocea n and river cur- to keep the turb ines stati onar y relat ive to the curre nts with whi ch
rent s mov e slow ly com pare d to typic al wind spee ds, they carry a they inter act. For exam ple, they may be tethe red with cabl es, in
grea t deal of ener gy beca use wate r is abou t 1000 time s as dens e such a way that the curr ent inter acts with the turbi ne to mai ntai n
as air, and the ener gy flux in a curre nt is direc tly prop ortio nal to its loca tion and stabi lity; this is arial ogou·s to unde rwat er kite
dens ity. Henc e wate r mov ing at 10 mph exer ts abou t the sam e flyin g in whic h the turbi ne plays the role of kite and the
amo unt of force as a 1oo-m ph wind . Ocea n and river curr ents thus ocea n-bo ttom anch or, the role of kite flyer. Turb ines can incl ude
·c onta in an enor mou s amc;,unt of ener gy that can be capt ured and vent ud-s hape d shro uds arou nd the blade s to rncre ase the flow
conv erted to a usab le form . For exam ple, near the surfa ce of the spee d and pow er outp ut from the turbi ne; In regio ns with pow -
Flori da Stra its curr ent, the relat ively cons tant extra ctab le·en ergy erful curr ents over a large area , t1,1rbines co1,1ld .be asse mble d in
clust ers, simi lar to wirid turbi ne farm s. Space woul d be need ed
dens ity is abou t 1 kW/ m2 of flow area . It has been estim ated that
betw een the wate r tur!;>ines to elim inate wak e-in tera ctio n
capt.u ring just 1/1QOOth of the avail able ener gy fron:i the Gulf
effec ts and to allow acce ss by main tena nce vesse ls. The eng inee rs
strea m cdul d·sup ply Flori da with 35 perc ent of its elect rical need s.
at Strat hcly de also discu_s s ~tie third device show n in the figu re, an
· ocea n curr ent ener gy is at an early stag e of deve lopm ent, and
oscil latin g foil desig n, in whic h a hydr ofoil 's angl e of attac k wou ld
only a .sma.11 num ber of prot otyp es and dem onst ratio n ~nits _have
Atea m of youn g engi neer s at the Univ ersit y of be repe ated ly adju sted to gene rate a lift force that is upw ard,
; far e
b!:!_ n t~ste d,
0 then dow nwar d. The mech anism and contr ols wou ld use this
strat licly de ih ·Scot land rece ntly.did a surv ey o_f curr ent dev1;?l:o.p-
oscil latin g force to .gene rate powe r. The adva ntag e of this desi gn
m~n ~. They foun d_that. perh aps the mo~ t obvi ous appr oach 1s to
A h.o rizo ntal - ·ar:i:d a v.ert ical- c1xis turb ine, arid an osci ll~ti ng foil devi ce.
82
Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume 83·
is that there are no. rotating parts that could become fouled, but
the dis.advantage is that the control systems. involved would be
quite complex.
For ocean current energy to be commercially successful, a
number of technical challenges need to be addressed, including
cavitation problems, prevention of marine growth buildup on
turbine blades, and corrosic;m res,istance. Environmental concerns
include the protection of wildlife (fish and marine mammals)
from turning turbine blades. ·
As the research in these types of turbines and foils continues,
engineers are also looklng at alternative devices. A good example
is the work of Professor Michael Bernitsas, of the Department of
Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering at the University of
Michigan. He has developed a novel device, called a VIVACE
converter, which uses the well-known phenomenon of vortex-
induc~d. vib.rations to extract power from a flowing current. We
are all familiar with vortex-induced vibrations, in which an objec;:t A VIVACE converter.
in a flow is made to vibrate due to vortices shedding first from one
side and then the other side of the object's rear. For example; The device also does not obstruct views or access on the water's
cables or wires often vibrate in the wind, sometimes sufficiently surface because it can b.e installed on the river or ocean floor. lt'-s.
to make noise (Aeolian tones); many factory chimneys and car probable th~~ this new technology is gentler on aquatic; lire
antennas have a spiral surface built into them specifically to sup- because it is slollV m,oving <!.nd mimics. the natural vortex patterns
press this vibrq'tion._Another famous example is the collapse .o f created by_the· movement of swimming fish. An installation of
the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in Washington State in 1940, which 1 "1 .5 ic:m (less thari 1/2 mi 2 ) in a current of 3· knots could gener-
niany engineers believe was due to vortex-shedding of cross ate enough power for 100,000 homes. A prototype, funded by the
winds (a quite scary, but fascinating, video of this can easily be U.S. Department of Energy and the Office Naval Research, is cur-
found on the Internet). Professor Bernitas has made a source of rently operating in the Marine Hydrodynamics Laboratory at th·e
energy from a phenomenon that is usually a nuisance or a danger! University of Michigan.
The figure.shows a conceptualization of his device, which con- The design of a device such as the VIVACE converter brings in
sists of an assemblage of horizontal submerged cylinders. As the the basic relations for a control volume as present~d in thi!i ~ha:p.,..
current 'flows across these, vortex shedding occurs, generating an ter. The flow of water through it is governed by the conservation
oscillating up-and-down force on each cylinder. Instead .of the of mass principle, the forces by the momentum principles, .and
cylinders being rigidly mounted, they are attacheq to a hydraulic the energy produced by thermodynamic l;iws. In addition to these
system designed in such a way that, as the cylinders are forced up basic relations, the phenomenon of vortex shedding is discussed
and down, they generate power. Whereas existing turbine sys- in Chapter 9; the vortex flow meter, which exploits the pheno.m-
t_e nis need a current of about 5 knots to operate efficiently, the enon to me.a sure flow rate, is discussed in Chapter 8. We will dis.a
Vivace can generate eriergy usi.ng currents that are as slow a·s cuss airfoil design in Chapter 9 and concepts behind the operqtiqn
1 knot (most of the earth's currents are· slower than 3 knots). of turbines and propellers in Chapter 10.
We are now ready to study fluids in motion, s6 we have to decide how we are to exaqiine a flowing fluid.
There are two options available to us, discussed in Chapter 1:
We can study the motion of an individual fluid particle or group ofparticies as they move through
space. This i~ the 9'Stem. appro~ch, which. has the jldvantage that the physi~l).). laws (e,g., Newton's
second law, F = dP/ dt, where F is the force and dP/ dt is .the .@ te of mo¢¢.ntiJm chang!! of the fluid)
apply to matter and hence ·diteetly to the system. One· disadvantage is that in practice the math•asso"
piated with this approach can become somewhitt complicated, usually leading to a s.e t of partial dif~
fe~ntial equatiolis. We will look at this approach in-petail in Chapter 5. The system approach is needed
if we are interested 4J.studying the trajectory of particles over time, fc,>r example, in pollution srudies.
2 We can study a ret:ioi1 ofspace as fluid flows through it, which·is the control volume approach. This is
very often the method of choice, because it has widesp~ad practic·a1 ;;ipplication; for example, in aero-
-dynamics we are usually interested in the lif~.apd drag on a wing (which we select as part.of the control
volume) rather than what happens to iilc!ivic;l4a.l fluid particles. The clisadvantage of this approa~h is
Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volum·e
84
that the physical laws apply to matter and not directly to regions of space. so we have to perform some
math to conven physical laws from their system fommlation to a control volume formulation.
We will examine the control volume approach in this chapter. The alen reader will notice tlmt this chap-
ter h:is the word integral in its title, and Chapter 5 has tl1e word differential. This is an imponant dis-
tinction: It indicates tlmt we will study a finite region in this chapter and the motion of a particle (an
infinitesimal) in Chapter 5 (altl1ough in Section 4.4 we will look at a differential control volume to derive
the famous Bernoulli equation). The agenda for this chapter is to review the physical laws as t11ey apply
to a system (Section 4.1 ); develop some matl1 to conven from a system to a control volµme (Section 4.2)
description; and obtain formulas for the physical laws for control volume analysis by combining the
results of Sections 4.1 and 4.2.
4.1 Basic Laws for a System

The basic laws we will apply are conservation o.f mass. Newton's second law the anou)ar-momentt,un
principle. and the first and second laws of thermodynan~cs. For convening these sy;em equ;tioris to
equivalent control volume formulas, it turns out we. want to express each oft.he laws as a rate equation.
Conservation of Mass
a
For a system (by definition specified amount of matter, M. we have chosen) we have the simple result
=
that M constant. However, as discussed above, we wish to e;xpr~s ea,cl:i physical law as a rate equation:,
so we write
dM)
-
dt
-o
systcm -
where
Msy,1em= {
JM(sysrcm)
dm=l ¥(sys1cm}
pd¥ (4. lb)
Newton's Second Law

For a system moving relative to an inenial reference frame. Newton's second law states that the sum of all
external forces acting on the system is equal 10 the time rate of change of linear momentum of the systen1.,
- dP)
F=-
dr
(4.2a)
sysu:m
where the linear momentum of the system is given by
Psys•==1M(system) v dm= JT'(systcm)

f v pd¥ (4.2b)
The Angular-Momentum Principle

The. angular-momentum principle for a system states that the rate of change of angular momentum is
equal to the sum of all toi:ques acting on thc'f system,
-T=dt
dH) (4.3a)
system
where the angular mo,mentum of the system is given by
iisystem = 1 .rx "

M(sys1cm)
dm 1 .
= .+<(_sy_s1cm) F x v p d¥- (4.3b)
4.2 Relation of System Derivatives to the Control Volume Formulation 85
Torque can be produced by surface and body forces (here gravity) and also by shafLS I.hat cross the system
boundary,
f = r x F's+ { rX g dm + Tsruift (4.3c)

},\f(sy.<1cm)
The First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is a statement of conservation of energy for a system,
oQ-oW=d.E
The equation can be wrinen in rate form as
. . dE)
Q-W=- (4.4a)
dt system
where the total energy of the system is given by
Esystcm = r
JM(systcm)
e dm =
J
r¥(systr:m)
e p d¥- (4.4b)
and
v2
e=u+ +gz (4.4c)
2
In Eq. 4.4a, Q (the rate of heat transfer) is positive when heat is added to the system from the surround-
ings; W (the rate of work) is positive when work is done by the system on its surroundings. In Eq. 4.4c, u
is the specific internal energy, V tp.e speec,t and z the height (relative to a convenient datum}of a particle
of substam;e having mass dm.
The Second Law of TherJT'!odynamics
If a!l amount of heat, 8Q, is transferred _to a systeill at temperature .T. the second l<!-W of thermodynamics
states that the change in entropy, dS, of the system satisfies
0
dS> Q
-T
On a rate basis we can write
dS) 1 .
- ~-Q (4.5a)
dt system -T
where the total e11ttppy of the system is given by
Ssystcrn = r S. dm
l,11(systcnt) ·
=
J
r
¥(system)
s p d¥- (4,5b)
4.2 Relation of System Derivatives to the

Control Volume Formulation
We now have the five basic laws expressed as system rate equations. Our task in this section is to develop
a general expressiotrfor converting a system rate-equation into an equivalent control voluille equation.
Instead of<;oQvertingthe equations for rates of change of M, P, ii, E, and S ~qs. 4,la, 4.2n, 4.3a, 4.4a.
nnci 4.5a) one by one, we let all of them be represented by the symbol N. Hence N represents the amount
pf mass, or momentum, or angular mo mencum, Of energy, or entropy of the system. Corresponding to
this extensive property, we will also need the intensive (i.e., per unit mass) prpperty ,,, Thµs
NsySlcnt = r . ,,
JM(systcm)
d11i = 1
.'i -'(syslcm)
'I p ,d¥ (.4.6)
Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume
86
Subregion (1 l
of region I
(a) Time, , 0
Fig. 4.1 System and control volunie configuration.
Comparing Eq. 4.fi with Eqs. 4.1 b, 4.2b, 4.3b, 4.4b, and 4.Sb, we see that if:
N=M, thcm,7=l
N=P, Ou~n,r=V
N=H, then ,r=,rx v
N=E, then 1J=e
/'l=S, thep.17 =s
How can we derive a conrrol Volume description from ,a system description ,ofa i'iuici'fiow? Beforef
sp~ifically !IJ}SWering this question, we can describe the derivation in general terms. We-imagir;ui~'Select~
ing an arbitrary pi~ce of the flowing fluid at some time to, ~ shown in Fig. 4.l_a-we ,c ould im~gine
dyeing this piece of fluid, say, blue. This initial shape of the-fluid system is chosen as our control volume.
which .is fixed in space relative td coordinales .'l.')'Z. After an infinitesimal Lime Lir lhe system will have
moved (probably ·changing shape as it does.so) to a new location, as shown in Fig. 4.lb. The laws ,we
dii;cussed above apply to this piece of fluid-for example, its mass will be constant (Eq. 4.la). By
ex~ng the geometry of the system/control. volume pair at t = to and at r =to+ Lit, we will be able
td obtain control volume formulations of the basic laws.
Derivation
From•Fig. 4. I we see that the system, which was en!i,rely wilhin the control volume at time to, is partially
out of the control volume at time to +Lit. In fact, three regions can be identified. These are: regions I and
n, which mgelher make up the control volume, and region ill, which, with region II, is the location of the
system at time to +Lit. _ _
·· Recall that our objective is to relate the rate ofchWJge.c;,faQy arbitrary extensive property, N , of the
system ro quantities associated with the control volum~. f'roin lhe definition of a derivative, the rate of
change of Nsysicm is given by
dN) = lim Ns)1o+tl1-Ns),0 (4.7)
dt __syslclit · tlt-:0 Llt
Feit cop,veniM~e. subscript s has, been used to denote the sysce~ in lhe defihl.tion of a derivative
in ISq.4.7.
From the geometry of Fig. 4 . 1,
and
4.2 Relation of System" Derivativ es to the Con~rol Vol ume Formulat ion 87
System boundary
at time ,0 + o,
Fig. 4.2 Enlarged view of subregion (_3) from Fig. 4.1.
Substitutin g. into Lhe definition of the system derivative , Eq. 4.7, we obcain
dN) = lim (Ncv-N1+ N111),0 +.:1,-Ncv) ,0

dt s .:11-0 ill
Since the limit of a-sunt is equal to the sum of the limits, we .can write
dN) = lirn Ncv) 10 +.:1,-Ncv) ,0 + lim: N111) 10 +.i1__ lim N1),0 +il1 (4.8)
dr s ,i·, -o ilt .i,-o Ar .:1,-0 tu
<D ~ Q)
Our cask now 'is to evaluate each of Lhe three terms in Eq. 4,8.
Term CV in Eq. 4.8 simplifies to ··
. Ncv),o+d, -Ncv),o
l Im - - ~ - - - - ~
,Jr-0 ill
aNcv al
= -ar- = -at CV
di.i
Tf p --,,- (4.9a)
To evaluate term@we first develop an expression for Nm),.+.:1, by looking at tbe enlarged v~w of a
typical subregion. (subregion (3)) of regi"on ill shown in Fig. 4.2. The vector area element dA- 0f the
control surf~ce has magnitude dA , and its direction is the O!itlvard_!l OimaI of the area-eleme nt. In general(
the veiocity vector ii will'be at some angle a with respect.to dA.
For-this subregion we have
dNm),0 +ar = (Tf P d¥),o +a,
We need to obtain an expression for' the volume d¥ of this .cylindrj.ca l ~lement. The vector length of the
cylinder is given by ill= Vilt. The volume of a prismatic cylinder, whose area dA is at an angle a to its
length L1 T, is given by d¥-=ill dA cos a=4l- aJ
=ii• c/A4t. Hence, (or Sllb,:egion (3) we can wriJe
dNjri),o+d t=rrpV. dALlt
Tiien, for- t,he entire region I!I we can integrate, and for term ®in: Eq. 4;8 obtain
. Nm),.+.i,
,1,,...0 Lit
1· _fcs111 dNin),o+.:1,
l 1m - - ~ - = un
.:1,-0 tl_t
- =
lim fcs,. Tf pV
-
.11,--0:
~ - -_
-.
.dt
-dALlt
- --=
C$m
V- dA-
Tf p .
·
1· (4.9b)
We can perform a similar analysis for subregion (1-) oftegion l. and obtain for term: in Eq. 4.8
(4.9c)
for st.ibregii:>n (1), the velocity vector acts into the control volume,. but the an;a: normal always (by con-
vention) points outward (angle a> H /2). so the_scalar product in Eq. 4.9c is negative. Bence the minus
-sign in Eq. 4,9c is needed to cancel the negative resi.J.lt of the scalar product to make sure we ot;,t;ain a
positi\ie result for the amm1nt o_f matter that was in.region I (we c<!,n't haye negative matter),
· Thls,sonc ept of.the sign of the scalar pr0,du.Gt is illustrated-in Fig, 4.3 for (a) the general case of an
Wet.or exi~ ·(b) ;i.p exit velocjty par:allel to the surf&ce norm~. and (c) an. inlet velocity parallel to the
·s unace:u"om'l&l, Cases (b)°and (c) are obvious_ly ~onvenien t.special cases of (1.1:).; ·.t he vahie of the cosine in
C;!~e {a) aulo~_ati~il,lly generates .the correct sign of either an inle_t or ail exit, ·- - , ·
S8 chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume
cs
~ cs
\1 · d.4 = VJ.-\ cos a \I . dA = +V.L-\ 17 . J,\ = -VdA
(al General inleVexit (b) Normal exit (c) Normal inlet
Fig. 4.3 Evaluating the scalar producL
We can finally use Eqs. 4.9a, 4.9b, and 4.9c in Eq. 4.8 to obLain
dN)
d
I system
=a
a
I
1 ,,
CV
p d¥ + 1 ,, v-. - 1 v-. -
CS I
p dA +
CS,u
,, p dA
and the two last integrals can be combined because CS 1 and CSiu constitute the entire control surface.
dN)
-
c/r system
=-al
at CV
11 pd¥+ 1 __ CS
11 pV · dA (4. 10)
Equation 4.10 is the relation we set out lo obtain. It is the fundamental relation between the rate of
change of any arbilrary extens ive propeny, N. of a system and the variations of this property associated
with a con1rol volume. Some authors refer to Eq. 4.10 as the Reynolds Transport Theorem.
Physical Interpretation
It cook several pages. but we have reached our goal: We now have a formula (Eq. 4.10) that we can use
to convert the rate of change of any extensive propeny N of a system to·an equivalent formulation for
---
use with a control volume. W~ can now use Eq. 4.10 in the various basic physical law equations
(Eqs. 4.1 a. 4.2a, 4.3a. 4.4a. and 4.5a) one by one, with N replaced with each of the properties M. P.
ii, E, and S (with corresponding symbols for 17). to replace system derivatives with control volume expres -
sions. Because we cons ider the equation itself to be "basic" we repeat it to emphasize its importance:
dN)
-
dt
. ==
systi:in
a1· . 1 - -
-· a
I
.
cv
11 p d¥+
~
11 p V · dA (4.19)
We need co be clear here: The system is the maner that happens to be passing through the chosen control
volume,·at the instant we chose. For example, if we chose as a control volume the region contained by an
airplane wing and an imaginary rectangular boundary around it, ~e s~stem would be_the mass of the air
that is instantaneously contained between the rectangle and the aj.rfoil. Before applying Eq. 4.10 t<;> the
physical laws, lel's discuss the meaning of each term of the equation:
dN) is the rate of change of the system extensive property N. For example, if N = P. we
di •System obtain the rate of change of momentum.
~ { 11 pd¥ is the rate of change of the amount of property N in the control volume. The term
a,Jcv fcv ,1 pd¥ computes the ~nsrantaneous value ofN in the conlr~l volu~e <J~v pd~
is the instantaneous mass m the control volume). Forexan1ple, 1f N = P, then 17 = V
and f cv V pd¥ _c omputes the instantaneous amot1nt of momentum in the control
vol1,.1me.
is the rate at which property N is exiting the s urface of the control volume. The term
pV . dA computes the rate of mass transfer leaving across control surface area
element d.A; multiplying by 17 computes the rate of flux of property N across the
element; and integrating: ther~fore compEtes the ~t !!ux 2f N out of the control
volume. For example, if N = P. d1en 17 = V and fcs VP V · dA computes the net flux of
momentum out of the control volume.
4.3 Conservation of Mass 89
We make two commentS about velocity V in Eq. 4. J 0. First, ~e reiterate the discussion for Fig. 4.3
that car:e shouJd be taken in ev~uating the dot product: Becaus~ A is always directed_ outwards, the dot
product will be positive when V is outward and negative when V is inward~Second, V is measured with
respect to the control volume: When the control volume coordinates ;i:yz are stationary or moving with a
constant linear velocity, the control volume will constitute an inertiaJ frame and the physicaJ laws
(specifically Newton's second la,v) we have described will apply. 1
With these comments we are ready to combine the physical laws (Eqs. 4 . la, 4 .2a., 4.3a, 4.4a., and
4.5a) with Eq. 4 . 10 to obtain some useful control volume equations.
4.3 Conservation of Mass

The first physical principJe to which we apply this conversion from a system to a control volume descrip-
tion is the mas~ conservation principle: The mass of the system remains constant,
dM)
-
dt sys1en\
=0 (4.la)
where
Msysicm=1 dm= { pd¥ (4.lb)
M(sys1cm) J¥(system)
The system and-control volume fc;mnulations are related by Eq. 4.10,
dN)
-
dr syslcm a,
iJ!c
=....,..
CV
'I Pd¥+ 1 --
cs
17pV · dA (4.10)
where
N,ysr.r:m=1 '7dm= { '7pd¥ (4.6)
M(sys1c_m ) J1r(sys1cm)
To derive the control volume fommlation· of conservation of mass, we set

N= _M and. '1= I
With this substinitioli, we .obtain
dM)
- ---
dr- sys1cm
= - ak
at CV
pd¥+ k --
cs·
pV-dA (4.11)
Comparing_Eqs. 4. la and 4.11, we arrive (after rea,rrn,nging) at the control volume fonnuJation of the
conservation of mass: ·
{4 .12)
In Eq. 4.12 the_first term repres~nt~ the rate of ch_ru:1ge_9fmass Within the control Volum_e ; the second term
\rul,:o: ,H ass
~presents th~ net 111te of rnas.s flux out throug_q ·th¢ control su.rface. Equation 4 . i2 in4ica,tes that the:tate
·c o,uen ---cJtion:
of change .o f mass in the contr_oJ voJun)e p)us the net outflow Js zero. The CQ~s conservati_o n equation. is Filling a Tank
also called the continuity equation. In common-sense tenns, the rate of inci;ease of m:ass in the control
volume is_due to the net inflow of mass:
Rate of increase Net influx of
of mass in CV = mass
-a1·
iJt CV
pd-¥ - - f pV •dA
lc.s
1
For-wi-accclera_t!ng c_o ntrol volume {one whose coordinalC!, ,t}~ are nccelern1ing with respect 10 nli '"nbsol_u1e" s,;1 of coordinnles
XYZ)•. ,ve m1,1s_1 modify lhe foi:m of New!on·s scco_n d Jn,v-{E(j. 4 .2a). We will do !his in Sections 4.6 (lin!lat occeleration).~d 4_:7
"(orbiirary uccelcrntion).
0 chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Forni for a Control Volum·e
9
Once again, we note that in using Eq. 4 .1 2, care should be taken in evaluating the scalar product
=
\I. dA l'dA cos a: It could be positive (outflow, a< ,r/2), negative (inflow, a> Tt/2), or even zero
(a= ,r/2). Recall that Fig. 4 .3 illustrates the general case as well as the convenient cases cz=O and a= ,c.
Special Cases
In special cases it is possible to simplify Eq, 4.12. Consider first the case of an incompressible fluid, in
which density remains constanL When p is constant, it is not a function of space or time. Consequently,
for incompressible fluids, Eq. 4.12 may be written as ·
0
p-
0r 1CV
dV- + p 1 - -=
CS
V · dA 0
The integral of d¥ over the control volume is simply the volume of the control volume. Thus. on divid-
ing through by p, we write ·· · ··
av+
-
a,
1- -
cs
V•dA=O
For a nondefonnable control volume of fixed size and shape. V- =constant.The conservation of mass for
incompressible flow through a fixe_d control volume becomes ·
A useful special case is when we have (or can approximate) uniform velocity at each inlet and, exJJ-
In this case Eq. 4.13a simplifies to ·· · ·
~4.f31>)
Note that we have not assumed the flow to be steady in reducing Eq. 4.12 to the forTI1s 4.13a and 4.13b.
We have only imposed the restriction of incompressible fluid. Thus Eqs. 4.13a and 4.13b are statements
of conservation of mass for flow of an incompressible fluid that may be steady or unsteady.
The dimensions of the integrand in Eq. 4.13a are £ 3 /t. The integral of V •dA over a section of the
control swface is commonly called the volume flow rare or volume rate offlow. Thus, for incompressible
flow, the volume flow rate into a fixed. control volume must be equal to the volume flow rate out of the
conttol volume. The volume flow rate Q. through a section of a control surface of area A, is given by
Q= fv.dX (4.14a)
},1
Th<! average velocity magnitude, V, at a section is defin<!d as
V=~=¾1 V-dA (4.14b)
Consider now the general case of steady. compressiblejlow through a fixed control volume. Since
=
the flow is steady, this means that at most p p(x,y;z). By definition, no fluid property varies with time
in a steady flow. Consequently, the·first term of Eq. 4.12 must be zero and, hence, for steady flow, the
statement of conservation of mass i:-educes to
i.
cs
p v-t.lA;,,,o
. .. (4.15a)
A usefuJ special case is when we have (or can approximate) uniform velocity at each inlet and exit.
In this case, Eq. 4.15a simplifies to
(4.15b)
Thus. for steady flow, the mass flow rate into a control volume must be equal to the ma,;s flow rate out of
the control volume.
We will now look al three examples to illustrate some features of the various forms of the conser-
vation of mass equation for a control volume. Example 4.1 involves a problem in which we have uniform
flow a1 each section. Example 4.2 involves a problem in which we do not have uniform flow al a location.
and Exa mple 4 .3 involves a problem in which we have unsteady flow.
Example 4.1 MASS FLOW AT A PIPE JUNCTION
Corisiderthesteady flow ina water pipe joint shown in .th_e diagram. The areas are:A 1 = 0.2 rn 2, A2 =02 m , andA3 =0.15 m~. In
2
addition, fluid is Jost out of a bole at@, estimated at a rate ofO.J m 3 /s. The average speeds at sections(I) and (J)are V1 =5- m/s
an·cl V3 ;= 12 m/s, respectively. Find the velocity at section (2).
Given: Steady flow of water- throu~ h the clevice.

A1=·0 .2m2 A 2 .=0'2m;! A 3 =Q.l5ni;?
Vi = .5 rp./s Vj= i2 m/s p=999 kg/m3
Volume .flow rate· ~t@ = 0.1 m 3 / s
Find: Velocity at section(i).
Solution: Ch<:>ose a fixed control volume as shown. Malce an c1Ssumptio11 that
the flow at section (2) is outwards, and label the diagram accordingly (if 1.pis
assumption is incorrect ouc final result. will tell us).
Governing equation: The general control volume equation is Eq. 4.12, but
we can :go immediately to Eq. 4.13.b bec.a use of assll.ll)ptions ('.?,) ~cl (3) t,elow,
Les V-A =0
Ass.umptions:
I Sready flow (given).
- 1/ . -
2 incompressible flow. '
3 Uniform properties at each section.
Hence (usirig Eq. 4 .14a for the le!lk)
V-1 ·A1 + ii2 · X2+ V3•A3 +Q4 =.o (1)

wl;iere Q4 is the flow rate out of the leak.-
Let .us exariiii1~ ~he first three 1ertns in Eq, 1 in. i.jght of the discussion of
Fig. 4.3 and the direc;:tions of the velocity vecJors:
~,,-CD__ ---
~
Vi ·Ai = -- V1A1
-::--4...
Xi
,_
I
-----
I I Sigrt of V2 · A2 is }
I I { positive:jiq;urf~e<i. )
I
I
I
I
. . .. ·
I 1@
~_; 2 IJV2
92 chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume
Sign of V3 -A3 is }
{ positive at surface Q)
Using these results in Eq. 1,
OT
V1A1---'VjA3-Q4
.V2= . ·. ::·
.. A,
m .. - ~ m ~ m3
5- x0.2 m~- L2-x0. 15 m - - - --·
cu
~ - S. . .. S S
· ti:'.i.m2
= ,-4.5 rrt/s+--'------- ----V...:..
2
Re<~l1 that V2 represents the m~gniwde of the velocicy. which we assumed was
otitw~ from the control vpluqie. The fact ~ .a t V2.is negativ~ m¢ans that ifi fact
we. ~ave ~ inflow a~ l9c~t;iofr ~ µ f. iiµt,fal ,;IS!;µQ'.lp_tfon w:i.s invalid, . .
Example 4.2 MASS FLOW RATE IN BOUNDARY LAYER
The fluid in direct contact with a stationary solid boundary has-zero velocity; there·is no slip at the boundary. Thus the flow over a
flat plate ~dhen:5 to the plate surface and f?rms.a ·b_oun_d ary l!y:r, as depicted below. TI1e flow ahead of the plate is urt.i form with
veloci_ty V= Ui; V=30m/s, The velocity dJStnbunon within
the boundary layer (0 .SY.$ 8) along cd is approxunated as.
u/U =;; ,2(y/8)-'- (y/ 0)2. .. _ _
Toe 'boun.d ary-layer ilii~kness at location d is o= 5 .i;nm. The )'
=_,.__,c:::________,~~-
_!!__..
-:
--,
CV
__ .,-
_!!___..
___ _ ___ :------.:
,....-+;
Edge of
boundary
3
fluid is ·aif willi density p= 1.Z4 kg/m , Assuming the plate
wi~th pewen4i~ular to the paper to be w=0.6m. calculate the
Lx - , ___
• eFF ZJ Mfiifi:PS 1
a d
i
layer
mass flow rate across surface be of control vohµJle. qb<;d.

3
Given: siµ9y:, i.Q~oPJpressible flow over a £!at pl~te; p= L24kg/m • Width of place, w=0.6rn
Velo.<;ity ahe~d of plate is uniform: V = Ui. V = 30m/s.
At:x=~d:
~=51T.i,in
; =2G) ~ (~)2
Find: M!lSs. flow rate across surface be. _!!__.. CV ..J!....._

solution: The fixed control volume is shown by the dashedlines. )'
=,,_L_
-.
_____ c;,"~--
--- ...-. --.
-
_ ,i
-+- ____ - - r--
I
•. - .
6- =I 5 mm
Go.v.er.ning equation: The :zeneral control volume equation is
Eq, 4.12; 'bur we. c.~ go i.1DD1ed,iately to Eq. 4.15a be¢aus~ of Lx ______.,_p--
a
3£ •
......,
d
l
-e &i
.i:ssuriiption (1) ~low,
4.3 Cons ervat ion of Mass 93
Assu mptio ns:

I Stead y flow (give n).
2 Incom press ible flow (give n).
3 Two- dimen sion1 1l flow, given prope rties are indep enden t of z.
Assu ming that there is no flow in the z direct ion, then
no flow )
( acros s_da
I pV·d A+1 pV-dA+ f pV•dA+

]Aob AL~ 1~1a1 L ✓dA=O
Ado
(I)
.·.mbc=1 pV- dA= -

Abe-
r
},\ob
pV•d A- r
}Acd
pV·dA
We m;ed ~o evalu ate the integr ais on the right side of the equat ion.
{- - 1
For dep!:h w in the z direc tion, we obtai n
J,i
Alllb
pV · dA= -
Ao.1,.
pu·dA .= - 1.Y• puwdy
Yo 0
-v. dA is rtegatht«r_}- :.
{ dA= wdy .·_
=-1 6
pmv dy~ - /41, pUwdy
cJA
17
I
:
{u ,;= U over- ~a,a b}
- 0--
1 pV • dA
,i...
= -fpUw y]g = ~pUw 8
0 { v. dA is posjt ive}
1 --
Ant
1
pV dA= 01.)'c
"Int
pltdA =
Yd
puwd y I cJA
dA= wdy -
_ _ _ JI \I
=1
6 6
/4 pwu[2(~)-(~) pmv dy=
2
] dy 0
1 -
;1,.,
- _[yl
pV•< iA=p wU ~---- :-,,
8
l]
),3 ]
3.5- 0
=pw U8 1-- =1pUw
.. [
3
-
· --
3
li
-
6
!?~bs titutin g into Eq, l, we obtai n

. 2p-Uw 8 _ pUwl i
-- - -3 -- = -3--
. =pU- wli-
.".ntbc
1 _ m ka m
:::; 1 xl.24 m~ x30~ x0.6 rrtx5 mmx lOOOrom
P.os-"irl_v e sign indic ate flow .} --
,;,be =Q.03 n kg/s { _ ·out ~c~oss surfa ce be.
Exa mple 4-3 DEN SITY CHA NGE IN VEN TING TAN K
A tank of 0.0_.5 m3 voJ1_.1me conta in~ a.it at 800 kPa (abso hue) and 15"C._At t= 0, ait begin s .escaping from the ra.t¢ tliI:o~gh a valv~
witb,.a flow area of 65 mm2-. The air passi ng throu gh the valve has aspe.ed of 300m /sa.µ d a .de~i ty. of6 kg/m :3 , Qeter mig~· th¢
._in~ ~tarfe ous rate-o f·chan g¢ 9f dens1ty in the_tank at t = .0 . ·
·G .iven: Tank of volum e¥== 0:"05 m 3 contfiins air a~ p = 890 kPa{ absoi ute), T= l:5"C . At t= 0; ait~c apes thr9µgh:.i:i,--vitt"va Air
'leave s with speed V= 300"rtt/s a:nd densi ty p =6 kg/ m3 throu gh ~Ii: A= 65 mxµ2 • ·
ua tio ns in In te gr al Fo rm fo r a Co nt ro l V ol um e
94 Ch ap te r 4 Ba sic Eq
: Ra te of ch an ge of ai r d
. en sit y in th e ta nk at r =O . y
Fi nd
so lu tio n: Ch oo se a fix ed co nt to l vo lu m e as sh ow n by th e da sh ed lin e. Lx
G.o ve rn in g eq ua tio n:
-
0
or l cv
pd ¥+ l --
cs
pV •d A= O
Assumptions:
op er tie s .in th e ta nk ar e un if9 rtp , pu t tir ti. e-d i;p en de nt.
1 Pr
2 {Jniforin flo w ~t se ct io n (j).
can truce p ou t fro m wi th in !h e vo lu m e in teg ra l of th e
er tie s ~ as su m ed un ifo rm in $. e µu ik at an y in sta nt , w e
:Si nc e ·pr op
fin;t -te nn ,
0
l · ]+ 1. - -
or [ Pc v .
.CV
d¥ .
· CS
pV · dA =O
:r (p¥-)cv +JcspV · ciA=.O

o fth e co n( ro l vo lu m e is at ~.w:fac:e (D . f:J:ence
Th~ qn ly pl ac e where m as s cr os se s th e bo un da ry
Ip V •4 A = 1,Ap v- d X ana ~ (p ¥) + 1p·V -d A.:;::O
Jes
A t su..rface (j) m..e. sign of p V · i/A is p"os iti ve , so
a-( p¥ )+
-,
1
1· pV dA :;::0 -
iJr . ,At
~--
0.(- ,\'
_
:Slilce·I).pw is ·assumed 1,m ifO pn ov~r su rfa ¢e:G), th ¢n
a .•
(p ¥) + p 1 V1 Ai =O or
01
n:¢«:: ·th e :v ol u~ ~. ¥ , of th e ta nk is no t a fu nc tio n of ti.me,

SJ
ap .. ..
¥. cit = =P i V.A1
A t t= O ; ,,
i}p kg _ m -- 3 1 ID'"
o·-
__ ;;= -' 6 - x3 00s- X6 5 ·m m X Q.:: :,m
3 X !0'6 m-m2.
a, n;i 3
. } i)p
{T he de ns ity is de cr ea sm g. . ai
3 - - - - - - - - ~ -
ap = -2 .3 4( kg /m )/ s .
....- - - - -
ot
at io n fo r In e rt ia l C o n tr o l V o lu m e
4 .4 M o m e n tu m E q u
to n' s se co nd la w. W e us e th e sa m e pr oc ed ur e we
W e no w wi sh to ob ta in a co nt ro l vo lu m e fo rm of N ew co or di na te s (w ith re sp ec t to
ut io n; th e co nt ro l vo lu m e
ju st us ed fo r m as s co ns er va tio n, wi th on e no te of ca or di na te s ar e ei th er at re st
th e co nt ro l vo lu m e co -X)'Z
wh ic h we m ea su re all ve lo ci tie s) ar e in er tia l; th at is, XY Z. (S ec tio ns 4 .6 an d 4 . 7
ut e" s_e t of co or di na te s
or m ov in g at co ns ta nt sp ee d wi th re sp ec t to an "a bs ol rm ul ati on fo r a sy st em an d
n wi th th e m at he m at ic al fo
wi ll an al yz e no ni ne rti al co nt ro l vo lu m es .) W e be gi ul ati on .
e co nt ro l vo lu m e fo rm
th en .u se Eq . 4. ro to go fro m th e sy ste m to th
4.4 Momentum Equation for Inertial Control Volume 95
Recall that Newton's second law for a system moving relative to an inertial coordin1,1te system was
given by Eq. 4.2a as
- =dP)
F - {4.2a)
dt
system
where the linear momentum of the system is given by
Psys,cm=l
M(systcm)
Vdm= r
}¥(sysll!m)
V pdV- {4.2b)
and the resultant force, F, includes all surface and body forces acting on the system,
F=Fs+Fs
The system and control volume formulations are related using Eq. 4.1 O,
dN) = !.. r ,, p d¥ + r ,, p v. dA (4. 10)

dt system a, lcv Jes
To derive the control volume forinulation of Newton's second law, we set
N=P and q=V

From Eq. 4 . 10, wi_th this substitution, we obtain
-dP)
dr
system
=- al
a,
- cv
V pd¥+ 1-- -
cs
VpV-dA (4.16)
From Eq . .4.2a
dP)
dt
-
= F)on system (4.2a)
system
Since, in deriving Eq. 4.10, the system and the control volume coincided at c0 , the n
F)onsys1em = F')oncontrol volume

In .light of $is, Eqs. 4 .2a and 4 .16 may be combined to yiel_d tbe control volume foapulation of Newton's
second Jaw for a nonaccelerating control volume
(4. ft~
For cases when we have uniform flow _at eacb inlet and exit, we can use
. . -- - a-1· Vpli¥+
F =Fs+Fs;= - ~ - - ·A-
L,cs_· VpV
a· ._ _-• _
1. -CV - - ·-· ·
:gquations 4. 17a and 4.17b are our (nonaccelerating) control volume forms of Newton's second law. It
st1;1tes .that the tot;1I force (due to surface and body forces) acting on the control volume leads to a rate of
change of momentum within the control volume (the volume integral) aiJ.<Vor a net rate at which momen-
tum is. leaving-the control volume through the control surface.
We must be a little careful in applying Eqs. 4.17a. The first step will always be to carefully choose a
control volume and its·controlsurface so that we can evaluate the volume integral and the surface integral
(or summation); each inlet and exit should be carefully labeled, as should the external forces acting. In
fll.tjd mechanics th~ body force is usually ~:vicy, so
F's= r
lev
pgd¥-=Wtv=Mg
96 Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume
where if is the acceleratio n of gravity and W'cv is the instantaneo us weight of the entire control volume.
In many application s the surface force is due to pressure,
Fs=1-p dA
1\
Note that the mi!!us sign is to ensure that we always compute pressure forces acting omo the control
surface (recall dA was chosen to be a vector pointing our of the control volume). It is worth stressing
tb!!,l even at poims on the swface that have an ouiflow, the pressure force acts onto the control volume.
In Eqs. 4.17 we must also be careful in evaluating JcsYpV_• dA or 1:cs ypV. A (this may be easier to
do if we write them with the implied parenthese s, Jes V p(V • ,IA) or 1:cs Vp(V. A)). The velocity V must
be measured with respect to the control volume coordinate s ~")•z, with I.he appropriate signs for its vector
componen ts 11, v, and w; recall also that the scalar product will be positive for outflow and negative for
inflow (refer to Fig. 4.3).
The momentum equation (Eqs. 4 . 17) is a vector equation. We will usually write the three scalar
componen ts. as measured in the ·'-'YZ coordinate s of I.he control volume,
Fx=Fs,+F nz=!!.._ r upd¥-+ r upV-dA (4.18a)

ot lcv Jets
·F y= ai·
F s,+-Fp,= iJt ·. ..
CV
1· - -
v.pd:V-+ . ppV·dA
· C:S
(4.18b)
A =Fs. + F8 . = 1,; pd*+ J w pv. dA ,(4,r ~.¢.)

~ - •
!!..1
~ CV
· k .
or, for unifom1 flow at each inlet and exit,
1
0t ,CV
1
a1·
F'.,r=Fs +Fa = .- . . 11pd¥-+ ~
~ upV·A
. CS
-- (4.18d)
a1·· ~- - -
Fy=Fs,.+ F81 = - . v,pd¥-+~ vpV·A
01 CV CS
(4.18e)
Vicleo:
Fz=Fs,+ Fn,= a1· .
wpd¥+ ~
01
- -
w.pV•A (4. 18f)
.·.. . CY CS
~/<JlllellCIIIII
F.jfect. A Jct
t,11pacti11N a Note thaL, as we found for the mass conservati on equation (Eq. 4.12), for steady flmv lhe first term on the
S11,facc right in Eqs. 4.17 and 4.18 is zero.
We will now look, at five Examples to illustrate some features oflhe various forms of the momentu m
equation for a control volume. Example 4.4 demonstra tes how intelligent choice of the control volume
can simplify analysis of a problem, Example 4.5 involves .a problem in which we have significan t body
forces, Example 4.6 explains how to simplify surface force evaluation s by working in gage pressures ,
Example 4. 7 involves nonunifor m surface forces, and Example 4.8 involves a problem in which we have
unsteady flow.
fx.qmple 4.4 CHOICE OF CONTRO L VOLl)ME FQR_MOM_ENTUIVl ANAVlSiS

·w :ater fr.om a stationary nozzle strikes a flat plate as shpwn..Tl!~ waterleav es the n~zzle ilt 1'5 _:rn/s;,the naz.zle ~a is 0.0~ qi.2 .
As_sµming tbe water is-!;l~cte~ normal to the plate, and flows a:1on~ the plate; determme. the·honzon tal force you need to resist to
ilql~ it in plaee.
·· a·re·r··trom
.iv.e n.• •w ·· .a stau·on"rv n. o e
zzl. is directed normal co_the piate; subsequen t. flow.is
G . . . .. . . ,-J . .. .
para:J.leJ tO plate. :J-- ~- Plate.., _
Ji;t v.e lotjty, V= l5f m/s
2
N'.O?:zle area,_ A,; =:.0;01 m '---Nozzle~
Find: Horizontal force on your hand.

Solution: We chose a coordinate system in defining the problem above. We must now choose
a suitable controi volume. Two possible choices are shown by the dashed lines below.
In both cases, water from .the nozzle crosses the control surface through area A, (assumed
equal to the nozzle area) and is assumed to leave the control volume tangent to the plate surface
in the +>'or -y direction. J3efore trying to decide which is the "best" control volume to use, let
us write the governing equations. ·
F=Fs+Fn=!_ f Vpd¥+ f _VpV,dA

otlcv Jes
and
0
~-
iJt
1 pd¥+ 1. - -
CV CS
pV•dA=O
Assumptions: : !lfM-.
----: . cv,
I Steacly flow. 1 I ~1 ;
2 Incompressible .flow.
:H I
:_ 1h _____ J
3 Uniform flow at each section where fluid crosses the CV boundaries.
Regardl~s of our choice of control volume, assumptions (1), (2); and (3) l~d to
(_CVit _
~ Vpv-X
F=Fs+Fn= L....,cs and °"· pV•A=D
L....,c.s
· 1 :
'.@! l ~_, I
Evaluating the momen_tum flux tenn will lead to the same result for both control volumes. We
y
I
:
\\,l
·1· .
l
AP
sl:iould cJ1oose the control volurrje that allows the most straightforward evalu~tioli of the forces.
~emember in applying.the momentum equation that the force, F, represents all forces acting on
L- -
- l- · -·-:
:c
the colitroi voJume. · ·
Let us solve.the problem Qsirig each of the control volumes.
c~ . Paun
The control vohune has been selected so that the

sµrface. Denote this areai>yA.
areaof the left surface is equal to tlie area oftbe right
The. control volume cuts through your hand. We de11ote the components oftbe reaction force of
your harid oii the control volume 8S .f?cx and /?.y and assume both to be positive. (The force of the
control vo.lume ori your hand is equal arid opposite to Rx and R,..)
Atmospheric pre!i°sµre iicts on ali surfaces of the ccintrol voiume. Note: that the pressure in a.free
:c
W
§
-"L
--------
R.,:--R,
> I
I
I
J
jet is am/Jient, Le., in.this case at1110spberic. (The distributed force due to atmospheric pressure has
been stimvn on the vertical faces oajy.)
The body force on the control volume is denoted as W.
Since we are looltjrig for the horizontal force, we write the x cc;>rilpcment of the stea<;ly fl.ow momentum egµ~tio.i:i
F's. +Fs. = '.z::cs upV · A

There are no bpdy force.sin the xdirection. so F 8 _. =0, and
Fs.; := Lc::s upv•A

To e:liaJ@te Fs,., we -niuSt iric!ude all surface forces acting <:>n the control volume
Fs.,= Pain,A PntJn4 + . R,~
force dl!e to atrilospli:eric force due to atmospheric force of your hand on
ptess1.1i:e acts to right pressure acts to left control vc:>lurne
(positive qirection} (negative direction) (assumed:poSitive)
on left sutface on right sµrface
in In te g ra l F or m fo r a C :: on tr ol V ol um e
98 c h a p te r 4 B as ic E qu at io ns
.C ot is eq ue n·tJy, F s, = R x, an9
R :r ~ L c su p V · A=u pV · Al 1 and bo tt om su rf ac es ,
{F or t(ip _ 11 =O}
A tQ ), P fi 1 ·A1 = .o (- V1A 1}s in ce
v,1ai;idA1 are 1so· apan.

N ot e !h at 11 1 = V1}
. tn c kg . . _m : . . . .., N - s2
. 9 9 9 ~ X l. :> - X 0 .0 1 m ~ X .
- - - · {u1 = l5 m /s }
R x= -1 .. $ ~ >.<
s kg • m
s m-
po si ti ve d~ c! .i, on ru;;sutried. }
R.., ~ -2 .2:>'lcN {R.r ai;:_ts op po si te to
·The}j<:>rli 'o na i: i: fh rc e on yl :!u r hu nd is
r
_u_-~=an '
-·---d-a~c-ts. ·t_
..:. o_lh_e_n: : g:::h
.::.: :.:.:t~}_ x
_::K_:::·
K.r = - -R~ = 2.25 kN -,_,-~ ~ {_
' '
to_ ·rc_e_o
··__
n··_y_o
[GY-u iv:i!IJ, Q
: :Qf1?:9iltal $.otces s
· h ow n
o f th e ri g~ t surf ac e ar e eq µa l to
~ e~ o
_ ni m ,t :v 6I um h
e:. as b: ® ~ s~
- ~e
is
'¢t
-n
e~
rcqc
so th e.a. re ~ o fm eJ ¢ ft st ir fa "e
.J."iy: AP .··
0 ~ d
-· --,
,th e ar ea ,o f ,th e:;pl!lt~ ; P ep g te th th e ho ri zo nt al
I
er ,th .e.:e nt ir e pl at e su rf ac e, W ¢·de ii 6t e· I

1
m 'u~.~~ -ii! ¢o
" nt ac t·w it ln h e- pl at e: ov Patm
T n~:!=onti:i;>l '\'(?h ~s -13 :-c (a11 cfa; ssur ne it tq . b¢ po si ti ve ). . . . ~B_.
at e on tll e: co n, tr ol -v olum _e I
,~-:action fotce fr om -th e pl on th e. tw o_ ho ri zo nt al I
.A tm os ph er ic pressure . a< ;~ on th e le ft su rf ac e· o f th e c:::ori1.1:oi vo lu m e (a nd __ J

I
Sl,lrtaCes). p911e11t i11 th e x clirecti611.

ha s. no com
T h e. b_o,i;ly fo tc e on tllis co nt ro l vo lu m e eq ua ti pr i,
th e x co m po ne nt o f th e m 0!Tlentu !TI
'f b en Pa tm
~"
·. = " c·s. u ·p.V·- A
..
F s8
t~
R_,.
/j5c= -"-Patm -)t ;, ~ 7 (~5:-klj.J
¢. w ~ n¢eq ~,fre.e~i>ti'cfy c li a ~ p f the; ~l at e:

To de te rm .in cM h. e ne t fo rc e .o n . th pl at ~.
X:F..r = 0 = - B .r.,....P~unAp + Rx
R.r=P'aur.Ap + B x
R x.!"FPatmAp + (- p D U n A p -2 2 5 )(NJ= - 2:2 5 •k N
th e n the h9 tj zp nt ii j fo ~ e 9 n -y 9l lr h, an d is K /= -R ., = 2i 25 kN . .
e ne ed ed an ad di ti on al fr e
e. zb o.d y, d ia -
Not~ .tli:i1t :the. choi~e o f GVn xne!lllt w m e .S9-:th at th e. fo n; e so ug ht
is to sM ei;:_t th e co nt ro l vo lu
gnut i; TJi gc;:.neful,i~ be st
ac;ts-~:x:p~yitly o n di-e -c on tr ql vo lu m e.
Example 4-5 TANK ON SCALE: BODY FORCE
A metal container 0.6 I m high, with an inside cross-sectional area of0.09 m 2 , weighs 22.2 N when empty. The container is placed
on a scale and water flows in through an opening in the top and out through the two equal-area openings in the sides, as shown in
the diagram. Under steady flow conditions, the height of the water in the tank
is 0.58 m.
Ai =0.009 m 2
Vi= -3]m/s
A2 =A3 = 0.009 m 2
Your boss claims that the scale will read the weight of the volume of water in the
tank plus the tank weight, i.e., that we can treat this as a simple statics problem.
You disagree, claiming that a fluid flow analysis is required. Who is right, and what
does the seal~ indicate?
Given: Metal container, of height 0.61 m and cross-sectional area A =0.09 m 2 , weighs 22.2 lbfwhenempty. Container:r¢Stson
scale. Under steady flow conditions water depth is h=0.58 m. Water enters vertically at section Q) and leavf;S horizontally
through sections @ and Q) ·
Ai =0.009m2 f-----~
1
t ~ ----7_.,........cv
Vi= -3]m/s /'S\ '
. - -1 i..w~_nk
·. .
_·.· :
'-VI /J 1®
113 :.c. t i %,ci ~ 1/2

Find: Seal~ reading.
Solution: Choose a control volume as shown; Ry is the force of the scale on the
L 7µ II .~
.r
f . ,s~
cpntrol Volume (exerted On the c<;>Dtrol v9lume through the supports) and is asS\}med
positive. ·
The weight of the tiittk is designated Wu,nk; the weight of the water in the tank is WH,o-
Atrnospheric pressure acts uniformly on the entire control surface, and therefore bas no. net effect on the control volume.
Because of this null effect we have not shown the pressure distribution in the diagram.
Governing equations: The general control volume momentum and mass conservation equations are Eqs. 4.17 artQ. 4.1'.2,
i:esp_e ctively,
=0(1)
Fs+Fs= a/{ Vpd¥+ { VpV·d-1

lfrJcv Jes
=0(1)
fllvpd¥+ kspV•dA=O
Nqte that we usually start with the simplest forms (based on the problemassi.lmptions, e.g,. steady flow) of the mass couserVarloii
and momentum equations. However, in this problem, for illustration purposes, we start with ihe most general forms of the· ·
equations.
Assumptions:
l Steady flow (given).
2 Incompressible flow.
3 Unifrmn-flow at each section where fluic! crosses the CV boundaries.
We ate only interested in the )'component of the momenni.m equation
io ns in In te gr al Fo rm fo r a C on tr ol V ol um e
100 C ha pt er 4 B as ic E qu at
(1 )
· ·
r
Fs.+Fo,.= lcs up V -d A
F s, = Ry ne t fo rc e du e to at m os ph er e pr es su re .}
{T he re is no
Fo, = - W1nn1< - W H, o ot h bo dy fo rc es ac t iil ne ga tiv e y di re ct io n. }
{B
W 1- 1, o= pg ¥= yA h
r
Jes
r
up V - dA = },1,
vp V •d A = 1 u( -p V ,d A ,)
,,, {
V· 4A is ne ga tiv e at (D
u = 0 at se ct io ns (2) an d (j )
}
.·w e_ate ~s ur ni r\ g un if or m }
{ pr op er tie s at (D
U si ng th es e ,fl'lS_rilts in Eq , 1 ~-ives
Ry-W-1nnk'--:rAh = u ,( -p V1A 1 )
ha tV -3 m / • .;. . d f -• . v-:-
of th e-v el oc it y, so th at o = -V1 w he te w er ec al lt • • - s is u, e m ag ru tu e o ve 1oc 1t y 1 •
N dt e"i li: iit·v 1·_f•··at ne j• .c om po ne nt · ·
1
' ·
· ·, so1vm g· .1.c
,· en ce ,,_ >r R.
. ·>' •
H
R y = W lll nk + yA h+ pV ;1 -A ,
ni2 N "'
. N + 98 00 mN3 x 0. 09 m.,- x 0. 58 m + 10 00 -- :j x 9 -, , X 0. 00 9 m 2 x ~
kg
= 22 .2 m ~ ~ •m
"'
= 22.2 N + 5 1 1 .6 N + ~ l N
--------- - - ~ - - - - - ~ - - - - R 2>'
R y= 61 4. 8 N ...
on th e co nt ro l vo lu m e; it is al so th e re ad iif g
N ot e: th at ~ --is th e. fo rc e of th e sc al e nk w ei gh t (2 2. 2 N ),
ad in g is du e to : m e ta
on th e sc al e. W e ca n se e th at th e sc al e re an d th e fo rc e in vo lv ed
e ta nk (.5 11 .6 N ),
th e weig.tit of W~ter in st ax ua rie ou sl y in th n CD (8 1 N ). H en ce
om en tu m o f th e fl ui d at se ct ip
in ab so rb in g tb e do w nw ar d m an er ro r of al iii oS t
th e m om en tu m re s~ Jt s in
yo ur bo ss is w ro ng -n eg le ct in g
13 p.ere.e nL
LQOW, ()°SE O F G A G E P R E S S U R E S
Example 4 .6 F L O W T H R Q !J G H E
th e in.le t tp tl) e el bo w , th e ab so lu te pr es su re is
du ci ng -el bo w sh o: w ni n th e d ia ~ . A t
W11-t<;rflp.w~ stead.Uy lli.ro.u gh th e 90 ° re 2 .¢,ci"Qs s,asecti<;in.i! ar ea is 0. 00 25 in 2 an d th e ve lo ci ty is 16 m /s . T h e
la re is
a- 0. 01 m . At - th e e> utlet,.m
~ O k,Pa an d th e ·c ro ss-s ec tio na th e .fo rc e ~q ti ir ed to, hp ld th e el bo w in pl ac e. ·
.a on os ph er e; Pe te nn in e
el bo w di sc ha r- ge s to. th e
of w a~ er th ro µg b 90 ° re dl i¢ in g el bo w .
. ~i y.i n : S ~a dy tl,6w
p 1 = 22 0k Pa {a bs ) A 1 = 0.0 lm
2 V 2 = -l 6 ]m /s A 2= 0. 00 25 .m 2 cp
--1:~- - -
-+ - 1
Find: Fo rc e re qu ir ed lo bo ld elbe>w in pl ac e. I
.it w e .h av e se ve ra l su rf ac e fo rt e )' - .: 'r -- - - -

So lu ti on
c~ m 1p ut at
:
io
C
ns:
ho
p 1
os
on
e a fi
ar
xe
ea
d
A1
co
an
ph
nt
d
r
e_
ro l
Pa
ic )
vo lu m e as sh ow n. N ot
un ev er yw he re
pr es su re . W
el
e
se
ca
.
n
T
us
e
he
e
th
ex
a
it_
si m
at
pl
se
if
ct
ic
io n ~ is ti:> a fr e
e• .je t,
: rr ·w e. su bt ra ct
at io n he re
Lx
an d so. ~! am bi en t (i. e. , at m os er ne d) w e ca n w or k in g11ge
fa ce (a nu ll ef fe ct as fa r as fo rc es ar e co nc
Paun fr om th e en tir e sw
pr es su re s, as sh ow n. th e re ac tio n fo rc es ·R x an d Ry (s he w n),,t he re w 0t tld ,a ls o
ed th e su pp Jr lin e, in ad di tio n- to
N ot e th at si nc e th e el bo w is an ch or to ·
be a re ac tio n m om en t (n ot sh ow n).
= C~
C::: w ,:I
- Patm
P i, ~f~!__ __ :
=0(4)
F=Fs+Fo=f,fcv Vpd¥+ L vpV • dA

=0(4)
!lcvpd¥+ LpV-dA=O
Assumptions:
I Uniform flow at each section.
2 Atmospheric pressure. Por.m = 101 kPa (abs).
4 S.teady flow (given).
5 Neglect weight of elbow and water in elbow.
Once again (although we didn ·t need to) we started with the most general form of the governing equations. Writing the x com-
ponent of the momentum equation results in
Fs,= r
Jes
upV •clA=1 upV•dA
,1,
{Fsz :::;0 and u2 =0}
P1.,A1+R:.=11tp V-dA
A1
so
Rx= -P1,A1 +·1"• upV •dA

= -p1,A1 +u1(-pV.Ai)
R.T-= ~Pi.Ai -pVfA1
Note that 111 is the x component of the veJoci_ty, so that 11 1 =V1 , Tp find Vi, use th~ mass conservation equation:
f
Jes pV-dA;::;=1pv-dX+1pV-dA=O
,\1 A2
:.(-pViA1) + (pV2A2) =0
~nd
. A2 m 0.0025 -
Vi =V2 - = 1 6 - x - -- =4m/s
· Ai s 0 .01
We can now compute Rx
Rx = -P1,A1 -pVfA1
sN ., k0N. s:;! m2 .,
= -l.19x 10-;; x0.01 m--999"7"x162-x0.0l m- x - -
m- m s · kg· m
R.• = - l.35 kN" R.T
Writing the y component of the momenrum equation gives
Fs, +Fs,=Ry+Fs_. = J
CS
vpV•dA= J
1\ 2
vpV•dA
or
Ry=-Fn, +1 vpV-dA
A~
=- Fu, +v2.(PY2.A2)
Ry= - Fu,-pViA2
Note .c hat u2 is the Y component of the velocity, sc;, that ·v2 = - Y2, whe~ Y2 is the magnitude of the exit velocity.
Subst:jl.J.itipg ~own values
Ry= -..,....Fs, + = pV]A2
2 N • s2
. kg 2m . . .,
= - F 8 -999- 3
x (16) -:;- x0.0025 m- x - -
, m r ~ -m
= -Fs, -639N-. ---~-- -------R..:..y
R,-
. -----------~-.:...
R,y :;= -639 N ....
fx_atnple 4. 7 FLOW UNC>ER A SLUICE GATE: HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE FORCE
Water in an open channel is held ih by a sluice gate. Compare the horizontal force of the water on the gate (a) when the gate is
closed and (b) when it is open (assuming steady flow, as shown). Assume the flow at sections CD and (2) is incompressible and
unifonn, and that (because the streamlines are straight there) the pressure distributions are hydrostatic.
c;;iven: Flow unc;ler sluice gate. Width= w:

-~
,-+.-,-~,..........,,.~~ ~
Find: Horizontal force (per unit width) on the closed and .open g~te.
solution: Choos.e a controi volume as shown fqr the o~ri gate. Note ~.._
that it is mµcq $impler to work ih g~ge p~sui::¢s, ~ - we learned iri ~i.= 'i ,rii/11
&ah.iple4.6. .1%;;,_3)n .
D2 = 0.429 m
The .forces acting on the control volume :include:
•· Fo.~e ·o f gmvity W.
~-
I 1'2 "' 7 mis
• -Fri~i:ion force F1-

• Compori¢nts R.r tutd _Ry of rea:_ction force from gate. I
• Hydrostatic ,pressure ~isqibution on vertical surfaces, assumption (6).
• 'Pressure.. distribution Pb(x) .along bottom surface (not sbown).
Apply the x componenJ of the momentum equation.
Governing e_quation:
= 0(2) = 0(;3)
Fs.+F!= iff
l"-Jii}cv upd¥-+ . upV·dJ
Jes r_
--- - --- - ----- . r----- ------ ------------- ... , --------- ---
fl
I 1 . I ' I
1R_~· :
I ,:. : I I
<D: I•
I • : I
l ' :
I
Oz = 0A29 m I I
: V1. = 1 m/s I • v2 =7 mis
II Rr I
D1= ·3m
j :~
;-- I IV I
I I
I I
:I I I
Water = -----'-----i--
:
rz:a::r:muass-c:r r:•ecs-tlmiHeAfHFt??i if
--;------
. • :eii-f 41
L - - - -1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ L
I ----~-~ ----------~~! ~
Assumptions:
I Ff negligible (neglect friction on channel bottom).
2 Fo, =0.
3 Steady flow.
4 Incompressible flow (given).
5 Uniform flow at each section (given).
6 Hydrostatic pressure distriputions at (D and (2) (given).
Then
Fs, =FR, + F R, +Rx=t11(-pV,wD1 ) +u2(pV2wD2)
The s.uiface forces acting on the CV a¢ due to the pressure distributions and the unknown force R x. From assumption (6); we cap
i('!tegi;ate th~ ~age pressure distributions qn each side to compute the hydrostatic forces FR, a,nd FR,,
o, o, .,,o,
FR,= J
0
p1dA=wf pgydy=pgw>:;_
0
0
=
l
2 pgwDi
where y is measured downward. from the· free, ~urface of location (D, and
J J
D, D2 -,n,
FR,= p2dA=w pgydy=pgw~, - =½pgwLYz

0 0 O
wherey is measured downward from the free s urface oflocation (2). (Note that we could have used the·hyqrostatic force equi,.tlo1,1,
Eq. 3.lQb, ciirectly to obtain these foi:ces.)
Evalu!!ting Fs, gives
. . pg~v 2 .• 2
Fs, =R_..,+ (D1 -D2)
2
Substituting into the momentum equation, with u 1 = Vi and u2 :;::: V2 , .gives
pgw(D 2 ~D.· ") =-pV., wD. +pV, w.02
Rx+ 1 2 1 1 2
2
•2 , ) pgw ., .,
R.,= pw( V2 Di-V1D, - (Dj'-D2)
2
The second term on the tight is the net hydrosratic force on the gate; the first term ''corrects" this (and leads to a smallei: r:ie~ .fq¢e}
for the case when.the gate is open. What is the nature of this "correction"? The pressure in the fli.tid far away from the ga~e.in:eith!#
~iirectioh is indeed hydrostatic, but consider the flow close to the gate: Becaµse we have sigoifjcanr velocity variati©n·s .he~:(in
magnitude and direction), the pressure distribl).tions deviate significantly from hydrostatic-for example, as the,fluid.acc~L~~ ~
~der the gate the~ will be a significant pressui:e drop on the lower left side of the gate. D.e riving this PfeSSµre field w:oaj,f bi'a
difficult task, but by c;areful choice .~>f o~r CV ,ve have .avoided having to do so! · · ·
We can now compute the horizontal force per unit width,

Rx ( .,., pg ( 2
2 ., )
- = p Y.;D2-V,D , - - D,-D;)
IV - 2 -
=999 k~
m
X [(7}2-(0.4 29)-(1 )2(3)] rn: m x~-m
~
N.
52
I 999 kg m ., ., N . s2
.,
- 2X m3 X 9.81 s2 X [(3)- -(0.429)-J m- X -k--
g·m
.
R, .
~ = 18.0 kN/m-43 .2 kN/m
IV
Rx
-=-25.2 kN/m
w
Rx is-the·exte_m lil force acting on the cont:rQl v<;>lume, applie_d to th~ CV by the gate. Therefore, the force of the water on the g;ite is
K:r.:, 'YhC~ K:r ::;_: -R;,. Thus,
Kx
K.T R:x -
-\\I = - -w = 2:>.2
. kN/m+-
. --------. ;..1'~'
This forc:e can be compm.c.l to the force 011 Uje clos<::d g?,te of 44. l kN (obtained
_fujm the sec:onQ tefm on the.right in the equation above, evaluated with D 2 set to
-zet():.becau·se fot the closed gate there is no fh,iid on the. right of U1e gate)-the
:forc·e on the open g~te is sigruficant Jy less as the w~tei;: accelerate s out under
~e gate.
.&amp/ ¢ 4.8 CONV~O R BE~T FILLING: RATE .OF CHANGE OF MOMEN TUM IN CONTRO L VOLUME
A horizontal i::onveyot belt moving-at 0 :9 m/s receives sand from a hqpper. The sa.)1d falls vertically from the hopper to the belt at
a s¢ed of l.5 m/s and a flow rate of 225 kg/s (the density of sand is ~ppro~a tely 1580
3
kg/m ). The conveyor belt is initially
~mpcy but be~ns to fill with sane!. If frictio.n in th~ orive systeqi ape! rollers is negligible, find the tension required to pull the belt
while the c.o nveygt is fi.!.ling.
~
Given: Gonveyor and hopper shown in ·sketch.
Find: Ti.cit at -tbeinstan t shown.
Solutipn: :Use the <;ontrol volume and cciorQiJiates sliown: _Apply rg}I 11_ v.., d= 1.5 m/s - - ,
0
tl'!e,x- ~.o mppµent of _1he momentum equation. I 1111 vbell = 0.9 m/s r--CV
Lg- - s~::3,- ~ Tbe1,
Governing equations: () a ' ()
=0(2)
F +Fl=!.. r upd¥+ r upV · dA
s. I iJt lcv Jes
0
-
iJt
1
CV
pd¥+ 1--
CS
pV-dA.= 0
~sumptia ns:
1 Fs. = Tbdl =-T.
2 Fs. = .0 .
3 Uniform flow at section (D.
· 4 All sand on belt. mov~ with Ybclt = Vb•
4.4 Momentu m Equation for Inertial Control Volume 105
Then
Since 11 1 =O, and there is no flow at section~.
T= !fcvupdV -
From a~sumptio n (4 ). inside the CV, u = Vb = constant, and hence
T=Vb- afc pd¥=V b- aM,

01 CV 0l
where M, is the mass of sand on the belt (inside the control volume). This result is perhaps not surprisin g-the tension in the belt
is the force required to increase the momentum inside the CV (which is increasing because even though the velocity of the mass in
the CV is constant, the mass is not). From the continuity equation,
~f pd¥= ~M. = ~ f pV • dA =111s =225 kg/s

a, lcv or Jes
Then
· m k0 N· s2
T=Vbrizs =0.9- x225--E. x - -
s s kg · m
T=203.4N ,___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _T_
Differen tial Control Volume Analysis

The control volume approach, as we have seen in the previous examples, provides useful results when
applied to a finite region.
If we apply the approach to a differentia l control volume, we can obtain differentia l equations
describing a flow field. In this section. we will apply the conservati on of mass and momentum equations
to such a control volume to obtain a simple differentia l equation describing flow in a steady, incompres s-
ible, frictionles s flow, and integrate it along a streamline to obtain the famous Bernoulli equation.
Let us apply the continuity and momentum equations to a steady incompres sible flow without fric-
tion, as shown in Fig. 4.4. The control volume chosen is fixed in space and bounded by flow streamline s,
and is thus an element of a stream tube. The length of tl1e control volume is ds.
Because the control volume is bounded by streamline s, flow across the bounding surfaces occurs only
at the end sections. These are located at coordinate s s ands+ ds, measured along the central streamline .
Properties at the inlet section are assigned arbitrary symbolic values. Properties at the outlet
section are assumed to increase by differentia l amounts. Thus at s + ds, the flow speed is assumed to
be Vs+ dVs, and so on. The differentia l changes, dp, dVs, and dA, all are assumed to be positive in setting
up the problem. (As in a free-body analysis in statics or dynamics, the actual algebraic sign of each dif-
ferential change will be determined from the results of the analysis.)
g
~,,r;.._,,,
F_-,d~____.,
v;::·
~ - -\---¼+dV
_.......-
~
S \
,,
\
I
p -----
s
A +d,\
r
l
I \~ _... I _ _ _ __
p I \ \ 0 _...__,,
p \\.-"" ~ - - - - -
\I_...,.,'--""--
' --- .
~~ D1fferent1al control volume
.f
)-_\"
Fig. 4.4 Differential control volume for momentum analysis of flow through a stream tube.
106 Chapter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volum·e
Now ler us apply lhe continuity equation and rhe s component of lhe momenrum equation to the
cont:r0l volume of Fig. 4.4.
a. Continuity Equation
=0(1)
(4.12)
Basic equation : lfcvpd¥+ fcspV•dA=O
Assumptions:
I Steady flow.
2 No flow across bo~nding streamlines.
3 Incompressible flow. p=constanL
Then
(..-pVsA) + {p(Vs+dVs)(A +dA)} =O
so
p(Vs+dVs)(A+dA) =pV,A (4.19a)
OIJ «:.:~iW4ing lhe left side and siJllplifying, we tj~tnih
V; dA + A ciVs + dA dVs =0
ButM dV, is a product of diffe~ntials, whlcl;! may be negle.c ted comp!l,i:e<;l with V,4A or.AdYs, -~ p.§·
V, dA + A dV, = 0 (:4.)'9:1'.>J
b. Streamwise Component of the Momentum Equation
=0(1)
(4.20)
Basic.equation: Fss+Fos=a/{ 11spd¥+
/iiilcv
r
Jes
llspV-dA
A;ssumpti.on: (4) No ftjction. SQ Fs. is due to pressure forces only.

The sutfac:e force (due only to pressure) will have three terms:
Fs. =pA,-(p+dp)(A+ dA) +(p+ t)dA. (4.21a)
Toe first .and seconc;l terms 4t Eq. 4.ZJ a -~ ·the pressure fortes ·on the end faces of lhe control surface.
The. third te::rtn is F..,. the p~ssure force ~ctirig in the s direction on the bounding stream surface of the
control volume. Its ll'lagnitude is the product of the average pressure acting on the stream surface.
p ·+}dp, ti~es the area component 6£ the stream surface in the s direction, dA. Equation 4.2 l~
simplifies to
I
Fs,= -A dp- dpdA (4.21b)
2
The body force component in the. s direction is.
F8 , =pgsd¥=p(-g sin 0) (A+ ~)ds
But sin 0d.s=dz, so that

(4.21c)
Toe momentum flux. -will be

4.4 Momentu m Equation for ln·e rtial Con"trol Volume 107
since there is no mass flux across the bounding stream surfaces. The mass flux factors in parenthese s and
braces are equal from continuity , Eq. 4.19a, so
Lu,pV · dA= V.r(-pV A) + (Vs+dV,)( pV,A) =pVsA dVs

5
(4.22)
Substitutin g Eqs. 4.21b, 4.21c, and 4.22 into Eq. 4.20 (the momentum equation) gives
I l
-A dp- dp dA-pgA dz - pg dA dz=pV,A dV,
2 2
Dividing by pA and noting that products of differentia ls are negligible compared with the remaining
terms, we obtain
dp _ = Vs dVs= d _(V;)
-p-gdz
2
or
d (V?
p
_;__ ) +gdz=;O
..J!.. +d
2
(4.23)
Because the flow is incompres sible, th.is equation may be int~grated to.-qbtain
P vi
- + ---;f- + gz = con_stant (4.24)
p -
o r, dropping subscript s,
(4 .24)
This equation is subject to the ~t;rictions :

Steiidy flow.
2 No friction .
3 Apw along a strearri).in¢.
4 in:cortipres•s ible flow.
We 4av~ derive(! one form of perhaps the most"fam,_ous (l).Qd w.isUsed) equanon in fluid ;mec bani~
the B.e moulli eq1,1ation. It can be used only when the four restriction s listed above apply, at _l~t to,
re3$Qnabl e accuracy! Although !'10 real flow satisfies a1J these restricl,ion s (especially the s~ooc;l), we
:cail ·~pproxirna_te the behavior .of many flows With Eq, 4.24.
For example, the equation is widely used in aetod yn.y.mics to relate the .pressure and velocity ili a
flow (e.g ., it exphµn$ the lift oh s ubSOQ!C wing). It could aiso ~e'1Jsed to -find the ptess~ at the inlefof
the r¢c;lucing elbow antilned in Example 4 ;6 or to determine the Velocity of water 1e_~vjng the. sluice gate
of ]$x~mple 4.7 (both of tb~e :flows, approxima tely satisfy the four ~tric tions). On ~e oUier hand,
Eq. 4.24 does !10( correcdy describe ihe variation ofwa rei pressure iti: pipe:·.00w. -AccoJ:rlil)g to it, for
~ horizontal pipe !)fcoiistan t diameter, th~ pressure will be constant, b Ht 4i fac t -the pressµ¢:·d rops sig~
nificafitly along the pipe~we will need I11ost of Chapter ~- tp ex:pia:in this . ·-
The l3ern9ulli equation, and the "limits cin \ts u~e. JS·so itnportant we -Will depve-it agam aµ~ dis¢ !,ISS
its Iim:it!itioris in c;letait in Chapter~- In Example 4.9 we will show the use of the Bernoµili equation for-a
sitµaaon in Which all of the limitations apply.
Water flows ste.sW-b_'. .th ro1:1g.~ f i;top._1.ontaJ nozzle,: _q.ischatgµjg,f.t~Jii¢ •~®,~$.i1!l.ei:e . At_i,g~--~9.µ.l,e inl~~ the diamete r is D 1 : a t the
noz'zle o utfr.uhiraf ~me rer is D ;(. l?,.~i:ii,ve an ex_e~Q'n.:l6t•$:e),jl:i!ifui!i¢ "\'gjlg~jpgss.ur~ ~~d at ilie):i_oµ]e inlet to produce a
g iven vofome 'fttiw'r'ate; Q. E\•a1u'ate~th'e inJ·e c ga-gep¢s s~ff::&;·= 7~ mm,,.ID2:·;,,, 2$.nui4,an o'the d ~i redf!ow rate is 0 .02 m 3 / s .
Ba sic Eq u ati o ns in Int eg ra l Fo rm for a Co_n t ro l Vo lum e
10 8 ch ap ter 4
wa ter thr ou gh a ho riz on tal no zzle . dis ch argi ng to the arm osp he re.
Giv en : S tea dy flo w of
Di = 75 mm D2 = 2 5 mm JJ2 = JJatm
Fin d: (n) p 18 as a fun cti on of vo lume flo w rate, Q.

(b) p 18 for Q = 0.7 ft3 / s.
So lut io n:
Go vern ing eq ua tio ns:
Pt Vf p,V}
- + - ? + gz , = -=-
p
+--=- +
2
gz,
-
p -
=0 ( l )
11.v fcs Pd -¥- + p V · dA = 0
Assu mp tio ns:

Ste ad y flo w (gi ve n).
2 In co mp res sib le flo w.
3 Fr ict ion les s flo w.
4 Flo w alo ng n str eam lin e.
5 z1 = zz.
6 Un ifo rm flo w at sec tio ns Q) an d ~ -
e va lua te p 1 • Th en
(~~r-
the Be mo um eq ua tio n alo ng a str en ml ine be tw ee n po int s Q) an d ~ 10
Ap ply
Pi g =p 1 -Paun =p 1 -p i= ~ (V ; -V~) = ~ V~ [ I]
Ap ply the co nti nu ity eq ua tio n
so tha t
an d
Th eo
pQ 2
Pi g = 2AT
[(A')2
A2 - l]
Sin ce A =; rD2
/4, the n
Pi g= ~ ~; [ (~:r-1] ... ..- -- -- - - - - -- - -P •
_ ,_
oa l the s qu are of the flo w ra te- no t sur pis ing sin ce we ha ve u se d

(N ote tha t for a giv en no zzl.e the pre ssu re req uir ed is pro po nio to
3
2 ~ Q 2 W ith D1 =7 5 mm D2 =2 5 mm . an d p= 10 00 kg / m ,
Eq . 4 .24 . wh ich sh ows th atp ~ \/ .)
2 2
8 ko I ., 0 4 ] N·s Pa · m
/Ji g = n2 X 10 00 01; X (0. 07 5)4014 X Q- [(3 . ) - I kg · m x ~
2
2N · s2 Pa · m · ~---·· .... ion:9u th~ t&,~
Pi g =2 04 9.4 4x 10
6
Q ~ X --
-N ..,·-·-~· . . . . ··-·~~s ~
: !,~Se~ applicat
-~~~~
~_T his:pro?~ef!l5i~
w; '::'~.t~~ -~t:}E:~ ½ ~~
;• Bemo.uth equi_l_~tof!,t~ ;.i}lc>_
W jth Q = 0.0 2 ro3 / s the n : restrictions of steady, in·c om pre ssi ble; ~:-.:-·. : ::
. Pt , frictionless flow alo ng il str ea'm lihea'ref"': . .'i
. - - -- - - - - - - - -- -- -
p 1 = 8J 9 ,77 6 k'Pa ... : reasonable. .. -·-:.-··-~t~':7~_-
4.4 Mornentutn Equation for Inertial Control Volurne 109
Control Volume Moving with Constant Velocity

In the preceding problems, which illustrate appiications of the momentum equation to inertial control
volu·mes, we have considered only stationary control volumes. Suppose we have a control volume mov-
ing at c_onstant speed. We can set up two coordinate systems: XY2; "absolute," or stationary (and the~-
fore inertial), coordinates, and the .xyz coordinates attached to the control volume (also inertial b~ause
the control volume is not accelerating with respect to Xl'Z).
Equation 4.10, which expresses system derivatives in terms of control volume variabl~. is validfor
any motion of the control voh,une coordinine system .xyz, provided that all velocities are measured rel.._
ativ~ to the c_o ntrol volume. To e!Jlphas.iz.e t)ii~ point, we rewrite Eq. 4.10 as
dN)
dt system
=!...
ilt}
r Cl'
,;pd¥+ r
JCS
,,p v.ry.· dA (4.25)
Since all velocities.must be measured relative to the control volume, in using this equation to obtain the
m~~enrom eq~acion f~r an inerti~ control v9lume from the system formulation, we must set
N = P.T)7. and '7 = Vx.yz

The control volumi.:: equatjon is then written as
J~~:Ri+_i'~,~J;,/4,/l~~idY.·~l~~~j/1·,~~ •(~
Equation 4.26 is the formulation of Newton's second law applied to any inertial: control voli.Iine. (sta-
tionary ot moving with a constant velOdty). It is identical to Eq. 4.17a e,1:cept that we have included
Subscript.-1.yz to emphasize that velocities must be measured rel~tive to the cOntrolvolume. (It is helpful
to imagine that the velocities rire those that would be seen by an observer moving witli the ·control' vol-
ume.) Example 4,10 illustrates the use ofEq. 4.26 :for a controi volume moving at constanfvelocity.
i~~t:~
~~;s~~:.~~~i~=~~~:3t1!~~:r1~~~;::::a~=~!i~iQ~:):~i~~~:~:;;:~~~;~~~:=~~
:.:--:-:. ~--: ::.'::··, ; • ,•·· -- ·': ---- . - . . . ,,_
I
r-..;;,,~~-~-u:
-~,:!
1iillioi...
In te g ra l F o rm fo r a C o n tr o l V ol um e
C h ap te r 4 B as ic E q u at io n s in
11 O
A ss u m pt io n s:
A o w is st ea dy re la ti ve to th e va ne .
lo ci ty al on g th e va ne is co ns ta nt: IV 11= Iv21= v _ U .
2 M ag ni ru de o f re la ti ve ve
3 Pr op er ti es ar e un if on n at se ct io ns CD an d (2).
4 FB, ::;::0.
5 In co m pr es si bl e fl ow .
m po ne nt o f th e m om en tu m eq ua ti on is
T o e .)'. co
= 0 (4 )= 0 (1 }
F s. + I j = lfcv ll _ ~ p d ¥ + 1 ll."C)T.P v.ry
. .CS
i . dA
rt e
c. Pn1m ac ts o n al l si de s o f th e C V . T hu s
T he re is no ne t p re ss ~ fo rc e, si
V d A )= +1 11 (- '-P Y 1A 1) +1 12 (p V2A 2)
R x= 1 , (- p V d A )+ 1 ,i i( p
11
ti ve to -'Q•z.) Fr oI B th e co nt in ui ty eq ua ti on
(A ll ve lo ci ti es ar e m ea su re d re la
f (- p V d A )+ f (p V dA ) = (- p V 1 A 1 ) + (pV2A2) = O
}A, }A,
or
T he re fo re ,
R ., = (1 h- 1t 1) (p V 1A 1)
re d re la ti ve 10 th e C V , so w e no te th at
A ll ve lo ci li es m us t be m ea su
V1 = V -U V 2 = V -U
111 = V -U 112 = (V - U)cos 0
S ub st it ut in g yi el ds -U )A i}
)A i) == (V -U )( c o s 0 - l) {p (V
Rx == [( V ~ V ) co s 0 -( V - U )] (p (V - U
2
. kg m .,
- ) X .
N- - s
m ( Q -l ) X ( 9 9 9 - (3 0 ~ 1 0 )~ x 0 .0 0 3 m
= { 3 0 -1 0 )- X 0. 5 3 s kg • m
S m
R x= - 59 9N { to th e le ft }
e m om en tu m eq ua ti c;m , w e ob ta in
W ri ti ng th ey co m po ne nt o f th
= D (J )
f f f n- zP V -,; . • dA.
F s. + FB ' =/o tl tv v.
. ~v
, J d ¥ + Je s U.
· -,
'
en ot i.r )g th e mil.$s o f th e C V as M gi ve s
D
A ll ve loci ti es a re }
R y -M g = f upV•dA.
f upV·dA.= }A {u, = 0 } m ea su re d re la ti ve to
its , { xyi.
{R ec aJ lp V2 A2 = p V1A 1 .}
={ v(pVdA) :;=1.n(pV2A2) = uz(p V iA 1 )
}A,
= (V - U )s in 0 {p (V - U )A 1 } 2
( . kg m ., ). N • s
m 99 ) (3 0 - IO}~ x o ;0 03 m - _ x -k-
= (30 - IQ )- x (0.866) x (9 3n s . g·m
s
4.5 Momentum Equation for Control Volume with Rectilinear Acceleration 111
{upward}
Thu_s : the vertical force is
R,.= 1.04kN+Mg {upward}
Th~n .th~ n~t force on the yane (neglecting the.weigl:H.Qf the van_e and water withlll
the CV) is
-R = ~0.599i+ l.04]kJ'T+-- --~~=-----~~

R
4. 5 Momentum Equation for Control Volume

with Rectilinear Acceleration
For an inertial control volume (having no acceleration relative to a stationary frame of reference). the
appropriate formulation of Newton' s second Jaw is given by Eq. 4.26,
i =Fs+Fs=!!... f Vxy:. pd¥-+ f vmPV,,-z· dA (4.26)

arJcv lcs
Not all control volumes are inertial; for example, a rocket must accelerate if it is to get off the
ground. Since we are interested in analyzing control volumes that may accelerate relative to inertial coor-
dinates, it is logical to ask whether Eq. 4 .26 can be used for an accelerating control volume. To answer
this question, let us briefly review the two major elements used in developing Eq. 4 .26.
First, in relating the system derivatives to the control volume formulation (Eq. 4.25 or 4. IO), the
flow field, V(x,y,z,t), was specified relative to the control vo1ume's coordinates x, y, and z. No restric-
tion was placed on the motion of the ·'-J'Z reference frame. Consequently, Eq. 4.25 (or Eq. 4 . 10) is valid at
any instant for any arbitrary motion of the coordinates x, y, and z provided chat all veJocities in the equa-
tion are measured relative to the coritrol volume.
Second, the system equation
- -dP)
F= (4.2a)
dt
~stem
where the linear momentum of the system is g iven by
P,ystcm;= {
} M(sySlcm)
Vdm=1
.½'(sys tcm)
v pd¥- (4.2b)
is valid_only for velocities measur¢d {el!!-J.ive to an inertial reference frame. Thus, if we deI1ote the inertial
reference frame by XYZ. then Newton·•s second law states chat
F=dPxyz) (4.27)
dt
system
Since the time derivatives of Pxyz and P:'<}, are not .equal when the control volume reference frame
xyz is accelerating relative to the inertial reference frame, Eq. 4.26 is not valid for- an accelerating control
volume.
T~ develop the momen~m _equ!).tion for a linearly accelerating conl!_Ol volume, it is necessary to
~late Pxyz of the system to P.~ of ~he system. The system derivative dP.9 -,_/dt can then be related to
conl;rol volume variables through Eq. 4.25. W e begin by writing Newton's second law for a system,
~membering that the acceleration must be meas.r ued relative to an inertial reference frame that we have
d~ignated XYZ. We write
- -
dPxyz)
F=- ---
dt
=d-
dt
1 -
M(sysu:m)
V.'O'Zdm= .1 M{systcm)
dVxyz
---dm
dt
(4.28)
syslcm -
l l2 cha pte r 4 Bas ic Eq uat ion s in Int egr al For m for a Co ntr ol Vo lum e
wit h res pec t to the ine rtia l (XY 2) and the con trol vol um e coo rdin ates (xy z) are rel ate d
The vel oci ties
by the rela tive -mo tion equ atio n
(4. 29)
rdin ate s xyz wit h res pec t to the "ab sol ute " sta tion ary
wh ere Vif is the vel oci ty of the con nol vol um e coo
coo rdin ates XY 2.
the mo tion of is pur e tran slat ion , wit hou t rota tion , rela tive to ine nia l
Sin ce we are ass um ing .\')'Z
refe ren ce fram e Xl' Z, the n
dVXl'Z - -
dV.')'Z - dV if (4. 30)
--; i,- =a> .TZ = - ; I , + ~ =a.<J. +a ,t
wh ere
is the rec tilin ear acc ele rati on of the sys tem rela tive to ine rtia l refe ren ce frame
XY2,
ii.Y l2
is the rec tilin ear acc ele rati on of the sys tem rela tive to non ine rtia l reference frame
.\')'Z
a..-;.
(i.e., rela tive to the con tro l vol um e), and
nea r acc ele rati on of non ine rtja l refe ren ce fram e -'-)'Z (i.e ., of the con trol vol um e)
Oif is the rec tili
rela tive to ine rtia l fra me XY 2.
Sub stit utin g fro m Eq. 4.3 0 into Eq . 4.2 8 giv es

F- = 1 - 1
M(sy s1cm )
d +
Oif 111
i\l(sy s1cm )
·')--- dm
dV-
-
dt
or
- -
F 1 _ M(s ysu: m)
ai fd m =~dP..,_-)
dt !i,.")'Slc :m
(4. 31 a)
wh ere the line ar mo me ntu m of the sys tem is giv en by

.P.').. ) syslcm = 1M(s yslc m)
v.')-:.dm =
J
r ¥(sy su:m )
V.').,p d¥ (4. 31 b)
and the forc e, F. inc lud es all sur fac e and bod y for ces act ing on tJ1e sys tem .
To der ive the con trol vol um e for mu lati on of Ne wto n's sec ond law , we set
N = P.'C)-:. and 11 = V.'C).:
Fro m Eq. 4.2 5, witJ1 this sub stit utio n, we obt ain
--= E)
dP
dr
=- al
at
- cv
V.-cy:P d¥ + 1- - -
cs
V.,y:P V.,y,: dA (4. 32 )
sys1 cm
(th e line ar mo me ntu m equ atio n for the sys tem ) and Eq. 4.3 2 (th e sys tem -
Co mb inin g Eq. 4.3 1a
and rec ogn izin g tha t at tim ·e to the sys tem and con trol vol um e coi nci de,
con trol vol um e con ver sio n).
law for a con trol vol um e acc ele rati ng, wit hou t rota tion , rela tive to an ine rtia l ref ere nce
Ne wto n's sec ond
fram e is
F- r a,t pdv -=! ..a r v.9 -zp d¥ + r v..,-zPv.\)-=-·dA
Jcv iJt Jcv Jes
Sin ce F = Fs + F8 , this equ atio n bec om es
(4. 33 )
this mo me ncu m equ atio n for a con trol vol um e wit h rec tilin ear acc eler atio n Lo tha t for a no n-
Com par ing
Eq. 4.2 6, we see tha t the onl y diff ere nce is the pre sen ce of one add itio nal
acc eler atin g con trol vol um e,
en the con trol vol um e is not acc ele rati ng rela tive to ine rtia l refe ren ce fra me Xl 'Z,
ten n in Eq. 4.3 3. Wh
Lhen Orf = 0, and Eq. 4.3 3 red uce s Lo Eq. 4.2 6.
4.5 Momernum· Equation for Control Volume with: Rectilinear Accelerati•o n 113
The p recautions concerning the use of Eq. 4.26 also apply to the use of Eq. 4.33. Before attempting
t9.apply either.equation, one must clrow the boundaries of the control volume and label appropriate coor-
d in~te directions. For an-accelerating control volume, one must label two coordinate systems: one (.xyz)
on th·e control vo_l_ume and the other {Xl'Z) an inertial reference frame.
In Eq. 4.33, F s represents aJJ surface forces acting on the control volwne. Since the mass within the
.control volutne may vary with time, both the remaining tenns on the left side of the equation may be
fµpction s of time. Furthermore, the acceleration, ii,r, of the reference frame .xyz relative to an inertial
frame will in general be a function of time.
_ A.,_U velo§ities in Eq. 4.33 are measured relative to the c~ntrol vol1,1me, The momentum flux,
V .xyzJiY.xyz • dA, through an element of the control surface area, dA, is a vector. As we saw for the non~
accele rating conl!_61 volume, the sign o f the scalar_product, pVxyz • dA, depends on the direction of the
velocity vector, V..,-.:, relative to the area vector, dA .
. The inomenturfi equation is a vector e quation. As witn.a!l vector¢quation·s , it may be written as three
scalar compori¢nt (;quatibns. The scalar com1fonents of :gq. 4.33 ~
{4 .34a)
{4.34b)
{4.34c)
'We will consider two applica_tions 9f the,,!inea{ly ac¢elerating c;:on_g:ol volunie: Example 4.11 will
a.niµyze nil ac;:celeniting control voium~ ~n which ,the in~s-contajn¢d-irt the c'cinni>l .volume is constant;
Example 4. l2,vill artaJ,yze ~a~celerailiig controi volumein which the mass c;:qritained va{ies witll-time.
Example 4.11 VANE MOVING WITH RECTILINEAR ACCELERATION
Given: Vane and cart as sketched, with M = 75 kg.

Find: U (t) and plot results.
Sqlutio.n: Choose _th~,_sgnµ-gJ yqJ.µmi:: .<!lld ~.O.Q;WP.1!~,1l,YS- -~ p =e 999-kg/ml!
ter1.l!-.s~__w_g Jor tl1e anaJW:t!~ i\!oJ¢"th~(!tj{~s':f~-'~ ];g~e, =
· ----- V ~5-mis
A =0.003 m2
w l'!iJe Fi'#fu~iY..r.nQ:v.~ wiIB the carr: App]Y11'i'e ;i: c:cfmponent
of 'the n1omeiifiirrfreqYiti'ifon .
= 0 ( 1) =0(2) ~ 0 (4)
Assumptions:
I Fs, = 0, s ince no resistance is present.
2 Fn_, = 0.
3 Neglect the mas_s of water in conta~t with the vai:i-(, comp~d to the c~mass .
4 Neglect rate of change of momentu m of 'iiquid inside ihe EV.
:riv l l_t)'Z p d¥ ~0
11 4 cha pte r 4 Bas ic Eq uat ion s in Int egr al For m for a Co ntr ol Vo lum e
5 Un ifor m flow at sec tion s (D artd (2).

Spe ed of wat er stre am is not slo wed by fric tion On the van e, so IVX>.:, l = jV
.l).:, 1-
6
7 A2= A1 =A .
em ber ing tha t all vel oci ties are me asu red rela tive to the mo vin g coo r-
The n, dro ppi ng sub scr ipts rf and -'YZ for cla rity (bu t rem
din ate s of the con trol vol um e),
-fc va.x pd¥ =1 11( -pV 1A1 ) +11 2 (pV2 A 2 )

= (V -:-UH -g (V -U )A } + JV -U )co s 0{p (V- U) A}
=- p( V- U) A+ p(V -U )~A cos 0
Fo r the left -sid e of this equ atio n we hav e
~ 1~ a.x p -d¥ - = -a. xM cv = -ax M = - dd~ M
so· tha t . dU ( . ., ~-
-M . t;ft = -{! V-U )~A +p (V- U) '.'A cos 0.
or
dU
clt = (l -c; os 0)p (V -
M . u)2 A
Sep iln\ tiri g var iab les, we obt ain

dU _ _(i- co s0) pA . h b .(l - cOs0)p· A·
. . ~ =· ·.. · . . .dt= -bd t we re: ;::; M
(V= U} - M
nt, dU = -d( V- '()) . µne gra ti.n g bet we en lim its V= O at r=O , and U= U at r=r ,
No te tha t sin ce V= con sta
ru ru ~- ] u .
= lo (V ~u )2 · = (V - U) = lo bdr =b r
dU -d (V - U) I
lo (V -U ) 2
0
l 1 U
(V -U ) v= V( V~ U) =b t
Sol vin g for U, we Qbtiµn
Ev_a lua ting Vb gives

Vi, = vC 1 -c; os (;l)pA
. M
. ..... m- (1.. -0.5) x9. kg 00 -. .. -2 06-- · - •
ub =3 ·
5 - x- · 99 .
- - · ·X , • 0Bm = . 99·s
YI . • S . . 75 ~~ . . 01 3 ..
( 1 _jn sec ond s) U( t)

u
V = i +0 .69 9r
Plo t:
~ ::~,----:----,
0
o 5 10 15 20
Tim e, r (s)
4.5 Momentum Equation for Control Volume with Rectilinear Acceleration 115
Example 4.12 ROCKET DIRECTED VERTICALLY

A small rocket, with an initial mass of 400 kg, is to be launched vertically. Upon ignition the rocket consumes fuel at the rate of
5 kg/sand ejects gas at atmospheric pressure with a speed of3500 m/s relative to the rocket. Determine the initial acceleration of
the rocket and the rocket speed after IO s, if air resistance is neglected.
Given: Small rocket accelerates vertically from rest.

=
Initial mass, Mo 400 kg.
Air resistance may be neglected.
Rate of fuel consumption, rile = 5 kg/s. /.
t, , )'L
~~
Exhaust velocity, Ve= 3500 m/ s, relative to rocket, leaving at atmospheric pressure. /. -"
I
I
CV I
Find: (a) Initial acceleration of the rocket
(b) Rocket velocity after 10 s. "' I
I
I
I
Solution: Choose a control volume as shown by dashed lines. Because the control volume is accel-
erating, d~fine inertial coordinate system XY and coordinate system .xy attached to the CV. Apply the Y ' '<
\
J
,-;
component of the momentum equation. -'-'-
Gaverning equation: v, y
Fs,. + F11,. - f
Jev a,f,. pd¥= -~ f
vt Jcv
Vxy._p d¥ + {
lcv
VxyzpVxyz · dA L x
A~sumptians:
I Atmospheric pressure m;ts on all surfaces of the CV; since air.,resisqince is negle.c ted, Fs,. = 0.
2 Gravity is the only body force; g is constant.
3 Flow leaving the rocket is uniform, cl,Ild Ve is constant
Under thesi_: assumptions the momentum equation reduces t9
Fa; - a,f,.pd¥-=aa f v~pd¥-+

f f v.z:yz:pV~-.: -dA
lcv t lcv Jes (1)
® ® © @
IAt us look at the equation tertn by .term:
® Fo, =- { gpd¥= -g { pd¥= - gMcv { since g is constant}

lcv Jcv
The mass of the CV Will be a function of time.bec_ai.lse mass is leaving the CV at rate m.,. To·defetm.i.Qe Mt:v as a function ofti.¢e ,
we use the conservation of mass eql,!a~on
al
~
at CV
l --
p(l¥+ . pV•dA=0
C:S
The;n
a f pd¥=- f_ pV · dA.=- { (pV-'>-.:dA)=-m.,

at lcv Jes le~ ·
The inih1,1s sign-indicates that the mass of the CV is decreasing with time. Since the tnas$ of.the CV is .Qnly a fµnction of~~
we. can Write
dMcv .
dt=;~me
To fin(J the mass of the CV at any time, t , we integrate
1 Mo
M dMcv 1'
= · 111c dt
0
where at t = -0, Mcv = Mo, am;i at t == t .-Mcv =M
Tb.en, M~Mo= -111,1, or M=Mo-m ,r.

Substinitin
.
g the expression for M into tern, @. , we obtain
FB,=~ fcvgpd¥ =-gMcv =-g(Mo- n1,t)
- { _a efrpd¥
® Jcv
The acceleratio ll, a,t,.. of the CV is thaL seen by 3Jl observer in th~ XY coordinate system. Thus arf,. is not a -function ·o f the coor-
dinates XJ'Z, and
I_ a,1,,pd¥=;~a,:r,
- Jcv { pd¥=-ar f,Mcv=·- .t:i..r(Mo·-n 11)
· "Jcv · -~ ·· ''" •
©
This is the time rate-of c;hange pf the.y momentum of the fiuiq in the .cqn!i:'Ql v.oluII1e measured relative tp the control volµme.
Even though they momentum of the fluid inside the CV, measured relative to the CV, is a liu-ge niJniber, it do.e s not .change
·appreciab ly with .t ime. To see this, we .must recognize. that:
1 'the .unburned fuel 1µ1d tfle rocket s!JUcture have zero momentum relativ,e tQ .the rocke_t:,
i Tti!; velo,;:ity of the -g"aS at-ihe nozzle exit remains const;i,rit with lime o,s qoes the v.elociW at v.arlo.us points. in tQe.~ozzi¢,
·<!'.:onseq~ently; it is .reasonal>le tQ assiio:!e _that
©
Toe velocity v.ryz (relative to th<;,_control voiume)is - V., (it is in the negative y d_~ c;tfoil), and is a constant, so was taken ouLSide
{Qejntegi:al. The remaining integral is simply .the mass flow rate at the e_xit (positive because flow is out of the control volume),
!cs (pV.>)'ZdA) = ,;z,
and so
S.t i.b ~tituting terms @ through© into Eq. 1, w~ obtam

-g(Mo-ni ,,t) ~arf,.(Mo ~m,,t}= -v,,,;i..
.9r
.(2)
Orf,)
V,m.,
=--
: m . . ~g . .....l
.· -g=350 0-X5 - X -.- ..-. -.-
·9 g· ID
. , 1-.;,
, t=O_ Mo · is· s 400 ki. s,,.
· aef,.)1=0
a;_r,),-;;o = 33.9 m/f- ----- --~- ~~~ ~-~~ ~--- --
Th~··aqC:el~rat:jpj\ qf tlitf ~V is by definition

4.7 The Angular-Moment um Principle 117
Sllbstituting from Eq. 2,
Separating variables and integrating gives
Vcv = v,,,i,edr 1'

. 1Vcv. 1'Mo-111,,t
dVcv = . - gdt = - Ve In [Mo-,;,,,t]
. · - gt
o O O Mo
At t= i0.s,
· o.om
"YCv;=- 35· . [3501<:g]
. -xln . m, "
- - - -9.81....,x-h,s
s 400kg s-
Vcv),= !Os
Vcv =369 m / s + - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ ~ - - - - ' - ~ -
4. 6 Momentum Equation for Control Volume

with Arbitrary Acceleration ( on the Web)
4- 7 The Angular- Momentum Principle

O:ur next task is to derive a control volume form of the angular-momentum principle. There are two obvi-
ous approaches we can use to express the angular-momentum principle: We can use an inertial (fixed)
XYZ control volume: we can also use a rotatingxyz control volume. For each approach we wilJ: start with
the principle in its system form (Eq. 4.3a), then write the system angular momentum in terms of XYZ or
·'-YZ coordinates, and finally use Eq. 4.10 (or its slightly different form, Eq. 4.25) to convert from a system
to a control volume formulation. To verify that these two approaches are equivalent, we will use each
approach to solve the same problem, .in Examples W4.1 and W4.2 (on the web), respectively.
There are two reasons for the material of this section; We wish to develop a control volwne equation
for each of the basic physical laws of Section 4.2; and we will need the r~ults for use in .Chapter 10,
where we discuss rotating machineiy.
Equation for Fixed Control Volume

The angular~momentum principle for a system in an inertial frame is
- dH)
T=-
dt
(4.3a)
sys1c~
where
T = total torque exerted on the system by its surroundings, and
ii= angular momentum qf the system.
H= r
JM(sys1cm)
rx vdm=1
t'(sysicm)
rx vpd¥ (4.3b)
All quantitiel; in the system equation must be formulated with respect tQ an inertial reference frame.
Reference frames at rest, or translating with constant linear velocity, are inertial, and Eq. 4.12 can be used
directly tQ develop the control volume form of the angular-momentum principle.
r.
The.position vector, 1!:!cates each mass or volume eleIJJent of the system with respect to the coor-
dinate ·system. The torque, T, applied to a system may be written
T= rxF.+1 rxgdm+fshaf, (4.3c)

M(sysicm)
118 cha pt~ r 4 ·Bas ic,~qi..tations. in Inte gra l For m for a tc> ntr~ I voi uni'e
whe re Fs • i.s. the surf ace forc e exe rted .cin . the syst em.
·Tµe :rela tion betw een the sys tem and fixe d con trol voli lme form ulat ions is
dN)
7 . .
(.
al
= ·-a
syste m· t CV
qpd ¥+
1 __
CS
qpV ·d.A (4.1 0)
Nsysv:,m =.1 •M(sy skm)

11 dm
If we set N :;=,H, then 11·= rx V, and

dii)
dt
a r
=·at Jc
_ l
rxV .p.d:¥+ .
. __ _
rxV pV • cJA (4.4 5)
. syste m CV .cs
C:ombin1q'~~Eqi ;A. 3a, 4.10 , and 4.45 , w.e _obJiµn
r rxV pV -dA
,r· rX Vp d¥ + Jes
'r x.A +lM(sy.s1om) rxg'4m+Tshnr1= iJta• lcv
Sin ce the sys_tem and con trof vol ume coin cide at lim e to,
and
(4- 46)
n4.4 6 is a geQ eral for:rn1.il~ti9n of the ang utar ~mo men tum prin cipl e for an iner tial con trol vol -
EqU :atio
qf the equ. l)tiori is an-exp ress ion for all I.he torq ues th.at act on I.he con trol vol um e.
ume. The left side
t exp ~s the rate of eha nge .of ang ular mom entu m with in the con trol vol um e and
Ter ms on the righ
I'llle of flux of ang ular mom entu m from the coil ttol volu me. All velo citie i; in Eq. 4.46 are me as-
the net
ured rela tive to the fixe d.c.ontroJ volu me.
ana lysi s of rota ting · m~c m11 ery~ Eq. 4.4 6 is ofte n. use d in sc::alar form by con side ring onl y the
For
com pon ent dire cted alon g the axis of rota tion . Thi s app lica tion i_s illus trate d-in Cha pter 10.
Toe app lica tion of.E q. 4.4 6 to the ana lysi s of a sim ple law n spri nkle r is illustr;ited in Exa mpl e 4.1 3.
s ~d in Exa mpl e W4 .2 (on the web ) usin g u· rora iing con trol voi um e. Th e
Tm sam e pro blem is con side
nng ulw -mo m~n 0;1m prin cipl e app lied to.~ _rota tioi,coµ t:J;ql v,c;i!u.@ e
_ ~ dev elop ed in the
equ atio n foi- the
web Sec tjon .4.7 "Eq µ?,t jon for a Rot atin g Con trol Vql µrne ."
Ex am ple 4-.1 3.,. -~W;{(SBiUN~tE~-:,AN~~t~J~A,1;.SING FIX El!H::ON 'l'R OL VO l.;~ E

01
A sm_nµJ ~w,n.,5~~ ~~:i&:,$~Q ~.~ :_th~5.~~-~ ~-j ~g ~t,=~ ~:w.1~f ~ k:, ~ ~ f
- t~ ~~ :?J3 ~
; ~~ .Hl ~l? ~~ '-~f -W~~Q.
~e~J1f:":;~lie~J~t. ~r·
thco u_g!l,:tb...~;Sprn ®:¢_i;.,1$;7,~H Ue,r~-:,p~ t:c:(lll_lJ.Ul!?; 8!1.~·,Jt~f:O~tes, cl(~o:w-iµ,_J;_!:i~ -.Q.im n~,~~r-•ofiea di·Jet'~l§;.< l-~.~@al cu!_~te:,l $pe ,
~lia-&i~-iw';¢k~ -~t4il&~.t)t1?41~,-§¥.'~Wi~~,Jb:~i~~tio.t'jl i~1¥~~~t-:ilicFsp~ ~tIRW~t'. _ _ ___ __:-- .· ·
---yrct
Give·r.:; 8,m_~JI_4i-Ylri.- $J?@l~ !15_,s!1,ow._n,
Fin d: ca:i._J~~{sp~ ed:~ 1~ ¥..e:t o;,AAQ.b il~ e_.; .
, - ;,·
-:._. ·.-:.1.r.:..,... , .,. • • · -·
(ti) F rie_ti9n!JQrijY!H lJ ~Jy.Qt. - .
'!:!.~li~1aJti=~=~a:=m~~~ofum;equ¥btts using fi xed;·- I

vR = ,.,;I ·PsupJiJy
150 mrii
= 2_0 kPa (gag e)
4.7 The Angular-Momentum Principle 119
Governing equations; Q = 7.5 Umin

w = 30 rpm
=0(1} ' ,--v,.,
if"r pd¥+ r pV- dA=0 z
Jiilcv Jes Le
0--- X
rXFs+ f rxgpd¥-+Tsh:ift=!_ f rxVpd¥-+JrxVpV•dA (1)
lcv · arlcv cs (Control volume ;supply = 20 kPa (gage)
is fixed
wrt XYZ)
where ali velocities are measured relative to the inertial coordinates XJ'Z.
Assumptiqns:
l Incompressible flow.
2 Uniform flow at each section.
3 m= constant.
From continuity, the jet speed relative to the nozzle is giv¢n: by
Q Q 4
Vn:1.= - -
2Ajo1
= ~--2-
2 rrDjot
2
I L 4 1 m3 6 mru min
=~x7.5-.-x , x--.-x10 --;-x- .-
2 nun *(4)- mm2 lOOQL p-i- 60s
V..,1
V..,1 =4.97 m/s +--=--------------~-----~-------~
C0nsider terms in the angular momentum equatjo!i s.c;para~ely. ~ini;e 111:II!ospheric pressure acts on the entire Gontiol sµrface, and
the pressure fo~e at .the.inlet caus~ no moment about 0, r XF-.
=O; Toe moments of the body (i.e., gravity) fotc:es µi th¢ twp
aans are equal imd opposite il.nd herice the second te~ on the ieft side of the equation is zero. The only external torqµe actµig qn
the CV is friction in the pivot. It opposes the motion., so ·
f shaft = """qK ('.2)

Our next task is to det~rmine the two angular ·rnoni~ntum terms on the right side of Eq. L Consider the unsteady renn:
'flus is the rate of change of artgtilw rt10rt1enrum in ,the control voJume. It is c;:lear that althougn the position rand velocity
V of flµid paj:ticl~s are functions o(tµne !it~ c;,oorc!inates, because th~ .s pfuµd~r r.otates at consrapt spei;c;I: the control volume
.angular mon1ent4ril i~ constant in XY.Z coorqinat¢s, so thjs.term is zero; however,~ iln e x..ercise in manipulating vectorq1,1_antities,
let us derive this result. $_~for¢ we can evaluate the (:6rtctotvolume integral; we rteed to develop expressions for: the instantaneous
po~itio~ veptor, r, and velocity vec.tor, V .(mel!Sured rel~!ive .t o the fixed coordinat~ system XY.Z} of each element of fluig, ·in· the
control yolilme. 0,4. lies in the XY plane; AB is inclined at angle i;r. to th!; XY plane; point B' is the projection of poii1.t !J qn: th~
XYpiane, ·
We .i.ssurrie that th~ Je11gtl:i, L, of the tip AB is Slllallcompared with the length,R, of the horizoQtal arm OA. Conseqµently w.~:
qeglec;:r the .fil!guhu: motnef).tll!f! of the .fluid,it1>the tips somp,a red with the angul!lf momentum in r,h.e horizontal arms.
I'
z ',
'
)
~
~~----~-· ~~B /\1
X
X / B' a
lsometrtc view Plan view
ap ter 4 Ba sic Eq ua tio ns in In teg ral Fo rm fo r a Co ntr ol Vo lum e
12 0 Ch
e OA ofl en gth R. De no le the rad ial dis tan ce fro m Ob y r . At

Co ns ide r flo w in the ho riz on tal lub y
rel ati ve to fix ed co ord ina tes XY 2 is the su m of the ve loc ity
an y po int in the cube_the fluid vel oci ly
rel ati ve to the tub e V, an d the tan ge nti al ve loc ity w x r. Th us
V =i(V , co s 0- rw sin 0) +i (V , sin 0+ ra, cos 0)
(N ote tha t 0 is a fun cti on of tim e.) Th e pos itio n vec tor is 0
Pla n view
r =i rc os o+ ir sin 0
an d
1 -x -r V pd ¥=
1R -
o
~ -
R3a .,
Kr cv pA dr =K .-- pA
3
~
an d
~1
Of ¥oA
rx U
3
vPd ¥= ~, [R.R3cv pA ] =O (;3 )
e. Ide nti cal res ult s are ob tai ne d for the oth er ho riz on tal tub e in the co ntr ol
wh ere A is the cro ss- sec tio na l .i.tea of lhe ho riz on ml tub ol vo lum e do es no t ch an ge wi th tin ie:
me ntu m wi thi n the co ntr
vo lum e. W e ha ve co nfi rm ed ou t ins igh t tha t lhe an gu lar mo m acr oss the co ntr ol sur fac e. Th ere · are thr ee
the flu x of mo me ntu
No w we ne ed to ev alu ate the sec on d ter m on the r:ight, (fo r wh ich r ,:C v = 0) be ca us e r = O
m flu x: the su pp ly lin e
su rfa ce s thr ou gh wh ich we ha ve ma ss am;! il1 ere for e mo me ntu << R,
ns ide r the no zz le at the en d of bra nc b bA B. Fo r L ,ve ha ve
an d the tw o no zzl es. Co
'Jc,= rB::::: rlr =R = (lr co s o+ ir sin 0)l r~ R =i R co s o+ }R , sin 0
an d for the ins tan tan eo us jet ve loc ity Vj we ha ve

a co s 0+ K\/...,1 sin a- iw R sin o+ iw R ,;;os.(J
vj = Yn:1 + Yup ;=IVrc1 co s a sin 0.- iV rc1 co s
Vj =f (V ,c1 ~o s a- wR )s in 0-i (V ;.., 1 co s a- wR )c os 0+ KV ,.,1sin a
in2 0+ co s2 0)
)(s
r8 x Vi =i RV n:1sin a sin 0- IR Vr ci sin er co s 0- KR (V rc i co s a- wR
V; ,,; 1 sip a co s 0- KR {V rc i co s a- wR )
r8 x =iR Vre1 sin a sin 0-J RV
ate d for · flo w cro ssi ng the co ntr ol su rfa ce at loc ati on B is the n
Th e flu x in te ~ ev alu
p~
r rx vj pV • dA = [iRVn:1 sin a sin 0- lR V, .,1 sin a co s 0- KR (V ,.1 co s a- wR )]
-
la the rig ht
in ter ms ~f th ·sa m~ un it :ect_ors use d fo~
Th e veloci_ty an d rad ius ve~ tor s f~r flo w in the lef t arr ri m1,1st be de scr
du ct
ibe
are
d
of op po sit e 1
s_ gn,
7
sm ce sm (o +, .)= -s m (0 ) an d
ss pro
art n; In the lef t arm the J an d J co mp on en ts of the cro
co s(O -n ) = -co s-( 0) . Th us for the co mp let e CV .
(4 )
{ rx vj pV •dA= -KR(Vrc1 co s a- wR )p Q
Jes
Su bs tit uti ng ter ms (2), (3), an d (4) int o Eq . I . we ob tai n
- t1 R. = -K .R( Vn :1cq sa -w B. )p Q
Ti = R( V,., co s a- wR )p Q
the fri cti on· tor qµ e at the. spr ink ler piv ot jus t ba lan ce s th e
t sp ee d
Th is ex pre ssi on ind ica tes tha t wh en the sp rin kle r run s._a l ~o nst an
\<;>rque ge ne rat ed by the an gu lar mo me ntu m of the tw o Jet s.
j,.
4.8 The First and Second laws of Thermodynamics 121
_From the data given,

rev rad min m
.wR=30-. x l50mmx.21r-· x ·- .-x . =0,471 m/s
mm rev 60 s I 000 mm
Substitµ~g gives
Tj-=150mmx (4.97m . xcos30°-0.471m )9·9 9k~ x7.5-L-.

s s m mm
m3 min N• s3 m
x - - - x -·- x - - x · .
lO00L 60s k~- m 100Qrmn
T1
Tj- = o.011sN. m - - - -- -----,.- - - - - - -
4. 8 The First and Second Laws of Thermodynam ics

The first law of tbem10dyrtamics is a statement of cons_ervation of energy. Recall that the system for-
mulation of the first law was
. dE)
.Q-W=- (4.4a)
dt sys1cm
where the total energy of the system is given by
E,ys1cm = f e dm = f e pd¥- (4.4b)

}M(sys1~m) Jt'(sys1cm)
and
y2
e=u+ +gz
2
In Eq. 4.4a, the rate of heat transfer, Q, is positive when heat is added to the system from the surround-
ings; the rate of work, W, is positive when work is done by the system on its surroundings. (Note that
some texts use the opposite notation for w9rjc.)
To derive the control volume formulation of the first law of thermodynamic;:s, we set
N=E and 17=e
in Eq. 4.10 and obtain
dE)
d
l system
=a a1
I CV
epd¥+ 1 -- CS
epV • dA (4.53)
Since the system and the control volume coincide at to,
[Q - \¥]system = [Q - WJcontrol volume

In light of this, Eqs. 4.4a and 4.53 yield the control volume form of the first law of
thermodynamics,
Q- w= : r e pd¥+ r e p V. dA (4.54)
ut}cv Jes
where y2
e=u+ +gz
2
Not¢ that for steady flow the first term on the right side of Eq. 4.54 is zero.
Is Eq. 4.54 the fom1 of the first law used in thermodynamics? Even for steady flow, Eq. 4.54 is not
quite the same form used in applying the first law to control volume problems. To obtain a formulation
suitable and convenient for problem solutions, let us take a closer look at the work term, W.
122 .Chap ter 4 Basic Equa tions in Integ ral Form for a Cont rol Volu me
Rate of Wor k Don e by a Con trol Volu me

The term W in Eq. 4.54 has a positi ve nume rical value when work is done by the contro l volum e on lhe
surro undin gs. The rate of work done on the contr ol volum e is of oppos ite sign to the work done by the
contro l volum e. ·
The rate of work done by the contr ol volum e is conve nientl y subdi vided into four classi ficati ons,
W = Ws + Wnonnnl + Wshc,i r + Wother
4:J us consi der these separ ately:
1.Shaf t Work
We shall desig nate shaft work Ws and hence the rate of work transf erred out throu oh the contr ol surfa ce 0
by shaft work is desig nated w•.

Exam ples of shaft Work are the work produ ced by Jhe steam turbi ne
(posit ive shaft work ) of a powe r plant , and the work input requi red to run the comp resso r of a refrig erato r
(nega tive shaft work ).
2. Work Done by Norm al Stres ses at the .Control Surfa ce

Recal l that work requi res a force to act throu gh a distan ce. Thus, when a force, F, acts throu gh an infin -
itesim al displa ceme nt, ds, the work done is given by
5W= F-ds
To obtain the rate at which work is done by the force . divid e by the Lime i11crement, Lit, and take the limit
as dr-+ 0- Thus the rate of work done by the force, F, is
- 5W F-ds -
W= ,i,_;o
lim lim--
-= 11,_;o
Lit dt
or W=F • V
We can use thls to comp ute the rate of work d.one by the norm al and shear stress es. Consi der the segm ent
of contr ol sur~c e show n in Fig. 4.5. For an elem ent of area dA we can write an expre ssion for the norm aJ.
stress force dFnorm BI: It will be given by the norm al stress Un,. multi plied by the vecto r area elem ent dA
(norm al to the contr ol surfa ce).
Henc e the rate of work done on the area eleme nt is
dFnonnnl • V = Cf11n dA · V
Since the work out acros s the boun darie s of the contr ol volum e is the negat ive of the work done on the
riontrol volum e, the total rate of work out of the contr ol volum e due to norma l stress es is
\.Ynonn nl =- { Cf,.,, cJA. V= - { UnnV · dA

Jes Jes
_ Work Done by Shea r Stresses at the Cont rol Surface
3
Just as work is done by the norm al stress es at the bound aries of the contr ol volum e, so may work be done
by the shear streSs es. . . _ _
As show n in Fig. 4.5, the shear foi:ce acnng on an eleme nt of area of the contro l surfac e 1s given by
dFshcar = T dA
wher e the shear scress vecto r, 7!. is the shel)J" stress actin g in some direct ion in the plane .of dA.
The rate of work done on the entire cqntr ol surfa ce by shear stress es is given by
r ;. vdA
r idA- v= lcs
Jes.
Norm! I s t r e s s ~ q i c . = Contra.I surrace
dFnonn,1 = a ~ .
.. .~ .:j
. ~ . S~ear stress force
dF511_,,,·=TdA
Fig. 4.s. Norma l an<! shear scres.s fi>.rces.

4.8 The First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics 123
Since the work out across lhe boundaries of the control volume is lhe negative of the work done on lhe
control volume. lhe rate of work out of the control volume due to shear stresses is given by
r i' • VdA
"'•h==- Jes
This integral is better expressed as three tenns
Wshcur= - r
Jes
T· V dA
= -1 ,l(shnfLs)
r· vdA - J, tl(solidsurfacc) i'· V dA-J,,!(portsii· v dA
We have already accounted for lhe first tem1, since we included l-Vs previously. At solid surfaces. V = 0,
so the second term is zero (for a fixed control volume). Thus,
Wshonr= -1 tl(ports)
T· V dA
This last term can be made zero by proper choice of control surfaces. If we choose a control surface that
cuts across each port perpendicular to lhe flow, lhen dA is parallel to V. Since ?'" is in lhe plane of dA, i is
perpendicular to V. Thus, for a control surface perpendicular to V,
T· V = 0 and l-Vshcnr =0
4 Other Worf<
Electrical energy could be added to lhe control volume. Also electromagnetic energy, e.g., in radar or
laser beams, could be absorbed. In most problems, such contributions wili be absent, but we should note
them in our general fonnulation.
With all of the tenns in '\,V evaluated, we obtain
W=W.,.- r
Jes
C1'111,V · dA+l-Vshear+Wolher (4.55)
Control Volume Equation

Substituting lhe expression for W from Eq. 4.55 into Eq. 4.54 gives
Q-Ws+ r CT,.nV • dA-WshCllr-Wo,.hcr=~ r epd¥-+ r epV•dA

Jes a, Jcv Jes
Rearranging this equation, we obtain
Q-W.,.-l-Vshcnr-l-Vo,her=aa r epd¥+ r epV-dA- r C1'n11V · dA

1 Jcv Jes Jes
Since p = 1/ u, where v is specific volume, then
r
Jes
Gm, V. w\ = r
Jes
a,.,. V p V. dA
Hence
Q-W..--Wshcnr-Wa ,hcr= :,JCVepd¥+ fes (e-u, 111 u)pV • dA
Viscous effects can make the nomml stress, an,., different from the negative of the thermodynamic pres~
sure, -p. However, for most flows of common engineering interest, u,.,. ~ -p. Then
Q-\.11.,.-Wsh=-Wolhcr=aa1 r epd¥+ r (e+pu)pV•dA

Jcv Jes
Finally. substitutin g e = 11 + \12 / 2 + g z into the last tenn. we obtain the familiar form of the first law for a
control volume.
. . . .
Q-w.- w,hcnr-Wo thcr= - al
Ot CV
e pd¥-+ 1(
CS
v 2
II +pu+-+ gz
2
) -
- . clA
pV (4.56)
Each work term in Eq. 4.56 represents the rate of work done by the control volume on the surroundin gs.
Note that in thermodyn amics, for convenien ce, the combinatio n 11 + pu (the fluid internal energy plus
what is often called the "flow work" ) is usually replaced with enthalpy, /1 = 11 + pu (this is one of the
reasons /z was invented). Example 4.14 illustrates the application of the first law to a steady flow system.
and Example 4 .15 shows how to apply the first law to a system in which the flow is unsteady.
Example 4.14 COMPRE SSOR: FIRST LAW ANALYS IS
Air al Io 1 kPa, 21 °C, enters ~ c;ompresso r with negligibl~ velocity and is

2
discharged at 344 kPa, 38°C through a pipe with 0.09. m area. The flow
;te is 9 kg/s. The power input to the -compresso r is 447 kW. Determine
the rate of heat tranSfer.
Given: Afr enters a compresso r al (D and leaves at~ with conditi<;>ns as

shown. The air flow rate is 9 kg/sand llle power input to the compresso r is
447 kW.
Find: Rate of heat transfer.
Solution:
Gov(!rning equations:
=0(1)
lfcvpd¥+ fclV •dA=O

=0(4) =0(1)
(2-W. -~ =I fcv epd¥+ !cs (u+pu+ ~ +gz)pv-dA

Assumptio ns:
l Steady flow.
2 "Properties uniform over inlet and outlet sections._
3 Treat air as an ideal gas, p = pRT.
4 Acea
of CV al (D and (2) perpendicu lar to velocity, thus W.sJH;ar==O.
5 ZI :::;:z2.
6 Inlet kinetic energy is negligible.
u_nder the assumptio ns listed, the first Jaw becomes
r (u + pv + v22 + gz) pV- · dA-
Q- ws = lcv
2
Q-W.= !cs (h + ~ +gz)p.V· dA
4.8 The First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics 125
or
2
Q=Ws+ k s (h+ ~ +gz)pV ·dA
For unifonn properties, assumption (2), we can write
~0(6)
Q= Ws+ (111 ,;l + gz,) (-p, V.Ai)+ (1i2 + 1 + cz2) (p2V2A2 )

For steady flow, from conservation of mass,
r
Jes
pV• dA=o
Therefore, -(p, V.A 1 ) + (p2 V2A 2) = 0, or p 1 V.A 1 = p 2 V2A2 = ri1. Hence we c an write
=0(5)
Q= Ws+rit [(/12-hi)+ 1 +g(z
7.Lz,)]
A ssume that air behaves as an ideal g as with constant cp , Then h2 -'1 1 = cp(T2 -Ti), and
. Ws
Q= . +ri1 [Cp(T2-T1) + V.i;-]
From continuity V2 = 111/p2A2. Since p 2 = p 2R T2 ,
2
111 RT-, 9 ko l j O l Pa · m N·m
V-,=--- =--...£x ., x287--x(38+2 73) Kx 000P X-N--x-.-
- A2 P2 s 0.09 m- kg·° K 344, . a J
V2=25.9m/s
Note that power input is to the CV, so W's= - 447 kW, and
. . . . V.;-
Q = W s +mcp(T2-T1)+111
2
. ko j . W •s
Q= ~447, 000Wx9~ x l005~K . x [(273 +38)-(273+21) ]°Kx-
.-
. s kg - 0
J
kg (25.9) 2 m 2 N · s2 W • s~
+9-x .. ., x -- x - -
s 2 s- kg· m N • ro
Q= _ 290 _2 kW..,._ _ _ _ __ _ _ _{_h_e_at_:re~c1_·e_c_ti_o_n_}Q_:
Example 4, 15 TANK FILLING: FIRST LAW ANALYSIS
A tank of 0.1 m 3 volume is connected to a high-pressure.air line; both line and tank are initially a:t a unifonn temperature of 20°C.
Toe i_n itial tank gage pressure is 100 kPa. The absolute line pressure is.2.0 MPa; the line is large enough _so that its temperature and
pressure may be assumed constant. The tank temperature is monitored by a fast-resp.o nse thermocouple. At the instant ~ r the
valve·is opened, the tank temperature rises at the·rate .o f 0.05°C/s. Determine the instantaneous flow rate of air into the tank if li~t
transfer is neglected.
Giv.e n: Air supply pipe and tank as shown. At t=O+, aT/ar=0.05°C/s.

Fihd: ,izatt=0+ .
126 Cha pter 4 Basi c Equ atio ns in Inte gral Form for a Con trol Vol ume
·Solu tion : Cho ose CV show n, appl y ener gy equa tion.

Governing equa tion s: ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ _ _ ___ __ CV __ ,
I
=0( 1) =0( 2) =0( 3) =0(4 )
I
/--1-¥,-wo;l= :,Jcv epd ¥+ fcs( e+p v)pV -dA I '--------
'-- -- -- --- - _____3 / _____ - - - _\

I
~0( 5)~ 0(6 ) Tank ¥= 0.1 m

Initia l condi tions: T = 20°c
e=1 1-{ l +/ p = 100 kPa (gage )
Assumptions:
°{2=0 ~ive n).
2 Ws·=O.
3 W,hear=O.
4 W~1hcr ::; 0.
5 Velp cilie s in line and tank are sma ll.
6 .Neg lect pote ntial ene r~.
7 Vni (onn flow at tru$ in.let.
8 Pi:Q pero esui: ijfom , irt tanic.
9 Idea l gas; .p=p RT,d u=c .,dT .
The n
:, fcv''tnnkP d¥+ (u+ pv)l nne( -pVA ) =0

This expr esse s the fact that the gain in ener gy in the tank is due to influ x of fluid ener gy (in, the form of enth alpy h= u + pv) from .
ibe line. We are inter ested in the initia l insta nt, whe n T is uoffo m;i at 20°C . sq 11~ = uunc =..u, the inter nal ener gy at T; ~so ,
PL>line = RTunc = RT, and

-al
.at CV
11p d¥.+ (1t+ R-T )(-p VA) =0
$i)lc e ;ca.ru.<: prqp eiµ~ a,re 1,io.iform, iJ/ iJt may be repl aced by dfdt , and
d ( . .
t1/u M)= il+R T)m
_('w:M~Y is the i,µstantaneous mas s in-th e tank and m= pYA is(li e ma,ss flow rate) ; or
dM Mdu . RT" (I)
u-;fi ' + dt =um + m
the- term dMJdr may be eval uate d from c.o ntinu ify:
(;ov.erning equatlQn:
r
j_ r_· p· d¥ + JespV.
iJL lcv · dA =.: o
·· · · · ···
dM .) , div! .
- · +(-: pVA =0 or ---
dt
=ni
dt ·
Stibstit.ufu:!~ in.Eq. 1 give s

4.8 The First and Second Laws o f Thermodynamics 127
Of
_ Mc.,(dT/dt) p¥-c.,(dT/dt) (2)
m= RT = RT
But at t = 0, Prnnk = 100 kPa (gage), and
PIJJ.Dk s N kg· K _I_
p =p"'nk=- RT = (1.00+ 1.01) 10 m2 X 287N. m X 293 K
=2.39kg/m3
Substituting into Eq. 2, we obtain
k 0
3 N-m K
,ir=2.39 -~ XO.I m x717--·x0.05-
m kg• K · s
kg· K 1 g
x 287 N · m x 293 K x lOOO kg
,h=o.102 g/s.,..-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __,h
The second law of thermodyn~ics applies to all fluid systems. Recall that the system formulation
of the second law is
dS)
- 1 .
>-Q (4.5a)
dt system - T
where the total entropy of the system is given by
Ssys1cm = 1 M(systcm)
S dnz = 1¥(sy.iem)
SP d¥- (4.5b)
To derive the control volume formulation of the second law of thenncidynamics, we set
N=S and 11=s
in Eq. 4.10 and obtain
dS)
-
dt sys1em
=- iJ1
iJt spdV-+ 1 spV•
CV
- -
dA
CS
(4.57)
The system and the control volume coincide at r0 ; thus in Eq. 4.5a,
l · f
l · I
yQ)sys1em =rQ)cv = Jes T
(Q)
A cJA
In light of this, Eqs. 4.5a and 4.57 yield the control volume formulation of the second law of
thermodynamics
~ r spd¥-+ f $pV-dA'2; r _Tl_·· (Q)dA (4.58)

adcv Jes Jes. . A
In Eq. 4.58, the factor (Q/A) represents the heat flux per unit area into the control volume through
the area ¢lement dA. To evaluate the term
both the local beat flux, (Q/A), and local temperature, T, must be known for each area element of the
control surface.
128 Cha pte r 4 Bas ic Equ atio ns in Inte gra l For m for a Con trol Vol ulil e
4.9 Su mm ary an d Us efu l Eq ua tio ns

In this cha pte r we wro te the l>a_sic law s for a sys tem : mas s con serv atio n (or con tinu ity) , New ton 's
seco nd law , the ang ula r""m om_eilt um equ atio n, the firs t law of ther mod yna mic s, and the sec ond
law of ther mod yna mic s. We the n dev elop ed an equ atio n (so met ime s called the Rey nold s Tra ns-
por t The ore m) for rela ti"n g sys tem form ula tion s to con trol vol um e form ulat ion s. Usi ng this we
derivt;!d con trol vol um e form s of:
✓ The mas.s con serv *io li equ atio n (so met ime s call ed the con tinu ity equ atio n).
✓ New ton 's sec ond law (ii, oth er wor ds, a mo men tum equ atio n) for:
An iner tial con trol vol ume .
• A con trol vol um e wit h rect ilin e·ar atce lera tiqn .
• A con trol vol um e wit h arb itr~ ry accelf;!ratiQn (on the web ).
✓ The ang ula r-m om ent um ~qu atio n for.
• A fixe d con trol vol um e.
• A.ro11;11;ing 1;ontrol vol um e (on the web ).
✓ The firs t law of ther mod yna mic ;s (or ene rgy equ ati.o n).
✓ The se~ ond law of the rmo dyn ami cs.
ed t:he phy sica l me ani ng of eac;:h term app ear ing in the se con trol vol um e
We disc u$s ticu a
l_ r,
equ at:i ons , and use d the equ atio ns for the solu tion of a var iety of flow pro blem s. In par
use d a diff ere ntia l con trol vol um e to der ive a fam ous equ atio n in flui d me cha nic s-th e
WI;!
n-a d
n, whi le dpi ng so lear ned abo ut the rest i
r_ ctio ns on its use in sql vin g
Ber nou lli equ atio
pro ble ms. ·
equ atio ns in the tabl e belo w hav e a num ber of o

c_ nstr .tint s or funi tatio ns- be-s ur~ fP
Not e: Mo st of the
refer to thei r pag e num ber s for deta ils!
Us efu l Eq ua tio ns
Con tinu i~y (ma ss
Ci)ons~rvation), inco mpr essi ble
lcs
V - dA= O
(4.1 3a) Pag e 90
flµid: (4,1 3b) Pag e 90

Con tinu ity (ma ss Lc sV • A= O
con serv atio ri), inco mpr essi ble
flui d, 1,mifo1111 flow : Pag e 90
(4. 15a)
~on tiou ity (ma ss fcs p\l ·dA =O
con serv a_tion ), stea dy flow :
(4.1 5b) Pag e 90.
Con tinl lity (ma ss Lcs PV ·A= O
cons~r.vµp.on), stea dy flow ,
-~Il.iforrn flow :
M:Qin¢'nfu.m (Ne wto n's_
at l
F= Fs+ F8 =!_
CV
Vp d¥ + h
CS
Vp V- ~
(4.1 7a) Pag e 95
seco nd law ):
Mo men tum (Ne wto n. S.
seco nd law ), unif orm flow :
- - - al
F= Fs +F n= a . V pd ¥+ _ csV pV• A
_I CV
L -- - - - ·-
(4. 17b ) Pag e 95
Iv.lome.ntum (Newto'1 's = atal

F.r =F s• +F8 z upd
-CV· -
¥-+ h dA
CS
upV •
(4.1 8a) Pag e 96
~~( md law ), scal ar

c,qmpon~nts: a 1
F. =Fs +F o,=
> at
·' ' CV
vpd ¥+ h
CS-
vpV • dA (4.L 8b)
F
- t
= Fs:
a
at
+F 1
8: = - CV . -
1 --
Ivp ,d¥ .+ q; ivp V•d A (4.1 8c)
Problems 129
Table (Continued)
Momentum (Newton's second
Jaw), uniform flow, scalar F=Fs+Fa=-
.< , • iJt
a1 CV
upd¥+ L cs"PV- • A- (4. 18d) Page 96
components:
F,- =Fs, +Fo, = ara1 - • A-
cv vpd¥+ L cs upV
(4. I Se)
iJ
F-=Fs. +F8 .=-
• - -- Ol
1 CV
wpd¥+ ~cswpV • A -- (4. 18f)
Bernoulli equation (steady, v2 (4.24) Page 107

incompre·ssible, frictionless, ~ + 2 + gz =constant
flow along a streamline):
Jaw), inertial control volume F'=F's+Fo='- 1- - - 0
01 CV
1 VX).,,pd¥+
CS
V-'>-z PV.tJ.,, ·dA
(4.26) Page 109
(stationary or constant speed):

law), rectilinear acceleration of F~ +F--;,-1 a1- 1- - -
CV
ii,tpd¥=-
01 CV
V.tJ-zpd¥
CS
Vm pVA)-:: · dA
(4.33) Page 112
control volume:
Angular-momentum principle:
rXF's+ i.CV
1 1
rxgpd¥+Ts11ar,= !_
. 01 CV
rXVpd¥+
CS
rxVpV · dA
(4.46) Page I 18
First law of thermodynamics: (4.56) Page 124

Q - \.Vs - Wshc.u- - l-Volhcr
=-al · 1 ( v
Of . CV
epd¥+
CS
u+pu+-;:;-+gz) pV
-
2
-
- · dA
$~_c ond law of

thermodynamics: ar
- 10
· 1 - -1 Tc
__ s pd¥+
CV · CS
s p V · dA ?:.
CS
1
QA )dA
(4.58) Page 127
Basic Laws for a System initial velocity of 5 m/s. how far will it slide, and how long will it
4.1 An ice-c\)be. liay contnining 250 mL of freshwater at .15°C ls take 10 come co rest? The surface is now roughened a little. so with
place~ in a freezer al -5°C. Detennine the.~ha!)ge in internal.energy the same _ir).iti<).l speed it travels a dist.lJ)ce of 2 m. \Vhat is the new
·ckJ). and entropy (kJ/K) of the W<)!er when il has fro~en. coefficient of friction, and how long does it now slide?
.4.2 A hot air balloon with an initial volume of 2600 ml .rises -from 4. 6 For a .small particle of Styrofoam ( densicy= 19 .2 kg/ m 3 ) th~ i_s
se~ level to 1000 m eleva_tion. The "temperature of.the air i_n side the spherical wilh a diameter d = l.0 m:m-fullliig in standard air-at.speed
balloon.is l00°C at the smrt and drops io 90°C llt _10()0.m. What are v. the drag is given by F O = 'Jrcµ Vd whereµ is tlle air viscosity• .Fins!
tl1e net amounts of heat and work transfcrrec! between the balloon and (a) the ma.-umum speed of the particle starting from rest and (b) the
t_h e atmosphere? time it takes to reach 95% of this speed. Plot the speed (mis) as a 1i,Jnc-
4.3 A fully. loaded Boeing 777-200 jet transpon aircraft has a mass tion of time.
of 3;25,000 kg. The pilot brings the·2 engines lo full_!likeoff thrust of 4.7 Air at 20°C and an absolute pressure of IO 1.3 kp/1 is compressed
450 kN ,el(cb before releasing tl1e brakes. Neglecting aerodynamic adiabatically in a pistonccylirtdet device, without friction, to an abso-
and rollin1f resistance, estiri1_a te tlieminimum ruriw;iy length and time lute pressure of 905.3 kp11- in. a piston.,cylirider device. F:r.nd th:e work
needed Lo fe<).Ch a takeoff speed of 225 km/hr. Assume engine \hrust done (MJ). ·
remains conslant during ground roll. 4._8 A block of copper of mass 5 kg is heated to 90°C .and; i:he!l
4.4 On lhe Milford Trek in New Zealand, there is a pass with a cliff plunged iµto an insulated container containing 4 L of water at
lo)o.w n ~ 1he ·•12 second drop" for tlu: time it takes a rock 10. hit the 10~c. Find tlle fr.nal temp.e rature of lhe system. Poe copper, the
grciund-~low froi:n ,llle pass. Estimate the height.of the puss assuming specific beat is 385 J /kg- K, and for water the speciffo hClJ.t
.tpat.you throw a 5 cm diamete_r rock that weighs 200 g .o ver the edge,. is 41861/kg - K.
for Ifie case of (a) no air resistance a"i1d (b) a drag force given by lhe 4.9 The average race of heat loss from a person to. tlle surroµ.n4.µ1!¢.
expression FO = KV, where Fo is the force i_n N. Vis_1be instantane- when not actively working is abou,t 85 W . Suppose tha~ i,n.an.aµdito:,,
i>us velpci_ty ii) mis and K = 0.0 i. E_xp!ain why 1bere is a difference in rium wi_th voiume of app:ro~imately 3.5 x I~ ml. coJJtniqJ!le:6000.
th_e calculated height. people, the v.entilation syst~m· fails. How n:mcb dl)CS .' the · i.iitequ~l
4.5 A high school experiment consis.Ls of n block of mass 2 kg slid- energy of lbe nit in the auditorium increase durii;ig th~ firs~ 15 min
ing across a surface (coefficient of friction I' =;=Q.6). Ir it is given an after the ventilation system fails? Considering lbe auditoriiµµ aqd
T30 Chapter 4 Basic Equation s in Integral Form for a Control Volume
people as a system. and assuming no heat transfer to the surround- 4.13 A 0 .3 m by 0 .5 m rectangular air duct c:ames a flow of
ings. ·how -much do·e s the internal energy of the system change? 0.45 m 3 /s at a density of 2 kg/m3 • Calcullite the ..mean velocity in
How do you account for the fact that the temperature of the tbe duct. lfihe duct tapers to 0.15 m by 0.5 _m 51ze. what is the me,m
3
air increases? Estimate the rate of temperature rise under these velocity in this section if the density is 1.5 kg/m there?
conditions. 4.14 Across a shoi:k wave in a gas flow there is a great change in gas
density p. If a shock wave occurs in a duct such that V = 660 m/ s and
Conserv ation of Mass p= 1.0kg/m3 b<,fore the shock and V=250m/s after the shoc k.
4.1 o The velocity field in the region shown is giveri by V =(a]+ byk) what is p after the shock?
-whereo= IO m/s·and b = 5 s-• . Forth~ Im x 1 m uiangularco ntrol 4.15 Water flows in a pipeline composed 9f 7S~mro and 150-mm
volume (depth w= I m perpendi~ul ar to ~he diagi_:nm). an element of pipe. Calculate the mean velocity in the ·7 5-mm pipe when Ll11!,l in
~(Dmay ~ represen~ed by dA1 =wdtj - wdyk and an element of Ll1e 150-mril_pipe is 2.5 m/s. What is ilS ra_tio to the mean velocity
nrea_Q }by dA2 ~-wdyk. in the ISO-mm pipe?
4.16 The velocity distribution for l_ami'111! flow in a long circular
Lube of radius R is given by the onesdimens ional expression.
tt_. ®--- ,
:
I
~ ; _, "
,
- -= llmnx [1- /1"_)21_
V = ·ui \R i
! ,-' · . Con.trot
:I ,," (D VQIU!fl~ For this profile obtain expressions for the volume flow rate and the
, momentum flux_ through a section normal to ihe pipe axis. Obtain .in
'"/- - - - - - - - - + )'·
expression 'tor the,lcineti~ energy flux, J(V2 /2)pV . dA. through a
P4.10 section nonnal to the pipe me.is.
4.17 A funner is spraying a liquid through l 0 nozzles, 3-mm~It>, at
(a) Find a.Ii expression for V· dA1 . an average exit velocity of 3 m/s. ~!lt.is the gvcfllge,velo city-incthe
25-mm-ID head fceder?·Wh nt is the system flow rote. in Um.ijl_ ?
(b) Ev!lluate JA, V •dA1.
(c} Firid an expression for V · dA1. 4.18 A university laboratory th<!t gc_n~rates 15 m3 /s of nfr' fl.chv
at design coridition wishes to build II wind tunnel with variable
(d} Find an expression for V(V · dA1). speeds. It is proposed to build the tunnel wiih a sequence of three cir-
(e) Evaluate J,1, V(V · dA2). cular Lest sections: section I will have a diameter of 1.5 m, section 2 a
diameter of I m, and section 3 a diameter such that the average
4. 11 The area shown shaded is in a flow where the velocity field is
speed is 75 m/s.
given by V=oxi+b> i+ck;o=b =2s-• and c=;a l m/s. Writea _v~c•
tor· expression. for an ~e~1en~_pf the sh~ded -~ -~v_a luate, the ~n\~- (a) What will be !l!C speeds in sections land 2?
gralsJ,...v.dA end IA V( V. dA) ovet the shaded ·area. (b) What must the dinmeter of section 3 ' be to atinin ·the desired
speed at design condition?
4. 19·Hydrogen is being pumped through a pipe system whose tem-
perature is held ac 273 K. At a section where ihe pipe diameter is
10 rnrri, the absolute pressure and average velocity are ZOO kPn
and 30 m/s. Find all possible velocities and pressures at a down-
5~ sirearri--seclion whose diameter is 20 mm. ·
4.:ib·!=ii-Jcuhit_e the mean veli>c1tles fortbese two..dimens ional veloc-
il)' profiles· If Ve= 3 m/f,.
.)'
~
. P=--
f }
rabola
4- 12 Obl.ain an expression for the kinetic energy flux.

pV. i:JA. through cross section(D of the contra.I volume shown.
J(V 1
/2)
(a) (bl
[2
4.-2'1 ·If the velocity profile
(c)
in
.
ti. ,. ',~
-0r
. -:t.:.~
(J)
.
- ·::
11
(e).
• 1.
~;~
a passage of. width 2R is given by

•q=•
11
ille.equation vive= 6'/R) ".derive an expressi•on: for V/1Je in tenns
of.ii:. (a) for a . cw.o-dimens iomil passage; and, (b) for a cylindrica l
y pass aie;
L., 4_.~2,FJµ\d With 1040 J;g/m3 qi;nsity is flowfog steadily through
the rectililgular _!>ox shown; Given- A 1 ="0.046 m2 • A2 = 0.009 rri2 •
Wi\lth·= ·w
p4,12 A3=0:0~6-.m2 , Vi =3im/s D,nd_V.!=6]m/s , detennine velocity V.-3 •
Problems 131
_u_=
Umax
1-(l)2
h
where y is measured from 1he centerline of the channel. Determine
the exit centerline veloci1y, Umax -
4 .31 Find the average efflu_x velocity V if I.be flow exits from a hole
of area 1 m2 in the side of 1he duel as shown.
4.23 A rice funner needs to fiU a 150 m x400 m field with waterio a
depth of 75 cm irt I hr-. How many 37.5-cm-diarneter supply pipes
;u-e-needed if the average velocil)' in each must be less than 2.5 m/s?
4.24 In your kitchen, the sink is 60 cm by 45,7 cm. by 30.5 cin.
deep. -You are filling it with water at the rate of ~2 x 10-6 m3 /s.
Hpw Jong will it take (in min) to hnlffill the sink? After this you tum
of( the faucet and open the drni_n s!ighlly so that the ui,tk s tarts_to drairt
at 63 x l0-6 m 3/s. What is the rate (mis) at which the water 4.32 Find V for this mushroom cap on a pipeline.
level drops?
4.25 Fluid p~es through _tllis set 9f thi(J cJos_e ly spaced blades.
What .flow rate q is required for the velocity V to. be-lO ft/s?
.I.
11 m d
4.26 A pipeline 0.3 min diametetdivides at aY into two :branches

200 nim and 150 mm in cliruneter,-.If the flovhilte in the -main line is
0.3·rri3 /s and th~ mean velck:ity Jri the 200-niai pipe i~,2:Sm/s. w-h~t
4.33 Incompressible fluid ·flows steadily thro1,1gb a. plane diverging
j·s the flow rate ii) lhe 150-lll!ll pipe? ch;mm,L At the inlet, ofqeightH, the flow·is unifpnn with magni~de
4.27 A manifold pipe·of3 in. diametethns foui:openings in its-walls V 1 • At ihe outlet, of height 2H• .tbe veiocicy profile is
spactlc! equally aionJphe pipe and is closed· at the· downstream end.
if the -discharge· ftoin eac!l opening is 0.50-cfs, what are the mean
velodti_e s in the pipe between the oj:i1:;1_1ings?
V2 = VmCOS Cili)
4.28.You are trying 10-p \µnp sto11J1.wateroilt _ofyourl;>_ase~en_tduii!lg wlierey is me<1Sured·from the .c hnrinel centerline. Express V m in terms-
a s_tQrm. Trn.c pu!Jlp _can extract·i1.s gprri._The w~t~r )evei in the.base"- of V.-
menc is now sinking by about 4 41./hr. What is the flow rate (gpm) 4.34A tw1H!.imensional redutjrig•bend hns _a linear veiocicy ·pj:oQJe -
from' the storm into the:bnsement? The basement is 20 ft x 30·ft. :i.t secci~n (D. The flow is -uniform ai: sections @and Q) Th.c:'°tTQid"'is -
_Q 4/ 2.SI 'ln the incompressible ·no,;v thrbugfr the.device shown; veloci~ incciinprcssible ~d the flow is sc~ady. Find the ·rnnxiliiuiii V:elo~!ty,
ties may· be .considered uniform"over the inlet and outlet sec;_tions. Vi."""', at section Q)
The following co_nditioris are known: A1 =.= O.l m2 , -A2 = 0 ,2 rii.2,
Aj _= 0:6 m 2 , V 1 = 10e-•/2 m/s, l!nd V2 =2cos(21rr}q1/5 (t in_sec-
'oilds). 'Obtain an expression fot lhe velqclcy at.section~ arji:J_'plcit
Vj n.s a function of Lime. At wfiai. fos1;m1 does V3· first ~come z_ero?
@
What is the total mean volumelric "flow at section Q)'?
F l ~ ~· I J;
®Tr~
-=~'- V3
/13
=5:·rri/s
= 0 . 15·-_m·-
Flow
P4.29
4 _.35 Wacer emers !l two-d.im~ion1U, square ch~c;tof g:illSmm
4 .30 Water enters a wlde, flat channel of l;ie_igbt 211 with a uniform width, h = 75_i5 Dill), wi_th 1,1niform• veJ9City. fl. The c1liirt.n'§.l'.~es
velocity pf 2 .5 m/s. At the chllil~el 0_1~tletthe velQ:tity 9is!:ribution is a 9.0~ bend th;t,tclis1ortuhe flow .(P produce th~ Un¢aj; v~l®1"1,•j,:it6ID.',1
gi"'.en by. sh.own .tt_the. exit, wJth VIJIDX_=2 V.m1n- Evajµ;ite Vl)lla; ifJl=l 1,-.$,r:rJfis,
312
_\ '
-"
Uoo -
-3 Gil
- _,, [)'- 1
15 - 15
Evaluate the mass flow rate across section be.
h
I .L
,, U§=3m/t
____ --- ----cE--·
I
II-+ 15= 1.5 mm
I
x a f-;; TTfTfl·Tf'f =J
L
P4.35
-0 2] mm/s / \'' Widlh.
w=l.5m
4.36 Viscous liquid from a circular tank, D = 300 mm in diameter, L=2m---
drains through a-Jong circular tube of radius R = 50 mm. TI1e velocity P4,42
profile at the tube discharge is
4-43 A lank of lix.ed volume comains brine with initial density, p;.
greater than water. Pure water enters !he tank steadily and mixes thor-
oughly wilh !he brine in the tank. T11e liquid level in the tonk remains
constant. Derive expressions for (a) the rate of change of density of
!he liquid mixture in the tank and (b) the time required for the density
Show that the average speed of flow in the drain rube is V = ¼11"""'. to reach [Jle value Pt· where P.- >Pt> Pn,o·
E'1mluate the rtile of change of liquid level in the tank at the instant
· when""""' =0.155-m/s.
4.37 A rectangular taiik .used to supply water for a Reynolds flow
experiment is i,30 mm dei:p. Its width and length are \V = 150 mm
and L=230 mm. Water flows from-the outlet tube (inside diameter
D = 6.35 mm) lit Reynolds number Re= 2000, when the tank is hnlf ..!7L:.:=¥-=~I'=='=:::;C;s::on=SlU=nl==dJai.~/Jut
Pn,o
full. The supply valve·is closed. Find me rate of change of water level lr 1
in the tank at this instant. P4.43
4.38 A cylindric-.il tank, 0.3 m in diameter, drains tl1rough a hole in
its bottom. At the instant when the water depth is 0.6 m, the flow rate 4 .44 A ~onical funnel ~fhnlf-nngle 0=30° clrains through a small ~
from the tank is observed to be 4 kg/s. Determine the rate of ch_ange hole of diameter d = 6.2:> mm. at the venex. 1l1e speed of the liquid
leaving the funnel is V = ./2iiy, wherey is lhe height of the liquid free
of water level at this instant.
surface above lhe hole. TI1e funnel initially is filled to height
4.39 Air enters a taiik through an area of0.018 m 2 with a velocity of Yo"" 300 mm. Obtain nn expression for lhe time, c,. for the funnel
4.6 m/s and a density of 15.5 kg/m3 • Air leaves with a velocity of to completely drain. and evaluate. Find !he time to dmin fron1
LS m/s and a density equal to mat in the umk. The initial density 300 mm to 150 mm (a change in depth of 150 mm), and from
of the air in the tank is 103 kg/m3 • The total tank volume is 150 mm to completely empty (also n change in depth of 150 mm).
0.6 m 3 and the exit area is 0.04 m2 • Find the initial rate of change Con you explain tlle discrepancy i.ri these Limes? Plot the drain time ,
of density in the tank. as a function diameter d ford ranging from 6.25 mm to 12.5 mm.
=
_Q 4.40 A cylindrical tank. of diameter D 150 mm, drains through
an opening. d = 5 mm., in the bottom of the tank. The speed of the
liquid leaving the tank is approximately V = ,/2jjy where )' is the
Momentum Equation for Inertial Control Volume
height from the tank bottom to the free surface. If ilie tank is initially 4 -45 Evnluate tlle net rate of flux of momentum out tl1rough the con-
=
filled with water to y0 0.4 m. determine the water depths at trol surface of Problem 4.22.
=
r=60 sec, r 120 sec, and r = 180 sec. Ploty (m) versus r for the first 4_
. 46 Water flows steadily tllrough .a pipe of length L and radius
180 sec. R = 75 mm. The veloci~y _d tst)ibulion across the outlet is given by
4.41 A conical flask contains water to height H =36.8 mm. where
ilie flask diameter is D = 29.4 mm. Water drains out through a
=
smoothly round¢ ll_ole of diameter d 7 .35 mm at ilie apex of !I= llnwx [ l - ; ]
=
ihe .cone. The flow speed al the exit is V ../2gy. wh.ere y is the
be_ight .of the liquid free surf1u;e ab_o ve the hole. A stream of water =
and ullUI., 3 m/s. Evaluate tl1e .ratio of the x-direction momentum
flows into the top of the flask at constant volume flow rate, flµx at tl1e_ pipe outleuo thaLnl the inlet
Q=3.75x 10-7 m 3 /hr. Find the volume flow rate from the bottom
- ~~
of the flask. Evaluate the direction and rate of change of water surface
level in the flask at this iostant.
~-~½-~-~--
4-42 Water flows steadily past _a porous flat plate. Constant
s1.1ction is applied along the porous section. The velocity. profile 31 -=
"I:.~ ~--=-1
section cd is
P4.46
Problem·s 133
4.47 Evaluate the net momentum flux through the bend of Problem 6-in. pipe is 30 psi. Calculate the magniwdc and direction of !he hor~
4.34. if the depth normal to the diagram is w = Im. izontal force on !he bend when 2.0 cfs of water flow therein. Both
pipes nre in the same horizontal plane.
4.48 Evnluate the net momentum flux through the chW1nel of
Problem 4 .35. Would you expect the outlet pressure to be higher, 4 . 56 The axes of the pipes ate in a vertical plane. The flow rate is
lower, or the same ns the inlet pressure? Why? 2 .83 m3 /s of water. Calculate the magnitude, direction. and location
of the resuhant force of the water on !he pipe bend.
4.49 A conical enlargement in n venicnl pipeline is 5 ft long and
enlarges the pipe diameter from 12 in. to 24 in. Calculate the magni-
tude and direction of the venicnl force on this enlargement when
IO cfs of water flow upward tl1rough the line and the pressure nt
\ t
0 .9 me/
the smaller end of the enlargement is 30 psi. I 5 mR
4.50 A lOQ-mm nozzle is bolled (with 6 bolts) 10 the flange of n i
3·0 0-mrn•diarne1er horizontal pipeline and discharges water into the
lllfl.lQSphere. <;::aJc\llate. the tension load on each bolt when the gnge;:
pressure in tl1e pipe is-600 kPa. Neglect vertical forces.
4 . 51 Tiie projectile panially fills the end oftheO.~ m pipe. C,ilculate
'
34.5 kPa
0 . 9 me/
¥.6mR
the force required to hold the projectile in position when the mean
velocity in the pipe is 6 m/s. P4-5~
4 -. 57 Water Hows th.rough ? tee iJl a ho_rizo$11 pipe, system. The
6m/s--
t
03mc/ ,-
- -r - -
I
0 .2 5 m d F
velocity in the stem of !he tee is 15 ft/s, and the diametet.is-12 -i:IL
Each branch is of 6 in. diameter. If !he pressure in the stem is
I . . . - _t _ - 20 psi. calculate magnirude and direction of the force of the water
P4.51 on !he tee if the flow rates in the branches nre the same.
4.58 In a laboratory experiment, the water flow rate is 10 be meas-
4.52 Considering thnt in the fully developed region of n pipe, the
ured catching !he water as it vertically exit$ a pipe into an empty
integral of the axial momenmm. is the same at all cross sections,
open tank !hat is on a zeroed balance. The tank is 10 m d~tly
explaj"11 the renson for the pressure-drop along the pipe.
below the pipe exit. and the pipe diameter is ~O mm. One student
y 4'.53 A jet of water issuing from a stationary 'nozzle at obtains a flow rate by noting that after 60 s the volume of wat~
10 n1/s(Aj = Q. l m 2 )' strikes a: turning vane· a:iciunted on a cnrt as (at 4°C) in the tank was 3 m 3 • Another srµdent obtains a .flow rote
shown. 111e vnne turns the jet through angle 0=40°. Detenriine by reading the ins tantaneous weight accumulated of 3150 ·)!:g. indi_;..
the· value of M required 10 hold the cart stationary. If the vane angle cated at the 60-s point. Find the mass flmv rare each student com-
_(j is ndjustrible, plot !he mass, M, needed "to hold the cart stationary putes. Why do they disagree? Which one is more accurate? Show
versus O for o.:::; (}::,; 180.". !hat the magnitude of lli_e disqepnncy can be explaiiled by any con~
cept you may have:
4. 5 9 A gate -~ L m wide and J .i m ta11·and hinged at the bottom. On
one side·ihe gate holds back a 1-m-deep body of water. On the other
side, a 5-cm diamcter·water jet hits the· gate at a height of l m. What
jet speed V is required to hold the gate vertic:al? What will !he
P4,53 required speed be if the bo<:fy of water is lowered to 0.5 II!,?~ will
-4 .54 A ei.roular cylinder-inserted across a sUi:am cif flowing water !he required speed be if the water level is lowered. to 0.25: m?·
deflects the stream Ihm.ugh angle 0, ns: s!iown. (This.-. is. termed _!he
"Coandn· effecL ") · For a= 12.5 mm, b = 2.5 mm, V =3 m/s, and V
0=20°, determine the· horizontal .component o( !he force on !he
L-:~~~~
cylinder caused by the llowingw!jler. Water jet
l m
P4-59
4.60 Water flows steadily µ\!1:lugh a fire hose and nozzle, Toe h ~
is 75-mrn-ID. and the nozzle tip _is 35-mm ID; waJer gage p~µti:-iji
0
P4_.54 the hose is 510 lcfa. and lhesuellrri leaving the nozzle is unµ.<>_i.Ql. .11:te:
exit s~d.- and pressw:e nr:e- 32 m/s and aunospttetic; .ces~p;v.e_1._y,.
4.55 A 6-in., dinrneter horizcintill pipeline bends lhr:oi.!gh 90° and Find the.,for:cc .tr,li.nsmitted. by the ..coupijng between_diei n9µl~ and
wbiie bending changes its diameter to 3 in. Th~ pressure in the hose. lndicQ.1¢ whether the coupli:n$ is in ~kin Qr: compressiijm._
134 chapte r 4 Basic Equati ons in Integr al Form for a Contro l Volum e
4-6t Tw'O cypes ofgnsol ine orelilen dedby pnssing them through a
botrzon tal --wye" as shown. Calculat e the magnim de and directio n
~~.::3·
of the force exerted on the "'Wye" by the gasoline . The gage pressure
=
p; 145 kPn.
~ ( l ~ l e ~ 3 (Outlet)
12!\~0J .
5
30 11s
200mm d 4(0utle U
3 7' ~ ' •
I 1 (Inlet) / ,,:'~]l \ 12 !~':.
~00 mmd . 1 5
P4.64
4 .65 Water is flowing steadily through the 180° elbow shown. At

the inlet to the elbow the gage pressure is 103 kPa. The water dis-
·20Qmm d charges to atmosph eric pressure . Assume properti es are unifon n
3 .4 l/s =
over the inlet and outlet areas: J\ 1 2500 mm2 • A 2 650 mm2 • and =
V.1 = 3 m/s. Find tl1e horizon tal compon ent of force required to hold
tJ1e elbow in pince.
4.62 The lower mnk weighs 224 N. and the water in it weighs
897 N . If this tank is-on a platform scale. what weight will register
on the scale beam?
4.66 Water- f).ows st~Qily,$.mug1 t·m~µ,Q ~.¢:s)igwl),.disc! ,l¥grng·.~o'

ti~osph cre. Chlcul~ fe the· h'orlioni nlf comP,o*cn~ of force in the
flanied joint. .IIl~cat~. ,yh_~ ~e.r .~eJqy:i t is,in:i~nsion or compre ssion.
d ·= 15 cm
_ . p =; ~
i5 kPa (gagel
D=30c m·L ~ ?'\
Vi= 1.5 mis___.: ,
-,
·C .~ ~ -
~o-
=3.
P4.66
4.67 The pump, suction pipe, discharg e pipe, nnd nozzle are all
P4.62 welded togetl1er as a single uniL Calculat e the horizont al compo nent
of force (magnit ude and directio n) exerted by tl1e water on the unit
when the pump is develop ing a head o f 22.5 m.
4 .63 The pressure differen ce results from he~d. lbs~ caus~~ by
eddies downstr eam from tile orifice plate. Wall fricnon IS neghg1b le.
Calcula te the force exerted by the water on -the orifice plate. The flow
rate is 7.86 cfs.
1.2 m
-24,0 psi
·\ .
t rd
rG.5 in.d
( .,,.J .,,~-i'✓-
----
-t
,_ _ ._ -4
l.Sm
12 i n. d 8 in.
L 0.7$ md
i -~$ ~~~--..
1.5 m
4.64 Qbu!,in exp~si ons for the rate of change. in m?5s s>f the
c:onuol volume.shown, as wi;.11 as che horizon tal a:nd verucal .forces
~M~ .t o· hold-it in pl~e. in teans of p1, A 1, Vi, P2• A2, Y2~ PJ,
A3) V.3 ,p4 , A.r, V4 , and tlu; c;_o nstant density P·
J.
Problems 135
4.68 The pnssnge is 1.2 m wide normal 10 the paper. Whal will·be the A
horizootnl component of force exerted by the water on the· structure?
T
C ~,f I
:sz 1.89 m
i
15m V
l rm J_
l .I-
0 ,6 m
P.4.68
_ 0 .9m
t 1.13 m
i ~
..l..--- •-~
4.69 If tlic two-dimensional flow rate through tl1is sluice g:ite is
Q.52m
50 c:l's/ft, calculate tl1e horizontal and venical c·o mponents of force P4.73
on the gai~. neglecting wall friction.
4. 7 4 Calculate the magnitude and direction of the vertical am! hor-
izontal componen_ts and the total forte exerted on this sauionafy
blade by a .50 mm jet ofwl!ter moving at 15 m/s.
------.. , i
--- ,"
4 fl x 6 ft wide
i
4.70 Assume the berid of Problem 4;35 is a segment of·a. larger
channel nod lies in a horizontal plane, Toe irilet pressure is 170
kPa absolute, nnd the outlet pressure is 130 k:Pa ·aosohjte. Find the P4.74
fq!'Ce required to hold tlle bend in place.
4.71 A Ont plate orifice of 59 mm ·diameter is located at tlle_end of 4. 7 5 This.water je~ of 50 mm dinmetet moving.-at 30 rn/s is divid~d
a JOO-mm-4ii:µne_1er pipe. Water flows·tllro~gh the pipe and orifice at in hajf by a "splitter" on Ille stationary flat pl;i.te. Calculate the mag-
57 m 3 / s. The diameter of the water jet downstream.from the orifice is nitude and d~tion of the force ontllc plate. Assume tba_t flow is in-a
38 inm, C::alcull)te ·tile· ext~mal force required 10 hole! tile oriijce: in horizontal plane.
pince. Ne~lect liictiori on the pipe-wall.
D¢=15)Qm m~8 mm
. . 3
Q = 0.57 m f~ --+-..
---rr- · -
~.
p ;:: 138 Mpa gage 4-76 If the spli~r j.s (r;!JlOVed from Ille pla~e of ProbI.e m 4.75, pro_o -
i:>4.71 • . _,
leni /lllj:i sjd!}.walls are, prov~ci«;~_gn the plate to keep thf? flow lWO:-:-
dimensioual, how·~ tht;J~:t divide aft~t sajk4l~ di.e i;!late?'
4. 7 2. A,t rated tllrusi:,,a-liqui~UiJ.e led ro:cket motor consumes 80 kg/s 4-77 <:;gj:i.siciei;: flow tlfrqµgh !Ji:e._sµ~cien:.e~a,ri$i£>.~ ~!ww~-If thejgJ :
·of nitric acid~ oxidizerni1d32 kg/s of nnil_ine as fuel. Flow leaves flow is·inconj:p~.s ible ~d friction is neglected; show ~ .th~ P-~ -
oxinlly at 180 rri/s rell!UVe tq the-nozzle and at I IO kPa absolute. The sure rise, 4P=P2 - p1, is give~ by·
nozi.lc exit diameter is D~0;frm. Calculate the thrust produced by
th~ -motor Q~ il test stand al stnndaro sea-level pressure..
4. 73 :Flow .from the end of a two-dimensional open channel is
-iJ.p
- = 2. -
½PVt .
(d). cd·
_-1)
)
2
D-.
· [ 1-
·
-
2
]
oefle~red verticnJly downward :by .Ille gace t\B. C~~ulate tlle force
~xerted by the wai.er on the gate, Ar 1µ1d down·s~anj from iJ the Plot the non.dimensional p~sw:e,ris~ veJ:?iuS diante!CI.'~tj.9~~:0i.d~~-
fli;i°w m11-y ·1:,e considered a f~e jeL mine the optimum value Qf d./-P'11Ild the co~pon,~~-:valtie.-of ~~
136 Chapter 4 Basic; 'Equat ions in Integr al Form for a Contro l VolUrh e
nondiro ensiona l pressure rise. Hint: Assume the pressure is uniform through the unit of 0 . 15 m 3 /s. calculat e the propuls ive force
and equal to p 1 on the vertical sutfoce of the expansi on. produce d.
4.82 A 30° reducing elbow is shown. The fluid is water. Evalua te
d
.J f •-,
the compon ents of force that must be provided by the adjacem pipes
to keep the elbow from moving.
------------ - D
!~1
= 10 kg
~ •ice r .
lbow mass, M
j 7fi4 _l Internal volume, \L.= 0 .006 m
3
CD @ Q=0. llm3/ s - + ~
P4,77
4.78 A conical" spray head is shown. 1l1e fluid is water and the exit
stream is uniform. Evnlua1e (a) the thicknes s of the spray sheet at a
sl
P.i
~0
= 200 kPa a.bsolute
~30•
2 1'2
radius of400 mm and (b) the axial force exened by the spray head on A1 = o·. 01s2 m
2
the supply pipe.. p2 = 120 kPa absolute

,\2 = 0 .0081 m2
>J,o 4 .83 A monotu be boiler consists of !I 6 m length of tubing with
Q=0.03 mts-- 0=30 0.m~ ) 9.5-mm -ID. Water enters al the rate of0.135 kg/s al 3.45 MPa abso-
lute. Steo.m l~aves llL 2.76 Mra gage i.vith 12.4 kg/m3 density . Find
. - ~
the ma·g nitude and directio n of the· force e,cencd by the fiowing fluid
P-t = 15.0 kPa absolute / Y\__..o = 30" on the tube.
4.84 Wat~r is d,ischnrged au1 flow J:'!lte:of Q.3 ~ 3 /s fi:Pm.a naqow
V= 10 mis
slot in a 200.;mrri~dillpleter pipe. The· n;sultiil!'f horizon tal two~
dimensi onal jet is. l m l011g· l!!i~ :?0 mm -~i:k. ·bifr of nonuni ftjnn
4.7 9 A cwved 11ozz.)e jis~ITibly tlwt c:li~chlJiges 10 .the aunosph ere is
velocity ; the velocity atiocliti on ~1s l'>~ice that atl~cati«:i~ d'.:>.>rhe
pressure ?~ th~ inlet se1,:tion is, ~O RP.;i gnge..Calcillat e (a) the velocit y
shown. The nozzle mass is4Skg ancl its internal volume is 0 .002 m 3 •
in the pipe and at-locat ions(Dn nd@nnd (Q) the forces required al the
Toe fluid i~ water. Detenni ne·the reaction force exened by the nozzle couplin g Lo hold the spray pipe in place. Neglect the mass of tile pipe
on the couplin g to the inlet pipe. and. the wa_ l er it concnin s. ·
_LO= 200m m
Q = 0.3 m 3 ---h.._l_,
v,
Thickness, , = 20 mm
P4,84
P4.79
4._8 0 The pump maintain s a pressw:e of 10 psi at the gauge. The 4 . 85 A noz.zle·f or? spray system is designe d to produce a flat radial
velocicy leaving the nozzle is 34fl/s. Calcula te tile tension force sheet of wate r. The sheet leilves the nozzle at V2 = IQ m/s , covers
.ii) -lhe cable. 180° of arc,, and has tllicknes11 r= i-5 mm. The nozzle dischar ge
radius is R=50 mm. 1l1e ,vater supply pipe is 35 mm in diamet er
Cable and the inlet pres111.1re is PT = -i.S0·kPa absolute . Evaluat e the axial
Jet-propelled force exene d by the spray f!OZZle on the coupling .
motorboat
;.vater
q> ~
--C::~·____
4_._8 1 A m91orb oat ,moves up Ii river at a speed of 9 m/s relative to
· theland . The riv.er flows.at a velocity of I .~ m/s. Thebo.a t is powere d
by a jetsprop ulsi'on unit which lllkes. in water. nt the bow and dis-
charges it beoea~ · the su.rface at th_e s~rn. Me1,151.u:ements i,11 dJe Jet Thickness; ,
§b.ow jts velocity relative to ,the boauo, be· 18 m/s. Ft>r·a. flow f!lte P4,85
Problems 137
4.86 The horizontal velocity in the wake behind nn object in nn·air tank. Determine the minimum value for the hcigh1. h, required to
s tream of velocity U is given by keep the plale in pince over the opening of the right tank.
11(r) = u[ l-cos (tJ]2 lrl ~ 1

11(r) = U lrl > i
·w here r is the nondimensional radial coordina1e, measured perpen-
I
I,
H
I
= canst
dicular 10 the flow. Find an expression for the drng on the object.
4.87 An incompressible fluid flows steadily in the entrance region
cifa circular tube ofrndius-R= 75 mm. The flow tule is Q=0.1 m /s. 3
Fiiid the·im.ifoim velocity U 1 n1 the _entra_n ce. The velocity distribu-

l._~I
Water A
'..;__-· ·-' Water
tion at a section-downstream is
_u
llnwx
=t-(!:..)2
R
4.92 Students are playing around with a water hose. When they
point it straight up, the wnter jet just reaches one of the windows
Evaluate the maximum velocity at the downstream section. Calculate of an· office, 10 m above. If the hose diameter is I cm, estimate the
the pressure drop thnt"would exist in the channel if viscous friction at wnter flow mle (Umin). A student places his hand just above the
the walls could be negle_c~. · hose to make the jet spray sideways .ixisymmetrically. ~!im~
~F_J-----r
the m~imum pressu~. and the IQ~ fc;m::e th~ he feels. The ne:11;1-
r [R day the students again are playing around, anµ th.is time aim at
another window. )5 m ijbove. Finq the fl.ow ra~ ·(l.Jqi.in) and -the
total force and maximum pressure when· the window pane blocks
L. the flow.
4.93 A 2-kg disk is constra.ined horizontally but is free to move
iJ1 vertically. TlJe .dis.le is struck from below by a vertical jet of water.
p = 850 kg.lm3 The spe~d and diameter of the water jet are 10 m/s llJ]d 2;! mw at
P4".87 the oozzl~ exit. pp_taip. ;i. gene_ral expression for the speed of the water
jet JIS a fum;tion of height. Ii. Fmd the height lo which. the:pisJc will
·4.88 Consider the incompressible flow of-.fluid iri a bouildncy layer rise and ~!):la.ill stati<;mary.
as depicted in Example 4.2. Sho,v ihat the fricti_o n· dr.ig force ·o f the
fluid on the s1,1rface is given by
rt;
Fr= Jo pu(U-u)w_dy
Evaluate the drag force for the conditions of Exartipie 4.2.
4.89·Air rit standard conditions flows alcirtg n flnt plate. the 1,m dis-
tur.bcd· freestream-speed is-Uo=20 tn/s. At L=0.4 m do,vrisireain
:frQm the_:Jending edge of the plnte. the :botindary-lnyer ·thickness .is
r7
L
i
·
:
d=25mm
Vo"° 10 mis
B=-2 inm. TI1e velQ!=ity profile-at this locntion i_s approximated as

,,f Uo ~ .y/Bi Calculate the horizontal compotient of force .per un.it
width re_qu~d-10 hold: the ·plate stationary•.
7, P4-93_
Q 4. 9 .Q G_a ses le;iving the propulsion.nozzle of n rocket are m9de!ed as
flo,vfog. radially ou1:ward from--a point upstream rrom .,1he nozzle 4.94 A s,t ream of water from_a .s:o~_IIUJ;l:-{Jiameter nozzle sqik~ p.
~ilt, Assume-the .speed of the:exit flo.w, v~. hns,·consiant· magni- curved vane, as. shown. A stagnation.tu~ conn_e cted to a mercwy-
c_u de. Develop an expression for the axial· thruse:, Ta, qeyeloped by filled U-rube manometer is locatec:1 in .the i{ozzie ex.it plane;:. <:;:alculate
Oow leaving. tJ:ie· nozzle exit plane, Compare your restil{ to the the speed of the water len:viog the nozzle. Estimate the horizontal
one-dimensional npprox~ma_tion, T=ri1V~. Evalu~te the percent error component of force.exened on .the vane by thejet. Comment on each-
for a ·= 15°. ,Plot the percent error versus OS a ~ 22.5°. assumption used !!> solve this problem.
v,
P4.90
4 ,91 Two large tanks containing water have small_smoothly con-

toured orific¢s of equal area. Ajet of liquid issues from the left tank.
Assurrie ihe l10\v is u·n ifotm and unaffected· by frictjon. The j¢t
i"mpinges oh a vertical flat plate covering the o·p eniog of th¢ right
4.95 A plane nozzle discharges vertically 1200 L/s per unit width =
velocity at tl1e exit radius R = I 00 mm at r 0 and I = 0 . 1 s. Plot
downward to atmosphere. TI1e nozzle is supplied with a steady flow the exit velocity as a function of time, and explain the trend.
of water. A stationary, inclined. flat plate, located beneath tl1e nozzle, 4.99 Design a clepsydra (EgYPtian water clock). which is a vessel CJ
is scruck by the water stream. The water stream divides and flows from which water drains by gravity through a hole in tlle bottom and - -
nlone the inclined plate; the two streams leaving me plate are of une- tlrnt indicates time by the level of me remaining water. Specify the
qual-thickness. Frictionnl effects are negligible in me nozzle and in dimensions of the vessel and me size of tl1e drain hole; indicate
me flow nlong the plate surface. Evnluate the minimum gage pressure me amount of water needed to fill tl1e vessel and tlle interval at which
required at the nozzle inlet. it must be filled. Plot the vessel radius as a function of elevation.
.,. . _ -I \- II'= 80 mm 4.100 Water from a stationary nozzle impinges on a movmg vane
~ i~ Q = 1200 Us-m with turning angle 0= 120°. The vane moves away from tl1e nozzle
-I- I - j Noule =
wim conscaat speed, U 10 m/s, and receives a Jet that leaves
h= 0.25 m,, tlle nozzle with speed V = 30 m/s. The nozzle has an exit area of
-1 ~ w= 0 .25 mm
0.004 m 2 • Find me force that must be applied to maintain tlle vane
speed constant.
·r-,o·
V
P4.95 4.101 A freshwater jet boat tnkes in water tllrough side_ vents
and ejects it through a no~le of diameter D = 75 mm; the jet
4 .96 In iiilcient Egypt. circular vessels filled with water sometimes speed is VJ , The drag on the boat is give~ by FJrug =kV:!. where.
were used as crude i:locks. The vessels were shaped in such a way \/ is tlle boat speed. Find an expression for the steady speed. Y,
th~l, as ,;,,ater drained from the bottom, the surface level' dropped in tem1s of water density p, flow rote through tl1e system of Q, coti-
at constnnt rate, s. Assume that water drains from a sinall hole of area st.;im k. and jet speed \'J. A jet speed Vr=,-15 m/s produces a bont
A . Find an expression for the radius of tl1e vessel, r. as u function of =
speed of V lO m/s. · ··
me wa1er level, h. Obtain an expression for the volume of water (a) Under tl1ese conditions, what is tlle new flow rate Q?
needed so that the clock will operate for II hours.
(b) Find !lie value of tlle constant k.
4.97 Incompressible fluid of negligible viscosity is pumped at total
volume flow rate Q tllrough u porous surface into the smnll gap (c) Wl1a1 speed \/ will be produced if tlle jet speed is increased
betwe~n closely spaced parallel plates as shown. The Huid has only LO Vj=25m/s?
horizontal motion in the gap. Assume uniform flow across any ver- (d) What will be lhc new flow rate?
tical section. Obtain an expression for the pressure variation as a 4.1 O 2 The Canadair CL-21 ST antphibious aircraft is special! y
function of x. Him: Apply conservation of mass and the momentum designed to fight fires, h is tlle only production aircraft 1.hat can
equation to a differential control volume of tllickncss dx, located at scoop water. at up to 6120 gn\lons in 12 seconds, from any lake,
position x. river. or ocean. Determine tlle added thrusl required during water
scooping. as a function of airer-aft speed, for a reasonable range
L I of speeds.
Icn-rrrrcr,~xEiZ
,,,,, 1 ,
4.103 Water, in n I 0Ocrnrn-dian1e1er jet with speed of 30 m/ s to the
right, is deflected by a cone tllat moves 10 the left at 14. m/s. Deter-
mine (a) lh_e tllickness of the jet -s heet at a ra_dius of 230 mm. and
(b) the external horizontal force needed to move the cone.
Q
P4.97
.Q 4,98 The narrow gap between two closely spaced circular plates in~-
. tinily is filled with incompressible liquid. At t = 0 the upper plate, m1-
cially ho above tlle lower plate, begins to move downward toward tlle
lower plate witll co.nslllllt speed, \10 , causing the liquid to be s~ueeze_d
from tll.e nlim>w gap. Neglecting viscous effects and assurrun_g uni-
form .f low in the-radia.J ·dircction, develpp an expression for the veloc-
ity field ~Lween the parallel plates. Hint: Apply conservation . of P4.103
~nss 10 a control volume with the o_u ter surface l01=atiid at raclius
r. Note that even though me.speed of the upper plate is constant, 4.104.CQnsider a series of
turning vanes struck by a continuous jet
the :flow is unsteady. For V~=0.01 m/s and ho=2mm. find tlle of water that leaves a 50°min-dian1e1er nozzle at constant speed,
Problems 139
V=86 .6m/s. The vanes move with constant speed. U=50m/s. considered constant. Obtain a general expression for the speed of
Note that all the mass flow leaving the jct crosses the vanes. The cur- =
the cart as it accelerates from rest. If Mo= I 00 kg. p 999 kg/m 3•
vature of the vanes is described by angles o1 = 30° and 02 = 45° , as and A = 0.005 m 2 • find the jet speed V reqqired for the cart to reach
shown. Evaluate the nozzle angle, a, required to ensure that the jet a speed of l.5 m/s after 30 seconds. For this condition. plot the·cart
enter.; tangent 10 the leading edge of each vane. Calcula te the force speed U as a function of time. Plot the cart speed after 30 seconds as a
that must be· applied 10 maintain the vane speed constanL function of jet speed.
Initial mass, M 0
4.109 For the vane/slider problem of Problem 4.107, find and plot
expression_s for the acceleration and speed of the slider as a function
of time.
4.11 o If the cart of Problem 4. 105 is-released at r= 0, when would
yo_u expect the acceleration 10 be maximu·m ? Sketch what you would
expect for the curve of acceleration ver.ms time. What· value ·of 0
4 -1 o 5 A steady jet of water is used to propel a small cart along· a
would maximize the acceleration at any tirrie?· Why? Will the cnh
hotj~ontal track as s_hpwn. Total resis tance to motion of the cart
speed ever equaI the jet speed? Explain briefly.
~ s.ern)lly is given by F 0 =kU2 • where k=0.92 N - s2/m2 • ~v!!lunie
the acce leration of the ca,t at the instant_ when its speed 4.111 The wheeled can shown rolls with-negligible resistance. The
.is U=lOm/s. cart is 10 accelerate to the right at a constant rate of2.5 m/s2. This is
10 be accomplished by ''programming.. the water jet speed, V(r), that
0=30° hits the cart. The jet arc;_a remains consr.nnt at 50 mm2 • Find the initial
jet speed, and the jet speed and can speeds after 2.5 s and 5 s. The-
_ Bl D = 25.0 mm
r\l'
.--- -- --
oreticaIJy, what happe_ns to the vaiue of (V-"- U) over time?
U= 10.0ml_s
~ - ! V= 30.0 mis
~ .
= l !?,,.9 kg
-I" M
Ep = 999'kg/m 3
P4.105, P4.106, P4.1_10
Momentum Equation for Contrpl Volume with

~V(t)
-A = 50 mm 2
Rectilinear Acceleration
p4,.111
4 .106 The· cart of Problem 4. 105 is-.accelerated by a jet of water
thlit strikes the curved vane. TI1e cnn moves along a level track wfth_ 4.112 A rocket sled is to be slowed from an inipnl s ~ of 30.() m/s
negligible resistance. At any ume its speed is U. Cn!qu!?te the time by lowering a scoop into a water trough. Th~ scoop is o:3 m wid¢;Jt
reqili~d to-nccel_e rate the cart from rest to U = V /2. deflects the water through 1$0°. The trough is 800 m lgog. 1:he ai.ilss
4 -. 10.7 A vruie/slider assembly moves under the influence of a liquid of the _sled is 8000 kg. At the iriipal speed it experiences ii.Ii f!ertigy"
Jet·as shown. The ·c oefficient of kinetic friction fi;>r· motioii-- of the namic drag force of90 kN. The aerodynamic force is proportional to
slider ~ong the surface is l'k =0.30. Calculate the termiilaI speed the square of the sled speed. It is desired to slow the sled to 100 m/s.
.of the slider. Determine the depth D 10 which the scoop must be lowered into
the water.
.~ p = 999 kg/m 3
~ 1'=2Qm/s
.u
,t = 0.005 ri12 M =30 kg
µt= 0.30
Q_ 4. 1·08 A cart i~ prQpeUed_ by a !iquid jet is~uing horizon~al!y from a

tank as shown. The track 1s_h~mzon1al; res1S1ance: 10 t;110J1on may be
4,113 Starting from rest. the can sbown is propelleg:by _a .bydmulic . B.
catapult (liquid jet). Toe jet strikes the curved surface a n d ~-?- · -
n~gie~~ed. The 1imk is pressurized so that the jet speed may be 180° tum, leaving horizonutlly. The mass of the caq is 100 .k g nnd·
140 Chapter 4 Sask Equations in Integral Form for a Control Volume
the jel of wn1ede.aves the nozzle:~of area 0 .00 I m 2 ) wilh a speed of 4. 11 9 A rockel sled traveling on a-horizomal track is slowed by a Q
35 m/s. There is m nerodyna:nuc drag force proponional to !he retro-rocket fired in the direction of travel. The initial speed of the
squtu'e .of cart speed, Fo=kU2 • with k=2.0 N- s 2 /m2 • Derive an sled is Vo =500 m/s. The initial mass of I.be sled is Mo= 1500 kg.
expmssion for the can acceleration as a: runction_ of cart speed and TI1e retro-rocket consumes fuel at l11e rate of 7.75 kg/s, and the
other ,given :J)DJ11ITieters. Evnlun1e I.be accelerauon of !he can nl exhaust gases leave ll1e nozzle at atmospheric pressure:and a speed
u = lOm/s. What fraction is t,his speed of the terminal speed of of 2500 m/s -relative to the rocket. The retro-rockel fires for 20 s.
!he cart? Neglect aerodynamic drag and rolling resistance. Obtain and plot
an algebraic expression for sled speed U as a function of firing time.
Calculale the sled speed at 1he end of reiro-rocket firing.
4.120 A rocJcet_sled accelerates from rest on a lev~I track with neg-
ligible air and rolling resistances. The initial mass of Ille sled is
Mo =600 kg, The rocket initially contains 150 kg of fuel. The rocket
motor bums fuel at constant rate ,;, = 15 kg/s. Exlmust gases leave
111.e rocket nozzle uniformly and axially at \I,== 2900 m/s rel alive
4.114 Sc,Jve Pq)blem 4.1.07 if the vane and slider ride on a filrn of to !he nozzie; and the pressure is atmospheric. Find the maximum
oil jns·u::ad. of sliding in .contact with the surface. Assume motion speed reached by the rocket sled. Calculnte 1he maximum accelera-
resi;mnce is proportional ·10 speed, F11=kU. with k = 1.5 N • s/m'. tion of the sled during !he run.
.Q 4.115 For the vane/slider !)l?blem Qf l.>rQble,m 4.1 14. plot 1he 4.121 A rocket sled with initial mass of 900 kg is 10 be accelerated
acceleration, speed; and position of the slider as functions of time. on a level track. The rocket motor bums foci at constant rate
(C~~-sic;!e~ nµmeric!ll in1egraµo11.) 111= 13.5 kg/s. The roeke1 exhaust flow is uniform and axial. Gases
4.116 Arectnngulnr block of mass M, with verti_co.l fnc_es, rolls with- leave l11e nozzle at 2750 m/s relative to the nozzle, and ll1e pressure is
out i:esistnnce along a smooth_horizori1al plane as.shown. The block aun9spheric. De1etmine tho;_ triiriimum mass ofrocket fuel neede_d to
ttnv~Jsjnitinlly atspe¢ l/o, At z= Q.1,be bJpc:~j~ sll'U_c;;\c, by a liquid jet prollel 1he sled to a speed of265 m/s befo~ pumr;,ut_occ_urs_, As a first
~d _iis ~~·tiegin~ tci slO\v. Obl.(Un an aJMbn!ic: expression. for the approximaiiori, neipcct resistnrice fon:es.
~ci~iei:ati9ii_9f!,tl~J!lqckfc:,p? (). S9\y.cfJl~.cg~!J,tj9n_to.c;!~1ermine the 4.122 A r9clc.etsle_cl w\lb iniGi!l ~l!SS of 3 melric tons, lncluciing
:9,mc a1 whi~h if.=•o. I ton of fuel, res~ o"i1•aleveise~tioµ _ofJ.rnck;_-At, = p. the sAl,i~t N ~t
of th_e rock.~ t is fgaj1eci i-¢d the· cp~!t_et burns ·rue1 al Ille rate of
·+f:
75 kg/s. The exit Sl)l:~cl, of th..~ eil1l!µst glis, [!:laitiv.¢ 10 l11e rocket
l,~·. :f"
is 2500 m/s. arid ili"\',:. ph:s_sure is' ounosphedc. Negiecting friction
and air resistance, calculate-<the accele_rntiori llllcl speed-of Ille sled
at t= !Os.
4.123 A "home-made'' solidpi:'ojiell!llit rocket has on initial mass of .Q_,
P4.11($, P4.117
9 kg; 6.8 kg of this is tuel. The rocket is directed vertically upward
3
ftom rest, bums fuel al a constant rate of 0.225 kg/s, and ejects
Q. 4."117 In Problem 4~116, if M = IOO'kg, p =999 kg/m , and e."Chaust gas at a speed of 1980 m/s relative 10 the rockeL Assume that
- A= O.Ol m2, find tl1e jei spee_d V required for the cart to be brought the pressure at the exit is atmospheric and thnt air resis1ance may be
to resl after one second.-if the initial spet:d qf !he cart is Uo = 5 m/s. neglected. Calculate lhe rocket speed-after 20 sand die dis1ance trav-
For !his condition, plofihe speed U and position ;t of the cart as func- eled by the rocket in-20. s. Plot-the rocket speed and.l11e.dis1ance trav-
tions of-time. Whal is the maximum value ofx, and how long d_o es the eled as functions·of time_.-
cwt take 10 return 10· its initial position? 4.124 Neglecting air resistance, whm speeci would a vertically .Q_
4. 11 8 A vertical jet c,f waler impinges on a ho~on~al disk ni; shown. directed rocket attain in 5 s ifi1 sllltis from test, has initial mass of
The disk assembly mass is 30 kg. When the disk 1s 3 m 1;1J)ove _the 350 kg. bums lO kg/s, nnd .ejects gas nl atmospheric pressure with
nozzle exit, it is moving upward at U = 5 m/s. <:;ompute ~t: verucal a speed of25.00 m/s relniive-10 the rocket? What would be the ma.'t~
ac~lenition of !he disk at !his iils1nnL imum velocity? Plot the,i:qc;)ceLspeed as a f'unction of time for Ille first
minute of flight.
4.125 The vane/cart assem!;>ly qfmass M =30 kg. shown in Prob- _Q_.
lem 4.100, is driveo by n wa1etjet. The wmer leaves the stationary "
nozzle of area A= 0 .02 m 2 , willt:a speed 9f 40.r11/s. lJte coefficient
of kinetic friction belweeiiJhe~senibly and the surfac·e is 0.1 O. Plot
the' 1erminal speed of ihe:.l!l,_Sembly as a l'unc_tion of vane turning
..,, A =0,005 m2 angle, o; for 0-5.05;,r/2:; At Wh!!t ang,e does the assembly begin
10 move lfthe coeffic:ient.ot'static frictiort'is.0.15? ·
~ V=l5m/s 4., 2 6 Ttie moving tan_k shc,wn is 10 be slowed by lowering a scoop
to pick up.water from a trough. Theini1ial mass and speed of the tank
and:its eom~nlS are Mo ancf Uo, respectively. Negle~t external forces
p4.118
d9¢'t6 pressure or' frii:;lioii and "a,;siir11.e thnt th~- uiick is horizontal.
Problerrfs 141
-Apply the continuity and momentum equations to show that nt any 4.131 Calculate the torque about the pipe's centerline in the plane·of
iJlsumt .U=UoMo/M. Obtain a general expression for U/Uo as a the bolted flange that is caused by the flow through the nozzle. The
function of time. nozzle centerline is 0.3 m above the flange· centerline. What is the
effect of this torque on- the force on the bolts? Neglect the effects
of the weights of the pipe and the fluid in the pipe.
~ ,t.
15Q,.._mm d
Q 4.127 A mo.d e) solid propellant rocket has u mass of 69.6 g, of

which 12.5 g is fuel. The rocket produces 5.75 N of thrust for a dtita.
Q9!l of 1.7 s. For thcs_e c_onditions. calculate the mnx.ir)1um speed and
height auainnble in the absence of air resistance. Plot the rocket speed
and l11e distance 1raveled as functiqns of time.
4. 132 A fire _tru!=k is equippecJ with a 66 ft long e_xtension ladc!e.r
which is attached at a pivot and raised 10_ an angle of 45°. A 4-in.-
dianieter fire l)ose is laid up· the ladder and a 2-in.--diameter- n_ozz_Je
The Angular-Momen tum Principle is attached lei me top cif the ladder so that the nozzle directs the ·stream
4.128 The 90° reducing elbow of Example 4 .6 discharges to atmos- horizontally into the window of a burning bwlcijrig. If the flqw·ra~ ·is
phere. Section @ is located O. 3 m to. tbe-tjght of S.cctjQn © ~timate I ft' /s, compute the torque exened=~boilt the ladder pivot t>0ini.. Th.~
t11e moment exened by Ute flange c;m _t1_1e elbow. ladder, hose, and the water in the hose weigh about IO lb/ft.
4.129 Crude oil (SO =Q.95) from n. tanker dock flows ttuough a 4.133 Calculate the torque excned on the flange joint by the fluid
pipe of 03.25 m diameter in the confi<>uration shown. TI1e .flow rate flow as a function of the pump flow rate. Neglect the weight of
• 0 . . . . · ·-
IS 0 .58 m /s, and _ l11e gage press_ur:es are shown.in the diagram. De_ter~ the 100 mm diameter pipe and the fluid in the pipe.
I
mir;ie _the rori;;e .and torque lhatare exened by _me pip_e_l!,Ssembly Qn its
supports.
. i T
Q = 0 .58 m 3
/s -+- ~t"'-t! _ _,,__ _ _ ______.,,,o;~ 25 m P
p = 345 kPa ~q [
D=0.25 m ~-
l=20m
I P4-133
lm-'-+i
~ ~
~':l:l:.:..o.":ll>.~ -~ .,. ~
...
/
p = 332 kPa 4.134 Consider the sprinkler of Problem 4.130 again. Derive a wf•
ferentinl equµ.tjol'.l foi; the µngular speed of the spr:i.t:i.ld~ ns .a .!'unction
of tim!l . .Evaluate its s~ady~state speed of roc;ition if mere is QO fric;•
tion in thJ:l pivo!,.
4.1;30 The simplified lawn sprinkler shown ~otates in _the horizon-
tp.l_- pJnne. At the center pivot, Q = l~·L /rnin of water.enters verti~ 4.135 Water:, flows ciut of the 2.5-mm slots of.the romting sp~y syr
cally. Water dis_charges in -the h.o rizontal pliµie fi:9m en1:h jeL· If tern, as shown. The .velocity varies linearly from a , maximum at thCc.
me pivot is fx:ii;:tjonless, calculate the torq1,ic; needed to keep.wesprin• outer rac;lius to zero at the inner radius. The flow rate is 3-L/s. Fwd
'9er from rou1ti.!)g. Neglectirag the inertia of tJ1e . sprinkler itself, (ri) I.lie torque required to hold the system sc;itionnry and (b)· the.
·ca1culate the angular acceleration that res_uIts when the torque is steady-state speed cif rotation after it is released.
remc;,ve_d.
t t 11t 1t l 10 Dia.= _2 5 mm _
1: 250mm
300mm
•I ,1 lllllll! l
4.136 The lawn spri.okler shown is supplied witb w;ner al a rate of· D ·
(!S:L/inin. Negl~_tiIJg friction in tJie pivot, determine th~ ste~dy::state· .
=
angular speeq for fJ 30°. Plot the-steady-,smte nnguJar speec;l -.Q f.t!le,
P4.130, P4.134_ sptinkler for Q ~JJ 1!, 90~. ··
142 O,apter 4 Basic Equations in Integral Form for a -Control Volume
diagram (using an r, O. ;: cooroinnte·system) to indicate the absolute

velocity of the water jet leaving tl1e nozzle. -What governs the steady
rotational speed of the sprinkler? Does tlle rolnlionnl speed of lhe
sprinkler nffecl the area covered by the spray? How would you esti-
mate tl1e area? For fixed a. what might l:ie done to increase or
decrease the area covered by the spray?
t..,,2
~
J
- =---~;-i· Point O
¾
4.137 A small -lilwn sprinkler is shown. The sprinkler ope~les at a

cYJ~ 8
glige pressure of 140 kPa. The t<iLal flow rate of waler through the ,f.-.....,,3
V
sprinl9er is 4 L/min. Ei!ch jel qisch~ges at l7 m/s (relative lo the
sprinkler ann) in a direction inclined 30° ab.ave the hQd:zon\al. P4.140
The sprinklec rotates about a vertical O:Xis. Friction in the bearing
causes a torque of0.18 N · m opposing rotation. Evaluate the torque
regu~d l~ hold the sprinkler station~. The First Law of Thermodynamics
4,141 Compressed airis:stored in n pressure bottle with ii, volume of
JOO L, at 500 kPa,a\Jsohne an420°c, Ata cennin instant, a valve is
opt nedanfima.ss flows from ~he'b1>l!,le l!lm=0:0Lkg/~. Fit_id•tlie rate
of¢hange <>ftemg~ratilre ih l,he'\:,9llle: at;this instant.
4-.142 A turbU1e is sµppli¢<l wi,11! Q'.§O i:n~/fqfwatc} frolii a o':3\:m
diametel' pipe; the disc:ii:_nrgc pipe bas;:a .()A m <linmeler. Oeterftun'.e'
the press~ <lrop)~CWSS ~e lll"rl?iv~:Jf it d_i;livers 60 kW.
4.143.Aifisdrawh from theatrnospl)e~fotq atµrl:>omachine. Al the
ex.il, conditiOlis lire 500 kPn' gage
'arid- 130°C. The exil speed is
100 m/s and tl1e· mass flow rate.is-0.8 kg/s. Aow is steady and lhere
4.138 When a garden hose is used 10 fill a ..bucket. ~mer in the is no heat transfer. C::ompule the shaft work interaction with the
bucket may develop a swirling motion. Why does this happen? surroundings.
H,c:,w could the amount of swirl be calculated approximately?
4.144 At high speeds the compressor and turbine of lhe jet
4.139 A pipe branches symmetrically irilo two legs of le~gth ~• engine may be eliminnled entirely. The result is called n ramjet
and the whcile· system rotates with angular speed CtJ arol.lTid 1_lS axis (a subsonic configuration is shown}. Here the incoming air is slo-
ofsYJ1lffierry. El!,chbranch is·i,nclined at angle a 10 the axis of rotation. wed and the pressure increases; lhe air is heated in the widest pun:
Liquid enters the pipe stea~ily, ~ith zero ~gular· momenluni. · at by the burning of injected fuel. The heated air exhausts at high
volume flow rate Q. The pipe diameter. D, 1s much. smaller than velocity from the converging nozzle. What nozi]e nren A 2 • is
L.c Obtnin nn expression fol' th~ c,xternal .torq11e required to tllrn the needed to d.e liver a 90 kN thrust at an nfr sr1eed of 270 m/s if the
pipe. What !!dditional torque would be. required. to inlpart angular exhaust velocity is the sonic velocity for- the heale<I which is at au-.
acce.l eration 6J? 1000 K:, How much fl!el energy (kW) is required? Assume. that the
jet operates ar an nltiWde :o fl2 km and l)eglect the fuel mass and pres-
sure differentials. ·
~
0tffilser '?' €ombust1on
Q - v1 - - - -~ - O< - - - - - - - - ----+:-V2
°' Nou le
_--? ·
-- d<
~
P4.144
P4.139
4, 1"45 Transverse thrusters are used io make large ships fully.
g 4;,114_0 For lhe rotating sprinkler of Example 4.13. w}!at ~alue o~ a -IQOOeuv:era~le Jll low-- speeds without _tugboat ll/,sistance.
willprociuce the maximum rotational speed? Whal angle willpi:o~i~e A r.rai:isvei:s!;: thruster: consis"5,o.f_a propeller mpunted in a duct; the
th~ f!llQWilUJn _area of coverage by the spray? Draw a velocity wiitds lhen mounted below-.the waterline in lbe, bow or stem of
Pro blem s 143
the ship. The duct runs comp letel y across the ship. Cnlc ulnte the 4. 148 Liqu id flow ing at high spee d in a wide, horiz ontal open-chan -
lhrus t :dc_vclopcd by a 1865 kw unit (supp lied to the prope Uer) if nel Linder some cond ition s can unde rgo a hydr aulic jump , as show n.
the duct 1s 2.8 m in diam eter and the ship is statio nary. For a suita bly chos en contr ol volu me, lhe flow s enter ing and leavi ng
the jump may be cons idere d unifo rm with hydr ostat ic press ure
4 .146 All majo r harbo rs are equip ped with fire boats for extin guish -
distr ibuti ons (see Exam ple 4 .7). Cons ider a chan nel of widt h w,
ing ship fires. A 75-m m-di amet er hose is attac hed to the disch arge of
with wate r flow at D1 =0.6 m and Vi =5 m/s. Show that-i n gene ral,
a 11 kW pum p on such a boaL The nozz le attac hed to tbe end of the
hose has a diam eter of 25 mm. If tbe· nozz le disch arge is held 3 m D2= D1 [ ✓1 +8V flgD 1 -1 ]/2.
abov e the surfa ce of the wate r, deten nine the volu me flow rate
throu gh the nozz le, lhe-m axim um heigh t to whic h the wate r will rise. m
D1 =0.6
and the force on the boat if the wme r jet is direc ted horiz ontal ly over
-the st~rn - · I
-=-::-+ Y .= .. mts
D2
I
4• 147 A. pum p draw s wate r from a reser voir throu gh a i50-m m-
diam eter sucti on pipe and deliv ers it to a 75-m m-di arnet er disch arge
pipe. The end of the s1,1crion pipe is 2 m below the free surfa ce of the
reser voir. The press ure gage on the disch arge pipe (2 m abov e the
~erv oir surfa ce) reads _170 kPa. The avera ge speed in the disch,!Cge Eval uate the chan ge in mech anici il e n _ ergy throu gh the hydr aulic
pipe is 3 m/s. If the pum p effic iency is 75 pen;:ent. deter mine the jump. If heat trans fer to lhe surro undi ngs is negli gible , dete rmin e
pow er requ ired to drive iL ·t.l:!e chan ge in wate r temp eratu re throu gh ·the jump.
C H APTE R 5
Introdu ction to Differen tial Ana lys is
of Fluid M otion
5.1 <;on·servat ion of Mas~
5.2 Stream Function for Two-Dim ensional
5 . 4 Momentu m Equation
5.5 lntr0<:lucti on to Computat ional Fluid Dynamics
-
----
Incompres sible Flow 5.6 Summary i:lnd U~gful Equations
a
5.3 Motion 'of Fluid Parti<;le (Kiri!?mat ip;)
:~~~--=-----~------ ~,,_"'-·-
Case Study
--....>----<..-----::>-<
Wave Power: Aquama rine Oyster Wave multiple devices are expected to be capable of generatin g
100 MW or more.
Energy Converte r Oyster has a number of advantages : It has good efficiency and
Aquamarin e Power, a wave enerip, company located in Scotland, durability, and, with its low-cost operation, maintenan ce, and
has developed an Innovative hydroelectr ic wave energy con- manufactu re, it is hoped it will produce reliable cost-compe titive
verter, known as Oyster; a demonstra tion-scale model was electricity from the waves for the first time. The device- uses
installed in 2009 and began producing power for homes in some simple and robust mechanical offshore component , combined
regions of Scotland. They eventually plan to have commercia lly with proven convention al onshore hydroelectric componen ts.
viable Oyster wave power farms around the world, the first Designed with the notion that simple is best, less is more, it has a
planned for 2013. A farm of 20 Oyster wave power devices would minimum of offshore submerged moving parts; there are no
provide enough energy to power 9000 homes, offsetting carbon underwate r generators, power electronics, or gearboxes. Oyster is
emissions of about 20,000 metric tons. designed to take advantage of the more consistent waves found
oyster consists of a simple mechanical hinged flap, as shown near the shore; for durability, any excess energy from exception ally
in the figure, connected to the seabed at around a 10-m depth. As large waves simply spills over the top of Oyster's flap. Its motion
each wave passes by, it forces the flap to move; the flap in turn allows it to literally duck under such waves. Aquamarin e Power
drives hydraulic pistons to deliver high-press ure water, via a believes its device is competitive with devices weighing up to five
pipeline, to an onshore electrical turbine. Oyster farms using times as much, and, with multiple pumps feeding a single onshore
Oyster" Wave
Energy Converter ~
Hydroelectnc
Power Conversion Plant
A schematic of Aquamari ne's Oyster device.
144
5.1 Conservation of Ma·ss 145
generatqr, Oyster will offer good economies of scale. As a final software. In these programs, the basic differential equations
bqnus, Oyster uses water instead of oil as its hydraulic fluid for describing the motion of the fluid are programmed and solved,
minimum environmental impact and generates essentially no usually numerically. The equations that describe fluid motion
noise pollution. will be developed in this chapter. Computational Fluid Dynamics
The design and analysis of the flow around arid through a (CFD) is the name given to the use of software to simulate
device such as Oyster, and the determination of the forces fluid flow, and CFD techniques are discussed at the end of this
produced by the flow on the surfaces, often uses computer chapter.
In Chapter 4 , we developed the basic equations in integral form for a control volume. Integral equations
are useful when we are interested in the gross behavior of a flow field and its effect .o n various devices.
However, the integral approach does not enable us to. oblain detailed poim-by-point knowledge of the
flow field. For example, the integral approach coulc,I. provide information on the lift generated by a wing;
it could not be used to detennine the pressure distribution that produced the life on the wing.
To see what is happening in _a flow i_n detail,.we need_differential forms of the egu_ations_of motion.
In this chapter we shall develop differe·nti;il equ.lltions for th.e-ccmse~ation of mll$S anQ Newton's second
law of motion. Since\Ve are interested-in developing di.ffe~nti.aJ ·equations, we will need to !lJ]alyze infin-
itesimal systems and control volumes.
5 .1 Conservation of Mass
in.Chapter 2, we developed the field representation offluid properties. The property fields are defined by
continuous fun•c tions of the space coon:linates artd time. The density and velocify fields were related
ihrough conservation of mass iri integral form in Chapter 4 (Eq. 4.12). In this chapter we shall derive
the differential e_g uation For conservation of mass in rectangular and in cylindrical coordinates. In both
cases the derivation is carried out by applyin&"•- conservation of mass to a differential c.o ntrol volume.
Rectangular Coordin~te System

In reclangular coordinates, the conn-ol volume chosen is an infinitesimal cube with sides of length
dx, d)•, dz. as shown in Fig. 5.1. The density at .the c.e nter, 0, of the cbhttol volume is assumed to be
p and the velocity there is assumed to be V = iu + ]v + kw. ·
To evaluate the properties at each of lhe six f~ces of the conn-ol surface, we use a Taylor series
!!~PIP!.s.ion _al;>out point 6. For ex_ru,nple, at. lhe right face,
(t) ~ + (;;);! (~)

2
P)x+d</2 =p+ + ...

Neglecting h,igher-order terms, we can write
_FJg. 5.1 Qlfferential control_volume in· r~c.~ngula~ .coorc!ln.~_te_s .

146 Chapter 5 Introduction to Differential Analysis of Fluid Motion
and
au)dx
u).r+d.r/2 =u+ ( ax 2
where p,1(,ap/a.-c, and au/ax are all evaluated at point O. The corresponding terms al the left face are
p) d.r/?=p+ -
- - ~ (ap) ( dx) - - = p- -
2
-
~ 2
cap) dx
11).._cJ.r/? =u+
- (a,,)
-
ax
( dx) - - = ·u- -
2
(a")ax2
-cb:
We can write similar expressions involving p and v for the front and back faces and p and w for the top
and bottom faces of the infinitesimal cube dx
dy dz. These can then be used to evaluate the surface inte-
gral in Eq. 4.12 (recall that f csP V · dA is the net flux of mass out of the control volume):
-
0
a, 1 <;:v
pd¥+ l --
. cs
pV-dA=O (4. 12)
Table 5.1 shows the details of this evaJµation . Note: We assume tha~ the velocity componenlS 11, v , and w
are positive in the x, y, and z directions, respectively; the area normal is by convention positive out of the
cube; and hi_gher-order terms {e.g.• (dx)2] are neglectec;I in the limit as dx, dy; and dz -+ 0 .
The result of all this work is
apu . . iJpv iJpwl dx d d

[ ax + a; + ax J·· Y .z
This expr~si.on is tlj~_surfac;:e integt?J evaj1,1ation for our differential cube. To ce>mplete Eq. 4.12. we
ne~c;I Io evaluate. the volume inte~ ·(recall that iJ/ atf cv pd¥ is the raJe Mch~u:ige ofrpass in the control
volume): ·
~ { pd.Y. _,. ~ [pdx dy dz] = Of? dx dy dz

ar Jcv a, a,
Table 5.1
Mass Flux Thrqugh the q,ntrol Surface of a Rectangular Differential Control Volume
Surface E'v aluation of JpV •dA
or .L . . -
cs
[ilpu iJpv iJpw]
pV•dA= - . + - + --::- dxdydt
iJ.t ay _a<;. _
Hence, we obtain (after canceling dxdydz) from Eq. 4.12 a differential fonn of the mass conserva-
tion law
iJpi~. iJpv iJp.w. iJp _ (5. la)

-iJx
+ --
iJy
+--+--
oz iJt
0
Equation 5 . la is frequently called the cominuity equation.

Since the vector operator, V, in rectangular coordinates, is ~iven by
- iJ _ i) -iJ
'il=i-+j-+k-
iJx iJy oz
then
iJpu
-iJx apv
+ -iJy iJpw
+ -oz-
....
= v •p v-
Note tl1at the del operator 'i1 acts on p and V. Think of it as 'i1 • (pV). The conservation of mass may be.
written as
Two flow cases for which the differential continuity ~quation may be simplifiec;l are worthy of note.
For an incompr_essible fluid, p = cons"rant; d~nsity is neither a t\mction of space coordinates nor a
function of time. Fcir Mi incompressible -ffuid, the continuity equation simplifies to
Oil av aiv ~- .
·· -: + .- -+ -- -v:.v~o (5,lc)
ax _iJy q~ ·
Thus the velocity field, V(x,y, zJ). for incompre~sil;>le flow must satisfy V: · V = 0. _
For steady flow, all fluid properties are,. by definition, inJ.lependent of time. Thus iJp/ iJt = -0 •and at
most p =p(x.y,z). For steady flow, the contiQuity eq~ation can be wptten as
iJ~'+ g; * ii~{ ·- ·V -/i•V~o-
(arid rerpember that the del operator 'i1 acts on p _a,~d V). Example 5.1 show the integration of the
continuity equation for an incompressible ·f low. and Example 5 .2 shows it~ application ~o a compn;:ssible
unsteady .flow.
'.Given: Two-dimeilsiqnal Jio.w in tlie •~J' P.lillle fot<·whicµ Ii_-&.

F-1(1'4; ·(a:j. Possibfo y cbJDJ?QQ¢I!ti"or inc9i'r1Pr:~sibfo flow.
(bf Numb.er ofpc;:,ssiblt.y CJ>mpon·ents,
sciiut19tt:
- op
~9jl,_erni~_9 eq11;,,.tio.1'1:. V•pV + cir =0
~ 9t) n~ompressible1l9w missimplitie$ t9,.V•'V;::::.O. lli i;_eelfil1~ui~'<:6Q«ijnates,
q~ + av+wt ==0'
ax iJy i)z.
148 chapter 5 Introduct ion to Different ial Analysis of Fluid Motion
For two-dimen sional flow in the•'-)' plane, ,, = V(.x,y). TI1en panial derivatives ,vith respect to z are zero, and
au 01)
-+:....:_= O
ax oy
Then
av:
011
----=-A
iJy OX
which ~ves an expression for the rate of change of o holding x constanL This equatjon can be integrated to obtain an expressio n
for o. The result is
o= j :dy+f(x, 1) = -,.Ay+f(x,r ),.,_

. ----- ~---- ----- --=- IJ
{The _filnction. of x and r appears because we had a partial derivative of o with
respect toy.}
Any funccion/( .x;t) is allowable, sin<;e iJ/oyf(x, t) =O. Thus ~Y number of
expressiqn s for v could sati~fy the diffc;:rentjaj contjnuity equation under the given
conditions . The simplest expression for o would be·obtaine d by setlingf(x ,r) = O.
Then v= -Ay, and ·
\i=:;A xi-AyJ +:---- ------- ------- ~--~_ _..:.... V
Exampl e 5.2 UNSTEA DY DIFFERE NTIAL CONTINl JITY EQUATiO N

A gas-cfij]ed pneumatic slnlt in an automobil e suspensio n systeJTI behaves like a pisfon:-cylinder apparatus. At one instant when
3
the pisµ>n is L = 0.15 m away from the closed end of the;cylil:)de;:J-; t
. h~ gas.density is ·uniform at p:;::: 18 kg/ m and the piston begi ris
to move away from the closed end ~t V = 12 m/s. Assum~ -l).S:a simple model that the gas ·velocity is one-dimen sional and pro-
porti.o nal codistan<;e from tht; closed end; it varies linearly .from zero at the end to.11 =Vat ihepiston. Fipd the rate of change of gas
density af this instant. Obtain i:m expression for the a:vera~e density llS a ninction of tlrrie. . .
G_iven: Piston-cyl inder as shown.

Find: (a) Ral,e-of <;pang¢ of d~n:sity. "= Vf \.~!----- ~
(b) p(t). - --+-
p = 18 kg/m3 ;' J
~-
v = 12 mis
S9IL1tiQn:
. .
Governing equation:
- ap
V -pV + ; =Q
1,.E . .
.Y
1...
0
. apu apv opw op - . L=0.15m -
... ,s, -
. . . coordinate
.. .. ular
In·cectang . .. i)x+ -ay az+ ~
+-- a, - 0
Sin~: u=u(x); •paftiai'der ivatives with respect lo y and z are zero,.aiiµ
a u o· =,o
,L+..J!...,
ax f}(
Th~n
ap apu ifu . :op
a., .· . ax - -Pq't l(~i
5,1 Conservation of Mass 149
S
•_file;._ , . (ll;lsumed .u nifi
. " · . e·:P.
I
. S . lli.e . v.o·1ume "'-,-·=.
· onn m iJp ·o · .,..d,:iJp
·'.,'an· -....,.,. .;....,-'--'- ,au
,· '<!ii =' ~ll'a,:.·.
·
;-$WM:I(= Yl, :~ == ~:. ·: ·=~At,-H~:~~y~~~~ :at L:lo+~/

dr~n
is .~para:t~ v.iitja61es ,and 1ntegrare,
{1!-ii/t ~,-[!'~(#=·
JPo P Ji -.L
t ,vz~i
_}9 Lo_... •. ··
.in;'=·IJJkJ!Vt- and . !(1)'.-~~Q{1-wlr1ioJ-·._.,_ ...a ·- ~
··=·•··~ ....,..c.,.- -,--_P_(r_)
Cylindrical Coordinate Sys·tem

A suitable differential control volume for cyli11dncal coordinates is shown in Fig. 5.2. The density at
the center, 0, of the concroi volume is. assutriecl to be p im:d th~ v~lodty th,ere is iissumed to be
V=erVr+e11Vo+kV:::, where e,, eo, and-k are unit vectors m the. r, 0. and z directions, respectively,
apd Vi, Vo.!. and V, are the ·v elocity components in the r~ 0 , and z directions, respectively. To evaluate
fcs p-V • dA, ,ve niust c.o nsider the mass flux, through each. of the six faces of the control surface. The
properties at each of the six faces of the.control swface ~ obtai11i;cl from a Taylor series expansion ~boµt
point 0. The details of the m~s flux evaluai:ionare she>wn in Tahie5.2. v~Jocity coIDponerits v;, Vo, artd-
v., are all a$sumed to be in the positive c9o~diii~te.di(ections and ,ve have again us~d the convention that
the area normal is po_sitive outwards on each face, and higher-order terms have been neglected.
We see that the net rate of mass flux out through the ci:mtrolswface (the term fcspV •dA in Eq, 4.12
is given by
The. mass inside the control volume at any instant is the product of the rnass per unit volume. p, and the
·volume,. rd 0 dr dz. Thus the rate of change of rnass inside-the control volume (the term iJ/ iJt fcv pd¥ in
l?q,A.12 is given by
i)p
-rd0drdz
iJt· ·.· .. . .
(al Isometric view lb) ProJection on rU pl,me

fig. 5.2 Differeptial control volume in cylindrical cciordinate.s.
Table 5.2
Mass Flux Through the Control Surface of a Cylindrical Differential Control Volume
Surface Evaluation of j pV -dA
or
1 -
cs
- [
p V · dA = p V, + rapv
- - ' + -iJpVo
iJr
apV] dr d0 dz
.-·-· + r---.2.
ae az
In cylindrical coordinates the differential equation for conservation of mass is then

apv, iJpVo apv. ap
pV,+r~+-;w-+r oz +r ar =0
<;>r
iJ(rpV,) + iJpVo +riJpV: +/lp =0

ar ae az at
Dividing by r gives
l a(r.pV,,) + !_ a(pvo) + a(p-V,:) + ap =O (5.2a)

r iJr r ae i)z iJr
In cylindrical coordinates the vector operator V is given by

iJ l a -iJ
V=e,-+eo- - + k - (3.19)
iJr r a0 az
. I. .
Equation 5.2a also may be wntten m vector notauon as
- ap
V-pV+a,=O (5.lb)
1 To evaluate v. pV in cylindrical coordinates. we must.remember lhal
oe, . d iJeo .
iJO =eo an oO = -e,
5.2 Stream Function for Two-Dimensional Incompressible Flow 151
For ari i11compressible fluid, p = cons1.an1. and Eq. 5.2a reduces to
..!_ o(rVr) +..!.. qVo + av, =V. V=O (5.2b)

r or r ae oz.
Thus the velocity field, V(x,y,z.t), for incompressible flow must satis fy V · V =0 . For steady flow,
Eq. 5.2a reduces to
lo(rpVr) lo(pVo) o(pV,) _..., v- -o· (5.2c)

-~-~+---- +---- v ·p -
r a;- r: i)() oz.
(and remember once again that the de! operator V acts on p and V).
When written in vector form, the differential continuity equation (the mathematical statement of
conservation of mass), Eq. 5. Ib, may be applied in any c.o ordinate system. We simply substitute the
appropriate expression for the vector operator V. In retrospect, this result is not s urprising since mass
must be conserved regardless of our choice of coordinate system. Example 5.3 illustrates the application
·o f the continuity equation in cylindrical coordinates.
Example 5.3 P.IFF:ERENTiAL CONTINUITY EQIJATION IN (:VLINDRI.CAL ~QORDINATES

C:pns,id_e r a _ofle~dimensionalrad ialflow in the rB phme, giyenll,y V;- =f(r) _and Vo =0. Deterrrtjne the conditions onf(r) required
..for t,he flow t9 be in_co.Illpi:e§sU>le. ·
-~ lven: One-dimensional radial flow in the·r0 plane: V;- =f(r) and Vo= b.
Find: Requirements 9.nf(r) for- im;ompressible flow.
:~9.!li.t;ipri:
- i)p
Governing equati9n: V•p.v +-=0
ar
1-'.<Wioc:,ptnpressible flow in cylihdrii::iµ _coord_ii:iates this red1,1ces to Eq. t):2b,
l at) 10 . av . .
-. -a-,1:i-V,:: $---"-c a"·e·· Vo+a·. 7 .= 0 .
r r r ... z
For. ~e :give_ii v~locify field, V = V(r) •v'o .= .Qj µ1d ·pArtial derivati.ves with i:¢spe<;:~ to z are zero, so
l --a
.-(rV,.)=O
-~t ·:
qr .
rVr.= constant
'.;fh,i.is ·ch~ continuity equation shows that the radia.I velocity must be Vr =f(r) = C/r for•one-dimensional.rad ial flow of~ in.c om~
,pressJb,eJlµid. This is not a, sui'prising result: As the fluid moves outwards from the centet, the volume flow rate (per unit depth-41
the z·c).irectjon) Q = 2nrV at any radius r is constant.
*5 .2 Stream Function for Two-Dimensi onal Incompressible Flow

We already briefly discussed streamlines in Chapter 2, where we stated that they were lines tangent to the
velocity vectors in a flow at an instant
dyl IJ
(2.8)
dx s =nlinc = -;-;
• This sec!ion 1n~y be. omiucd wlihou1 IC>ss. or continuity in the 1e.-,t material.
We can now develop a more formal definition of sueamlines by introducing the srreamfunccio11. IJf.
Video: , ln This will allow us to represenL Lwo entities-the velocily components 11(x,y. r) and u(x,y.r) of a two-
£ m m p l~ of dimensional incompressible flow- wilh a single function IJl(x,y.r) .
Streamlines/
There are various ways to define the stream function. We stan with the two-dimensional version of
Strcnklines
the continuity equation for incompressible flow (Eq. 5. lc):
(5.3)
We use what looks at first li.ke a purely mathematical exercise (we will see a physical basis for it later)
and define the stream function by
(5.4)
so that Eq. 5.3 is auromarically satisfied for any 'l'(x,y,t) we choose! To see this, use Eq. 5.4
in Eq. 5.3:
au au if!,,,
-+-=----- = 0
if!-1/f
ox oy axi}y ayox
Using Eq. 2.8, we can obtain an equation valid only along a streamline
11dy- vcb: = 0
or, using the definition of our stream function.
01/f dlfF (5.5)
-dx+-dy= O
ax iJy
On the olher hand. from a strictly mathematical point of view, at any instant in timer I.he variation in a
function 111(x,y,1) in space (x, y) is given by
a,/1 dlfF
d111=-ch+-dy (5 .6)
ax ay
=
ComparingEqs. 5 .5 and 5.6. we see that along an instantaneous streamline, dl/f 0; in other words.,,, is a
constant along a streamline. Hence we can specify individual strean1lines by their stream functi on
=
values: 1/f 0, l,2, etc. What is the significance of the IJI values? The answer is that they can be used
to obtain the volume flow rate between any two streamlines. Consider I.he streamlines shown in
Fig. 5.3. We can compute the volume flow rate between streamlines 1/fi and 1/12 by using line
AB.BC.DE. or EF (recall that there is no flow across a streamline).
Let us compute the flow rale by using line AB, and also by using line BC-they should be the same!
For a unit depth (dimension perpendicular to the-')' plane), the flow rate across AB is
Q=
)1':,
)I
udy=
1 >":,alJI
)'1
- d)•
O)'
Fig. 5.3 lnst;mraneous streamlines In a two-

L_.:___ _-L._:..._ _:..._ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ x dimension.al flow. ·
5.3 Motion of a Fluid Particle (Kinematics} 153
But along AB. x=constant, and (from Eq. 5.6) d111=a1p/oydy. Therefore,
Q= 1-" a~°> = 1"''

}1
2
dy
'1'1
dvr = 1/12 -vri
For a unit depth, the flow rate across BC, is
Q=
1,
. _.,
udx·= -
1·· .T,
2
avr
-_dx
a.l
Along BC, y=constant, and (from Eq. 5 .6) dlfl=Ol/f/iJydx. Therefore,
Q= -
1. ,avr
-dx= -
.,, ax
1"'' 1/12
dvr=•P2-vr1
Hence. whether we use line AB or line BC (or for that matter lines DE or DF), we find that the volume
flow rate (per writ depth) between two streamlines is given by the difference between the two stream
f1111ctio11 va!ues.2 (The derivations for lines AB and BC are the justification for using the stream function
definition of Eq. 5.4.) If the streamline through the origin is designated If'= 0, then the 1/f value for any
other streamline represents the flow between the origin and that streamline. [We are free to select any
streamline as the zero streamline because the strean1 function is defined as a differential (Eq. 5.3); also.
the flow rate will always be given by a difference of 111 values.] Note that because the volume flow
between any two streamlines is constant, the velocity will be relatively high wherever the streamlines
are c/.ose together, and relatively low wherever the streamlines are far apart-a very useful concept
for "eyeballing" velocity fields to see where we have regions of high or low velocity.
For a two-dimensional, incompressible flow in the r0 plane, conservation of mass, Eq. 5.2b, can be
written as
o(rV,J ·av.0 . .
· .·at:..:. .+.a.i =-0 (~.7)
Using a logic similar to that used for Eq. 5.4, the sire~ function, 111(r,0, t), then is defined s1,1ch that
(5.8)
With If' defmed according to Eq. 5.8. the continuity equation, Eq. 5.7, is satisfied exactly.
5.3 Motion of a Fluid Particle (Kinematics)

Fig1,1re 5.4 shows a typical fmite fluid element, within which we have selected an infinitesimal particle of
mass din and initial volume cb: dy dz., at time t, and as it (and the infinitesimal particle) may appear after a
time interval dt. The finite element has moved and changed its shape and orientation. Note that while the
fuiice element has quite severe distortion, the infinitesimal particle has changes in sbape limited co
stretching/shrinking and rotation of the element's sides-this is because we are considering both an
infinitesimal time step and particle, so that the sides rernain straight. We will examine the infinitesimal
particle so that we wiU eventually obtain results applicable to a point. We can decompose th.is particle's
motio.n into four components: tra11slario11, in which the particle moves from one point to another. rota-
tion of the particle. which can occur about any or all ofthex,y or z axes; Li11eardeformatio11, in which the
particle' s sides stretch or contract; and angular defommtio11, in which the angles (which were initially
-90° for our p_a rticle) between the sides change.
:? For 1wo-tliniensionnl s1eady comp.rcssible now in 1he .,y plane, lhe stream function, 1/1. can be defined such lhnl
OIi'·
p11:a ~ and pu =- Ol/f
~)• ax
The difference bc1wecn 11lc coi1s111n1 vnlucs of 1/f defining two streamlines is I.hen the mass now rare per unit depth between I.he two
strenmlines.
d y B d:;:
d.x
Finite element &

Finite element & infinitesimal infinitesimal particle
particle at time 1 at time,+ dr
:z
Fig. 5.4 Finite fluid element and Infinitesimal particle at times t and t + dt.
)' )'
,-----~
: :
[3
I
__ JI
y
' - - - - - - - - - -- x '---------- -X
Translation Rotation
• -;
y
)'
L - - - - - - - -- - x
.
.
.
.
'--------- --- x '---------- --x
linear deformation
Angular deformation
Fig. 5 .5 Pictorial representation of the components of fluid motion.
It may seem difficult by looking at Fig. 5.4 Lo distinguish between rotation and angular deformation
of the infinitesimal fluid particle. It is imponant to do so, because pure rotation involves no deformation
but angular deformation does and, as we learned in Chapter 5, fluid deformation generates shear so-esses.
Figure 5.5 shows a typical -'-)' plane motion dec6mposed into the four components described above, and
as we examine each of these four components in tum we will see that we can distinguish between rota-
tion and angular deformation.
Vid1to: l'amcl<'
.\.Joriou in " Fluid Translat ion: Acceleration of a Fluid Particle in a Velocity Field
Chum,.:/
The cranslation of a fluid particle is obviously connected with the velocity field V = V(x, y,z.t) that we
previously discussed in Section 2.2. We will need the acceleration of_!1 fluid particle for use in Newton· s
second law. IL mightsee.m that we could simply compute this as.a
=aV /at. This is incorrect, because Vis
afield, i.e., it describes the whole flow and not just the motion of an individual particle. (We can see that
this way of computing is incorrec_t: by examining Example 5.4, in which particles are clearly accelerating
cllld decelerating so a=/= o, but av/or= 0.)
5.3 Motion of a Fluid Particle (Kinematics) 155
Example 5.4 ST~EAM FUNCTION FOR FLOW IN A CORNER

1
Given tQe velocity fielcl for steady, incompressible flow iri a comer (Example 2.1), V =k,:i-Ayj, With A= 0.3 s- • determ.ibe the
s(re~ 1'\i.iic_tion tliapvill yield tlus velocity field; Plot and interpret the streamline pattern in th_e first and second q1Jadrants-of- the
Xj, _plar)e.
Given: Velo¢ity fi:~icl, v=sAYi-Ayj, with A= 0.3 s- 1

•
Fjn·9: Stream fµp.ction ijt l!l'(c;l .pk>t ip. fii:st and sc;::c;:ond quadrants; interpret the results,
Solyt!cm: The -fiow ts.incompressible, so the stream function satisfies Eq. 5A.
From Eq, 5.4, u = aip and u

oy =- aiji_ From the giveri velocity field,
a_y - -
i)qr
u=A'7=== aj,
Iilte~rating with respegt to y gives
IJI = j Z;dy f-f(x) =Acy:+f(x) (1)
wberef(x) is arbitrary. Uu;: functionf(x) may be evalupted usiri~ the equation for V. Thus, from Eq. 1,
--~
-=-Ay-# (?_·)
-Fromthe given velocity field; ..!.!= -Ay; Comparing thi~ \Vith
u-= ~
• E,_q. i ·
*
shows
. .
that f-= .0, or f(.-r:) #Constant. Therefore, Eq. 1·
becomes ·
1/l =Axy +-c -~---~,---,,-~---~--If/",,-

_
Lines ofcohstaiit If/" tepres(:"rit streamlines in tl)·e .flow fieltL The-eo11_s tant c may be,choseri as an.y coilve~e~t vaj.u¢ .for pfotting:
pw:p9ses. The t:onstaht:-is !;.bosen as z!;:ro iri. order•tha:t the srreamliii~Jhrough ·the origin,.be desigoat¢d as w = 'Iii =0. Then the
value for any otherstrearriline repl'eSeiits Qi¢ flow o,etween the origin and th;nstrearnline. With c=O and A,= 0.3 s~ 1 , then
,µ;,=0,3..i.y (m3 /s/m)
f This _e quation of a streamline is identical to the @>ult (zj• =constant;) obtained irt Example 2. 1.}
·s~p~te plots of the streamtin•es l,n the ttrSt _and seco.nd qlladra11~ .are presented below. Note that in quadrant 1, u > O; s~ w:
values ar¢ positive. Ih quadrant 2, ,; <0; sq lfl vajµes are netative. -
Quadrant 2 Y (m) Quadrant l

4 4
3 3 h 1/Js = l.2 m 33/s/m

1/J4 = 0.9 m 3/s/m
1% = 0.6 m /s/m
2 2 t!J,z = 0.3 m 3 /s/m
~ l 1 1/Js
tt'e
¥'& V,4
,Jij _ _ _ _ __ 'P3
"11 =0 __.3____L2_ _ _
_-4__._____ ...l~~-' 1/'2
0 \/J1 =0
0 1 2 3 4
X (m) x (ml
In the first q~adrant:, since u > 0 and u <0,. the flow is ftqm left to right: and'
do~ ~ Toe volume flow ia~ ~I.ween the streamline qr= .1/T I through the ·origin
::md th~ ~iite y,=w2 is
Q12 = y,,. ~vr1 =0.3 m3/s/ttt
I n the second .cju~dnmt:, sin~ u ·<: 0 SJlQ v < O, th~ flow is ftoni right to-left and
QOWil, Toe vtjlµm~ flo.w rate between st.reamlin~ lp7 and lp9 is
<b9=ip9-11T1 = [-1.2-( -0,6)}~3 /s,/Jn=-Q.6 m3 /s/m,

The negativ.e .sigrds consistent with flow having If'< 0.
The problem, then, is to retain the field description for fluid properties and obtain an expression for
the acceleration of a fluid particle as it moves in a flow field. Stated simply, the problem is:
Given the velocity field, Y = V(x,y,z, r), find the acceleration

of a fluid particle, a,..
Consider a particle moving in a velocity field. At tin1e t, the particle is at the position x, y, z and has a
velocity corresponding to the velocity at that point in space at time t,
vp), =V(x,y,z,r)
Att +dt, the particle has moved to a new position, with coordinatesx+dx,y+dy,z:+d.:, and has a veioc-
ity given by
VP l
j t+dt
= V(x+dx,y+dy,z:+dz:,t +dt)
This is shown pictorially in Fig. 5.6.

The particle velocity at time t (position r) is given by Vp = V(x.y, z, r). Then dVP• the change in the
r
velocity of the particle, in moving from location to r+dr, in time dt, is given by the chain rule,
~ av av
dV,, = -dxp + -dyp + -dzp + -atdt
av av
ax i)y az
The total acceleration of the particle is given by
dVt, d.'f;p av
dyp dz:p
a = --- = - - + - - + - - + -.-
av av av
P dt ax dt ay dt az dt a1
Since
dx dz
~=ll and __f!_ = lY
dr ' dt '
we have
dVp
a =--=11-+u-+w-+-
av av av av
P dt ax oy iJz a,
Particle path
y
lime, r + dr
Fig. 5.6 Motio.n of a particle in a flow field.

To remind us that calculation of the acceleration of a fluid particle in a velocity field requires a special
derivative, it is given the symbol DV/Dr. Thus
DV _ av a.v av av
--=a
Dt P
=11-+v-+w
iJx iJy az.
-+-
ar
(5.9)
The derivative, D/ Dt, defined by Eq. 5.9, is commonly called the substantial derivative to remind us
that it is computed for a particle of "substance." It often is called the material derivative or particle
derivative.
The physical significance of the terms in Eq. 5.9 is
a,,= DV av av av + av
=11-+u-+w-a z a,
Dt ax i)y
total convective local

acceleration acceleratic;m acceleration
of a particle
From Eq. 5 .9 we recognize that a fluid particle moving in a flow field may undergo acceleration for
either of two reasons. As an illustration, refer to Example 5.4. This is a steady flow in which particles are
coni;ected toward the low-velocity region (near the "comer"), and then away to a high-velocity region. If
a flow field is unsteady a fluid particle will undergo an additional local acceleration, because the velocity
field is a function of time.
The convective acceleration may be written as a single vector expression using the gradient operator
V . Thus
av av av - . -
. ::;:(V-V)V
11-.- +u-+w-
ax iJy i}z
(We suggest that you check this equality by expanding the. right side of the equation using the familiar
dot product operation.) Thus Eq. 5.9 may be written as
ov _ - - av
Dt ~ap=(Y·V)V+a t (5.10)
For a two-dimensional flow, say V = V(x,y,t), Eq. 5.9 reduces to

nv av av av
--=11-+u-+ -
Dt iJx iJy or
For a one-dimensional flow, say V = V(x, t), l;q. 5.9 becomes
nv av
--=11-+-
av
Dt ax or
Finally, for a steady flow in three dimei1sions, Eq. 5.9 pecomes
DV iJV
--=11- +u-+w-
av av
Dr ox iJy oz
which, as we .have seen, is not necessarily zero even though the flow is steady. Thus a fluid particle may
undergo a convective acceleration due to its motion, even in a steady velocity field.
Equation 5.9 is a vector equation. As with all vector equations, it may be written in scalar component
eqµations. Relative to an -'-YZ coordinate system, the scalar components of Eq. ,5.9 are written
.. D11 iJu· . 011 . iJ11- au

a.T, = D~ = ·It a:'t' +.-v8y + w az + ai {5.,li~}
JiJ.v av. cJv OU iJu
ay
.•
=-.
Dt
=11...;_-+v-+w:.......:.+.;_:,;__
·o x ·ay .iJ.z ot (:S.i,H5.)
D.w aw· iJw iJw OW
a . =---=11- +v.-·-+w-+--=
z.. Dt- iJ-?- 01 · oz .a r (.S..lic;
JSS Chapter 5 Introduct ion to Different ial Analysis of Fluid Motion
The componen ts of acceleratio n in cylindrical coordinate s may be obtained from Eq. 5 .10
by expressing the velocity, \/, in cylindrica l coordinate s (Section 5.1) and utilizing the appropria te
expression (Eq. 3 . 19, on the web) for the vector operator V. llllls,3
a~ = V, oV, + VooV, _vi+ V- av,+ oV, (5.12a)

• or r a0 r • oz Ol
ao = V, oVo + VooVo + V,Vo + V- oVo + oV0 (5.12b)
r or r a0 r • oz. of
a- = v, av, + VoiJV, + v_ av,+ av~ (5 . 12c)
.,, iJr r iJ0 • oz of
Equations 5.9, 5 . 11, and 5.12 are useful for computing the acceleratio n of a fluid particle any,vhere
in a flow from the velocity field (a function of x, y, z. and t); this is the Eulerian method of descriptio n, t1"1e
most-used approach in fluid mechanics .
As an altemative (e.g., if we wish to track an individual particle' s motion in, for exan1ple, pollution
studies) we sometimes use the Lagrangia n description of particle molion, in which the accelerati on,
position, and velocity of a panicle are specified as a function of time only. Both description s are illus-
trated in Example 5.5.
Example 5.5 PARTICL E ACCELER ATION IN EULERIA N AND LAGRAN GIAN DESCRIP TIONS
Consi<Jer two-dimensional, steady, in~mpres sible flow through the plane convergin g channel shown. The veiocity on the hor-
izontal centerline (x axis) is given by V = \11 (I+ (x/L)]i. Find an expressio·n for the acceleratio n ofa particle moving along the
centerline using (a) the Eulerian approach and (b) the Lagrangia n approach. Evaluate the acceleratio n when the particle is at the
beginning and at the end of the channel.
Given: Steady, two-dimen sional, incompres sible flow through the convergin g channel shown.
V= V(1 + i)l
1 onxaxis
Find: (a} The acc.e leration of a particle moving along the centerline using the Eulerian approach.
(b) The acceleratio n of a particle moving along the centerline using the Lagrangi?J l approach.
(c) Evaluate the acceleratio n when the particle is at the beginning .a nd at the end of the
channel.
S·o iutlon:
~a} The Eulerian approach
· Toe govei:ning equation for acceleratio n of a fluid particle is Eq. 5.9:
a- (•· >• 7
av
DVav av av
r)=-- =u-+ v-+w -+-
P ••• ·~· Dt ax ay az or
In this case we are interested in the x componen t of acceleratio n. (Eq. 5 . 1 la):
Du OU au. au Oil (5 . lla)
axp (x>• z t)=-=
Dt
u-+v~ +w-+ ~
ax . iJy oz ot
• ' ' '
J Jn e,•olualing (ii . V)V. recall that e, aod eo are functions of 0 (see foo1no1e I cin p. 150).
On the x nxis, v = lV = 0 and u = v1 ( I + Z:) , so for steady flow we obtain

Du iJu ( x) Vi
a.,P(x) = Dt = u iJx = V1 I + T., Z:
or
ax,(x)= y y2 ( X)
I +I
This expression gives the acceleration of any particle that is at point x at an ins~L
(b) The I.,.agrangian approach ··
In this approach we need to obtain the motion of a fluid particle as we would in particle mech~cs; that is, we need the
position .ip(t), and then we can obtain the velocil)' Vp(t) =rixp/dt and acceleration ap(t) =dVp/dt. Actually, we are
co~id~rjng motion along the x axis, so we want xp(t), up(t) =d.r:p/dt, anci axp(t) =dup/dt. We are not given xp(t), but
we <;lo.lil!-ve
up =
d.Tp
~=
( -Xp)
v, 1 + L
Separµti11g variables, and using limits xp(t = 0) = 0 and xp(t :;= t) =x!,,
1( .,:
o
Xp
) =
1··
l+_g
d.Tp
o
Vidt artd L m( 1 + 1) = V. t (1)
. L .
We can i:hen solve for xp(l) :
x;,(t) == L(e 1111/L_ 1)
'fhe velocity and. acc_eleration ~ then
dx, ..
u (1)=_!J_=V1·eV'1/L
.p · dt ·
_a nd
du , I y21
a< (t) =_J!._=- e.\ ,, L (i)axP(t)
·r dt L ·- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
This expression gives the aq;elerati,on at. any time t. of .the.,partii;;le that was initially at x = 0.
(e) We wish co evaluate the acceleraµ~i:l wh_e11;the parti~le is ~tx = 0 anq_.~= L. For th~ Eulerian approach this isstraiglltforwiuii:
y2 ·: .,-v? ._._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
a.;,(x=0) = l• ax (x=L)=2
r. L
axp_
For the Lagrangian approach, we _neecl to find the times at which x = 0 and x = L. Using Eq. 1, these are
L L
t(xp=0) = - t(xp ==L) = -ln(2)
V. v,
Then, from Eq. (5.1),
vi
a.,.(t=Q)=-f, and
L ) y21 1 2 y21
a ( t=~ln(2) ==- e "< l=2- +----~------ ----a...:.
·'P
Xr Vi · L L
Not¢ that l::>e>th apJ:)roaches yield the same results for particle acceleration, as
they sqciillQ.
Fluid Rotation
A fluid particle moving in a general lhree-dimensional flow field may rotate about all three coordinate
axes. Thus particle rotation is a vector quantity and. in general.
w= i<nx + }w_,. + kw 0
where w., is the rotation aboul the x axis, w,. is the rotation about the v axis, and w 0 is the rotation about the
: axis. The positive sense of rotation is given by lhe righl-hand ~le.
We now see how we can exLracl the rotation componenl oflhe particle motion. Consider the .'--:r plane
view of the particle at time r. The left and lower sides of the particle are given by lhe two perpendicular
line segments oa and ob of lengths .ax and lly, respectively. shown in Fig. 5.7a. In general. after an inter-
val .1r the particle will have translated to some new position. and also have rotated and defom1ed.
A possible instantaneous orientation of the lines at time r + .1r is shown in Fie.. 5.7b.
We need to be careful here with our sions o
for anoles
0 "
Followino b
the rioht-hand
e
rule, co1111rer-
c/ocJ..wise rorario11 is posirive, and we have shown side oa rotating counterclockwise through angle
ila. but be aware tliat we have shown edge ob rolating al a c/ocJ..,vise angle ll/J. Botl1 angles are obviously
arbitrary, bul it will help visualize lhe discussion if we assion 0
values to tl1ese ane.les, e.g., lel .!la= 6°
and il/J=4°. -
How do we extract from ll.a and ll./J a measure of the particle's rmation'? The answer is mat we take
an average of lhe rotations ll.a and ll./J, so that me particle's rigid body counterclockwise rotation is
Hl:!,.a-6./J), as shown in Fig. 5.7c. The minus sign is needed because me counrerc/ockwise rotation
of ob is -1:!,./J. Using the assigned values, me rotation of lhe particle is then ¼(6°-4°)= 1°. (Given
the two rotations, taking the average is the only way we can measure tl1e particle's rolation, because
any other approach would favor one side's rotation over tl1e otl1er, which doesn'l make sense.)
Now we can delennine from Aa and ll./J a measure of tl1e particle's angular deformation, as shown
in Fig. 5.7d. To oblain the deformation of side oa in Fig. 5.7d, we use Fig. 5.7b and 5.7c: If we subtracl
the particle rotation 4{1:l.a-ll./J), in Fig. 5.7c, from me actual rotation of oa, t:i..a, in Fig. 5.7b, what
remains must be pure deformation [L'..a-¼(t,..a-A/J) = ¾(Aa+ l!./J). in Fig. 5.7d). Using the assigned
values, tl1e defom1ation of side oa is 6° -{(6° -4°) = 5°~By a similar process, for side ob we end with
1),./J- ¾ (ll.a- 1),./J) = { ( ll.a + ll./J), or a cloc/..,vise deformation 4( l:!,.c.r + ll./J), as shown in Fig. 5. 7d. The
total deformation o(me particle is me sum of me deformations of tlle sides. ot (ll.a + ll./J) (wilh our
example values, 10°). We verify that this leaves us with tl1e correct value for tl1e particle's deformation:
Recall that in Section 2.4 we saw that deformation is measured by the change in a 90° angle. In
Fig. 5.7a we see this is angle aob. and in Fig. 5 .7d we see the total change of this angle is
indeed ¾( !),.a + t:.f}) + ½(t:.a + ll./J) = ( !),.a + 1),./J).
wi need to convert these angular measures to quantities obtainable from the flow field. To do this.
we recognize that (for small angles) t:.a = ll.17 / t:.x, and ll./J = ll.t;/ t..y. But ll.l; arises because, if in interval
ll.t point o moves horizontally distance ull.r, then point b will have moved distance (11 + [011/ ay]6.y) .6.r
(using a Taylor series expansion). Likewise, A'7 arises because, if in inlerval Ar point o moves vertically
distance vtl.t, men point a will have moved distance (u+ (ou/ox]t..x)t:i..r. Hence,
t:.l;=
011
11+-ll.y) au
ll.t-11Al=-ti.yti.1
( ay ay
lf2(Ll.a + /l.P)
\ I
\..--J
I \--- .
✓
I I ,-<;
I I
- I,-
I I
I
\
__,__' :...-
I \
_____ Li__ . ---- 1/2(.0.a + £>./J)

lf2(Ll.a - t::..P)
(a) Original particle (b) Particle after time a, (cl Rotational comP()nent (d) Angular deformation component
Fig. • Rotation and angular deformation of perpendicular line segments In a two-dimensional flow.
5 7
and
t:i.17= (u+ au t:i.x)l::,.1-ut:i.1= au t...r:t:i.l

ax ax
We can now compute the angular velocity of the particle about the z axis, w,, by combining all these
results:
I (D.17 - t,.q)
_!_ _!_ (au t...r: Al - au t,.y D.1)
. 7 (Aa-6.fJ) . 2 t...,- t:i.y . 2 cJxt...r: ayt:i.y
w- = hm = - - - - - = hm - - ' - - - ~ ~ = hm _ _,__ _ _ _-==--_.::_--"-
' M-o t:i.1 ..i.,-o Al ..i.,-o t:i.t
w, = ½(:: - !;)
By considering the roration of pairs of perpendicular line segments in the yz and .,y planes, one can
show similarly that
w, = .!.
· 2
(aw - au)
ay i}z and w ·=.!.(a" -
> 2 c)z
iJw)
ax
Then iii= iw_. + ]wy + kw, becomes
w=½ [r (~::-:~) +J (:~ - ~'.;) +f (::-!;)] (5. 13)
We recognize the term in the square brackets as

cud V=VxV
Then. in vector notation, we can write
(5.14)
It is worth noting here that we should not confuse rotation of a fluid particle with flow consisting of
circular streamlines, or vortex flow. As we will see in Example 5.6, in such a flow the particles could
rotate as they move in a circular motion, but they do not have to!
Example 5. 6 FREE AND FORCED VORTEX Fl.OWS ·

Consider flow fields with purely tangential motion (circular stre~mlines): Vr =0 and Vo =f(r) ..Evfiluate the rotatipil, vprticicy,
to
and circulation for rigid-l:)9dy rotation, a forced VCJrfe.i;. Show.that it is possible to choosef{r) so. that flow is :irrotation..il, i.~.•
produce a free vorte.x. : ···
Given: Flow fiel<!s with tangential motion, Vr=O and Vo=f(r).

Find: (a) Rotation, vorticity, and circulation f•r rigid-body motiqn (a forced vorte....:).
(b) Vo=f(r) fc;,r irrotational motion (afree vorre....:).
Solution:
Governing equation: (5.1$)
f'qr JTiotion in th~ r0 plane. the only components of rotation and vorticity are in the ~ ~ c.tion,
{- = 2 w __ l or_Vo _ l oVr
' - r ar r a0
- .
Bec~use - =; O ever:yw'h ere
V;. . th ese fi1elds,
. m · this r = 2 Ctlz ;= -l -a
re. d uces to .,,, orVo
· ·.
- . r r
162 Chapter 5 Introduction to Differential An a lysis of Fluid Motion
(n) For rigid-body rotation, Vo= wr

I I ar\lo I I a ~1
Thenw~=
2 -;.a;:-= 2 ; arwr= 2 r(2wr)=w and ( 0 =2w.
The circulation is
( 18)
=
Since w .. w = consumt, the circulation about any closed contour is given by r = 2wA, where A is the area enclosed by the
contour. Thus for rigid-body motion (a forced vortex), the rotation and vorticity are constants; the circulation depends on the
area enclosed by the contour.
· 1 a
(b) For inotational flow, m0 =-
· a rVo = 0. Integrating, we find
-
r r
C
rVo = constant or Vo= f(r) = -,-
For this flow. the origin is a singular point where Vo - oo. The circulation for any contour enclosing the origin is
2r.c
r= iC
V-as= 1 O
-rd0=2.JrC
/"
It turns out that the circulation around any contour not enclosing the singular point at the origin is zero. Streamlines for the two
vortex flows are shown below. along with the location and orientation at different instants of a cross marked in the fluid .that was
initially at the l 2 o'clock position. For the rigi_d-body motion (which
occurs, for example, at the eye of a tornado. creating the "dead" region
at the very center), the cross rOlates as it moves in a circular motion;
also. the streamlines are closer together as we move away from the ori-
gin. For the irrotational motion (which occurs, for example, outside the
eye of a tornado--in such a large region viscous effects are negligible),
the cross does not rotate as it moves in a circular motion; also, the
streamlines are farther apart as we move away from the origin.
Rigid-body motion lrrotat1onal motion
When might we expect to have a flow in which the particles rotate as they move (w ,j=. O}? One pos-
sibility is that we start out with a flow in which (for whatever reason) the particles already have rotation.
On the other hand. if we assumed the particles are not initially rotating, particles will only begin to rotate
if they experience a torque caused by surface shear stresses; the particle body forces and normal (pres-
sure) forces may accelerate and deform the particle, but cannot generate a torque. We can conclude that
rotation of fluid particles will always occur for flows in which we have shear stresses. We have already
learned in Chapter 2 that shear stresses are present whenever we have a viscous fluid that is experiencing
ano-ular defom1ation (shearing). Hence we conclude that rotation of fluid particles only occurs in viscous
flo~vs4 (unless the particles are initially rotating, as in Example 3. I 0).
Flows for which no particle rotation occurs are called irrotational flows. Although no real flow is
truly irrotational (all fluids have viscosity), it turns out that many flows can be successfully studied by
assuming they are inviscid and irrotational, because viscous effects are often negligible. As we discussed
in Chapter l, and will again in Chapter 6. much of aerodynamics theory assumes inviscid flow. We just
need to be aware that in any flow there will always be regions (e.g.• the boundary layer for flow over a
wing) in which viscous effects cannot be ignored. _ _
The factor of½ can be eliminated from Eq. 5.14 by defining the vorticity, t;, to be twice the rotation.
(5.15)
• A rigorous proof using 1.hc complcle equations of motion for a fluid panicle is given in Li and Lam, pp. 123-126.
5.3 Motion of a Fluid Particle (Kinematics) 163·
Fig. 5.8 Velocity components on the boundaries of a fluid element
The vorticity is a measure of the rotation of a fluid element as it moves in the flow field. In cylindrical
coordinates the vorticity is
V
- _(1 av~
r ae
aVo) _ (aVr av~)
XV =er - - - - - - + eo - - - -
az az ar
- (1 arVo I aVr)
+k - - - - - - -
r ar r ao
(5. I 6)
The circulation, r (which we will revisit in Example 6.12), is defined as the lin~ integral of the
tangential velocity component about any closed curve fixed in the flow,
r=iV•as (5.17)
where.as is an elemental vector.tangent to the curve and having length ds of the element of arc; a positive
sense corresponds to a counterclockwise path or integration around the curve. We can develop a rela-
tionship between circulation and vorticity by considering the.rectangular circuit shown in Fig. 5.8, where
the velocity components at o are:assumed to be (u,v.), and.the velocities along segments be and ac can be
derived .using Taylor series. approximations.
For the closed curve oacb,
Ar=116.x+ (v+ ::Ax)Ay- (u+ :;Ay)a...t-vAy
Ar= (av_ au) 6...l:Ay

ax ay
Ar= 2w;;.6...v:Ay
Then,
r=iV•as=12w, dA=1(v x v),dA

C 1\ .t\
(5.18)
Equation 5.18 is a statement of the Stokes Theorem in two dimensions. Thus the circulation around a
closed contour is equal to the total vonicity enclosed within it.
Fluid Deformation
a. Angular Deformation
As we discussed earlier (and as shown in Fig. 5.7d), the angulardefonnation of a panicle is given by the
sum of the two angular deformations, or in other words by (t!.a + Ap).
· We also recall that Aa=A17/6...,,A/J=A l;/Ay, and Al; and A'7 are given by
au
au ) At - uAt=-AyAt
Al; = ( u+__:.__Ay
oy . ay
164 Chapte r 5 Introd uction to Differ ential Analys is of Fluid Motion
and
6.11 = (u + au
ax
Ax) 6.1 - ullt = au llxllt
ax
We can now compu te the rale of angula r deform ation of the particle in the ..\Y plane by combin ing thes e
results,
Rate of angula r _A_11 + _fl_~)

. ( Ila + A/J) (
deform ation 11m lim ~ll.._x_·_ _A_,_)_,_'-
in_\}' plane t.1-0 Ill t.,-o llt
iJu 6...-.:
Rate of angula r
deform ation = ( - -Al+
lim ax 6...-.:
iJu Ay )
-Al
Y fly
a =
( iJ )
iJu + _!!.. (5.19a )
in -'-T plane t.,-o flt ox iJy
Similar express ions can be written for the rate of angular defom1 ation of the particle in the y z and z.--c
planes.
0 00
Rate of angula r deform ation in y z plane= ( "' + ) (5 . 19b)
iJy ch
0 011
Rate of angula r deform ation in zx plane= ( "' + ) (5 . 19c)
ax i}z
We saw in Chapte r 2 that for one-dim ensiona l lamina r Newton ian flow the shear stress is given by the
rate of deform ation (d11/dy ) of the fluid particle ,
du
T,-_.
.
= JI ..:._
dy
(2. l 5)
We will see shortly that we can genera lize Eq. 2.15 to the case of three-d imensio nal lamina r flow~ this
will lead to expres sions for Lhree-d imensio nal shear stresse s involvi ng the Lhree rates of angula r defor -
mation given above. (Eq. 2 . 15 is a special case of Eq. 5 . l 9a.)
Calcula tion of angula r deform ation is illustra ted for a simple now field in Examp le 5.7.
Exam ple 5. 7 ROTA TION IN Vl~CO METR IC FLbW
A viscom etric flow in I.he narrow gap betwee n large p~lel plates i~ ~
-u
shoWn. The velocit y field in the narrow gap is .given by V == T,J(y/Jz)i,
wh"ere U;:=4n un/s and h=4m m. At t=O Lin·e segmen ts ac and bd are
macl(ed in the fluid. to fortn a cross as shown . Evalua te the positio ns of
I
I,
3
2 C (3,2)
Lines marked
1 c/ (2, 1) tn fluid
.Qi~ Ql~~c l points at, = 1.5 sand sketch for compa rison. C~cula te _the _I
0 at,= o
rate' of]lpg µl~ cleforn iation and the rate of rotatio n of a Jlu~d particle x iiiiiiiiil
0 1 2 3 4
~Jfils v~Jocity field. Conim ent on your results .
Given: Velocit y field, y = U(y/h )i; U =4 mm/s, and h.=4 nun. Fluid particle s marked at ,= b to fon:n cross as shown _
find: (!!) Pc;,sitions of points a', b'. c', and d' at t = 1 .5 s; plot.
(b) Rate of angula r deform ation.
(c) ·Rate of ro~tion. ofa fluid particle .
(c!) .Significance of these results .
Solutio n: .Fm.:,the giv.en flow field v = o. so there is no vertic al motion . The. veiodt y ·of each:point stays consta nt, so t:...x = u a~
for :~cb.point. At poi!itb , 11=3 mm/s, so
mm
1/ub = 3 - x 1.5 s=4St jµn
S.
5 .3 Moti on of a Fluid Parti cle (Kine matic s) 165
Sir:ajlc).t)y, ppin( s a ani;l c each qio_ve 3 mm; and-p oint d mo.ves I .5. .¢m. Henc e the plpt ,at t ==-1.5:.s js
y~:-·~_-t . ~::: ~ •·-- - . · - . .-5--.,.....~ - : ~~_:..y:-.1/ ~ u

y
+
3- ,, , b'
,,
2- ~- .... ::::- c·
,,,,,,L inesa tt= 1.5s
1 -
I I I ·,
d'
I I I
. .o -~li•1 •' iiii
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Tne. rate of an~l; u- defor matio n is

au
--+
cJD _ l
~=-U-+
U
0=-
mm
=4-s·· ~ --
I . .~ 1
-.=1 s +-- --~ ~- ----.....,,...,.,,
ay · a.t ij · · Ii · 4.rnrn
Tlie nite pf rotati on is,
Wz = .:!_ c·aqx.v - au_
· · 2
)
ay-·
=_l(o- u) = _J
2
'
h. 2
x4,mm
s
1
·_-__· ·x -. - - = -0.s s-
4 .mm -
1____ _z
{;]
- .
b. Line ar Defo rmat ion

Durin g linel) r defor matio n, the shape of the fluid eleme nt, descr ibed by the angle s at its vertic es, remai ns
unch anged , since all right angle s conti nue lo be right angle s (see Fig. 5.5). The eleme nt will chang e
lengt h in the xdire ction only if au/ox is other than zero. Simil arly, a chang e in they dimen sion requi res
a nonz ero value of av/ay and a chang e in the z dimen sion requi res a nonze ro value of aw/az.. Thes e
quan tities repre sent the comp onent s of longi tudin al rates of s1rain in the x , y, and z. direct ions,
respee ti vel y.
Chan ges in length of the Sides may produ ce chang es in volum e of the eleme nt. The rate of local Video: Unear
Defam ration
insta ntane ous volum e dilati on is given by
au av aw -
Volu me dilatio n rate= - + - + - = V • V (5.20 )
ax iJy
For incom press ible flow, the rate of volum e dilatj on is zero (Eq. 5. lc).
az
We have show n in this_sectio n that the veloc ity field can be used to find the accel eratio n, rotati on,
?Dgu lar defor matio n, and l.inear defor matio n of a fluid partic le in a flow field. Evalu ation of the rate of
defor matio n for flow near a corne r is illustr ated in Exam ple 5.8.
A
·6_x.,~m.,p,/¢· 5..'.8 E>.EF ~ir(~t iQN, J;fA:TES FOR FLOW IN A CORN!::Fl
The,vdocify. ttcM.'V= )µi;a-Ay]¢:pres_eqts flow in a •~com er/ as show n in Exam ple SA, wher.e A=,0 .~ s- r ap;d _~ ~c9 0~4 ~~~ .
m ~~ur ed>irt meti;r s·. A sq..ci(iµe is matk e·d in tlje fluid as show n att = O•.Evalu ate tllenew. positj ons ofJ.h¢:feµrc qrg:¢ rpo.in ti wh<i_p ·
p.ti4\~A::h~ ·m1w edi to ;'J;= ~ . eft~i:-. secon ds, Evaju at~ the rates of lin~l)r defon ttatio n in the _x and y·d ~~M ~:;C6 mpate_:,~ a
m;
•d}/f!J;J})ft ~::;:-r,.witlt -area:.aQ¢4 at t=-0. Comm en,t on the signif ican¢ e of this result . , .. , ··
166 Chapte r 5 lntrod uctlon to Diffe~ ntial Analys is of Fluid Motion
SO!\Ve'Iillist'foilow·a'flllid-piµ'tid~ ,usi,iig tµtgtnn gian .
•/
Solutio n: Fi~(w e m us t find ,. )'
descrip tio n. Thus · ·
ll
d..rp
= - -. = Ar.p·•
df
dx
- =.4. dt~ so
X -.
1 i·
rdx
-:-=· ',
-Ill X
t . _ O•
Adt and ln •r. =A-r
X9 ..
2-
b (1,2) c(2,2l
Square marked
at,= O
' _:
. li}_x s\b 1n(¾ ) _. . .-
.,f~: --::- 0,3's~l -~ L35.s
-· 1-
a (1,1) d (2, 1)
QOL_ _ _..._1_ ___,1!-- --x

In the J dtrectio n 2
l
v ~.:J.f·= ~ ~Yp
The point coordin ates at f ' llre:
Po int. t -0
a ( l , I)
b ( 1,2)
C (2 .-2 )
d
- - .... ~ -:>a'.:- - •! - • •. - -
·-
· Th~ :plot;is:
)'
1 t-
I I I
~L----14 -- -~2-- ~3~, -. x
The rates of linear deformaiio n aj;_e:
Ax =A:..= ,0~'.3, i-:- 1

0 11
= !.._ ill! .Ui_~ X ~µ9 ._ri
ox OX '· ---- .
av = !.._ ( -Ay)·:.::.--- A# = Q.'
. _
.3·:~--1 i.i:l t$."~j,-.dJ.tf~tion
ay a_v . -
The rote of volume d ilation is
v.v ==ii ~+~:;.:=.4 ~ A,=:o,

,. • 3~ ,/4 2;\ · 'i •
Area abed = l m2 and area a' b' c' d' = ( 3~ iJf\ 3--;--,,Jd =- J;,m : · I' •
5.4 Mom entu m Equ atio n 167
5-4 Mo me ntu m Eq uat ion

A dyn ami c equa tion desc ribin g fluid moti on may be obta ined by appl ying New ton's seco nd law to a
part icle. To deri ve the diffe renti al form of the mom entu m equa tion, we shall appl y New ton's seco nd
law to an infin itesi mal fluid parti cle of mass dm.
Reca ll that New ton's seco nd law for n finite syste m is give n by
- dP)
F= -
dt
{4.2 a)
syslC:m
whe re the linea r mom entu m, P, of the syste m is give n by
P,y.,c m = 1 m11Ss (syste m)

V dm (4.2b )
The n, for an infin itesi mal syste m of mass dm, New ton's seco nd law can be writt en
- dV)
dF= dm -
dt
(5.2 I)
syslcm
Hav ing obta ined an expr essio n for the acce lerat ion of a fluid elem ent of mass dm, mov ing in a velo city
field (Eq. 5 .9), we can writ e New ton's seco nd law as the vect or equa tion
- DV [ av av av
dF= dm --=d m u - + v - + w - +
av]
- (5.2 2)
Dr ax ay az ar
We now need to obta in a suita ble form ulati on for the force , dF, or its com pone nts, dFx, dFy, and dF:,
acti ng on the elem ent.
For ces Act ing on a Flu id Par ticl e

Rec;;all that the force s actin g on a fluid elem ent may be class ified as body forces and surfa ce force s; sur-
face forc es inclu de both norm al force s and tang en!ia l (she ar) force s.
We shal l cons ider the x com pone nt of the force actin g on a diffe renti al elem ent of mass dm and
volu me d¥- = dx dy dz. Only thos e stres ses that act in the x direc tion will give rise to surfa ce force s
iii the x dire ction . If the stres ses at the cent er of the diffe renti al elem ent are take n to be axx, -ryx, and
-r:_,, then the stres ses actin g in the x d~c tion on all faces ,of the elem ent (obta ined by a Tayl or serie s
expa nsio n abou t the cent er of the elem ent) are ~ Shown in Fig. 5.9.
}'
OtT_.. ti.~ . . .-
a=- cix2 . · · - ~-· ·
··-- •.
.,> --- --- --- --- --- -.<
Fig. 5.9 scre~ses. In the x direc tion on an e_lemenc of fluid;

168 Chap ter 5 Intro ducti on to Diffe renti al Anal ysis of Fluid Moti on
To obtai n the net surfa ce force in the x direction. dFs,, we must sum the force s-in the x direc -
tion. Thus ,
dFs, = ( o-..,..+ au=

ax dx) dydz - ( <T;c., - au
axxx dx) dydz
2 2
+ ( -.,._a.""
.+--dy) .
-- (b:dz - ( .,.., -a.)"'
- -dy)
- dxdz
- ay 2 · · ay 2
+ ( T::x-ar... -dz) dxdy - ( .... --~-
+-- a,., -dz) d.xdy
az 2 az 2
On simpl ifying , we obtai n
dFs _- (auxx
- - +aryx
- - +arz:r)
- cl\:· d)' d-~
s ax ay az
When the f9rce of gravi ty is the only body force acting , then the body force per U!Ut mass is g. The net
fore~ in the x direc tion, dF:r, is given by ·
dF:r = dFB, + d Fs auxr a.)'X ITT::,:)

= ( pgx + -i)x- + -.-
s ay
+ - - dx dy dz
az
(5.2 3a)
We can deriv e simil ar exp~ sions for the force comp,on~ots in the y and z direct ions:
dF,.= dFB +dF s

T I
= (pg,. + a.X).
•ax
+ auyy + ITT:y)
0)' az
dxdy dz (5 .23b )
d F,= d Fn.+ dFs = tJr:r..

pg= ITTyz au;:;;:,)
+-+ -+- - dx(ly dz (5.2 3c)
. ' ( ax ay i)z
Diff eren tial Mom entu m Equ atio n

We have no.w fonnu lme.d expre ssion s for the comp onent s, dF,n dFy, and dF,, of the force , dF, actin g on
the ele!'Ilent of mass dm . lfwe substi tl.lte these expre ssion s (Eqs. 5.23) for the forc~ comp onent s into the
x, y, and z comp onent s of Eq. 5 .22, we obtai n the differ ential equat ions of motio n,
pg. ,+- a_u.'C.. iJ.• ,... a.=x (i)u au v-+au w- au)

-+- ·-+ --= p -+1 1-+ (5.2 4a)
ax ay az. a, ax oy i)z
pg· , + -ih.•-
X)"
+ oayy
- - + iJ.:=3•
- - = p (iJv
- + iJv av ou)
U.- + V - + IV-'-
. >· · ax ay oz a, ax ay oz (5 .24b )
.
pg. +--
-
in_...+--
ox
or:rz
iJy
+--iJu-::z.
i)z
. caw .
=p - . ,.+u .-+iJw
a,
aw
OX
v-+
ay
w- i)ni) (5.2 4c)
i)z .
Equa tions 5.24 are the differ ential equat ions of moi:ion for any fluid satisf ylrtg the cont inuu m
assum ption. Befo re the equat ions can be used to solve for 11,v, and w; S(litable expre ssion s for tJ1e stres ses
must be obtai ned in terms of the veloc ity and press ure fields .
New toni an Flui d: Nav ier- Sto kes Equ atio ns

For a Newt onian fluid the visco us stress is direc tly propo rtiona l to the rate of shear ing strain (ang ular
defor matio n rate). We saw in Ch.ap ter 2 that for one-d imens ional lamin ar Newt onian flow the sh~a r
sttes~ is propo rtiona l to the rate of angul ar defor matio n: -.,,,:::::; du/dy (Eq. 2.15). For a three ~dim ensio n~l
flow the situat ion is a bit more comp licate d. (a,mong other thing s w~ ne~d to use the mc;>re com plica ted
expre ssion s for rate of angu~ ar ~efonnatic;m, Eq. 5. l~). The sttesses tfl?
b~ expre ssed in terms of velo city
gradi ents and fluid prope roes m recta ngula r coord inates as follow s:
av.
T~,= Tyx= JI ( ax+ ~
au) (5.2 5a)
5Thc derivat ion ofthes·e _rcsult s is beyon d the scope of this .book. Dcllliled deriv~_tioris mn)',.b e found -iii Daily ilnd Hnclem D.Jl [~).
Sclilic hling_[3], and While [4]. · ·
5.4 Mom entu m Equ atio n 1·6 9
iJw iJu) (5.25 b)

T~-z =To· ==µ ( iJy + i}z
a" aw)
-.,_.= •.«= JI ( iJz + iJx
(5.25 c)
2 - iJ11 (5.25 d)
u .a = -p-- Jl°'
3 v · V +2 µ-
ax
u,,. = 2
-p- -p'il
-
· V + 211 -
au (5.25 e)
., 3 iJy
2 -
<1-= -p- -µ'i l · V+ 2µ-
aw (5.2 5f)
.,. 3 iJz
pres sure . 6 Ther mod ynam ic pres sure is relat ed to the dens ity and
whe re p is the loca l therm odyn amic
temp erat ure by the therm odyn amic relat ion usua lly calle d the equa tion of state.
1f thes e expr essio ns for the stres ses are intro duce d into the diffe renti al equa tions of moti on
(Eqs . 5.24 ), we obta in
p-_- =pg _,- -op + - µ

.D11
Dt
a [ ( 2-a11 --V
iJx iJx ax 3
2 -V -)J +-aya [ (a"-i)y+iJu)]
µ -
OX
(5.2 6a)
+-
i}z
- +a;,)]
a[ (aw
JI - ax i}z
Du
Dr
iJp-+a- [ JI
p-= pg ,.-
· iJy iJx
(a"
- +au)]
-
iJy iJx +-
iJy
au
a [ µ ( 2-- -V
ay 3
-)J
2 •V
(5.2(:ib)
+-a [JI (au
-+ iJw)
- ]
i}z iJz ay
Dw
p-= pg .- iJp
- + a
- [JI (aw
- +011)]
- a [JI (aw
+- - - ]
+aw)
Dt ' iJz ax iJx iJz OJ' iJz iJy (5.26 c)
+- aw =v
a [J' ( 2-- ? -v
- )]
iJz iJz 3
Th~ e equa tion s of moti on are calle d the Navi er-S roke s eq1,1ations. The equa tions are grea tly simp lifie d
whe n appl ied to inco mpre ssibl e flow with coi1sta11t viscosiry. Und er thes e cond ition s the equa tions
~du ce to
(5·,.2 7~)
(51 71>)
This form of the Nav ier-S toke s equa tions is prob ably (nex t to the Bern oulli equa tion) the mos t famo us
set of equa tion s in fluid mec hani cs, and has been wide ly stud ied. Tb_e se equa tions , with the cont inuit y
equa tion (Eq. 5. lc), form a set of four coup led nonl inea r pani al diffe renti al equa tions for u, a. w, and p . In
prin cipl e, thes e four equa tion~ des~ rlbe m~y com mo~ tlow s; the only restr ictio ns are that the fluid be
New toni an (wit h a cons tant v1scos1ty) and mco mp~ stbl e. For exam ple, lubri catio n theo ry (des cribi ng
the beha vior of mac hine bear ings ), pipe flow s. and even the moti on of your coffe e as you stir it are
expl aine d by thes e e~ua tio?s - Unfo nuna ~ely , they are ~po ssi~ I~ ~o solv e analy tical ly._:xce pt for the
mos t basi c case s [3), m whic h we have simp le boun dane s and 1rut1al or boun dary cond ition s! We will
solv e the equa tipn s for such a simp le prob lem in Exam ple 5.9.
6:Sob ersky el n.1. [51 discu ss 1he relation bc1we·c n the thcnn odyn amic pres s~ und lhe ave.rage pressme defin ed. 35.
p= ~(a.. .-+a»--+a,,:)/3,
Example 5.9 ANALYSIS OF FULLY DEVELOPED LAMINAR FLOW DOWN AN INCLINED PLANE SURFACE
A liquid flows down an inclined plane surface in a steady, fully developed laminar film of lhickness h. Simplify the continuity _and
Navier-Stokes equations to model this flow field. Obtain expressions for lhe liquid velocity profile, the shear stress distribution.
the volume flow rate, and the average velocity. Relate lhe liquid film thickness to the volume flow rate per unit depth of surface
normal to the flow. Calculate the volume flow rate in a film of water /z = 1 mm tliick, flowing on a surface b = l m wide, inclined
at 0 = 15° to the horizontal.
Given: Liquid flow down an inclined plane surface in a steady, fully developed laminar film of thickness /1.
Find: (a) Continuity and Navier-Stokes equations simplified to model Ibis flow field.
(b) Velocity profile.
(c) Shear stress distribution.
(d) Volume flow rate per unit depth of s urface normal
to diagram.
(e) Average flow velocity.
(f) Film lhickness in terms of volume flow rate per
unit deplh of surface normal to diagram.
(g) Volume flow rate in a film of water 1 mm thick on a
surface 1 m wide, inclined at 15° to t;he horizontal.
L X
/,= 1 mm
Solution: The geometry and coordinate system used co

model the flow field are shown. (It is convenient to align
one coordin~te with the flow down the plane surface.)
......., Width b =1 m
The governing equ;ttions written for incompress ible flow with constant viscosity are
(5 . lc)
(5 .27a)
(5 .27b)
(5.27c)
The terms canceleJJ to simplify the basic equations are keyed by number to the assumptions listed below, The assumptions are
<;lis~ussed ~ the order in which they are applied to simplify the equations.
A!i.stimptions;
Steady flow (given).
2 Incompressible flow; p ·= constanL
3 No flow or variation of properties in the z directjon; w = 0 and oIoz= Q.
4 .fully qeveloped flow, so no pro~rties vary in the .x direction; o/ox= 0.
Assuµi_ption 1 eliminates time vari~ti~ns ~ any fl~id property.
Assumption 2 eliminates space vanauons m density. . _ _ . . .
Assumption 3 states that there is no z component of velocity and no property vanat10ns tn the z direction. All terms in the z
component of the Navier-Stokes equation c~ncel. . .
After assumption 4 is.applied, the continwty ~quauo_n r.e duces toi)v/~y:;= 0. _A ssumpuons 3 and 4 also indicate that av/ oz·=
0
_a;l).r). -qµ.ji)x=0. Therefore v must be constant. Smee v 1s zero at the sof!_<;i surface, then v must be zero everywhere.
5.4 Momentum Equation 171
The fact that v = 0 reduces the Navier-Stokes equations further, as indicated by (5) in Eqs. 5.27a and 5.27b. The final
simplified equations are
iflu (1)
0=pg,+µ iJy2
ap (2)
O=pg,.--
. iJy
Since 011/oz= 0 (assumption 3) and au/ox= o (assumption 4), then II is at most a function of y, and iflu/o:? =d2ujdy2, and from
Eq_ l, then
d 2 11 pg" sin 0
-=--=-pg--
dy- µ µ
Integrating,
du sin 0 (3)
- = -pg--y+ci
dy µ
and integrating again,
sin0y2 (4)
11= -pg---+c1y+c2
JI 2
The boundary conditions needed to evaluate the constants are the no-slip condition at the solid surface (u = 0 at y = 0) and the
zero-shear-stress condition at the liquid free surface (du/dy=0 at y=h).
EvaluatingEq. 4 at)i=0 gives c2 =0. From Eq. 3 aty=h,
sin0
0= -pg--h+ci ,,
or
sin0
CJ =pg--h
JI
Substituting into Eq. 4 we obtain the velocity profile
sine y2 sin0
11=-pg-- -+pg--hy
/I 2 µ
or
11
=pg sin 0 (1iy- :?) ,________________________u_(J_•)
JI 2
The shear stress disnibution is (from Eq. 5.25a after setting ov/ax to zero, or alternatively, for one-dimensional flow,
from Eq. 2.15)
dy =
-c," = JI du pg sin 0 (h-y) ,_.-----------=-------------=•y_x_C.v_)
.
The shear stress in the fluid reaches its max.imum value at the wall (y = 0); as we expect. it is zero at the free surface (y= Jr). At tb,e
wall the shear stress -cyx is positive but the surface normal for the fluid is in the negative y direction; hence the shear force acts in
the negative x direction, and just balances the x component of the body force acting on the fluid. The volume flow rate is
Q= 1udA= 1hubdy
where b is d1e surface width in the z direction. Substituting,
Q--1''0
pg sin 0
JI
(hy _T)
- b d y_- psin
2
g- b [hy2
0- --- y3]" µ 2 6 O
3
,tJt=
- . 1!_8 SIIJ, fJ
µ 0·.b, J13-~=---~~-~-~---~=-=~~--~-~-=
(5)
The·,!!-V¢I)lge flqw v~loc;ity· is.v·=Q/A= Q/bh. Thu·s .

v= J2 =p~iine H 2
~--~---~~v::.:..-
_...,,.,.,.......,._ _ _,---_ _ _
01i µ i
;s_i;iivirtg -for .fil.l:n U!i9ltj,~s gives
· •, · ·: 1/3
..·, v=.
...~-,~- --3~(;t
----. -. ~'
_ -·-• :. r)fsii;i_f{l_b , -- ~----------~_;__-----""'""'~l~r
(6)
!~r~=ji§( h~*lmij(tliic]c e>n a: plane b= l m wide; itidined at.0,==.15~.,
'i:-l: =999~~t'x9'.IH 111-xsin(:i:s'.6 )xlmx . _ in-s _

'~ -~ ... 'm3; ·- if- · -- - · · · · 1.OOx 1p~.3 lc~
3
. co:001)
~--: rti3 . . -. . . L
·-:3.. .. K.l00\:)Tllj:
__. - ~~ ~F-,-"=-,--'---"'"--,-'',--;-~--------'-----'"'--.z..
Q\:,;;::(Qi~!t~t.,-/s,.,... ·~
The Navier-SLOkes equations for constant density and viscosity are given in cylindrical coordinates
in Example 5.10. They have also been derived for:- spherical coordinates [31- We will apply the cylindrical
coordinate form in solving Example 5.10.
In recent years computational fluid dynamics (CFD) computer applications (such as Fluent [6] and
STAR-CD [7]) have been developed for analyzing the Navier-Stokes equations for mo@ compUcated,
real-world problems. Although a detailed treatment of the topic is beyond !he scope of this text, we shall
have a brief introduction to CFD in the next section.
For the case of frictionless flow (µ = 0) d1e equations of motion (Eqs. 5.26 or Eqs. 5.27) reduce to
Euler's equation.
DV _
P Dt =pg-"vp
We shall consider the case of frictionless flow in Chapter 6.
£x~mp'I~,'!?.:-lO )\NALY-SIS-QF LAJ'V\INJ:\R Vl$(::ON\Etfil~flOW SETWEEN tQAXIAL_CVl:iNl)ERS
A ,yj__~!;_Q~)iq_wff,t il)s:~e•anri4J~_'gai>::l:>~tw~t;:nve~cal~ortc~ninc•:r~ders'. ~e:i~n~!cyiin~e~'.i$:Stati~naty,:~~J h~:outerc;:ylip:d¢r

--'rotailis'~at:C:onstao,t;~p~~c;h 'fv!; flq_w IS Ianunar. SIIllplify tli~-<;on!;1Ill!lt}'., Nav1er--'St0Jces,>~11(:$:t@iential sliear stress ~qµaJ:iqn:s t9 .
.-J!-$fS~;~i~ffil~jf~i~~ifl:=rt~E
Find: (a) Continuity and Navier-Stokes equations simplified to model this flow field.
(b) Velocity profile in the annular gap.
(c) Shear stress distribution in the annular gap.
(d) Shear stress at the surface of the inner cyl.inder.
(e) Comparison with "planar" approximation for constant shear stress in the narrow
I
gap between cylinders. I
I
(t) Ratio of cylinder radii for which the planar approximation predicts shear stress :: I
I
within I percent of the correct value. ,r ___ _ I
Solution: The geometry and coordinate system tJsed to model the flow field are shown.
I
, I.,
--- ------~,
'I '
(The z -coordinate is directed vertically upward; as a consequence, gr=co=D and 8;= -g.) 0
The continuity, Navier--Stokes, and tangential shear stress equations written in cylindrical
·coordinates for incompressible flow with constant viscosity are
(1)
r component:
p
(1 I
+v,
i r
voJiiovl --:--:-+v,
+-r 0
v~ .
r
iu) z
=p I {( [ -
qp
or+µ or
o l a5]) . 1 iP 4
-; Qr r/ . +,. 1.fi -r 0
, _2 ou
2 2
7' , if-Yr3}
' i/z2
0 component:
P ·tu
( ·+.
I
Is ovo voiu - !·+u-.tu·)
-+- r or ···r 0
~r
. . ' Z
=p
/ - -;
Id
% 4· { o .lo
+µ (Jr (-;a,Jrvo])
Icro.
+,-2
,, ~
j:
I
2ov
,,2
7' ., 3}
0
iro
+ /z~ .
z component:
The cenns canceled to simplify the bi}Sic equatlons are keyed by number to the assumptions listed b.e low. The assumptigµs-~
discussed in the order in which they ate applied to simplify the equations.
Assumptions:
J Steady flow; angular speed of outer cylinder is constanL
:i Incompressible flow; p = constant.
3 .No flow or variation of properties in the z direction; v:: =0 aod a/az=O.
4 Circu.1;11.ferentialJy symmetric flow, so properties do not vary with 0, so o/iJfJ=O.
A.ssuq1pcion l eliminates time variations in fluid properties.
ASs1,1~pti90 2 eliminates space variations in density. .
Assuinp.t ion 3 c~uses all terms in the z component of the Navier--Stokes equl1.ti6n to-cancel, except for the hydrostatic pressure'
qistribution. ·
After assump tions 3 and 4 ~ applied , 1.he continu ity equatio n reduces to
la
-;. a/rvr) =O
Becaus e a/iJB=O and a/az=O by assump tions 3 and 4. then aa -+ dd, so inlegrating gives
r ,.
Tllr = constan t
:s ince v,, is zero at the solid surface of ~ach cylinde r, then Vr must be zero everyw here.
'.fh.e fact .that Ur= 0 reduces the Navier -Stoke s equatio ns furth~r. The r- and £.I-component equatio ns reduce to
u2 ap
-p.Jl.= - -
a,-
c~
r
0=µ{~ar ~{rvo]
ar ).' }·r
But sipce a/aB= O and iJ/iJz=O by assump tions 3 and 4, then v 0 is a functio n of ~dius only, and
-d
dr
(1- --:-(rvo]
d
r dr
) =0
integta tin•g ·once,

1 d
- ---:(rvo)·=c,
r dr ·
or
int~gra ting again,

or
'tw.o l;)oun~#Y t;_o ndition s are needed to evalua te constan ts c, and c2, Thi; bounda ry conditi ons are
v 0 = q:,R2 at r = R2 and
vo==O at r=R,
-Su~stituting
After.·c onsidet ,ibl¢ algeblc!-

•• • •· ·= . ., .. ~--· -·-·· •..
2w
and
iSti15sti tutili
..., .. - ...._ ... ,g into the exp~ss ion for vo,
·wr
1.,...-(O(~Rl
l!o.;e:;~(-.~1)2 1-(•Rk1)2
coR';_/r= ·
2 I) 2[;·, - ~l] . - - - ~ ~ - - - -.. :. . . :. Vo ( r)
·R2 · ·. 2
The shear slress distribution, using assumption 4, is:
At the surface of the inner cylinder, r = R,, so

2w
Tsurfocc =µ l _ (~~) 2 :
For a "planar" gap
or
. Ct) 'tpJan::,,
Tplnm,r = µ~<------ --- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1- -
R2
Factoring the denominator of the exact expression for shear stress at the surface gives
Thus
't"sutfocc 2
-··--=--R-
Tp1a~or I+....,!.
R2
For 1 percent accuracy,
ot
R,
& = - 1- . {2- 1.01) = 0.980 .,_._ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _R_2
R2 1.01
The accuracy criterion is met when the gap width is less than 2 percent of the
cylinder radius.
176 Chap ter 5 Intro ducti on to Diffe renti al Anal ysis of Fluid Moti on
*5. 5 Intr odu ctio n to Com puta tion al Flui d Dyn ami cs
In this sectio n we will discu ss in a very basic mann er the ideas behin d comp utatio nal fluid dyna mics
(CFD ). We will first revie w some very basic ideas in nume rically solvin g an ordin ary and a parti al dif-
ferent ial equat ion using a sprea dshee t such as Excel , with a coupl e of exam ples. After s~dy ing these . the
~a_d er "".ill be able to nume ricall y solve a range of simpl e CFD probl ems. Tlten , for those with_ furth er
mtere st '.n C~. we will revie w in more detail some conce pts behin d numerical metho ds, part1 cular ly
CFD; this reV1ew will highl ight some of the advan tages and pitfal ls ofCF D. We will apply some of these
conce pts to a simpl e l D mode l, but these conce pts are so funda menta l that they are applic able to almost
any C:D calcu lation . As we apply the CFO soluti on proce dure to the mode l, we'll comm ent on the
ext~n sion to tl~e gener al case. The goal is to enabl e the reade r to apply the CFD soluti on proc edur e
to s,mpl e nonli near equat ions.
The Nee d for CFD

As discu ssed in Secti on 5.4, the equat ions descr ibing fluid flow can be a bit intimidating. For exam ple,
even tl1ough we may limit ourse lves to incom press ible flows for which the viscosity is const ant, we still
end up with the follow ing equat ions:
au au aw
-ax +-+ -
ay oz =0 (5. le)
p( au
I
011
~
011 011)
'.)' z
op (i'F-11
-i:) +it-a - +o-a +w-.a =pg _.--+ ,, - .,
ox o.\~
i'F-11
+--- ,,+-.
O),..
il-u),
i}z-
(5.27 a)
(5.27 b)
aw aw aw aw) op (a 2
p ( - . +u- .-+o -.-+ w- =pg ·- -+1 1 - w a.-w)
-+a--w +-
2 2
(5.27 c)
at iJx oy oz z oz ax 2 oy 2 oi 2
:Egµa tion 5. lc is the conti nuity equat ion (mas s conse rvatio n) and Eqs. 5.27 are the Navi er-St okes equa -
tions (lllom entum ); expre ssed in Carte sian coord inates . In princ iple, we can solve tl1~se equat ions for the
veloc ity fje}d V = iu +Jo+ kw and press ure field p, given suffic ient initial and bound ary cond itions . Note
that in.gen eral, i,, V; w, and pall depen d onx. )', z. and t . In practi ce, there is no gener al analy tic solut ion to
these e_q uatio ns, for the comb ined effec t of a numb e.r of reaso ns (none of which is insur moun table by
itself ):
They are coup led. To·e unkn owns , 11, o, w, and p, appea r in all the equat ions (p is not in Eq. 5 . 1c) and
we canno t mani pulat e the equat ions to end up with a single equat ion for any one of the unkn own s.
Henc e we must solve for all unkn owns simul taneo usly.
2 They are nonli near. For exam ple, in Eq. 5.27a , the conve ctive accel eratio n term .
u au/ ax+ v ()11 joy+ w ou/ oz, has produ cts of II will} itself a,s well as with o and w. The cons eque nce
or'thi s is that we cann ot take one soluti on to the equat ions and coml:>ioe it wil11 a secon d solut ion to
obtai n a third solut ion. We will see in Chap ter 6 that if we can limit 61,1rselves to frictio nless flow , we
can deriv e linea r equat ions, whic h will allow us to do this comh ining proce dure (you may wish to look
at Table 6.3 for some beaut iful exam ples of this).
3 They are secon d-ord er partia l differ ential equat ions. For exam ple, in Eq. 5.27a , tlle visco us tern"L,
µ(iru/ox2 +iPu /ar_ +ifu /o-Z:- ). is secon d-ord er in II. 'f!1ese ~ obvi~ usly of~ diffe rent orde r of
comp lexity (no pun inten ded) than, say, a first- order ordm ary ctifferent:Ial equat ion.
Thes e diffic ulties have led engin eers, scien tis_ts, and matheml!,tic ia:ns lo !).dopt sever al appro ache s to the
soiut io.n of fluid mech anics probl ems.
• This section may be· omiue d withou t loss of conlinulLy in the 1eX:1 ma1cri.il,
5.5 Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamks 177
For relatively simple physical geometries and boundary or initial conditions, the equations can often
be reduced to a solvable form. We saw two examples of I.his in Examples 5 .9 and 5 .10 for cylindrical
forms of the equations.
Ifwe can neglect the viscous tenns, Lhe resulting incompressible, inviscid flow can often be suc-
cessfully analyzed. This is the entire topic of Chapter 6.
Of course. most incompressible flows of inlerest do not have simple geometries and are not inviscid;
for these, we are stuck with Eqs. 5. lc and 5.27. The only option remaining is to use numerical methods to
analy~e problems. It is possible to obtain approximate computer-based solutions to the equations for a
variety of engineering problems. TI1is is the main subject matter of CFD.
Applications of CFD
CI,O is employed in a variely of applications and is now widely used in various industries. To illustrate
lhe industrial applications of CFD, we present below some examples developed using FLUENT, a CFD
software package from ANSYS, Inc. CFD is used to study the flow field around vehicles including cars,
trucks, aiq)lanes, helicopters, and ships. Figure 5.1 O shows the paths taken by selected fluid particles
around a Formula 1 car. By studying such pathlines and other: flow attributes, engineers gain insights
into how to de;,igp the.<;:ar so. as to reduce drag and enhance performance. The flow through a catalytic
converter-, a device used to clean au\omotive exhaust g!l,Ses so that we can all breathe easier, is shown in
Fi.g ure.5.11. This image shows path lines colored 1:/y velocity magriitude. CFD helps engineers develop
Past a <;ylinder
more effective catalytic conveners by allowing them to study how different che rnjcal species mix and
react in the device. Figure 5.12 presents comours of static pressure in a backward-inclined centrifugal fan
used in ve ntilation applications. Fan performance cbarac:teristics obtained from the CFD simulations
compared well with results from physical tests.
CFDis attractive to industry since it is more cost-effective than physical testing. How.ever, we must
note that complex flow simulations are challenging and error-prone, .and it takes a lot of engineering
exp·ertise to obtain realistic solutions.
Fig. 5.10 Pathlines around a Fo.r mula 1 (:ar.
!
g
...
-·• -,L. \I\
\
- 1'
.....,·
\ ~-\..S~1<· ·V
J
,,,
.E
~
0
~ ·
~
~ ' ~
8
0
:a:'
.E
Fig. 5.12 Stati.c pressure contours for
Fig. 5;1~ Flow through a caralytlc c;:onverter. flow through a centrif9gal:fan. ·
178 Cha pter 5 Intr odu ctio n to Diff eren tial Ana lysi s of Flui d Mot ion
Som e Bas ic CFO /Nu me rica l Me tho ds Usi ng a Spr ead she et
Befo re disc ussi ng CFO in a little mor e deta il, we can gain insig ht into num erica l meth ods to solv e som e
simp le prob lems in fluid mec hani cs by usin g the spre adsh eet. Thes e meth ods will sbow how ~e stud ~nt
may perf orm elem enta ry CFO usin g the PC. First , we cons ider solv ing the simp lest foin i of a diff eren ual
equa tion: a first- orde r ordi nary diffe renti al equa tion: -·
dy
dx =J( x,y) y(xo ) =yo (5.2 8)
whe re/(x .y) is a give n func tion . We reali ze that grap hica lly the deriv ative dy/d x is the slop e of the (as
yet unkn own ) solu tion curv ey(;"\'.). Ifw e are at som e poin t (x,,,yn) on I.he curv e, we can follo w the tang ent
at that poin t, as an appr oxim ation to actu ally mov ing alon g the curv e itself , to find a new valu e for
Y,Y11+ 1, corr espo ndin g to a new x , Xn+ 1, as show n in Fig. 5.13 . We have
dy Y11+1-Yn
cb: = •'°n +.I -x,,
If we choo se a step size h =x,. + 1 ~x,. , then_the abov e equa tion can l:!e com bine d with the diff eren tial
equa tion . Eq. 5.28 , to give
dy )',,+ 1-Yn
dx = h =J(x ,,,y,, )
,or
Yn+ 1 =Yn + hf(."\'.11,Yn) (5.2 9a)
x,,+1 =x,. +h (5-2 9b)

Equ ation s 5 .29 are the basi_c conc ept behi nd the famo us Eule r mel,hocl for s_o lvill g a first -ocd er OD E:
A diffe renti al is repl aced with a finit e diffe renc e. (As we'l l see_i,fi tli~n ex,ts ub$¢ ction , equa tion s s imi lar
to Eqs. 5 .29 coul d :l'.!,l.s~Y have been cjeJi ved 01or e form ally as the resu lt of a triln cated Tay lor seri es.) In
thes e equa tion s, Yn+- l now repr esen ts our best effo rt to find the next •poin t on the solu tion curv e. Fro m
Fig. 5.13 , we see that )'11 + 1 i:s no( op the soJu tipn curv e but_clos e ~o it; if we maki ; the trian gle mu ch
sma ller, by mak ing the step $.ize h sm~ er, then -Yn+ 1 will be eveQ clos er to the desir ed solu tion . We
c.µi repi; ated ly use the two E_iiler itecatiop.' equ_a tiotj s to stm at (xo,Yo) and obta in (x ,y ), the n
1 1
(x2 ,)'2) , (x3 ,y3 ), and so on. We don~t"en dup W~th'. an equa Lion forth e so1ution, butw ith a set of num ber s;
henc e it is a num eric al rath er than an anal ytic me.t bod. This is the Eule r meth od appr oach .
This meth od is very easy to set up, mak ing it an act!1i¢tive appr oach , bJ.it it is_not very acc urat e_;
Foll owin g the tang em to a ¢urv e at each poin t, i,n an. attem pt to fC>Uow tl)e curv e, is pcetcy cruo e! ff
we mak e the step size h smalJe_r:, the accu racy of the meth od will gene rally incr e~e. but obv ious ly
we then need mor e step s to achi eve the solu tion . It turns out that, if we use too man y step s (il' h is
extr eme ly sma ll), the accu racy -of the resu lts can actu ally decrease beca use, altho ugh each sma ll step
is very accu rate, we wijl now need so ma,i:iy of them_that roun d-of f erro rs can build up. As with any
num erica l me~ Qd. we are no~ guan µ1te ed tp get a solu tion or one that is very accu rate! The Eule r met hod
is the simp lest but l«!_ a st acc_u rate n1.1.1I1eric al meth od for solv ing a fir_st-order ODE ; there are a num ber
y(.tl -
Xn -'.l" - -·
• n+.I , .:X
fiJ;, 5.13 Thi;! Eu fer: meth od.

5.5 Introduct ion t o Computa tional Fluid Dynamics 179
il>1J+I
/r
/r
,,
,),;J
/r
,i,,.,...1
Fig. 5.14 Scheme for dlscretizing the Laplace equation.
of more sophistica ted ones available, as discussed in any good numeric al methods text (8, 9). We'll
illustrate the use of the Euler method in Example 5.11.
Another basic application of a numerical method to a fluid mechanics problem is when we have two-
dimension al, steady, incompres sible, inviscid flow. These seem like a severe set of restriction s on the
flow, but analysis of flows with these assumptio ns leads to very good prediction s for real flows, for
example, for the lift on a wing section. This is the topic of Chapter 6, but for now we simply state that
under many circumstan ces such flows can be modeled with the Laplace equation,
iPl/f + iPl/f = 0
iJx2 iJJ,2
where If/ is the stream function. We leave out the steps here (they consist gf approxima ting each differ-
ential with a Taylor series), but a numerical approxima tion of this equation is
If/,+ IJ + l/f;-1.j + 1/f1J+ I+ 1//iJ-l 1/f,J = Q
4
1z2 Ji'2 fi2
Here his the seep size in thex ory direction, and 1/f;J is tfle value ofl/f at lhe ith value ofx andjth value ofy
(see Fig. 5 . 14). Rearrangi ng and s implifying ,
1
1/f;.J = 4 (1/fr+ IJ + 1/f,~ 1.J +I/I;,;+ I + lfli.j-1) (5.30)
This equation indicates that the value of d1e stream function 1/f is simply the average of its four neighbors!
To use this equation, we need to specify die values of the :,cream function at all boundarie s; Eq. 5.30 then
allows computati on of interior values.
Equation 5 .30 is ideal for solving using a spreadshee t such as £-\:eel. Examples 5.11 and 5.12 provide
guidance in using lhe PC to solve some simple CPD problems.
Exarnp le 5.11 THE EULER METHOO SOLUTIO N FOR ORAJNIN G A TANK.
A tank contains water at.an initial depthyo = I m.The tank diameter is D = 250 mm. A hole of difilI!.eter d =2'n:ifu..Jippears·at.the·
bottom of the tap.le. A ~asonable model for the water level over time is
dy =
dt
-(~)i ,/2gy
· D
y(O)=yo
11-po~t and.21-po int Eule.r methods, ~t:im~te the water d.e pth after. r = LOO mi.Ii, y(rl), __ _
~tr
:Using an4 compute .
the.: errors¢qrqpared to the exact s~lµtion . ·
. Yc~nct(t)= [v'yo-(~r
Pfot t:ll~ Euler and exact resµlts.
Given: Water i;lrainiog frmn. a umk.
Find: Water depth after 100 miri; plot of depth versus titne; accuracy of results.
SQlution: Use the Eulel' equations, Eq. .5.29.
GovetrHng equations: J';,+, =y,., +-lif(tn,Y11 ) fn+I =tn+h
with
_
f (c,.,,y") =- (d)
b .../2gy,;
2
-
Yo=i
.(Note:that in usmg ~gs. 5.4-9 we: use r instead.of x.)

This is cpnverii~nt for $olving using ll sprea:dsheenfocl1 a.,; Excel, ~ shpw_n below. We obtain the follqwing resl.ilts:
Depth after l.OO.mina:ae :...,.(i.0021 m (Euler l1 point)
=O.O 102 m (Euler 21 point)
=0,0224 m (Ex,act) y(IO0fuirt)
Error after I 00 q1in == l 10% (E~l<er 11 ppint)

=
54% (Euler 21 point)
11:w::~=~";t;t~ ~-•:«.£- - A4k~4= -~:&4 3GQ¥;;44J
~~;ai•.,Jt':1.rz:::,,i ~12::~1:.:tt::u:;;·;;;.~~-~
;:~sc:::-:: ,.-'.""~- r.o,.:~- •"~:<e ·· -. c.,•G:·.: · ·.a-Hr..·)c:·:_:,ir ·_;_:.;__ ..J ~ ---/ -" K: . ,·. .-,-,c:, ;·__J"'~-- .-.-
I - I : I •
•~ -=4a:---="'-- ;1- L I ! ·- - - ; -
--"- ~ ~-t:m
= 1- ·l l
0.0()1 IN-s.'ln' , I - --- , t - 1·· - .
-~'---.,.....,.+--,,5-·'.... - .- _ ' -- - -+- - -:_ _ _;___l --
n.x=_;=::.=1L:
i..,;:; . : ~~=...!.'!=±·~
-"""~=1
.
2"=i5"~i;-=!'-~~~h -• ---•
··---
- - - --,-
- - -,-
____
·i-· --- -----t--
~=~~==;;~~§[~-
n
-~-~--j-q-•-;..·_·
,.(mini £.
y.lml ,. --o--+,-.,-,m1-;0"'n,:-+.y::-.-:1m=,·,, · ,-{--,1-;:in:;1:i--_-_ -_ -;..!..-_ -_:-_-_ -_7_;._ ___;____-'
7'.y:7
0 0 1
10 0 .830 1 5 0.91S 0.917
1
2 20 0.675
0.5J5 Draining a Tank·
J JO
4 40 0.411 1 ·---- ·· •..• .•.' ·-··- • • • ·- I
5 50
60
·o.302
0208
i ~ _ - emct l
6
7 70 0.131 0.75
: '
_ • .,;.•. .. . ·· ··--·-·~- ---····----
"
o
E,.i.,(l1Jlll _:
Euler r21 U1 l
8 80 0.06!!2
g
·g
10
90
100
0.0245
-0.111121 i 0 .5
_______J ------·--· ··-j---- -- I
L ;;
5.5 Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics 181
Example 5.12 NUMERICAL MODELING OF FLOW OVER A CORNER

Consider a two-dimensional steady, incompressible. inviscid flow in a channel in which the area is reduced by half. Plot the
streamlines.
Given: Flqw in a channel in which the area is reduced by half.

Find: Streaniline plot.
Solu.tion: l)se the numerical approximation ofthe Laplace equation.
c;1;werning equation:. 1/F;J = J (1//;+ t..; + vr;- iJ +lf/';.J+ 1 + 1/f;,i- I)
This is again c.onvenient l'or solving using a spreadslieet such as E.xcel. Each cell in the spreadsheet represents a location in phys-
.i<:a). space, and the value in the cell represents the value of the stream function ,pat that location. Referring to the figure, we assig_n
valµ~ ofz:ero toaraiige e>fcells th'at represc:mt the botton) of the channel. We then assign a value of lO to a second range.ofcells to
repres.ent the top of the clianneL (The chqice of Jo is- arJ>itrary for plotting purposes; all it determines is the speed valu~. not the.
stiemn.li!'le shapes.) Next; we assign a unlf~~ distribution pf values at the ieft and right ends, tp generate un_iform flow at tho&e
joc_ati_ons, AJl .irisei;_ted valµes ~ shown in hold in .the figure.
J!g@
:Wcr.oM¥f&&(r-£Examp(e4er.oGieM5§%F X ___ g::J L•Sl.i!!!!!~!,@Z'd#k9.--._ .•k 9!£5i!;:E9f • .4!Ll@.SS#.W. >.!¥!- »old.~
J§!i~flli -:iJft-i_:ifoH~j~, •~~~[ ; IdQf ~:gatif ;~efi,, -~~-· ~~ P!)i=-
'f;:Ot!eff'fiiUJi•,@·@tjl,4 J,jl fM I HWII·@\f'e:'iljif!tP...e-wrel ii t½nlJt!,ARil
1 ,7,Ni.! E , lOO'll>
~ Aral ,.,,1° ~h¥ >£ w0 th!fJ~J.'f -~!L@HJ.:d'· ; ,, e tt+;I -rfri. Wz"'rs':"r ·A ~

I C5 ;_,,:f_, ¢:=,;~~::~f =(C4+OS+C6+B5)/4
,_ :: 0'Jii.-. -::J L,: ;;..1&2 :c;_jjf,. ,-::E' ,-: ::-E '. _f.G: :, :·cif .-: __1; a~~-- ..:K< <" L l :M. 'J:-.N . . o
~:. - ,Flo~over a Cio rner 1- -j- 7----:--f---- !- ----- - ---
3: . 1 i , ! 1 I
~ 1o T 10 ; 10 ; 10 I 10 i 10 i 10 : 10 10 !
10 10 10 . 10 i 10
t-.a.r~~
_,_-4
,
__1-.Jl _ ~
_ l__ s
. 0_93 L 0.09 ! s.84
1_94 : 1.81 : 1 .19 : 7.6.9
i 8.77 !_8.:§~ LJ!:?~...:.J!A8
I
: 1.51 1.41 ,
8.35 !_8.23 .:..J!:..1:,l_'. _8 ..06 __J!_ _ _
1.21 6.97 ; 6.10 1 6.44 ; 6 .24 : 6. 11 s -
_r:_ __
I _7_ -~~~ 6.82 1 6.71 j 6.57 I 6.3.9 ! 6.16 , 5.86 ! 5.48 . 5.03 4 .58 4.29 · 4.12 4
8, _ _ -~ 2 ~L 5.79 5.65 I 5.49 1 5.27 l 4.98 . 4.59 ' 4.07 3.37 : 2.54 : 2.23 ' 2.09 2
...9~-- __ j__ ~ -- ~:1-77 ! 4.63 '~~Liii:t 3.91 i 3 47 : 2.83 1.83 0 O _ O O
Hf - --- ~ ~-~.Q..'. 378 . 3.65 1 3 .48 I 3.25 iT!isT-2.531-1-:-gsT {:12· - -0 - - - -- - ---- - -
'M 1 _ J _ 2.91 : 2 .82 i__2.70 . 2.56 I 2.37 ! 2.11 , 1.77 - 1.31 10719 _ 0 _ --- - -
· f2 ·-• 2 ~ 1 .87 I 1.78 ! 1.68 I
1 1.54 , 136 112 : Q.816 '. Q.435 0 ' I - - -- - ·
~:t:J". _ _l __.!___ 0.966 I 0_ 929 ( 0 .. 886 j 0.831 ; 0.159 ! 0.666 ; 0.546 l 0.392 ; 0 .207
-==-=----
0 - -- - !
: f~f ~ L~ _{ o I o l o I o i__o .~ 1 o o o_ o -- -- -i- - - - --

~=: ; ~ - -7 I . . - ----- -- ·- ·--
1:;~~
.19 ~T
20: __j _
,if __ L
,22.
23
:24
-25_·-, ·
26
27
:;za _ _:_ =~
•'29: -·-·i.-
.30-
·:31- . I
32'.
33(
3.it ·--,
Ghapt er 5 tntrod.ucti<>'n to Differ ential Analys is;;:Qf Fluid Motion
- • . -· -.-! •
V.l e can _now e nte r fomrn las i.n the " inte rior" cells to c ompute the_slre·am:Uunction. In;;_te_a d .ef-the above govemi ng equatio n·, itcis
m ore inrui.tive to re phrase it as --~ · ·
I
''' = 4 ( 111✓1 * -V")t+:vra-+iiii.)
where l/f,.. , If' R• If' o, and If' L repc~~i~ ~ ~ -Yi!-l~$S..§~9If;':\J_
n.Jlm'-S' :ellS,t\~Qv,~;All,the.f9.g!}._1;;,~~J~\1/J,~~~o the Left.~.fJh~,.c,µ.q~p_t \¢.eU,.
~tfjj~f~~i~~~ilJlftjf!IiifI;i~i
the res ults can be p lotted..~~&iil,:-.g a: s µrf~G~;j)_l_Qt);,;a's 'shown .
"~'
reru~v;i,:: ~: o~IJ1;; { ...s,·., .
ica1 artifact in tlia('flJe.t~;
J\il~l~i~it;.;1t1,~·
____t,~$¢ill iitioJ1s,9-<f~ ttj!:.~i (!'~ ~ (ii . , 9_
~ :Wiffa$.e9,·ar-
,vu jf ~1e ve r-
tic al surface·; using"a frri"et ·gnff"(b) 1 iis'ihg,mafiy~af6re cells) Wo-:-u'i'cl'fed~ ce illis.
. T:h~ S"tta t~gy of''GF l)k
;-;;rii.~~~~r~~¢~~~::~:~~;~~~~1;;.~~~~~$,1;Z[~~J~~~fc~~~r~~~::..,.~~'~;::::.:
Jif.di_~:c_onQ.n)lous domaini:eac;h f!oW vatiabl ¢,is c!,_e.6.ned: at,ev.ecy..ptifut,in?tli~,.~_bmain . 0#,, ,t~ fgq9~ , th.e.
JlXCS.~ p,m,the;centihuousjD: domain shewn 'in~l:!l-~,,!~.ri:='v/9.\114~.!$.~;i i ~i ;:is
_p:#p:(x):;, <:h$it<$ I ·
:_ l::i~~!J~~:?,,~~fri!~~ !n1;~i:.?f~g~:ir:~~WJ~. §o~:i1i tht,:ajscrete domai n in
Pi = P(ti}; .t=1di t-,.,,N-
:a~~~~€fi!t:i~=!f~i~as~;:t~i\S;~:1~l:
The;: v.al,_ues,at oiherlo cations are.det ermine d by irtterpo fatin~-:tlie'valu es at the grid _P,oints/'.l'he'gpv eming .
p~al differential eguatio ns·ai;i.d bounda ry conditi ons _are_de~~j n.eerms ofthe continu oµs variab lesp~
\i, and so. on..\V~ can appmx imate-tll¢s~:\rUfl(}.ctiscre~e:,dpn:1ain:;m Jerms -of the disg_r¢teyar iables p;, V,-.
::-E~?~i~=;=~~fae:~:i:!i~ii1~~¥ii.l~:
only with· the advent of ·m odern comput e.rs.-
Contin uous_Jiomain·· .:o.,s:0.re'te,Dorn ai ,:r

Q ~ :x 5\ 1 ,
i---_,_;~...,.......--:--1l~ f :1-t I
. .i,;; l
5.5 Introduct ion to Computa tional Fluid Dynamics 183
Fig. 5.16 Example of a grid used to solve for ~he now arounii an airfoil.
Discret ization Using the· Finite-D iffer~nc e M~thod

To keep the details simple, we will illustrale the proc~s of going .from the continuou s domain W-the
<liscrete domain by applying it to the following simple 1D equation:
(5.31)
We.'11 fir.it cons ider I.he cw;e where m= 1, which is the i;:ase wh~n lhe equation is linear. We'll laret coli;.
sider the nonlinear case m = 2. l(eep in mind that the abqve problem is an initial-valu e problem, while the·
numeri,cal solution procedure below is more suitable for boundary- value prpbJems. Mose CFD problems.
are b9unqary- value pro!>lems.
We'll de rive a discrete representa tion of Eq. 5.31 with m = l on the rudimenta ry grid shown in
Fig. 5.17. This grid has four equally spaced grid poinlS, with 6.x= ½being the spacing betwe~n succes-
sive points. Since the governing equation is valid at any grid point, we have
(d11)
- +u;=O (5.J2)
dx;
where the subscript i represenlS the value at g!id point.~;- In order to ~et an expression for (du/d.~); in
terms of II values at the grid points, we expand 11;_ 1 in a Taylor series :
Rearrangi ng this gives
d11)
(dx ; = 11,--11;-1
6.x
+ (ddx 6.x2 -(ddxu) 6.x6
2
11)
2 ;
3
3 ;
1
+ ... (5.33)
t:>.x=...L
3
I• •I
Fig. _5.17 A ~ln,ple 1D ilrld withJour grid points.

We' ll negl ect the seco nd-. third -, and high er-o rder term s on the righ t. Thu s, the first term on the righ t is
the finit e-di ffe renc e repr esen tatio n for (du/ dx) we are seek ing. The error in (du/ dx); due to the
negl ecte d term s in the Tay lor serie s is calle d th~ trun catio n erro r. In gene ral, tl1e trun catio n erro r is
the diffe renc e betw een the diffe renti al equa tion and its finit e-dif feren ce repre senta tion. The lead ing-
_o rder term in the trun catio n erro r in E_q . 5.33 is prop ortio nal to l'!,.,r:. Equa tion 5.33 is rewr itten as
(du)
dx
= 11;-l l; -1
I'!,.,,;
+O(!'!,.,\'.) (5.3 4)
I
,vhe re the last term is pron ounc ed "ord er of delta x.'' TI1e nota tion 0(6. x) bas a prec ise mat hem atic al
niea ning , whic h we will not go into here . Inste ad, in tl1e inter est of brev ity, we' ll retum to it brie fly late r
whe n we disc uss the topi<;: of grid conv erge nce. Sinc e the trunc ation erro r is prop ortio nal to the firs t
pow er of /'!,.,\:, this disc rete n;pr esen tatio n is tem1ed first -ord er accu rate .
Usin g Eq. 5.34 in Eq. 5 .32, we get the follo wing disc rete repre senta tion for our mod el equ atio n:
(5 .35)
Note that we have gon e from a diffe renti al equa tion to an alge braic equa tion! Tho ugh we have not wri t-
ten it out expl icitl y, don 't forg et that the erro r in this repr esen tatio n is O(Ax}.
This meth od of deri ving the disc rete equa tion usin g Tay lor's serie s expa nsio ns is calle d thej init e-
diffe renc e meth od. Kee p in mind that most indu stria l CFO softw are pack ages use the ftnite-vofrti11 e or
finit e-ele men t disc retiz ation meth ods sinc e they iµe be_tter suite d to mod eling-flow past com plex geo me-
tries. We will stick with the finit e-dif fere nce meth od in this text sinc e it is tl~e easie st to und erst and; the
conc epts disc usse d also appl y to the othe r disc retiz ation meJ.hods.
Ass em bly of Dis cre te Sys tem and App lica tion of Bou nda ry Con diti ons
Rear rang ing the disc rete .equ ation , Eq. 5.35 , we get
- Iii- I + (1 + /'!,.,\:)u; == ()
App lyin g-th is equa tion at grid poin ts i=2 ,3,4 for the lD grid in Fig. 5.17 give s
-11_1 + (I +t!,.,v:)112 =0 (5 .36 a)

-Ui + (1 + tu:)1 13 =0 (5 .36 b)
- t/3 + (.1 + /'!,.,\:)114 =0 (5.3 6c)
The disc rete equa ~ioii cann ot be ;ippl i!,:g at the le ft b91.mc;lary (i= l) smc e "1-1 = 110 is not def ined .
Inste ad, we use the boun dary cond ition to get
t11 =l (5 .36 d)
Equ ation s 5.36 form a syst e~ of f~ur sim ult~ eou s '.11ge braic equa tions in the four unkn own s u 1 , u , 1, ,
2 3
and u 4 • It's conv enie nt to wnt e _tlus syst em m mat nx form :
[ 1 0
O +
0 0 ]
~I
[''']
-1 l+Ll l'.
[1] 1
0
tu
0
O
112
li3
_
-
0
0 (5 .37 )
0 b - I 1+ l'!,.,-i; U4 0
In a gene ral s iLUat:ion (e.g .•_2D or 3l? don: ains ), we wou ld appl y the discr ete equa tions to the g ~id ~oi nts
in the inter ior of the dom ain. For gnd pom ts at or near the boun dary , we wou ld appl y a com bma tton o f
the disc rete equa tion s an!! boun dary cond itk>n s. In ~e end, ?ne ~o~ ld obta in a systen:' of sim ulta neo us
alge braic equa tion s s imil ar to Eqs. 5.36 ~<lama~ e~ua t1on s1~l ar LO Eq. 5.37 , WI~ the num ber of
equa_tions bein g eq1,1al to the_num ber of ~de pen d~nt_ d1sc re~e yana bl~s . The proc ess IS esse ntia lly the
sam e as for the njod el equ11.11on abov e, w1th the (l~truls obv1 0usl y bem g muc h mor e com plex .
5.5 Introduct ion to Computa tional Fluid Dynamic s 185
Solutio n of Discrete System

The discrete system (Eq. 5.37) for our own s imple ID example can be easily inverted, using any number
of techniques of linear algebra, to obtain the unknowns at the grid points . For t.x= ½, the solution is
3 9 27
111 =l 112= 4 ll3 = J6 114 = 64
The exact solution for Eq. 5 .31 with 111 = J is easily shown to be
Figure 5. 18 shows the compariso n of the discrete sqlution obtained on the four-point grid with the exact
solution, using £-.:eel. The error is largest at the right boundary, where it is equal to 14.7 percent. [It also
shows the results using eight points (N = 8,t.x= ½) and sixteen points (N = 16, t.x= fs), which we dis-
cuss below.]
In a practical CFD application , we would have thousands, even millions, of unknowns in the dis-
crete system; if one were to use, say, a Gaussian eliminatio n procedure to invert the calculation s, it would
be extremely time-consu ming even with a fast computer. Hence a lot of work has gone into optimizing
the matrix inversion in order to minimize the CPU time and memory required. The matrix to be inverted
is sparse; that is, most of the entrie,s in it are zeros. The nonzero entries are clustered around the diagonal
since the discrete equation a:t. a grid point contains. only quantities at the neighborin g grid points, as
shown in Eq. '5.37. A CF.b code would store only the nonzero values to minirrµze memory usage. l_t
would also genei::ally use an iterative procedure to invert the matrix; th~ longer one iterates, the: closer
one gets to the true sol~tioii for the manix inversion. We'll return to this idea a little later.
Grid Converg ence

While developin g the finite-diffe rence approxima tion for the ID model problem (Eq. 5 .37), we saw chat
the truncation error in our discrete system is O(t,x). Hence we expect that as the number of grid points is
increased and l!..x is reduced, the error in the numerical solution would decrease and che agreement
between the numerical and exact solutions would get better.
L~t• s consider the effect of increasing the numb·e r of grid points N on the numerical solution of the
10 problem. We' ll consider N = 8 and N = 16 in addition to the N=4 case solved previously. We repeat
the above assembly and solution steps on each o_f these additi.o nal grids; instead of the 4x 4 .problem of
Eq. 5.37, we end up with an S x 8 an(.! a 16 x 16 problem., respectivel y. Figure 5.18 compares the results
ob(aii'!ed (µsing £\:eel) on the tnree grids with the exact s9lution. As ~xpected, che nllJlle rical error
decre~ses !lS the number of grid points is increased (but this only gpes SQ far-if we make ti..x too
small, we start to get round-off errors accumulat ing tQ make the results ge_t wol"lle!). When the nlll)lerical
solutions obtained on different grids agree to withj_n a level of tolerance specified by the user. they
are referred to as "grid-conv erged" solutions. It is very important to investigat e the effect of grid
1
0 N=4
0.9
----N=8 ·
0.8 ···+- ·· N= 16
- - Exact sqlubon
0.7
II
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0 0 .2 0.4 0.6 0 .8 1
.'i:
Fig. 5.18 comparison of the.numerical soh.itlon obtained on t_l:lree different-gri ds with the exa!=t: solution.
0.1 r---------------,
c 0.01 1-
/
I o
Actual error
- - Least squares fit
I
0.001 1 - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - 1
0.01 0.1 l
Ax
Fig. 5.19 The variation of the aggregate error e with ~-
resolution on the solution in all CFD problems. We should never trust a CFD solution unless we
are convinced that the solution is grid-converged to an acceptance level of tolerance (which will
be problem dependent).
Let e be some aggregate measure of the.error in the numerical solution obtained on a specific grid.
For the numerical solutions in Fig. 5.19, e is, for instance, estimated as the RMS of the difference
be.tween the numerical and exact solutions:
N 2
~ (11;-ll;cuc,)
i= I
e=·
N
It's reasonable to expect that
eoc::D..x"
Since the truncation error is 0( t,._") for our discretization scheme, we expect n = l (or more precisely.
n-+ I as ~-+0). Thee values for the three grids are plotted on a logarithmic scale in Fig. 5 . 19. The
slope of the least squares fit gives the v·aJue of 11. For Fig. 5.19, we get 11 = 0.92,which is quite close to l.
We expect that as the grid is refined further and ax becomes progressively smaller, the value of 11 will
approach I. For a second-order scheme, We would expect n ~ 2; lhis means the discretization error will
decrease twice as fast on .refining the grid.
Dealing with Nonlinearity

The Navier-Stokes equations (Eqs. 5.27) contain nonlinear convection terms; for example, in Eq. 5 .27a,
the convective acceleration term, uou/ox+ voµ/iJy + wou/az. has pre>ducts of II with itself as well as with
u and w. Phenomena such as turbulence and chemical reaction introduce additional nonlinearities. The
highly nonlinear nature of the governing equari_ons _for a fluid makes it challenging to obtain accurate
numerical solutions for complex flows of practical mterest.
We will demonstrate the effect of nonlinearity by setting m=2 in our simple 1D example, Eq . 5 .3 1:
du ,,
-+u'"=O; O~x~I; ( )
u0=1
d.'1: .
A firsl-order finite-difference approximation to this equation, analogous to that in Eq. 5.35 for 111 = l, is
U;-t11~.1 + 112 =0
Ax ' (S.38)
This is a nonlinear algebraic equation wicivthe uf term being th~ sol,irce of the nonlinearity.
5.5 Introduct ion to Computa tional Fluid Dynamks 187
The strategy that is adopted to. deal with nonlinearit y is to linearize the equations around a guess
value of lhe solution and to iterate until lhe guess agrees with the solution to a specified tolerance
level. We'll illustrate this on the above example. Let 1181 be the guess for u1. Define
fill;= LI, - 11111
Rearrangi ng and squaring this equation gives
~
u1 = u;,
~
+ 211 ,t.u, + ( fill; )2
8
2
Assuming that /j.u,- << u 8 ,, we can neglect the ( /j.u;) term to get
11f~u;, +2118,fi111=11;, +211g1 (11;-llg1 )
Thus
(5.39)
The finite-diffe rence approxima tion, Eq. 5 .38, after _linearizatio n in u;, becomes
. 2 Q
g1111-tt8I =
LI; :-11/-1 . (5.40)
----+2U
I',._,;:
Since the error due to linearizatio n is O(t.u2 ), it tends to zero as 118 -,. u.
In order to calculate the finice-cjifference approxin1a tion, Eq. 5.40, we need guess values 118 at the
grid points. We start with an initial guess value in the first iteration. For eac;h subsequen t iteration, the u
vri.It1e ob_tained in the previous iteration is used as the guess valµe. We con.t iriue. the iterations. ~nti.l they
converge. We'll defer the discussion on how to ·evaluate converge{!.ce.1,1ntil a little lacer.
This is essentially the process useclin C.fD c;odes. to iinearize the-imnline ar terms in the conservati on
equations , with the details varying depending o_n the code. The important p,;>ints to remember are that the
linearizati on is performed about a guess and that it is nece·ssa.ry to iterate through successive approxima -
tions until the iterations converge.
Direct and Iterativ e Solvers

We.saw that_we. need to perform iterations to deal with the nonlinea r~~~-in the governing equations.
We next di!fctiss another factor tha-i: makes it necessary fo carry out iterations j..ri practical CFb problems.
As an exercise, you can verify that the discrete equation system resulting from the finite-diffe rence
approxim ation of Eq. 5.40. on our four-point .grid, is
(5.41)
In a practical problem, one would usually have thousands to millions of grid points or cells so thµ.t each
dimension of the above matrix would be of the order of a million (with most of the elements being zeros).
Inverting such a ma~ directly would take a prohibitive ly large amount of memory, so instead the
mattix is inverted using an iterative scheme as discussed below.
Rearrange the finite-diffe rence approxima tion, Eq. 5.40, at grid point i so that 11; is expressed in
terms of the values at th·e neighborin g grid points and the guess values:
lli-1 + Ax 1182
lli = .i
l +2AxllgJ
!fa neighbori ng value at the current ileration level is not available, we use the guess value for it. Let' s say
that we sweep from right lo left on our grid; that.is, \Ve update 114, then U3 , and finally 112 in each iteration.
in arty iteration, 11;- _1 is not available while updating u; and so we use the ~uess value 118 ,_ 1 for it instead:
. ~lg1_ 1 + l',..,1: 112 .
11; =: 81
1+2a,·ug,
(5 .42}
188 Chapt er 5 Introd uction to Differ ential Analy sis ·of Fluid Motion
Since we are using the guess values at neighb oring points, we are effectiv ely obtaini ng only an appro x-
imate solutio n for the matrix inversi on in Eq. 5.41 during each iteratio n, but in the process we have
greatly reduce d the memor y require d for the inversio n. This trade-o ff is a good strategy since it doesn 't
make sense to expend a great deal of resourc es to do an exact matrix inversio n when the matrix eleme nts
depend on guess values that are continu ously being refined . We have in effect combin ed the iterati on
to handle non.lin ear tem1s with the iteratio n for matrix inversi on into a single iteratio n proces s. Most
import antly, as lite iteratio ns conver ge and 1111 _,. 11, the approx imate solution for the matrix invers ion
tends toward s the exact solutio n for the inversi on, since the error introdu ced by using 11 instead of u
8
in Eq. 5.42 also tends to zero. We arrive at the solutio n withou t explicit ly forming the matrix system
(Eq. 5.41), which greatly simplif ies the compu ter implem entatio n.
Thus, iteratio n serves two purpos es:
It allows for efficie nt matrix inversi on with greatly reduced memor y require ments.
2 It enable s us to solve nonlin ear equatio ns.
In steady proble ms, a commo n and effectiv e strateg y used in CFD codes is to so1ve the unstead y fonn of
the govern ing equatio ns and "march " t11e solutio n in time until the solutio n converg es to a steady value.
In this case, each time step is effecti vely an iteratio n, with the guess value at any time level being given
by the solutio n at the previo us time level.
.I terati ve Conv ergen ce

~ecall that a:s i18 -+ 11; the linearii at:ion and matrix inv¢rsi 6h errors tend to zero. Hence we contin ue the
iteratio n proces s until st>rrie selecte d measur e of the differe nce betwee n 11g and 11, referred to as the resid-
ual, is ''small enough ." We could, for instanc e, deffoe· the residua l R as the RMS value of the differ ence
betwee n II and u 8 on the grid:
N -,
L (u;-11g ,t
i=l
N
It's useful to scale this.res idual witlt the averag e value of II in the domain . Scaling ensures that the resic;l-
ual is a relativ e ratl1er titan ail absolu te measur e. Scaling the ab9ve residua l by dividin g by the avera ge
value of u gives
"' ,-1111,l
(.t )
N 2
I:: (111-1111,) N
NI::(11
l= I
i=I
(5-43 )
N II; = - ' -II;f ,
1= l h= I
In our nonlin ear 1D examp le, we'll take the initial guess at ali grid points to be equal to the value at the
left bounda ry, t11 at is,11f
>::;:: 1 (wh:re <•> .si?nif i~ the first i~eration). Ip e~c h iteratio n, we updat e u.8 _.
sweep from right to left on the gni;l updatm g, m turn, 114, 113, ~Q. 112 usmg Eq. 5,42; and calcu late
the resid1,1al using Eq. 5.43. We'll tenniha te the iteratio ns when the residua l falls below 10-9 (this is
~ferre d to as the conver gence criterio n). The. variati on of the· residua l with, iteratio ns . is shown in
Fio. 5.20. Note that a logarit hmic scale is used for the ordinat e. The iterativ e process conve rges to a
le:el smalle r than 10-9 in only six iteratio ns. In more c.omple x problem s, many more. iteratio ns would
be necess ary for achiev ing conver gence.
The solutio n after two, four, and six iteratio ns and the exact solutio n are shown in Fig. 5.21. It can
easily be verifie d that me exact solutio n i~ given by
1
ii - --
.c= - ,'°'+ l
The solutio ns for four and six iteratio ns areiric: Ustingu ishable on the graph. This is anoti1e r indica tion tli.at
the solutio n has conver ged. The conver ged s§Ju):i.on, c,loesn' t a~ee well with the exact solutio n beca1, 1s~
w.e -~ usiog a coarse grid for which tl1e truriC::::~~o:n ¢rr9r is_ relat~vely large (we will repeat this probl em .
with.fin er grids as proble ms at the end of the ~h11ptl'.lr ), '.fhe.1te mnve conver gence error, which is of ord~_r
5.5 Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics 189.
1
0 0
0.1 0
0.01 0
0 .001 -
Q:; 0.0001 - 0
.;; lE~os -
::,
"Cl
.;; lE-06 -
a,
0::: lE-07 -
lE-08 -
lE-09 - ')
lE-10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Iterations
Fig. 5_.20 Convergence history for the model nonlinear problem.
lc:t------,-----.----,------,------,
o Iterations = 2
0 ,9 o Iterations = 4
- - - - Iterations= 6
- .- Exact s.olution
0.8
II
0 .7
0.6 -- ----
.
--
0 .5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 l
X
Fig. 5,21 Progression of the iterative solutio.n.
10-9 , is swamped by the truncation error, which is of order 10- 1• So driving the resigual down to 10-9
when the uuncation error is of order w- 1 is obviously a was.te of computing resources. In an efficient
cillculation, both errors would be set !It comparable levels, and less than a tolerance level that was chosen
by the user. The agreement between the numerical and exact Solutions should get much better on refining
the grid, as was the linear case (form= 1). Different CFD codes use slightly different definj.tions foe the
residual. You should always read the documentation from the application to understand how the residual
is calculated_
Concluding Remarks
In this section we have inu-oduced some sin1ple Ways of using a spreadsheet for the numerical solution of
two types of fluid mechanics problems. Examples 5.11 and 5.12 show how certain ID and 2D flows may
be computed. We tl1~n studied some concepts in more detail, such as convergence criteria, involved with
numerical methods and CFD, by considering a first-order ODE. In our simple 1D example, the it~rations
converged very rapidly. In practice, one encounters many instances when the iterative process doesn'.t
converge or converges lethargically. Hence. it's useful to know a priori the conditions under which a
g•ven numerical scheme converges. This is determined by performing a stability analysis of the numer-
ical scheme. Stability analysis of numerical schemes and the various stabilization strategies used to over-
corne nonconvergence are very important t<;>pics and necessary for you to explore if you decide to delve
further inlo the topic of CFO,
· Many engineering flows are turbulent; characterized by large, nearly random fluctua_tions in.veloc-
ity and pressure in both space and time. Turbulent flows . often occur in the limit of high Reynolds
numbe ~. For most turbule nt flows, it is not possibl e to resolve the vast range of time and length s c~es,
even wnh powerf ul compu ters. Instead , one solves for a statistic al average of the flow proper ties.
In order to do this, it is necessa ry to augme nt the govern ing equatio ns with a turbule nce model. Unfor -
tunatel y, there is no single turbule nce model that is uniform ly valid for all flows, so most CFD packa ges
allow you to choose from among several models . Before you use a turbule nce model, you need to undec- -
stand its possibi lities and limitati ons for U1e type of flow being conside red.
In this brief imrodu ction we have tried to explain some of tile concep ts behind CPD. Becaus e it is so
difficu lt and time consum ing to develo p CFD code, most enginee rs use comme rcial packag es such as
Fluent [6] and STAR- CD [7]. This introdu ction will have hopefu lly indicate d for you the compl exity
behind those applica tions, so that they are not comple tely a "black box" of magic tricks.
5.6 Sum mary and Usef ul Equa tions

In this chapte r we have:
✓ Derive d the differe ntial form of the conser vation of mass (contin uity) equatio n in vector form
as well as in rectan gular and cylindr ical coordi nates.
✓ *Defin ed the stream functio n ,p for a two-di mensio nal incomp ressibl e flow and learne d how to
derive the veloci ty compo nents from it, as well as to find ,p from the velocit y field.
✓ Learne d how to obtain the total, local, and convec tive acceler ations of a fluid particl e from the
velocit y field.
✓ Presen ted examp les of fluid particl e transla tion and rotatio n, and both linear and angul ar
deform ation.
✓ Define d vprt:ic ity and circula tion of a flow.
✓ Derive d, and solved for simple cases, the Navier -Stoke s equatio ns, and discuss ed the physi cal
meani ng of each term.
✓ *Beer\ introd uced to soine basis i<;leas behind compu tationa l fluid dynam ics.
We have also explor ed such ideas as how to determ ine whethe r a flow is incom pressi ble by
using the velocit y field and, given one velocit y compo nent of a two-di mensio nal incom pressi ble
flow field, how to derive the other velocit y compo nent.
In this chapte r we studie d the effects of viscou s stresse s on fluid particle deform ation and
rotatio n; in the next chapte r we exami ne flows for which viscous effects are negligi ble.
Note: Most of the equatio ns in the table below have a numbe r of constra ints or limitati ons- be sure to
refer to their page ,mmbe rs for details !
Usef ul Equa tions

Contin uity equatio n Opll + opv + opw + op = 0 Page 147
(5. la)
(genera l, rectang ular ax oy oz ot
coordin ates): - op
'il-pV +-=0 (5.lb)
or
Contin uity equatio n Oil ov aw _ V V _ O Page 147
- +-+ - - . - (5.lc)
(incom pressib le, ax oy oz
rectang ular coordi nates):
Contin uity equatio n i?,p11
-iJx
opv opw V
+-+ --= ·p
v= 0 (5. ld) Page 147
(steady , rectang ular iJy iJz
·c oordin ates):
Contin uity equatio n I o(rpV;.) I o(pVo) iJ(pV.) op Page 150
- +- - - - + - - +-=0 (5.2a)
(genera l, cylindr ical r or r a0 oz iJt
coordin ates): - op
V-pV+ - =0 (5.lb)
a,
• ~is ~lion mny be omi11ed without loss of conlinui1 y·in-~ leltl mo1erial.
Tabl~ (Cqntinµ~d)
Continuity equation Page 151
(5.2b)
(incompressible,
cylindrical coordinates):
Continuity equation l o(rpVr) + .!_ o(pVo) + o(pV,) = V -pV = o Page 151
(5.2c)
(steady, cylindrical r or r ao oz
coordinates):
Contim,1ity equation Page 152
(5.3)
(2D, incompressible,
rectangular coordinates):
Stream function ol/f o,p Page 152
II= - .- and U=-- (5.4)
(2D, incompressible, c)y OX
rectangular coordinates):
Continuity e_q uation o(rV,) + oVo =O Page 153
(5,7)
(20, jpcompressible, iJr ao
c;:yliilpncaJ 6oo(Clin~tes):
Stream function Page 153
Vr = .!_ GI/~ and Vo= - OlfF (5.8)
(2D, inc;:ompressible, r o0 or
cylinqrica! coordinates);
Particle acceleration DV av av
_ av av Page 1'57
(re.c ~angular Dt
· - +w-+-
-· -=a =11-+v-
P ox oy oz 01
(5.9)
coord_inates):
.p article acceleration Du .au Ott au Oil Page 157
a.,, =-=u~ +u.- +w'--+'-- (5.i la)
components in r Dt ax · oy oz ot
rect~mgular coordinates: Dv cJiJ au au ou
a!>.
p
= ..:.;....-.=
p,
-u'-- +-u~ + w- + -
ax ay az of (5.llb)
Dw aw aw ow aw
a-= -· -=it-+ti-+w -+- (5.1 lc)
- "' Dt qx i)i oz a,
Particle acceleration a~ = \i, av, + Vo av, _ vJ + v. av, + av, (5_.12a)
Page 158
components. io p a,- r ao r - oz ar
.c r.Iin'drica:l coordinates:
ao = V,avo + 'Vo av~+ 'V,V~ + V,av8 + 1,v11 (5.12b)
,. ar r ao r - az 01
a · = v,PV;: + Vo oV.: + V, av,+ av:. (5. 12c)
"' ·01' r ao - az or
Navier-Stokes equations au) Page 169
(incompressible,
au au au
p ( - . +11-+u-+w-
ar ax ay oz
ei;>nstQ.Ill viscosiLy):
.
.=pg_,~·-a
(if-u
op
· +,, -a.,+
a2u a2u)
+-a,, rl-,•"
(5.27l_l)
X x- v_y.._ .. z-
p
au au au au)
-+11- +u-:-+w-
( a, ax .i)y az (5.27b)
=pg,.- iJp +µ(a2u + if-u + a2u)
. ay iJJ...:!. i)y2 oz 2
aw aw
p ( -+11-+u- +w-
aw aw)
ot ax ay az .
op iYw
=pg,:.- oz+µ · a.\.:i. + ay1- +
(a2w a2w)
iJz2
(5.27c)
1. Li. W. H .. and S. H . Lam . Prin ciple s of Fluid Mech anics . Read - 6. F/11c 11 r. Fluen t Incor porat ed, Cente n:a Reso urces Park , IO Cav -
ing. MA: Addi son-W esley , 1964 . endis h Cour t. Leba non, NH 0376 6 (www .flue nt.co m).
2. Daily . J. W ., and D.R . F. Harl eman , Fl11id Dy11am1cs. Read ing, 7. STAR -CP. Adap co. 60 Broa dholl ow Road . Melv ille. NY 117 47
MA: Addi son-W e.~lc y. 1966. (www .cd-a dapc o.com ).
3. Schli chtin g, H., Bo1111dary-Layer Theo ry. 7th ed. New York: 8. Chapr.i., S. C., and R P. Cana le, N11merical Meth ods for Eng i-
?vlcG rnw- Hill. 1979. neer s. 5th ed. New York : McG raw-H ill, 2005 .
4. \Vhi le. F. M ., Visco us Fluid Flow . 3rd ed. New York : McG raw- 9 . Eppe rson, J. F .. An Jmro ducri on to N(1111crical lvlcr hods a11d
Hill, 2000. Anal ysis. rev. ed. New York : Wile y. 2007 .
5. Sabersk.--y. R . 1-1., A . J. Acos ta, E. G. Haup tman n. and E. M .
Gate s. Fluid Flo\ \~A First Cour se in Fluid Mech anics . 4th ed.
New Jerse y: Pren tice Hall, 1999:
Con ser vati on of Mas s 5.8 The veloc ity comp onen ts for an incom press ible stead y flow field
5.1 'Whi ch of the follo wing sets of equa tions repre sent p·o ssibl e three - are u=a (..-2+ ~) and v=b( .,)'+ yz). Dete rmin e the gene ral exp_r es-
dime nsion al incom press ible flow cases ? sion for the:;: comp onen t of veloc ity. lf the flow were unst eady . wha t
woul d be the expre ssion for the :::: comp onen t?
(a) 11 = 2),i +2xz ; 11= -2,) •+6 x2 yz; w=3. -r.::2 +x3 y 4
5.9 The radia l comp onen t of veloc ity in an inco mpr essib le
r
( b) 11 = .'t)':Z/; IJ =s - .9,zi2 ; ll' = (xr2 - yr) two- dime nsion al flow is given by V,= 3r-2 r2 cos(0 ). Det emu nc
(c) u=.,2 +2y+ .::2; "=x -2y+ :z; 111= ~2~ +y2 +2z the gene ral expre ssion for the 0 comp onen t of veloc ity. If the flo'\. v
Q 5 .2 V,11:iich o~ the follo w!ng sets of equa ~ons repre sent poss ible two-
were unste ady, wha~ woul d be the expre ssion for the 0 com pon ent?
dime nsion al incom press ible flow cases . 5.1 O A crud e appro xima tion for the x comp onen t of velo city in an
incom press ible lami nar boun dary layer 1s a linea r varia tion from
(a) 11= 29•; ,,= -.\2 Y 11 = 0 at lhe surfa ce (y=O ) 10 the frees1ream veloc ity. U, at the bou nd-
(b) u=y -x+ .r;u =x+ y-2, T aJ)'-l ayer edge (y = <'i). The equa tion for llu~ profi le is 11 = Uy/ 15.
{c) u=:t2 cr+2 y; u=2 \·-y r wher e 8= cx 112 and c is a const ant. Show that the simp lest expr essi on
for lhey comp onen t of veloc ity is u=u y/4x . E,•alu ate the ma,x imun 1
(d) 11= - .r:2 ...,_y2 -.\')'/; v=. r + .\,:? +,\)' I valu e of the ratio v/ U, al a locat ion wher e x=0 .5 m and 8 = 5 mn-i .
.3 ln an incom press ible three -dim ensio nal flow field , the v~lo city 5.11 A usefu l appro xima tion for I.hex comp onen t of velo city m .in .Q_
5
comp onen ts are given by 11 =.ax + by=: v = cy + dxz. Pete rmm e lhe incom press ible lwnin ar boun dary layer is a parab olic varia tion fron -i
form of lhe z comp onen t of veloc ity. 1f lhe z com pone nt were not 11 = 0 al the surfa ce (y=O ) 10 the frees tream ,•eloc ily, U , at lhe edg e of
a func tion of x or y what woul d the form be? 1he bo1Jndnry layer (y= 8). The equa tion for the profi le is 11 / U =
5,4 In a two-c limen sioria l inc.om pre-s sible ~ow field , the x com po- 2l,•/ o)-( y/8) 2. wher e o=c x112 and c is a cons tant. Show that the
nent of veloc ity is given by 11 = 1.c De1e m11n e the equa uon for lhe simp lest expr essio n for lhe y comp onen t of veloc ity is
=
y corn pone n.t of veloc ity if u 0 alon g the x axis.
5
_.5 The three comp onen ts of veloc ity in a veloc ity field are give n ~=~
U
[¾(~)2
X8
_.!.(
-3 0
~))]
by u = Ar+ By+ Cz., v=D x+E y+F z. and w=G x+ Hy+ Jz.. :°ete r-
mine the rel~t fonsh ip amon g the c_o effic ients A throu gh J thnt 1s nec- Plot v/ U versu s y/o 10 find the locat ion ofll1 e maxi mum valu e of the
essoz y if this is to be a poss ible in~o mpre ssibl e flow field . =
ratio r,/U. Eval uate Lhe ralio wher e 8 5 mm and x = 0 , 5 m.
.6 The x -com pone nl of velo.c ity m a stead y.; inco mpr: ssibl e flow 5.12 A use ful appro xima tion for ll1e x comp onen t of velo city in an _.Q .
5
.field in the.\ )' plane is u = A/x.. wher e A= 2 m - /s. and x '.s meas ure.d incom press ible lami nar boun dary layer is a cubic varia tion from 11 = -0
in me.t ers. Find (he simp lest y com pone nt of veloc 1ly for this al tl1e surfa ce (y = O} l6 ll1e frecs lream veloc ily, U, at the edge of the
boun dary layer (y =8) . The equa tion for the profi le is u/ U =
flow field .
. The y comp onen t c:,f veloc ity in a stead y inco mpre ssibl e flow ! (y/o) ,--½(y/8) 3 • wher e 8=c x 1l 2 and c is a cons lam. Der ive t.he
5 7 simp lest expr essio n for 11/ U, I.he )' comp onen t of velo city rati o.
field in the ,\J' plane is Plcit 11/U and 1J/U versu s y /8. and find the locat ion of the max imu m
u= ., +r")~ valu e of the ratio v/U. Eval uate the ratio whe re i5= 5 mm
(.~- - and x=0 .5 m .
Show tlial the simp lest expr essio n for the x com pone nl of velo city is 5.1-3 For a ~ow in thex y plane, lhex com pone nl of ve locit y is give n ~
I 2y2 by 11 =~i2 y-. wher e A= 0.3 m-J · s- 1• and x and y are mea sure d in
II = (.l-2 + ),!) (.~ + y2)2 mete rs. Find a poss ible y comp onen t for stead y, inco mpre ssibl e .flo'\.V.
Proble ms 193
ls it also valid for unstead y. incompr essible now? Why? How many (b) Detcrrn111e the magnitu de of the now rate between the stream-
possibl e y compon ents are there'.' Determi ne the equation of the lines passing through (2. 2) and (4. I).
streaml ine for the s implest y compon ent of velocity. Plot the stream- 5.24 A parabol ic velocity profile was used to model flow in a lam-
lines through points ( I. 4) and (2. 4). inar incompr essible boundar y layer in Problem 5 . 1 I. Derive the
5.14 Consid er a water stream from a jet of an oscillati ng lawn sprin- Mream function for this flow field. Locate streaml mes at one-qu_arter
kler. Descnb e the corresp onding pathline and streak.line. and one-hal f the total volume flow rate in the bounda ry layer.
5. 15 Which of the followin g sets of equation s represen t possible 5.25 A flow field is characte rized by the stream function
incomp ressible flow cases? ,µ = 3.i2y-y3 . Demons trate that the flow field represenL,; a two-
dimensi onal incompr essible flow. Show that the magnitu de of the
(a) V,=Uc os0; V0 =-Usi n{) velocity depends only on the distance from the origin of the coordi-
(b) V, = -q/2,rr ; \10 = K/2,rr nates. Plot the stream line 1/f = 2.
(c) V, = U cos O(l -(a/rf ]; \10 = -Usm 0[1 + (a/r) ]
2
5.26 A flow field is characte rized by the stream function vr=xy.
5.16 For an incomp ressible flow in the r0 plane. the r compon ent of Plot sufficie nt streamli nes to repre sent the flow field. Detenn ine
velocity is given as V, = U cos 0. the location of any stagnati on points. Give at least two possible phys-
ical interpre tations of this flow.
(a) Detenn ine II possible O compon ent of velocity .
5.27 A cubic velocity profile was used to model flow in a laminar
(b) How many possible O compon ents are there? incompr essible boundar y layer in Problem 5 . 12. Derive the stream
5.17 A viscous liquid is sheared between two parallel. disks of radius function for this flow field. Locate streaml ines at one;;,qu arter and
R, one of which rotates while the other is fixed. The velocity field is one-hal f the total volume flow rate in the bounda ry layer.
purcJy tangent ial, and the velocity varies linearly with z .from Vo= 0 5.28 A flow field is characte rized by the stream function
at z = 0 (the fixed disk) to the , 1elocity of the rotating disk at its sur-
face (;;;=I,).. Derive an express ion for the velocity field between ,µ =
I ( _ 1 y-a _1 y+a)
I I
lr. tan ~ - tan ---;- - 2,r n
P+?
x- +)
°
the _d isks.
Locate the stagnati on points and sketch the flow field. Derive an
Strea m Funct ion for Two-D imens ional express ion for the velocity at (a.0).
Incom press ible Flow 5.29 In a parallel one-dim ensiona l flow in the positive x directio n.
5.18 A velocity field m cylindri cal coordin ates is givei:i as the velocity varies linearly from zero acy=0 to 30 m/s al y= 1.5 m .
V=e,A /r+e0 8/r. where A and Bare constan ts with dimensi ons De.tenni ne an express ion for the stream function . 'IF· Also determi ne
of m 2 / s. Does this represen t a possible incompr essible: flow? the y coordin ate above which the volume flow ~te is half che total
Sketch the streaml ine that passes through ihe point ro = ·1 m, between y=0 and y = 1.5 m.
0=90° if A=B= l m/s2 , if A=lm2 /s and B=0. and if
B= I m 2 /s and A=0. Motio n of a Fluid Partic le (Kin~ matic s)
5.19 Determ ine the family of scn;am function s 1µ that will yield the 5.30 Conside r the flow field given by V=xy1l...,.,½;:3]+xyk. Deter-
velocity field V=2y( 2"+ l)i+ [x(x+ l)-2y2] l. mine (a) the number. of dimensi ons of the flow. (b) if it is a possibl e
5.20 The scream (11nction for a certain incompr essible flow field incompr essible flow. and (c) the accelera tion of a fluid particle at
is given by the express ion vr= -Ur sin 0+qO/2 Ic. Obtain an expres- point (x,y,z) = ( 1.2.3).
sion for the velocity field. Find the stagn;ili on point(s) where IVI:;;- 0, 5.31 Conside r the flow field given by V =a.r:'- yi-by]+ dk.. where
and s how that IJ/ = 0 there. a=2m- :?.-s- 1• b=2s- •. and c=l m- 1 -s- 1 • Detenn iile (a) the
5 . 21 Determ ine the stream function s for the followin g flow fields. number of dimensi ons of the flow. (b) if it is a possibl e incomp ress-
For the value of 1/f = 2, plot the s.lre;mil ine in the region betwe~n ible flow. and (c) the accelera tion of a fluid particle at point
x= - I and x= I. (x.y.;;:) = (2, 1.3).
(a) u=4;v =3 5.32 The velocity field within a laminar bounda ry layeC" is approxi -
mated by the express ion ·
(b) u=4y; v=0
- A.Uy, AU);! a
(c) u=4y; v=4x V = ;rl/ 2 I+ 4:x:3121
(d) 11=4y ;v=-4x In this express ion. A = 14 J. m - 1/ ? . and U = 0.240 m/ s is the free-
5.22 Determ ine the stream function for the steady incompr essible stream velocity . Show that this velocity field represe nts a · pos•s ible
flow between parallel plates. The velocity profile is paraboli c and incomp ressible flow. Calcula te the accelera tion of a fluid panicle
given by u =lie+ G);J.. where lie is the centerli ne velocity and )' is at point (x.y) = (0.5 m. 5 mm). Determ ine the siope ofthe stteainl ine
the distanc e measure d from the centerli ne. The plate spacing is 2b through the poinL
and t.he velocity is zero at each plate. Explain why the stream function 10
J.
5-33 A velocity field is given by V = IOri- Shov.• that the flow
is not a function of x . field is a two-dim ensiona l flow and deterrni ~~-the acceleta tioli as a
5._23 An incomp ressible fnctionl ess flow field is specifie d by the function of lime. · ·
stream function 1/f = -5Ai-- 2tly. where A = 2 m/s. and x and y are
5.34 The y compon ent of velocity in a two.:cl.irnensiona.l. i,ncom-
coordin ates in meters.
pressibl e flow field is given by v= -A~. whet~ vis in m/s;:r: arid
(a) Sketch the su-enml ines 1/f = 0 and 1/f = 5. and indicate the direc- Y are in meters, and A is n dimensi onal constan t. There is no -v.elocity
tion ·of the velocity vector nr the point (0. 0) on the sketch. compon ent or v<;lfintion in the z directio n. Detenn ine the.dim ensions
194 Chapt er 5 Introd uction to Differ ential Analys is.of Fluid Motion
of the conslfillt, A. Find the· simples t x compon ent of velocity in Otl1er instrilm·e nts show an air speed of 400 knots and a
this flow field, Calcula te the accelern tiori of a fluid particle nt point 2500 ft/min · rote of climb. The front is siationn ry and_ vertica lly
(x,)') = (1,2). unifonn. Comput e the rnte of change of tempera ture with respec t
5.35 A 4 m dirunetel" lllilk is filled wiih water and then roroted at a to horizon tnl distance through tl1e cold front.
rote of w= 2.Jr( I - .e -')nid/s . At the !:ink walls, viscosit y prevent s rel- 5.41 Wave flow of an incompr essible fluid•inLo a solid surface fol-
ath•e motion between the fluid and the wall. Detenn ine the speed and lows a sinusoidnl pattern. Aow is .axisymm elric about the z a..'lis.
accelera tion of the fluid particle s next to the ta.ilk wnlls as n function which 1s normnl to the surface. TI1e z compC>nent of the flow follow s
of time, tl1e pattern
5.36 An incompt "essible liquid with negligib le viscosi ty flows
steadily ·through n horizon tnl pipe of constan t diwnete r. In a
porous section of Jengtl1 L= 0.3 m. licjuid is remove d at a constan t V,=A zsin(2 ;')
f'A~C per unil lengtll, so lhe !,JnifC>rm axinJ velocity in tile pipe is
Determ ine (n) tl1e radial compon ent of flow(\/;:) and (b) the conve c-
11.(x)= W(.1 -.t/2L) , where U =5 m/s. Develo p an express ion for tive und locnl compon ents of ll1e acceleration vector.
tll~:ai.c:eleratio!l of a fluid pnnji;le along the.c;;enterline of tl1e poroµs
section. 5.42 A steady, two-dim ensiona l velocity field is given by ~
V =A:d-A )!I, where A= l s- 1 • Show thnt the ·streaml ines for this
5.37 Sketch tile followin g flow fields and derive general express ions flow are rectangu lar hyperbo las,.\)'= C. Obtain n general expres sion
for the acce)era !ion: for ll1e accelera tion of a fluid pnrticle in this vc,,locily field. Calcul ate
(a) -u""2:ry; r,= -.ry (½.
the ncc~lerntfon of fluid particles at tile pqints (.1-',y) = 2). ( l, l) .
(b) 11 = y-x+., ~; v =x+ y-2.,)• and· (2, ¼) •.where x nnd y are measure d in meters. Plot stream lines thal
corresp ond co C = .Q. 1, and 2 m2 and show the accelera tion-vec tors on
{c) u=.rt+ 2y; v=2T-)' T:? the streaml ine ploL
(d) 11== -.r-y1 ~.-1:w; v=.r +)~+.\" )'I 5.43 A velocity field is represert1ed by che expi:ession V == (AT-B ) •·· . I
5,3_8 Conside r the low-spe ed Oow of ajr betwee n pai:allel disks ns 7+Cyj+ lJrkwh ereA=0 .2s- 1, 8=0.6m,s- 1,D=5m•s-:! and the
shown. Assume tllnt tile flow is incomp ressible and inviscid , and tltat coordin ates are measure d in meters. Oetermi ne the p_roper value for C
th~ velocity is purely Tl!dinl and µniform l!l nny section. The flow if tile flow hc,,19 is io beim:;ompressible. C<!lcullite.·t he acceler ation or
·spe¢ is v = 1~ m/s al R= 7~ mm. Simplif y tile continu ity equntio n a flwd particle located at point (x.y) = (3, 2). Plot a few flow st.ream :-
1~ 0 ·"ronn applicn ble to thi~flow field. Show ~bat a general e·x p~sion lines in ll1e ."tJ' plane.
for ihe velpcity field is V = V(R/ r)er for r;S, r :SR CnJcula te tile 5-44A parabol ic apprqxi mate velocity profile was used in Proble m .Q..
a:~celeration of a fluid particle at the location s r = r, and ,. = R. 5.11 to model flow inn lamfonl" incompr essible .bounda ry layer on a
Ont plnte. For this profile, find tile x compqm ;nt of acceler ation. a .r,
of a fluid particle witl1in the boundar y layer. Plot a., al locatio n
x=0;8 m , where o= 1.2 mm, for a flo,v with U =6 rri/s. Find the
maximu m value of a.,. at this·" location.
5.45 A cubic approxi mate velocity p"rofile was used in Proble m 5.12 _Q_
lo model ·flow in a laminar incompr essible boundar y layer on a flat ·
plate. For I.his profile, obtnin an expressi on for tl1e x and y compo -
nents o f acceiera tion of <! ..fluid partjcle i_n tile bounda ry layer. Plot
a.,. and ay al location x=3 ft, where c5=0.04 in., for a flow with
U=20 fl/s. find tl1e mnximn of Px at·tllis x lo.c ation.
5.46 The velocity field for steady inviscid flow from left 10 right ..Q_.
over a circ_u lnr cylindc:~. of ~dius R is given by
I'= 15 mis
P5.38
Q ·5 .39 Asp~ of a pollutio n study. a model concent ration c as a func-
. µon of posiuon x has been ,;levelop ed,
c(x) =A(e-x /2a -e- s:10 ) Qbmin express ions For tl1e accelera tion of a .fluid particl.e movin g
wh¢r.eA= 3 x H>""'s ppm (pans _p er millio~ ) and ~ = 3 ft. Pl~t mis con~ nlong che stagnati on streamli_l'!e (B"= n) and for the acceler ation along
- ·: - •·. from r = O LO x = 30 ft. lf a vehicle w1tlt a poll.uup n sensor tile cy linder surface (r=R-). Plt>La, as a.functi oriof ;-/R forO = rr.. and
c.e!!~l l~ ·g·· ·i lie area· at 11 ~ u = 70 fl/s, develop an express ion for =
as a function of 0 fo~ r IJ; plo.t ao as a function of Ofor r = R; Com-
u:ave,s u 11 .. f "Lh . d plot ment on tl1e plots. Determi ne the location s at which these acceie ra-
the measui:ed :concent ration rate of chanie o · c w1. nme. an .
~ipns re·a ch m·aximu iri an_c! minimu m values. ··
~ing, lhe~i;e o .d nta.
5.47 Consid er the incompr essible flow of a fluid throu<>h a nozzle
(a) At·w.bat iocation will t11e sensor indicate the most rapid rate of
tj]ange?
t.
as shown. The ~a of the noµle is given by A ;::;:Ao( . :b.~) and ~;e
inlet veJ,:icit:.. varies ~cord~11.1 uo u = Uo(0,5+ o.~cos wt) where
(bl What is th~ vnJ.u~ o_f r,hj.s rate qf c,hnnge ? Ao'.'°'5.f,, :l~20f r, b~0.0~ ft • cu=0.l 6rad/s and UQ=2 0 Ft/s.
. · raftflies through a cqldfro nt, anonbo ard,insc rument Find and · plot the accel!;rnt:ion on the centerli ne, with time as a
5..40 As ;m-au:i;: . . . - f O 7o•r.; .
ijic,_i_c':nes th!li a_wbie~t :re·[llM_i:aju~; qrpps a! Lh~ i;at; Q . • ~- mm. J>w:t!IP~ter.
Problems 1'95
-,-u--~
Ao
_I-~
5.55 Consider a flow field represen1ed by lhe stream function·
q, =3.i'y- 1ax3y3 + 3.tr. Is lhis a possible two-dimensiolial incom,
prcssible flow'? Is lhc flow irroiational'?
5.56 Fluid passes 1hrough lhe·set of thin; closely space blad~•at ·a
velocity of 3 m/s. De1emi"ine the circulation for the flow.
~-~ L=.___j
P5.47
Q 5 .48 Consider the one.dimensii:mal, incompressible flow 1hrough ~o·

· ille· circular channel shown. The velocity at sec1ion CD is given V
by cf=Uo+U,sinwt, where Uo=20m/s. U 1 =2rri/s, and
a>=0.3 rnd/s, The channel dimensions are L= I m,R. 1 =0.2ril. nnd
/i2 = 0 . 1 m. De1ermine lhe particle acceleration al lhe channel exiL
Plot ·the rcsulls as a -function of time_over a .c;:omplete CY.Cle. On lhe
swne ploi:. sh.o w lhe ac::celerntion al lhe channel cxil if"lhe channel
is i::onstnnt area, rather lhliil convergent, arid e·x plain the difference 5.57 A two-dimensional flow fieid is characterized ris u.=A.r- iµ_J:d
between tl1e-curves. v=Bxy where A=,¼ m-·ls-- 1· lllld B= - l !D.-ls- 1, .µ1d :1: an·d f -~
0
in rneters. Demonsihue that the velocity field repres~rits ~ po~sit#
inc9mpressipl~ flow-'fiel!', t tfeiermine_ we TQ.tation ai the location
(I, 1)'. Ev~uate the, d.i:culatfon-. about the "cufye" b:ci_u nded by y = 0,
-~= I, y= 1, apd .-r=O.
5,5a A flow field. is repi:=ented by the stream functio:n
,,,.=x"·-~y+ 2'-Y ~y4-. Is th,i.s a possible two-dimensional flow?
Is th~·flo~ i.ao_m tional?
5.-59 Cortsidei,_il velocity field for motion parnllet·to. the-.-r axis ,vith
.5.49 Expand (V. V) v in cylindnc:nr copr<Jina{es by ~ C t s_u bstitu• .constant shear, The shear rate is du/dy=A, wti~~ ~ = Q; t s-, •
tion .of ihe velocity vec1or to obinin .the convective acceleration of a Obtiiiil· mi .exp~sion for _th·e. velocity fieh:i• .V_Calculate: the ~te:9f
fluid piµ:ticle. (Recall the hint in fooinote 1 on piige l~O.) Verify the roiatiori. l;valu!J.u:· the stream function. for this· P,i'>w ·i .ield.
res_u lts given in Eq. 5 .12n. 5.60 Consider lhe flow field rep~ented stream fui:)"~tion Q
by "tlfe
-5 '. 5,0 Determine tQe velocitf potential° for" yr=A,:cy+Ay2, whereA :;,.(,. s~ 1 • Show lrnlt 1his_i:ep~enr;s a possible
incompressible flow field. Ev_alua1e the rotation of me· flow. P.lot.;i,
.(a) .~: f)p_w field cbnracteri?:ed by the sm;am f11nclion y, = 3x2y~y3. fe,v streamlines in the· upper l:ialf plane,
(b) u Dow fie!<! characterized by tlie ·srreliin fµnction vr=-ry. 5.61 Consider ~e velocicy field given by V=A~f+B.ty}~ w~~-·g
5.51 .De1emiine whetl11~r tl1e followini:,· flow fields are irtotational. A= I fc 1 -s- L. B-~ - 2 fC 1 - s - 1• and tfi_e coc;,rdinates-nre·measi Jre4 ·
(a) ,,=2.:cy; u= -.i!_y in feeL
(.b) 11-;:.y.,-,-.•i-+,~ :; v =x+y-2-ry. (a) ~lermine the fluid rotatiOCl.
(c,;) u = .~t+2y; v=2x-yiZ (b) Evalu;1te the circul!ltion abo:u~ the- '"i;:tm"e" boiincl~ _;l?y ..>!=9.,
:c= 1. y= l nnd .1:=0.
(d) u = - .,1 ~).?'-'-.\)'t: v=j.2 +).? +:i.yt
(c) Obtain an expression.for the stream function.
5 ,5_:i The velocity profile_.(op_u ;ady flc:iw between p,w:allelis pa:ra-
bplic and ,given by 11_= "" +ay!, -wli~re 1/c -~ t!Je c_en1e·rlirie veiocity (d) Plot-several sireanilines in. the fust .quadrunL
and y is-~1e dis.lance.measured fro111 the centerline. The plui~ spacing 5.62 Consider agafo the viscometric flow of ~ample 5. 7. Ev.i)uau:
is ib and.tlje v~l_o_c ity is zero al each plate. Pemqnstrate that' the flo:w lhe average rate of CQtntion of a pair of perp_endicul_ar line segments
is- ro,1alioow. Explain why ,YOQ! answer is correct even thoµgh the oriented at ±45° fr:om the,1: axis."Sbow that this is the same as.in the
flµid._doesn't rol,Ule but mo~\es in straight parallel paths. e.~umple. · ·, · ·
5.53 Consj9enhe veiocity field for flow in a cec1angular "comer;"' 5.63 The velQ!:ity field near the 9ore of-a tornado~ be ~pproxi~ _Q
V-=Axi-Ayi, witl1.A =003 s,.. 1, as iri Example 5 .8. Evaluate Lhe cir- ~~~ ..
cullilion about. i:pe unil square of Example 5.8. - . q_ K_

5.54C0iis.i denhetwo'-Climension al flow field in which 1i = Ar and V ~ .,-,- . -e, + --- eo
2Jrr brr .
_if= B,"iy, where A= 1/2 re 1 -s- 1, B= -1 n- -s- 1, uric! the coordi-
1
nates are· measured ·in f_eet. Show ·that ihe velocity fie ld represents ·a Is this · an irrotntional flow: "field? Obtain, the: stteam fiin~~-.f9r-
po~sible incompressible flow. Determine lhe roia_ti9n at point lhis flow.
_(,\'.,Y) = {l, l). ·Evwuate 1he cin;ulation about th~ "i::urve" bounded 5.64 A vel~icy fiel4 is. given I?)' V = 'J,i.-4.-c] 'f!J./r.. P .~ ~ e an
qy. y'=:.Q, x=l, y:;, I, and ."t'=O. equation. for the stre~lin~. ¢aicuhrte. !lie vortii::icy of th~Jlbw,
196 Chapter 5 In t r oduct ion t o D iffe r e n tia l Analysis of Fluid Motion
5. 6 5 Consi~er tJ1e:·P~ _sure-driven now b~,L.\~~.c.n. s_1_al!Q!1,!J;Y, P.!!r.?J!.e l

p lares sepa.qi.ted _by;~~Js tancc 2b. CoprdiirnJ~-o,.)' 'is,·ffieiist:ired (ffo°fu. y Vo_ >
tJ,e c hllll4~l . _~-~Q.~ t)!ne . TI1e veloci,ty ffe!a! •is,· :g ivelf 'h°f· ~;;~
11,ru., [ I - (~1~tf:J, l:!,~~~~Ole _tJ.;t .r-!lCS 6(JJA~- 1'![)_~:::_~~~:4iro6:v1¥-
11o n. 01:>_(!lln lll}.~:~ .r~,ll.~ Q!! ).;Qf,lh_C van 161y.);v¢ctt>rt-,~ Fiha the:io.cilikin
-•-'---·L -~ --------·---,-.-·-------···--·--}ru,·
w here (he vorricit)' ·;s ::i n·fa:.xin'nim. · ··
Moment um Eq ~a_1:j9,1J
5 . 6 6 _G~·n sidct il}ft'4~11 l..~ii!J'i rn!~Y !;iey,~!J)~e.1 , oi,;i~pn;p_~sible
00}~' ·.! >~"£S!lJ)V.9°•~~Ql{~'<Pli1Ji;s. ;o:s · shoWii. The flO\V i_s;, diie .io'°the
'~~.:~l~te~ ~:~:s_p~~~+tmfl°.~~fili.ii' l~ -iipp_i1~a
'.1'o uo n o_fit_~: ns'nvell
Ill the )' d•~~c;,m;G.1, !:lclr~c,H,9:QHWP.ns.;thnt•..V
1
*
V'(z), n,=,Q/ and:iliilt
grnv11y points in 1hc-~1cgntiv eydi~ctiori °;;pi1:!ve(i)l~f;,j('::J)jni{d; ihnt tl;e
pres.sure g radje ni in tlie'ytclj'.~J ion ri1usf bi,!m:~·!i1nni. .---· .. , . -· . .
)
y
~ -x
·- -
<-
.J~ - - - -- m..
P.5.66
5.67 Assume tJ1e liq1,1,1d film in ~~mple 5 9 i not isotJ,ermul. b qt

ins tead has the foll6,tin'g cti•s in6uiicfa
T (y) =To + c~,--To),(1 -D

:~~!-~i1~!!t;;!~=-~1af:ee:l\~~~~;:::ffi~t~~ P5.71
µ:=•·;:.qfr;.~a;~S
w ith a> 0. In a manner sirru lar to Exiilii__pl9'§.i,9.,j!!ftj~t :µi·~it~s~i :ffr
for the veloc,ty prcifi'ie .
5 . 6 8 Co nsider a steady, laminer;, fµ)Jy.·1c:j~~elp~~ ~@:bwp~s jp!~.
gfi;~~jiSi!!iit~.!
t.io n ure··c·on:st:iliL -
)'
)-,
P5.68
5. (? 9 Con ide.r a s t~ .~)'., le.~~,_J~ y -~~y~l.( ?~-.-~~P:~ R~$il:i1e

f] ow berween lWO i,n.@ttej'.~llliillel pllites' Sl).P.~ie.d i;r, ~ ~ -~ -cc; lf1.
: p~;~;~ ~~; l~! p~fti;:;~:~1:,,a~;~~:.;:~~~~~:;:~;'.

rrradiciii:" for which the now rate· i~•zero: 'PIQt ith:e;- p.i:ofile· for llinh
~ein'ciiii~n.
Problems l97
5.76 Use E:ccel to generate the solution of Eq. 5.31 farm= I shown c;;:;J
in Fig. 5 . 18 To do so, you-need to learn how to perform linear algebra ·
---
------- TIit angle a =
in Excel. For example, for N 4 you will end up with the mauix
equation of Eq. 5.37. To solve this equation for the u vaJoes. -you will
have to compute the inverse of the 4 x 4 matrix. and then multiply this
inverse into the 4 x I manix on the right of the equation. In E:ccel, to
Heating · do array opera1io11s, you must use the following rules: Pre-select th_ e
cells that will contain the result; use the appropriate E:cce/ or.rayfanc-
tion (lqok at E:ccel"s Help for.details); press Ctr! +Sh_ift+En~i-. nqt
just Enter. For example; to invert the 4 x 4 matrix you wonli:I:_pre~
select a blank 4 x 4 array that ·win contain the inverse· matrix;
Heating
type = minverse([a rray containing inlltrix to be inverted]); press
Ctr! +Shift+ Enter. Tq multiply a 4 x4 matrix into· a 4.x l matrix
P5.74 you would do the following: pre-select a blank 4 x l ru-ray that will
contain the result; cype =
mm11lf([arra y containing 4 x 4 matrix].
(a) Explain ,vhy the fluid m,llomntically circulau;s in !he closed loop [array _con~ning 4 x I manix]); press Co-I+ Shift+ Enter_
in the c_ounterclo ckwise direction.
5. 77 For a small spherical particle of- styrofoam
(b) What is the effect of the nngle er on the Ouid velocity? {density= 16 kg/m 3 ) with a diru-neter of 5 mm fa.llin~-in air, thedra~
is given by Fo = 3r.µ Vd, wbe~ µ ~ th·e air viscosicy ai1~ V is tlie.
Introduc tion to Comput ational Fh-'id Dynamic s sphere velocity. Derive the· differentia l equation that describes the.
Q_ 5.75 A la.AA contains \Vllter (20°C) Ill an initial depth yp =:.1 IT!• The rnotjoi:i. Usi_ilg th¢ Et1Jer methqd; fi11d tfiertiiixiiri uiii s~4 ~ g
tank diameter is D '=250 mm and a tube of diameter d=·3 mm and frorii ~ t and the time it takes to reach .95~ -of- tfils; speed. Plcit the
= m
lengf.h L 4 is nttacheci (~ ·the bouiim of the tank. For lnmihru- fltfai speed ,as a function of time.
n: reasonable model Tor thi:; water l_evel over time is 5.78 Fi>ijowing the· steps to convert che differential equation Q
-{Ly
-
d:'pg
. y y· (O).=)'a
Eq; .5_31 (for m= l) into a differi:"r1ce equation (for example,
di ..,,. - J2D 2 j!L Eq. 5.31 .for N =4), solve
Using Euler methqds·wi th time steps'of 12, min-nnq 6 min: di~+u=?i: 2-+x OS.l'.51 u(0)=;3
d:c -
(a) &limi:11e the ,vater c!epth .l!fcer !-20 t_nin,. and compute the errors
compared tCJ the exact solution .. fod'/=4, -~' ~<:I J{i a,nd c;p_mpare to. the exact solution
. -~ U = . ""'~ '-:3.i:-+ :l
(r)_-=;yoe-""'"'-
~!1[~?!=:!!i~~!,1riE!! !i
J'=-ct
0
(b) Plot the·Eulel' nnd fxact res_u lts.
rign(sici~ qfEq. 5137 needs mcidjf;yii:ig), . . ..
D-
5.79 Use E:c¢e_l c.o ~c;nera~ dle pro~sioti· to ~ J~;v_e; sp_J~tjgn Q
Eq. 5.~l for ni;:o2, as illi.ist:¢.~· )n;fig-, .·5.;?I
5.8'0 Use E:.'c_c_el ~~ gene..u_e- th¢: soh.itions.o f Eg_. ~~ :ft?l',lJ'.1'?-=-1, Q
wit4 !t(Q)~3. usirag4 an:d 16 p9_iri~Qv~r,the :interviil 6:i:>i.ii#='~f tp ·
d x =;, 3, with sitfficic::nt ite111ti~ms, .arid co~p_l® tR J!.1f:-~l!~!f:SQfoti6n
,I,
t·
liU4a = VQ ~tx
To do so, follow. the steps d~aibed in the "D~aj.iµg \\ti.~ N<miuiear~
P5.75 ity'' se~tion.
CHAPTER 6
Inco m p ress ible In visc id Flow
(,.1M om ~n tum Eq ua tio n for: Fr i~ ion les s Flow: Eu ler 's
6. 4 En erg y Gr ad e lin e an d Hy dra uli c Gr ad e Li ne
Eq ua tio n
6. 5 Unst¢.ady Be rno ull i Eq ua tio n: int eg rat ion of Eu ler 's
6 .~ 13erri'ouHi •Eqµaticin: lnt !;! ~ra tio n of '.Eu ler '$ Eq q~ tjQ n
Eq ua tio n Al on g a Str ea ml ine (on. th~ W eb )
Ai¢(fg a·S.ti:~arnHne .for :st ea 4y Flo w
6. 6 lr. tot at, on al Fiow
Th e lle m.o ull i Eq ua tio n ln: t~q tl;~ tef l a~ an . En erg y
6. 7 Su mm ary c1n~ Us~flil Eq ua tio ns
E9 ua tio n
~~. ~. -~'.c .•-. ;-···~· -._ ,.;, --~ .-." -'~ "-- '--. .,,- -.:: ..., .-....,.. ---<e.c,;;----.__"""--_.;...
.....___:;,---<:_...---"-o,.....:;_,....-""-.._>'-"'
C as e St ud y
Th e Fo un ta in s at th e Be lla gi o in La s V eg as for op tim um flow. Ma ny of WET's des ign s use co mp res sed ai
r
An y vis ito r to Las Ve gas will be fam ilia r wi th _the wa ter fou nta ins_tea d of wa ter pu mp s, wh ich allows lc!nergy tq b~ co nti nu ou sly
ins ge ne rat ed an d acc um ula ted , rea dy for ins tan t ou tpu t.T his in no
at the Be lla gio ho tel . Th ese are a se t of hig hp ow ere d wa ter -
jet s va tiv e use of co mp res sed air alh;i_we d tile fountair:is tp be co me
de Sig ne d an<;I l;,_uil t by the W IT De sig n Co mp an y tha t-a re ch or a
eo - rea lit y- wi th the tra dit i_o nal sys tem s ofp ipe s or pu mp s, a fo un
gra ph ed to va ry i_n the ir str en·gth an d dir ect ion to St;!lected pie -
ces tai n suc h as the Be lla gio 's wo uld be im pra cti cal an d ex pe ns ive
ofr nu sic . .
•wE Td ev elo p~ d ma ny inn ov ati on s to ma ke the fou nta ins . Tr a- Fo r ex am ple , it wo uld be dif fic ult to ob tai n the 24 0- fo ot he ig ht
s
dit ion al fou nta ins use pu mp s ~n d pip es, wh ich mu st be ma tch the fou nta ins a.c hie ve wi tho ut exp ens ive , large; an d no isy wa te
ed r
pu mp s. Th e "SJ:u;ioie_r" tha t WET dev elo ped wo rks on the pr inc ipl
e
of int rod uc ing a lar ge bu bb le of.c om pre sse d air int o the pip ing
,
wh ich for ces tra pp ed wa ter thr ou gh a nozzle at hig h pr es su re.
Th e on es ins tal led at the Bellagio are abl e to shc;>ot ab ou t 75 ga
l-
lon s pe r sec on d of wa ter ov er 24 0 fee t in the air . In ad dit ion to
pro vid ing a spe cta cu lar eff ect , the y req uir e on ly .ab ou t 1/ 1o
th
the en erg y of tra dit ion al wa ter pu mp s to pro du ce the sa me ef fe ct.
Ot he r air po we red dev ice s pro du ce pu lsin g wa ter jet s, ac hie vin g
a
ma xim um he igh t of 12 5 fee t. In add itio n to the ir p_o we r, th es
e
inn ov ati on s lea d to a sav ing of 80 per cen t or mo re iri en erg y co sts
an d ha ve pro jec t con str uct ion co sts tha t are ab ou t.s o pe rce nt les
s
tha n tra dit ion al pip e-p um p fou nta ins .
Fo un tai ns suc h as the on e at the Bellagio are de sig ne d us in g
the rel ati on s for the flow of wa ter wi th ·friction in pip es. Th
e
fra de off s amor:ig ·pun:iping pc,wer, the cos t of eq uip me nt, an
d
the de sir ed fou nta in eff ect s bri ng in the tec hn iqu es pr es en ted
in thi s ch ap ter .
-----=----- . -~ -.-~ .
In C h ap ter 5 we de vo ted a "' !ITeat de aJ of eff ort to de riv ing the· differential eq ua tio ns (E qs
. . 5 .24 ) th at
. .b th b ha vio r of an y flu id sat isf yin g the co no nu um ass . ·
de sc n e e e um pti on . W e als o saw ho w the se eq ua -
. d d an ·ou s pa rti cu lar fo nn s- ··· e mo st we II kn
th b·em · g· l_I1e N · · .,.. · · ns fo r
uo ns re. uc e to v • . _ . ow n av1 e_r-. ,to ke s eq ua tio
· . ·bl e co ns tan t vis co sit y flm d (~ qs . 5.2_7). Al tho ug h, Eqs. . .
5.2 7 de sco be the be ha vi or of •
an inc om pre ss1 . , · . . .
~o ~o n flu ids (e. g .. wa ter , air , h,1 ~n cat mg 9:11) fox: a ';1'd f b
e ran ge o pro_ lerns, as we di· sc us se d ·in
. th· . are un so lva ble an aJy uc all y ex ce pt fo r the su np les t ofg eo
5 me tne s an d flo ws . Fo r ex am pl e,
Ch
_ ap ter
.. th
ev en us mg e eq
, ey ua tio ns to pre dic t the mo oo · n o f yo ur C01
Lee as yo= ·
u s IowIy su·r 1t · wo u.·1d· req
·· uir
•·_e the us e o ·f
. . d . pu tat ion aJ flu id dy na • · · ·1· u· · d th · d" •
an ad va nc e co m · · mi cs .co mp ute r ap p tea <;>I), an e pre · 1ct10() wo uld tak e a lo t
19 8
6.1 Momentum Equation for Frictionless Flow: Euler's Equation 199
lon~er to compule than the actual stirring! In this chapler, instead of Lhe Navier-Stokes equations, we
will study Euler's equation, which applies Lo an inviscid nuid. Altho.u gh truly inviscid fluids do not exist,
many flow problems (especially in aerodynamics) can be successfully analyzed with the approximation
that µ .=0.
6 .1 Momentum Equation for Frictionless Flow: Euler's Equation

Euler's equation (obtained from Eqs. 5.27 iµter neglecting the viscous terms) is
DV _
P Dr =pg-Vp (6.1)
Thjs equation states that for an inviscid fluid Lhe change in momentum of a fluid particle js caused by Lhe
body force (assumed to be gravity only) and the net pressure force. For convenienea:e we recall that the
particle acceleration is
(5.10)
Iii this chapter we will apply Eq. 6.1 to Lhe solution of incompressible, inviscid flow problems. bl addi-
"(jon to Eq. 6.1 we have the incompressible form of the mass conservation equation,
V-V=O (5. Ic)

Equation 6. l expressed fa rectangular coordinates is
(6.7a)
It' the z ax.is is assumed vertical, then g_, = 0 , gf = 0, and g._ = - g, so g = - gk.
In cylindrical coordinates, Lhe equations in component form, with gravity the only body force,_are
. ·(:i)V;:
.·pa,.=p .. .av;, .. Vo avt . . ay~
- .,-+Vr. .. +- ·--. +Vs .... -
vJ)• _ . ap
- :;::;pg'r.- , -
. .at ·ar - az
r ilfJ r ._· ··· iJr
8Vo
a ··-p - ·_·+ v: oVo
-· + · ·
_
Yo
aVo . 8Vo
.. +v •·+ · .. . v;.Vo)·
··pg· -
1 o'P··.:
(6.3b)
. P O -,- •( )j{ . · . r qr r ar:J . . ~ az r - . O ; <Jfi
pa· - p
~ -
av.
· · +V
.·( i)t-
av.
·
. Vi,
r ifr
. ave
r
av.)
' + · · .·· ' + V . - -
ae . z az ~
pg: -
oip
-
· • 8:i
If the z axis is directed vertically upward, then Cr = _go-;= 0 and_g~ = - g.

Equations 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3 apply to problems in which tbei:e are no viscous sa:esses. Before
ccintinufog with the main topii;:· of this chapter (inviscid flow), let's co~ider for a moment when we have
no viscous stresses, other than when I'= 0. We recall from previous discussions that, in general, viscous
s·a :esses ~ ptesent when we have fluid deformation (in fact this is how we initially defiI;1ed a fluid);
when we have no fluid deformation, i.e., when we have rigid-body motion, no viscous stresses will
be present, even if I'=/= 0. Hence Euler's equatioµs apply to rigid-body motions as well as to inviscid
ftQws. We discussed rigid-body motion in detail in the online Section 3.6 as a special case offhtjd statics.
As an eJCc;rcise, you can show chat Euler's equations can be used co solve Examples 3 .9 ;;uid 3.10.
in .C papcers.2 and 5 ·we poi_ntec,i out that streamlines, drawn tangent to the velocity vectors at.every
point in the flow field, provjde a convenient graphical representation, In steady flow a fiuid particle will
200 Chapter' 6 lncompressibl~ Inviscid Flow
. al • . .. . d ~-•"' es coincide. Thus, in describ-

~oye on~ a Streamlme because, for steady flow, pathhnes an s~"""lfl . · •. · . . .
mg the mooon of a fluid particle in a steady flow in addition to using orthogonaJcoord~nat~~ .,, y, z. ~e
distanc
· '·e ·al·o·n ·
. . g a stream ti•ne •ts a logical
. . ·coordinate• to use .m wntmg
- · the equations
· . ofmonon. . Streamline
. .
coordinat~" also may be used to describe unsteady flow. Su-eamlines in unsteady flow give a graphical
representatton of the instantaneous velocity field. . . -
_Fo~simplicity, consider the flow in theyz plane shown in Fig. 6.1 . We wi~h to wnt: the equauons of
mouon m t~rms of the coordinates, distance along a s~arnline, aIJd the coordmaten, dt~tance normal ~o
the streamline. The pressure at the center of the fluid element is p. If we apply Newt~n s s~cond law In
the direction s of the streamline, to the fluid element of volunfe tJs dn cb:, then ne~lecung viscous forces
we obtain ·
C P - ap
as
ds)2
dn cb.:- (P + apas ds) dn dx-pg sin fJ ds dn dx
2
=pas ds dn dx
where /J is the angle between the tanoent to the streamline and the horizontal, and as is the acceleration of
the fluid panicle along the streamli~e. Simplifyirig the equation, we obtain
ap
--~pg . . fJ . .
Slil =pa,,
as
Since sin /J = az/ as, we c.a n write
1 i)p
....,. ~ .
~
az
- ·g - :=: Gs
pas as
Along any streamline V= V(s,t), and the mll.terial or total accelemtion of a flttld particle in the.
streamwise direction is given by
o.v ov av
. .-.· + v-·-
a· ·=-·._. = _
f Dr a; as
Euler's eq,u~tion in 1:he streamwfae direction with the.z .axis dire:C\~Q vert:ic.ally upward is then
1 ap . oz:. . av av
--~-g--:=-- +v- (6Aa)
P 0$ i}r as. as
Foi:: steady flow, and neglecting body forces, Euler's equa:tioninclhe streamwise direction reduces lQ
lop_ i}V
- ~ - - V-...- (6 4b)
pas as . '
which ind1Cates that (for an incompressible, inviscid flow) a decrease in ·velocity is accompanied by an
0
increase inpressure and converseiy. This m akes sense: Tbe,oniy force,. experienced by the particle is the
net. pressure force, so, the particle accelerates tcnvard h:>w-pressure regions and decelerate s when
approaching higb.-presst.ire regions.
fig. .6.1 'Flui_d pa.rticle 1'11ovlng alqng,;;i; strea111llnei

6.1 Momentum Equation for Frictionless flow: Euler's Equation 201
To obtain El.ller's equation in a direction nonnal to the streamlines. we apply Newton's second law
in the II direction to the fluid element. Again, neglecting viscous forces, we obtain
ap dn)dsd.t-(p+ ap dn)dscb:-pgcosPd ndxds=pandndxd s

( p- an 2 · an 2
where /J is the angle between then direction and the vertical, and an is the acceleration of the fluid particle
in the II directi.on. Simplifying the equation, we obtain
- ap -pgcosf}=pa,.
011
Since cos f} = az/an, we write
lap az
- - --g-=an
p iJn an
The normal acceleration of the fluid element is toward the center of curvature of the streamline, in the
minus II direction; thus in the coordinate system of Fig. 6.], the familiar centripetal acceleration is written
v2
a,.=-R
.for steady flow, where R is the radius of curvat:ure of the streaqiline at the point chosen. Then, Euler's
:equation normal to the streaniline is written for steady flow as
1 op v2az (6.5a)
p iJn + g iJn = R
For s_teadY flo\V in a horizontal plane, Euler's eqµation normal to a streamline becomes
.1 i)p.. \/2
(6.5b)
pon-:::. R
Eqµation 6.5 indicates ·that press1ire..{11crea$eS in the directioii 011ti11ard from the center of c1irvature of
the streqmlbie~:. This also makes sens_e : a :e,cause the. only force experienced by the parti~le is the net
pressure fore~. tlie pressure field ·c reates. the centcipetaj acceleration. In regions where t,l:ie streamlines
~ straight, the radius of c.utvature, R. is·infinite so there is no pressure variarioii normal lO ~t:1ighr
§i1·eqnilin.~ s. i$xample ·6.1 show$ h~w eqJ,1ation 6.5b can be used to compute the velocity (rom the
pressure gradient in the normal direc:tion.
·.~ ~~:;~i~;~f;t~~ ::~t~c:~i~~µii ;;~::.::~~~'1 t;;~l;!~ii:~o~ ~!;'~t~::~~~ :~::::~::::~p ~:::::

9f \y~J~i;, _c o~p1n~ tb~:~J:iprPXirnat~ Bo\v,rati,:..
wti~¢. Ah-=40 inm H2Q:.. Ni is at STP.

find: V(>J.ufQ~ flow rate, (,!;
s.·.p_"f.utron: AppJ;y Euler's }I co,mpon_e iit egu_a tion acr'Qss flow streamlliies,.
- a . -v2 .
Go:'ii.1tr.nin9. equatiqt,: ;:. ==P ,..·
Assu~p"ti9.ns:-
i. FricQorµe$~:. flpw.
4 Incciinpi:¢s.sibl~ flow;.
3 :Unit'omfrfl9W ~fmea$1,1tement sec;tiqri,
202 Chapt er .6 Incom pressi ble Invisc id Flow
For this flow,p =p(r), so
---
op _ dP pV2 Flow
or= dr =-r-
OF
.,dr
d. p=p V. -_;__
r
Inu;gra ting gi:ves
p~ -Pi = pV2 li:J r]~ .:pV2 1n r 2

r1
-lo.1m\-
r
· .. ·~ - . kg . . . m . ..... .. .
3
V=== · ,999 ~ x9.81 '-::; -~0,Q4 mx ., ;,... ·k·· . xi'. (O' -- .. / : __ - ]· · i/i
m .. 1
,. m !;" 1 --3. ,&; n . ,35m 0 ,25 Iii}
:;= JQ..8·rn]s
For uniform flow
m
Q.. =VA= 3fL8-
s -xJU mxQ,3·m.
3 ·Q
Q=0.9 24 rn /s ...
, - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~~
6 .2 Bern oulli Equa tion: Integ ratio n of Euler 's EquatiQn

Alon g a Stre amli ne for Stea dy Flow ·
Comp!]I!!Q to•the viscou s-flow equiva lents, the momen tum or Euler's equatio n for incomp ressibl e, invis-
cid flow, Eq. 6.1, is simple r mathem atically . but its solutio n foconju nction with the mass conser vation
equatio n, Eq. 5 . lc, still presen ts formid able difficu lties in all but the most basic flow proble ms. One
conven ient approa ch for a steady flow is Lo integra te Euler's equatio n along a stre.aml ine. We will do
this below using two differe nt mathem atical approa ches, and each will result iil th¢ Bernou lli eqmiti on.
Recall that in Section 4.4 we derived the Bernou lli equatio n by starting with a i;liffere ntial contro l
v~lume ; these two additio nal derivat iQns will give us more insiiht into the restrict ions inhere nt in
use of the Bernou lli equatio n.
Deriv ation Using Strea mline Coor dinat es

Euler's equatio n for steady flow along a stream line from Eq. 6.4a is
1 ap az _ vov
- - - - g- - - (6.6)
p OS OS as
If a.fluid .particl e moves adistai lce, ds, along asn-ei,u nline, tl:Jen
6.2 Bernoulli Equation: Integration of Euler's Equation Along a Streamline for Steady Flciw 203
ap
iJs ds =dp (the change in pressure along s)
iJz
os ds =dz ( the change in elevation along s)
av
-ds=dV (the change in speed alongs)
OS
Thus, after multiplying Eq. 6.6 by ds, we can write
dp
---gdz= V dV or dp + V dV+gdz=O (alongs)
p p
Integration of this equation gives
dp y2
J -p ·+ ~.
2
+gz = constant (alqngs) (6.7)
B _e fore Eq. 6, 7 can be applied, we must specify the relation between pressure and density. For the special
case of incompressible flow, p = constant, and Eq. 6.7 becomes the Bernoulli equation,
Restrictions:
1 Steady fl9w.
2 Jncompressible flow.
3 Frictionless flow.
4 Fl9w along a streamline.
The Bemouili equation is•probably the ,nibst famous; and abused, egua:clon in all offluid me_c:hanics.
Itis ·aJways tempting to use because it is a simple algebraic eguaticm for reiating the pressure, velocity,
and elevatiori in a fluid. For ex~pl~, _it is .u sed to explain the lift of a wing: In ae~odynamics the gravify
term is usuallynegUgjble, so Eq, 6.8 indicate~ that wherever the velocity is relatively high (e.g ., on the
upper surface of a wing), the pressure must be relativeJy low, and wherever the velocity is relatively low
(e~g., on the lower surface of a: i.ving), the pi::essute must be relatively high, generating substantial lift.
Equation 6.8 indicates that, in general (ifthe flow is not constrained in some way), if a particle increases
its elevation (z T) or moves into a higher p~s~µre region (p T), jt will.t¢nd to decelerate (V !); this makes
se:n se from a momentum poi pt of view (recaU tb~t the equation· was derived from momentum considera-
tions). These comments only apply if the. four restrictions listed are reasonable. For example, E~. 6 .8
cannot be used to ex plain the pressure drop in a horizontal Constant diameter pipe flow: according to
=
it, for z::::; constant and V = constant, p constant! We catmot stress enough that you should keep the
re_srrictions firmly i11 mind whenever you consider using the Benzoulli equation! (In general, the
Bemqulli constant in Eq. 6.8 has different values along different streamlines. 1)
Derivation Using Rectangular Coordinates

The vector form of Euler's equation, Eq. 6.1 , also can be integrated a1ong a streamline.. We shall restrict
the derivation co steady flow; thus, the end result of our effort should be Eq. 6.7. - ·
For steady flow, Euler's equation in rectangular coordinates can be expressed as
DV av av av
- = u - + v -·- +w-
- - 1
· -=(V · V)V=--'ilp-gk
,
(6~9)
Dt ox · oy oz p
1 -For the cnse of-irrotnti9 n_u l.flow ....lhe t:onstruit hus _a s.il)gle value lhruughe>ullhe entire flow field,(Section 6,6).
204 Chapter 6 Incompre ssible Inviscid Flow
. For steady flow the velocily field is given by V = V(x.y,z). The streamlines are lines drawn i~ the
flow _field tangent t6 the velocity vector at every poinL Recall again that f~r st7ady flow' streamhn es,
path_lm~, an~ streak.line s coincide. The motion of a panicle along a streamline ,s ~ovemed by Eq. 6.9 .
Dunng ame mterval dt the particle has vector displaceme nt as along the streamline. .
If ~e take the dot product of the terms in Eq. 6.9 with displaceme nt as along _the S t r e ~ e,
we obtam a scalar equation relating pressure, speed, and elevation along the stre~line . Tak.mg the
dot product of as with Eq. 6.9 gives
- V)V.
(V. - as= --Vp.
l - as
ds-gk. (6. 10)
p
where
as=dxi+d y]+dzk (alongs)

Now we evaluate each of the three terms in Eq. 6.10, starting on the right,
1
. Vp · as=-- [·OP
-- l .ap k-
i~+j~+ -op]. -[dx1+d)1+
, •· d-Dl
Zl\'.J
p p ax iJy i)z
= --pl [iJp op ]
iJp dy+-dz
-d.1:+- (along s)
iJx iJy iJz
l l
--Vp - as= --dp (alongs)
p p
and
- 8f . as= - gk . [d.\J+ dy]+ dzk]

= - g dz (along s)
Vsing a vector identity,2 we can write the third tenn as
(V - V)V - as= [½vcv -V)-Vx.( vxv)] -as

= {½vcv. v)}. ru-{vx(vx v)}. ds.
The last term on the right side of this equation is zero, sirice :Vis panillei to d.f[recall from vector math
µiii.t Vx (V XV). as= -(V XV) XV . as= -(V XV). V).(;ds). Conseq1.1enily,
[.avt
l .o\11- .aV2] • • •
=2 i a.; +t ay +k al} . [dxi+dyj+dzk]
1 [avi .av:i
=== :- ;;-d.1:+ - ... ·.du.+-
2 vx
a.v2 ]
oy ;,. ,a. -t .dz
·
- - .1 2 . . .
(V · V)V · as= d(V ) (alongs)
2
Substitutin g these three terms into Eq. 6.10 yields
1
dp +--?d(V~) +g dz=O (aiongs)
p - .
2 The; \'"!'Lor identity
- -!.---
V)V=iv-cv -
(V . . V)-Vx(Vx V)
may be v~fit:9 by•i:iq:il!,l_lding,.eac;h s~de ·iQLO -comp.o~nis .
6.2 Bernoulli Equation: Integration of Euler's Equation Along· a Streamline for Steady Flow
integrating thls equation, we obtain

V2
J dp
- +
p
-
2
+ gz == constant (alongs)
If tlie densi_ty is constant, we obtain the Bernoulli equation

P
-
v2 -
+ - + gz = constant
p 2
As expected, we see that the last two equations are idertticai to Eqs. 6.7 and 6.8 derived previousl.y
t1sing streamline coordinates. The Bernoulli equation, derived using rectangular coordinates, is stiJl
subject to the restrictions: (I) steady flow, (2) incompressible flow, (3)frictionless flow, and (4) flow along
a streamline.
Static, Stc1gnation, and Dynan,ic Pres_s ures

The pressure, p, which we have used in deriving the Bernoulli equation, Eq. 6.8, is the thenm;>ciynajiilc
pressure; it is commonly called the static pressure. TIJe static pressure is the pressure experienced by
the fluid particle as it rnoves (so it is something c,f a rrtisnomer!}-we also have the stagnation
_a nd dynamic pressµres, wbic;:h we. will define shqrtly, How do we nj¢asiµ-e .the pizj;su.re in ~ .Oi.!idi.n
motion?
In Section 6.1 w,e showed thllt. tQCere is rto pressure vm;i;iiion normal to straight stre~~- Tltjs_fa'ct
makes it p9Ssible (9-measu~ the static p¢ssi.lre.ip a flqwiQg fluid..µsing _ii, wall pressure "tap," plac_etl !II.~
region where the flQ\V !l~~es,ru:e Straight, 11s sho_w ~ tn fig, ~-~ii: Toe pressure ta]_)_is a small hole,
<;lril.led ~~fully in tile wll.1,4 wi~ its ajs pf:rpend.icular to the $tirfa¢~. Jf.th~'.~Pl_e is p~tpencliculc!C to the
<:!get \vaj.l a,np. fre~ f)::Qqi burn,. a_cc($.it.e in~gisµ~m<;uts of static:preSsure :cap b~ m~~e l;',y .~on:of:c;ting the
tap to a suitable p~s~~measuring in:struriieqt (l]. . - . ·-
In a. fluid si:rerup far_fwm ,a w!].ll, or: '.w here s1reamlitjes l!ft.ci.lf-Vecl; ~c;c.1_1.rate,staiic press-~ iII¢asqre-
ll}~!lts ..<:an_ qe made by careful µse 2fa. :s~ii~ic ,p_ressµre..~robe~ sb9wg in Fig, 6.460 $\lch probes mus~ J;;:i;:
designed s.o _thi)t_t:)le nif:~J.Uing holes.a¢ p)Mi4,¢:0®,c;tJ;y w.ith.respect IQ. µie prqbeJip and stem i:o, avoid
enpne_o us results rt]. Jv.• iJ.si, Jhe measiµiqg s~c:.t;i.9n ·iJ}Jl$J be .aijgpecl with the fa1caj.: tJow direpcion~
·® mes~ figures, itrriay.appe"ar that the pressure tap and s111illl hol~ would .allow flow to ent~EQ°F Iea.ve
or otherwise l:>e entrained by the.mai11 flow, buteach of these is ultiril:ate1y .ittached_ to.a pressure senSOF or:
manometer ~d is. t)ie¢fore n dead0 end, l~eiding .to. no flow befog possible,-'-see Example 64.)
Static pressure probes, such as that shown µi Fig 6.2b, and in a variety of other forms, are available
commetcia,lly in sizes as sn1a1J as l._5 mm ( 1~ irt:) irnliajnet~r .[3J.
The .$_tag11at(o11 pressure is 9b~aitied when a flowiiii flttjg is qecelerated to zt;ro speed by a fricdoh-
less process. For inc;qnipressible flow, th~ :8c::tI16ulli equation ca11 b~ used to relate chlllig~ in speed' an:cl
pressl,l(e along a strearitlirie for such a proc¢ss. Negl¢cting elevation .differences, Eq. (:i.8: ~~qpµi~
P v2
- + ? == COJ)Stant
p -
If t11e static pressure is p at ll point in the flow where the speed is v; then the stagnation pr¢§s:iµ:e; po,
where the stagna_tfon speed, Vci, is zeto, may be cornptited from ·
=0.
P o+ YJ"- -P- + v2
p - -p . 2
or
1 ~
Po=p+-pv- ((5.11)
2
~ .qtiii.tiqn 6.1 Lis_a ·m~the~atical state~ent of the definitio_n of stagnadort p~sure~ valjd for incom.-
p.i:esstble fJc:,w. The term 2 pV ge11erally IS called th,e dyna,mc prf!_.ss~re. Eqµat.10.n 6.11 states· that the
:S~jigna"tioq {<j'Notal) pressure'equAJ$ the smtic pressure plus the d)'np.llllc:: pressur:¢.. Qne way: t<f picture.
tn.f three p_(essut¢s is to ima~ine yot;i a¢ stan.din,g in a steady w:in~l holding Qp;y,Qur.,band: Jl)e, S~)ie
206 Cha pter 6 Inco mpr essi ble Invi scid Flow
H-iiS· S :r:4 · 45 RS& ii,t
Flow
strea mline s --- --- -+ -
tm•II~
S<em
::s~:r;:J 11ft,
tap I
To manometer or
pressure gauge
Ca) Wall press ure tap ( b) Static pressure probe
Fig. 6.2 Meas urem ent of static press ure.
prl',Ssure will be atmo sphe ric pres sure ; I.he larg er pres sure you feel at I.he cent er of your hand will be the
stag natio n pres sure ; and the buil dup of pres sure (the diffe renc e betw een the stagn ation and stati c pres -
s ures ) will be the dyna mic presst_1re . Solv ing Eq. 6.11 for the spee d,
V= ✓2(p~-p) (6.1 2)
Thu s, if the stag natio n pres sure and the stati c pres sure coul d be meas ured at a poin t, Eq. 6.12 wou ld !Pv e
the loca l flow spee d. ·
Stag natio n pres sure is mea sure d in ¢e labo rator y usin g a prob e with a hole that face s dire ctly
ups(t eari1 as show n in Fig. 6.1. Such a prob e is calle d a stagn ation pres sure prob e, or pitot (pro nou nced
p~(h toe) tub¢ . Aga io, the mea suri ng sect ion mus t be align ed with the locai flow direc tion.
We have Seen that Stati c pres sure at a poin t c~ be meas ured with a static p~s ure tap or pro be
(Fig . 6.2). if we knew the stag natio n pres sure at the ~ame p9int, then the flow spee d coul d be com pute d
from Eq. 6.12 . Two poss ible expe rime ntal setu ps are show n in Fig. 6.4.
In Fig. 6Aa , the stati c pres sure corr espo ndin g to poin tA is read from the wall stati c pres sure tap. The
stag natio n pres sure is 111easured dire ctly at A by the total head tube, as show n. (The ste¢ of the tota l hea d
tube is plac ed dow nstr eam from the mea sure men t lo·c ation to rninim.ize distu rban ce of the loca l flow .)
The use of a total head tube and a wall stali c pres sure tap to dete rmin e the flow velo city is sho wn in
Exa mpl e 6.2.
Flow € "
Smal l h o l e / - - - - - - - 1 J.
I
To manometer or
pressure gauge
Fig. 6.3 Meas urem ent of stagn ation press ure.
. r~ c,_
Static
pressure
- / holes
•.- - - Total Flow
Flow
Ar~Mtube
p Po p
Po·
(a) Total h·e ad tube used (b)'Pitot-static tube
with wall s.tatic _tap_
-• 6 ~ s· -
B~ •= .- - -
1ra·neous meas ureni imt.o f -s tagna tion,and ·s tatk pri;-ss,µ res,
- -
6.2 Bernoulli Equation: Integration of Euler's Equation Along a Streamline for Steady Flow 207
Example 6.2 PITOT TUBE

A picot rube· is inserted in an air flow (at STP) IO measure the flow speed. The tube is inserted so that it points upstream into the
flow and the pressure sensed by the tube is the stagnation pressure. The static pressure is me·a sured at the same location in the·
flow, using a Wall pressure tap. If the pressure difference is 30 mm of mercury, determine the flow speed.
Given: A pitot rube inserted in a flow-as shown. The flowing fluic,I is air and the ri:fanometer liquid is mer~ry.
Find: The flow sp·e ed.
EH N
~olution:
46verriing equation:
Assumptions:
1 Steady flow.
P . v2
-p + -2 +gz. = constant
..
-
Air flow
2 JQc·ompressil;,le flow.
3.0mm
3 Flow aiong a strea¢J.ine, I
4 ·Fcicti6Qless,-deceleration along st;ignatjon streamline.
Writing·Bemoullj's equa.tjgp along, thest~m.i.ation slie;mui.n¢ (witli az=O) yielc;ls,Eg. 6.11
Po p _v2
;=;+2
Po i~. the .stagnation pressute ;1c the ~ .b.e ppenini whe~ the sp¢~4 ha§ betp. redµc:eg, w~(hoµt fnction, ro zero. SolVU1g f~r V $ives.
v=/¥
kg m . _ m'f Up
2x 10003 x9.8ls·2 x30-rnm)"( 13.6x·..- .- · _.: . __, x ,, . -
µi 1.23 kg 1000 mm
V .==80.8,IIl/S +---...,..~--,-~-...., ..~-"--....-...,...-',;,,...e---~ ~...,..~~~
V
At t: = 20°<:.
th~ speed of souqd in ~ is 343:m/s, tt~p:~e. M = 0.236 and _the
.pssum_pclon of incotnp~sible flow ~ valid. -.. . .
TWo probes often are combined, a:; in the p.itot,sratjc tube shown irt fig. 6-4b. The inner rqbe is _u sed
to me<!-5ure d1e stagnation pressure at point B, while the static pressure at C is sensed using the small holes.
i n the outer·tube. In flow fields where the static pressure variation in the streamwise direction is small the
pico.t -static tube may be used to infer the speed ;ic point B in the flow by· assuming PB= Pc and ~ina 0
Eq. 6.12. (Note that when Pn =I- Pc, this procedure will give erroneous resulcs.)
Remember that the Bernoulli equation applies only for incompressible flow (Mach number
/VI~ 0 .3). The definition and calculation o f the stagnation press.ure for compressible . flow will be {ijs-
cuss.e d in Section 12.3. ·
AppJkations
Th~ Ji3.e rnouili equaticm can be applied between any two poincs on a streamline provided that the other
three· restrictions are satisijed. The result is ·
-···. .
Pl
-
v ~
I .
.
P2 .
v."
:;
-p + ~ + gz, =- +-=- + gz-, (6.13}
2 p 2 -
208 Chapter 6 Incompressible Inviscid Flow
wh~re subscripts I and 2 represent any two points on a streamline. Applications ofEqs. 6.8 and 6.13 to
typical flow p~obl~ms are illus 1rn.ted in Examples 6.3 through 6.5 .
. In some snua~ons, the flow appears unsteady from one reference frame, but steady from another.
which transl~tes w'.th the flow. Since the Bernoulli equation was derived by iotegraling Newton• s s ec~nd
law for~ fluid ~arucle, it can be applied in any inertial reference frame (see the discussion of translaung
frames m Secuon 4 .4). The procedure is illustrated in Example 6.6.
Example 6-.3 NOZ2;LI; FLOW
Air flows steadily at low spee~ thi~ugh a h~rizontal nozzl~ (by definition a device for accelerating a flow), discharging to atn1os-
phe~. The. area at 1,he nozzle. inlet 1s 0 .1 m-. At the nou1~ exit, the area is 0.02 m2 • Detemline the gage pressure required at the
nozzle: in.let to ptoduci; an outlet speed of 50 m/s.
Given: Flow through a nozzle; as shown.

: :,--cv
Find: Pl - ,P.n!Jri·· • ~~
Soluti'on: ©J.____~-~- __! __.. I
P2 =p~,m
v2 = 50 mis
Gqverning equations: 2
: ~Stieamhne !'@ ,\ 2 = 0 .02 m2
,\1 =0.lm \ . • :
v2
P
; +
y2
2 '+-$Zi:;;: -;+{+cz2;
P
(6.13)
II __ _ _ ____ ____ J I
C(j)}Untij_fy ;fo't ;Ui¢pmp~sibl~ apd .u.nifonn .f low:
-~
~cs
V•A=O
· (4.13b)
Assumptions:
Steady flow.
3 Ftj.~µoµless flow.
4 Flow along a streamline.
.5 ZJ =z2-
6 l;J.t\i(<;>m) .flow at s~tions Q) and Q).
The maxiifiµm-speeq of59.m/s is well bele>w 100 m/ ~. wtuch co~sponds to.MaGh numb~r M ~o.3 in standard. air, Hence, the
JI@~ ~aj I?~· t;r¢ated as focorripn;ssibl~. . . . . . . , .. . . .
· · 1y· tl1e. B. 'e rn·ouJli
A.PP ·- .u·a··u·on··along ·a streamline between pomts CD and.Q) to evaluate
· · -eg · · Pr- Then
.• - p .. 2 ·2
Pl - Poim=P1 -pi = (V2 -V,)
2
Ap9i}'. :ilie•cot;itiilU:ity ·equation to determine V1.
(-pV1A 1 )+(pV2A2)=0 or V1A1 =V2A~
2
50 m 0.02m
A,, ... IO . / ·
V1 ::::;:: V2 _::
· A1
= -
s
X · . ..
0.1 m 2
= m s
For ,air- _lµ: s$.itJ~d conclitlons,.P = 1.2~ kg/m3. Then

.
p :t -Palm· =- '2p(·V 22 .- y2)
· I ·
, ., s2
1 .. kg [ 2
2
.2 m
~
= :ix ) .23 m:i {50) s2 -(IO) s2 . kJ~ •.m
m~]
6.2 Bernoulli Equation: Integratio n of Euler's Equation Along a Streamlin e for Steady Flow 209
Exampl e 6 .4 FLOW THROUG H A SIPHON
A U-tube acts as a water siphon. The bend in the tube is I m above the water surface; the t1,1be outlet is 7 m below the water
surface. The water issues from the bottom of the siphon as a free jet at atmospher ic pressure. Determine (after listing the necessary
assumptio ns) the speed of the fre.e jet and the minimum absolute pressure of the water in the bend.
Given: Water flowing through a siphon as shown. A
Find: (a) Speed of water leaving as a free jet.

(b) Pressure at point@ (the minimum pressure point) in the flow.
Solution:
Governin g equation:
p vz 8m
- + - + gz = constant
p 2
Assumpti ons:
1 Neglect friction.
2 Steady flow.
•0-
3 Ince>mpre ssible flow.
i
4 Flow along a streaml4te .
5 Reservoir is lacge compared with pipe.
Apply the Beqiou1l.j equation between· point$ Q) and (2).
P.1 V2 . P2 Vl
-p +-·.2_I +gz1 = ~
p
+-=-
4- +g7 -,
,.._
Since arean:scrvo! r » aceap1pe, ui.en Y1 ~o. Also p 1 =pl = P3un, so
v2
gz, = T + gt.2 and VJ= :ig(z1-z2)
V2 = ✓2g(z1 -z2) = J2 x 9.81 ~ x 7 m
=;:
v.,
i l.7 m/s ....-~-... .,----- ---=
To. detenp.ine the pressure at- locatjon @, we wnte the Bernoulli equation
be.t ween CD and @-
vz vz
Pl.+ I. + .• _ P,I + .,\ + ~
P '.i ,gz1--;; . g-,.,,.
2
Again V1 ~,o and from conser-vati on of mass V,1 = V2 • Hence
P,t PI V} .PI . V-?

--,-a, = ~ +gz1 ~-=--- gz,,, =-+g(z1 -z;i)--=-
p 2
P p 2
V;
Pii =Pi +pg(.:z:1 -Zi\)-p 2
N kg m N. s2
= 1.01 X IO5 --'-,;;-+999 3 x9.81,x (-1 m ) - -
m- m s- · kg -m
2 2
1 ka ? m N·s
-,,...-x999 ~ x(ll.7t ~x-k--.
2 m s- i· m
p;, =12.8 kPa (abs) or ~18.~ kPa(gageJ i-----~-----P:..:A
Example 6.5 FLOW UNDER A SLUICE GATE
Water flows ~n_der a sluice gate on a horizontal bed at the inlet to a flume. Upstream from the gate, the water depth is 1.5 ft and the
·speed is negh~ble. At the vena contracta downstrea m from the gate, the flow streamline s are straight and the depth is 2 in. Deter-
mine the flow speed downStrca m from the gate and the discharge in cubic feel per second per foot of width.
Given: Flow of water under a sluice gate.

Find: (a) V2. -__,.----- 1,-------,- ----;.i Sluice gate
(b) Q in ft3 /s/ft of "vidth. Vena contracta
solution: Under the assumptio ns listed below, the flow satisfies all
conditions necessary to apply the Bernoulli equation. TI1e question is,
...vhat streamline do we use? 1
. . Pl v? P2 vJ
Govern mg equation: P+ 2 + gz1 =P+ i
+ gz2
Assumpti on:
Steady flow.
2 Iricompres sible flow.
3 Frictjonle ss flow.
4 Fiow -along a streamline .
S VQ.ifotrP flow at e;1ch section.
6 .Hydrbsta tic p~ssu~ distributio n (a,t each location, pressure increases linearly with depth).
If we .cons1.der the streamline that runs along th~ bottom of the channel (z = 0), because. of assu_mptiort 6 tlle pressures at (D and
~are
and Pl = Poun + pgD2
stfthat the Bernoulli equation for this streamline is
(p0 1m + pgDi) Vf(p0 un + pgD2) + V_
f
p +2= p 2
or
(1)
On· the ocher harid, consid_e r the streamline chat runs along·the free sm:face on both sides and dovm the inner surface of the gate.
For th.is sa:eamline
2
Patm +-1 + gDi =--+~Vi
Y Patm
+gD2
p 2 p 2
.o r
y2 . V}
-;f-+g_D1 =2 +gD2 (1)
. -: . . •. . d t the same equation (Eq. 1) for the streamline at the bottom an9 the s~eamline at the free surface, implying th~
We baulliye_arnve a . ·th
· . s-am~ for both streamline s. We will see.in Section 6 .5 that tfi.i~ flow is one of a family of flows for which
B.eroo. · · constant IS e ·
this is-the case. Solving for V2 yields
Vz:;, ✓'4g(D, -Eh)= . 2 x 32.2 :~ x ( 1.5 ft-2 in. x 12~~:)
vi =,9.27 -ft/s +--- ----- ----~ ~--- ----- ~--" -

6.2 Bernoulli Equation: Integration of Euler's Equation Along a Streamline for Steady Flow 211
For wtlform flow, Q = VA = VDw, or

Q ft . ft - .,/
-w = VD=V--.D
- 2 =9.21-+2 m.x--.-
s 12 m.
= l .:>5 fr s
Q
Q ~v
- = 1.55 fL /s/foot of w i d t h + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
w
3
Example 6.6 BERNOULLI EQUATION IN TRANSLATING REFERENCE FRAME
A light plane flies at 150 km/hr in standard air at an altitude of 1000 m. Determine the stagnatio_n pr~sute at the leading. ec.lge of
the Wing. At a certain point close to the wing, the air speed relative 10 the wing is 60 m/s. Compute the pr~sure at this _pQinL
GJven: Aircl1lft in flight at l50km/hr at 1000 m altitude in standard air.

Find: Stagnation pressure,p0,., at point A and static pressure, po,
_at point B.
V8 = 60 mis Observer
Solution: Flow is unsteady when observed from a fixed frame, B (relative to wing)
that is, by an observer on the grol!nd. However, an observer cm the
wing sees the following steady flow:
- ~
V.., = 150 k m / h r ~ ,e.L
-- Observer'-
-
p 0 ;,@ 1000 m
v,;, = v•. = 150 km/hr
,\ .& .-i ~-~~;J:___ mis
At z= WOO min standard air, the temperature is 281 Kand the speed ofsound is 336 m/s. Hen:ce ~t point B, M 8 = V8 1 c = 0.178.
This is less than 0.3, so the flow may be treated as incompressible. Thus the Bernoulli equation-can be applied along a streamline
in the moving observer's inertial reference frame. ·
Governing equation:
? . .,· .,
Pnir V
. ltlr . PA . vl PB VB-
____+-+gz.,,,=-+..L..+gz,i =-----'-+-·+gzs
p 2 p 2. p 2 ·
Assumptions:
l Steady flow.
2 Incompressible flow (V < 100 nt/s).
:3 Frictionless flow.
4 Bow along a streamlim;.
5 Neglect l!i.z.
Vaiues f9r pressure and density may be found from Table A.3. Thus, at 1000 m, P/PsL=0.8870 and /J/PsL=0.9075.
Cq11sequently,
N . .
p=0.8870psL=0.8870x 1.01 x 10 5
m2 4
=8.96x 10 N/Ill2
and
p == Q;9Q75PsL = 0 .9075 X 1.23 mkg3 = 1.12 kg/m

.
3
212 Chapt er 6 Incom pressi ble Invisci d Flow
Since the ·speed is V,1 =0 anhe stagnat ion poini..
') 1
po;. =Pair+ P V~, 2
N I
=8.96 x 10 --:-:, +- Xl.12kg
4 ( km
-·-3 150- x 1000 ~ x ~).,- ,N ~ F.,
m- 2 m hr km 3600 s x kg · m·
p 0A =90,6 kPa(ab s) ,,___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _:_Po=.,.
Solvin ~ fodhe static pressur e at B. we obtain
. . l. · 2 2)
PB~Po ir+ 2:P(V111,~ vB
2
. .
PB== 8.9(? X 10 2
N 4 l .. . kg_ [ ( . km
+ -2. X 1. 12- m hr )
150-h X 1000-.- X - - :? ., m ] N. s2
3 - (60t- X - -
.
.!Tl· m r km 3600 s 2
s kg-m
pa.=88 .6 kPa(ab s) +--- ---- ---- ---- ---- --=P --=- a
Cauti ons on Use of the Bern oulli Equa tion

In Examp les 6 .3 throug h 6. 7, we have seen several silualio ns where the Bernou lli equatio n m ay be
applied becaus e the restrict ions on its use led to a reasona ble flow model. Howev er, in some s ituatio ns
you might be tempte d to apply the Bernou lli equatio n whel'e the restrictions a!'e nm satisfie d. Some
s ubtle cases that violate the restrict ions are discuss ed briefly in this section .
Examp le 6 .3 examin ed flow in a nozzle. In a subson ic nozzle (a converg ing section ) the pressu re
drops, acce lerating a flow. Becaus e the pressur e drops and the walls of the nozzle conver ge, there is
no flow separat ion from the walls and the bounda ry layer remains thin. In addition, a nozzle is usuall y
relative ly short so friction al effects are not signific ant. All of this leads to the conclu sion that the
Bernou lli equatio n is suitabl e for use for subson ic nozzles .
Someti n1es we need Lo deceler ate a flow. This can be accomp lished using a subson ic diffus er
(a divergi ng section ), or by using a sudden expans ion (e.g., from a pipe into a reservoir). In these devic es
the flow deceler ates becaus e of an advers e pressur e gradien t. As we discuss ed in Section 2.6, a n a dvel'"S e
pressur e gradien t tends to lead to rapid growth of the bounda ry layer and its separat ion. Hence, we shoul d
be careful in applyin g the Bernou lli equatio n in such device s-at best, it will be an approx imatio n.
Becaus e of area blocka ge caused by bounda ry-laye r growth , pressur e rise in actual diffus ers alway s
is less than that predict ed for invisci d one-dim ensiona l flow.
The Bemou lH equatio n was a reason able model for the siphon of Examp le 6.4 becaus e the e ntranc e
was well rounde d, lhe bends were gentle. and the overall length was short. Flow separat ion, which can
occur at inlets with sharp comer s and in abrupt bends, causes the flow to depart from that predic ted by a
one-dim ension al model and the Bernou lJi equatio n. Friction al effects would not be negligi ble if the tube
were long.
Examp le 6.5 presen ted an open-channel flow analo~ ous to that in a nozzle, for which the Berno ulli
equatio n is a good flow model. The hydrau !ic_jum p _is a~ exan1_ple of an ope~-ch_annel flow with adver se
pressur e gradien t. Flow Lhroug~ a by~ul ic Jump 1s uuxed v10lenJ.)y, making 1t imposs ible to identi fy
stream lines. Thus the Bernou lli equauo n cannot be used to model flow through a hydrau lic jump. We
will see a more detaile d presen tation of open channe l flows in Ci:Japter 11.
The Bernou lli equatio n cannot be applied· throug h a machin e ~uch as a propeller, pump, turbin e, or
windm ill. The equatio n was derived by integra ting along a stream tube (Sectio n 4 .4) or a stream line
(Sectio n 6.2) in the absenc e of m<:>Ving s u_rfaces such as blades or ;anes. Ir is imp~ss ible to have locall y
s.teady flow or to identif y :.~am_ llnes dunng flow t~ough a machm e._Hence, while the Berno ulli equa-
tion may be applied be.twee n· pomtS b efore a macbi.Qe, or betwee n pomts after a m·a chine (assum ing its
6.3 The Bernoulli Equation Interpreted as an Energy Equation 213
restrictions are saLisfied). iL cannot be applied through the machine. (In effect. a machine will change the
value of Lhe Bernoulli constant.)
Finally, compressibility must be considered for flow of gac;es. Density changes caused by dynamic
compression due to motion may be neglected for engineering purposes if the local Mach number remains
below about M~0 .3. as noted in Examples 6.4 and 6.7. Temperature changes can cause significant
changes in density of a gas, even for low-speed flow. Thus the Bernoulli equation could not be applied
Lo air flow through a heating elemem (e.g., of a hand-held hair dryer) where temperature changes are
significant.
6.3 The Bernoulli Equation Interpreted as an Energy Equation

The Bernoulli equation, Eq. 6.8. was obtained by integraLing Euler's equation along a streamline for
s teady, incompressible. frictionless flow. Thus Eq. 6.8 was derived from Lhe momentum equation for
a fluid particle.
An equation identical in form to Eq. 6.8 (although requiring very differenl restrictions) may be
obtained from the first law of thermodynamics. Our objective in this section is Lo reduce the energy equa-
tion to the form of the Bernoulli equation given by Eq. 6 .8. Having arrived at this form. we then compare
the restrictions on the two equations to help us understand more clearly the restrictions on the use
ofEq. 6.8.
Consider steady flow in the absence of shear forces. We choose a control volume bounded by
s treamlines along its periphery. Such a boundary, shown in Fig. 6.5. often is called a stream tube.
Basic equation:
=_£)(I)= 0(2) =0(3) =0(4)

Q-, -'jlcw--Jlh•r = t,k/ pd¥+ ks (e+ pu) p V · dA
(4.56)
v'.!
e=u+ +gz
2
Restrictions
"',=0.
2 l.Yshc:ru-=0.
3 W01hcr=0.
4 Steady flow.
5 Uniform flow and properties at each secLion.
(Remember that here u represents the specific volume, and u represents the specific internal energy, not
velocity!) Under these restrictions, Eq. 4.56 becomes
From continuity, with restrictions (4) and (5):
LcsPV -1\=0 (4. 15b)
~
~~ -
~lines
Flow -------
Fig. 6.5 Flow through a stream tube.

214 Chapt er 6 Incom pressi ble Invisc id Flow
or
That is,
Also
Q= c5Q = c5Q dm = 8Q1i1

dt dm dt dm
Thus, from the energy equatio n, after rearran ging
[(p2u2 + \t +gz2) -(P1V 1+

2
i, +gz,)),i1+(u2-u1-!;,),il=O
or
Vr
P1V1 + 2 +gz, =p2u1 + V~ +gz2 + ( 112-111 - dm c5Q)
2
Under the additio nal assump tion (6) of incomp ressibl e flow, u 1 = 02 = 1/ p and hence
Pt
-+ Vr
?+gz 1 =-+-=
V,? ( P2 -
-+gz. 2+ ll2-1t 1--·
c5Q) (6.14)
p - p 2 dm
Equati on 6.14 would reduce to the Bernou lli equatio n if the term in parenth eses were zero. Thus. under
the further restrict ion,
(7) ( 1t2-u, - dm =0 oQ)

the energy equatio n reduce s to
P1 vf P2 v~ ,
-+-+ gz1=-+~ +gz.
2 -
p 2 p
or
P v2
- + ? + gz = constan t (6.15)
p -
Equati on 6 .15 is identic al in form to the Bernou lli equatio n, Eq. 6.8. The Bemou lJi equati on was
<;ierived from momen t:um consid eration s (Newto n's second law), and is valid for steady, incom pressib le,
friction less flow along a stream line. Equati on 6.15 was obtaine d by ii.pplying the first law of therm ody-
namics to a stream tube contro l volume , subjec t to restrict ions l through 7 above. Thus the Bernou lli equa-
tion (Eq. 6.8) and the identic al form of the energy equatio n (Eq. 6.15) were develop ed from entire ly
differe nt models . corning from entirely differe nt basic concep ts, and involvi ng differen t restric tions.
It looks like we needed restrict ion (7) to finally transfo rm the energy equatio n into the Berno ulli
equatio n. In fact, we didn't! It turns out that for an incomp ressi.ble and frictionless flow [res trictio n
(6), and the fact we are lookin g only at flows with no shear forces), restriction (7) is automa tically sat-
isfied. as we will demon strate in Examp le 6.7.
For the steady, friction less. and incomp ressibl e flow conside red in this section, it is true that the first
law of thermo dynam ics reduce s to the Bemou ll1 equatio n. Each tem1 in Eq. 6.15 has dimen sions of
eneroy per unit mass (we someti mes refer co the three terms in the equatio n as the "pressu re" energ y,
kinetic eneroy , and potenti aJ energy per uQit mass of the fluid). It is not surprisi ng that Eq. 6.15 contai ns
energy term~ -after all. we used the first la:' oflh~rm ody_namics in ~erjving iL How did we end up with
the same energy -like terms in the Bernou lli equatio n, which we denved from the momen tum equati on?
The answer is becaus e we integra ted the momen tum equatio n (which involve s force terms) alono a
stream line (which involve s distanc e), and by doing so ended up with work or energy terms (work being
defined as force times distai:ice): The work of gravity and pressur e forces leads to a.kineti c energy chang e
6.3 The Bernoulli Equation Interpreted as an Energy Equation 215
Example 6.7 INTERNAL ENERGY AND HEAT TRANSFER IN FRICTIONLESS INCOMPRESSIBL E FLOW
Com;ider fric tionless, incompressible flow with heat transfer. Show that
oQ
ll?-111 =-
- dm
Giv,~n: Frictionless, incompressible flow with heat transfer.

SQ
$how: 112 -11 1 = dm·
Solution: In. general, internal energy can be ¢xpressed as 11=11(T,v). For incompressible flow, v=const@t, and u~u(T).
Thus the thermodynamic state of the fluid is determined by the single thennoc_lynamic property, T . For any process, the mtt.mal
energy change; 112 - u 1. depends only on the temperatures at the end states.
From the Gibbs equation, Tds=du+p dv, valid for a Pll~ substance undergoing. any process, we obtain
Tds=du
for ip.compressible flow, SiQce.(lv=O. Since the internal energy change, du, betw~n specified end states,.~ indepeQdent ofthc·
p t ocess, we· take a reversible process, fo,;- whicti Tds = d( oQ/dm) = du. Therefore,
' 8Q
111.~111= ·d m,__ _ _ _....,,,......_~-~-~ ~-- -- ~ ~ - - ~
(which came from integrating momentum over distance). In this context, we can think of the Bernoulli
equation as a mechanical energy balance-the mechanical energy ("pressure" plus potential plus
kinetic) will be constant. We must always bear in mind that for the Bernoulli equation to be valid along
a streamline requires an incompressible inviscid flow, in addition to steady flow. It's interesting that
these two properties of the flow-its compressibility and friction-are what "link" thermodynamic
and mechanical energies. If a fluid is compressible, any flow-induced pressure changes will compress
or expand the fluid. thereby doing work and changing the particle thermal energy; and friction, as we
know from everyday experience, always converts mechanical to thermal energy. Their absence, there-
fore, breaks the link between the mectianical and thermal energies, and chey are independent-it's as if
they're in parallel universes!
In summary, when the conditions are satisfied for the Bernoulli equation to be valid, we can consider
s_e parately che mechanical energy and the internal cherrnal energy of a fluid particle (I.his is illustrated in
Example 6 .8); when they are not satisfied, there will be an interaction between these energies, the Ber-
noulli equation becomes invalid, and we must use che full first law of thermodynamics.
Example 6.8 FRICTIONJ,.ESS FLOW WITH HEAT TRANSFER
W~t~r- flows steatlily fi:Qm a large open reservoir through a shon length o_f pipe and a noz_zle. with cross-sectional area.
A ::::.Q,86.4-in / A wel.I~inSi.l_latetl IO kW heater surrounds the pipe. Find the
terdpt;ratµre rise of the water.
.Given: W ~ter tlo~s. [tom a large reservoir through tl1e system shown and disch_a rges to atmosph$!ri!;! pressure, Tb~_b.~ter- is
tQk;W;A4=0.864 m.- _. _ .
3
Find: The temperature rise of the water b~tween points CD a.nd ®· f_ CD ®
f.:<ftt,_ . I I 4 .
S9_luticn1: J ______-~~,,~~ --·'"'· ·
G.Qv.~rning ~quations: p y2 ''
fJ + 2 + gz =~.9.qstant (6.8)
CV
Heater
216 Chapt er 6 Incom pressi ble lnvisd d Flow
(4.13b )
Les V •A =O
=0(4) =0(4) =0(1)
Q-fs-f..,cnr=ffcvepd¥+ fcs(u+pu+ +gz)pv-dA r (4.56)
Ass.u mption s:
Steady flow.
2 Frictio nless flow.
3 Jncomp ressibl e flow.
4 No shaft ,Vi;,r_k , i'lo shear work.
5 Flow along a streaml ine.
6 Unifor m flow at:.each section [a cons~q uence of assump tion (2)].
Under the assump tions listed, the first law of thermo dynam ics for' the CV shown- become s
Q= ks (u+ pu + '; +gz)pV.dA

2
=1 (u+pu+ : +g~)· pV•dA.+1· (u+pu+ v

~,
2
A, ·· 2
2
+cz)pv-dA
For uniform propert ies at (D and ~
Q=~(p V1A1 )(u1 +p1u +~f +.gz1) +(pV2 A2){!t 2+p2v + 1 +gz2)
From conserv ation of m~s. pV1A1 =PV2A 2 =1h, so

. .. [.u2-u1 +.(P?..
.Q=m . V} .
-+,,- +gz2 . )
~-
-
p
.\if2 gz_. s·). ·]·
('ji- +~+
. p
Eqi:' fri<:qo nl~s. irn::ompressible, steady flow, along a· sti:e~ ne,

P v2 . .
; + 2
+g;;,=C OQSli!. nt
Q.=m(1 12-r,i)
Since, for an incomp ressibl e fluid, u2-"1 =c(T2 - T1), tlien
. ,. Q
T2~T 1=-.-.
me·
iii = p:V4A;i
To ffud ·\/;i; write the B.emou:iii equatio n betwee n me ~e surfai::¢ ac.(3) ~d pqint ®·
2 2
P V: P4 V
.c2. + ..2.. +gz3 =-+-4 -+gz. i
2
p 2 p
✓ ft . . . ···.··
V4 = ✓2g(z3-~) = 2>.<32,4~2~ lO ff=25. 4ft/s·
6.4 Ener.gy Grade Line·''and .Hydraulic Gradi! Liire 2:17
m._~J/Vi!Af ;=.~.. 9.~fi&·.x.~Af KQ-..s~ m7~: 1J;n•?·· 'o.i9i,:s1ug/s:

~~;fuif"$•ifo>W!!( l~(>~:g;_:JJi~; ~yµrl~in~s; w,e !:ibJruii
- ·=- ~ t , ~
-.. , • -:,:, "-" .
6. 4 Energy Grad_e Lin(? and Hydraulic Gra'de line

a
We"have learned that for ste;iady, focompressibie; frjctlri!!~~s.~..{1..9}¥, _\Ve ~~y _us~ the~emQulli equati6n,
Eq. .6.8, deriv~d from tQ# mP!PI,Q~m-~qµation! ,and .also Eq~ fI$:1 qei;i:ved. ftpJD Qt_e. e!l.e(gy ~µlltjon:
(6.15)
We also interpreted the thr!:e tenns comprisedj;,f''p~s ~,'.' k.inei:ic,and,pQ~~Qtia}.-~9~rgi.¢s to m.ajce.µp

tJ::ie Jotal mechani¢aJ :~nt;,rgy,, p~r ~it ma~s;_. 6( tq~ .f14id. ]f. we ·divide Eq, tU5 by g , we obtain
#hq:tfier ronn: .. .. .·... . ... .. .. ' . . , ' . .
{6 .16a)
He.~ ff is the total head of the jlow; it meas~ the tota). m,echanicai energy in uni~ pf,meters orfeet. We
wiij learn fo Chapter·s: that .fo. ~ 're;µ flµid (on~with futti\::iri)' this g~l!,~['wiil not'be'·~oti.stab.t but will con;.
tinuousty·de¢rease mvaiue as: met:hafil.cal:e:;n¢tgy is cooverte.d to tp:~mial; in this ·ch~p'ter H is.cpnstant.
We can go one step ·fiirtijc:r fien: _and ~era.Very Jse:(liI &ci,phical ~a_pp!Uii,ch ifwe also define ·t,his to oe the
e,,e~gj, grade ii,re (EGL), .
.....
-·;~·::frif"~\~ ,:"'t~ =; ,~
Tb.is can be J1.1¢asuted using the pi tot (total ,head) nibe (sgowi'l in Fig: 6.3); Pliicing such.a ruoe· in a
fiow .i;rieasures the total presst,ire, Po= p + ½/JV2 , sc;i this will cause the height of.a coh,unn ofthe saijie
jluid..~o tis~ ~o a height h =Pa/ng =p Ipg + Y2 /2g. If qie,ye(ti.callo¢~titjti. ofthe_pitpt tube is z. measured
from some da,tµni (e.g., the ground), t!1e height of.coll.in,m oflluid rneasuie<l. from the datum will then be
fi:-srz·,;:_p/pg_i+,V2 /2g+z=EGL=H. In symnu1ry;.theheight of th.ecoluriu:i, measw:ed from the datum,
a:tta~be9 to a pitot tube d4ectly iodicat~ ~he EGL
· We can·also define ·the hydraulic gi•ade li11e (HGL),
This· can. be· i;rt~~ured ysing the static p~s~ :tap ,(shown in Fig, 6.2q). Placing such a, rube in a flow
ri'.i~~sure:s the. s't~tic p~sllle. p, so t.Qis wil.l ~aµs,e the height.of'a.colUil)D of.the.sqmejlµid -to ~e,toa
bei~~t,:µ<=e,p,/p.t:,.if:,tbe Y.~¢!11 locati61:t:.:~f -~ :~ trip/is, also .a,r,:z, measun;sJ fr_om,soqj,¢· dag),01; ,th~,h~i;ght
21-8 chapter 6 lncompr¢ssible Inviscid Flow
of column of fluid measured.from the datum will then beh+z=p/pg +z=HGL. The height of the col-
umn attached to a static pressure tap thus directly indicates the HGL.
From Eqs. 6.16b and 6 . 16c we obtain
,r2
EGL-HGL= (6.16d)
. .. -2g
·-
which shows that the difference between the EGL and HGL is always the dynamic pressure term.
To see a graphical interpretation of the EGL and HGL, refer to the example shown in Fig. 6 .6, which
shows frictionless flow from a reservoir, through a pipe reducer.
Atall locations the EGL is the same because there is no loss of mechanical energy. Station CD is at the
reservoir, and here the EGL and HGL c.o incide with the free surface: in Eqs. 6.16b and 6.16c
p=O (gage), V=O, and z=zi. so EGL 1 =HGL1 =H=z 1 ; all of the mechanical energy is potential.
(If we were to place a pi tot tube in the fluid at station CD, the fluid would of course jl)Sl rise lo the free
surface level.}
At station(;Vwe have a pilot (total head) tube and a static head tap. The pitot tube's column indicates
the correct value of the EGL (EGL 1 =EGL:!.= H), but somet/zi11g changed between the two stations: The
fluid now has significant kinetic energy and has lost some potential energy (can you determine from the
figure what happened to the pressure?). From Eq. 6.16~. we can see that the HGL is lower than the EGL
by Vf /2g; the HGL at station cr>
shows this.
· From station cr> to station Q) there is a reduction in diameter, so continuity requires that V3 > V2;
hence the gap between the EGL and HGL increases further, as shown.
Station @is at the exit (to the atmosphere). Here the pressure is zero (gage), so the EGL consists
=
entirely of kinetic and potential energy tenns, and HGL4 HGL3 • We can summarize two important
ideas when sketching EGL and HGL curves:
The EGL is constant for incompressible, inviscid flow (in the absence of work devices). We will see in
Chapter 8 that work devices may increase or decrease the EGL, and friction will always lead to a fall in
the EGL.
L Energy grade hne (EGL)
!
ii
ii \, / Hydrau.
. lic
l I / grade
! \ line (HGL)
. I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Datum Cz=.0).
· 6 , 6 .Ene.rgy an.d t,ydrar.dkgrade li1JeS for fricticmle~ flow,
Fig,.
6.6 lrrotational Flow 2'19
2 The HGL is always lower than the EGL by distance v 2 /2g. Note that the value of velocity V depends
on the overall system (e.g .. reservoir height. pipe diameter. etc.), but changes in velocity only occur
when the diameter changes.
6.5 Unsteady Bernoulli Equation: Integration of Euler's

Equation Along a Streamline (on the Web)
*6.6 /rrotational Flow

We have already discussed inutational flows in Section 5.3. These are flows in which the fluid particles
do not rotate (ii>= 0). We recall that the only stresses that can generate particle rotation are shear stresses;
hence, inviscid flows (i.e., those with zero shear stresses) will be irrotational, unless the particles were
initially rotating. Using Eq. 5.14, we obtain the irrotationality condition
VxV=O (6.22)
leading to
aw au_i)u aw_au au_() (6.23}
ay az - oz ax - ax ay
In cylindrical coordinates, from Eq. 5. 16, the irrotationality condition requires that
1 av. iJVo oV. I orVo 1 oVr _ O
iJVr
(6.24)
r a0 o'!; - oz or = r or r iJ0
Vid<!o: An
Bernoulli Equation Applied to lrrotational Flow Example of
In Section 6.2, we integrated Euler's equation_along a streamline for steacly, incompressible, inviscid lrrotationol
Flow
flow to obtain the Bernoulli equation ·
P v2 -
A
-p + - + gz = constant
2
Equation 6.8 can be applied between any two points on the same streamline. In general, the value of
the constant will vary from streamline to streamline.
If, in addition to being inviscid, steady, and incompressible, the flow field is also irrotational (i.e.,
the particles had no initial rotation), so that V x V = 0 (Eq. 6.22), we can show that Bernoulli's equation
can be applied between any and all points in the flow. Then !he value of the constant in Eq. 6.8 is the
same for all streamlines. To illusttate this, we start with Euler's equation in vector form,
- - 1 -
(V - V)V= --Vp-gk (6.9)
p
Using the vec~or identity
- - I - - - -
(V • V)V= V(V · V)-Vx(Vx V)
2
we see for irrotational flow, where V x V = 0 , .that
- - l - -
(V - V)V= 2V(V - V)
-and. Euler' s equation for irrotational flow can be written as

I -- 1,, 1 -
- V.(V · V)
2
=- ?V(V- ) = --V.p-gk (6.25}
p
• This scctio.n mu:r be omined wilhout loss of continuity in lhc text mmcrial.
Co~side~ ~ dis~la:emen~ in the flow _field from position to posi~on + r r ar;

the dis~laceme~t ar is an
arbitrary mfirutes i~al ~splac~ment m any direction. not necessanly along a.streamline. Taking tbe dot
product of dr = d.i.i + dyj + dzk with each of the terms in Eq. 6.25, we have
I .., 1 ,
?V(V-) ·dr=--'ilp·dr-gk-dr
- p
and hence
I .., dp
? d(V-) = ---gdz
- p
or
2
.; : +½d(V )+gdz=O
Integmting this equation for incompressible flow gives

P
-p
vi
+ - +gz = constant (6.26)
2
Since dr was an arbitrary displacement, Eq. 6.26 is valid between any two points (i.e., not just along a
srreamline) in a steady, incompressible, inviscid flow that is also irrotational (see Example 6.5).
Velocity Potential
Section 5.2 provides the necessary backgrpund fot t.lie development of the srream function 1/1 for a t·wo-
dimensional incompressible flow.
For irrotationaJ flow we can introduce a companion function, I.he potential function ff,, defined by
V:= - v -(t, .(§.27)
Why this definition? Because it guaranteei, Lhat any.continuqµs scalar fi.lnction q.,(x,y,z,t) automatically
satisfies d1e irrotationality condition (Eq. 6.22) because of a fundamental identity:3
'V XV= -V X VfJ, = -curl(grad .P) =0 (6 .28)

The inj.nus sign (used in most te:,ctbooks) is inserted simply so that f{> dec~ases in the flow direction
(ana,logpus tq the temperature c;lecri:asing in d1e di~ction of heat flow in heat conduction). Thus,
atP . aef1 a({>
u=- ax· v=- ay' and w=- oz (6.29)
(You can che.c k that the irrotaJionality condition, Eq. 6.22, is satisfied identically.)
ln cylindrical coordinau~s,
_ a _ 1 a -a
V=er -+eo- - ·+.k...,....c (3.19)
· ar r a0 oz
From Eq. 6.27, then, in c;yli.lldrical coordinates
off, .
l iJ¢ . ii¢
V=-- Vo=~-- V,= -;j, (6.30)
r . qr r ae
Bec;ause v x 'vt/J. = O for all¢, dle velocity potential exists only for irrocational flow.
Irrotationalit:y may .b e a valid assumption f9r dlos~ regions; of a flow in which viscous forces are
negligible. (For example; such a ~gion exists ou~ide ~e bound;iry layer in_ the fl?w over a ~ing surface.
and can be analyzed to find the lift produced by the wmg.) The t.qeory for motatmnal flow 1s developed
in tenns ofan imaginary ideal fluid whose viscosity is identically zero. Since, in an irrot:ational flow, the
, That v x V( ) =oi:an easily be deirioos1r.11eil by eicp,mtlmg)nto components,

6.6 lrrotational Flow 221
velocity field may be defined by the potential function rp. the theory is often referred to as potential flow
theory.
All r'eal fluids possess viscosity, but there are many situations in which the assumption of inviscid
flow considerably simplifies the analysis and. at the same time, gives meaningful results. Because of its
4
relative simplkity and mathematical beauty. potential flow hac; been studied extensively.
Stream Function and Velocity Potential for Two-Dimensio nal,

lrrotational, Incompressible Flow: Laplace's Equation
For a two-dimensional, incompressible, irrotational flow we have expressions for the velocity compo-
nents, u and v, in tem1s of both the stream function 1/f, and the velocity potential <P,
avr
u :;:;_ay !)=~ax
ai/1 (5:4)
- . iJqi
It=·-- .- ·
a.r v~~:;
Substituting. for 11 and. v from Eq. 5.4 into the irrotationality condition,
av __ai, = 0. {6.23)
ax ay
,y~ obtain
irlJr iY'l/f . '\12 Q

(6.31)
ax2 + a;f = 1/f =
Substituting for u and v from Eq, 6.29 into the _c ontioµity equation;
iJu + av=O (5.3)

ax ay
we obtain
(6.32)
~qi,tatjons 6.31 and 6.32 i,tre forms of Laplacfs ~qtiatjon-ao equation that arises in many ~as of
the pj:iys ical sciences and enginei;!ring. Any function 1/f ot <p that satisfies Lapl_a ce' s equation represents
a possible t\:VO-climensional, incompte.s sib_i¢, irr.otational flow field.
Table 6 , 1 summarizes the results of our discussion of the stream function and velocity potential for
two dimensional flows.
The saf!le rules (of wh¢n in~ompressibility and i.rTotationality apply, and with the appropriate .fonn
of Laplace's equation) are valid for the stream function and velocity potential when.expresse~ in cylin-
drical coordinates,
v. - ~-
. r-
1 ~,
·
r a0
.. and
and
··. I iJ.¢
~d Vo=---
.. ,, i}fl
"Allyonc. int.crested in n derniled study of potentinl flow th.e ofy inny find [4--6) or intcresL
22'2 Chapter 6 lncompr:es·sible lnvi~~id Flo.w
Table 6.1
plefiriit;ipns of.1p and 4', ahd tpriclitions N~cessary for Satisfying Laplace's Equation
D~finitipn A:hvays satis'fies ... • fi. L 1 ·

- ·
Snos_ es apace cqunuon . ,. a2()+crOV a.t2 ay2 =
2 (·) -0
-
Stream fiinction v, . .. incompressibility: ,., only if irrotationnl:
u.=ay
Olp
iJqF
-v=--
-ax
-
. au ov q2.,, ·iP-qr
-+-= . -· .. . _Q au oi, --' . ifl.,, _ifllff -:-Jl
ax ay oxay dyi).r: · ax i)y axiJx ayay
Velocicy pcitentini tf, ., . -irrotiitfonlilir.y: ... only if incompressible:
. iJ.<P.
._u=. ~ ;~x p= ~ - O)'
di/> av iJu if!-r/J iP-<t, Pl!+ OIJ = _ iflq, _ 2
iJ <J, =O
8.\: - .ay - - axay- ayax = 0 ax .ay oxiJx ayiJy
To Section :S.2 we shciwed tha,t th¢ st:rea:tr) function: ip is constant along any streamline. For
.,, :;:;: constant, diµ-== b and . .·- · · · ·
dip:=fhtr. cl'i;+g"f dji=O'

. iJx iJy
trl-ie siope ofa streamiine'----i'a line of constarttvr-is given by
dy)
ax y,
ilw/4-,
= - ox/ci1 = -
- v v
-;- = ~ (6.34)
A]dn& a line of constant </J, dip= (J and
dA.= 'iJ"rp dx+?if!:-d )"=o ·

.,, ax·•-- . iJy · ··
Consequently, the slope of a potential line - a line ofc;:onStant <J, ~ is given by
t)~=-::1:>=~; (6-35)
(The iast equality of Eq, 6.35 follows-from use of Eq, 6.29..)

· Comparing Eqs. 6.34 and 6.35, we see·thatthe•sippeofa,constantrp'line•atanypoititis the negative
~GiptQc~f of the slope of theconsiartt ¢ line at'iliatpoint; this.mi,a:ns,thii(U,iji,~ o)i.i:qiisianrvrqndconsian_c
::it. 0
:::;;:~,- ~j::i:e:::iirt:m:ti;t:;~1t:;:::1:·•i£::~a1~r:;: of flow
Example 6.1 o VELQ,~l,,Ji¥- .p~Jr~Niii~1,.,

Consider tpe)Jow field·gf,reri·b)"iV':=i'~~ay-\.-wp.~l:e0'il'~oj•,s"" 1 • Sno:w,:wati~§:ileW'iS -irrotatietfai·; O~tehnine the vel~9icy:-1,:>:9t¢n:,e
tiati~tor· thi~'.i'row.
Given : Inco,mpressible Jl.!l),Yd:it1ii},wJU:l 'f ~~~4#·,.W.fi..~,p =Ji:'S::c:'\ .

Find: (a) Whethe.rRyi:i:ijf~~ilQ;"{f¼~~-~~Q~~v
(b) The veloeitS, 'p6(edfifil 1'6i: W~}l9.~;~- .
Solution: [f the flow is irrotationai. i\71J//:~ •0><€heckin'!ffor d1e given flow,
.·
V 2 ip=
a:+ if ( 2
afi(ax---ay -+ [Jjl a,\ -
2 ") . 2) ?
ay =-a - 2 a= 0
so that .the flow is irrotational. As an alternative proof, we can compute the fluid particle rotation (in _the xy plane, the only com-
ponent of rotation is w.):
av iJu Olf/ v = -
Olf/
-
2w-=--- and I ( = i)y . ax
' iJx iJy
iJ
iJ ., ") = - 2 ay
11=-(ax--ay and v= --(a.x2-ay2) = -2a.T
ay ax
so
~~a
2w_ = :..._ a
_-:- = -(~2a.\')- -(-2ay) = -2a + 2a = o_______ _2~
_
ax ay ax i)y
.O nce again, we conc;:li.Jde that the flo,v is irrotational. _Be¢au$e it is irrotational, = ~+
f(y)
. , h . f(y) . atb.
W e~. · .· IS_ an . · ltta,I.).''
..
W!lctjon of y. TIJen ax
.
i)i/J_ p .
V= -2a."I:=--··-. = --[2a.-cy+f(y)]
iJy i);c
· ·· iJJ(y). . df .df - - -·. .. .. .. ·-- .
Therefore, -2ax=
.
-2ax---=----= -2a.T-~, so ..,.... = -0 and/
~
=constanL Thus.
. .. .
<P
i/J= 24-fy + ~onstant·+·---~---......- -~........~-e=,-......c,....=~~
We ajso can Sliow thatlj.nes pf constant 1fi. a.nd·const@t 'ip il:rn -6.t-th:qgonal.
f/l''=rp..2-?Ir @d tp.;:;;;Ji:L"'ty.
.. dy)
For V'::;:: constan~ dl/f = 0 =2l1xdx- 2aydy; hence .,.. =
.
Fo.r ~.-p=constant, di/J=0==2gyt4+2ax dy;
d~
hence~
)u.X lfl'=C
,t,-=sc
y·
.
=~~,
'Fh¢ s,op~ of lines of coilst_a iit qi ·anc:J CQOStant Vi- are tj¢gative ~ciprocals.
Therefore lines Qf c;onstant 4,- are. 0rihog9r1al_tp).in~ of constant W. ·
Elementary Plane Flows

The 1/1 and </J functions for five elementilry two-climensiomil flows-a uniform fl.ow, a source, a sink, _a
vortex, and a doublet-are summarized irt Table 6,2. The v, and 4> functions can be obtained from
the velbciry field for each elementary flow. (We saw in Example 6.10 that we can obtiun q, from u
and. v,)
A unifomz flow of constant velocity parallel to the x axis satisfies the continuiry equation and the
irrotationaliry condition identically. In Table 6.2 we have shown the 1/1 and </J functions for a uniform
flow in the positive x direction.
For a uniform flow of constant magnitude V, inclined at angle a to the x ax.is,
v, = (V cos a)y-(V sin a)x
</> = -(V sin a)y-(V cos a)x
A simple source is a flow pattern in the .,y plane in which flow is radially outward from Ute z ax.is and
symtnetri~al in all directions. Tbe strength, q, of the source is the volume flow rate per unit depth. At any
rad.ius, r, fi;om a source, the tangential velocity, Vo, is zero; the rad.ial velocity, V,,is the volum~ flow rate
per unit depth, q, divided by th~ flow area per unit depth, 2,rr. Thus V, =q/'2,,rrfora-sourc.e . Knowing v,
iincJ v(}, obtaining 1/1 and 1' from Eqs; 5.8 and 6.33, respectively, is straightft>rward.
224 ap te r 6 In co m pr es si bl e In vi sc id F lo w
Ch
T a b le 6 .2
----
E le m en ta ry P la ne Fl ow s
YL
--
--
U ni fo rm Fl ow (p os iti ve x
di re ct io n)
~~O
II 11 11
--s- $ -s-
~~
~
I
II
I
II
'":::--
---
_ y_ u
-- .T
ll = U
v= O
11 r= U y
< /J = -U x -
: 1/J= c3 I
-- '-- ,-- ;1-7 1°~ - 1/J "' Cz
1/J = Ct
I
- r= o ar ou nd an y cl os ed cu rv e
-- I-- <- -,, .,- +- -+ -
I -"I
1 -- il _
-- i- -- ,-
I
- -+- -;- 1--! ·'-- 1-1--- 1- 1/J "' 0
Xrl- , - 1/J "' -C t
-- .- -- -; -- ;- ;- -, - VI = -c2
- +- !- ~- 7° °" +- 1/J "' -C 3
+ So ur ce Fl ow (f ro m or ig in ) t/, = Cz
.,, ,J, ~ c3 ,,.,. ., - ---
t /
IJ f= ..2 _0
2JC ,,
-
I
Yt !;a
ia _ .0 .. _ V o= O </J= -. !L in r I
I
2n: ;---,
.T
,µ == c4 .l 1 -- -+ -- * -; --
O ri gi n is si ng ul ar po in t \ / /
/ q is vo lu m e fl ow ra te pe r
\
\
,
, I
un it de pt h \
,J, = C5 _,,.,. ,,,1J., = C7
-+ r= O ar ou nd an y cl os ed cu rv e ' ...,
--1/J- :;·c-6
Si nk F lo w (t ow ar d or ig in ) t/, =- c2
·7~;;>2,'(r;/·
q
vr=--0
4.K
-- V o= O rp = .!L1ri r
2, r
"' "'- C4 t, \ . ,t, =0
O ri gi n is si ng ul ar po in t
q is vo lu m e fl ow ra te pe r
un it de pt h
\
',
..._
-- - .,
.,; '
I
1/ J= -c s ' ..... ..... _ __ ., , ."t f, = -c 1

r = Oar ou nd an y cl osed cu rv e
·r /J= =- c6
Ir ro ta ti on al Vorte.""
- (c ou nt er cl oc kw is e, ce nt er at
or ig in )
v
. r=
K
--
2,lr
r lr
K K
+ V o = -- - 2 ,/
• Z1 cr
</ i=
O ri gi n is si ng ul ar po in t
K is sµ-englh of !h e vo ne x.
r = K ar ou nd an y cl osed cu rv e
en cl os in g or ig in
r = O ar ou nd an y cl os ed c ur ve no t
+- en cl os in g or ig in
I - 11
Doublet (center al origin) ,,, = -k1
-- IV = ~I
- I\ /\. sin 0
V,= - 2 cos0 1/f=---
I\ I ,, r
Acos0
r
\
·.-ii Vo= --;-sm
/\ . 0 rp=----
r- r
.... - X
I\
... Origin is singular point
/\ is strength of lhe doublet
r = around nny closed curve I
I
, I
I
\
,t
\ - ~
lt '' ,
" -+-
In a simple sink, flow is .radially inward; a sink is a negative spurce. Toe rp· and </J functions for a sink
shown in Table 6.2 are the negatives of lhe corresponding functions for a source flow.
The origin of either a sink or a source is a singular point,.since the radial velocity approaches infinity
as the radius approaches zero. Thus, while an actual flow may resemble a source or a sink for some
values of r,, sources and sinks have no exact physical counterparts. Toe primary value of the concept
of sources and sinks is that, when.combined with other elementary flows, they produce flow panems
that adequately represent realistic: flo\vs.
A flow pattern in which the streamlines are cQncentric circles is a vonex; in afree (irrotarional)
vortex, fluid panicles do not rotate as they translate in circular paths around the vonex center. There
are a number of ways of obtaining the velocity field, for example, by combining the equation of motion
(Euler's equation) and the.Bernoulli equatio.h to eJ.in:tinate the-pressure, Here, though, foi:circulll!: stream~
lines, we have Vr=O and Vo=/(0) only. We !!,lso have previously introduced the tonditj.pn 9f irrota~
tionality in cylindrical coordinates,
1 arVo I avr _ 0
; a;- - ; aii - (6.24)
Hence, using the known forms of V, and Vo, we obtain

.!_ d(rV<?) =O
r dr ·
Integrating this equation gives
Vor = constant
The strength, K, of the vortex is defined as K=21rrVo; lhe dimensions of Kare L 2 /r (volume flow rate
per unit depth). Once again, knowing Vr and Vo, obtaining 1/f and <P from Eqs. 5.8 and 6.33, respectively;
is straightforward. The irrotational vortex is a reasonable approximation to the flow field in a tornado
except in the region of the origin; the origin is a singular point.
The final "elementary" flow listed in Table 6.2 is the doublet of strength A . This flow is produced
mathematically by allowing a source and a sink of numerically equal strengths to merge. In the limit, as
the distance, Ss. between them approaches zero, their strengths increase so the product ql5s/11r tends to a
finite vall!e, /\., which is tem1ed the strength of the doublet.
Superposition of Elementary Plane Flows

We saw earlier that both ,t, and 1p satisfy Laplace's equation for flow that is both incompressible and
irrotational. Since Laplace's equation is a linear, homogeneous partial differential equation, solutions
may be superposed (added together) to develop more complex and interesting patterns of flow. Thus
if,p, ano 1//2 satisfy Laplace's equation, lhen so does 1p3 =1/fi +f//2 • The elementary plane flows are
the.building blocks in this superposition process. There is one note of.c aution: While Laplace;s equation
for t;he stream function, and the stream function-velocity field equations (Eq. 5.3) are linear, the,aemoulli
226 Chapter 6 lncolitpressible Inviscid Flow
e_q uation is not; hence, in the superposition pro·cess we will have 1/13=1/11+1112, ll3=u1 +u2, and
V3 =v, + vi, butp3 "?Pl+ p2! We must use lhe Bernoulli equation, which is nonlinear in V, to find P3·
We-~~n add together elementary flows to try and generate recognizable flow patterns. The simplest
superposition approach is called the direct melhod, in which we try different combinations of elementary
~ows and ~ee w~at kinds of flow patterns are produced. TI1is sounds like a random proces~, but with a
1'.ttle ~xpenence 1t becomes a quite logical process. For example, look at some of the classic examples
hsted m Table 6.3. The source and uniforn1 flow combination makes sense-we would intuitively expect
a source to partially push its way upstream, and to divert the flow around it. The source, sink, and uni-
form flow (generating what is called a Rankine body) is also not surprising-the entire flow out of the
source makes its way into the sink, leading to a closed streamline. Any streamline can be interpreted as a
solid smface because there is 110flow across it; we can therefore pretend that this closed sm;amline repre-
sents a solid. We could easily generalize this source-sink approach to any number of sources and sinks
distributed along the x ax.is, and as long as the sum of I.he source and sink strengths added up to zero, we
would generate a closed streamline boqy shape. The doublet-uniform flow (with or without a vortex)
generates a very interesting result: flow over a cylinder (with or without circulation)! We first saw
the flow without circulation in Fig. 2.12a. The flow with a clockwise vortex produces a top-to-bottom
~ymmetry. This is because in the region above I.he cylinder the velocities due to the uniform flow and
vortex. are·in .the same overall ·direction and lead to a high velocity; hel.ow the cylind!':r they are in oppo-
site directions and therefore le.a d to a low velocity.. As we have· learned, whenever velocities are high.
streamlines will be cl<;>s¢ together, and vice versa..,....,explaining the pattern shoi.vn. More importantly.
from the Bernoulli equation we know that whenever the velocity is high the pressure will be low.
and vice versa~hencci, we can anticipate that the cylinder with circulation will experience a net upward
force (lift)due.to pressure. This appi:oa:ch, oflooking at streamline patterns to see where we have regions
of high or low velocity and hence low or high pressure, is very useful. We will examine these last two
flows in Examples 6 , 11-attci 6 , 1-2s To·e ·last example in Table 6.3;.the vonex pair, hints at a way to create
flows that simulate the presene~ of a· wall or walls: for the y axis to be a streamline (and thus a wall),
simply make sure that any ol;>jects (~.g., a-source, a vortex) in the-positive x quadrants have mirror-inmge
objects in the negative x quadrants; they axis will thus be a.line of symmeuy. Fora flow pattern in a 90°
comer, we need to place objects so that we-havesyrtunetry with'respect to both thex andy axes. For flow
Table 6.3
:Superposition of ~lementary Plane Flows
Source and Uniform Flow (flow past a half-body)
- - q
lff= lffso +lffuf = l/f1 +l/f2 = 2rr 0+ Uy
111=.!!_0+ Ursin0
21l"
<f,=<P,o+<Puf=<P1 +r/J2 = - 2~1n r-Ux
qi= -z:ln r - Urc_o s 0
Sour~.-~d ~ink (e~u&J strength,_sep.anition distan~.e .on ;r axis= 2a)

, ___ .. q 0 q 0
lff =-fllw + 1/fs; = 1Ji1 + 1Ji2 = 21l" I -2~- 2
~-· - ·.Oi
(~,O) . --
r1 _ .
~ • -
~r
rz -
(a,Oi
V
-n-
""
Source. Sink, and Uniform Flow (Oow past a Rankine body)

l/l=l/f,,,+lfl,1+lfluf=l/f1 +l/f2+1/f3
= .!!....0
2,r 1 _.!!....02 + Uy
2,r
'fl= .!!....(0 1 -02) + Ur sin 0
2,r
-~ tf,=tf,,o + 1',i + 'Pu/ =411 +rf,2 + ,f,3
= _.!!....,n
2Jr
r 1 + !!....in r2-Ux
2Jr
rf,= .!!....1n 2-urcos0
21r r1
Vortex (clockwise) and Uniform Flow

K
1/f=l/f,, +lfl,if =1/1 1 +1/12 = Jrln r+ Uy
2
1/f=~lnr+ UrsinO
2a
K
,P =,J,,,+,t,,if =41 1 +rh= 2ir 0-Ux
K
,t, = - 0-Urcos 0
21r
Doublet and Uniform Flow (flow past a cylinder)

/\ sin 0
lfl=ipd+v1-.,f= 1/f1 +'1'2 = ----r-+ Uy
A sinO
. ..
=·~---+ UrsiriB
r
1/f=U(r-;r)sinO
1/f=Ur(l - ~)sinO a = ~
./\cos()
,J,.:.·tf,d + rj,uf =t/J1 +t/J2 = -.--r--Ux
=- /\cos 8 -Urcos0
r .
tf,= -u(,·+ ;r)cos0= -ur(i + ~)cos0

Doublet, Vortex, (clockwise), and .Uniform Flow (flow past a cylinder with circulation)
lfl=vi,1+1/t;,+l/fuf=lfl1 +l/f2+1p'3
/\sinO K
= - - -r-+ Jr ln r+Uy
2
AsinO K
lfl= - - - r - + 2Jr ln r+ Ur sin 0
1/f=lJr(I- a:)sinB+~lnr
,- 2a
<P=tf,,1+t/J,,+</J,,f=t/,1 +<P2+</J3
./\ cos 0
K
=----+-0-Ux
r 21r
/\cos0 K
a=~:K<41raU ,J,-= ---r-+ ,/-UrcosO
2
2
tJ,=-Ur ( l+ ar!- ) cos0+ K/
21
( C<!nrinu~,!)
228 Chapter 6 Incompre ssible Inviscid flow
Table 6.3
Superpos ition of Elementary Plane Flows (Continue d)
Source and Vortex (spiral vortex)
Sink and Vortex
Vortex Pair (equal strength, opposite rotation, separation d .i stnncc on x a;,cis=2il)

K K
V,=1/'ul +wu"
· -
=w, +w..- = --'-In
'µr
r1
2a ·r-,-
+-In
-~ampl e- 6.1'1 FLOW OVER A CYLINDER: SlJPERP0·s1tiON OF. D.OUijlEt AND UNIFQRM Fi;.QW
~Q.!-1(t.WQfdi.rnt;O$tQnal,mcQJD.PieSSible, irrQ~tlona l flow, the supei:positi~m of a doti6let,l!D.P a ururorm flo:w -~presents flow aroµnd.
Jtcif®.:l~¢jlj.i:J:_d¢17..(cD.o.W,Ul t&e sirea}h fuil¢tipn ajlcl v.el9cicy po.(¢#1:iaJ for !bis floy., P.!!!;tifQ.,Fjnq the veloci!:y field~ loc.ate.tbe stag-
::~:~tr::~o::4::~t:t!;~:~:tah;i the Surfa¢e:p~ ~~(j~ ~istriqutio n. lntc,g~!~tl t~ p¢ssq~~-di~trib.uti"~itto ob~~ ili.¢
· '.~ iV~n:_ Two"9iini;ps((!n,al, -incomp,1:e5sible, u:roui.tional flpw·fonm:ct from superposit ion of.a doublet anci- a unif6nn: flow .
._f,in;q: c(!)\ '§ ~ajp fµ.i'j:¢ti,Q.n Md velocity I?otei;itiaj.

:@) ¥eltj"c;:i_cy -ij~l~'. . -
eii;its.
<cf Stagnftti.oi:i p_
(d) <cylinder- surface.
(~) Surface _pressure:- ciistnbl.iti.On. .
to-Drag·to""-~--on the :ci:rcuJar;crliµ,d~r.
. J;) Lififo~-~-qn,-_tb.~:cir!..Ulari;_).'J.inq.~r,
Solution: Stream functions may be added because the flow field is incompressible and irrotational. Thus from Table 6.2 ,
the stream function for the combination is
Asin0 . If'
If'= 'Ifd + rp.,1 = - - -r - + Ur sm 0 ~ . - - - - - - - - - - - - -
The velocity potential is
t/> =<Pd+ <f, rf = - Acos0

---- Ur cos 0,___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
II T
The corresponding velocity components are obtained using Eqs. 6.30 as

8t/> A cos 0
Vr = - -ar = - --?-- + U cos 0
r-
l 8¢ A sin 0 .
Vo= - -;: a,
0
=- --;z- - U sm 0
The velociLy field is
V = V,e, + Voeo = (~ _A_c_o_?s_o_ + U cos0) e, + (- _A_s_~n-0 - U Sin 0) eo ,;.:__________v_

r- r-
Stagnation points are where V = V,e, + V0e0 = 0

Acos0 . . . (
V,.=-~+Ucos0=cos0 U-
A)
,.i _.
. {A
Thus V, =Qwht,n r= vu=.a. Als9,
,.,
v·,o_·= -A-·-·
sin._ 0_ - u· SID,
.,
,-
. 0· = -Sill
. .
-
. 0 (·.u· +-
,-,,
A)
'I'Qus Vo=O-when 0=O,::,r.
Sq~gnationpoints are {r;0)== (a,.0),{a,:,r}. .,_.~---------~~~----~--S_ta_gn_a_11~·o_n_p
__o=m
_-_rs_·.
Nqte that V, = 0 along ,- = a , so this represents flow l).roLind a circuiar cylinder, as shown in Table 6.3. Flow is irtotational, so the
Bemqulli equation may be applied between any two points. Applying the equation between a point far upstream and a point on
the stirface of the cylinder (neglecting el¢vation differences), we obtain ·
Poo U2 p V2
-· -+-·.-=-+---
p 2 p 2
Thus,
Along the surfac~, r .= a, and

? ?A
v- =Vo= · - a:?. -U.
( )2 . ,;
sm-0=4U- sm-0 ? • ,,
siri¢e A= Ua2 • Substituting yields

I ( . , , , _ ,, l., .,
p-poo = -;:,P u--4u- sm~o) =-pU-{I-4 sin,(l)
- 2
ot
Pres~
p-p°"' = 1-4 sin2 0 distri.buiion
1 ui -------------------~--_.:_:_
zP
230 Chapter 6 lncompr;essible lnviscid ·Flow
"l§,:
) i::~ffic;4'otc¢ ~ftjpoff~(;~~~no tlt~J.i,;~~¢am.flClW ~ction. Th~. cµag force
Fo'~ 1~ p;cJA.cos 0 == 12,,- --e pc,.;d0 b cos 0 u-

wij¢re:P lij w·~1¢.rigUi of the C;Ylinder normal to the diagram.
•sifi¢ dl\:::=;'ci.i lO;~.
~SJ,li>s:Uwfuit;p~.pm + ½PU2(1""-,-_A,sfu2 9}, .
F..~? Jo,f 2x ,....P- a;, ah ·cos_ iJ ~Q + fi,,

· Jo 2 - ~ p U 2{1-4'sin2 ri)ab cos .0 de
· ·
~- +P!'!!:cgi;-sin•0]·..._.2,r-o~.- ~}_.
L.
k (/ii:j.fJ siti 072r. +~p-· uiab~ sin3 el iir
. JO i ·-- 3. . Jo
·b;"c,\a/tj·"'-~ .....,...a=--'-=-...,..,.,....:_.a......,e=s---::....,_---~~,,...._~------.:.F~o
-~~~::~!;.::,to::Iit,n9frn~ :to:.the frees:.;trearn flow di.ret;;tipn. (By convention, positive lift is an µp,v!lfd'foi1:e.)
FL==-1·.·p.dA(~s~n0)==~ (~pa,d0-bsin0
.A Jq
.irr:t~,:~r'illl~l'!ltii:,.x~1s\!!l,i,t,1i!!!lN}§ii!'t!\P<!~"''<l'\"<'l•li>!WIILET,
· "1lfi'.9:t,i~.~~tl~rt)¢U~igp~!~~~~~~~~ .(~¥.1~~~alk~~~"•;~~$}~~e9?os~tfo~ ·of.a<cio~))J«:c~;a;unµ'9~ ftov.r; fM~
1 ~m: ;.v?rtex repte~
7
s~~'Jffi~~g5y,~atp;µ9:tJ1;a;:~w:;µ1a;r,~luii;l.~' Y'.'1_tli:,"'~-Qlati9:n: Qlj~n,th~- stream ·.f unction ,and·veloc1ty potential.for-@s"::f low pattern.
il~fttE~fit=?:t~::~~:i~:~i~:=~~:::t.:t·::"tm
.·,:::;:=:~:::t•ot now,- • 'ilio<,J'!p@.ib1... ;,,.,.,.npn;u; 1m,.,,.,,..,,.,.;~•'l'h i~)i,.~1~1; •• •~iiif"@.flOw. =d ·~
Solution: Stream functions may be added because the flow field is incompressible and irrotational. From Table 6.2, the stream
function and velocity potential for a clockwise free vortex are
K
.,, u =-lnr
'"! 2,r
Using the results of Example 6. I l, the stream function for the combination is
l/f = 1/Fd + lfFuf + /ffu
1
J\sin0 K
Ip= - - - - + Ur sin 0 + -In r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
r 2,r ·
The velocity potential for the combination is
tp = <µd + 'P,,[ + <fl/u
J\cos0
</1= - - K
- - - U r cos O+-0,___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
r · 2,r
The corresponding velocity components are obtained using Eqs. 6.30 as
a,p
A cos 0
V, = - - = - - - ? - + U cos 0 (l)
ar r-
I a,J, J\ sin 0 . K (2)
V o = - - - = - -2-.--Usm0---
r a0 ,- 2icr
The velocity field is
V = V, e, + Vo eo
J\ cos 0 ) _ A sin 0
v
-
V= (
---?-+Ucos0 e,+ ( -----Usm0---
. K ) _ .
eo
r- r 2;,rr
Stagnation points are located where V =V, e, + Vo e0 =0. From Eq. 1,
1\
cos 0
V,= ---?-+Ucos0=cos0
r-
( U----=, 1\)
r-
Thus V, =0 when,-= ..,/Alu= a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _C_y_lin_d_e_r_s_u_rf_a_c_e
The stagnation points are located on r=a. Substituting into Eq. 2 with r=a,
Asin0 . K
Vo=-----Usrn0---
a2 2,ra
A sin 0 . K
= -----Usm0---
A/U 2.Jz-a
Vo=-2Usin0-_!!___
2,ra
Thus V 0 =0 along r=a when
·0= - -
Sill
.
K-
41rUa
or - . -1
0 -Sill -K]
[- -
4,cUa
Stllgnation points: r==a 0=sm-

• 1[ - k
rcUa
] Stagnation points
4
As in Example 6 . 1 I, V,=O along r=a, so this flow field once again represents flow around a circular cylinder, ~ shown in
Table 6.3. For K = O the solution is identical to that of Example 6.11.
The presence of the free vortex (K > 0) moves the stagnation points below the center of the cylinder. Thus the free vortex alters
the vertical symmetry of the flow field. The flow field has two stagnation points for a range of vortex strengths l::,etw~n-. K =0 -
and K=41rUa. .
A single stagnation point is located at 0= -rc/2 when K =4,rUa.
E:'en with the fl'l!e vorte~ present, '!1e flow field is irrotationa l, so the Bernoulli equation may be
applied between ~y two pomrs._ Applying the equation between a point far upstream and a point on the
sui::face of the cylinder we obtam
u-
Poo u2 p v2
- + - 2 +gz=- +-+g-
P p 2 <-
Thus, neglecting elevation differences ,
.A,Ibng•. th·e surface r = a aiicl Vr == O, so

2
2
V =VJ= (-2Usin0 -_!£_)
21ra
and
V)
(U
2
=4si11 2 2K
0+-- sin 0+ K2
., .,
,rUa 4n:- U2a-
Tous
p=.poo+- 2-pu- I ., (1 - 4. sm-"0 - -2K . K2

·uStn0-'- '>ri'>
,r a
.,
)
p(0)
41r-u-a.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - -
Drag is the force componen t parallel to \:he freestteam flow direction. As in Ex;unple 6, 11, the drag forte is given by
Fo=l-p df\ cos0= {2,r -pad0bc os0
,, lo
since dA = a d0 b. where b is the length of the cylinder normal to the diagram.
Comparin g pressure distributio ns, the free vortex contribute s only to the terms containing the factor K. The-c6ntri butio11 of
~ .ese t¢qns to the drag force is
F o1 •
r ,-, -
1 p.1;1-
-12,i: (
o
2K __ . _ - .
- ; - , SID
Kua
0+ K)
2
., r,.,
4 ,r-u-a-
., ab COS 0. d0 (
3)
2
2
F0 2K _ sin2 0]2.« K _ • ]-2,o-
- -. .ab--- - + .,,;-, ,,absm~
. -- . 1• . .= - =O. Fo
.!_pU2 nUa 2 0 4n:-u--a- 0 ...--- ------ ------ ---~- ---'-- -----= -
·2
Lift is the force componen t normal to the freest)::e!lffi flmv direction. CTJpward f<;>rce i:S defined as positive lifL) The lift force is
given by
FL= 1-pdAs~ n0= -pqd0bs iil0 12,;
Comparin g pressure .distributio ns, the free vortex contribute s oo,ly to the tenns containing the factor K . The. coptributi on of these
~enns ~p_"tb.e lift force is
~
F =
"}_pU2
1:zx(?K
. 0
---sin0 +
Jt-Va
K
2
"U2.,
4~- · -a-
) absin0d(}
2
2K
== - - 12,r ab s_.m-0.r,i.Q
., + __.,,t p ., 12G ab sm,. .-0,d0f(i
n,C/a o -4· n .- . a- o
re
2K_b __ sm
;;:: ~ ~ - - -
. .,., -- _ ._. _ ].z;,
n]-2,r . ~.&2b·
2
.
cos _ ""(fl~'· 0
nU 2 4 .o 4,r-- ·. -a: ·0
Fq = 0 2Kb-[21Z"] ~ 2~b
1 ,., -n U 2 ti
-pu-
2 . -
Then FLf. =pUKb,___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __FL
The circulation is defined by Eq. 5.18 as

r= f ii-ds
Oh the cylinder surface, r=a, and V = Vo e0 , so
r= o 2,,-( -2Usm K) eo · ad0eo

. {}---
1 2,,- 2aa
12,,.
1
=-
O
2Uasin()d{}-
r=-K _______________________
o
K
-d0
27l"
C_.._rr_c_u_la_u_·o_n
Substituting into the expression for lift,

FL=pUKb=pU( ~t}b= -pUrb
or the lift force per unit length of cylinder is
FL
h b
b == -puri-.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
in a comer whose angle is a fraction of 90° (e.g., 30°), we need to place objects in a radially symmetric
fashion.
Because Laplace's equation appears in many engineering and physics applications, it has been
extensively studied. We saw in Example 5.12 that Laplace's equation is sometimes amenable co a fairly
simple numerical solution using a spreadsheet. For analytic solutions, one approach is to use conformal
mapping with complex notation. It turns out thaL any continuous complex function/(z} (where z =x+ iy,
and i= v'=T) is a solution of Laplace's equation, and can therefore represent both ,p and 1/f. With this
approach many elegant mathematical results have been derived [7-10). We mention oaly two: the circle
theorem. which enables any given flow [e.g., from a source at some point (a,b)] to be easily transformed
to allow for the presence of a cylinder at the origin; and the Schwarz-Christoffel theorem, which enables
a given flow to be transformed LO allow for the presence of virtually unlimited stepwise linear boundaries
(e.g., the presence on the x axis of the silhouette of a building).
· Much of this analytical work was done cemuries ago, when it was called "'hydrodynamics" instead
of potential theory. A list of famous contributors includes Bernoulli, Lagrange, d' Alembert, Cauchy,
Rankine, and Euler [I I]. As we discussed in Section 2.6, the theory immediately ran into difficulties:
In an ideal fluid flow no body experiences drag-the d' Alembert paradox of 1752-a result completely
counter to experience. Prandcl, in 1904, resolved this discrepancy by describing how real flows may be
essentiaUy inviscid almost everywhere, but there is always a "boundary layer" adjacent co the body. In
this layer significant viscous effects occur, and the no-slip condition is satisfied (in potential flow theory
the no-slip condition is not satisfied). Development of this concept, and the Wright brothers' historic first
human flight, Jed to rapid developments in aeronautics starting in the 1900s. We will srudy boundary
layers in detail in Chapter 9, where we wiU see that their existence leads to drag on bodies, and also
affects the life of bodies.
An alternative superposition approach is the inverse method in which distributions of objects such
as sources, sinks, and vortices are used to model a body [12]. lc is called inverse because the body shape
is deduced based on a desired pressure distribution. Both the direct and inverse methods. including three-
dimensional space, are today mostly analyzed using computer applications such as Fluem [13] and
STAR-CD [14].

In this chapter we have:
✓ Derived Euler's equations in vector form and in rectangular, cylindrical, and streamline
coordinates.
✓ Obtai~ed Bern_oulli's equation by integrating Euler's equation along a steady-flow streamline,
and discussed its restrictions. We have also seen how for a steady, incompressible flow throu~h
a str~ai:n tube the first law of thermodynamics reduces to the Bernoulli equation if certain
restrictions apply.
✓ De~ned the static, dynamic, and stagnation (or total) pressures.
✓ Defined the energy and hydraulic grade lines.
✓ *Derived an unsteady flow Bernoulli equation, and discussed its restrictions. .
✓ *Observed that for an irrotational flow that is steady and incompressible, the Bernoulli equa-
tion applies between any two points in the flow.
✓ *Defined the velocity potential ,1, and discussed its restrictions.
We have also explored in detail two-dimensional, incompressible, and irrotational flows, and
learned that for these flows: the stream function 1/f and the velocity potential ,f, satisfy Laplace's
equation;,,, and ,J, can be derived from the velocity components, and vice versa, and the iso-1 i nes
of the stream function 1/f and the velocity potential 4, are orthogonal. We explored for sue~ flows
how to combine potential flows to generate various flow patterns, and how to determine the
pressure distribution and lift and drag on, for example, a cylindrical shape.
Note: Most of the equations in the table below have a number of constraints or limitations-be sure ro
refer to their page numbers for derails! ·
Useful Equations
The Euler equation for DV - (6. l) Page 199
incompressible, inviscid flow: p-=pg-Vp
Dr
The Euler equation (rectangular ( 011 oil Oil 011) op Page 199
coordinates): p -+u-+v-+1v - =pg,:-- (6.2a)
i)( iJx i)y i}z ax
p ( -+11-+v-+w
av iJv av av) ap
- =pgy-- (6.2b)
ar ax i)y i}z i)y
p ( -+11-+v-+
iJw aw i)w w-
aw) ·=pg,--
iJp
(6.2c)
ar ax iJy iJz oz
Uie Euler equation (cylindrical (av, av, v 0 av, av, v~) . ap Page 199
pa =p - - + V , - + - - + V = - - - =pg,-- (6.3a)
coordinates): r iJt ar r iJ0 i}z r iJr
_ ( av0 iJV0 Vo avo V iJVo V, Vo) = _ .!_ iJp
pao - p at + V, or + r i)0 + ' iJz + r pgo r iJ0 (6.3b)
pa.=p (av=
- + V av,
, - +Vo
- av= av=) ap
.' ar or r -iJ0
+ V zi}z- =pg~--
. i}z
(6.3c)
"These topics apply to secuons that inlly be omitted without loss of continuity in !he text material.
Reference s 235
Table (Continue d)
The Bernoulli equation (steady, P vi (6.8) Page 203.
incompress ible , inviscid, along - + - + gz = c ons tant
p 2
a streamline ):
Definition of total head of a flow: P vi (6. 16a) Page 217
- + - + z= H
pg 2g
Definition of energy grade P vi (6. I 6b) Page 217
line (EGL): EGL= -+-+ z
pg 2g
Definition of hydraulic grade line (6. I 6c) P age 217
HGL=.f!_ + z
(HGL): pg
Relation b etween EGL, vi (6. I 6d ) Page 218
HGL, and dynamic EGL-HG L= -
2g
press ure:
Definitiop of stream 01/f a,p (5.4) Page221
LI=- v= - -
function (2D, iJy ox
incompres sible flow):
Definition of velocity potential a,p ot/J (6.29) Page 221
u=-- v= - -
(2D irrotationa l flow): ax iJy
Definition of stream function 1 01/f 01/f (5.8) Page 221
V - - - and Vo = - -
(2D. incompres sible flow , r - r iJB or
cylindrica l coordinate s):
Definition of velocity potential a¢
V=-- and
l iJ¢
Vo=---
(6.33) Pa$e221
(2D irrotationa l flow, cylindrical r or r ae
coordinate s):
1. Shaw. R., "The Influence of Hole Dimensions on Sw.tic 9 . Kni-amcheti. K., Principles of /deal-Fluid A erodynamic s.
Pressure Measureme nt5," J . F/11i<-f Mech., 7, Pan 4, April 1960. New York: Wt.Icy. 1966.
pp. 55~564. 10. Kirchhoff, R.H., Pot!!nrial Flows: Computer Graphic Sqlu•
2. Chuc. S . H .• "Pressure Probes for Fluid Measurement." Prog- rions. New York: Marcel Dekker. 1985.
ress in Aerospace Scie11ce, 16, 2, 1975, pp. 147-223.
11. Rouse, H., and S. Ince, History of Hydraulics. New Yock:
3. United Sensor Corporation, 3 Northern Blvd., Amherst. Dover. 1957.
NH 03031 .
12. Kuethe. A. M., and C.-Y . Chow, Foundation s ofAerodyn.a m-
4 . RobertSon, J. M., Hydrody11am ics i11 Theory• and Appficarion. ics: Bases of Aerodynam ic Design, 4th ed. New Yock:
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Ha ll, 1965. Wiley. I 986.
5. Streeter, V . L .• f'lmd Dynamics. New York; McGraw- 13. Fluent. Fluent Incorporate d, Centerra Resources Park, l 0 .Cav-
Hill, 1948. endish Co urt. Lebanon, NH 03766 (www.fluen Lcom).
6 . Vallentine, H. R., Applied Hydrody11a,i1ics. London: Butler- 14. ST1-1R-CD, Adapco, 60 Broadhollo w Road, Melville. NY
worths, 1959. ll747 (www.cd-a dapco.com) . ·
7 . Lamb, H., Hydrodyna mics. New York: Dover, 1945.
8. Milne-Tho mson, L. M., Theoretical Hydrodynam ics, 4th ed.
New York: MacmilJan, 1960.
236 <sh~pfer:§ Incompressible Inviscid Flow
Euler's Equation 6. 7 In a two-dimensional frictionless, incompressible

6.1 An incompressible frictionless flow field is given by (p= 1500 kg/m 3 ) now, llte "elocity field in meters per second is
\l=(A't+By)i+(Bx-A y)i, whereA=2s- 1 nnd B=2s-•. and Ille given by V=(A\'+By)i+(Bx-Ay )]; the coordinates are measured
coordinar~ are measured in meters. Find lhe magnitude nnd direction in meters, nnd A=4s-• and B=2s- 1• The pressure is p(O) =
of the acceleration ofa fluid particle at point (x,y)=(2,2) . Find the =
200 kPn al point (x,y) (0.0). Obtain an expression for the pressure
pressure gradient at the same point, if g = -g] nnd the fluid is water. field. p(x,y) in terms of p 0 • A. and B, lind evalunte at point
6.2_A velocity field. inn fluid ,vit!_1 density of 1000 kg/ml is given (x,y)= (2,2).
by V=-{-=Ax+-Qy)ri+(A y+Bx)u. where A =2 s- 2 nnd B= 1 5 -2 6.8 Consider n two-dimensional incomp!'Cssible flow nowing
x and.y nre in meters, and t is in seconds. Body forces are negligible'. downward ngainst a plnte. 1l1e velocity is given by V=Axi-Ayf.
Evah,iate· VJJ. ·a t point (:i-;.>•) = ( 1, 1) i:it t = 1 s. where1\ =2·s- 1 and x andy are in meters. Determine general expres-
sions for the acceleration and pressure .gradients in the x and y
6.3 The ·x- coriiponcn.t of vel~ity in nn incompressible flo.w field
is given by u ;:;:.Ax,whereA =2 s- 1 ilhd the coordinntes are measured
directions. Plot the pressure gradient along the plnle from y = 0 to
in meters. The pressu~ lie point (.i:;y) = (0, 0) is Po= 190 kPn gage.
y = 3 m and the pressure gradient along: the centerline from x = 0
tox=3 m.
The density is p = 1.50 kg/ml· an_d ll1e z axis is veiticnl. Evnluate 111e
simplest possible)' component of velocity. Calcula.t~ the fiuid accel- 6.9 An incompressible liquid with n density of 900 kg/m3 a:nd neg- _Q
eration nnd determine the pressure gradient al point (x,y) = (2, j ). ligible viscosity flows steadily through a horizontal pipe of constant
Find the pressure dislribution nlong the positive x axis. diameter. In a porous section of length L = 2 m, liquid is removed at a
variable l':!te along the length so lbot the uniform-ox.ial velocity in the
6._4 Consider the flow field '>';ith the velocity given·by V = 3i+St]+ pipe is u(x)= ue--<IL. where U=20m/s. Develop expressions for
sPi. where 1,he v~locicy is in mis and tis in seconds. The fluid density and plot the acceleration of a fluid pnrticle along the centerline of
.is 800 .kg/rri3 nnd gravity nt_ts in lhe negative :c: direction. Detennine (he porous sec.l ion and the pressure gradient ·along ll1e centerli ne.
:the vel~ity, ~ccelemtion, anc! pressure gradient of the fluid at one Evaluate the oullet pressure if l11e pressure at lhe inlet 10 the porous
set:o.n d time increments from time = O. 1 to time= 5 seconds. section is 50 kPn gage.
6.5 CoQsider the flow field with the velocity given by V =4yi+ 3.v: 6.1 O Consider a now of water in pipe. Whatis the pressure gradient
where the velocity is in flls and the coordinates are in feel. The fluid required to nccelerate the waler at 20 ft/s2 if the pipe is (a) horizontal.
density is I .5 slug/ft3 and gravity acts in the negative y direction. (b) vertical will1 the wnter nowing upward, and (c) vertical with the
Determine general expressions for the ncceleraLion and pressure gra- water flowing downward. Explain why the pressure gradient depends
dienL Plot the acceleraoon and pressure gradient in they dire<;tion for on orientation and why the pressure gradient differs in sign between
x=O and x=2 ft. case (b) and case (c).
Q .6.6 The. velo':ity field ~or a plane source lo~a~ed ~istance h = I ro ~.11 The velocity field for a plnne vonex sink is given by
-atibve ·an infinite wall nltgned along the x axis IS given by V =(-q/2trr)e,+(K/2tr r)io, where q-;;,-2 rnl/s/m and K= 1
ml /s/m. The fluid density is 1000 kg/ml. Find the acceler-
V= q ~ (xi+(y-h)J] ation at (l,Q), (l,1!'/2),. and (2., 0). Evlll_ullle 'vp ,.mq~t the sn.me
'.f#.[-?+,(y...-n)·J conditions.
·- . )'1_j-1
+ . - -.q· - .,. [xi-+(y+h .
2n(..\~+ (y+h)-] 6.12 An incompressibJe· liqu_id with negligibJe·viscosicy and densily · 1-~f.
p.= 1.75 slug/ft' flows steadily through a horizontal pipe. TI1e pipe
3 cross-Seftion area linenrly varies from 15 in. 2 to 2.5 in.2 · over a length
wlier.e q=2m3 /s/m. the fluid density is 100P.kg/m mid body
f!m:es are n~gligible. Oerive expressions for the velocity ~d accel- of JO feec. Develop an expression for and plot the pressure gradient
eration· ·o f a fluid particle that moves akmg the wall. and· plot' from and pressure versus positi.o n nlong llte pipe, if the inlet centedine
x=:0 io x=;= +H>h. Verify that the velocity and accelerntion normal velocity is 5 ft/s .and inlet pressure is 35 psi. What is ll1e exit ptes-
td,th.e,w.hll are zero. Plot the pressure gradient apI ax along the wall. sure? Him: Use n;lation
]s-.Llu:::-,P:~ssµ.re gra4ient ~oog the wall adverse (does it oppr;,se fluid
motion) or.,ni:il?
011 I o
I{ -·:;=: --(112)
y i)x 2ox ·
6 .13 Consider wa_i«er ·flowing in a circulnr section of a two-

dimensional chann:e l. Assume the velocity is uniform across the
T
h
chl!DDel'at 12 m/s. The pres~ure-is 120. kPa at centerline (point I).
Detenn!ne the pressures at point 2 and 3 for the 1;:nse of (a) flow in
X ibe_ ho?zont~ _Plan~ ;1,ml.. (b): flow in.the vertical plarie with gravity
acun~,m lhe.d1rect1on pf '.?.t.Q 3.
0
P6.6
Problems 237
Plot the pressure gradient through the nozzle and find its maximum
absolute value. If tlle pressure gradient must be no grea~ than
7 MPa/m in absolute value; how long would the nozzle have-to be?
6.19 Consider Problem 6. I 6 with ihe diffiiser directed µpwari:L g
Assuming that the flow is unifonn at each section, derive and
plol the acceleration of a fluid particle for an illlet speed of
v, = 12 m/s. Plot the pressure gradient through the diffuser, and ford
its maximum value. If Ille ptessure gradient mus~ be no·greater: thaii
20 kPn/m, how long would the diffuser have to be?
3 6.20 A rectangular computer chip floats on a, thin Ill}'~ of•:afr. bl
P6.13 /r =-0.5 mm thick~ above II porous surface. Toe chip width is
b=40 mm. as shown; Its length. L, is very long in the directio_n per-
6~14 Consider a tom:ido as air moving- in a circuhrr pattern in the pendiculnrto the diagram. There is no flow in the z direction. Assume
horizontal plane. If the wind speed i_i; 100 mph and tl1e diame1er of flow in the x direction in the gap under the chip is uniform. Aow is
the tornado is_ 20.0 fl, cleieanine ilje radial pressure graclienL If it is incompressible, and frictional effects may be neglected. Use a soit-
_di:sire_d to n:ioclel llle tornado usirig water in a 6 in. diame1er tube, ably chosen-control volume ro show that U(x) = qx/h in the gap;.Flll.d
what speed is needed 10 give th(} s:ime r:idial _pressure gradient? a general expression for the (20) ac_celeration of a fluidcparticle in.lhe.
gap in terms of q, h, x. and y. Obtain an expression for the:p~
Q 6_.15 A,_ nozzle for an incompressible, inviscid flujd of density
gradient ap/ iJx. Assuming atmospheric pressure-on. tlie cllip.upp:er-
0
p .-==_ l.000 kg/m3 consists of a _hllrizontal converging-.sec_lion of pipe.
Al the inlet the diameter is D 1 = 100 mm, and at the outlet the.diam- surfnce, find an expression for the net pressure force_. oii'_ilie~p;
eter is Do= 20 mm. The nozile length is L= 500 mm, ;µid the_ dinma is it direc1ed upward or downward? Expliµn~ Rm:i ihe required:flow
eter decreases linearly with distance x along the notile. Derive and rate q(m3/s/m 2 ) and the maximum veiocit}\ if the mass· pet writ
plot the -acceleration of a fluid particle, assuriiing uniform· flow at length of the chip is 0.005 kg/m. Plot·the pressuredism"buticmas·part
each section. if the speed at the inlet is_V, = I mis. Piot ll1e pressure of your explanation of the direction of the:,net force,
gradient tl1rough the nozzle, nnd find its rrinximum absolute value. lf l------b------1
the p~surc gradient must be no greater than 5 MF'a/m in absolute t, "Chap•
value. how long would the nozzle have to be?
_Q 6.1 6 A diffuser for an incompressible, inviscid flu_id of density I "'J ,- . n- f/ Porous surface
p = 1_000 kg/m3 consists ofa horizontal diverging section of pipe. Al
ttie iniet ll1e diameter is D; = 0.25 m, an.cl at the outlet the diameter is
, tttfttttrbttftrtttt
Uniform now of air, u q C.X)
b 0 = O.7 5 m. The diffuser length is L = l m. and the diameter increases
1>6.70
linearly with distancex along the diffuser. Derive and plot the accel-
eration otn· fluid particle, 3$SUming unifortn flow at each section, if 6.21 Heavy weights can lie moved with relative·ease·on air cushions
the speed at_ the inlet is V; = 5 m/s. Plot the pressure gradient tlrrough by using a load pallet as shown. Air is -supplied from the plei;ium
the cjiffuser. and find its mn.~imiim value. Ifihe p~sure gradient must through porous surface AB. It enters the gap vertically at unifoTTJl
be no greater tl~an 2$ kPa/ m, ho,v lorig would ll1e diffuser have to be? speed, q. Once. in the gap, all air flows in the positive x qire¢tion
6. 17 A iiqujd layer sep;ll.lltCS ~WO plane surfaces as shown. The (there is no flow l!,Cross the plane at x = 0). Assume air flow _ ¢!~- m.
lower surface is srntionary; the upper surface moves downward at gap is incompressible and uniform at ench.cross_se_cti.Qn, with.speed
constnn_t speed V. The moving surface h_ll,!i WidtJ1 "'· perpendicular u(.\'.), as shown in _the enlarged view. Altho_ugh -.the g;iji is na:i:t.qw
10 the plane of ll1e diagram,:ancl w>> L. The incompressible liquid (/1 « L), neglect frictional effects as Ii first approximation. -(Jse a:suiJ~-
layer, of density p, is squeezed from l:>etween the surfaces. Assume ably chosen control v.olume to show that uC-c:Y;::".·q;tc/kin the-gap, ,Cak,
the fl<:>w is uniform at nny c;:ross section and neglect viscosity as a first culale [Qe acceleration of a flµid pa:rtide iri the
gap_ Evaluaie .dii:: .
approximation. Use a s1,1itably chosen control volume to show that pressure gradient, iJp/iJx. and skewl! i4~·pressure distribution -within
u= Vx/q within the gi;tp, where l?.=.bo-Vl. Obtain an algebraic the gap. Be sure to indkate_ the pressure ll! ,i:= L.
~prcssion for the accelemtio.n of a fluid.p:u:ticl~ located at x. Deter-
mine the pressure gradient, i)j,/iJx, in the liquid layer. Find the pres-
sure distribution, p(;r). Obtain.ail expression for _the net pressure force
that acts on the upper (moving) fla.t s11rface.
1-L~1 'Plenum q
I_I L _ l\ir_J!Upply .l,. -

>' ILlqu~d}ql i, ·
/1 I u~>~ _e--
P6.17 "
6.18 Consider Problem 6.15 with _the nozzle direc_ted upward.
EL P6.21
I
.
m
AJ;sl!,Jl)ing_d~1:1t lf)e _flow is uniform each sec;ti,on, derive and plo_L 6 '. 2? _The y component Of velocity iii a tw~ensiorutl m#:i~ .bJ_
ih~ 4¢_cel~Q1ti.on of Ii _fJ1,1id. pni::ticle for nil inlet sp~.e4 of Vr=a 2 m/s. press1tile flow field is gh•en by v = ~-Azy, where u iiUn mis; ih~ ·
·coordinntes
. .aic measun:c;I
· .in•meiers, · - - A = 1 m-• · s-1 . Th
·: · ··and_ . no
- ere 1s . points (x.y) :e, (0. l), (0,2). and (0,3). Estimate the radius of curva-
vel~ty comR~nent ~-r vannn°.n 1n.thez direction. Calculate the nccel- ture of the streamlines passing through these points. What does the
emnon-of 11. fluid particle m pomt (x.,y) = ( l, 2). Estimate the radius of relation among the three points and their radii of curvature suggest
c~rvnrure of the strenmline passing through this poinL Plot the to you about the now field? Verify this by plotting these streamlines.
strenni.line ancl sho,v both the velocity vector and the acceleration [Hint: You will need to use an integrating factor.]
vector.o~ the ploL (Assume the simple.st form of the x corn onem
of velocny.) p
The Bernoulli Equation
6.23 The ~elocity field fora plane d_oublct is given in Table 6.2. Find 6.28 Water nows al n speed of 25 ft/s. Calculate the dynamic pres-
an expression for the pressure gradient at nny point (r.0). sure of ll1is flow. Express your answer in in«ches of mercury.
_Q 6. 24 Tomodel the ve!ocity distribution in the curved inlet section ofa 6.29 Plot the speed of air versus the dynamic pressure (in m.illi- I · -I
water channel.- the radius of curvature of the streamlines is ex d
. /'> A . . . presse meters of mercury), up to a dynamic pressure of 250 mm Hg.
as R= LRo -..>•· . s an :ipprox1ma11on, ns_sume the water speed along
6.30 Water flows in a pipeline. Al n point in the line where the dirun-
ench streai:'1:11~e 1~ V=lOm/s. Fmd an expression for and plot the
eter is 7 in., the velocity is 12 fps nnd the pressure is 50 psi. At a point
pressure d1stnbut10n from y=.0 to th«e tunnel wall at y=L/2. if the
40 ft away the diameter reduces 10 3 in. Cnh:ulate the pressure here
ceriterline.gnge._p res_slll'e is 50.kP.a, L=.15 mm. and Ro =0,2 m . Find
when the pipe is (a) horizontal, (b) vertical with flow downward, and
the -v alue of V for which llie wall stnfic pressure becomes 35 kPa.
{c) vertical with the flow upward. Ell:plain why mere is a difference in
the pressure for the different situations.
!, 6.31 In a pipe 0.3 min diameter, 0.3 m 3 /s of water are pumped up a

hill. On the hilltop (elevation 48). the line reduces to 0.2 m diameter.
If the pump maim.ains a pressure of 690 kPa at elevation 21, calculate
the pressure in the pipe on the hilltop.
6.32 A jet of nir from n nozzle is blown at right angles against a wall
in which.two pressure taps are located. A manometer connected to the
tap directly in front of me jct shows a head· of 25 mm of mercury
~
~ '~
above atmospheric. Detennine the approll:imnte speed of the air leav-
ing ll1e nozzle if it is at -10°C and 200 kPa. Al the second tap a
-------· Lx _____,_I__ manometer indici)tes n head of 5 mm of mercury above atmospheric;
what is the· approximate speed of l11c air l11ere?
P6.24
6.33 The inlet contraction and test section of n laboratory wind tun-
6.25 Repent Example 6.1. but with the somewhat more realistic nel nre shown. The nir speed in the test section is U = 50 m/ s. A total-
assumption tl1at the flow is similar lo a free vortex (irrotational) pro- head tube pointed upstream indica1es that the stagnation pressure on
file, \10 =cfr (where c is a consmnt). as shown in Fig. P6.2~. In going me _l!!!il secti1;m centerline is IO mm of water below atmospheric. The
sp, prove th!).t the flow rate. is given by Q = k.,faii; where k is laboratory is maintained at atmospheric pressure and n temperature of
-5°C. Evnlunte ll1e dynamic pressure on. the \)entedi)le of the wind
k=wln r~)
(r,
~
tJ.mn~I t~t sec.tio11: _C ompute the static pressure at the same poinL
Quahtauvely comp~ ll1e static pressure al the tunnel wall with that
at the centerline. Explain why the two may not be identical.
illld -w is-the-depth_of the benp.
Flow
~
J ~50m/s
r1 r2
V_i
P6.,25
_Q 6.26 Using the nn~yses of Exl1Jllple 6.1 and Pr~blem 6.25, plot _the 6.34 . l\tfnintenance
. ·a1 . WQrk
. . on
. .h igh-pressure
. hydrauli
. c systen1s
..-, .
~
discrepancy (percent) between the·flow rotes.obtamed from assuming ~quires spec1. prec:muqlls. 1\srr,all ieakcnn ~ult in a hi Ooh-speed
uniform flow and the f:ree v.o nex (irrotational) profile as a function Jet of hydraulic fluid-thill cnn peiieuiue I.he skin and
(th r. ·
•
· · bl · , · · ·· . · . cause senous
of r:!lr,.
tnJW¥ •. ere ore trou. ~hPPl~ are cautioned to use a piece of paper
g 6.27 Thexcomponentofvelm;:ity in a,two-dimensional incompress- ?' cllrdbon:rd'. no/ afinger, toseamh for leaks). Cruculate and plot the
Jet speed . of a leak versus system pressure for
ible flow field fa given by 11= -A(r-).2)/(:r+./)2. where II is in 40 MPa gaie. Explain how a high-speed jet ·of hy:::s~~ -~p _to
3
mis. the coordinates are measured· in m.eters, .and A = :2 m • s-•. cause. injury. · · u c UI can
-Show that the simplest fo~,;,f they coiµpone(!t.<>f v~JQcity is given
t,;35 .AiVopen,circuit \iliild tunnei ·•=ws :n ~:~ rr·.o·· 11 . . .
_by.v.,=;-':l.A.,;y/(.12 + >.2)2. There is no velocity co.mponentor varia- : , .. . . . · .. . : .<.Jl" . = = · . m 1e atmosphere
tion' in the :;: direction. Calculate the aci;e_leta_l,ion Qf fluiq ,p~cles at thro\lgh.a well-coocoured nozzle..Jn J.hetest secu·o
•· . . · . . .
th. fl . . .
n,.W I1ere . e . O'I.V IS.
Prob lem s 239
strai ght and nearly. unifo nn, a s1atic press ure tap is-dri lled into the 6.39 Wate r flows stead ily up the verti cal 1-in.- -diam etcr pipe ancfo qt
runn el·_w ~ . A mano mete r conn ected 10 lhc tap show s,lhal stiiiic pres- the nozz le, whic h -is 0.5 in. in diam eter. disch argin·g "to -atmo sphe ric
sure with in lhe tunne l .is 45 mm of wate r below -atmo spher ic. Assu me press ure. The strea m veloc ity at the nozz le·ex it.mu st be 30"-ft/s; e~~
that the air is incom press ible, and at 25°C , 100 kPa absol ute. Calc u- culni e the mini mum gage press ure requi red a1se ction (D. Ifthe·devi ce
J_(u e the air spee d in the wind-tunn el test sectio n. were inver ted. what woul d be lhe requi red mini mum press ure at
secti on CD to main tain lhe nozz le e,ci1 veloc;ity at 30 ft/s?
6.36 Wate r is flow ing. Cnlcu lace H(tn ) and p(kP a).
I ~ ;- vi
10 ft _
_J
P6.3 9
6.40 Your: car runs ou1 of gas unex pecte dly and you sipho n· ga:s
from anoth er car. The heigh t diffe rence for the sipl)o.n, is_. 1 fi:.--lbe -
ho~e diam eter is 0.5 in. Wha t is your gaso line. flow rate? ,
6 _.37 If each gaug e show s the same readi ng for a flow rate of 6.41 A tank at a press ure of 50 kPa gage gets a pin,ti9Je;:rµpru.re,-a1:1d
LOO -d's, wha t is the di;im~_ter. of the c_cmslriction? bei:izene shoo ts into the air. Igpo ring losse s, to what . heig ht wilh h~
benz ene rise? · ··
6.42 The wate r flow rate throu gh the sipho n ii;,5 L/s;. its:te mpen i~
tµre is 20°c . and the pipe diam eter is 25 nuri. Com pi.µe the_ max imor il
allow able heighc., h. so !hat lhe press ure· at poin t-A is abov e the-vapo r
press ure of ihe wate r. Assu me ihe flow is fricti onles s.
IIr
I
£?:==25mm
6.3~ J?etjv e.._a rel!).tipn betw een A1 and A? so that for a flow rate of
3
b_.'.2$ m / s the static press ure wiU l:>e the same at secti ons (D and (2). --===..===;;;..,d• !.Flow
Also caicu lrite !Jle. niano me1e r readi ng for this ccmdition ~d state P6.4 2.
whi!=h l_eg has ctie high er merc ury_colum n.'
6.43 Wate r flow s from a very large tank thro_u gh a 5 cm.d iaiiii;~r'-
rube." The dark liqui d in the mano mete r is meccucy; E;§.ij.mate :me
v:elocity m ihe pipe !Uld the rate of ~'1 ~e fib~ "tffe, 9f.uJs
Assu me ihe flow is fri~cionless. -··
Gasol ine
(0.85 )
6.44 Cons icler fricti onles s, iµcom press ible flpw of ait".o_v.ei-th ~:w,i pg
.o f an iµi:plane flying at 200 km/ru:. The 11.ic appr oac_b i,ng,t be:w jijg:i s.ai
65 kPa .and - 1.o"C
.
. At a
-
i. :.· ~
.
po'm
. .
t
..
-·--
I!).
_
_ . -~ '
n·_ - ..
ow,_
" h
t - ,. -.~,_
---llie".,p_~ ~
s
-,-- -·) .S-
60 kPn. Calc ulate .the sp,ee::d of the ajr r;elntive !!'>itti:~wing a:t:!ll is,ffi.? !J.lc
and the abso lute air s~d . ·-· · ·
~ -45 A close dJan )c,~o ntairi s Willer with air abo.v.e.iLT uc,aii; ii'.fuiiin:-
taine_d 11~ a gage pi:ess!:1[C9fl50 kPa and 3ni~ lti~:ilie:~ °';; J ~
a n_pzzle discl'!arge,s imo tbc ~_onq~_ph~.-:A-twbat vd~ifyj~ffi:w~;
eme ~e from the nozz le?: ·
240 ~hapl: er 6 Incom pressi ble lnvisd d Flow
.6.46 Water jets upward through 8 3-in.-di ameter :nozzle under a 6 . 51 A smoothl y contoure d no:u.ie, with-outler-diruneter d = 20 mm.
head ~f JO ft At wi)at !1eight I, will the l_iquid stnnd in the pilot tube?
0
is coupled to· n-stro.ight pipe by means of flanges. Water flows in

What.1s the crosssse cnonal nren of the Jet :it section B? =
the pipe, ofdiqme ter D 50 mm, and the nozzJe dischar ges to the
atmosph ere. For steady flow and neglecti ng the· effects of viscos -
ity. find t11e volume flow rate in the pipe corresp onding lo a cal-
culated axial force of 45.5 N needed to keep the nozzle attach ed
LO the pipe.
Water 6.52 Water flows steadily tltrough a 3.25-in. -diumet er pipe and dis-
charges tltrough a 1.25-in.- diamete r nozzle to atmosp heric pressu re.
10 f1
1l1e now rate is 24.5 gpm. Calculat e the minimu m static pressu re
t required in the pipe to produce this flmv rate. Evalu8t e the axial force
L
- ·- .----=--~ ----~[_ h i
of the nozzle assembl y on !11e pipe flange.
6 . 53 A flow nozzle is a device for measuring !lie fiow r.ite in a pipe.
1l1is particula r noµle is to be used to measure low-spe ed air flow for
which compres sibility may be neglected. During operatio n. the pres-
7
Nozzle 1s 3 in. in diamete r
(A = 0.049 l ft2j -
sures p 1 and P2 are recon:led, as well as upstream temper ature. T 1 •
Find !lie moss flow rate in terms of ll.p=p2 -p 1 and T,.
the gas con-
SUUlt for air. l\fld device dian1eters D 1 and D2. Assume the -now is
P6.46 frictionless. Will the actual now be more or less !11nn this predic ted
flow? Why?
6.47 Cal_c ulate the rate of flow through this pipeline nnd the pres-
tD1 C I
sures nt -A , B, :C, and D. Sketch the EL and HGL showin g vertical
c:Jis.~ ces.
+
D2
_( T
---- Flow
cw
P6,53
6.54 The head of water on a 50 mm diarriete·r smooth nozzle is 3 m .

If the no:u.le is _d irected upwan:I at nngles oi(a)30°, (b) 45~, (c) 60°.
and (d) 90°, how high above !lie nozzle will tl1ejet rise, and how far
from the noµle will the jet poss tltrough !11~ horizon tal plane m
.which the nozzle lies? What is !lie diamete r of the jet at the top of
the tr.ljecrory?
6.55 Water Hows from .one reservoir in·a200°mm pipe, while ,,•ater
tlo,vs from a second reservoi rin n 150-mm pipe. The two pipes meeL
Water
inn "tee'' j1mction with' a,300°m m.jlipe that-disc harges to the atmos -
P~.47 phere al an elevatio n of20 m. If the wifier'sti iface in tlte reservo irs is
at 30 m elevatio n. what is the total flow.rate ?-
6.48 A mercu_ry bl!l'onieter is c_ilrriCcd in a car on a day·,vti eo thi;re is 6.56 Barome tric pressure is 14.0 psia. What is the maxim um flow
no wind. The tempera lllre is io~t: and_the.correcte d barometed1ei_~h1 rate_that can be obtained by opening th~ valve? (a) if cavital ion is not
is 761 m:m ofmercm :y. One window is open slightly as·theca iuavels a conside ration and (b) if cavitatio n needs 10-be prevent ed?
_a t 105 km/hr. The b~met i;r reading in the moving car i_s 5 mm
lower than when the -car is stationa ry. Explain what is happeni ng.
~c1JJ11 te the··1ocal sp~d of the air flowing -past the window , relar~ve
·cc1 4 ,csa•1;>,
?•-•'.
f
ro the automo bile. ~ ~ ••, - - ~ •. •
20 It
6.49A rw:ing car.:ir.iv els at 2;35 mph along a su;i.ight away_. The team 6_in. d "4m.4_
enginee r·wishes to locate ari air inlet.on the body of the car to obtain
co.oling air fc;>r lhe driver's suit. The plan is to place the inlet at a loca-
tion where the air speed is 60 mph aloog the surface of the car. Cal-
cuJate the static pressui:e at the propose d inlet location . Express lhe 25ft
_p~ur e· rise abo.v e ambient as-a fraction of the freest:renm dynami c
pr:essw,::.
Q. 6.50 The velocil.)' field (or a P.hi~~ $ourc_e !lt ~ distanc e h ;i.bove_UJ;l
..l
P.6.56
~ti-': Y?,~ ~g,11e<talong thp axis WllS given ~ P~bl~m 6:6. Usmg
the data from that prol:den i, plot the pressur e cli_stnbu1,10µ al~~g ~e -~•~:7 ~ SPIJ!.Y syste."1 is sho\vn ia the diagram , Wntel" is suppli ed at
wall from x= --1 (JJ, .to x= + lQh :(assum e tl1e press_ure at infinity p;,;,_.J 0,k.Pa gage, $t!.ug~ lli~J'l1µ1_g ed opening of area .A= 1900_ mm2 •
~ aun~sptieijc). Fmq the net. f.9r.;_e on ·tni,: w'1;li if lh_e p~su_re , cin :)-1.<;, wl!~f-lep.ves in ·a st~y. free jet :it nJ.Jnospheric pressu re. The
2
the,Io:wer surface is·atinos phedc. Does the fo.i:ce tend to·pull the wall Jet~?J !(,i spe~(,i !1I'CA?(:iSO,mm and V=4. 6 _m /s. The mass of the
. f o ~.::t~e soii~;e. ocpl!S.h )t !lway? sp~f sjstem is 0:09 kg ai:iil_:i( co!lJ;liils V l9.6 = cm3
~f Water.
Proble ms 241
Neglect frictiona l· effeclS Md assume uniform velocity ptofil~ at

V= 4.6 mis
t A· = -6 50mm2 each section. De1enn ioe 1hc pressure measure d by the gauge and
the force required 10 hold lhc body.
M=0.09 kg
I'= 196 cm3
Supply ,I= 1900 mm2

p = io kPa gage
P6.57 P6.62.
An object, with a flat horizonLUI lm".er s4rface, moves downwa rd into 6 .63 Describ e the pressure dislribu tion on the exterior of a: multi-
lh~jet of the spray system with speed U=5 ft/s. Determi ne lhe_min- s10ry building in a steady wind. Tdentify the location s of lhe maxi-
i_niiJ'm _supply pressure rieeded··to prpduce the je1 leaving _the spray mum and minimu m pressu_res on lhe ou1Side of the building .
syst~tn at V = J5 ·fi/s. Cnlcuia te 1he rnnxirrium pressure exerted by Discuss lhe effect of these pressure s on infiltrat ion orouLSide ~ µtlO
_the 'liquid' jet on the flat object at I.he inslMI -~vhen the object is the Building.
Ii== 1.5 ft above lhe jet exiL Est_imnte the force of the water jet on
the flat objecL · 6.64 An aspirato r provide s suction by using a,stream ofwa_~r-flQW-
ing lhrough a venturi. Analyze the shape and dim1ms ions of.such a
6.58 Water flows ou1 of n kitchen faucet of 1.25-in. -diwnete r nt the device. Comme nt on any limitatio ns on its ti:_$."& ' '
rate ofO. I L/s. Th~ bottom ofth~ sink is 45 cm·belo w the faucet out-
ie_L Will the cross-se ctional area of the tiuid stre~ intreas~.
Energ y Grade Line And Hydra ulic Grade: Line. ··
decrens e, or remain constan t between the fnu·cet outlet-iihd the bouom
of the sink? Explain briefly. Obtain an expressi on·tor the strewn cross 6.65 Careful ly sketch the energy grade lines (EGL} and hy<lrau'fo
section as a function of distance y above·1.he sink bouoin. If a plate is grade lines (HGL) for the system shown in Fig. 6.6 ff-the pipe is·hot~
held directly under the faucet.. how will the force required to hoid the izomal (i.e.• the outlet is at lhe base qf the reservoi r), and a · wate"t=iµr-
plate in n horizon tal position vary with height above the s"ihk? bine (extract ing energy) is located at point <:.?>, or at point ®· ,In
Explain briefly. Chapter 8 :we will investig are the-effe cts offricti on,on intemaU lows;
Con you anticipa te· and sketch. the effect of frictio_m on, the EGL:nni:l·
.Q 6.59 A horizon!.al nxisymm euic jet of air wiih 0.4-in.-diarneter HGL for lhe two cl).Ses?
s~es a stntiomi.i'y vertical disk of 7.5 in. diamete r, The jet speed
is 225 ft/s at lhe riozzle exiL A manome ter is connec1ed 10 the center 6 .66 <:;:arefully sketch lhe energy grade lines -{EGL) andhydraiilic
of !he disk. Calcula te· (a) the deflectio n. if the monp"meter liquid has grade lines (HGL) for the system shown.i n.Fig, 6,6,if•acpurifp-,a j~g,
sC·= 1.75, (b) the force exerted !>Y the jel on the disk. and (c) I.he energy 10 lhe fluid is located ar point-(2); suci).' Qtat•fl~w: is :into tlie-
force exened on the-disk if it is assumed that the s1agnation pre·ssure reservoi r. .In Chapter 8. we will investig iite theeff¢ cts .of fi;ktion on
acis on· the entire -forward surface of lhe disk. Sketch the strewnli ne imemal flows. Can you anticipa te and sketch th~ effect of friction
-p attern and plot the clistribution of p·r essure on the face of the· disk. on the EGL artd. HGL. for the two cases?
_Q 6-60 The water-le vel in a large tank is maintain ed atheigh lH above 6.67 Water is being pumped from.I.he lower reservo ir through a nQ:z;~
Lhe surroun ding level term.in. A rounded nozzle placed in lhe side zle into the upper reservoi r. If the vacuum gauge at A l!:3~ 2.4 psi
of the lank discharg es n horizon1al jeL Neglect ing friction, detecro.ine vacuum ,
the height h at which the orific_e should be placed so !.he wa_ter (a) find lhe flow velocity lhrnugh the nozzle.
strikes _the ground at 1.he maximu m horizom al distance X from !.he
laJlk. Plot jet speed V and distance X as function s of h (0 < ll < H). (b) find the horsepo wer lhe punip m~t add to the wilteF;
6.61 Many recreati on facilities use inflatab le ..bubble" structur es. ( c) clrD,w the energy line and th_e h_y clraulic _gi;-_a<!e:_1.~e..
A tennis bubble to encl9se four coiJTIS.is shaped roughly as a circular
~ -
semicy linder with a diamete r of 50 fl arid a length of 50 fL The
blo\ver s used to inrtnte the structur e can maintain tl1e air pressure c-1;1.1 25 ft ~
inside the bubble at 0.75 in. of waler above ambient pressure. The ll;= 4-1n. "-----_
.bubble is subjecte d 10 a wind that blows at 35 mph in a directio n per-
pendicultJ.T•lo. the axis.of the.sem icylindr ical shape. Using-po lar coor-
dinates , ,v.ilh angle.0 measure d from.the:ground on !he-upwind side of
Lhe· s1ruclur e; the. r:esulling pressure dislribu tion may be expresse d as
am.
P~P·oo = 1-4 sin2 0.
__½pV';;.,
-w hei:'e_p : is the p~sure RI the .surface, Poa .t he atmosph eric press)J[e, ,I
ands V,.. I.he -wind speed. De1errn ine the net vertic_nl (Orce exened on
the, striicmr e.
1;1.20 ft
6 :.62 Wn1er flo\vs -nt low speed ·tlirough a circujlµ' tube with inside
diam~t er·cif 2 . in. A smooth ly cpniour ed boc)y of. 1-_:5 in; diam~te r is
hc:ldir:; tJ1e end cif the tub:e where the water dischm!,l,S·to atinospl_lere.
242 Ct:lapter 6 lncompres!),i!;>le lhv isd d Flo w
6.C? 8 TI:te tµrb ine Cl'tlnlci,s pow er from the wai.er- flow ing 'from
What does thevnlueof 8 need _lo_ be for the- flow to . be irro_ tatj ona.l?
the_r«;Se y\'.Oir, Find the hors epow er _e:r;tracted if the flow thro ugh For ~hat valu e of B, dete rmin e the velocity pote nual <J,. Ske tch lhe
the syst em is 100 0 cfs. Dra w the· ener gy line and the hydr auli c strer unlin es nnd potential lines.
grad e line. · 6.7 6 Tlie stream function of a flow field is 'I'~ A.-c3 - B.-cy;i.. wh ere
El.1 000 fl A = Im- • . 5-1 an\! 8=3 m - 1 . s- 1, and coor dma tei: are mea sur ed
i; in mete rs. Find an expression for the velocity pote nua l.
6.7 7 A flow field is represented by the ~tream fu~c tion 1/F =.1.5
isx•y2 + 1s.,.1y•-y'•. Find the co'rresportdmg velocity_ fiel d. S_h ow
that ll1is flow field is irrotntional Uf\d ol;>tai!l the po_tenu al fun coo n .
6.7 8 Con side r the flow field represented by the pote ntia l fun ctio n
,p=xs _ 10~.JY2 +s.,y4-_,.1 + y2. Verify that this is an inco mpr essi ble
flow , nod obtain the cortespondin~ stream func tion .
6.7 9 Sho w _b y expa ndin g nod collecting real and ima gina ry term s
that / =r' (i.vhere:z is the com plex num ber z=x + iy) lead s to a val id
ve!o city p 9 tentinl (the real pan off) nnd a cortesponc;ling stre_a m fu nc-
tion (the nega tive of the imaginary pan off) of an irro tatio nal and
P6. 68
inco mp~sible flow . The n show that the real and ima gin_ary par ts
of df/d z yield -11 and u, respectively.
lrro tat ion al Flo w
6.8 0 Con side r the .flow field represented by llle velo city pot ent ial
6 . 69 Con side r a two- dim ensi onal fluid flow : u=a x.+ by and _v= <P=Ax+Q.:r~B/!., whe re_A= I m-s - 1• B= l m-• ·s:- ' , and the;:
ex+ dy. wb·e re a, b; c, l!Jl9 d arc cons tnnL If ll1e flO\v ·is inco ,mpr ess- coor dina tes are.m easu red in meters. Ob.lain expr essi ons for the vel oc-
iblc.and 1rrotationQ.l..find llie rela tion ship s an1o ng a, b, c. and cl. Find ity fielq and ll1e s.t,rerun furc tinn. Calculate t11e ·press1.1_re diff ere nce
the ~~ func tion an_d velocity. pot~nii:il fun~ti~n ~f this flow . betw een the orig in .and poin t (x,y) = ( 1,2).
6 ~70 The veto.city field for a ti.vo, dim ensi onal flow is V =
{Ax:....By)ti--'(B;c.;+-Ay)t]. whe re A= l s~2 B=a 2 s- 2 , r is in seco nds;
6.81 An inco mpr essib le flow field is char:µcterized PY the stre am y .
and the cooi-!:iin;nes are mea sure d-in mete rs. Is this u poss ible inco m-
=
fu11c_tion vr=;3A,2 y-A y3, whe rerl l m- 1 • s- 1.:Sh ow that this flo w
field is irrotational •.Deri ve the velocity potential for the flow . Plo t the
pres sibl e flow 'i Is the-f low stea dy or 1,msteady? $ho w lliat the flow is sue ~lin~ nod pQ\ential lines, ;w._d visu ally veri fy that the y are
irrou ition al and deri ve an expr essio n for the ,v eloc ity pote ntia l. onbQ gona l. (Hili t: Use the.Excel work book of Exa n1p le ·6.1 0.)
6. 71 A flow field is char acte rize d by· the s~a rn func tion y, = .Acy , 6.8 2Co nsid eran airfl<>W ove_r 11jlat wall with an µpsu -eam vel oci ty
=
whe teA- 2 s - 1 and tllc coor dina tes ~ m~_u red -irt-fe et. Ver ify that of6' m/s . The re is.a n:1ITQw sliJthrough whic h air is draw n in al a flow
the; flow is irrot ntio nal and dete nnin e the velo city pote ntia l ,p. Plot the r.ue of 0.2 m3 /s per mete r of width: Rep rese nt the flow as a com bi-
sp-e amli iles ·and pote ntia l line s ancJ visu ai!y ~•erify ,that they are !liJ!ion of a unif orm .flow an9 a .sink. Dete rmin e the -loc atio n of the
onho gci! lal. stag nati on poin t. Sket ch the ciivi9ing.line ~iw een lb~ a_ir_ll1a t ent ers ,
a
6. 72 The flow field for n plim e·soui't:e at dist anc.e h abov e an infi~ the -slit lir)d th_e ai~ !h!lt. con.tinues (Jownsb:eam;
nite wall alig! }etl al!)i)g ,me X , axis.is give n by
V· . q ., [xi+ (y~ h)j)

211;[,,_..2+ (y- h)- ] - 6 Olis ==. - - --·~ -----...___
+
. -:1I'_::;:....,~..,~,-,
_ q . ., [xl+ (y+ h)jl
'.bt[.f!+ (y+h)'."] , -.
whe re q is the strength of
Llie ~ource. The flo.w is ~rn tioo ni -~ii
ilico inp~ ssib J¢. Qeri ~e !he suea m func tion and vel~ 1ty pote_n_ulll.
»ich oos ihts uita bJe valu es for q and h, plQt the siream]mes ~d hne s l 0:2:ml,~
of'.co~tm'!t v~foci!)' pote ntial . (Hi11r: Use the Exc el wor k~o ok of
·'E~~pie;·~J:6;> _
~.7 3"·Tu,~ stttw.n.:f'i.m9tion of a ·flow field is ljl =A. 't2) •-B /, ~he re. _(,. 83 A sQu rce with ii stretjgW pf q =d,c m2-/ s and a sink wit h- a
stren gth of q,= ir m~ /s are located on the x axis ar x = - I m and
A= l m- 1 -s'- 1 , iJ_= .!.. m:--1..s- 1 , and the c_Q ordi nate s..are m~ u~· x= I m, res_pectively: Dete nnin e the .. strerun func tion . and vel oci cy
.. - - - 3
in meters. Fmd Jin ,exp ~io n for the ve locit y poLential. pote ntia l for th.e coml:>ine~ffhai,,• ·and ske\cl) the ·Slre aml ines .
f,;7 4 J\..fiow field is char acte riz~ 1:>y the stre am func tion ~:8 4 The velei~itr dislribul.ion ~ a'"two-di nlen sjon al; stea dr, inv is- ~ '..
-CJQ ~ow field m the. ,y plan e IS V=(A,,r +B) i+ (C - Ay) j. wh ere ,
. ~i -(·tan -iY - -ta n - 1.Y
ip.= 2.y+ -- -a - +a)
- A= 3 s- •. B= 6 iri/s, C= 4m /s; and the coor dina tes are me asu red _
2,r · X X
Deri .ve an expr essi on'f or _th~ l~at ion of-th e stag nati on poin ts. Sk¢ tch
~ "inf te.~-·-rte bocJr f?-tt e clislrjbution is ~= ~gk and the den sity
1s. 82-5,k#m . Doe s !,l:iis rep~ ent a•p·ossible in~o mpr essi ble flo w
the flow fiild . fj6J? ?:P! o_~ a ,few strea mlin es i6 Qie !lpper half j:>larie. Fin d the . sta g-
6 :7_5 A flow field is c:b.a rac; teri~ d by the sue am--fimc tiori nati on.pom_t~s)p( .tl1~ QQ~ .field. ls the A~w;iqo i,ali onal ?· lf so, obro .iii
.!-fi't •P9~.!ltiaU wict ion, ijyi!Jjt~~e.,ll)e pres·s ure 9iff¢ renc e b_e ~ee n Lhe
.1/f =~-er+ B:x3 od.$ID ~~i!P.Qint (x,y ,z)='.(2,°2 .-2,); · - · -· · · '
Prob lem s 243
6.85 Cons ider the flow past a circu lar cylin der. of radiu s a. used in 6.88 A sourc e and a sink with stren gths of equa l magn itude ,
Ex.a mple 6.11 . ,Show that V, =0 along the fines (r.0) = (r. ±n/2 ). q = 3K m 2 /s, are place d on the x axis at .r= -a and a, respe ctive ly.
P!ot Vo/CJ_ versu s radiu s for r~a . along the fine (r.O )=(r ,n/2) . A L!nifonn flow . with spee d U = 2Qm /.r. in.th e p_ositi vex dirCcCtion. is
Fmd the dista nce beyo nd whic h the influ ence of the cylin der is less adde d to obtai n the flow past a Rank ine•b ody. Obta in the strea m {unc -
than I perc ent of U. · · tion, veloc ity poten tial. and vel~ ity field for the comb ined flow .
Find the value of v, = construJt on the stagn ation strea mlin e, Lo<;ate
6.8 6 The flow in a corn er wjth an angle a can be descr ibed in radial
the stagn ation point s if a=0 .3 m.
coor dina tes by the strea m funct ion as 'I' =Ar! sin nO_ De1e nnine 1hc 6.89 A flow field 1s form ed by comb ining a unifo rm flow in the Q
amline s for flow
I .
ve _octty pot.entJ
'al for l)1e. now and . pl61 strea =
posit ive .x direc tion, with U lO m/s, and a c.o cmte rcloc ,kwis e vor-
foi: a=6 0". tex, with stren gth K = 16:ir m 2 /s, locat ed at the origi n. Obta m the
6.87 Cons ider the twC1-diri:Jensiono.l flow again st a flat piate that is strea m funct ion. veloc ity poten tiiil. and· veloc ity field for !hi.c om~
char; u;:ter ized by the streru n ftrnction 1/F=A.')'. Supe riinp ose:a plane bined flow. Loca te the stagn ation point (s) for the flow . Plot the
sour ce of stren gth B place d at the origi n. Dete rmin e the relati on strea mlin es and poten tial lines . (Hin/ : Use the Exce l work book of
betw ee_n the heigh t of the siagn ation point //, the cons tant .A, and Exam ple 6. IO.)
the stren gtJ, 8. Sket ch strea mlin·e s fo_r the flow an(,! ident ify the 6.90 Cons ider the flow field form ed by comb iniog a unifo rm flow g
strea mlin e that divid es the two flows. in the posit ive x direc tion and a sour ce locat ed at ·t he origi n. Obta in ·
expre ssion s for the strea m funct ion, vel~ ity po~n tial,. ancl vel~ ity
=
field for the comb ined flow . If U 25 m/s, deten rtine·- the sour ce
stren gth if the stagn ation poin t is lo~at ed at ~= ~ 1 m. Plot the·
stre_amlin es and poten tial lines . (Hint : Use the.Excel wqrk ooi:ik <;if
Exam ple 6. 10.).
Sourc e
~ · - -- - --- - · - "" · - :::: 0 # _ _ _ ,
I
P6.8 7
__.:::-·-- ~--""' . ;; ., . - -=------.,. .. -
7
'C H A P T 1::-rt
Dim e-n·sio~n,a1_
A;n::c1lyiis
and Similititcl:e · · :
7 . 1 Nondimensionalizing the Basic:li::lifferential\ Equations 71"4Alig9ifH;,fD({OJm~n!iignles{Jshiups in'i:i:UJfg:M~cha_niC:::s•,
7 . 2 Nature of Dimensional Analysis · 1;_;i Flbw~similarify!aridiMo"delStud,es
7 .3 Buckingham Pi Theorem 7 .6 ~u.,-,~ary and ·osefo'fiquations
:r. RC:?X Alexan_d_e r.M~Neil, n()w at Heriot-Watt UniversiW in Scotland,·•t:o·

Qimeri$lorfal analy:;;Js, the main topic of this chap(~!\ is used in tty (o,detetmine the speed at wl:iich dt11os.aurs. such as Tyranno..,.
many S('ientifk put.suits. I~ h~s even peen use:d _by Professor saurus.;re,,c,-rnay hav~,tieeri ablt? toruii, The 6nly,data .available c;m
these,t:reatures are.in-the fil_siiil record,......,the•mo.seper.tinent. data
being the dirigs~µr;s'ave~ge ,leg:l en~hJand,,st~ide-s, Gould these
data be used tp·ext@!;l;cthediii<_>S!!lm,' s11:e~$1_?:l.;:9rnparing data on .,
<!n9 .s ar\~ th!! ~peed V of quadrupeds (e.g,; horses, dogs). and
bJi>_ecls(~;g;, h\1n,an~)di>es nofiocli~t~.a pattern, 1,mless dimen-
siortalan~lysi\ii~ !)secito learnthatall ofthedata should be plot:tec;i
inthefo,ll_owingway;pl~tt,h~c.jjmerisi~ti,l~ssquant]tyV2 /gl (where·
Vis th_e measured sp_eed ofthe animal and g, i.s the a<.:celeration of
gravity) i!g~ii,st the dimensionless ratioJit Wh~e n this is done,
"magically;' the data,for me1st anima.1s fail approximately on. one
curve! H!!iite, th·e running behavior of iiio.st animals can be
ogf~ined from the graph; In thi~ !case, i:h_e dinosc1urs' value of s/1
allows a·correspondirigvalue ofV2 /gl to be interpolated frqni
the t:ucye, l_eai:iing to an f~Jlm11te for ii oJ din_osa1.1rs (because /
.aridJj ar~ known). Based-orflhis, in contrast ti;> the Jurassic Park
mc:ivie~.n::~~~!T.i~Jikti!Y ~!ic1t hµr:nansq~µlg !!as)ly outrun T. rex!
0
:in previous chapters wcfh!ive it(enlion~i;l se;:ve@ i.nstfui¢¢ii,;rw!i.icJi we_c)!iim:A:siriipiii'ie:dJfo.w ex.is ts. For
example,,we hav.e stated that a·flow with typical speec.I V Wi!Lbe e~seutiaµy i11:<;9mpressible if the Mach
nUD1ber, :M _:= V/c(where c is·.the·speed ofsound),is less .than' ll)Jout0.3 $~ t.lj;i~ w.e cail neglect vi~co11s-
effeccs·fuim·ostqfaflq~ if die ReyMlds number, Re-:::;::pVL/Jt(Lis.a typjcal-pt "t;liai:_acteristic" size scale
tjf1hi riq.w); ~ ,;}~ge'.:"W¢Will aJ'somil,k.~ e~tensiye u_se ofthe Reynolds number'based orj pipe diameter-.,
b :(Re.:;=./iVi)/µ), to precHct v.,rith a µigh r,l~~e of a:~cµ(~CY, whelher:tbe pipe flow ts laminar or turbulenL
itrtims out tfutthere are majiy such mt~~tfhg, clµn.~JjsJg9J~s,~~µfin~s in engineering science-fo.r
,example; in heat:11:ansfer, the.value:ofthe 13iotn~tnbef, §i-=/f¼/&;:,9f~:b9i.l:io.dy!sj:z_e ,Land conductivity
.k_, i.ng.i~ai~ wbethe.r that ho.cir will tend·to>cool ort. th:e ou~W~,-~-H"#'ll£¢. :fi~J si will i:iasic~y cool urt.i-
{gp:i:ily w.heii it's pJilnged ln.tQ a-cool flliiq witb.,c_o nvection coef.&Ei~!.b, (G@ ~O!J figure ouJ what a.
ij$gh ,B.ifiµinb¢i pred.ic;ts?) H:ow clo w¢: .9 b~. lhese;~o11pi~~S; aqc! •WltY d_9 lli~ifvaJll,~s have such pow,.. .
etful pn;p.(ctive powei:1 __ _ . . .._• _ _ _ _ .
=E:?.2'::F2:Si~:;lili;:;~1i!t:t;~:;~·
tatiom
··- ·····
-·-
•itaiso.- eAa.bJ~, ~ w,. ,e~_tract cren.rls,iQ:O
.
·· . ta,-ti_iat w:9_µJqtigthemv1se;tl"};t1ilini
:: . . .. ·._ . ,. .
disc>taanized
·.-· -· -- ·- b
and
- .
in¢qJi~.¢1;1t.
7.1 Nondimensionalizi ng t he Basic Differential Equations 245
. We will also discuss modeling. For example, how do we correctly perform tests on the drag on a
3/8-scale model of an automobile in a wind tunnel to predict what the drag would be on the full-size
automobile at the same speed? Must we use the same speed for model and full-size automobile?
How do we scale up the measured model drag to find the automobile drag?
7 .1 Nondimension alizing the Basic Differential Equations

Before d escribing dimensional analysis Jet us see what we can leam from our previous analytical
descriptions of nuid flow. Consider, for example, a steady incompressible two-dimensional now of a
Newtonian nuid with constant viscosity (already quite a list of assumptions!). The mass conservation
equation (Eq. 5. lc) becomes
au+av=O (7.1)
ax iJy
and the Navier-Stokes equations (Eqs. 5.27) reduce to
p ( 11--,+v-
ax
ap
au au) =--+11 11
-? +-?
ay ax
(iY.
ax-
iPiJy-") (7.2}
and
p(,/v +vav) = - pg - iJp +µ(cf~+
ax ay . iJy ax-
a2~)
iJy-
(7.3}
As we discussed in Section 5 .4 , these equations form· a set of coupled nonlinear partial differential
equations fori,, u, and p, and ate difficult to solve for most-flows . Equation 7 .1 has <;limensions of I/time,
and Eqs. 7 .2 ·and 7.3 have dimensions of force/volume. Let us see what happens when we convert them
into dimensionless equations. (Even if you did not study Section 5.4 you will be able to understand the
following material.)
To nondimensionalize these equations, divide all lengths by a reference length, L , and all velocities
by a reference Speed, V 00 • which usually is taken as the freestream velocity. Make the pressure nondi-
mensional by dividing by pv;;, (twice the freestream dynamic pressure). Denoting nondimensional
quantities with asterisks, we obtain
_._xL,
.l -
. _Y
y - [.' II
•
=V
11
00 • V
'u
=~,
and '
p =p\/200-
P (7.4)
0?
·s o-thatx=x· L. y= y• L, it= u•v00, and so on. We can then substitute into Eqs. 7.1 through 7 .3 ; below we
show two representative substitutions:
au
II- = 11
··v a(11·v00)
00 - - , - --'-
v:;;, •au·
--11-
OX iJ(."1.-L) L iJ."1.-
and
<Yu iJ(11•V 00 ) V00 iJ211•
ax2 = iJ(x• L}2 = L2 a.'--2
Using this procedure, the equations become

\ 1 00 au• V co au•
- - +--=0 (7.5)
L a.r L ay•
pV~ (
. -·
- - LI
•
.au· ,au•)
- +V -
pV;;, <lp" 11\.1,,,, (iPu•
= - - - -- + - - - - + - -
iPu•) ax• (7.6}
L a.r:- ay• L a.'-- u 2 a.v-2
pV;;_, ( .av•
-- .av•)
ll -+V - pV~ ap• 1tV00 (iY'v~ iPv•)
=--p g - - - - + - -·- - - +-- (7.7)
L iJ."1.- ay· L iJ)•· L2 d,\""2 ay•2
Dividing Eq. 7.5 by Vco/L and Eqs. 7.6 and 7.7 b.y p\1~/ L gives
au·
-+-=O
av· (7 .8)
iJ.i:· i)y
24 6 Chapter 1 Dimensip nal Analysis and similitud e
au· au·
1 1 ' - + v • -ap· ---+ µ (a2u·
- --, +--,&-11') (7 .9)
a.,- ay• - ax• pV""L ox·- ay•-
• av· • av• gL op'
II ---+V - = - - - - + - - --+
J' (iP.v· irv") (7.10)
ax· ay• \~ u;•• pV"" L ax·2 oy' 2
Equations 7 .8, 7 .9, and 7 .1 o are the nondimens ional fonns of our original equations (Eqs. 7 .1, 7 .2.
7 .3). As such, we can think about their solution (with appropriate boundary conditions) as an exercise in
appHed mathemati cs. Equation 7.9 contains a dimensionless coefficient}l/pVoc,L (which we recogniz e
as the inverse of the Reynolds number) in front of the second-ord er (viscous) terms; Eq. 7. l O contains
this and another dimension less coefficient , gL/Vz (which we will discuss shortly) for the gravity force
term. We recall from the theory of differentia l equations that the mathematical form of the solution of
such equations is very sensitive to the values of the coefficients in the equations (e.g., certain second-
order partial differentia l equations can be elHplical, parabolic, or hyperbolic d_e pending on coefficie nt
values).
These equa_t;ions tell us that the solution, and henc_e the actual flow pattern they describe, depends on
the values of the two coefficient s. For example, if 1,jp\l""Lis very small (i.e., we have a high Reynold s
number), the second-ord er differentia ls, representin g viscous forces, can be neglected, at least in most of
the flow, and we end up with a form of Euler's equations (Eqs. 6.2). We say "in most of lhe flow"
because we have already learned that in reality for this case we will have a boundary layer in which
there is significan t effect of viscosity; in addition. from a mathematical point of view, it is always dan-
gerous to neglect higher-ord er derivatives , even if their coefficients are small, because reduction to a
lower-orde r equation means we los.e a boundary condition (specifically the no-slip condition ). We
can predict that ifµ/ pV00 L is large or small, then viscous foi;:ces will be significant or not, respectiv ely;
if gLV~ is large or sm:i).11, we can predict that gr'avity forces will be significant or not, respective ly. We
can· th_ll~ -gain insight even before attempting a solution to the differential equations. Note that for com-
pleteness, we wou,id have Jo apply the same nondimens ionalizing approach to the boundary conditio ns
of the problem, which often introcl,µce further dimensipnl ess coefl'icients.
Writing. noirdimen sional forms of the governing equations, then, can yield insight into the under-
lying pl:iysic.a lphenome na, and indi.c ate which forces are dominant. If we had two geometric ally similar
but q.iffer¢nt scale. .Qqws satisfyiog· Eqs. 7.8, 7.9. and 7.10 (.for example, a model and a prototype ), the
equations wquld,:oQ].y y*I~ :tlte same mathemati cal results if Uw two flows had the same values for I.he
rwo coefficient s (i.e., had-the same relative importance of g[4vi_ty, visc.ous, and i11ertia forces) . This non-
_c;!jme!lsional.fon:n ·of the equations is also the starting point in numerical methods·, which is very often the
·o_tjly w_ay o_f pl:>~ing. their s9lurion. Additional derivations . and examples of establishin g similitud e
from the gov¢ming equations of a problem are presented in Kline [lJ and Hansen {2].
We will now see how the method of di.J;nensioni).) analysis can be used in_ste.ad of the above proce-
dure to find appropriat e dimension less groupings .o f physicp.J _para,i1eters. As i.ve have mentione d, using
djmension less groupings is very useful for experimen tal measurements, and we will see in the next two
sections 1,lmt we can obt,ain them even when.we do not -have the governing equations such as Eqs. 7. 1 ,
7 .2, and 7.3 to work from.
7.2 Nature of Dimens ional Analysi s

Most pheJ)omen a in fluid mechru:iics depend in a complex way oil geoi:netiic and now paramete rs. For
example, consider the drag force on a s~ti.onar:y smooth sphere immersed in a l!!liform strerun. What
experimen ts must be conducted to d;termj_n e: tbe drag force on.the sphere'.? To answer this question .
we must specify wbat we believe .are the paramet1ers that are important in determirun g the drag force.
Clearly, we would expect the drag force to depend on the si~e of the sphere (characteri zed by the dirun-
eter, D), the fluid speed, V, and .t he flu.id viscosity,µ . IJ:i a~dition, ffiedensity of the fluid, p, also might be
importanL Repi;esent ing the drag force b:}:' F, we c;an wate the Symbolic equation
F=f(D, ¥-,p,ji.)
Although we may have neglected paramete~ ;~ti.~j_\ich.th_e dra~ force,ciepends, such_as surfa<;:e roughne ss
(or may have included parameters on which •~ does i:iot depend), we have set up the problem of
7 .2 Nature of Dimensional Analysis 247
determining the drag force for a stationary sphere in terms of quantities that are both controllable and
measurable in the laboratory.
We could set up an experimental procedure for finding the dependence of Fon V, D,p, andµ. To see
bow the drag, F, is affected.by fluid speed, v, we could place a sphere in a wind tunnetand measure F for
a range of V values. We could then run more tests in which we explore the effect on F of sphere diameter;
D, by using qifferent diameter spheres. We are already generating a lot of data: If we ran the wind tunnel
at. say; 10 different speeds, for lO different sphere sizes, we'd have 100 data points. We could present
these results on one graph (e.g.; we coµld plot 10 curves of F vs. V, one for each sphere size), but acqllir-
ing the data would already be time consuming: If we assume each run talces ½hour, we have already
accurgl!Jated 50 hours of work! We still wouldn't be finished-we would have. to book time using,
s~y. a wat~t tank, where we c:9uld repeat all these runs for a different value of p and ofµ. lri principle,
we would. n.ext have to search out a way to use other fluids to be able to do experiments for a range of
p andµ values (say, 10 of each). At the end of the day (actually, at the end of about 2½ years of 40-hour
weeks!) we would have performed about io4 tests. Then we would have to try and make sense of the
data: How do we plot, say, c,urves of F vs. V, with b, p, and JI all being parameters? This is a daunting
task, even for such a seemingly simple ph1,momenon as the drag on a sphere!
Fon:unately we do not have to do all this work. As we will see in Example 7.1, using dimensional
analysis, all the data for drag on a smooth sphere can be plotted as a single relationship between two
nondimensional parameters in the form ·
P:-152 =l(p;D)
The form of the functionf still must be detertnined ~xpefunentally, but the point is that all spheres, in all
fluids, for most velocities will fall on the same curve. Rather than needing to conduct 104 experiments,
we could establish the nature of the fupction a& accurately with only about 10 tests. The time saved in
perfoi:ntlng only IO rad1er than 104 tests is obvious. Even more important is the greater experimental
convenience. No longer must we find fluids with 10 different values of density and viscosity. Nor must
we make IO spheres of different diameters. Instead, only the parameter p VD/µ must be varied. This can
be accomplished simply by using one sphere (e.g., l in. diameter), in one fluid (e.g,, air), and only chan,-
ging the speed, for example.
Figure 7.1 shows some classic data for flow over a sphere (the factors½ and ,c/ 4 have been added to
the denominator of the parameter on the left to make it take the form of a commonly used nondimen-
sional group, the drag coefficient, Co, thl!t we will discuss in detail in Chapter 9). If we performed the
experiments as outlined above, our results wm1ld fall on the same curve, within experimental error.
The d.a ta points represent resµlt;S optained by v¥i9us wQrkers for several different fluids and spheres.
400,.....,...-,--r-rr-r--r-r-.-rr---r-,-.-.,--,--,-r,"TT-,..,....,............ -......_ ..........._~~~

200
100
.60
40
20
F 10
-1 - - iJ2 6
.:...Cpl,2 ;r--., 4
2 · 4
2
1
();6
OA
0.2
4 68102 2 4 681D3 2 .
~
/J
Fig. ..7.1 ~perlrruint.illy derlv.1~d relati.on be~een (he nondiinelisional parameters (20], (21], [3].
24 8 Ch ap tE (r 7 D im en si on al A na ly si s an d Si m ili tu de
No te th at w e en d up wi tli a cu rv e th at ca n be us ed
to ob tai n th e dr ag fo rc e on a ve ry w id e ra ng e of
sp he re /fl ui d co m bi na tio ns . Fo r ex am pl e, it co ul d be
us ed te> ob tai n th e dr ag on ·a hot-cµr ba llo on du e
to a cr os sw in d, or on a re d bl oo d ce ll (a ss um in a it
co ul d be mo de led ns a sphere) as it ·m ov es th ro ug h
th e ao rta ~i n ei th er ca se , gi ve n th e flu id (p an d ,), th
1 e flo w sp ee d v, an d th e sphere di am et er D , w e co ul d
co m pu te a va lu e fo r pV D/ µ, th en re ad th e co rre sp on
fo rc e F. di ng va lu e for Co, an d fin all y co m pu te th e dr ag
· ·
. In ~e ct io n 7 .3 we in tro du ce th e Bu ck in gh am Pi
theor-em, a formalized pr oc ed ur e fo r de du ci ng ~ e
di m en sio nl es s gr ou ps ap pr op ria te fo r a gi ve n flu
id me ch an ics or ot he r en gi ne er in g pr ob le m . T hi s
se cti on m ay se em a bi t di ffi cu lt to fo llo w; we su
gg es t yo u re ad it on ce, then study. Ex am pl es 7 • l.
7. 2, an d 7. 3 to se e ho w pr ac tic al an d us ef ul th e me th
od in fa ct is, be fo re returning to re re ad th e se ct io n.
Th e Bu ck in gh am Pi th eo re m is a sta te m en t of th e re
lat io n be tw ee n a function ex pr es se d in ce nn s o f
di me ns io na l pa ra me ter -; an d a re lat ed fu nc tio n ex pr
es se d in ter ms of nondimensional pa ra m et er s. T he
l3 uc ki ng hn m Pi th eo re m all ow s us to de ve lo p th e
im po na nt no nd im en sio na l pa ra me ter s qu ic kl y an d
ea sil y.
7 .3 B u ck in g h a m P i T h e o re m
In th e pr ev io us se ct io n w e di sc us se d ho w th e dr ag
Fo n a sp he re de pe nd s on the sp he re cj ia m et er D , fl ui
de ns ity p an d vi sc os ity ,,. an d flu id sp ee d V, or· d
F = F( D, p,Jl, V)
wi th th eo ry or ex pe rim en t be in g ne ed ed to de te m lin
e th e na tu re of fu nc tio n/ . M or e fo rrm,i lly , w e w ri te
g( F. D, p, J1 , V) = 0
wh er e g is an un sp ec ifi ed fu nc tio n, <;liffereot fr om f.
Th e Bu ck in gh am Pi theor¢_m [4] sta te s th at w e ca n
~s fo rm a re lat io m; hi p .Q.e t\y ee n n pa ra n1 ete rs of th
e fom1 ··
g( q1 ,q 2, .• .• q,i )= O
in to a correspe>n<;lir;ig re la tio ns hi p be tw ee n 11 -11 1 in
de pe nd en t dimensionless_ff p~ rn ~t er s in th e fo rm
G(IT1 ,IT2, ... ,TI,,_,,,) =Q
or
Il1 =G 1( Il2 , .. . ,.IJ,,~,,.)
w bt re m is us ua lly th e nu ru m um pu m be r; r, of in
de pe pd en t dimensions (e ,g., m as s, le ng th , tim e)
require<;! to de fin e th e di m en sio ns. of al l th e pa ra m
ete rs l/1 ,'q2, ... ,cj,,. (Si;>metimes m #- 1'; W e wi ll se e th
in Ex am p_le 7 .3 .) Fo r ex am pl e, fo r th e sp he re pr ob 1s
lem , we wi ll see (i! l Ex.ample 7 .1) th at
g( F, D ,p ,J l, V) = 0 Qr F= F( tf, p, Jt , I')
le~ ds to.
G
G -F- - -I'.) = 0
11 20 2' pV D .
or
Th e th eo re m do es. no t pr ed ic t the fu nc tio na l fo rm

of G or G1. Th e. functional re lat io n am o_ng th e
in de pe nd en_t di m en sio nl es s TI pa ra m et er s m us t _'!>e
detennir;ied ex pe rim en t~ ly . _
Th e 11 _ 111 cij me .ns io nl es s n pa ra m et er s ob t.µ ne d fro
m the pr oc ed ur e are mdepem:lenL Arr pa ra m et er
is no t in de pe nd en t if it ciµi be fo m1 ed fro m any comb
ir;iati9n qf on e or more of thCt otQer IT pa ra m et er s.
Fo r-e xa m pl e. if
or
th en ne ith er n no r 0 6 is in de p~ n? en t of t~ e oth_er
5 di rn en siq r;i l~ s paraniet~rs. .
Se ve ra l m et ho ds fo r de t~ rm m rn g th e drmens10.nless
p;,u-ameters ar e availl}ble. A de ta ile d pr oc ed u~
is pr es en ted in th e-r es t of .th is se ct io n.
7.j Buckingh am Pi Theorem 249
Reg~cijes s of the method.to"be used to determine. the ~imensi9n less paniineters . om~ begins by list-
)1:i~ 1,ill,ditn¢.ns ional parameters thnt ilri: ~owil (~t believe~ to effe9t,Vt¢ given flow phenomen on. S_o me
.e~p~tience ac\fuittedly is h.elpfuJ.in compiling the list. Students, who cio o·ot have this experience , •o ften
:~ troubled by the need to apply engineerin g judgment in an apparent· massive dose. However, it is
cliffic_ult tt) g9 wro11g if·a generou~ selection qf parait:Jeiers is made.
_ If you suspect (li_a t _a phenomen on deperids on a given parameter, in¢1ude it. If you't suspicion
i$ correct, expetiine~ ts wµl show that the parameter must be included to g_e t consistent results. ff
the)>~·e ter is extraneous , aJi extra fl parameterm i,.y re&ult, but experimen ts will later show'that 'it
,r.tj~y b~:#i,i:niriate_cL Therefore; do not be afraid to include all tjle .p1}I'aJlleters that you feel are imp<>rtant.
The. sL"< steps listc_d below (wlli~h may si;¢,¢ -~ ·bit ~bstritct but are actually easy to do) :o utline a
_recommen ded procedu~ f.or detemunin g the. rt para_m eters:
Step· J. 'List all the-d1n1,i11siQ11al pr;,ra11ieters invo/i,ed. (Le\'{' b!.l th~ ntimf,>e_r of parameters. ) If all of ili_e pertinent
paiame~ers ru:e not included,:a rela_tion·mny be obt~n!ld; !mt ~l will not give. the complete·st orr. Ifp¥llffiet.ers
that ncluall;y. have np: ef_fec( ort .t,he:iphysicnl" phenomeno n a.i:i; i_qcludc;:d, either the prc>cess of d(mc::nsional
nn~lysi,s. will show·-LQ_a(-.thesc do·np~ emer the ~!nti_OIJ so.ught, or·one.or· more dime·nsioftl ~s groups wm·
io
tie ol:!tained thntexpeiim ents wiil sho.w be exOiU'leoils . .
Step.2.. Select a set off11i1dame,,tai (pr.imary) dime,isioiis, ~g., Ml.,1 orFLt; (Note that foi::h~t transfer.pro blems yo11;
may nlso need T-for.tempera:rure,.i!n~ WJ:1lc::~crj_cal systems, q.:for.chat~e,)
'$ {ep 3, i)st rl,e dimcmsions of all pcira111erers ;;; .tem,s ofjirima,i:jr.dirn_ensio11s. (Le~ r _1:,e Lb:e: nurriber of piimaiy
d1mensioiis.) Eilher- l'orc_c:: or.niliss mily be s,elecic<l ~ a .pnmnry dimension,
~iep4, Select ct·ser oJ-r di111e11sional-para111eters that i;ii:/udes.all-1/ie prinzary(f_i mensiqns. These·parar ileters wi,U
nil be _c ombiried with each of lhc:relfiliiningparamit~Cl!,-one ofc!:tose·ata time; and so,will be calfed-re~r~ t-
irig pnnimecers. No repeating piltain~ter· ~bo~l4 -have -ciim·e nsions that ~ a power of the dimen·s ions
o( another repenting pluurncrer.; for eX:nmple, do 1i6t incl~de llot!q1~ ·area (L'l) and a second· momc;:n~:
o_f area (L4 ) as rej>c::~iing· parameters. Tne l;ep!l_ali!lg.piµar'Detets chosen may. npP,e;u-i,n all .the -dimension, -
less. grQµps obtained; consequent iy. de:> i"ibt irtciutle t~ie _d ep_1mdent param~ler--a mong- chose s¢lc~te4 in
this s\ep.
. $iep-5. Set. 1ip dime11sio11al eq1101ib11s. combining 1l1e para11fetets selected i_rz Step 4 with each ofrlie orhf;rparq-
-niet<#_i.:r in q,n:i, ro form dimension/e ssgr.01/ps. (There ,v_ill be l'!-m-equations.) Solv!! ¢e·duµensio1ialeqµ0,e
cioils-to obtain· the n-m dimensionle ss groups. · · ..
-$t11Jr 6, :Check to see th<!! ¢.ach ·gro1ip obtai{led is dimensioilless. I.I'_mass was initially sele_cted as a. ptimacy dimeJi-
- $J9J!,j_t is. wise. to,clie~~ !Ji~ ~ups .using force ~ -~-primnty i:limensiog. or vii;e versa. ·
_ 'Fii¢•·- 'filnGtiprial ~ia;)ionshi p !}li'i<;>IJg the rt paraJAc,:t~~ mus_t be det~"ajl.ip~cJ experime n~y.
'.fli~, t;!.etruled: procedil~:fgr qeterniiniillf t:9¢ dirm~risi•niess n p~eters is illusaji:ted :in Exai:rip!es
'Ztili":iaj'l;g 7,z.:. -
G i ven: F=f (p, V.D,p)- for,:c!;!'/n¢>'Q'.fh::,~pb.~re.

Find: An appr.9.pgp,re set o'f'fui:ilt!.lfl.1.QilJ~:groups.
So Iu t i op : (Pii.9-l~JJ;numbers refi!t"tp/~t~ pfi,.ct~J:be pros~9-~ fOr:'de\~g:a jning dimension less TI parameters .)
CD., f :y D p ,, 11-==·s aime~°9#1:il..;pnramer~g
<-%J, 'Selecf'i~."r-imary dimensiol1,S,;L\tJ\.L, and t.
q)s F V 0. p I'
fr
250 Chapter 7 Dimensio nal Analysis and Similitud e
@ Select repeating panune_ters p, V,D.

m = r= 3 repeating parameters
G) Then n-m = 2 dimensionl ess 0groups ·u ·· ·I · · .
· ·· · wi resu. t. Setting up d1mensionnl· equations,
·· -
we obtruh
Pi=p"V'' DcF and (iYG)h<Lt(~L)=MoLo,o

Equating the exponents 9f M,L, !lQd t results in
M:
L:
t;
a+J =·o
-3a+b+ ~+ l =O
..,.b-2=0
a=-1}
c=-2 Therefore, 111 = P:;D
2
b=-2
'Similarly,
112 = p 0 vcJjfµ and

M: d+ l=·O
L: ..-e3d+e +f-l .=O
r: ~e- 1=0
@ Check using F, i, r dii;ne;nsi!)ns
[n.1=,r ~]
l/j~D2 nnd
. L"· GD[
: 21
F~ ~ . ~ 2 =1
Ft- . : L.
where ( ) means "li!.iS di¢~n$lons .of/ • ani;i
rni1= b~o] Ft L 4 c 1
L2 Ft2 r.r.= 1
The functional reiationshi p is Il 1 =f(I12 ), or
:as noteq before;. Tl::te form ·of the functic;>ri; J i must be de.t ermined expetj-
mentaiiy (see Fig, 7.1).
~~;pres$ ~ 4foP,. .6:~fot stea?y; Tco~p~ss ible v_isco~s fiow thro:u~h a s_traigh.~.:~?rizi:'.>nral pipe de;pen~S: «?ii' the;pip~ Ieng¢, :l,
tbei!l,~1:*-g~ v:¢lopity, V; the,flord-v1scQs1ty, .µ, the pipe ~~e;t~r,.Q , the fluid dens1ty,,,p; :ang the averoie "n;;~glm~ s" height, e.
Detenrupe a i¢( of.~ensio_ niess groups that can b¢ us¢{1. to. c~~late data.
J~i,v.en: 41t=}(p,V JJ,l,µ ;<J) .f or flow iI.l .a cir"Guiar.pipe.

F1.n:ct; A sµiwbie'.set of.dime11$1oliles:;; ,grol,lp,s.
7.3 Buckingham Pi Theorem 251
So I4J i.Q!'l:· "(Cµ:cl~g i;il!nlbers refei:cto. steps iii' .lli~>ptocedute.fot:C1-~t.~rfiiini'ng dimei:i:sio.QJ.~ s,:ft'"i1.~ ame1ers.)
CD:- An .P Ji v l .d e n = 7 dimensfonal parameters
: · :~to9s: ;riin7 d;~q:iQ~:•:• @..d / · . ..
M M' b .M . . .
I..,j;?-" £'3 L{ t L. i '/1, r..=;3 piiqiafy d-in1ens1ons-
._: :.~:;!.~~~~;;!,~gtt:;~~~•;!~-swfu,.~:it~;;:~::::::e~a::~:~:;~_Q
_tro_n·~w~·•n~v~t
f:i~=,=pf'lZ,'fD[Jµ ?I:!.~'
f'1:(f%Yr1;.y/if:
-·'( xf), -·-\r:J •.. o ,
.-.f{,ri'LOto
.if!_··~_ J:>,; ,:a•~-J } d =-

I
kl· O,=e:=3d+ e + f - l e= - L
·r:: Q:=L--,,e - 1 J = -1
TI.i~~i9~:J.1J2:.;=-~;ii
-~ =piV ~B 1e ap.g.
(~/ (!) \11,}"'1!/=Mfi'i 1Ii9·

Mt :::1'. :.t_..· . .: .. -- :;~· :~= o
L -~- 9:="=,~J+ :e+ l + 'f } k =0
r: 0~= ::..ck l= - 1
Tne¢fo~ -'q, =
15
F .L4' r.7
a nd i.,i 1'"72 •"fi ::.;. } ·ana .t =;J
iWtl' Jt: ~t i !'.~t and
L
t :;: I
Ei"niµi.yi tfi.:~-:fimctiona.l-~ )~(iops,1}1.p,-is.
··r:·r•·1/ ~J/ .:.3·, ·rt,.\'
- -~(·:.'.rr·.2! rr ~-4 ·1.:
or
1;:11~ _prq_c edore oµtlinecJ above, where _1n is tll.ken equal tQ- r (the fewCcSJ indepe!l9e1n climeilsions
~quire d ti:> i;pecjfy-the Qimerlsions of all panin'\eters.inyolved), almost alw~ys produce$ tti~·c;:_o m:ct.n~
1;:,¢,;::pf.di.J:Qe_nsjQ1'1~s Il paro_.r;neters. In a few casec5, trouble aris~.be.caq,se the nµmber of Pn!ll~.dimen-
·-S.fqn s differs .w!J,e11 "arialiles ;ire ~xp.t¢ssed in tem:iS- of different ~yste.ms:ofdimensions<(e.g., ML{ or.FLt).
··t'i-fo,V.:alue of-nJ c;:ag l>~ ~tablisbed with certaintr by,d~tennining the rank of the dimensional matrix; that
rati~ ~~-,m. Althqµgh .-qot !!\,e.ded inmo~~ gppl.i"llJions, foi: completen~s. this procedure is illustr:a~e.d-ig
:Exru:µp]e 7.3,
25 2 Ch ap ter 7 Di m en sio na l An aly sis an d Si m ili tu de
Ex am pl e 7 .3 cA Pl ll, AR Y EF FE CT : US E OF DI M EN SI ON AL MATRI
X
V/ he n·a sn1a1l tub e is dip pe d int o -a po ol of liq ui d, su rfa ce
ten sio n ca us es a meniscus to for m at the free su rfa ce , wh ich
or d~ pr es se d de pe nd ing on the c;ontact an gl e at the liq uid i$ el ev at ed
~s oli d-g as interface. Ex pe rim en ts indicate that the ma gn itu
cij pil lai y effe~t:, ·4 h,_is a fu nc tio n of the tub e dia me ter , D, de of th is
liq uid sp ec ifi c weight, y, and su rfa ce tension, <J. De ter mi ne
of i.tidepeJ!de!lt 11 pa ram ete rs tha t ca n be fo rm ed an d ob th e nu m be r
tai n a se t.
Gi ve n: ah =: f(D ,r, <1 )

Find: '(a) Nu mb er of ind ep en de nt tr p_a ram ete rs. L~
.. -- Tu pe
(b) On e se t of ti: ·p .i( am ete rs. · ~~ Al ~• --
-,- . ,i>
'
So lu tio n: (Gu:cle!i- nu mb ers re fe r to ste ps in the pr oc e_d ur

e fo r de tem un ing dimensionl~ss '-' .D :=
n pararrtetets.}
Liq uid
(D 4}1 D r u 11 = 4 di_.me ns ion al pa ra me ter s (Sp eci fic we igh t = --,
(i)·C bo o!;.e pri fr) ruy dim en sio ns (u_s e bo th .M ,L ,t an d F,
Surfat;e ten sm n = a)
L, t din ien sio ns to ill us_trate the
pr ob lem in de tet rnf rii ilg m) .
a) (a) M ,L , t
(b ) F, L, t
txh D r u
_6.h D r <J
MM
L L t}P · fJ L L !: _! _
J;? L
r= 3 -prim81)' dim en sio ns
r = 1 pri ma ry dim en sio ns
Th us fo r ea ch ~e t of pr im ~ dim en sio ns,w e as k, "Is m eq
ua l to r? "· Le t us chec;:k_ea ch .dimensional lliatrix to fin d ou
dim en sio na l ma tri ce s are t. T he
·
Ah D r /:1 6.h {5 r <J
M 0 0 l I F 0 0 l l
L l I -z 0 L l i = -3 '-1
t. 0, (j -2 -2
Th.e -ra nk of ~ ma tri x is eq ua l to th¢ or d¢f9 f i_&,s lar ~_e st

. -. --- . .
- no nz ero de t.¢rminAA~
o. -1 l 11
I '-'-2: () = '0 -( ll( -4 ,) +( l) (~ 2) =O _
3 I
I - I =s ~I +3 == 2, f:0 ·
0
·1~2
· 01·_- ' 4' =I= 0.. :.m =- 2 :.111 = 1
-~ :Z, '--i: .... . ' ' . in= /,r ni =r
-@}fij,::::::~.;.~hQose .O,.r as..rep ea tin g p~ et er s. ,n = 2. Ch oo s_e E>., y, ns·,repeating pilfaitt~t~rs.
($)·'il.--e-'ri:Z:,==-2 ;cliAlensiortless w, ou ps Wi ll ~ ul t. n. -m = 2 dimensi<,>~l~s &roups· Wiil resµJr,
II1 = D°'rb Ah an d n, .= P~ /6:h and
(l).. a(£?-M_f2 ·_)b(.f.,,) = M °£ o,o

7.3 Buckingham Pi Theorem 253
M: b+O=O } F: f =O }
b=O e=-1
L: a-2b+I=O L: e - 3/ + I =0
,: -2b+0=0 a=-1
6.h Ah
Therefore, I1 1 = --- Therefore, rr I = D
D
(L)II (~) ,, !:... =F°Lo,o

L L
M: d+_l -=0 } d=-l F: h+I=O } h= - I

L: c-2d=O -•
t: -2d-2=;:Q c= - 2 L: g-3h-l =0 g=-2
Therefore, n,- = L a
. D2y Therefore, TI2 = D 2 J.
@ -Check, using F, L,t dimensions Check, using M,L_,t dimensions
(Ili] == [~'] and

L
z.:=l [IId= [DAh] and
[Il2] = [;r] and

F l L3
- ·- - = l
LL2 F (IT2]= [;r] and
Ml L"h2
,2
---=1
L2 M
"Ill~~fore, both systems of dimensions yield the same .dimensionless II para-

.meters. The predicted functional relationship is
rr, =J(TI2 ) or Ah=/(~)

D D-y
The il-m dimensionless groups obtained from the procedure are independent but not unique. If a
different set of repeating parameters is chosen, different groups result. The repeating p_a ramecers are so
n~ed because they may appear in all the dimensionless groups obtained. Based on experience, viscos~
ity should appear in only one dimensionless parameter. Therefore 11 should 1101 be chosen as a repeating
parameter.
When we have a choice, it usually works out best to choose density p (girnensions M/L3 in the MLt
system), speed V (dimensions L/ r), and characteristic length L (dimension L) as repeating parameters
because experience shows this generally leads to a set of dimensionless parameters that are suitable for
correlating a wide range of experimental data; in addition, p, V, and Lare usually fairly easy to measure
or _"o therwise obtain. The values of the dimensionless parameters obtained using these repeating para-
meters almost always have a very tangible meaning, telling you the relative strength of various fluid
forces (e.g., viscous) to inertia forces-we will discuss several "classic·• ones shortly.
It's also worth stressing that, given the parameters you're combining, we can often determine the
uniqt,e -dimensional parameters by inspecrioll. For example, if we had repeating_param~ter:s p, v, a:nd L
254 Cha pte r 7 Dim ens ion al Ana lysi s and Sim ilitu de
and wer e com bini ng them with a para met er A representing the frontal area of an obje ct, it's fair ly
obv i-
ous~ that only th~ com bina tion Ai/ L2 is dim /r:si onle ss; experienced fluid mecl~anici~~ 3=1so kno w
~a t
pV~ ~rod_uce s dim ensi ons of stre ss. so any time a stress or force parameter anse s, divi ding by
pV - or
pV- L- w1l! pro duc e a dim ensi onle ss qua ntity . . ,
We will find usef ul a mea sure of the mag nitu de of fluid inertia forces, obtained from ~ew ton _s sec
-
ond law , F = ma~ the dim ens ions of iner tia forc e are thus MLr -2. Usin g p, V, and L to buil d the dim
en-
sion s of ma lead s to the uniq ue com bina tion p\12L2 (only p has dimension M, and only V 2 wil l pro
2 2 duc e
dim ensi on 1- ; L is then requ ired to leav e us wilh ML r- 2).
If 11 -: 111.= l, then a sing le dim ensi onle ss n parameter is obtained. In this case , the Buc kin gha
m Pi
theo rem md1cates that the sing le TI para met er mus t be a con stan t.
7-4 Sig nif ica nt Dim en sio nle ss Groups in Flu id Me cha nic s
Ove r the yea rs, seve ral hun dred diff eren t dim ensi onle ss groups that are important in eng inee ring
hav e
bee n iden tifie d. Fol low ing trad itio n, eac h such grou p has been give n lhe name ofa prom inen t scie ntis
t or
eng inee r, usu ally the one who pion eere d its use. Several are so fundamental and occ ur so freq uen
tly in
flui d mec han ics th;ll we sho uld take time to learn thei r definitions. Understanding thei r phy sica l sig
nif -
ican ce also give s insi ght into the phe nom ena we stud y.
For ces enc.o unte red in flow ing flui ds incl ude those due to inertia, viscosity, pres sure , gra vity , sur
-
face tens ion, and com pres sibi lity . The ratio of any two forces will be dimensionless. We hav e pre vio
usl y
sho wn that the iner ti~ forc e is prop orti ona l to pV2 L 2 •
We can now com pare the rela tive mag nitu des of various fluid forces to the iner tia forc e, usi ng the
foll owi ng sche me:
Vis cou s forc e ~ µVL µ

pV2 L2 = pV L
Pres sure forc e ~ 6.pA <X 6.pL2
pres sure ~ tJ.pL2 6.p
so inertia pV2 L2 = pV 2
Gra vity forc e ~ mg cxg pL3 so grav ity~ gpL3 gL
inertia p\r..L2 = v2
Sur face tens ion ~ aL so surface tension uL a
inertia pV2 L2 = pV 2L
Com pres sibi lity forc e ~ E..,A ex: E.,L2 so compressibility forc e~ E.,L2 E.,
inertia p\/2 £2 = pV 2
Ail of the dim ensi onle ss para met ers liste d abo ve occ ur so frequently, and are so pow erfu l in pre dic ting
the rela tive stre ngth s of vari ous fluid forc es, that they (slightly mod ifie d-us uall y by taki ng the inv
ers e)
·h ave bee1;1 give n iden tify ing nam es.
The firs t para met er, µ/p VL, is by trad ition inve rted to lhe form pVL /,1, and was actu ally exp lor
ed
inde pe.n den tly of dim ens iona l ana lysi s in the 188 0s by Osbol"T!I! Reynolds, the Brit ish eng ine er,
wh o
stud ied the tran sitio n betw een lamin.:ir and turb ulen t flow regimes in a tube. fle disc ove red tha
t the
pru:ameter (lat er nam ed afte r him )
pVD VD
Re= - - = -
1' V
is a crite rion by whi ch the flow regi me may be dete anin ed. Late r experiments hav e sho wn 1.ha
t t11 e
~ey ~~/ ds mm iber is a key para met er for c;>t.qer flow case s as well. Thu s, in genera,!,
.Re, ' p,V f ... \fJ.,

. ... :!f' v (7 .ii )
whe re Lis a cha ract eris tic leng th·d esc ript iveq f the flow field ge.ci(Jletry. The Rey nold s num ber
is the
ratio of iner tia• forc es to visc ous forc es. Flo ws with "lar ge" Reynolds num ber gen eral ly a:re tur
bul ent .
7.4 Significan t Dimensio nless Groups in Fluid Mechanic s 255
Flows in which I.he inertia forces are "small" compared with the viscous forces are characteris tically
laminar flows.
2
In aerodynam ic and other model testing, it is convenient to modify the second parameter, ilp/pV ,
by inserting a factor ½to make the denominat or represent the dynamic pressure (the factor, of course,
does not affect the dimension s). The ratio
t::.p
Eu=-- - (7. 1].)
1
-pVi
i
is formed. where t::.p is the local pressure minus the freestteam pressure. andp and V are properties of the
freestream flow. This ratio has been named after Leonhard Euler, the Swiss mathemati cian who did
much early analytical work in fluid mechanics . Euler is credited with being the first to recognize the
role of pressure iri fluid motion; the Euler equations of Chapter 6 demonstra te this role. The Euler num-
ber is the ratio of pressure forces to inertia forces. The Euler number is often called the pressure coef-
ficient, Cw
In the s rudy of cavitation phenomen a, the pressure difference, t::.p. is take n as t::.p = p- Pu, where p is
the pressure in the liquid stream. and Pu is the liquid vapor pressure at the test temperatur e. Combinin g
these with p and V in the stream yields the dimension less parameter called the cavitation number,
(7. 13)
The smaller the cavitation number, the more likely cavitation is to occur. This is usually an unwruited
ph_e norilenon.
William Froude was a British naval architect. Together with his son, Robert Edmund Froude, he
discovere d that the parameter
V
Fr= - - (7. i4)
.JiL
was significan t for flows with free surface effects. Squaring the Froude number gives
? v2
Fr=-
gL
which may be interpreted as the ratio of inertia forces to gravity forces (it is the inverse of the third force.
2
ratio; V /gL, that we discussed above). The length, L, is a characteris tic leng th descriptive of the flow
field. In the case of open-chan nel flow, the characteris tic length is the water depth; Froude n_w nbers less
thari unicy indicate subcritical flow and values greater than unity indicate supercritic al flow. 'We will
have much more to say on this in Chapter l l.
By conventio n, the inverse of Ille fourth force ratio, u/pV2 L, discussed above, is called the Web~r
number; it inpicates the"ratio of inertia to surface tension forces
Tile vaJue· of the Weber number is indicative of the existence of. and frequency of, capillary w;i.ves at a
free surface.
In the 1870s, the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach introduced the parameter
. v
-·M :;:::.,,--.
.9
25 6 .Ch ap ter 7 Di me ns ion al An aly sis an d Sim ili tu de
wh ere V is the flo w sp ee d an d c is the loc al son ic speed. Analysis

an d experiments ha ve sh ow n th at th e
Ma ch nu mb er is a ke y pa ram ete r tha t ch ara cte riz es compressibility
ma y be wr itte n effeclS in a flow. Th e M ac h nu m be r
V \f V
M=-=--= - -
c [<fp (£.
Vd/J v-;;
~vhic_h is the inv ers e of the fin al for ce rat io, Eu /p\1 2, discussed abo
ve, and can be int erp ret ed as a ra tio of
ine rua for ces to for ces du e to co mp res sib ilit y. For truly incompre
ssible flow (and no te tha t un de r so m e
co nd itio ns ev en liq uid s are qu ite co mp res sib le), c = oo so tha t M
=
Eq ua tio ns 7 . I I thr ou gh 7 . 16 are s~ me of the most com mo nly use d
0.
dimensionless gro up ing s in flu id
me ch an ics be cau se for an y flo w pa tte rn the y immediately (even
bef ore perfom1ing an y ex.pe rimenL<; or
an aly sis ) ind ica te the rel ati ve im po na nc e of ine nia , viscosity,
pressure, gravity, sur fac e ten sio n, an d
co mp res sib il ily.
7-5 Fl ow S im ila rit y an d M od el Studies

To be use ful , a mo de l tes t mu s.t yie ld da ta tha t can be;: sca led to ob
tai n the forces , mo me nts , an d dy na m ic
loa ds tha t wo uld e xis t on the ful l-s cal e pro tot yp e. Wh at con dit ion
s mu st be me t to en sur e the sim ila rit y of
mo de l an d pro tot yp e flows'?
Pe rha ps the mo st ob vio us req uir em en t is tha t the mo del an d pro
Vid eo: totype must be ge om etr ica lly s in' l-
ila r. Ge om etr ic sim ilo rit y req uir es tha l lhe mo de l an d pro tot yp e
G ,·t,mL'lr ic. N ot be the san ,e sha pe, an d tha t all lin ea r
Dy1um1ic. dim en sio ns of the mo de l be rel ate d to co rre spo nd ing dim en sio ns
of the prototype by a co ns tan t sc al e
Si1111/un() _. Flo ll' fac tor .
f'u,·1 a Bfn ck I A sec on d req uir em en t is tha t the mo de l an d pro tot yp e flows mu
st be kinemcuically sim ila r. Tw o
flo ws are kin em ati cal ly !>imilar wh en l,he vel oci tie s at cor res po
nd ing points are in the sa me di re cti on
an d dif fer on ly by a co ns tan t sca le fac tor . Th us tw o flo ws tha t are
kinematically sim ila r als o ha ve str ea m -
lin e pa tte rns rel ate d by a co ns tan t sca le fac tor . Sin ce the boun
daries fom1 the bo un din g str ea ml in es .
flo ws tha t are kin em ati cal ly sim ila r mu st be geo me tric all y simila
r.
In pri nc ipl e, in ord er to mo de l the pe rfo rm an ce in an infinite flo
w field correctly, kin em atf o sin 1-
Uaricy wo uld req uir e tha t a wi nd tun ne l of inf ini te cro ss sec tio n
be used to obtain da ta for dr ag on an
ob jec t. In pra cti ce, thi s res tri cti on ma y be rel ax ed con sid era bly ,
permitting use of eq uip me nt of re as on -
Vid eo: ab le siz e.
Gl! om t.'l n{°. No t Ki ne ma tic sim ila rit y req uir es tha t the reg im es of flo w be-th e sam
D_,·ncm1ic.
e for model an d pro tot yp e. If co m -
pre ssi bil ity or cav ita tio n eff ecl S, wh ich ma y ch an ge ev en the quali
Si111ile1r11y: Flo w tative patterns of flo w, are no t pr es en t
in the pro tot yp e flo w, the y mu st be av oid ed in the mo de l flow.
Pa st" IJ/ock 2
W he n ~wo Do ws ha ve for ce dis tri bu tio ns suc h tha t identical typ
es of forces are pa ral lel an d ar e
rel ate d in ma gn itu d_e by a co ns tan t sca le fac tor at all cor res po nd
ing points, the flo ws are dy11a111ically
sim ila r.
· Th e req uir em en ts for dy na mi c sim ila rit y are the rnos.t res
trictive. Kinematic sim ila rit y re qu ire s
ge om etr ic sim ila rit y; kin em ati c sim ila rit y is a ne ces sar y, bu t no
t sufficient, reqLJirement fo r dy na m ic
sim ila rity .
To est ab lis h the co nd iti on s req uir ed for- co mp le te dy na ~ic simila
rity, all for ces tha t ar_e i m po na n t
in the flo w sit ua tio n mu st be co ns ide red . Th us the eff ect s of vis
cou s forces, of pre ssu re fo rce s, of su r-
fac e ten sio n for ces , an d so on , mu st be co ns ide red . Te st co nd
itio ns mu st be est ab lis he d su ch th at al l
im po ~~ t for ces are rel ate d by the sam e sca le fac tor be tw een
model an d pro tot yp e flo ws . W he n
dy na mi c sim ila ril y ex ist s, da ta me asu red in _a m? ?e l flo w ma y
be rel ate o_ qu ~n ~ta ~v ely to co nd iti on s
in the pro tot yp e flo w. W ha t, the n, are the.co nd ltl on s tha t en sur
e dy na mi c s1m ila nty qe tw ee n m od el
an d pro tot yp e flo ws ? _ . _
Tii e Bu ck ing ha m Pi the ore m ma y be use d to· ob tam the govc:r. _ . .
n mg dim ens ion les s gro up s fQ r a flo w
ph en om en on ; to ac hie ve dy ri~ c sim ila rit y be tw een geometri~
al.ly similar flow_s, we mu st ma ke su re
tha t eac h ind ep en de nt dim en sio nle ss gro up ha s me sam e va lue
,m .the model and m the _p rot oty pe . n 1 en
n~ t on ly wi ll the for ces ba ve-.the sam e rel ati ve ~p:or tan ce, bu t
als o _th~ <lepeodent dim en sio nle ss gr ou p
wi ll ha ve the sam e va,Iue -in .th e mo de l an d pro_tqt yp e.
7.5 Flow Similari ty and Mo d el St udies 257
For example, in considering the drag force on a sphere in Example 7.1. we began with
F=f(D. V.p,Jt)
The Buckingham Pi Lheorem predicted the functional relation
F (pVD)
pV2D2 =/1 µ
In Section 7.4 we showed that the dimensionless parameters can be viewed as ratios of forces. Thus. in
considering a model flow and a prototype flow about a sphere (the flows are geometrically similar). the
flows also will be dynamically similar if the value of the independent parameter, p VD Iµ, is duplicated
between model and prototype, i.e., if
pVD)
(_J_I_ (pVD)
mo<lcl == µ pm101ype
Furthem10re. if
Remodel = Repm101ypc
then the value of the dependent parameter, F / p v2 D 2 , in the functional relationship. will be duplicated
between model and prototype, i.e.,
G:-D 2
) model= G;D 2
) pm1o1ypc
and.the results detem1ined from the model study can be used to predict the drag on the full-scale prototype.
The actual force on the object caused by the fluid is not the same for the model and prototype, but the
value of its dimensionless group is. The two tests can be run using different fluids, if desired, as long as
the Reynolds numbers are matched. For experimental convenience. test data can be measured in a wind
tunnel in- air and the results used to predict drag in water, as illustrated in Example 7.4.
~ ample 7 .4 sftvULARIT't:: c,RA(; OF A soNAR TRA.Nsoucr:;R

The drag cif a sQnll!' transduc«':r i_s to be. predicted, based on wind tunnel test d.a ta. The protocype, a 1-ft diame~ spbe~. is to be
towed at 5 knots (nautical miles per hour) in seawater at 40°F. The model is 6 in. in•!'iiAIDeter. De~pPin~the required $ t i;pee&in
air. If the drag of the model at these test conditjons is _0.60 lbf,_estimate the cµu~ of the prototype.
Given: Sein~ transducer co be tested in a wind tµnpel.

Fil°ld: (n) Vm.
(I:!) Fp.
r-o,,= 1 ft /Dm=6 in.
S.o lutlori: ~iQce the prototype;, operates in wat.e.r VP= 5 knots

G-F,, Q
I
• Fm= 0.60 lbf
~d the model tesr .is to.be perfom{eg in air, uset\11 I Wa.ter at 40°F
Air
~~~1.~ ~an b.e exp,ect~4 oqly i~ t:a~jt:itjon effects
~e absentin the protpcypeflow and COlllp~sU::,ility
efre~ts ·~e absent from µie m.qd~l .cest. Unde.r t,li~¢
ci:mditi9µs,
--F .
. = fµ-(pVD)
pV2D2 ·..
and the
. -·· test
. . .
shouid be
.
run at
258 Cha pte r 7 Dim ens ion al Ana lysi s' and .Sim ilitu de
tp-_ensu¢.dy nam ic sipulnrity. ·F or seaw ater at 40° F, p = 1."99 slug/ft.3 and ~ L69 xw -5 fil/s . At prot
11 Qtype con diti ons ,
. ilmi ft hr . .
Vp =5 ~h x6 08 0- - . X - - = 8.4 4ft/ s
r mru 360 0s
VpD p
R ep =- ft s - 5
-= 8.4 4- x I ftx _ · =4. 99x 10
Vp S 1.69 X 10-S ft2
The model test con ditip ns mus~ dµpli ~ate IDis Reynoicts. nu~J;>-~r. T!ws
·. VmOm . . . . 5·
u,,, = 4.9
. 9x 10
~em :;:: - - - -
.
Fot -ajr,at S-TP, p =0.Q 023 8·sluMft:3 and u= 1.51 x 10-4 ft2/s. ~e.wing tunnel m_u~t be ope ~ted at
v:--m=
- Remum
--c== 4 .·99· X 10 ·
• 5 Xl. ·
57x l0- ft.2 ------t--,.
4 -'-X-
Dm s 0.5-ft
.
~
V,,, == tS.7 ft/s +- --- -"- --~ --' ~- ~- -'- -~ --- -.. ..:: :
Thi s spe ed is low en_ougb, tQ rieg lect com pres sibi lity effe c.ts.
At thes e test con ditio ns; tf!~ iriodel and pro toty pe fJow s are dynamically suni.iat, Hen ce
F ) F )
P f1202 .
_
m
=p. vin
.
i . p_
an~
If _CJ!Xi~ation-wer e exp ect ¢d- if the. son ar pro be \1/~~ ·9Q¢.~te'9 !\J liigp spee d-
nea t •ffie free :sw. iace .of the s~aw1it¢.r-'--.i;li~1J µse ful .resu lts ·coii,ld n<5t: !*-) il:>talnecl
frdirt~~-rt.i~4~1 i~rin wr, ·
Inc om ple te Sim ila rity

We hav e sh.own that to ach ieve com plet e dyn ami c sinu iarit y between geometrically sim ilar flow s,
it is
nece ssar y to dup lica te the valu es of the inde pen den t dimensionless groups; by so doin g the val ue of
the
dep end ent para.meter is then dup lica ted.
in the sim plif ied situ atio n of Exa mpl e 7.4, duplica,ting the Reynolds number valu e bet wee n mo del
and prot otyp e ens ured dyn ami caU y sim ilar flows. Tes ting in_air allowed the Rey nold s num ber to
be
dup lica ted exa ctly (thi s also cou ld hav e bee n accomplishecl in a water tul)nel for this situ atio n). Th e
dra g
forc e on a sph ere actu ally dep end s on the n11ture of the boundru:y-fayer flow. Therefore, geo met ric:
s_im -
ilarity requ ires that the rela tive surf ace roug hne ss of the model and prototype be the sam e. Thi s me
ans
that rela tive rou ghn ess also is a para met er that mus t be duplicated betWe~n mQclel and pro toty pe situ
a-
tions. If we assu me that the mod el was con stru cted c_arefully, measured vali.t¢s ofd nig from mo del
tes ts
cou ld be scal ed to pred ict drag for:: the ope ratin g con diti ons . of th_e ._prototype. ·
In man y mod el stud ies, to at:bieve dyn ami c sim ilari ty requires duplication of seve ral dim ens ion les~
grou ps. In som e case s, com plet ~ dyn ami c sllllilarity be_tw_een II!Odelimd-prototype_may not be att~ nab
l~.
Det erm inin g the drag forc e (res ista nce ) of!l;!llil:fa~e ship 1s an exainpl_e of such.a s1tua_tion _Res ista nce
a surf ace ship aris es from skin fric tion on lheJ iµll (vis cou sfor ces) -.;w~ s11rface wav e resi stan ce (gr 011
avi ty
forces). Com plet e dyn ami c sim ilari ty reqliires<{hat both Rey nold s and Fro.u de num bers be dup lica
ted
between mod el anci pro toty pe,
7.5 Flow Similarity and Model Studies 259
In general it is not possible to predict wave resistance analytically, so it must be modeled. This
requires that
V,,, F Vp
Fr.,,= I/'= rp= 1/2
(gL,,,) - (gLp)
To match Froude numbers between model and prototype therefore requires a velocity ratio of
v,,, = (Lm) 1/2
VP Lp
.t o ensure dynamically similar surface wave patterns.
Hence for ;my model length scale, matching the Froude numbers determines the velocity ratio. Only
the kinematic viscosity can then. be varied to match Reynolds numbers. Thus
Rem = VmLm =Rep= VpL,,
Vn, Vp
leads to the condition that

v,,. Vm Lm
lip= Vp Lp
If we use the velocity ratio obtained from matching the Froude numbers, equality 9f Reynolds numbers
leads. to a kinematic viscosity ratio requirement of
112
llm = (Lm) L,,, = (Lm) 3 2
/
lip Lp Lp Lp
If Lm/L,, = ,:xi (a typical length scale for ship model tests), then llm/vp must be ,doo· Figure A.3
shows that mercury is the only liquid wilh kinematic viscosity less th@ that of wacer. However, it is
only about an order of magnitude less, so the kinematic viscosity ratio required u;, duplicate Reynolds
11uml:>ers cannot be attained. ·
We conclude that we have a problem: ii is impossible in practice foi: this modeVprototype scali: of
1
-:X,.to satisfy both the Reynolds number and Fro.ude number criteria; at best we will be able to satisfy only
011e of them. In addition, water is the only practical fluid for most model res~ of ~e-surface flows. To
c;,btain cc;implete dynamic similarity then would require a full-scale test. However, all is nor lost: Model
studies do provide useful information even though compiete similarity cannot be obta.iil.ed. As an exam.-
pie, Fig. 7.2 shows data from a test ofa 1:80 scaje model ofa ship conducted at the U.S. Naval Academy
Hydromechanics Laboratory. The plot disJ>lays "resistance coefficient" dani, versus Froude numper. Toe
0.OOB ·r < i e l - - - . - - - - . . - - - - . - - - - . . - - - ~ - - - ~
. ocj:]soco
oO Total resistance
0 •
0.006 o• D •
o~ • ••
00
O· IF• • Bo:ianB
0
•- 8° 00
C: Oooo
"' Ooo o 0·
~ 0.004 000000 .
Viscous resistance OO OO O O ~888~
8
., 0
oO'-t:l . ti.
u 0
C:
0
.z'! 0.00.2. .oo
·:g 9
a: o O e:,ogoo00° wave resistanc~
oOoeos08°
0_000 0 0
-0.0020 0 .2 0 ,3
0 .. 1 0.4 0 .5 0 .6
Froud.e number
Fig. 7 •2 ., Data'from test of,1:8.0 scale model of U.S. Navy.guided missile frigate Oliver Hazard Perry (FFG-7). (Data from U.S.
Navel A<;ademy Hydromechanics Laboratory, courtesy of Professor Bruce Johnson.)
26 0 Ch ap te r 7 Di m en si on al An al ys is an d Si m ili tu
de
sq u_a re po in ts ar e ca lcu l:u ed fro m va lu es of to tal resist

ance measured, in th e test. W e wo ul d lik e to ob ta in
tJ1e co rre sp on di ng to tal re sis tan ce cu rv e fo r tlle full-s
cale sh ip.
If yo u th in k ab ou t it., w e ca n on ly m ea su re th e total dr
ag (tlle sq ua re da ta points). Th e to ta l dr ag is du e
to botJ1 wa ve re sis tan ce (d ep en de nt on tJie Fr ou de nu
mb er) an d friction resistance (d ep en de nt on th e R ey
no ld s nu m be r), an d it' s no t po ss ib le 10 de ter mi ne expe -
rimentally ho w much ea ch co nu ib ut es. W e ca nn ot
us e tJ1e to tal dr ag cu rv e of Fi g. 7 .2 fo r tJie full- sc ale
sh ip be ca use, as we have di sc us se d ab ov e, w e ca n
ne ve r se t up tll e m od el co nd iti on s so th at its Re yn ol
ds nu mb er a11d Fr ou de nu mb er m at ch th os e of th e
fu ll- sc ale sh ip . Ne ve nh el es s, we wo ul d lik e to ex tra ct
from Fi g. 7 .2 tlle co rre sp on din g to tal dr ag cu rv e fo r
tll e fu ll- sc ale sh ip . In m an y ex pe rim en tal sit ua tio ns
we ne ed to us e a cre ati ve "tr ick" to co m e up w it h a
so lu tio n. In th is ca se , tJ1e ex pe rim en ter s u se d bo un da
ry -la ye r tlleory (w hic h we di sc us s in C ha pt er 9) to
pr ed ic t tll e vi sc ou s re sis tan ce co m po ne nt of th e mo de
l (sh ow n as dia mo nd s in Fi g. 7 .2) ; th en th ey es ti -
m ate d tll e wa ve re sis tan ce (n ot ob tai na bl e fro m tJi
eory) by simply subtracting thi s tJ1 eo re tic al vi sc ou
re sis tan ce fro m th e ex pe rim en tal to tal re sis tan ce , po s
i_nt by po in t (sh ow n as cir cle s in Fi g. 7 .2 ).
Us in g th is cl ev er id ea (ty pi ca l of tJie ki nd of experin
1ental an d analytical ap pr oa ch es ex pe ri m en ta l-
ist s ne ed to em pl oy ), Fi g. 7 .2 th er ef or e gi ve s tJie wa
ve res ist an ce of the model as a fu nc tio n of Fr ou de
nu m be r. It is al so va lid fo r tJ1e fu ll- sc ale sh ip , be ca us
e wa ve res ist an ce de pe nd s on ly on tJ1e Fr ou de nu m -
be r! W e ca n no w bu ild a gr ap h sim ila r to Fi g. 7.2
va lid fo r th e full-scale sh ip: Si m pl y co m pu te fr om
bo un da ry -la ye r th eo ry tJ1e vi sc ou s re sis tan ce of tlle
fu ll- sc ale sh ip an d ad d tllis lo th e w av e re si st an ce
va lu es , po in t by po in t. Th e re su lt is sh ow n in Fi g. 7.3
. Th e wa ve resistance po int s ar e id en tic al to th os e
in Fi g. 7 .2; th e vi sc ou s re sis tan ce po in ts ar e co mp
ut ed fro m theory (a nd are di ffe re nt fr om th os e of
Fi g. 7. 2) ; an d th e pr ed ict ed to tal re sis tan ce cu rv e fo '
r th e full-scale sh ip is finally ob ta in ed .
In tJ1is ex am pl e, in c9 mp le1 e m od eli ng wa s ov er co me
by us in g analytical co mp ut ati on s: Lhe m od el
ex pe rim en ts m od el ed th e Fr qu de nu mb er . bu t no t
tJ1e Re yn ol ds nu mb er.
Be ca us e th e Re yn ol ds nu m be r ca nn ot be ma tch ed
fo r mo de l tests of su rfa ce sh ip s, th e bo un da ry -
la ye r be havi ot is no t tJ1e S!\IDe fo r mo de l ilnd pr ot ot yp
e, Th e mo de l Re yn old s n~ be r is on ly ( L,,, / Lp ) 31 2
as lar ge as tll e pr ot ot yp e va lu e, so th e ex ten t of lam
in ar flow in tJ1e bo un da ry lay er on tll e m od el is to o
lar ge by a co rr~ po nd in g fa cto r. Th e me tll od ju st de sc
rib ed as su me s tllat bo un da ry -la ye r be ha vi or ca n be
sc ale d. To m ak e tJ1is po ss ib le, tJ1e mo de l bo un da ry lay
er is "tr ip pe d" or "s tim ul ate p" Lo be co m e tu rb ul en t
at a lo ca tio n tll ar co rre sp on ds to th e be ha vi or on tll e
·full- sc ale ve sse l. ''S tud s" we re us ed to st im ul at e th
bo un da ry la ye r fo r th e m od el teSt resu lts sh ow n in e
Fi g. 7.2 .
· A co rre cti on so m et im es is ad de d to tlle fu\J-s ca le
co eff ici en ts calculated from m od el te st da ta . T hi s
co rre cti on ac co un ts fo r ro ug hn es s. wa vi ne ss ,.a nd un
ev en ne ss th at inevitably are mo re pr on ou nc ed on th
fu ll- sc ale sh ip th an on th e m od el . Co m pa ris on s be1'v e
een pr ed ict ion s from model tes ts an d m ea su re m en ts
m ad e in fu ll- sc ale tri als su gg es t an ov er all ac cu ra cy
wi th in ±5 pe rce nt [5].
0 .00 8 ,- -- -- ,- -- -- .. -- -- -, -- -- -- -. ,. -- --
.. .- -- -~
0 .00 6
c aa ao• CJOaa
D
"' To tal res ista nce a O
~ 0 .00 4 rfJ
§ • oo Ct J•• oooOOOoooo
~ o 0 • aa _o• o • o
c ~ o •--- o
~
o
0 .00 2 oo ~ 00 0 _ Oo
f O
00 00
00 00 o&eie,ePoooooooooooooo
c: o 0 oo0 -Visc_
ous resistance
0 00 00 00 0
0 .00 0 0 o Wave resistance
-0 .00 20
0.1 0.2 ·· 0.3 6.$ 0.6
Fro ud e nu mb er
Fig. , Resistance -of ful l-s ca le sh ip-pre dic ted frorri·mc
73 idel tes t res11I~. (Q ata Jfo rn- lJ;S. Navel Academy-H yd ro
me ch an lcs-
Lab_oratory, co urt esy of P~51fessor Bruce Jo hn so n.}
As we will see in Chapter 11. tlie Froude number is an important parameter in the modeling of rivers
and harbors. In these situations it is not practical to obtain complete similarity. Use of a reasonable model
scale would lead to extremely small water depths, so that viscous forces and surface tension forces would
have much larger relative effects in the model now than in the prototype. Consequently. different length
scales are used for the vertical and horizontal directions. Viscous forces in the deeper model now are
increased using artificial roughness elements.
Emphasis on fuel economy has made reduction of aerodynamic drag important for automobiles,
tn.Jcks, and buses. Most work on development of )ow-drag configurations is done using model tests.
Traditionally, automobile models have been bu ill 10 J. scale. at which a model of a full-s ize automobile
2 2
has a frontal area of about 0.3 m . Thus testing can be ~one in a wind tunnel with test section area of 6 m
or larger. At j scale, a wind speed of about 150 mph is needed to model a prototype automobile traveling
at tl1e legal speed limit. Thus t11ere is no problem with compressibility effects, but the scale models are
expensive and time-consuming to build.
A large wind tunnel (test section dimensions are 5.4 m high, I 0.4 m wide, and 2 I .3 m long; max-
imum air speed is 250 km/hr with the runnel empty) is used by General Motors to test full-scale auto-
mobiles at highway speeds. The large test section allows use of production autos or of full-scale clay
mockups of proposed auto body styles. Many other vehicle manufacturers are using comparable facil-
ities; Fig. 7.4 shows a full-size sedan under test in the Volvo wind tunnel. The relatively low speed per-
mits flow visualization using tufts or "smoke" streams. 1 Using fulJ-size ..models:· stylists and engineers
can work together to achieve optimum results.
It is harder to achieve dynamic similarity in tests of trucks and buses; models must be made to smal-
ler scale than those for automobiles.2 A large scale for truck and bus testing is I :8. To achieve complete
dynamic similarity by matching Reynolds numbers at t11is scale would require a test speed of 440 mph.
fig. 7 .4 Full-scale automobfle under test in Volvo wind tunnel, using smoke streaklines for flow visualization.
1 A mixture of liquid niuogen and steam may be used 10 produce "smoke'" su-eaklines 1ha1 evaporate and do nol clog lhe fine mesh
screens used 10 reduce I.he 1urbulerice level in n wind tunnel. S1reaklincs may be made 10 appear ··colored in photos by pill!=ing a
00
filler over the camera lens. This and other techniques for now visuahzalion arc dellliled m References (61 and (7).
2 Tiic vehicle lcnglh is particularly imponum in 1es1s al large yaw angles 10 simulate crosswind behavior. Tunnel blockage con•
si!lerations limit the uccepmble model size. See RcfeR!nCC [SI for recommended practices.
26 2 ·c h~ pt er 7 D1me.nsu;>nal An aly sis:.an d Si mi litu de
Th is ,vo ~ld inn :od uc e un wa nte d com pre ssi bil icy effects, and mo del
and prot<~type flo ws wo uld no t be
kin e~ au ca lly sim ila r. Fo rnm ate ly, tru ck s an d bu ses are "b luf f' ob
jec ts. Ex pen me nts sh ow tha t ab ov e a
ce~ nm Re yn old s nu mb er, the ir no nd im en sio na l drag becomes ind
ependent of Re yn ~ld s nu m? er [8 ].
(Fi gu re 7 .l act ua lly sh ow s an ex am ple of th is- fo r a sphere, the
dimensionless dra g 1s ·ap pr ox un ate ly
co ns t~ t for 20 00 < Re < 2 x 1os .) Al tho ug h similarity is no t comple
te, measured tes t da ta ca n be sc al ed
to pre dic t pro tot yp e dra g forces. Th e pro ced ure is illustrated in Ex
am ple 7.5.
Ai t Speed .(ri:i!s) t~.-JF -i1 ;s 26.Ci --

~0,1. 35 .0, 3~.5 40.~ <ltl:~l 46 .7_
D ~t fq ~' ® ;3.!Q_ --- ~~-41 ·6.()9 fo: j
1:ciJ_ l2.9. 14.7 16;9 18 .9
Us il}~ the _pr•:l"p¢tijes of, sta lid ard ,aii:; .~a lcu lat e and plo t tlie:cli
men§i9nless aeCQcJynamic drag. coefficfont,
.Co·= I F'p;;
.2pM,...A
"\!P.i_q~i!~:~yri,9l~:numbe~.8~~p--J?ii_,fµ;wher:e ·.1vis.•nJ_6~~r~ic;!tq. lr1I1_1:F ihe,m
ini mµ m,jes t-s·p ee4,above,whi\:;t1:•fi;o~!il},iins co ns tan t.
Estiroat~ Ji1t )i.~ttj.4 y~ an uc-dr agf fo~~•;aji_cJ-i:i:ower,~ _g µir em en t fo t tti~ P!Q
IQfyp~_.yeti~cl~-at 100 km/hr. (The wi dth-ilh d_frp nta ] .ar ea
·ti t:ih¢~rot?~~-~,~ ,~'ft@,4S~Jil,.~p.ec,tt>1.~ly.-J ·· · - · ·
Given: Da ta from a wih tl.,,Ll!!m~! t~ r"'gf .a model-:bu:s.~Pi:Q.~peyp~'Wm~
sca le is 1:16. St~ d1 1rd airils;1th~,(t~f fliiiiJ, .n~i.11!~i~ •widtlr of-ihft, an:c1:ft9nµilj_~ a of !Wft.2. M od el
- · · - · · · · · · ··
.F,od, ~=::~,J!if~:~:::::~::::::r::::
S:Ql!,!.tlon: The Il)od~l 'MfJ.fu·ij ·
4ffe:={J~_rA;p,,;s~[i~j:r~'8!i,W"*,~9il@~~lrl-~o;oaos·mi
''Ji'Aii;.ili~rn.d ~a mi c.: dtag.·cqi.ffisiMt--1~,t~y ,II~:~-~~uiati::cl'··as
. ~.
l<~:!E:w,,;;,,~11?'tli!)im•~ 0.-00~~m'·"'~ ;
53 .3F a( ~) . .
Co ~ (V (m /s) j2
' W~:R~moiii$,11µ:i:nher::IQ1!J b~ -.cajciJ..l~t~4 3$..
~ e.# ~~; ~~t :-: :~::~'~Ji~li-m-x•j:it&.}o~s.'m'i~;

,ife-;= L®·x10.- .Jt(rn/~);
The calculated values are plotted in the following figure:
0.6 r------ ,----.-- -----,,- ---r--- i
0.4 O'----....J..l_ _ __.2_ _ _....3.___ _ _4..___ _~5

Co. versus Re,..
Model Reynolds number, Rem (x 10- 5 )
The plot shows that the model drag coefficient becomes constant at Com :::: 0.46 above Rem = 4 X 1 OS, which correspon ds to an ait
speed of approxima tely 40 m/s. Since-the drag coefficient is independe nt of Reynolds number above Re ~ 4 x I OS, then for the
prototype vehicle (Re ~ 4 .5 x 106 ), Co :::: 0.46. The drag force on the full-scale vehicle is
F Op -C I V 2
- o 2P pAP
2 2 2
0-:46 . k ( km 0 m hr ) ., . 2m N ·-s
=--xl. 23~3 100-·- · xlO00- x - - -- x84frx( 0.305) ....,.,,-x-k --
2 m hr · km 3600s fr g·m
Fop
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Fop=_l.71 kN .._ _
The correspon ding power required to overcome aerodyn~ c drag is

'11>;, = F Dp Vp
km m
= 1.71 x 10 Nx 100-hr
3
· - x lOO0-
km
hr W-s
x - -·- x - -.
3600s N-m
'!J'p =47.5 kW,___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __<!J>_P
For additional details on techniques and application s of dimension al analysis consult (9-12].
Scaling with Multiple Depend ent Parame ters

In some situations of practical importance there may be more than one dependent parameter. In s uch
cases, dimension less groups must be fom1ed separately for each dependent parameter.
As an example, consider a typical centrifugal pump. The detailed flow pattern within a pump
changes wil.h volume flow rate and speed; lhese changes affect lhe pump's performan ce. Performan ce
parameter s of interest include lhe pressure rise (or head) developed , lhe power input required, and the
3
machine efficiency measured under specific operating conditions . Performan ce curves are generated
by varying an independe nt parameter such as the volume flow rate. Thus the independe nt variables
are volume flow rate, angular speed, impeller diameter, and fluid properties. Dependen t variables are
the several performan ce quantities of interest.
, Efficiency is defined as the ratio of power delivered to the 0uid divided by input power.,,= 9-/ '!J>,• . For incompress ible flow. we
will sec in Chnptcr 8 lhnt the energy equation reduces to '!J> ~ pQh (when "hcnd"" Ir is cxpn:sscd as energy per unit mass) or 10
<fl' = pgQH (when hcod H is expressed ns energy per unit weight).
26 4 Ch ap ter 7 Dinien:Sio,tal An aly sis-and •Si mi lit ud e
Fin din g dm ien sio nle ss pa ram ete rs be gin s from the symbolic equati
ons for lhe _d epe nd enc e of he ad .
h (en erg y pe r un it ma ss, L2 /12 ), an d poweI", </J',
00 lhe independent parameters, giv en by
h =g i (Q, p, w, D, 11)
and
</J' =g 2(Q , p, w, D, 11)

Str aig htf orw ard us e of the Pi the ore m giv es the dimensionless he ad
coe.fjicie111 and po we r co eff ici en t as
2
h ( Q pw D )
w2 01 =/1 wD 3'- ,-,- (7 .1 7)
an d
2
<!]> ( Q pw D )
pOJ3D5 =Ii -w Dl '_ µ_ (7 .1 8)
Th e dim en sio nle ss pa ram ete r Q/ wD3 in the se equations is called the
2 flo w coefficie111. Th e di me ns io nl es s
plir\lmeter pOJD / µ ( rx. p VD /Ji) is a fon n of Reynolds number.
He ad an d po we r in a pµ mp are de ve lop ed by inertia forces. Bo th the
flow pa ue m wi thi n a pu mp an d
the p11mp pe rfo rm an ce ch an ge wi th vo lµm e flo w rate and spe ed of
rotation. Pe rfo rm an ce is di ffi cu lt to
pre dic t an aly tic all y ex ce pt at the de sig n po int of the pump, so it
is measured ex pe rim en tal ly. Ty pi ca l
ch!lI'!lcteristic cu rve s plo tte d fro m ex pe rim en tal da ta for a centrif
ugal pump tested at co ns tan t sp ee d
;;ire sho wn in Fig . 7.5 as fun cti on s of vo lum e flow rate. Th e hea
d, power, and eff ici en cy cu rv es in
Fi g,. 7.5 W'_e.. sm oq the d thr ou gh po int s calc:ulated from measured
data. Maximum eff ici en cy us ua lly
oc cu rs. at the d~ ign po int . .
Co mp let e sir ajl ari ty in pµ mp pe rfo rm an ce tests wo uld require identi
cal flow co eff ici en ts an d Re y-
no.Ids nµ mb ers . In pra cti ce, it ha s be en fou nd tha t vis cou s effects
are relatively un im po rta nt wh en tw o
geometric;aj.Jj sim ila r ma ch ine s op era te un de r ..sim ila r" flow con
ditions. Th us, fro m Eq s. 7 . 17 an d
7.1 8, \vh en
(7 .1 9)
it foU ow s tllar
(7 .20 )
an d
(7 .2 1)
v;1~ii}if fl~w r.ate - - .~ ·

Fig, 7 .5 Typic:al r;:h;m1cteristit .curv.es for cen~ifilg;!J•p um p,~ ste d at c:orista
nt~p_e\!.d.
The empirical observatio n Lha1 viscous cffecls are unimportan t under s imi lar now conditions allows
use of Eqs. 7. 19 Lhrough 7 .21 10 scale lhe performanc e c haracteristi cs of mac h.ines to different operating
conditions , as either 1he speed or diameier is changed. These useful scaling rela tionships are known as
pump or fan "laws." If operaling conditions for o~e machine are known. operating conditions for any
geometric ally s imilar machine can be found by changmg D and w accord mg to Eqs. 7 .19 through 7 .21.
(More details on dimension al analysis. design. and performanc e curves for fluid machinery are presented
in Chapter 10.)
Another useful pump parameter can be obtained by eliminating the machine di3!11eler from
12
Eqs . 7. I 9 and 7 .20. If we designate n 1 = Q/wD3 and rr2 = h/w D • 1hen 1he rauo n: ; nt ' is another
2 2
dimension less parameter; 1his parameter is the specific speed. N_,,
(7.22a)
The specific s peed, as defined in Eq. 7 .22a, is a dimension less parameter (provided that the head, h , is
expressed as energy per unit mass). You may think of specific speed as the speed required for a machine
to produce unit head at unit volume flow rate. A constant specific speed describes all operating condi-
tions of geometric ally similar machines with similar flow conditions .
Although specific speed is a dimensionl ess parame1er, it is common practice lO use a convenien t bm
inconsiste nt set of uni is in specifying the variables wand Q, and to use the energy per unit weight H in
place of energy per unit mass h in Eq. 7.22a. When this is done the specific speed,
wQl/ 2
N •~ - (7.22b)
- - ·-
Jf3/4
is not a unitless parameter and iis magnirude depends on the units used 10 calculate it. Customary unirs
used in U.S. engineerin g practice for pumps are rpm for w, gpm for Q, and feet (energy per unit weight)
for H. In these customary U.S. unils, "low" specific speed means 500 < N,,., < 4000 and "high" means
10,000 <Ns= < 15,000. Example 7.6 illustrates use of the pump scaling laws and specific speed param-
eter. More details of specific speed calculation s and additional examples of application s to fluid machin-
ery are presented in Chapter LO.
Exampl e 7. 6 PUMP "LAWS"

A centrifuga l pump has an efficiency of 80 percent at its design-poi nt specific speed.of 2000 (units of rpm, gpm, and feet). The
impeller diameter is 8 in. At design-poi nt flow conditions , the volume flow rate is 300 gprn of w·a cer at L170 rp!Ji. To obtain a
higher-flo w rate, the pump is to be fined with. a 1750 rptn motor. Use the pump "laws" to find the clesign-po int p~rl"Qrma nce
characteri stics of the pump at the higher speed. Show that the specific speed remains constant for the higher operating speed.
Detertn.in e the motor size required.
Given: Centrifuga l pump with design s pecific; speed of2000 (in rpm, gpm, and feet units). Impeller diameter is D:::;:: 8 in. Attht;;
pump's design-po int flow conditions , {;) = lJ70 rpm and Q = 300 ~pm, with water.
Find: (a) Pt;;rforman ce characteris tics,
(b) specific speed, and
(c) motor size required, for similar flow conditions at 1750 rpm.
Solution : From purnp "laws," Q/wD3 == constant. so
Qi=Q•=~ (~:r =300gpni c:~~) 3

(l) =449gpm ...
- -------- ~--.:... .Q::..:. ...2
26 6 Ch ap ter 7 Dim ens f9n al An aly sis an d Sim ilit ud e
'tlt e:pumJ>· hea d is no t sp'.~~lf.i:c:;d' at (JJj = 1170 rpfI!,_b_ut it can be calcuiated from !Jte specific;: spe¢d, N,,. =~OOQ. Vs ing the gh ren
1.I!lits and the def ini tio n of Ns,-,·
·. . ~Q l/2
N~ = -- -
0, J-P/4· so
2 2
2 2
H2 =# 1 ·(CQ )
2
(n'?. ) == 21 .9 ft ( 175 0) ( 1)2 = 49 .o rc,___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.H_
.
2
·"'1 .. I 1 !70
Th~ P.Ym):i ()utp.µ t po we r is .!IPi =p iJQ 1H 1, so at w 1 = lJ 70 rpm ,
<&. ¥ 1.94'.s l~ gx.32 _ ft . : ·ga l . . n3· .. min lbf -s 2
hp• s
. 2
.
. . ., x 30 0 . ,. xi1 .9 rc.x .
.i_ . . •. =1 .
:u- s- nun· · · · 7:4 8'gal x ·60 s x s1·ug• .fi·t x s·s· o. ft · lbf·
:t r:= J,~~:hf!.•
Bu t '!I' /p(f)~jjs = copsrant, S.9
'!I',-,=~. {B_2'
) •
(;·
c v2)l(_Dff, :~ _
l.6
· \p, w·, . Di } · ,.6.b p(t ) (P s_o
· )~c
· 1)S>=5.55 b p -- -- -- .. .. ,,-~,....'.2',
· · . 11 70. . . · ..
t'b ~~ qu ire d inp ut pow er may l:!~. i::;~c:ulated as
,;,,_.·-' '!1'2 - 5.5 $;h p~ 6· 9·4 .h··.
-!" m --, ,- - 0.80 · ~ · · · p + - ~ - , - - - - - - ; ; , - - . ~ - ' - -~in
--
~
Th us a 7.5 -hp mo tor (th e ti¢?Ct Jarg~r sta nda rd siz~) prt)bl).bly :woulcl' be spe
cifietL
Th e spe cif ic spe ed at w2 = 17.SO·r pm ~s-
wQ 1l2 17 50 (44 9)\ /2 . . flt..,.
N =--= · . =2 00 0+ -- -~ ~- -- ~~
s~ J,J3/4 (4 Q.0 )3/4 · ·
Co mm en ts on Mo de l Te st in g
Wh ile out lin ing the pro ced ure s inv olv ed in mo del testing, we have tried no
t to im ply tha t tes tin g is a
sim ple cask tha t -au tom ati cal ly giv es res ult s tha t are easily interp_reted, acc
urate; and co mp let e. As in
an exp eri me nta l wo rk, car efu l pla nni ng and execution are needed to obtain valid results. Mo de ls
be con str uct ed cm;efully and acc ura tely , and tlley mu st include sufficient det mu se
ail in are as cri tic al to th e
ph eno ~e no n bei ng.me asu red . Ae rod yna mi c bal anc es or oth er fol'Ce measuring
sys tem s mu st be ali gn ed
car efu lly and cal ibr ate d cor rec tly. Mo unt ing me tho ds mu st be c!evised tha
t off er ade qua te rig idi ty an d
mo del mo tio n, yet do no t int erf ere wit h the phe nom eno n bei11g m.e!lSured. Re
ferences [13 -15 ) are co n-
sid ere d the sta nda rd sou rce s for def ails Qf win d tun nel tes t tet} wiq u~. More
spe cia lize d.t ec hn iqu es :fo r
wa ter im pac t tes tin g are des cri bed iii W11ugh and Stu bst ad [16], .
E~ per ime nta l fac ilit ies mu st be desigli¢d anc! con stru cte d carefully. Th e qua
lity of flo w in a wi nd
runnel mu st be doc um ent ed. Flo w in the te~t secticm sho uld be as nearly uru
form as po ssi ble (un les s th e
des ire is to sim ula te a spe cia l pro file suc h .as an alil1ospbenc boundacy layer),
free fro ~ an gu lar ity , an d
with little sw irl. If the y int erf ere wit h me asu rem ent s, bmm(lary layers on tun
nel .walls mu st be rem ov ed
by suc tio n or ene rgi zed by blo win g. Pres_su~·W'1:1dients in a w!fltl 1?nneltest
section ma y cau se err on eo us
drag-force rea din gs du e to pre ssu re van a~o ns.mt he flo w (h.requon,
Special facilities are needed for unusual conditions or for special test requirements, especially to
aclµeve large Reynolds numbers. Many facilities are so large or specialized that they cannot be sup-
ported by university laboratories or private industry. A few examples include [ 17-19]:
• National Full-Scale Aerodynamics Complex, NASA, Ames Research Center. Moffett Field. Califor-
nia.
Two wind tunnel test sections, powered by a 125,000 hp electric drive system:
- 40 ft high and 80 ft wide ( 12 x 24 m) test section, maximum wind speed of 300 knots.
- 80 ft high and 120 ft wide {24 x 36 m) test section. maximum wind speed of 137 knots.
• U.S. Navy, David Taylor Research Center, Carderock, Maryland.
High-Speed Towing Basin 2968 ft long, 21 ft wide, and 16 ft deep. Towing carriage can travel at up
to 100 knots while measuring drag loads to 8000 lbf and side loads to 2000 lbf.
3(;i in. variable-pressure water tunnel with 50 knot maximum test speed at pressures between 2and
60 psia.
Anechoic Flow Facility with quiet. low-turbulence air flow in 8 ft square by 21 ft-long open-jet test
section. Flow noise at maximum speed of 200 ft/sis less than that of conversational speech.
• U.S. Anny Corps of Engineers, Sausalito, California.
San Francisco Bay and Delta Model with slightly more than 1 acre in area, 1: I 000 horizonral scale·
and 1: 100 venica! scale, 13,500 gpm of pumping capacity, use of fresh and salt water, and tide
simulation. ·
• NASA, Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia.
National Transonic Facility (NTF) with cryogenic technology (temperarures as low as -300"F) to
reduce gas viscosity, raising Reynolds number by a factor of 6, while halving drive power.
7.6 Summary and Useful Equations

In this chapter we have:
✓ Obtained dimensionless coefficients by nondimensionalizing the governing differential equa-
tions of a problem.
✓ Stated the Buckingham Pi theorem and used it to determine the independent and dependent
dimensionless parameters from the physical parameters of a problem.
✓ Defined a number of important dimensionless groups: the Reynolds number, Euler number,
cavitation number, Froude number, W~ber number, and Math number, and discussed their
physical significance.
We have also explored some ideas behind modeling: geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similar-
ity, incomplete modeling, and predicting prototype results from modr:?I tests.
Note: Mos t of the equations in the table below have a number of constraints or Limitations-be sure to
refer w their page numbers for details!
Useful Equations
Reynolds number (u:iertia to viscous): pVL VL (7.11) Page 254
Re=---. = -
JI V
Euler number (pressure to inertia): 6.p (7.12) Page 255

Eu=-
1
- -.
2PV2
Cavitation number: Ca=P-Pu (7.13) Page 255

½pV2
~roude number (inenia to gravity): V (7.14) Page 255

Fr=--
vgL
(Continued)
26 8 ch ap ter 7 Di me nsi on al An aly sis -an d Sim ilit ud e
Table (C on tin ue d)
We ber num ber (in ert ia to sur fac e ten sio n): (7. 15) Pa ge 25: :,
pV2 L
We =-
·--
(1
Ma ch num ber (in ert ia to com pre ssi bil ity ): V (7. 16) P ag e 25 5
M =-
C
Ce ntr ifu gal pum p spe cif ic spe ed (in ten ns of head /,): wQ l /2 (7. 22a ) Pa ge 26 5
Ns = fi3/4
Ce ntr ifu gal pum p spe cif ic spe ed (in ter ms of head H): wQ l/2 (7.2 2b ) Pa ge 26 5
N," ' = H3/4
1. Kli ne,S. J.• Simili111de arid App rox ima tion The ory . Ne w Yo rk: 12•. Y;,,lin, M. S .• The ory of Hydraulic Mo del s. Ne w Yo rk:
Mc Gra w-H ill, I 965.
Macmill:m. I971.
2. Ha nse n, A. G .. Sim ilar ity Ana lys is of 801111da1y-Value Pro -
13. Pankhurst, R. C., and D. W. Holder. Win d-T unn el Tec h11 iqu e.
ble ms in Eng ine erin g. En~ lew ood Cli ffs, NJ: Pre ntic e-H all, 196 4.
London: Pitman, 1965.
3. Sch lich ting, H .. B01111dary Lay er The ory , 7th ed. Ne w Yo rk: 14. Rae, W. H., and A. Pope, Low-Speed \Vi nd Tu nne l Te sti ng .
MtG raw -Hi JI, 197 9. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley-Inlerscience, 1984.
4. Bu cki ngh am , E .• "O n Physically Sim ilar Sys tem s: Illu stra - 15 . Pope. A .• and K. L. Goin, Hig/r·Speed Win d T111111e/ Te srin g.
tions of the Us e of Dimensional Equ atio ns, ''f/r ysi cal Rev iew , 4. New York: Krieger, 1978.
4. 191 4, pp. 34. 5-3 76.
16 . Wnugh, J. Q ,. and G. W. S1u!)s1ad, Hyd rob alli stic s Mo del ing .
5. Tod d, L. H .. "Re sist anc e and Pro pul sio n," in Pri nci ple s of San Die go, CA: U.S. Naval Undersea Center, ca. 196 5.
Nm•al Arc hitec111re, J. P. Com sto ck, ed. Ne w Yo rk: Soc iety of
Nav al ArchiteclS and Ma rine Eng ine ers , 1967. 17. Banis, D. W., and \V. R. Corliss, Win d 'T111111cls of NA SA .
Washington, D .C.: National Aeronautics and Spa ce Ad mi nis tra -
6. "Ae rod yna mic Flo w Visualization Tec hni que s and Pro ce- tion. SP-440. I 981.
dur es." Wa rrcn dal e, PA: Society of Au tom otiv e 1;:!lgineers, SA E
Inf orm atio n Re pon HS J 1566, Jan uar y 198 6. 18. Vincent, M., "Th e Naval Ship Research and De ve lop me nt
Center." Carderock, MD: Navnl Sliip Resear ch and De ve lop me nt
7. Me nki rch , W .• Flo w \lis ual izm ion . 2nd ed. Ne w Yo rk: Aca- Cen ter, Report 303 9 (Revised), November- I 971 .
dem ic Pre ss, I 987.
19. Sm ith, B.. E., P. T. ZeU, and P, M. Shi nod a, "C om par iso n of
8. "SA E Wi nd Tun nel Tes t Pro ced ure for Tru cks and Bus es,' ; Mo del - and Full-Scale Wind-Tunnel Per for ma nce ," Jo urn al of
Rec om me nde d Pra ctic e SA E 112 52, Wa rren dal e, PA : Soc iety of A.i rcraft, 27, 3, Ma rch 1990, pp: 232 -23 8.
Au tom otiv e Eng ine ers , I 981 .
20 . L. Prandll, Ergebnisse dcr aerod_1•11p111ische11, Ve ers uc hsa n-
9 . Sed ov, L. I., Sim ilar ity and Dim ens ion al Me tha ds in Me cha n- stalr su Go11i11ge11, Vol n. I923.
ics. Ne w Yo rk: Aca dem ic Press. 1959.
21 . H. Bra uer and b . Sucker, "Umstromung von Pla tte n. Zy lin -
10. Bir kho ff, G .• Hy dro dyn am ics -A Sw dy in Log ic, Fac t, and dem und Kugeln," Che mie lngcmieur Tec lmi k, 48 . Jnh rga ng .
Sim iliw de. 2nd ed. Pri nce ton , NJ: Pri nce ton Ult ive rsit y No. 8, 1976, pp. 655--67 I. CopyrightWiley-VC H Ve rla g Gm bH &
Press. 19~ 0. Co . KG aA . Reproduced with.permission.
11. lps en, D. C ., Units, Dim ens ion s. and Dim ens ion les s Nu mb ers .
Ne w Yo rk: Mc Gra w-H ill, 196 0.
~-..·.:=
ltd·
No nd im en sio na liz ing th e Basic Di ffe re nt ial
Eq ua tio ns
7 .1 Th e slo pe of the free surfac.e of a steady wav e in one-di me nsi on al
flow iQ a shallow liq!Jid la}'.er is described by L11e equ ati on
r =~ . . .
5- 4
-
QM aa y of the prqblen1S in this cha pte r inv olv e obi:am . .
mg
the n
. oh
gro ups tha t .Ch8(llcterize a problem. Th e Exc el wo r~b oo~ use d m
II iJU
Exa mp le 7 .1 is useful for ped 'on nin g the com puu iuo n~ inv olv ed.
ox=-g ox
To avo id nee dle ss duplicatiop, Ille c9m pu1 er sym bol will. onl y be Us e a Iengll1 sca le, L, and :i-velocicy scale, V , Lo no nd im ens ion ali ze
0
use d aei tt to pro ble ms wh en they hav e an add itio nal ben efir (e.g .• Ibis ,equ atio n. Ob tain the dimensionless gro ups tha t ch ara cte riz e
for-gi:apruni)- Ll:iis flow.
Problems 269
7 .2 One-dimensional unstendy flow in n thin liquid lnyer is 7 . 6 Consider a disk of radius R rotating in an incompressibJe:fluitl at
described by the equation a speed (JJ. The equations thal describe the boundary layer on che
disk are:
a11 a11 a1i
at+ 11 iJx=-giJX .!_ (a(rvr
r iJr
>) + avz
az
=O
Use a lengch scale, L, and a velocity scnle, Vo, to nondimensionalize
this equation. Obtain Lhe · dimensionless groups that characterize OVr ~ OVr) if vr
this flow. p ( Vr at--;: +v=az =µ azZ
7 .3 In atmospheric studies the motion of the earth's acmosphere can Use the charac1eris1ic dimensions to nonnal.i;ze the differential
sometimes be modeled with the equation equa1ion nnd obta in the dimensionless groups that characterize
the flow.
DV .-
l -
-+2.QxV=--"il p
Dt p
where· V is the large-scale velocity of the atm·o sphere across the
Earth• s surface, V p is the climatic pressure gradient, nnd ii is the
Enrth-'s angular velocity. What is lhe me1111ing of the term ii x V?
Use the press ure difference, t!i.p, nnd-typical length scale, L (which r
could, for example, be the magnitude of, and distance between.
an atmospheric lugh and low, respectively), to nondimensionalize
this equation. Obtain the. dimensionless groups thnt chnracterize P7. 6
r,his flow.
7 .4 Fluid fills the space between two parallel plntes. The differential 7. 7 An unsteady, Lwo-dimensionaJ. compressible, .inviscid flow can
equation that describes the instantaneous fluid velocity for unsteady be described by the equation
flow w ith the fluid moving parallel to the walls is
if"' a .., ,, .., ., ifl,p
if II -..,-+-(1r+v-) +(1r-C"")-a-,
011
p-=p- a,- at x~
a, iJyl
, . , ir,p irip
TI1e lower plate is stationary and the upper pince oscillntes in the + (v- -c-)--+2rw-
ay2
. - . =0
axi)y ,
x-direction with a frequency wand an amplitude in the place velocity
of U . Use the characteristic dimensions co normalize the differential where 'I' is che scream f:un~tion. " and u nre the .'candy components of
equation and ·o btain the dimensionless groups that characterize velocity, respectively, c is the local speed of sound. and tis i:he t;ime.
the flow. Using L as a characteristic length-and c0 (the speed of sound at the
siagnntion point) to nondirnensionnlize this equation, obtain the
UCOSa.Jl dimensionless groups that characterize the equation.
___ _ .,_ ' - -- -..J:i
. - - · ~- ..! Buckingham Pi Theorem
7 .8 ExperimentS shciw thac !he pressure drop for flow through-an o_ii-
I·
fice plate of diameter d mounted in a length of pij:H; of_4iiµneJer .b
Lx P7.4
may be expressed as t!i.p=pi -172=f(p. µ. V\ d. D). Yol.iate":;isk¢4
to orgnnize some experimentnl data. Obtain the resuJting-dµ;nensiori=c
less parameters.
7.9 At vety low speeds, the drag on an ·o bject~ independii"nt of
fluid density. Thus the drag force, F, on a small sphere is ii: func·tion-
7 .5 By using order of magnitude analysis, the continuity and
only of speed. V . fluid- viscosity, µ. and sphere diameter. b •. Use
Navieir-S_tok~ _equations cai:i be simplified to the ProndLI boundary-
dimensional analysis to determine how the drag force F depends
htyer equations. .For s.teady, incompressible, and two-dimensional
on the speed V.
'rio,v. neglecting gravity, Lhe result. is
7.1 0 We saw in Chapter 3 that the buoyant force, FB, o~ a.body sut>;.
oil+ au = .O merged in a fluid is cfu:ecLly pl'.OportionaJ to the spi;ci.fic weigh'~-i:ifth~
ax ay fluid, y. Demonstra~ .this using dimensionnl ariaJy$, !,y staniii"g
with the buoyant force _:is a (unction of the volume of i:h_e bo4y
au a,, I ap if II
11-+u-=-~ -+u-- and the specific weight of the fluid. ·
iJx iJy p ax ay2 7 -11 Assume that Lhe velocity acqui.req by a body falling from :res~
Use Land Vons characteris_tic length nnd velocity. respec tively. Non- (without resistanc~) depends on weighrofbody, ac!:~letation' Ql)e.JQ
diniensionnlize these equations and identify the similarity parame1ers gravity. and distance of fall. Prove by dimensional aµalysis :tfult
thar-~ult. V = C.,/g,;fi and is thus independent of the weightof th~ bpq.y. . ·
270 Ch;ipter 7 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude
7.12 Derive by dimeilsfoiin) l!ilalysis an expression for the local and casing. Derive•an ei1pression for the tocque re~uired to maintain
velocity inestnblisbed pipe flow throµgh o smooth,pipe if this-veloc- this speed if it depends only on the foregoing vanables.
ity depends only on mean velocity. pipe dinmeter, distance from pipe
wall. ;µid density and viscosity of the fluid. 7 .25 Two cylinders are concentric, the outer one fixed and the -
inner one movable. A viscous incompressible fluid fills the gap
7 .13 The speed of sh_allow W!!ter Waves in the ocean (e.g., seismic between them. Derive an ei1pression for the torque required to main-
sen waves o~ CSUf!atnlS) de?ends ~nly on the stilJ water depth and tain constant-speed rotation of the inner cylinder if this Loi-que
the accelerooon due to grav11y. Denve an expression for wave speed.
depends only on the diameters nnd lengths of the cylinders, Lhe vis-
7 .14 The speed, V, of a free-surface wave in shallow liquid is a func- cosity and de•nsity of the fluid, and the angular speed of the mner
tion of depth, D , density, P, gravity, g, and surface tension, u . Use cylinder.
dimensional analysis to find the functional dependence of v oh
7 .26 TI1e time, t, for oil 10 drain out of a viscQsity calibration con-
the other variables. Express V in the simplest form possible.
tainer depends on the fluid viscosity. 11, and density, p, the orifice
7 .15 '.fhe boundwy~l_n yer thickness, o. on a smooth fine plate in an diameter, d, and gravity, g. Use dimensional_analysis to find the func-
incompressible flow without pressure-gradients depends on the free- tional dependence of r on the other varinbles, Ei1press t in the simplest
st:reain spee·!;I_, U, the fluid density, p. the fluid viscosity, µ, nnd the possible fonn.
disi1111ce fTOril the·Jeading edge ofthe plate, x. Express t11~se variables
in dimension.l ess form. · · 7.27 You are asked to find n sei of dimensionless parameters to
organize data from n laboratory experi"njei:it, "in which a tank is
7.16 The speed, V, cifa free-surface gravity_ wave in deep water is drained through an orifice from initinl liquid level ho. The time. -r.
a function of wavelentth, .A, depth, D, density, p, and acceleration of to drain the tank depends on tank dinme1er, D. orifice diametei-. d-.
gravity. g . Use dimensional analysis to find the functional depend- acceleration of gravity. g, liquid density, p, and liquid viscosity.
ence of V on the ocher vnrinbles. Express V in the simplest form µ . How many dimensionless parameters will result? How many
possible. repeating variables must be selected to determine the dimensionless
7 .17 D,eav~ an expression for the velocity of very smnll ripples on parame_ters? Obtain then parameter that contains the viscosity.
Jhe·suifiice of o liqilii:l·if this velocity depends only on ripple length 7 .28 A continuous belt moving venically through a bath of viscous
a:na:_d_elisi_cy 1µ14 -s1,1rfoce· tension of the liquid. liquid drags a layer- of liquid, of thickness h, along wilh iL The vol-
7_.·fs·Iierive.-ilil expression for !he axial thrust ei1ened by a propeller ume flow rate ofliquid, Q, is assumed 10 depend onµ, p, g. h, and v.
if the thrust depengs only-on forwatd speed, angular speed, size, nnd where V is tlte belt speed. Apply dimensional analysis Lo predict the
viscosity and densify ofthe fluid. How would !he expression change form of dependence of Q on the other vliriables.
if gravity were a i:-elevant vari_able in the case of a ship propeller? 7.29 Derive an ei1press_ion for the fric~onnl torque exerted on _the
7. 19 Derive an ei-pression for drag force on a smootl1 submerged joumnl o[.a. bearing if this torque depends-only on the diameters of
9bjec1 mov"i.itg through incompressible fluid if this force depends journal and bearing·. thcjr °"iaJJenglhs (thc;:s_e !1fe !he same), viscosity
·oiJ,Iypnspetci anµ size ofobject and viscosity and density oftlte fluid. of the lubricant, angular speed of the journal, and tlte a-:-.ins_v erse load
(force) on tlte bearing. · · · ·
7.2_0 The energy released dµring an explosion, £, is a function of
the time'.iifter:d etonation I, the blast radius-R at time t, and the ambient 7 .30 Tests on tlte_estnblisbed flow of six different liquids in smoo_lh
all'. p_r ess~;:·~-ci density P- Qetemtine, by dimensional ·analysis, pipes of various sizes yield the followi_l)g dntn;
the genera) forin of the expression for £ - in terms of the other
varial?lcs. Diameter Velocity Viscosity Density Wall
7,.21 Measu~roenis. of the Jiqµid height upstream from an obstruc- mm mis mPa-s kg/m 3 · Shear Pa
•tion.placed in-an open-channel flow can be µs_e d to determine volume 300 2:26 862.0 1247 51.2
,flow rate. (Such ol;>snuctions, designed and calibrated 10 me~ure_rate 250 2.47 431.0 1031 33.5
of opcl)-c/uµmel flow, are .called weirs.) Assui:ne !he volµme, flow 150 1.22 84.3 907 5.41
cnle, Q, -over a weir is a function of upstream height., h, gillvity; g. 100 J.39 44.0 9l~ 9.67
and ch~nel widlb,.b. Use dimensional analysis lo find the functional 50 0;20 1.5 861 0.162
J~pc;~d~n~e of ~ o~ th_e other vari_ables. 25 0.36 1.0 1000 0 .517
7:-~2 TbelQ!.l~-carcying capacity, W, of a journal bearil)g is kn~wo 10
ciepend;on-iis dil!Jlleter, O. length,/, and,clearance, c, in addition 10 its Make a dimensional -analysis of this prob!em ·a nd n plot of the resull-
i!.pg!!,l,nr sp_e_e.c!,, w, and_lubricant viscosity, µ, Qe~rmin_e the dimel)- .ing dimensicinless nu~bers .as ordinate nµd a_bscissn. What conclu-
sioriless parnmeiers !}int chg.rafterize this probJecn. sion~ may be drown .fro·m tl)e plot?· - . -- - -
7 .23 _Derive an _e_l(p.r:ession .for the drag_force on a smoo.t.h ol>ject 7 -~1 The _power, '!Ji, ·requi~eci to drive:lffa:ri is bel_ieved to depend on-
!DO,ving dirougb c.o_!llpressil>le {luid_ if this foi:ce depends on_Jy on flurd density, p, volume flow rate, Q. impellerdiruneter. D and angu-
~ ,MPJ!!ZC cif•bject, and viscosity, densily, .and mo~h1lus._o f!'las-
ticity of tlie ·fluid.
-lar velocity, w. Use di_mensional rufalrsis to d_e tennine
ence of '!J> on the other ~aiijJJ>l1;5.
tl;e
depend-
·
.24
7 .A <;m;~ar--disk of diamet¢f _d aJ;I9 of ne_gligible tJuc.kness is 7.32 The sketch show~nn,~je~dischnrgi ng venically. Expetimencs
rotated ·at ·a .c<>iiSIMit ;in~uliµ- speed, w, in a cylirt"<!rical casin_g, fiJJ~ s_ho,~.th~L ab~ placed m.!l)eJ~l-!S suspended in ,1. s~bl!! position. The
wiJ]l-.-a _li_qui!l of viscosityµ and density.p. Thec?,Smgb~.an mte~aJ cqi,@J>n1,1m h~1gluof ~1ebaJJ,w_ lh_c;:jet is found to depend on D, d, v.
diamet!!i- I?.;·:~4 the.r e is _a .clearance y between the swjaces of._q1_s k p;:µ. :and-.W, where Wis tli!l.w_erghl of the ball. Dimensional analysis
Prob lem s 27·1
is__su~g csted ~o eorre lille expe rime ntal d,alll. Find the n param eters proce ss slow and costl y. The rate-d epen ds on the rice spec ific heat,,c,
that chnr acten ze this phen omen on. th·e nnnl cond uctiv ity, k, and size, L. as well as the cool ing air spec ific
heat, cp, dens ity, p. v.iscosity. µ, and· spee d; V. How many basic
dime nsion s are inclu ded in these varia bles? Dete rmin e the H para ,_
mete rs for this prob lem.
7 .40 Wlie n ·avnh 1e·is close d sudd enly in ·a pipe with flow ing wate r,
a wate r hamm er press ure wave is set up. The very higt q;~s ures gen:..
crate d by such wave s can dl!J1lage the;. pipe, The;. maxi .mum:pres su_re, -
PmDX, gene rated by wate r hamm er is·a fuilc tion,of liqui d•den.sity;c.p',:
initial flow speed , Uo. and liqui d bul.lt modu lus, er,. Ho~ zminy.
dime nsion less grou ps· are need ed ro cliil.racterlze ·war.er qam in_e ~
Dete rmin e the funct ional relat ionsh ip amon g. iJ,e· varillbi¢.s-i~• tcon s_
of the nece ssary· IT ·grou ps.
7 ;33- The diam eter, d. of bubb les produced by a bubb le-m aking Flow Sim ilar ity and Mo del Stu die~
toy d_epen ds on the-s o·apy wme r Viscosity. I', density, p, llhd surfa ce
7 .41 An airsh ip is to operate; at 20 m/s in air a_t stand ard c·ondii:ions.
tensi on'. a, the ring diam eter, D; l!Jld the press ure differential, :6.jJ, iri.a.
"Y.iit!i t~(riq1;l·11,1;._$e
A fl!oclel is cons truct ed to I :20 scale and t.estec;I
gei:ierai:mg_t,l~e:b ubbl ~. Vs.e dime nsion al analys_is to.find then pnra-
same air temp eratu re co· deter mine drag, Wha t <;ri_r.etioii sbol!ld-.be
mete.~ -!,hat· chara cter.i ze this phe[)omenon.
cons idere q to obtai n dyna mic simil arity ? If r.q¢ mo~c;t -~ ~-~ .i.t
7-3_4 Ch~k ~d~fl qw noz_z)e;,_are Often used to mete r the flow of g~es 75 m/s, what pressui;-e snou!cl b~ used /.n th_e wind (UJloe.l? If:~ ~
tltro ugh -pipm g. l?YStems. ·The r'nas$· flow rare of gas is· thoug ht to mod~I clrag f<;>rce is 250 N, wbat will .be. the ~g orth_!; proi Q~' ?
dep,e nd oil -r'lozzle area A. pres~ure p, and temperature ·T ·upslrel!m
7.42 An airpl nile wint rof3 m chor d lcngt h-mo ves:~ ugb,still i!,ir,at
of the ·m eter; and the gas i;ons tantR , Dete rmin e how mnny -i~dep~nd~
15"C and 101.3 kPa at a spee d of 320 lcrri/ li. A l:20·s~e:mod eiiof
e[)t TT pa,ra mete rs can be form ed for this probl em. State·lheTun~i.ionnl
thls .wing is.place d-in.a wind runnel, and dyna mic simil arity betw een
relat ionsh ip for the rnnss flow rate in 'terms cif the·dime nsion less
i:far:a mete rs. · · ·· · mode l and proto type· is -desi red. (a) Wha t velo city• is. nece ssary ,in· :a
tunne l wher e·,the air has the same,pres sure and ~mp eratu re·as.-th.~
7-35 A Jo.rge tank of liqui d und_er press ure is drained throu gh a in fligh t? (b) Wha t veloc ity is nece ssary in a varia bJea. dc;~i ty· w.ind
smo othly cont oure d n.o zzle of area A. The mass flo_w rate is thoug ht tu~e J wher e abso lute press ure is 1400 kPa ·and- tenip eram re is:
ti:> depe nd on nozz le area ,;\, liqui d d_eosity, p, difference in heigh t 15°C 7 (c) At wh_at sp~d ~ust the mod el .g,oy,~ tlw:!1.1gh-.-w~i2'
!>etw een tf!e liqui d surfa ce and no.zzle, h, tank gage pressure, ll.p, ( I 5°C) for dyna mic simil arity ? · · ·· '" ·
and grav itatio nal.a ccele ratio n; g . Detenn,ine how many indep ende nt
IT para mete rs can·b e form ed·fo r this.p roble m. Fi'nd the dime nsion iess 7.43 A flat plate 1.5 m long·and 0'3 m :wide·,ingw ei:i'a t-~·:m /siii a.
p11.C-.i.rneters. Stme the funct ional relationship for ~e mass flow ~te in towi ng basin coma ining.wate r-at 20°C , an.cl, t!;ie <trag.furoc·is,obsei::ved
tertil s.of tlje dime nsion less parameters. to be 14 N. Calc ulate the dimc osioo s of a.simiJil.t:p late:thar will yield
dynamiqll.Ly simi lar cond ition s in nn~ cre; un(L Ol.4 kPa.-a nd I5°C )
7 .3(, ·Spin _pln,YS ail impomin~ role in .the flight tri;ljeccory of golf, havin g a veloc ity -of 18 m/s, Wh'ar drag force may be.~ xpec ted on
pin$- p6ng ,_:nnd tenoi s b;i.lls. Ther:'efon:, it is important ti:>. know the thls plate ?
rilt~ a,~•witj~h spin decre ases for .a b_all in fiighl'. The iier~ yoarr iic to~-
que, .T, actin·g on a b_iµI i_n fligh_t, is thoug ht io cl«::pend on flight spc;ed; 7.44 This J:12· pum p mod el using wate r ~t -I5°C simu lates•'a
V, ait'd ens,i y,_p, air v.iscosity, µ, ball di!!,111Cler, D, spin rati: (<!llgular proto type for pum ping. oil of spec ilic grav ity 0.90 . TI:i~ inpµc.:tti
spe~ d), w; and diam eter of the dimp les on the ball, d. Dete mune·the the mod el is 0..52 2 kW. Calc ulate the viscosity. of tjle.:oiJ. and,·~
clime risio nJess para,metei's ,thin result; · · · · proto type powe r for comp lete dyna mic simil arity betw.lleln -mocltJ:
and proto.type.
7 ,37· "fhe pow: er loss, <!J!, in a joum al .benririg dep_ends on ·1~ngtfi, I.
dinm etet, D, nn4 dear ;mce ; C, of I.lie bearing, in·ad_d ition to ics angUl!IJ'
spee d;~- The. lubri cant viscp sity.nnd mean press ure·arealsQ !ll)portfuit.
Obta jn-th e dimc ilsjon ie,ss pnrame.1ers that cl;mracc!,:.r ize this prob lem.
Dete rmin e the funct ional form of th,; depe nden ce of <iJ' on th~e :J..
par.µ neter s .
~i
7 ~38 The thru~ t of a mari ne prop eller is to be meas ured durin g . •·
1 J
"ope n~wa 1er"· teslS at a varie ty of angu lar speed s .l\nd forwa rd speed s Q = 0.01 4 m 3 /s 1
("sp eeds of adva nce" ). The thrust, Fr, is Lbought io depe nd on wale r - - - -7-Sm md
dtins i!y,-p , prop eller diam e1ec . D, speed ofad vanc e, V, ac_ce.leration of
ma~ilY, g. 8J1g ulnrs peed , w; press ure in 11'\e liquid, p. and liqµid vis- t
cosity,,,, De'\/tilop aSei.: of·di n.1ensionless-parameters 10 chnraccerize
¢e._pe_iforiilance-o f the prop eller. (One of !lie resulting pnnu neter s,
gD/ V?-, is know ii'ilS tJ1e Fro11de·spee d of odva11ce.)
7 .3 9 The .rµ1e dT/ dt. at ,vhic h the temp eratu re Tat ihe.cent_er of a rice
kem'e rli;iiJ s durin g. a foop tt:'c;hnofogy proce ss is criti cal-t oo high a
valu e lead s tq cr.u:kiri$ of 1hek en'ie l. and too'lo w Ii viilue ma)ces the P7..4 4
27 2 C ha pt er 1 D im en si on al A na ly si s an d Si m ili tu de
7 .4 5 An oc;ean•g oi ng ·vesse_l -is:to be _p ow er ed by n rotnt les t be run? Water in tlie model test bu.sin .cnil be-h
ing cir cu tn r ea te d to 13 0° F.
·tj• lin de r. Model"tests nr c planned to esr.imnte lh e
po we r req ui red 10 compared ·co 45°F for tl1e prototype.
rouile lh e prolOtype cylinder. A dimensionnl nnnlysis is ne ed ed
lo 7. A ship 120 m long mo~es t.t,iro~gl1 fresb,~ater_
-sc ale _the)>Owerrequiremeitt.s from mo de l les t re su lts 53 at 15 °C_ al
to lh e pr oto typ e. 32 km /h . A 1: 100 model of tlus slup 1s ~o be te
Li st-th e pnnuneters lh_nt shou_td be in clu de d in th e ste d m a. t~ w m ~
dimension-at ai111l- · · ·ng n liquid of specilic gravity 0. 92 . W ha t v1
ys is, Pe rfo nn n ciin:1ensioonl an aly sis to id cm ify th e
im po na nt c:limen- bnsm controm . , sc os ll) I
si on l~ gr ou ps . must this liquid hnve for both Reynolds" ;µic;I Fr ou
de s la w s to be
satisfied? Al what velocity must the model be towed
7.4 6.0l i n cr ui se·ship, ,poss<;ngers co mp lai n nb ou t tl1e no '> W ha t pr op u_ l-
ise em an at- siv c force on the ship corresponds to a to wi ng fo
in g fro m th e sh ip "s propeilers ·eprobnbly dµ e·t o tu rb rc e of 9 N 1n
ul en t flow ef fe cts tl1e model?
be tw ee n th e pr op ell er an d tlie sh ip ). Yo u -ha ve be en
hi re d to l'ind ou t 7 .5 4 A I :30 sc.i,le model of a cavi1nting ov er flo w str uc tu
th e so ~e of·tlii~ no ise . Yo u ,viii stu dy th e ho w re is to be
pa tte rn ar ou nd t11e tested in a vacuum tank wherein the. pressure is m
propell_ers IU).µ•h a\' ed ec id ed _to us e n ·1:9 -sc ale wn ter ai nt ai ne d at 2 .0
tan k. If tl1e sh ip 's psia. Th e prototype liqui<! is water-at 70 °F. Th e b~ m
·pr op ell er s rotjit lit IO!) rp m, es tim ate th e mo de l et ri c pr es su re
7 pr op ell er ro tat ion on the prototype is 14.5 psia, lftl1e liquid to be us e~
sJi!=e4)f(a) ll)e Fr oµ de nu mb er or (b ) th e Re yn ol ds m ~c m ~d el ha s
nu mb er is th e go v- a va po r pres~,urc of I .SO psia, what va.l.~es of_ dens1_t
:em in g di me ns io•nI ~s gr ou p'. Whic;h·is mo st lik ely y, v1 sc os 1t y. an d
Lo lend Lo th e be st surfnce·tension must it ha_ve for .complete dy na mi c sim
m:oo~U:ng? ila rit y be tw ee n
7, 47 A . l :3 sc aie,m bd el of ·a io rp ed o is tes ted in a wi mod~I an d protolype?
nd tun ne l lo 7. 55 In -som~ speed ·rangC!i, ,•onices are sh ed fro rn th e re
de ter mi ne th e ·dt .ig force. l11e pr ot ot yp e op er ate ar or bl uf f
s· in wa ter , ha s -cylinders plnccd across n flow. Th e vortices altciniat
533 m m d_inmecer, ruid is .6.7 m long. Th e de sir ely le av e th e to p
ed op cr ali ng· sp ee d an d bottom of t11e cylinder, as shown, ca us in g an
of the pr ot ot yp e is 28 m /s . To av oi d co mp re ss ib al te rn at in g fo rc e
ili ty ef fe cts in lh c no ~n l 10 th e freestrenn1 velocity. Th e vo ne x sh ed
wi nd tu nn el. th e ma xi mu m sp ee d is lim ite d 19 11 di ng-_ fr eq ue nc y.
0 m /s . Ho,vevei-, J, is-tl1oughqo .depe11d on.p. d, V, .an<!-11. l)s,e di m en sio na l an al
.th e,p re ss we in ,th e wi nd rw:irtel ca n be va rie d wh ile ys is
ho1'1ing th e t_e m - to de ve lo p.a Ju_nclionnl relationship fo r/. Vo rte x sh
.p en i~ c.i:i!ls\iliit n~ ~OQC. At- ,vhat mi ni mu m pressul'!! sh ou ld th e ed di ng oc cu rs i.n
wig(l. wnm;1 b_e,,oj>cmited 10 )!chieve n c:lynn,mica\ly standnrd nic on two cyliQders witl:i a di.µ:o!lter ra tio
sim ila r tes t? At of 2 . D et er m in e
:dy na m ic ~y sin.u.1,lil;·.test- co nq ili on s; th e.d ra g. fo rc tl;~ ~()l~ity·r;11ip for qynnmic similnrity. nnd tl1e ra tio
e on th~ ·m od el is of vo ne x sh ed -
~ ~ ~ tn s.6f8 N. ·Evlilunte,tlii;.drilg forc;e e)(pected on tl1e fu dini;;-frequencies.
ll- sc ale
to rp ed o. ~ .. ~ ~ ~ -~ £V or tic es
7, 48 A ·no w ·ra te of ',0. 18 m3/s of wa ter nt 20~t di sc ha
rg es fro m a 0 __ !) __ !) _.: !) _.! ,C)
0. 3 m pi pe th ro ug h •a O: 15 m no zz le in to th e· au no
sp lie re . Th e ax ial -1 J I-
force co m po ne nt ex er ted by wa ier on the no zz le is P7 .55
3 kt-J. If frictionnl
effc~tS m ay be ig no re d, wh at con:espoQding fo rc
e wi ll be ex en ed 7 . 56 A I:& scitle m_odel of " tn!<;tQr-01!-iler.rig -is .1e
on :a 4: 1 pr ot ot yp e_of no zz le an d pi pe di sc ha rg in s1ed in a pr es su r-
g .1.13 m3 /s of ai r ize \lw il) d t~nnel. Th:e rig width,-heighJ. µnd tel)gth ar
at '101.4.:kP.i, nnd J 5° C to the atm os ph er e? If lii
cti on nl. ef fe cts nr e H =0 .4 76 m , und L=2.4S11J, ~pectiv_eJy. A
=
c W 0. 30 5 m .
hJc1~<!ed,,,UJ.~ _lp\illl foi:ce ~o mp on en t is. 3. 56 kN. t w in d sp ee d
W ha t flo w ra te of \/= 7$ .0 m /s , the model drag force is Fo = l1 8N
·ai ris:th.~11-~u ire d. fo rd ~n am ic sim ila rit y? W ha_t is . A ir d~ ns ity in
th e.:c or re sp on di ng the tunnel is p; ;,3 .2 3k g/ ni3 • C:µcula~~ tli_ea cr od yn
fo rc e .on th e iu;,zzle ~isch;ii:ging nir? am ic dr ag co ef -
fici_ent for th e model. Compare the Reynold_s nu m be
7.:49 .A fo ~ of 9 'N is re q·uired to to w a 1:5? sh ip rs fo r th e m od el
m09el- at te st an d fo r tl1e prototype vehicJ¢ _nl 5~ 011i°h. Ci jlc
4.8 km /h . Assugililg th e s!!ffie wa ter in .to wi ng bnsm an~ se a, ca lc~~ ui ate th e ae ro dy-
n:µnic di:ag force on tl1e .prototype vehii:le at a
1a1e th e co rre sp on di ng-sp ee d an d force m th e pr ot ot yp e 1f rc>ad sp ee d o f
th ~ no w 1s 55 mpli in to a headwind of IO inph.
do mi ~a ied by : (a ) de ns ity an d gr av ity, (b ) de ns ity
an d su rfa ce ten - 7. 57 On a cruise ship, passengers complain ap o_ut th e
sion. an d (c) <;lensity and viscosity- am ou nt o f
s0)9.ke tha t becomeS enlrtlined_behind the c;ylindrica
7. 50 An air pl an e wi ng, with ch or o len gt h of 1.5 m an d l sr tlo ke st ac k.
sp an 0! 9 m. Yo u ha·v e bee_n hired 10 study lhe flow pa tie qi liro
is _d es ig ne d 10. m ov e· th ro ug h sta nd ar d ai r a_, a _i.111d th e st n. ek ,
spee<J of 7.: , m /s. an_d ha ve .d e.c id ed 10 use ·a I :15 s¢ale modcl of
A J:1 0.-s ca le m od el of th is wi ng is to be tes ted 1D a wa th e lS -f t sm ok e
ter~un~el_- "".'101 sta ck . W ha t ra ng e of wind tUnJ1el speeds coli_ld"_y ou
~~ ~ n ~ ar y i,n th e wa ter runnel to a~ hie ve dy~n us,e if th e sh ip
rruc s1m1_ln nt y? sp ee d fo r which the. problem occ.urs is (2 (9. 2ii-"kno
W l:i? t wilrbe th e rnlio of fo rce s me as ur ed m
.ts ?
th e mo de l no w to th os e 7. 58 W he n a sp h( )~_c;,_f0;2_s mm diameter and sp ec ifi c; gr
og jli,C: pi:q.totype \\;lf!_g ? iw ity 5. 54
. is cln;>ppec,I in wmcr lit 25°C jt wil_l l!.!\ain a .co ns
ta nt ve l~ il y _o f
7,5:1 A-W.:ater pu m p wi_th imp!=Uer di am ete r of 2~ in._ is 10 be de sig CJ.07 m /s. Whqtspe#lfc:&l'!l,v ity m us (a 2;~ in m sp he re hn ve
ne d so t.h at
10·mpvcf JJ_ft3 b ,w)re1;p:unnin~ al 750IJ:>m· :e su n~ 1s pe rfo nn ~d o~ a wh en it is dr op pe d iii crudif ~il ~i:~ .t
0
~ie tw o flo ws wi ll be dy na m -
1:4 sealecmodeHuililing a,t.:,2400,! l)m us mg ~r (6 $ F) as th :ica\ly sim ila r ,vhen tlle .teroiinal velocity is:_ai19in~9
e flw d. F? r ?
~ co ild itl o~ (n eg ltc tin g Re yn ol ds number, ef fe cts 7. 59.T tre .fl ow ab ou t:i lSQ !_llm:~llecy pr oj ec til
), wha} w:1!1
&~iibe' ~~ ~1 -fl ~~ 'raµ;? U \h e mo d.e l dr aw s O.J hp . wh e whic;;h tr av el s a t
·iii1< p'<>we:r ~u ~m c; nt of ih e prototype?
at will be ar~
60 0,°:1/s t.11ro_u gh s~i!!, i!,ir.aJJO~C _nbsol~~e p_ ~s µr e_I OJ .4 kPa is
IQ. pc.m od ele d in ah i$ h• s~ d wind tunne
. ;_:s~ Amodti hY.dro.(o.iJ is.tq ~ ~t ~~-at _I :40 seal~. Th e tes t sp ee d is
l wiµi i!- 1: 6 m od el . rr"
w\iip l1:!~n_el ai r has a !Cm_petatu~of :-l s~ c an d ab so lu,t e pr e~ SU O! o f th e
~hPS!;!l _\Q <iupiici;i~ th~ Fc ou de nu mb er co a:e sp on
dl llg 10_ °'7 Q0 -~ 0!
6"!t9ikP~. wh at vefociL}'. -~ required? If lhe dr ag (o re ~ op th e m od el
pr oi ot yp e speed. J;o nigcl~l c,iyit;!tiOIJ co m :c~ y. th is
e cav11auon nu m- ,3 fN ,~vha~ is th e dr ag fo ite Ol!iJ\.ep ro_lOl}'.pe ifs ki
~ r a,li.i> ,m us t ·be du pl ica ted. At w ha t _a mb ien t n. fri ct io h m ay b~
pr es su re ml !S l .th e nei!ected'?
·
Pro blem·s 273
7 .6o You r favor ite profe ssor likes mounLnin climb ing, so there is Plot the lift versu s s peed curv e. Gene rate and plot data for the lift
nlwa ys a p. oss1"b 1•1·lly ·lhlll the profe ssor may fall into a creva sse in produ ced by the proto type. whic h has a wing base chor d lengt h of
~om e glac ier. ff thaL happ ened today . and the profe ssor ~as tra·pp cd 5 m. over a speed rang e of 75 m/s 10 250 m/s.
m n slow ly mov ing glaci er, you ore curio us 10 know whet her the pro- 7.66 The press ure rise; Ap; of a liqui d flow ing stead ily lllrou gh
fesso r wou ld rcapp cn• al ll d · · er dur-
. • , ~ 1c owns Lrenm drop -off of the glaci a centr ifuga l pum p depe nds on pum p diam eter D. angu lar spee d of
tQg ~ 15 ncad cm1c ye11T, Assu ming ice is -a New tonia n fluid with the the rotor , volu me flow rate Q. and dens ity p. The table gives
de~s 1ty of gly_cerine but a milli on times as visco us. you decid e 10 data for the proto type and for a geom etric ally · simi lar mode"!
build . a glyc ean mode l and use dime nsional analy sis and simil arity pump . For cond ition s corre spon ding to dyna mic simil arity ~e, eu
t<:> esum ote when lht; profe ssor woul d reapp ear. Assu me the real gla- the mode l and proto type pump s, calcu late the miss ing valu es. in
cier is 15 m deep and is on a slope that falls J.5 m in o horiz ontal Ille table . .
d~s_1 nnce of 1850 m . Oeve lop the dinie nsi~n less param eters and con-
d111ons ~xpe cte_d to gove rn dyna mic simil ;uity in this pf9p lem. If the
Varia ble
mode l. profe ssor reapp ears in the l11bora1ory after 9.6 hour s, when
shou l~ you retur n to the end of the real glaci er 10 provi de help 10 your
fuvo nte profe ssor? o.on_sw /ntjn
_7 ,61 A I :50-s cale moclel of a subm arine is to be tested in a towin g !!OOkg/~3 999kg/:trF . -
tank unde r two q)nd ition s: moti on at the free surfa ce and motio n for 1i!3: rad/s Ji?7@iJ'Js
belo w ll1e surfa ce. The tests ore perfo rmed in fresh water . On the sur- ·1s(Hnn:, 50:m in
face, the subm arine-crui ses at 24 knots . At what speed .s hould _the
mod el be towe d IQ ensu re dyna mic simil arity ? Far below !lie surfa ce, 3
7.67 An a.~ial-flow pum p is requi red to deliv er0.7 5 m /s 9fwa t1:ra t
the sub cruis es at 0 .35 knoL At what speed shou ld the mode l be
a head of 15 J /kg. The diam eter of Ille rotor is 0.25 m. ond-i t is to be
towe d to ensu re dyna mic simi.fari1y'? Wha t must the drao of ll1e mode l
drive n at 500 rpm. The proto type is 10 be mod eled on a: snµIJ test
be mult iplie d by unde r each conclition to .give the dr:g of the full- appa r.nus havin g a 2 .25 kW. I 000 rpm pow er supp ly. For simi lar petc-
sc·a le subm arine ? · ·
form ance betw een the proto type and Ille mode l, calcu late Ille head ,
7 .62 Cons ider·wa1e r flow aroun d a circu lar cylin der. of diam eter D volu me flow r.)te, and diam eter of the mod el.
and lengl h I. In addit ion to geom etry. the drag force is know n 10
7.68 A mode l prop eller 1 min diam eter is teste d in a wind tunn el.
depe nd.o n.liq uid spee d,\/, densi ty. p, and visco sity,µ . Expr ess drag
·Air appr oach es Ille prop eller at 50 m/s when it rotat es at 1800 rpm.
force , FD• in dime nsion less form as a funct ion of all relev ant
The thrus t and torqu e meas ured unde r lllese cond ition s are 100 N and
varia bles. The static press ure distri butio n on a circu lar cylin der,
ION •m. respe ctive ly. A proto type eigh t time s~ large as them ~i ~
mea s_ured in ll1e labor atory . can be expre s_sed in terms of tlie dime n-
to be built. At a dyna mica lly simi lar oper ating point .. th1ni ppro3 cl!.ai r
sion less press ure coeff icien t; the lowe st press ure coeff icien t. is
spee d is 10 be 130 m/s. Calcu.Iare,me speed, :thrust, and-t orqu e of the
=
C,; .- 2A at Lhe_locat ion of Ilic mini mum static press ure on the cyl-
proto type prop eller unde r these cond ition s. negle cting the effec t 9f
inde r surfa ce. Estir nme ll1e maxi mum speed at whic h a cylin der could
visco sity but. inclu ding-densi cy.
be..towe d in wate r a~ atmo sph~ ric press ure, witho ut causi ng cavil ll-
tion, if the onse t of cavit ation occu rs at a cavit ation numb er of 05. 7.69 Cons ider Prob lem 7.38. Expe rienc e show s that for. ship- size
prop eller s. visco us effec ts oo· scali ng ~ smal l. Also , when
7 .63 A I: IO scale - mode l of a tracto r-trai ler rig is tested in a
cavit ation is not present.. Lhe oood imen siona l para mete r cont ainin g
wind tuhn el. The mode l front al area is A,;,-= 0.1 m • Whe n teste d
2
press ure can· be ignor ed. Assu me that torqu e, T, and pow er, r:J>,
-at Vm =75 m/s iii stand ard air, llJe meas ured drag force · is
depe nd on the same param eters as lllrus L For cond ition s unde r
F iJ = 350 N. Evn.Juate Ille. drag.·coef ficien t for the mode l cond ition s
whic h effec ts of µ and p can. be negle cted. deriv e s~fu g ~law s" ·
give n. Assu ming that Ille drag coeff icien t is the same for mod~I
for prop eller s. simi lar to !he pum p ·•1nws·· of Sect ion 7.5, that relai e
and protc:ityp_e. calcu late the i;lrag fotce on a proto type rig at 11 high -
thrus t, torqu e. and powe r co Lhe angu lar spee d and dfun: ieter of the
way- spee d of 90 km/l ir. Dete rmin e the air spee d at whic h a mode l propeller_ · · ··
shou ld be teste d to ensu re dyn!}micnlly simil ar resul ts if Ille pro;o type
spee d is 90 kri1/ hr. rs lltis air speed pract icnl? Why ·or wbr not? 7 •7 O ~•o~ edsci rcuit wind tunn els can prod uce high er speeds than·
opeo -ctre mt tunne ls. with Lhe same pow er inpu~ beca use ·ener gy is
7 .·6 4 The powe r; '11'. requi red. to·dri ve 11 fan.is assum ed to depe nd on
recov ere.d in the diffu ser down strea m from the test secti on. Toe
fiuid dims ityp. volu me now rate Q. impe ller diam eter D. and angu lar
= Q1 = 5
1_ ft3
/s of air at kfnet ic ener gy ratio is a fig~ of meri t defin ed as the ratio of the
spee d w. If a fan \Yilb D1 8 in. deliv e~
w 1 =25 00 rpm. wha tsiie diam eter fnri could be expe cted to deliv er kine~ c e~er gy flux in the test secti on to the driv~ pow er. E s ~
= the kinen c i;nerg y ratio for Ille 40 ft x 80 ft wind runn el at NAS A.c
=
Q2 88 ft3 /s .o f air at w2 I 800 rpm, prov ided llley were geom etri- Ame s desc ribed on pa~e 267. ·
caUy Q.lld dyna rruca lly simil ar?
7 •71 A l : 16 mode l of a bus 15 teste d in a wind tunn el in: sllln dard:air.
Q 7.6 5 Ove r a certa in ran_g eofa irspe.e ds, V, the lift.. FL. prod uced by a
The mode l is 152 mm wide". 200 mm high , :ll;ld 762 iIJ.rii fo_n g.
mod el_ of a comp lete aircr aft in a wind tunne l depe nds on Ille air
spee d, air dens jty. p. and a chara cteris tic lengt h (the wing base chor d T~e ~eus ured drag force ac 26.5 m/s wind spee d is6.0 9 N. The loti,-
gu_udino.l. _p ress.w e grad ient in Lhe wind runn el test secti on is
ierig t.h; c = 150 rrim) . The follo wing expe rime mal dam is obtai ned for
air at suind ard atmo sphe ric cond i_tions:
- l l.8N /m 2
/m. Estim ~te the corre ction that shou ld be made to
the meas ured drag force to c.o rrect ·for horiz ontal b~oy ancy ~
YfmJs} ·JQ'- 1$ -20: is- 30 ~s: .46 45 ,so by. the press ure gradi ~nt in..the test secti on. Calc uliµe Lhe-drag, ~'-
d 4J! -!V7. t;U- 19.6 2fi,5' :3~ 43$ 54
P~.:(NJ i _ fic1ent for the mode l. Eval uate the aero dyna mic drag fo~ on:th e pro-
totyp e at l 00 kni/ hr on a calm day.
274 Ehc:1pt~r7 Dim.e11sional Ana lysi s ·and Sim ititl j~e
7 :ri The .prop.agution sp~ d ofsm itlH unpl itud e surf ace wav es· in a flow of water. Finif the, operating depth .tp. min imiz e the spe ed of
re.gion cif uniform:depth is given by · · capillary wa,•es (waves with small wavelength; also call ed ripp les) -
(2ira z,r
c2 = --
J.p + g,1.) i1r'1
. .
~ tan h--
,l
First assume· wavelength is much smnller 1,han ·~Yater dep lh. The n
expl ore the effect of depth. Whal depth do ~ou reco mm end
for a water tnble used 10 visualize .com pres sible flow wav e
where h is deptl! of the undisturbed liquid am;I ,t is wavelength. phenomenn'l Whnt is the effect of reducing surf ace tens ion by add ing .
ExplQre I.he variation in wav e propagation spee d for a free-surface
a surfactant?
-
~
-- -
CH AP TE R 8
In te rn a l In compressible
Visco u s Fl ow
8 .1 Inte rna l Flow <;:l:iar:a~t¢ristks Tur bul ent Velocity Pro file s in Fuily Q:eye_lq pe d
Par :tA Ful ly Dev elo ped · L_a m_iliar Flow
Pip e-Flow
8 . 6 Ene rgy Con side rati ons in Pip e Flow-
~.2 FL.illy Dev elop ed Lam inar Flow eetw een Infi nite
Par all~ I Platl;!S 8 .7 CalculatiQri of He~ d fos:S
8,~ Fully bev e·lop ed LaJninar 'Flow ih 8 ·. 8 solu tion of Pip~:'Flow Pro bl¢ ms
a Ripe
p·ar:-:t:a:. F.low in P.ipe$ ar.t~. Due.~~ Par t .c Flo w Me·a sur em ~rtt
·lh4, ~h~c!.r Sfre ss Oi'stdbutiorJ ·111 fµll y 01;!Yeloped s:9 Res.t ri~i on Flow Me ters for lnte ma.1 F-[9Ws
PJp:~: FlqW s ,10 S(!f nma ry :and IJ$eful Equ atio n·s
Ca se Stu dy
"Lc;1b.- on -a- Ch ip" be desi rabl e but the flo'II! is tur_b ulen i;:-i t cost s mor e
An·e xdt ing new area in fluid mec hani cs is mic rofl ui-
a
to purrip t~rb ulen t as .opp osed to a lam inar flow. In
cert ain appl icat ions , turb ulen ce i~ desi rat,l e inst ea~
d_ics, app lied to mic roel ectr ome chan ical syst ems
beca use it acts as_;;i ini:?(ing mec ham sm. If you cou ldn t
(lV\EMS:--the tech nolo gy of very sma ll devices, gen -
gen erat e t1,1rbulen~e in you r coffee cup , it wou ld take a
eral ly rang ing in size. from a mic rom eteq c;i .a mill i-
lot ofst irrin g befo re the crea m and-cof fee. wer e suff r-
met er). In part icul ar, a lot c,f rese arch. is bein g don e
cien tlyb lend ed; ifyou rblo odfl own eve rbec am_e turb u,-,
in. "lab -on -a-c hip " tech nolo gy, whi ch has man y
lent ,you would notg etsu ffic ient oxy gen to you r orga ns
a·p plic a_tions. An exa mpl e of this is in med icin e, with
and muscles! In the lab- on- a- chip , tur_b ulen t flow is
dev ices for use in the imm edia te poin t-of- care_diag -
us1.1al_ly desi rabl e becal!Se the .goa l in thes e devi ces is
nos is-o f dise ases , sucl'I as real -tim e dete ctio n of.b at- ofte
n to mix min ute amo.unt s of two or mor e fluid s.
teri a, viru ses, 'and canc ers·in the h_u man body. In the How d'«:i w~ ~ix fluids in such devi ces tha t are
a rea of secu rity , ther e are.devi ces that cont inuo usly
inhe rent ly lam inar ? We coul d use com pl~ geo me-
sam ple-and test air or wat er-sa mpl es for biochemical
tries ,.or reiatively long chan nels -(rel ying on mol ecul ar
toxi ns and oth er dan gero us path oge ns such as thos e·
diffu sion ), or som e kind of-MEM dev ice with pad dles.
i~ alw ays -on earl y-wa rnin g syst ems . . . Res ear_c h ~y-p rofe ssor s Gou llet,'Gl;;isgow, and Aub ry at
BeG1us_e of the extr eme ly sma ll geom etry ,.flo'llls m_
the New Jers ey Inst itute of Ted ir\o logy inst ead sug_-
suc h dev ices will be very low, Reyn9lds. n1.1mbers and
gest s pLilsing the two fluid s. Part a of the figu re sho ws
ther efor e lam inar , surf ace tens ion effe cts will also
be sign ifica nt,- As. qisc usse d in ttiis c;hapte~, in man y
a' sche mat ic of two fluid s. flow ing at a con stan t rate
(abo ut 25 nl/s , ave rage velo city less than 2 mm /s,
co·m mon app lica tion s (for exam ple,. typical wa~er
in duc ts abo ut 200 ,um wid e) and : mee ting in a
pipe s a~d air·condltic;ming duct s),_lam inar flow would
T junc tion . The two flujd s Qo not mix b.e91use of
'l L f
;L the stro ngly l;;iminar n.a tur.e of the flow. Par t· b of
the·figu r.!=!-shows a sche m_a tic of an inst ilnt of ;;i puls ed
flo:W, and part c ~ho ws.a .n inst ant com pute d t1sir:ig:.i!
r
(a)
~-: -:
ti
---4~1-1{
(b) lcl
M_ixing two flui ds i!l a !'lab -on- ,-a- ch .ip."

computationc1r fluid dyn ami cs '(CFO) mo,del of the
sam e flow. hi tlii_s ·c ase, the- inte rfac e betw e~n the
two fluid s.im ples is sho wn t.o stre tch and fold , l_e ad·-
ing to goo d r:io.n turb ulen t rnix ingw ithir i :i riim.-d own +
stre am of the.con flue nce .(aft er abo ut .1 s of con t,a <;t).
Such a com pac t, mix irig devi'ce wou ld be idea l for
man y of the app liqn ions mt;! ntio ned. abov e,
--~ . '--- ""·
275·
27 6 :ch ~p ter 8 Int ern al Inc om pre ssi ble Vi sco us Flow
Flow_s com ple tely bou nde d by sol id surfaces are called iilLerilal flows. Thus inic
;m.al fJows inc lud e ~a ny
in: ipo ~t-and practical :flo'ws suc h as those through pipes, duc\S, nozzles, diffuse
rs, sud den co ntr ac uo ns
nn!i expansions, vnlves, and fillings.
.
Vid~o: n,e Rey• Int em al·flows ·ma y be laminar ·o r turbulenL Some lam ina r flow cases may be sol
ved an aly uc all y. In
110/d.s Ttm1siti<m 1he cas e_of tur bul ent flow, analytical solutions are nol possible, and we JDU
£quiriment Sl rel:i- hea vil y on ser n.i -
empfiical thehries and on experime~l-al dat a. Th e rtalun! of laminar and turbule
nt flo:ws wa s dis cu sse d
in Sec tio n-2 .6. Fo·r internal flows, the flow regime (laminar or turbulent) is pri
marily a fun cti on of th e
Re yno lds num ber .
in this cha pte rw e will onl y con sid er incompre ssible flows; hence we will stud~ the
flo w of liq uid s
as well as gas es tha1 hav e ~egligible hea t transfer and for which lhe Mach num
ber M < 0.3 ; a va lue q_f
M = 0.3 in air cor res pon ds to ~ spe ed ·o f approxima1ely I 00 m/ s. Follow
ing ;i. bri ef int rod uc tio n• .thi s
cha pte r is div ide d into lhe following parts:
Par t-A Par t A-d iscu sse s fully dev elo p_ed laminar now of a New1oninn nuid
between·_pnrallel pl:iles nnd in a pip e.
The se lwo cas es can be sn1died annlylically.
·
Par t B P,m B is nbo ut lnminar and turb_ule m flows in pipes nnd ducts. 'nle
laminar no, v· ann lys is fol low s fro n-i
Pnr t·A,-; lhe lurb ule nl flo,v (which is lhe mo sl common) is 100 cqmplex lo bl! ana
ly_ze~ , so.e xpe rim ent al da ta
wil l be use d lo dev elo p s9ll,!t,ion _1echniquC$.-
Par t C -Pnrt C is a dis cus sio n of me1hods of flow measureinenL
8.1 In te rn al Fl ow Ch ar ac te ri$ tic s

l,a mi na r ve rs us Tu rb ul en t Fl ow
As di_s_c1Jssed pre vio usl y in Sec tio n 2,6 ,_the pip e flow regime (laminar or turbulent)
is de ter mi ne d by the-
Re yno lds pum ~er , Re°=-pVD/J1. On e can d,ern..9.nstrate by the cl;iss_ic Reynol
ds exp eri me nt the qu ali ~
l.~t:ive dif fer enc e bet we en lam ina r and turbulent -flows. In this.experiment wa
ter.flo ws fro m a lar ge re s-
erv 9ir l)lrough a .cle ar :rub e. A thin filament of dye injected iil the enlinnce-
to the ti.ib e all ow s vis ua l
obs erv atio n of lhe flow. At low flow ra.ces (lo w ~eym~!ds numbers)th·e tlye·inject
¢d int o the flo w rem ain s
in a sin gle fila me nt alo ng Lhe tub e; there isJittle-disp¢isiQ!l of dyebecause·lhe
fiow·is lam ina r. A lam ina r
flo w .is-on e in wh ich lhe f11,1id flows in laminae, or l~yfjrs; ih¢re i$ do macr<)s
cC>piq mi xin g. of ad jac eri t:
fluid _layers.
·
A~ the flo w rat e thr oug h the tube ·is i:n"creased, t.he dye filament eventually ):i,
~c;pmes un sta ble an d
l;>re_
iµcs l.ip"int o a ran dom mo tio n thr oug hou t the rube; the line :of.dye is strelch
\(i.ae.o: PiM ed and,tw.ist_«!d. int o rp yr iad
enuuigle<l :!'.fueacls, and_it qui ckl y disperses throughout:th!! e11!irc; flow field. _thi
Flow: s b~i1avi.or of tur bu len_t
Triin.i-itionul (iow i"s caliSerl by sm all, I1igh-fr~quency vel oci ty fiuctuaticins.sµperimp0s~c!.-
,on,,the me an mo tio n of a
z.
tm°Q~l~nt ifo.w. as Ulustrateq earJi,~ t ir:i Fig, 1"7; lhe mixing of: fluid•particles
fluig_res_ti.lts in·rap1d: di·s per sio n of Lb~ dye: We -!ll:~ntioned in Chapter 2 an eve_rydny
fro ~ adj ac· ent lay ers of
ex ,~p le of the di f-
.fete.nct? bet we en li,u:ninai and tur bul ent flow~whC:n you 'gently turn 'on the ki1
chelifail~#. Fo r ve ry lo w
.floV:. races•.th~ w_ ~l~ exi ts sq199$.)y indicating l~ ina r'fli?W"iin he pipe; for highet·flow rates, the flo
qhw:ned.u p. ind ica tin g .tu rbu len t flow.
-.v is
·
Un de_r. nor ma l,_ con dit ion s, ·tta nsi ~on to turb~hmce ot:cws at/ ~e~2~_0Q for flo
w j·n pip es: Fo t wa ter
flo w in a 1-in. dia me ter pip e, thls-correspoilds to i,.n av.el'?;~_e spee~.ofO ) ft/si Wi
tl\ ~a·t-,ca ret o ma int ain
the flo w free fro m dis tur b~ ces , and wil h sm oot h SL,1rfl!¢~•.experiments nave
beeo·a\)le· to· ma int ain la m -
ina r flo w in ·a: pip e co a Re yno lds num ber of abo ut JOO;OOO! llo we ver, mo sfe
ilg ini cci ng.flo w si~ ua tio ns
are no t so carefully con tro lled; sq we·will Uike Re¢:: 230 0 as our l;n;_n\'ihmatk for !IiUj~ii
.ion to tur bu tei :.-c e.
Transiti<m Re yno lds nuo;ibeis for sqtj]~ _other flow situati!)ns ~~ given
in .lhe ,EX ~p le~. Tu rb ule ~c e
occ urs wh en the vis c_o us for ces _ii:t qi-~: _l;lj!j~ are una ble to. d~ p Qi)_i: nmdom
fluctuations iri the flu id
~~ti.on (ge ~er ate d, for exa mp le, by rou gh_!}.~$ ,tj{ I). pip e wali), an~ tl_t§ ,.flow bec
omes cha oti c. Fo r ex am -
pie,·ahigp-vii,co$ity flµid 5L1cb as mo tor 9µ i.~,al!J~ to d~ p out.flucl@t;ions more'.e ffe cli vel y Lhari a lo w
viscosity _fluid $!l<;:h a.s -w~ter. and the ref ore ~IJW!ll~ lanuna.r even at ~l_iltively
high J'lo w rat es. On th e
oth~r ban d, a hig h-d ens ity, fluid wil l gene.rale,s ign ipc ant inerl:\a fortes ,4ue
10 the ran d.o m flu ctu ati on s
in :the ,motion; an d this fluicl will tranSition,to·,tutbt,ilence )!t,.iL~latiNely low.
flo w·.rat e. -·
s. 2 Fully Developed. Laminar Flow Between Infinite Parallel Plat·es 277
~~---~-~~i---:~:!!!2!!!!!!!E!!-!!!!!ll!!!!!!!!--,,_~
__- - -,
Uo ½ -~===::::;~------+-~-~-----
~~-c-~- ~-- 0
D
~~iii--iiii-_-_--_-_-_-.,!-~
..-:::~;____iiiiiiiliiliiiiil&iiili;;;;;;;;li~~~~~ .l
. Entrance length
- - - - - - - - - i - - Fully develope<!
velocity profile
Fig. 8.1 Flow in the entrance region of a pipe.
The Entrance Region

Fi~~ 8.1 illustrates laminar flow iri the entrance region of a circular pipe. The flow has uniform velocify
Vo_ at the pipe entrance. Because of the no-slip condition at the waU, we know that the velocity at the wan
n1usLbe zero.along the entire length of the pipe. A boundary layer (Section 2.6) devel9ps along the walls
of the channel. The solid.surface exerts !l retarding shear forte on the flow; thus the speed of the .fl1,1id in
t.tie neighborhood Qf _the surface is reduced. At suc~essive sections along the pipe in this entry ~giqn., tile
effect of.the solid surfaceis feltfarther out into the .flow.
.fo(incompressibl~ flo-.;v, ~ass conservation requires that, as the speed close to the wall is reduced,
the speed in the centnil frictionless region of the pipe musJ increase slightly to compensate; for this invis-
cid' central regicin, then. the pressure, as indicated by the :ae.r noulli equation, must also· drop somewhat
S1,1ffidently far from the_ pipe.entrance, the boundary lc1y¢r developing on. the pipe wall ~aches tffe
pipe centerline µpq the fiow. becomes entirely viscous. The velocity pr:ofiie shape then changes slightly
·ai'ter. the inviscid core disappears. When the profile shape no longer changes with increasing discartce x,
the flow is calledji,l/y developed. The distance downs~am from the enttalice to rhe location at which
fu)Jy deve_l9ped. flow begins i~ c;alle9, tl\e entrance lengt/1. J.b,e acpial shape of the fully geveloped veloc-
ily profile d¢pends on whether the flow. is l;in1inan,r turbulen.t. In Fig. !P the profile is shown quali-
uitively fora laminar fk)\v.Although the veloc:ify p.rofiles for ~ome folly developedlarninar flows can be
o_btained by simplifying the complete equations of motion fwm Chapter 5, turb_ulent flows cannot be s9
treated.
Fot .laminar flow, it turns out that entrance .length, L, is.,a fµncJion of Reynolds m.1.mber,
!:_~0.06pVD (8.1)
D . ... µ
where V-=Q/A is the average velocity _(b~;i.µse flow r.ite Q=t\V=AU0 ,. we h~ve V =U0 ). Laminar
flow in a pipe may be exp_ected only for Reynolds numbers Jess than 2300. Thus the entrance length
for laminar pipe fiow rrtay be as long as
L::::::0.06 ReD 5(0.06)(2300)D= 138D
ornearly 140 pipe.dia!lleters. Il:tl)e.flow is 1ur,buleJ1J,.enh~ced nwting ;.rmong tlµid_.layers causes.rp.ore
rapid grpw!fl of the boundary lii.yer. Experirnen~ ~hpw thm the me~ velocity profile l:>e_comes fully
p~yelopeci witiiti1 2,?.tp.4{),pipedi~eters from the entranc;e, However; the details of.the w.,i:-_bl.l}ent.-motion
m~y 11ot be fully .deyeJ9ped for 80 or-mqr,e pipe diameters. We are now ready 10 study laiajnµr internal
flows (Part A), as well ,as laminar and turbulent nows in pipes and ducts (Pan B}. For .t hese we will be
focusing on what happens after the entrance region, i.e.. fuily developed flows.
Part A FULLY DEVELOPED LAMINAR FLOW

In- tltis section we consider a few c:las_sic examples Qf fully de.v eloped la~ar flows. Our intent is to
dbtltin detailed information about the velocity field because knowledge of the ~elocicy field perq:µJs cal,-
culi)tion ofshear streSs, pressure drop; and flow rare.
8.2 F11llyDeveloped Laminar Flow Between Infinite Pdr:al-lel Plates

The fiow between parallel plates is. appelilin~, !>~cause th.e geome!:cy is th~ simplest possi!:>le, but why
wou14 there b.e a fiow at ltli? The ,answer is that-f low could be generated by apl)lying a· pn\:ssure gradie:nt
pa.tajl~I to the plates, or by moving one plilte pimi!lel with respect to the other, Qr by having 11 body force
27 8 Chaptj!r- ·s tnt er. na i tn·c o·m pr es sib l.e Vi sco us Flow.
OJI Fig. 8.2 Plston-i:ylinder approximated as par all el pla tes .
(e.g.. gra vil y) pa ral lel lo lh_e plates, or by a combinatioru:>f these drivin
g mechanistns..W e wi ll Go ns id er
all of the se po~sibi.Uties .
l3oth . P(~:t es St at io na ry
Flu 1d in'highapressui:e hy dra µli c sys tem s, such a:s lhe braj{e system of
an automobile; ofi en lea ks th ro ug h
lhe .!lJliluiru: ga p be tw ee n a pis ton an d cylinder, Fo r Very small gaps
(typically 0,005 mm·or les s)~ th is fl ow
field-may bi m_ode1ed "as flo w .be tween infinite parallel ·plates, as ind
icated· in the ·sk etc b of Fi g. 8. 2. To
caicula(e the.lealq1ge flo w rate, we mu st firs ~ detertni.n e ihe velocity
field.
Le t us co nsi de r tlie fully de ve lop ed laminar flow between horizonta
l infinite pa ral lel pla les . Th e
pla tes -ar e sep ara ted by dis lance a. as sho wn in Fig. 8.3 . The plate~ an;
considered·il'lfjnite in th e , di re c-
tion, wi th no va ria tio n of an y fluid property in tlus direction. Th e flow
is also :assumed to be ste ad y an d
im;bmpressible. Be for e sta rtin g ou r analysis, wh at do we know abo
ut the flow field? Fo r on e th in g w e
kn ow lha t lhe x co mp on en t of velocity mu st be zeco at bo th .the upper
and lower_plates as a res ult of th e
I\.e rsl ip co nd itio n ·al the wall. Th e. bo un d;u y conditions ~ :_theci.
at y= O u=O
at y= a 11 =0
Sin ce the.flow is ful ly·de ve lop.e d, t_n e velocity can no t vary with x and
, hence, depends.on_y on ly. so th at
11 =i((y). Fu rth etm ore , lhere-is no.co mp on en t of velocity in-either
the J' or: z direction{ii:= .w·= ·0) . lll fa ct .
for fully de ve lop ed flO\v ortly the_pre ssu re can and -w ill cha:rtge."in
the x liife!:tion.
Th is is an ob vio us cas e for iisirig th_e' N~vier-Stokes equation's
iri Te ct@ gu l~ co or di na tes
(Egs. 5.2 7). Us irig the ab,ove: assumptions, these equations ,can be ~eally sifu
pli.fl«.d ru:i!i the n . so lv ed
(a),.Gj!_On'(etry.o f CV: Cb) For~¢:s~c!lng Oh CV

s~ 2 Fully Oe_veloped laminar Flow Between Infinite Parallel Plates 279
using the boundary-conditions. In .this section we will instead take a longer route'--using a differential
control volume-to bring out some important features of the fluid mechanics.
For our analysis we select a differential control volume of size d¥ = dx dy dz. and apply the x com-
ponent of the momentum equation. ·
Basic equation:
=0(3} ==0(1)
Fs,+Fl,
8
/ '
= a/r
7fi lcv
11pd¥+ r upV-dA
Jes
(4.18a)
Assumptions:
l Steady flow (given)
2 Fully developed flow (given)
3 Fn, = 0 (given)
The very nature of fully developed flow is that the velocity profile is the same at all locations along the
flow; hence there is no change in momentum. Equation then reduces to the simple result that the sum of
the surface forces on the control volume is zero,
Fs,.=O (8.2)
The next Step is :to sum. the for~es acting ori the coritroJ vqluI11e in the~,: direction. We recognize that
normal f9rces (pressure forces) act on the lefnlrid right faces and tangential forces (shear forces) act
on the top and bottom faces.
If the pressure at the cen.cer of the element is p, then the pressure force on the left face is
ap
p- ax
dx)
dh= ( 2 dydz
and the pressure force on the right face is
dFR= -(p+ ap d;-.:)dydz

ax 2
lf the shear seres$ at the center of the element is -.J'-"• then the shear force on the bottom face is
.·i/Fn::::;:...,. ( -ri_.--d
. . ;)'
dy)-dxdz.
4:r;.• .,,-
2
and the shear force on the top face is
dFr = ( rJ,t + d;;· ; ) cl,: dt
Note that in-expanding the shear streSs, -Zfr• in a Taylor series about the center of the elem~m;, we have
used the tot;tl derivative rather-than a partial derivative. We. di9 this because we recognized that "Z"y.r is
=
only a .fun,i;tion pf)', since 11 u(}i), . _ _
· Using the foµr surface forces dFL, dFR, dFB, and dFT inEq. 8.2, this equation simplifies to
(8,3)
This equation states tJ,ac:because there is no change in momentum, the net p~s~re-f orce (which is.actil-
ally _ ap /ox) balances the net friction force (which js acrually -cJ-ry,Jdy). Equation 8.3 hµs aIJ. interest-
ing_feature: The feft side is at most a function of x only. This follows immed~ately from writing the
y cppip_onentofthe m9mentum equation; the right side is at most a func,tion of yorily. The flow is fi.iily
dev~I6p¢d, so it does not change with x. Hence, the only way the equati1;m can b~ vaJ.id for a.I.Lt and yis
for each sioe to in fact be com;_tant:
ilp .
-_;_,. = -
d"Z",·r
dy QX
=constant
.
280 ch ap ter 'S lnt efn all ric om pr es sib le Vi sco us Flo w
Inte¥"1ting this equati<m, we ob tai n
which ind jca tes tha t the sh ea r str ess va rie s linearly with y. W e wish
lo find the vel oci ty dis tri bu tio n. To
do so, we ne ed to rel ate the sh ea r str ess lo the velocity field. Fo r a Ne
wtonian fluid we ~an us e Eq . 2. 15
bec aus e we ha ve a on e-d im en sio na l flo w
d11
-.,.• =J I·- (2 .1 5)
. dy
so we ge t
d11 (iJp)
dy iJx y+c1
11 ---: -= -
lht egr ali ng ag ain
II=_!__ (iJp)r + ~ y+ C2 (8 .4 )
2p OX JI
lt is int ere sti ng to no te tha t if we ha d sta rte d wi th the Na vie r-S tok
es equations (Eq s. 5.2 7) ins tea d of
us jni a .differential co ntr ol vo lum e, aft er on ly a few ste ps (i.e .. sim
plifying and int eg rat ing tw ice ) w e
wo u_!d ha ve ob tai ne d Eq . 8.4 . To ev al_u ate the con sta nts , c and c
1 2 , we must apply the bo un da ry co nd i-
tio ns. At y= 0, u= O. Co nse qu·e nll y, c 2 =0 . At y= a, 11=0. He nc
e
0 = - (iJ p) ,
a·+-a
l cs
-
211 iJx 11
This giv es
C1 =-.!.2(iJiJ.yp)a
and hence;
. . 1
11
• =2 fi
(a·iJp)x ..)' ..,,.2µ (cJiJ.-p\~)a:y--"""a1., (·iJiJ.P'd\ [()' ;.')i -\/J';)].
2 1 0
2
1
(8 .5 )
Al Lb.is po int we ha ve the ve loc ity pro file. Th is is ke y to finding olh

er flow properties, as we ne xt di sc us s.
Shear Stress Di str ibu tio n

Th e she ar str ess dis trib uti on is giv en by
iJp )
-.),..= ( iJx y+ c -(ilp ) y-.!. (ilp) a=
ilx 2 iJx · ilx [l_
1- a(ilp) !]
a 2j {.8 .6a )
Volume Flo w Rate

th e volume fl.ow rate is giv en by
a=1v-dA ,1
Fo r a de p.th I in .the z di~ cti on ,
Q = {° LJldy
JI)
or Q =.
.;-
/
1a 0 -2µ . ax
(ap} ,.
- 1 .,..-' (y' -a y)d y
s.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow Between Infinite Parallel Plates 281
Thus the volume flow rate per unit depth is given l;,y
t =- l~JI ( : )
03 (8.6b)
Flow Rate as a Function ofPressure Drop

Since ap/ax is constant, the pressure varies lineariy with X and
iJp p2-P1 -t.p
ax=-L-=-z:--
Su_b ~tituting_into lhe expression for volume fl.ow rate gives
(S.6c)
Average Velocity
The average velQci_ty m.ignitude, v,.is giy_en by
- Q
V-:- _A-::--
l
12Jt
(iJp)
·ox
iJ L 3
la · =
_ l
12µ
(iJp).
·axa
2 (8.6d)
Point of Maximum Velocity

To find the point ofm~imum veloci_ty, we set du/dy equal to iero and solve for the corresponding y.
From Eq. 8.5
du
dy
=a (op)
2
[2y
2µ ax · a
_~]
a 2
Thus, .
d11 =0 a
at y-=-
dy 2
At
a
y=2', l!=llrrui., = _..!_ 0
( P)a 2
= ~v (8.6c)
8µ ax 2
Transformation of Coordinates
In deriving the.above relations, .the origin of coordinates, y = 0, was talcen at the bottom plate. We could
just as easily ·have taken U1e origin at the centeti.ine of the _channel. If we denote· the coordinates with
.origin at lhe channel centerline as x, y'. ilie l;,oundafy conditions are u = 0 a,t y' = ±a/2.
of
To obtain the velocity prottle i.rt terms x, y', we substiri.Jte )' = y' + a/2 into Eq. 8.5. The result is
Equ~tior'r 8 .7 shows that lhe velocity profile for l~nar flow between stationary pani.llel platc;s is par~
-:ao:ol:ic, as shown in Fig. 8:4.
Since-all stresses were related to velocity gradients through Newtoil'.s law of viscosity; and die addi-
tional s~sses that arise as a reslJ.}t of turbuJe·n_t flu_c_tµations have~JJOt beeri acc9unted for, all 9/rlie r.esuits
i~-this ;ec;tion are ;alidfor laminar./I.ow 011Ly. Experiments show that laminJlf flow between stationary
parallel plnt,es becomes turbulent for Reynolds numbers (definecl ~ l.?.e=pVa/µ) greater than. approx-
inia.tely i40Q. Consequently, ilie Reynolds number sho~ld be _che~ked afte~ usi,ng Eqs. 8.6 to ensure a
valid. solution-. The calculntion ofU1e lel!kage' past a cylinder m an hyc;Jraulic system using Eq. 8.6c is
showl) in Example $.1.
282 ,Ehapter:.'~' tnt.er:naf lncompressi~i~ 'Viscous-Flow.
_ ,_, -~
''m~ - - !l(•11')
8/t Ji
~i~: ·a.4 9J.in!fiSIQrilitss velocity profile for fully, de',l~loped laminar flow between inilnlt•tp~r,iiJ!!l l!i<!f~-
£xamp le 8 .1 LEAKAGE FLOW PASiT.\~,,RIS110.~.
Find: Leakage flQW(:r,1\!!, Q.
!&~i:~l!~:;,:(~t!!~?;;:~1J;iq:W
rtl~w'm
.a:¥ ~-~,m~~Jtf!·~#-~~~~-§v~~Qi~~~l
Assumptio ns:
Laminar fJO\v:
2 Steady flow.
4 Fully developed iiow. (Note L/'d-='1'5/0 .005 = 3000!)
The plate width, /, is approximated as / =:nD. T hus
nD.a3 t:,.p
03mm
Q= J1µL
For SAE IOW oil al 55°c, µ = 0.018 kg/(m • s), from Fig. A.2, Appendix-A. Thus
Q =· lrx 25 mm x (0 .00.5,)t ,p;1,m

3
x (20- I) 10
6 N
~ 2 X
m ·s
(t d'J'TsjI§g X 15' mm X
kg · m
N-~2
Q
and
s~:2, full¥ 0,eveloped'·Lamina r Flow Setween: Infinite. P.araliel.·Plates 28-$·
Fo r S AE 1 OW oil, SG = 0.92, from Table A.2 , Appe ndix A . Thus
k" rn rn s rn O 75
. Re = 0.92x IOOO·iii; ·-x0. 147 - x ,0 .00$mm x Cf'Oi&''kg X IO:J' m:m = 0 . 3
5
Thus flow. 1s su-r:e:Iy laminar, s ince Re«-140©.
·,
~_pp.er Plat~ Mo.vitig with Cpn~.t~nt $p.¢.ec:I, U

'.ftj.~e s¢ccmdbasic wa:y to gene.r ate ·flow bel"\v.eeri infinite parallel plates i~ to ha_v e cm~ pla te inqv~p~ltil
.·c.9;Q1_ ~ 9tJ1er,-eiJ.her with or witl"iou,(an.applie!'.I pressure gradient, We wilh'lext ilnal')'?:e tbjs p.11)b]em t:or the
¢iise✓of Ia.mu:ra:r·now. . ' ·. ··
_ : s 'oc:'indib-w ~9Iliril~nly Q!;:Curs, 'for exatnple. irt ajpii111i1J:~eigjhg (e.g., th~ main crankshaft beariti¥S
iJJ $.~ e.n ~ne qf an: auto¢obil~). In such .a liearing, iin iruier cyii11d~r; t.b:ejourrial, rqta~~ insicle a. sta~
j;ipjtaty,mtroJ:i_e r: At light loads, th¢ c~riter:s::P( r.iie,twQ'.members essentially c9in~f.~e.;,_amf. t!i;e:sqiaj!,g_l~-
nnce;~a:p ,is sy,mn1e_ti:fo, -Sim,e,.J.he-gap ,i~ s_maj},')p.;i s ,iepl;Qp_al:!l_ec"t!'>,~~unfoici1; ,the b~¥i.M.,a.n_g :tP'ifi~eJ_:Jii..e.
flo,w-Ji.¢J~h.~s flow befyJ.¢en iiUiniJ~ para!Jei plates, ijs. i_nl:li~ii._ted jn thi :Slce~ch ·of Fi~. 8.5: __
~~~":f?;1;.1:~t~~!;':;~i~i~:~;;;~t~:$=":ti~:!:':!~~
u='Q: at )•=;=0.
li .= (}I y=p "*
sfuc:~ orili i:fie-p'i:iµ)jqacy c:onditibn$ J:i_"~v¢ cti_fwg~d. there IS lid Ii~~i.:l tJ.:J ;hipeij.f tq~ enliI:e aii:alysJs.,of l"Jl~
0
p~v10.~ s sec.tion. The il!laJysis l~ading to ~q. $;4 is_~qually valid for ll:J.i ttjpvjpg plate case. Thus tti'~
y~J~p!(y :4i$_1 ppution is ,giv,~nby ·· · , -
. l (i)Ji.)· :
- .
,II·= .-:- ~ ?-fe--:-:- )' 4 : C2,
C1 .. , _,
'?-11 i};i;. - µ: -
.~d,o.ur,·.0ajy"
.
tas!c' is ..
s
tQ tivaluat~ (;."QdsJi!,il!§; c;1 @dic;:'t:;y,.µ_iiig,,t!J¢Jippc.oprlate
·-· . ':
~t414~
. .. c
. onditions.
At-: i=O; ,,,=dL Conseqµeii~y. ci;=O.

A-t. i= a, w..~,u . qon$~4i:iei:itiy;
U== _:J. _ fi!p\ a?'+ Ci, a' im~i"tlms - c1 = Jjl.i!~'l,fpp\ ii
·· :iµ \ax). 11 a 2 \d_.f ) -
:• - .
Bearing,
,Fi~,,~::s. Joui'na1:peprlri~~pp.rv.i!fmahiil!iis,11.i!_~_(L~f P.~J:§,
284 ·c hapter 8 Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow
Uy+a2-
11 -~ -
a
(qp)
2,,ax.
~ - - (Y)]
[-·(y)2
a
-
a
(8.8)
It is reassuring to note that Eq. 8.8 reduces 10 Eq. 8.5 for a stationary upper plate (set U = 0). From
Eq. 8 ..8, for zero pressure gradient (for ap / iJx = 0) the velocity varies linearly with y. lbis was the case
treated earlier in Chapter 2; I.his linear profile is called a Co11eue flow, after a 19th-century physicist.
We can obtain additional infonnati.011 about the flow from the velocity distribution of Eq. 8.8.
Shear Stress Distribution

The shear stress distribution is given by Tyx =1,(du/dy),
Ty_,=µ!:!_+ a
a
2
2
(iJp) [2y
ax a a2
-~] =Jt ~+"(ap)
a ax [t-!]
a 2
(8.9a)
Volume Flow Rate

The volume flow rate is given by Q= J,1 V . dA. For depth/ in the z direction
Q= la iii dy or Q
-=
I
1,, [Uy I (ap)
-+- ~- . ] dy.
-: (y--ay)
o a 2 µ o.t
Thus the volume flow rate per unit depth is given by
Q ua. 1 (ap). 3
1:= 2 -~ i21, a.t /1 (8. 9b)
Average Velocity
The average velocity magnitude, V, _is given by
V=.@=I
A
[Va2 __1 (i)p)a3-
12µ ax
] /1a=~--I
2 12µ
(i)p)a2 i)x (8.9c)
Paint of Maxim1,1m Velocity

T~ find the point of maximun1 velocity, we set d11/dy equal to zero \lild solve fat the. corresponding y.
From Eq. 8.8
u
du - - +a- -
dy - i:J 2µ cix·
2
(ap) [2y
--~
a.
I] U
=-+-a (ap)
2- [
a - a 2µ ox - a
(>') -1 ] ? -
Thus,
du =O a Ufa
at y=-
<Jy 2 (1 / µ)(ap/ai:)
There is no simple relation between the maximl)m vel~ity, 11max,.and the me·141 velocity, v, for this
flow -case.
· :as.
Equation 8.8 suggests that the velo~ity profil~ ~ay 1:i?_trellied a combination of a linear and a
arabolic velocity profile; the, las~ tern:i m Eq; 8.8 1s 1denucill 10 !,hatm Eg. 8.5. The. result is a family
~f velocity profiles, depending on () an~ ( 1/;,)(apJ_ox}; tru:ee p~ofiles.are sketched in Fig. 8.6. (As shown
in Fi . 8.6. some reverse flow-tlow m the ne~anve x directton...-can occur when /iJx > O.) ap
f gain, aJJ of the results developed in this·se.ction· .ire valid for lwninar flow only. Experiments show
that this fiow becomes turbulent (for iJp/ox=O) ~ta Reynolds number·of approximately 1500, v.,here
s;2 Fully Qevefoped laminar· Flow Betw!i!en Infinite Parallel. Plates 285
y
a ---..·u
y
L X E -
.
.E..:.
(J
F,j~.:s:::6 Plmenslc:i_1 1l~ssvelodty profile for fully deve.loped laminar: flpw b_ecween inflnite.parallel·ptates: upper j:,fate fr:10)1'.fng
.wl~l:i.,cci.nstant,sRee.c:!, lJ.
'8f#'=cc p7ila/j, for tliis -flow .c ase. ·Nqt much informatfori is . available. for th¢ c:ase whe.re the pressure
gt,fgj~q~ i_~ tjot tero. In Ex~pl~ i;q; the torqµe and pow~~ i:haiat!~ti;tic$ of a ajourn~: beann~ are
deteril'l.ined·u$~g tl:t~ p,1rnifo1 plat_ e mod~I. ·
E xample, '8t•:i ;(i.QH@.\:.!E.t\N0 P0WER IN AJ OURNAL BEARING
~tl'i=:7ili!!~:ifi:.:!:i.!!:f8i~fEt~~~~~t:r~~tt~it::
~~:ri~:t~~:.atlii-g,,,·~ittl9~Vii~i'ifpiejth"at~_tfs~~lH£?JijID,,¢; is iia?/ff:Qie>ill'hm.!:mtl·cle1¥o,f)Ce. ~u-bp_~<lflt is SAE 30 o il a l 2 l 0°F .
Find: C:;t)l-':E_o.g:i__q~,,'~ .-
(ti)'·Po,~er Hfssipated. -4 .. 1,2:5 in,
0·-.·- _
.· D
-·-·.
. .... ~ifi:.· . . . .I!= ·o-~ in.
So.l1.,1! i.o n: T,9.i;H!,\t:;,.Q!:LLPJ~j,ougi,!J,J s~ @~~.4Jw v.iscogs,~~1W-@·,Q1_e:9.ilcJil.Q1.-Thp.g_1!-p ·. ~ --
wrcifir Ys s m a ll :·•s* ttt~ 'fll!hv"ffiayb~ ·ffioif~iec.t'iifHtw/G,¢ii~~~n~ififiriite' 'parallef Pliit§:
Governi.r_g-~,qµ<1(icms:.
'• . .. ,. -~ . •' .1,_ •:
:~(J(6~'
.:.. -.
.:.:1
·i;.,.,-{;.,.,(lt~t_ (8.9a)
A~~µ111pJhtrJ~,~ ; 4 .
. ~ \'I
286 Chapter 8 Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow
Then
U <!JR wD
'Cy_:,=µ-=µ- =1,- ---
. _ _ __ _ ___ ,. a a. 2a
For SA,:E 30 QiJ at 2f0°F (99°C), i(==9Ji ~ -10-3 N · s/m2 (2.0l x 10-4 Ibf. s/ft.2),from Fig. A2, Appendix A. Thus,
· . - --2
-r)'.r -
o I - 1·-0 ~4 ~bf · s . .
•- x .
¢v . -rad min
-~ -x 36Q_Q -.-.- x -21r-·- - x- . . __ 1
. -- x3 m. x- x . .. .
fr- · · m!n rev 60 s · 2 0.00125 111.
-c>"' :;;;;90.9 ibi'/fi2
Tiie tql:a.l shear fort:e is gi:veri by the shear Stress liiritj, lh~ iu:ea. lUs applied to the)oqn;ial surfa<1e. Therefore, for the torque
T -:;;:_cf"~=.:; 'C:.y;c1rD~ = i-ri,rP.2l
1r ibf
:· _ .? . ? fi.-2
= 1 x90,9 ff X{~)- in:- X 14-4 ii2 X 1.25 iJi.
, ~ - ~ - ~ - ~ ~ ' - - -............,..__~-"'"=- -~----~~·~t
T= 11,~in. -ibf+
TI)e po,ver 4issip~_ted µi t,Qe: b~aring is
-W= FU= FR(JJ_ = Tw

;:::11:2in. · ibf~(3{iOO n;,v ::S(~ x '2,/ad:~ '~ X .- hp ·S
mm 60s ~v lZ.m.. .550ft; llW
W,::;:(J;i54bhp
....,_____....~..........~ . . ,. .,. , ........,..~~-,,.- -~~--~----~'------'~
w
To .e nsµre laminar flow; CQ~~k lije ~eynolos numoeii;
Re=·•:..- ,· =_· SGpH,oUa

. p(la -_ · ~-- - -- SQP._1-1,o<p~f!
... JI - Jl µ.
,Assume,•~ mi ~pptp~;u,iqn, the i;pecific gravity of S.AE 30 9il is t,l)e same as
.i $~t o.fSAE I;QW oil. Ftoi'Q J;iible j\;_2, AJ?l?enciix. A ; 'S O= 0.9i, Tliµs
. . ·c- · . ., <slug (J600)?# .!Jlt . 1 .,... Cf(}() . . .

,R~:~Q---'92x L9.41i3 x . -s-X _-,-.;1.m. x . • · -1 25 m.
60
:tt1· fr lbf. · s2;
·~:i.oi•-x~tbf-~,ib( ix l#iii:.X·sl~g; <fJ
.Re:::;:4:lt~
Tlferefore;_~~-:fl.0~ Js lliifimlir, ~wce~Be,«T500,-
We bave ~een how steady, one-dimensional laminar flows. between two piates can be.generated by
applying a pressure gradi¢nt, by cnoving one plate With reiipecqq the other, or by having both drivin a
mechanisms present. To finish oqr dis91,1s$iOn of this type of f!CiW; ~xa:mpte 8.3 ex.amines a: gravif:)":;_
qriven steady, one-dimensional liiirijniir fl.ow down a vertical wall. Once_again, the direct approach
would be to start with lhe two-dimensional rect;;mgular coordi,nate form of the N)lyiet-Stokes equations
(Eqs. 5.27); instead we will use a differential c;o!)ttol vcilume. ·
&an:ipt.e '8.3 i;AMit.-1AR :t,.Wo~ .l\ :VERTJCA!-)Nld~L
:;;~~:~~;:::~:::r::~~~t~~;~~;~i~~i~~~~::.J~~;;!;;::~~~=i~~~~~~:;~~!~~!:~}~~1::
il~w.~~PP~Y !.Qe,IDPJil.~P~ ec,111auon->to;cµff~n~41:~on®.1 v.ot1101e.~i!;yd,,,.Jo"der,;iye, _the,,vcl~J!y, d.:s1:Qbutio~-1.n.tn~•1iqui'd film,
s.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow Between Infinite Parallel Plates 287
~iven: Fully developed laminar flow of incompressible, Newtonian liquid down a vertical wall; thickness, I>, of the liquid fi1m
1s c_onstant and iJp/iJx=O.
Find: Expression for the velocity distribution in the film.
f I ~ -----
Solution:
volume is
The xcomponenl of the momentum equation for a control •
1
L-- y
Differeritoal
(control drdz
t'
,
tT
:;'
'•! ,,
- j
• dxdz.
! ~-- __ ;
T T T
~,I · volume PL ,
f~ c1.rT:---:
F~,+Fil,=aa r
t}cv
llf)d¥+ r 11pV-dA
Jes
(4.18a) 1, __
'T
J i
pgdrdyd.;
lJnder the ctmditi<;>ns given we ace dealing with a steg<;ly, i1,1compress-

ible, fully developed laminae flow. ~
Ml - - - 6 -
For steady flow, i. J { up d¥ = O
ot }cv
F0r fully developed flovi, r
Jes
!( p V . dA =;_ 0
'l:b;tjS: th,e.Jll()iJ:}¢gtum e_qµatiort for th¢ prese:mt case reduces to
Fs, +Fo:r=O
Toe b:o:d.y .fo~e, F~,, is given 1;,yF8, =pg d¥ =pgd.t:dydz. The only surface forces acting- on the differential pen@lVolµme are
sheaj, ,fot¢~ .Qfi th~ vel'.lic;ll surfaces, (SJnt~ we have a free.surface flow, with stµight stre~es. the pressure is atmosp)leric
.ttu;oµghom; no net pressµre forces act on the c.oiltrol volume.) ·-
If the. shear stress. at th¢ ¢e.nte.r gfthe dfffe.;;nti~ c9rti::rol vplume is •_yx, then,
. . .. · _. _ (
shear stress on left face 1s -ry.<L = -ryx ~
cf:rvx dy)
ily 2
and
.. . , " . ·( . . di,,., dy)
s ear stress
h
- 1ac.e IS ..-•.·'',R = , -rJ•x + ~
. ...on. nght dy -2
The<Q~CtiQri of,ti;e shear stress vec;tQrs.is taken cons.isJen(with the sign convf!riti~I! ofSectiott 2.3. Ttius on the left face, a tniil,i.IS y
s1-ufa:ce; '.-ryxL a_ds\1p"i.vard, and on thf right fi!ce, a plus y sLitf~c;e, 'Y~R acts downw~d;
The surface· fore~* bl;>taj_ned by multiplying,each shear sqes~ l;>y the ,uea: over wltlch it ac_:ts. Substitutin.g into Fs, + FB, = 0,
we opt_afr1
_ (
-- •y.T-
dt:yx dy\
dy 2_.)
.. ·( ·· 4-r;,.,
dxdz+ . -r}"+ dy ·
dy)·dxdz+pgd;,cdydz=O
-- _
2
Si.mplifyirig gives
d'tyx
-=-pg
dy ,
Sinc.:e
du d 2 11
Tyx=J_ld..·.
' )'
then µ-? =-'pg.
dy.,. . and
Integrating with respect tp)• g ives

288 Cha pter 8 Inte rna l Inc omp ress ible Visc ous Flo w
inte$fUtirig ~gain, we obi:ain
pg fl
11 ~~ ,;
2 +cJ y+c2
Tp :e valu ate c:oristo:ni,s CJ and c2, we-app ly app mpr i~_te bou nda ry conditions:
(i) y = -0, _11 = .0 (no~slip )
·dt1 0 (i- 1 - - . '
(ii) y :::. li, d.Ji == neg _eel rur resistance; i.¢;, assu me zero shea r stress at free swface)
Frp m boµn~ary cond!~on ('.?• ei =O pg _ pg __
'from ~µn dl!f y con~huon ·(u), Q= -,;o +c J or CJ =- 6
-H enc e, 11
or u = pg ;;t [(~ ) = .!. (l)2] _ _ __ _ _ _1_,_(y)

µ 0. 2. o
lJsin& the v.eio city ,profile it:c ~ be sho wn that:
the vOhime flow n;ite is Q/1 :;:::: P $3

. 3µ
s
. -·
1 ··' • • u
th
__e:m~n11,1m .ve _ocJt y 1s_: ma.,;== ' 'J.it
pg 2
o-
the,~y.eqi'ge v¢focity is V
,,
= ~~ t,2 ·
{Fi~\Y in t,bi; \iqajc;l film {s lam inar f9r Re_ = Ti6./u -s, idoo [i ].
8.3 Fully De ve lop ed La mi na r Flo w in a Pipe

As a final exa mpl e of full y dev elop ed lam inar now , let us consider fully developed lam inar flow in
a
pipe . Her e the flow is ~isy mm etri c. Con sequ entl y ll is most convenient to work in c~li ndri cal coo rdi
-
nates. Thi s is yet ano ther c:as_e whe re we cou ld use the Navier---Stokes e,qua\ion~. this tin:ie in cyl ind rica
l
i;9orcijnates (see Exa mpl e 5. I 0). Instead we will again take the longer rou te-u s_ing a diff eren tial con tro
l
v:_o him e-to bn.ng out ·som e imp ona nt features of the nuid mechanics. The dev elop men t wiU be ver
y
sim ilar to that for
pruµ.llel plat es in the previous section; cylindrical coordinatesj ust mak e the ana lys is
a little trick ier mathematically. $inc e the flow is axisymmetric, the control volume will be a diff ere ntia
l
1µ1.nulus, as sho wn in Fig. 8.7: The con trol volume length is dx and its thickness i"s dr.
For a fully dev elop ed stea dy flow, the x com pon ent of the momentum equation (Eq . 4. ·1 8a) . wh en
applier;! to the differential con trol volu me, onc e again reduces to
Fs,= 0
Annular differential
control
volume
Annu lar differ_!?_
_ntial
_ __ _ -r,. 2,mk
r control - ~ ~-~ :.... ~ . .. ..J ~
I volu me· ,-- --- ,
[___ _,__ x - -- - -· - ·- p 2irrdr----+ i
I
:..,_(p+i)pd
: iJx
:)2
~
d
:rr, r
.!..~ - --- - - ~ C V ~, _ __ _ _ ,
dr L ~..;...;;;;;,,-=--:__ ~ - - -.,_
Tl- tL, .-l [ -r,. +

dT,. ] .
dr dr 2 .. (r +
.
dr) !Ix
(al End view ol CV (b)S ide view of CV (c) Forces on CV

· - ·
Fig. $;7 ·piffer!?iltial cont rol volu me for ana Iys·1s o- ffu lly deve lope
. - -- d- lami nar flow ln:a·
-
pipe.
·
8.3 Fully Developed Laminar Flow in a Pipe 289
The-next step is to·sum the forces acting on the control volume in the x direction. We know that normal
forces (pressure forces) act on the left and right ends of the control volume, and that tangential forces
(shear forces) act on the inner and outer cylinclricaJ surfaces.
If the pressure at the left face of the control volume is p, then the pressure force on the left end is
dF,.,=p2JCrdr
The pressure force on the right end is
dFR= -(p+ ap d:r) 2JCrdr

ax
If the shear stress at the inner surface of the annular control volume is -rr:c, then 1he shear force on the
inrier ·cylindrical surface is
dF1 = -Tr.c2JCrdx
The shear force on the outer cylindrical surface is
dFo= (-rr.c+ d;,':"" dr)2JC(r+dr)dx
The sum of thexcomponenlS of force. dF,.,, dFR, dF,, and dF0 , acting on the control volume must be
zero. This leads to the condition that
ap d-rr.r
- ax 2Hrdrdx+-rrx21u,Jr dx+ dr 2Hrdrdx=O
Dividing this equation by 2JCrc/rdx and solving for ap/iJx gives

ap .,,.. ·dTr.c . 1 d(rrr:c)
ax=-;+ dr . =-;:--;I;:-
Comparing this to the corresponding equation for parallel plates (Eq. 8.3) shows the mathematical. com-
plexity introduced because we have cyµndricp.J. coordinates. The left sicl_e Qf t!,e equation is at m<:>s~ a
function of x only because the pressure is uniform .it each section; the right side is at most a function
of r only because·the flow is fully developed. Hence, the only way the equation can be valid for all x and r
is for both-sides to in fact be constant:
ap
1 d(rrr.c) d(n-r.c) iJp
-r ---
dr
= -
ax
= constant or ---=r-
dr iJx
We i,ire not quite finished, but already we have an important result: In a constant diameter pipe, the
pres~ure drops 1mif<innly along the pipe length (except for the entrance region).
Integrating this equation·. we obtain
or
-r =!..(ap) +~ (8.10)
"'2i)x r
Since -r:rx=µdu/dr, we have
,,-=-
d11
- r (ap)
dr 2 ax .
c
+- 1
r
and
,-2 -
11=- (ap)
4µ ·iJx
Ct
+-lnr+c,,
µ - (8.11)
29 0 Ch, i'pt er 8 Int ern al Inc om pre ssi ble Vis cou s Flo w
We nee d to eva lua te con stan ts c 1 and c • Ho wev er, we hav e onl y the one boundary con diti
2 on tha t u = 0 at
r =R . Wh at do we do? Bef ore thro win g in the tow el, let us loo k at the solution for the
vel oci ty pro file
giv en by Eq. 8.1 1. Alt hou gh we do not kno w the velocity at the pip e centerline, we do
kno w fro m ph ys-
ital con side rati ons tha t the vel oci ty mu st be finite al r= O. The onl y way that this tan
be true is for Ct to
be zer o. (W e cou ld hav e also con clu ded tha t c =0 from Eq. 8.1 0-w hic h wou ld oth
1 erw ise yie ld an
=
infinite stre ss at r 0.) Thu s, from phy sica l considerations. we con clud e that c1 = 0,
and hen ce
11= r4µ (ap

ax
) +c2
The con stan l, c2, is eva lua ted by usin g the ava ilab le bou nda ry condition at the pipe wal
Con seq uen tly,
l: al r = R, u = 0 .
0=R- -
411
2
(apax ) +c-,
Thi s giv es
c,= - R2
- 4µ
(ap)iJx
and hen ce
r2 -
11 =-
4µ ox
(op)
-R- -
411 ax
2
(ap)
= I- - (r- R- ) (i)p) , ,
4µ ax .
or
(8. 12 )
Sin ce we hav e the vel oci ty pro file , we can obt ain a nurt1ber of additional features of
the flo w.
Shear Stress Dis trib utio n

The she ar sire ss is
T,x = JI du=.:..
dr 2
(opo.~) (8. 13 a)
Volume Fla w Rate

The vol um e flow rate is
Q =1
,\
- -=
V . dA
t Jo
f R I
112rcr dr = Jo µ
4
(i)pax) (r-,R-),21rqlr
Q= _ k4 (ap)
,r
(8. 13 b)
8µ ax
Flo w Rate as a Function of Pressure Drop

We pro ved tha t in fulJy dev elo ped flow .the pre ssu re gradient, iJp/iJx, is con
stl).Ilt. Th ere for e.
ap/iJx= (p 2 -pi )/L = -6. p/L . Sub stit utin g into Eq. 8. 13b for the volume flow rate giv es
(8. 13 c)
8.3 Fully Developed Laminar Flow. in a Pipe 291
for laminar flow in a horizontal pipe. Note that Q is a sensitive function of D; Q ~Ir, so, for example,
doubling the diameter D increases the flow rate Q by a factor of 16.
Average Velocity
The average velocity magnitude, V, is given by
(8. 13d)
Point of Maximum Velocity

To find the point of maximum velocity, we set du/dr equal to zero and solve for the corresponding r.
From Eq. 8.12
Thus,
du
-=0 at r=O
dr
At r=O,
11=11mu.,=U=-:,~ (:) =2V {8.13e)
TI1e velocity profile (Eq. 8.12) may be wrillen in tenns of the maximum (centerline) velocity as
l_l _ (r-)2
-=1-..,..
U R
The parabolic velocity profile, given by Eq. 8.14 for fully developed laminar pipe flow, was
sketched in Fig. 8 . 1. These laminar flow results.are applied to the design of a viscometer in E xample 8.4.
Exarnpl¢ 8.4 CAPILLARY VISCOMETER

Asimple and•acci.uil.te viscometer~:µ,. be maclefi-om a (ength of capillary tubing; If the flow rat~ iind pressure drQp ~ me~d~
an!fJhe tube geometry i;;-known, the viscosity ofaNewtoniart liqu_id can be computec;l fromEq. 8.-13c~ A te&t of.ace~ l,iql.iic;i:i,i:i,i
<;api.ijary viscometer gav.e tll_
e following dat4:
Flow rate: sso rrim3 h Tube. length: Im

T11b~ diameter: O;~Qmm _P~sun:d(op: LQ_MPa -
D¢tertnine the viscosi_ty of the liq:uid~
,Given: .Flow in a capillary viscQmeter.

Flow _ CV ..J: D = 0.5· mm
The flpw rate. is Q == 880 mm /s.
3
-
=J=il~~~L;::::=~l~m~-::C_~-~--:;;t
. .1== -t-
Find: The fluid visco~ity. 2
S~lutiori: Equation 8.13c may be applied. ap = Pt - P2 = 1.0 MPa
<iovernitjg equation:
Q.= . 11:tlplr
128µL
292 Cha pter 8 Inte rna l Inc omp ress ible Vis cou s Flow
Ass~mptions:
l LaiD ihai flow.
2 Siea!iy t]ow.
3 Inc omp ~sip \e fiow.
4 ·f'\.!lly dev elop ed fl6w.
5 H~r,izc;>Qt~ 'tllbe.
The n
#4i lP4 .1r _ O __ N ( . .4 s 1 m

1 . X io:6
µ = liiS LQ = i:1s x rri2 x 4
Q.SO) mm x 880 mm3 x i m X 10311Ul}
µ = l,74 x l0-'-3 N , s/m2 . µ
Ch~ck U1¢ Reynoids·nurtil;ier. As.s\.!me the fluid den sity is si.rililnr- tQ, that of w~ter, '999 kg/ m3 • The n
~ _Q 4Q 4 _ . . ,mm } l m
V = = = ~ =e-:-- x-880·- -- - - :x _ .. x - 3- - =;:4.48 m/s
A ,rl)~ tr s . . (0.50_)2 mm2 t0 -mm
and,
pVD kg m _-
Re=-- -- ·- -= -999·---'-3· x4. 48 - x0. 50 mm
µ m - s - · ---
m2 m N. s2
x 1j4>.r16"""3 N-. s ':<
. . -·-
rtP ~ x
- .
k"a.
.0
m
-~·
Re= i290
Pa rt B FL OW IN PI PE S AN D DUCTS
Ir! this sect ion we will be inteTI;:sted in de1ennioing tb.efactors tha( !lfi'ec.t IIJe·pfe$sure in an inco mpr ess; ..
ible tl\.!iQ as it ,Oows in a pipe or dui;:t (we will refe r to ''pip.e" but imply "duct," to9). lf wei gno re fric
tion
(<;>r_a woµitmt a;id 1).$.Sume stea dy flow an~-coijsidec a saj:amli11e.in the flow ; the.Beq19.µJli equ atip ~ fro
m
Cha pter 6 ~ppli~~
P v2
-/J +-+ -- - -
2 gz=. con
. sta
.. n_t (6. 8)
Fro m this equ atio n we ·can -~~e ,vha t tend s to lead to a pfeS sif fe, ;lei:reqse alon~ the stre aml ine in
this
frictioniess flow : a red11f:lioi1 .of qr~a at som~· poin t in the pip~ caµ~ing an increase in the vel oci ty
V.
or tile pi~ bav in_g a pos itive indin_e SQ ?: incr e_a ses. Conversely; Ui¢nressure wm tericl to 1.nc rea.
se if
(he m;;w ma .is increa,sed or the pipe slbi?-¢s dow.iiw~d. we:sat''tenclsto"~¢"tal,ise one f~ct or ma y c<>un-
t~ra tt ano ther ; fore xii.m ple, wem ay-b ave -a:,dqwnwarcl Sl6ping. pipe,tending \6 incr e"i1.s¢ pres.sur e wit
h-'a
.redli~tiot1: in di~ ete r (~rtdingJQ d~r eas e ptessu"re. ·
. In reality, flow~ ln pipe s lili9- \iµcts.,.e,cperience sign ifii; :~t ftic:;tion and are ofte n ~rb ule nt, so the
Ber nou lli equ atio n doe s not app ly. It :do~ n•-t eve n mak e sens e Jo,.u se V; ins.tead we will ·li$e V, to
rep-:-
rese iltth e ave rage velo city at asectio11 al~n gth¢_-p ipe. We will leam tlia~ in effect, fric tion effe cts lea
d t<>
a con tinu al ~dui;:l;i.on in the valu e .o f the B~n:r\:i.µUi ·ci)nstan.t ofE q. 6,8; ¢'pr~enting;1. "los s" of me cha
n-
icai e~ergy. We b,ave already seen that, in:,c on® ,st ~pJ:lie l3ernouiii eqµatiQn, for lam inar flow the.re is a
pres sure drop ~ve n (or a bQp iont al, constantJH~~!~r_pip,e;in fhis ·se9t.ion we will see that tur bul
ent
flow s experjenc,e an ev_e,11 lar~ et_p ress ure drop . W~ ~~ need t_o replace the BeniQ\.!.m equ atio n
wit h
an ener gy equ atio n that inC:Qi.pc)iate$ the effe cwo f.frj ~uo n; ·
8.4 Shear Stress Distribution in Fully Developed Pipe Flow 293
In s ummary, we can stale that three factors ten<;! to reduce the pressure in a pipe flow: a decrease in
pipe area, an upward·slope, and friction. For now we will focus on pressure loss due 10 friction and so will
analyze pipes that are of constant area and that are horizontal.
We have already seen in the previous section that for laminar flow we can theoretically deduce the
pressure drop. Rearranging Eq. 8.13c to solve for the pressure drop t::.p,
12811LQ
Ap= aD4
We would like to develop a similar expression that applies for turbulent flows. but we will see that this is
not possible analytically; instead, we will develop expressions based on a combination of theoretical and
experimental approaches. Before proceeding, we note that it is conventional to break losses due to fric-
tion into two categories: major losses, which are losses due_to friction in the constant-area sections of the
pipe; and minor losses (sometimes larger than "major" losses), which are losses due to valves, elbows,
and so on.
Sin_c e circular pipes are most common in engineering applications, the basic analysis will be
per.formed for circular geometries. The results can be -extended to other geometries by introducing
the hydraulic diarneler, wh_icb is treated in Section 8. 7 . (Opert channel flows will be treated in
Chapter 11, ilild compressible flow in <;iµcts will Qe treated in Chapter 13 .)
8.4 Shear Stress Distribution _in Fully Developed Pipe Flow

We cpnsider again fully developedllow _in a horizontal.circular pipe, except now we may have laminar or
turbulent flow.. In Section 8.3 we showed that a (on;:e balance between friction and·pressure forces lel/.ds
to Eq. 8.10:
"Tr.,-=!_
2
(i)p) +:'.!..
iJx r
(8. 10}
~ecause we.cannot have infinite stress at the centerline, the c:on$taiit of integration c1 must be zero, so
r i)p
'l'.'r.,- = 2 ax (8.15}
Equation 8.15 indicates. that for both laminar ~ll!c/- t11rb11(e11tfi1lly developedflqws the shear srress_ varies
li11early across the pipe, from zero at the centeriirte to a maximum at the pipe wall. The stress oii the wall,
r..,, eqp~ 'a.pd opposite to the stress in J.he fluid at the ,v;ill, is given by
(8.16}
For laminar flow we used our familiar stress equation 'l'.'n,• = µ d11/dr in Eq. 8.15 to eventually obtain the
laminar velocity distribution. This led to a se t of l!Sab)e equations, Eqs. 8.13a, for obtaining various flow
characteristics; e.g., Eq. 8, I.3c gave a relationship for the flow rate Q , a result first obtained experimen-
tally by Jean Louis Poiseuille, a French physician, and independently by GotthilfH. L. Hagen, a German
engineer, in the I 850s [2].
· Unfortunately there is no ·equivalent stress equation for flirbuleltt flow, so we GfillllOt replicate the
laminar flow analysis to derive turbulent equivalents ofEqs. 8.13. All we can do in thls section is indicate
some classic semi-empirical results [3).
As we discussed in Section 2 .6, and illustrated-in Fig, 2.17, rurbulent flow is represented at each
point by the titne-mean velocity u plus randomly fluctuating velocity-component s 11' and v'· fu the x
afid ·) ' directions. These components continudusly ttnnsfer momentum betwe·e n adjacent fluid layers,
tending to reduce any velocity gradient present. This effect shows up as an apparent-stress, first intro~
1
duced by Osborne Reynolds, and called the Rey ,iolds stress. This sn-ess is given by- -pu'v', where the
overb-ar indicates a time average. Henc;e, we find
du --
. =µ-d
r=-r1111i1 +-ruut, y -pu'v' (8.17)
1 The Rcynolds -s ~ icnns onscfrom.ccinsideration of.lh_e complete equnµons of motion for turbulent flow [4).
294 Cha pte t·8 Inte rna l ·1nc amp res~ i~le Vis cou s Flow
l.0 .-- ,-: :-- --. --- --- .-- --, --- --- ,-- --.a -- 7
s
0
_ 0.8 a
8 Rcu
Tw
0.6_ a 500, 000
D
0 0 50,0 00
a
0.4 8
D
0.2 8
a
0 0,..___ _ _~o.1..2_ _ _ _0.1..4- -~---o -'-. 6-- --o L
.s_ __,....__.l.o
Dimensronle_
ss distance from wall, if
Fig. ·8.8 Turb ulen t shea r stress-(Re ynol d_s stress) for runy developed turbu lent now In a pipe. (Data from
Lau fer [5] .)
Do l'IQ~ fitistinderstand the mitj µs sign in Eq. 8.17 -it turns out that 11' and rl are ne&atively_cor rela ted
. so
that •1urb = -.pu 'rl is posi tive. In Fig. 8.~. experimental me11Surements of the Rey_noh:ls stre ss for full
y
developecl turb ulen t pipe flow at. Lwo Rey nold s numbers are presented; Reu = U0/11, whe re U is
the
ceru edin e velo city . The turb ulen t shea r stre ss. bas been nondimensionalized with the wal l she ar stre
ss.
Rec ail that Eq . .8.15 sho wed that the shea r s~ s in the fluid -varies linearly from -r,., at. the pip e wa
ll
(:y/R-+ 0) to zero at thfb cen terli ne (y/ R ='I) ; from Fig. 8.8 we see that the Reynolds stre ss has alm ost
$!;: sam e trend,-so that the fric tion is alm ost all due lo Reynolds stress. Wh atFig. 8·.8 doe sn't sho w is tha
t
ylO~e ~o·th e wal l (y/R---> 0)th e Rey nold s stress drop s to zero. This is because the no-slip con diti
on hol ds,
so not billy doe s the mea n velo city ii-> 0, but also the fluctuating velocity components rl and· o' -+ 0 (th
e
wal i tend s to sup p~~ s the fluctuations). Hence, the turbulent stress, -r,uro = -pit 'v' __. 0, as we app roa
ch
.llie wal l, and is zero a~ the wal l. Sinc e the Rey nold s stress is.zero-a t the waU, Eq. 8.J.7 sho ws that the wa
ll
shea r is ~ve n by -..., = µ(d u/dy)y =-O· In the region very clos e to the wall, calied the wal l Layer. visc
ous
shea r1s don ii_iiailt. In the regi on bet1.veen lhe wa.11 laye.r and the central port iono f the pip e bot h vis cou
s
·and turbulent- she ar are imp ona nt.
8.5 Tu rbu len t Ve loc ity Pro file s in Fully Deveioped .Pipe Flo w
.Exc ept for flow s of very visc ous fluids in sma ll diilniete_r ducts, internal flows generally are turb ulen t.
As
note d in the disc ussi on of she ar stre ss dist ribu tion in fully developed pipe flow (Section 8.4 ), in turb ule
nt
-flow there is no univ ersa l rela tion ship -between. the stress field and the mean velocity fiel d. Thu s.
for
tj,itbtilent flow s we are forc ed to rely on exp erim enta l data.
Vid_~o: Tire G/e,r Dh• jdin g Eq. 8,17 by p give s-
Ct111yiJ11 Dam:
,\ T11rb11/e111 -·-. du -,-,
-=-11-"""LI V (8. 18)
Pipe Flow p d);
The term -r/p aris es freq uen tly in the c:onsideracion of turbulent flows; it h,1$ dim eqsi ons of vel oci
112
ty
~quared..lJ)_ part icul ar, the qua ntit y- (-r,./p} is call ed_tli~fricrio11 veloqiry ;mc;I. js,dt~}"lote'd _py· the sym bol
~•. It is.~ con st~ t for a .giv en flow .
_
The velo city prof ile for fully dev elop ed turb ulen t flow tlu:o.vgli a.smooth.pipe ,is Spo wn· in ~ig , 8 ~9
.
the plot is semiiog"-°thmi~; u/11._ is plotte~tagainst log{yi4 /v.). 'fh:e iiopdimensional .par ame lers u/u. and
yit. /v.-aris e from dim ensi oQ~ ana lysi s if om~ n;~ ons that ~e,veloc/fy ~ th~ neighborbo.o d,of the
wa ll .is
dete anin ed by· the-con diti ons at lh~ w@ . me .Uu1d properties,.and,the cJ,sJance.froin the wal l. It is sim
ply
f~it uii¢ µs t)l~t the dim ensi enle ss plot of Fig. 8.9 give s ~fairly ac.c.urate ~pr~en(iit;iQ1J ofa.the vel pci
ty
p~fil~,.fu a pi~ aw~ y frpm the wall; note the:s~a ll deviat,~ns i.Jr,t~ e n;giop.o"f tlie pipe .cen terl ine
.
In the reigion very clos e to the·wall whe re visc ous sheM 1s:.q9ml.!lant,-the me.an y~l•cicy: p.ro fil~- fol-
tow s .the line ar visc o.u s rel~l4oii
·+
II
·.!!- yit.
=-'- -'=·- = y +
II;. II (8, 19)
wherey is dis!ruwe m~as..ureJ:I.Jjpm. the wal l.(y =;B :.-:r. ;R is the P.iperacliµs), and "(I is mea n veJ oci ty.
Equ a~o n 8..19 i~ vaij d f.or 0 &_y+ $ 5 - 7; this regio_rt is call ed the 1•iscims_ sublayer.
8.5 Turbulent Velocity Profiles in Fully Developed Pipe Flow 295
30r---r--~--.----.---r----.---,-----,,---,----r---r---,
20
.IL
u.
4
o Rcu = 5Xl0
10 o Reu=5Xl05
(Solid points are centerline values)
0 1___.,__ _.__ __t__-'-_ _,___ _j__ __.,_ _,l__L__..,__-'-_......J

4
1 2 5 10 2 5 102 2 5 103 2 5 10
.,
y11 •
Fig. 8,9 Turbulent velocity profile for fully developed flow in a smooth pipe. (Data from Laufer [5].)
For values of yu,. / v > 30, the data are quite well rep!"e!>enttd by the semilogarithmic curve-fit equation
ii yu. {8-20)
-=2.51n-+5.0
It,. V
In this ~gion both viscous and rurbµJent she,ir are important, ajthough tyrbl!lent she~ is expected to be
significantly larger. There is considerable scatter in.the numerical constants ofEq. 8.20; tbe values given
~p~sent averages over many experiments [6]. The region between y+ = 5 - 7 and y+ = 30 is referred to
as .the transition region, or buffer layer.
If Eq. 8.20 is evaluated at the centerline (y = R and u = U) and the general expression of Eq. 8.20 is
subtr.icted from the equatio.!l evaluated at the centerline. we obtain
U-ii =2.5ln !!_ (8.21)

u.. y
where U is the centerlin¢ velocity. Equation 8.21, referred to as the defect law. shows that the velo<;:jty
defect is a function of the distance ratio. only and does not depend on the viscosity of the fluid.
The velocity profile for rurbulent fl_ow through a smooth pipe may also be approximated by the
empirical power-law equation
where the exponent, n, varies with the Reynolds number. In Fig. 8.10 the data of Laufer [5] are shown on
a plot ofln y/ R versus In ii/U. If the power-law profile were an accurate representation of the data, all
data points would fall on a straight line of slope 11. Clearly the d_ata forReu =5 x 104 deviate from the
best-fit sn:-aight line in the neighborhood of the wall.
Hence the power-law profile is not applical;,le close to the wall (y/R < 0.04). Since the velocity is
low in this region, the error in calculating.integral quantities such as mass, momentum, and energy fluxes
at a section is relatively small. The.power-law profile gives an infinite velocity gradient 11.t the wall and
hence cannot be used in calculations of wall shear stress. Altho!,lgh the profile fi.t s the data close to the
centei:Iine, it fails to give zero slope there. Despite these. shortcomings, the power4aw profile is found t~
give ade;:quate results in many c:alculations. · ·
Data from Hinze [7] suggest that the variation of power-law exponent n with Reynolds number (based
on pipe diameter, D, and centerline velocity, U) for fully developed flow in smooth pipes is given by
n=-l.7+1.81ogReu (8.23)
for Reu > 2X 10".

296 Cha pte r 8 Inte rna l Inc om pre ssib le Vis cou s Flow
1.00
0 .50 Rev= 5X 104
0.20
0.10
)'
7f 0 .05
0 .02
0
0
0.01 0
0 ,005 0
00
0 .002
0.10 0 .20 0 ,50
ii
u
Fi~. 8.1 O Pow er- law velo city profi les for fully deve lope d turbu lent flow in a smoo th pipe. (Dat
a from Lauf er (5).)
Sinc e the ave rage velo city is V = Q/A, and

Q= 1V-dA
the ratio of the ave rage velo city to the cent erlin e velo city may be calculated for the power.:1aw pro file
s of
Eq~ 8.22 assu min g the prof iles to be vali d from wall to centerline. The result is
v 2,i2
U {11 +1) (2n +l) (8. 24)
Fro m Eq. 8.24 , we see that as n incr ease s (\vith incr easi ng Rey nold s number) the ratio of the ave
rag e
velo city to the cent ¢rli ne velo city incr ease s; with incr easi ng Reynolds num ber the velo city
pro file
bec ome s mor e blun t or "ful ler" (for 11=6,V/U =0. 79 and for 11 = 10,Y /U= 0.87). As a rep rese nta
tive
valu e, 7 ofte n is used for the exp one nt; this give s rise.to the term "a one,seventh pow er pro file " for
full y
dev elpp ed rurb ul~n t fl<;nv:
(Y)
il _
-- -
1/7 ___ (
- 1- -
;-) 1/1
u R R
Vel ocit y prof iles for n = 6 and 11= 10 are sho wn in Fig. 8.11 . Tl1e parabolic profile for full y dev
elo ped
lam inar flow is incl udec l for com parj son . It is clea r that the tllrb1,1lei1t prof ile has a muc h stee per slo pe
nea r
r
Ti
·o L-- ,........-~ ~- -~
o o,i. ,p,4 0.6 -....,o;s.
..-=-----' ,1.0
fig. s. ,1 Velo dty prof iles for f1,1lly deve lope d pipe flow,
8.6 Energy Con•s ider-ations in Pipe Flow 297
the wall. 1b.is is consistent with our discussion leading to Eq. 8. l 7~the fluctuating velocity components
u' and v' continuously transfer momentum belween adjacent fluid layers, tending to reduce the velocity
gradient.
S. 6 Energy Considerations in Pipe Flow

We '1ave so far used the momentum and conservation of mass equ_ations. in control volume form, to
discuss viscous flow. It is obvious that viscous effects will have an important effect on energy consid-
erations. In Section 6.4 we discussed the Energy Grade Line (EGL),
p y2
EGL=-+-+z (6.16b)
pg 2g
and sa w that this is a measure of the total mechanical energy (..pressure," kinetic and potential, per unit
mass) in a flow. We can expecl that instead of being constant, which it was for inviscid flow, the EGL
will continuously decrease in the direction of flow as friction "eats" the mechanical energy (Examples
8 .9 and ·8 .10 have sketches of such EGL-and HGL---curves; you may wish to preview them). Wecail
now. consider the energy equation to obtain information on the effects of friction.
Consider, for example, steady flow through the piping system, including a reducing elbow, shown
in Fig. 8.12 . Tht;: control volume boundaries are shown as dashed lines. They are· normal to the flow at
sections ·Q) and (2) and coincide with the inside.surface of the pipe wall elsewhere.
Basic equation:
= 0(1) =
Q-r- =0(1) =0(2) 0(3)
(4.56)
fh•nr-f\hcr=ffc vepd¥+L(e+pv )p V-dA
v2
e=11+ +gz
2
Assumptions:
W.5 = 0, W.:.U,cr = 0.
2 Wshcnr = 0 (although shear stresses are present at the walls of the t;:lb~w, the velocities are :?ero there, so
there is no possibility of work).
3· Steady flow.
5 lnt~mal energy and pressure uniform across sections (D and (2).
Under these assumptions the energy equation reduces to.
(8.25)
;-1®
CV I :
I I
I I
I I
I I
l'f\ ' I
-
)-)'
\.:.,I " I
I
=-=
_ .::,:_~- - ""-~-=-=-""-""-"'"-=-=-· ,
I
Flow, ---+- I -. "
'-- ----------~ .r .
Fig. 8.12 Control volume ai:id CoQrdinates for energy
analysis of flow through a 90• r e.ducing elbow,
~ote that we have not assumed the velocity to be uniform at sections (D and~. since we know that for
VISCOUS flows the velocity at a .cross-section.cannot be uniform. However, it is convenient to introduce
the average velocity into Eq. 8.25 so that we can eliminate the integrals. To do this, we define a kinetic
energy coefficienL
Kinetic Energy Coefficient

The kinetic energy coefficie111, a , is defined such that
v2 Jv1 vi
or
1 ,, -
?p\ldA=a ?pVdA=a1ii-
,1- 2
(8.26a)
lp\13dA
a= ' 1 _., (8.26b)
1i1\/-
We can think of a as a correction factor that.allows us to use.the average velocity Vin the energy equa-
-tion to compute the kinetic energy at a cross section.
For laminar flow in a pipe (velocity profile given by Eq. 8.12), a=2.0.
In turbulent pipe flow, the velocity profileis quite flat, as shown in Fig. 8.11. We can use Eq. 8 .26b
together with Eqs. 8.22 and 8.24 to determine a. Substituting the power-law velocity profile of Eq. 8.22
into Eq. 8.26b, we obtain
a=
u)
(V
3
2112
(:~+n)(3+211)
(8.27)
Equation 8.24 gives V / U as a function of the power-law exponent 11; combining this with Eq. 8.27 leads
to a fairly complicated expression inn. The overall result is th.a t i.Q the realistic range of 11, from n = 6 to
11 = IO for high Reynolds numbers, a varies from 1.08 to 1.03; forlheone-sevenlh power profile (11 = 7) ,
a= 1.06. Because a is reasoriably close to unity for high Reynolds numbers, and because the change in
kinetic energy is usually small compared with the dontinant'tertns in the energy equation, we shall almost
tilwqys use ihe opproximatio11 a= 1 i11 our pipe flow calc11lations.
Head Loss
Using the definition of a , the energy equation (Eq. 8.25) can be written
. • · . P2 Pl . . -2)
.
a1V -2
a2V?
Q=m(u2 - 111)+m ( ~ - -.) +mg(z2-z1)+111 - - - - - - 1
p p ·( 2 2
Dividing by the mass flow rate. giv_e$

- 2 -2
oQ
-~ = P1
u2 ~111 +- ~ -
P2 .
+ cz2 -gz1 +-a2Y
.. 2 _a1V 1
· p p · . 2
.- .
- -2
-
Rearranging this equation, we write
(p_l..+a
p
1 -
2
2
17 1 +gz1. ) ~ (p 2 Vi cQ·
-+a2-+gz2 =(112--ui)--
p 2
)·
•
(8.28)
In Eq. 8.28, the term

8.7 Calculation of Head Loss 299
represents the mechanical energy per unit mass at a cross section. Compare it to the EGL expression,
E_q . 6.16b, for computing "mechanical" energy. which we discussed at the beginning of this section.~~
differences are that in the EGL we divide by g to obtain the EGL in unics of feet or meters, and here aV
allows for the fact that in a pipe flow we have a velocity profile, not a uniform flow.
The term 112-111 -oQ/dm is equal to the difference in mechanical energy per unit mass between
sections (D and~- It represents the (irreversible) conversion of mechanical energy at section <D to
unwanted thermal energy (112 -ui) and loss of energy via heat transfer ( -oQ/dm). We identify this
group of terms as the total energy Joss per unit mass and designate it by the symbol h1r Then
Pi
. . -2
Vi ) ( Pi. _ . -V2
2 ) {8.;2!i>)
-:--+a1 -+cz1
( p 2 --
_- - p
-:-+a2-+g:z2 =htr
2
The dimensions of energy per unit mass FL/M are equivalent to dimensions of L2 / t2. Equation 8.29 is
one of the most important and useful equations in fluid mechanics. It enables us to compute the loss of
mechanical energy caused by friction between two sections of a pipe. We recall our discussion at the
beginning of Part B, where we discussed what would cause the pressure to change. We hypothesized
a frictionless flow (i.e., described by the Bernoulli equation, or Eq. 8.29 with a= I and htr = 0) so that
the pressure could only change if the velocity changed (if the pipe had a change in diameter), or if the
potential changed (if the pipe was not horizontal). Now, with friction, Eg. 8 .29 indicates that the pressure
will change even for a constant-area horizontal pipe-mechanical energy wiJJ be continuously changed
into thermal energy.
As the empirical science of hydraulics developed during the 19th century, it was common practice
to express the energy balance in terms of energy per unit weight of flowing liquid (e.g., water) rather
than energy per unit nzass, as in _Eq. 8.29. When Eq. 8.29 is d ivided by the acceleration of gravity,
c, we obtain
(8.30)
Each term in Eg. 8.30 has dimensions of energy per unit weight.of flowing fluid. Then the net dimensions
of H1r =h17 /G are (L2 /P)(P/L) =L, or feet of flowing liquid. Since the term head loss is in common use,
we shall use it when referring to either Htr (with dimensions of energy per unit weight or length) or
=
htr gH17 (with dimensions of energy per unit mass).
Equation 8.29 (or Eq. 8.30) can be used to calculate the pressure difference between any two points
in a piping system, provided the head loss, h1r (or H1r), can be determined. We shall consider calculation
of head loss in the next section.
8. 7 Calculation of Head Loss

Total head loss, h1r , is regarded as the sum of major losses, hr, due to frictional effects in fully developed
flow in constant-area tubes, and minor losses, htm, resulting from entrances, fittings, area changes, and
so on. Consequently, we consider the major and minor losses sep3.l1ltely.
Major Loss~s: Friction Factor

The eneq~y balance, expressed by Eq. 8.29, can be used to 1;vaJuate th~~ajor head Joss. For fully devel-
= =
oped flow through a constant-area pipe , h1. 0, and a1 (V'j /2) a2 ( V2/2); Eq. 8 .29 reduces to
(8.31)
300 Chapter 8 lnte·rnal Incompressible Viscous Flow
If the pipe is horizontal, then z:2 =:;: 1

and
p,-p, !!.p .
- - - - =-=h1 (8.32)
p p
Thus the major head loss can be expressed as the pressure loss for fully developed flow through a hor-
izontal pipe of constant area.
Since head loss represents the energy converted )ly frictional effects from mechanical to thermal
energy, head loss for fully developed flow in a constant~area duct depends only on the details of the
flow through the duct. Head loss is independent of pipe orientation.
a. Laminar Flow
In laminar flow, we saw in Section 8.3 that the pressure drop may be computed amuytically for fully
developed flow in a horizontal pipe. Thus, from Eq. 8.Bc.
t:;.p
128µLQ l281,LV(1rDi/4) _ 7 !::_ µV
3
,c[YI 1rD4 - - D D
Substituting in Eq~ 8.32 gives
Ir,=
32 L µV L 64
DpD=D2 pVD
JI ) vi ( . (64) vi
= Re D2
L (8.33)
We shall see the reason for writing h 1 in !his form shortly.
b. Turbulent Flow
In· ti.irpi.llent flow we cannot evaluate the pressure drop analytically; we must resort to experimental
resuits and use dimensional analysis to correlate the exp~rimenu11 data. In fully developed turbulent flow.
the pressure drop, Ap, causecl by friction in a horizontal constant-area pipe is known to depend on pipe
diameter, D, pipe length, L, pipe roughness, e, average flow velocity, V, fluid density, p , and fluid vis-
cosity,µ. 1n functional form
Ap=t:;.p(D,L, e; V,p,µ)
We applied dimensional analysis to this problem in Example 7.2. The results were a correlation of the form
Ap (_Jle)
pV =f \j]VD'D'D
2
L
We recognize that p/pYD= 1/Re, so we could just as weU write
p~2 =t/J(Re,i,i)
Substituting from Eq. 8.3·2, we see that
;~ =</,(Re,i,~)
Although dimensional analysis predicts the functional relationship, we must obtain actual values
experimentally.
Experiments show that the mmdimensional head loss is di~c;:tly proportional to L/D. Hence. we
can write
i11 L . (.
-.,,, = -. ,p e)
Re,-D.
v- D 1 .
Since the function, tfJ 1 , is still undetermiriedUt is pennissible to illtrddtice a constant into the left side of
the above equation. By convention the numb¢r-½_is ihtn,>du~ed into the denominator so that the left side of
the equation is the ratio of the head loss to'1he.kin¢lj<;: energy per unitmass 6f flow, Then
hr £ . •. ·( e)
'~2 = b'P2 Re, 75
:z:V ·..
8.7 Cal cul atio n of Hea d Los s 301
0 .1
0.09 ,=s.•. . :.._Lc_-W- ;.L L 1 :..1.1
- , ~!- -, -,-+:tt:ttt:1-
J1 _ _j_ Transition ~
•
_ !---1--i- LL-Ll.Ll...J..L , · 1 ' LI ,
----I-
, , 1 11 , 1 1
1rt1 - +
·' __
-, ~LL '-f I !..!.L .
t-'\ .u
,
I L
' . i , :., , L. ,
,- , , , r r..1.
' , , , , LL, H-+·-• : LL; , , : , i
1.-1...LL.;..u_r_
-1-.:.... 1_Hr·1-~1- LL -c-i- H-;.I; ·-H ;--l-
;
.L[
'I ,• .• ' - ·• J, . ' I
'
, • E ;' -,--- ;-- - - -· · · --t
' E
rt .
0.08 - Lam inar zone r - c i : -1-··1 : - J; ' . r l I ri !_~~½-- -:- +-+-~. I !-- J__ : . .
flow : .;.... :..~: '. : • : ' • j +=·r ;:-:;_;_ _; i-i ~-~;- f - H-t -rh l :f-~11 ~-
j_;..'._:. _F!:11/Y roug_'! ~op.er_;_: -·I-, - i-:-:· H-/. -:-~
':- ~ I- , . . . H "" . '-- • 0.05
I ! i Lj - • • , • , l i ' • i : •
! ..:..J • I I
: ;i----r-:~·-7,-1-r-rr:·: 1--r-1 i I I . I I T1T , . . i .. ; I I I I i ·1 : 1·1 0 .04
t •
0 .07 1 ;
m 'i I I 1 l
_l '. I •.. . I 1_. I ,...., i"-H -t-f-i-n -11-;-....,__
0.06 :±±_h\. . ~, _l •N-l - " J u , :: ; 11 :r i 1 ;_'.: ' ' '. " !: ' i----1-1 / '.
'-+.i:J:f:± bj-' --'- ~ - ·.. · t-f- t::: •
Iii i!! 11 • 1 ! ;-W._! ' · :
0 03 . 1--t::t:;j-..t::r::,-•----- --+-~ ,...... _-,- r t+
0.05
-~\-' ' • ; ......!.......,
· :
· ' ,__:n '- '. : EEt --!-~ l:L·H :0
I
-~ ~
<
:; &11-:
•
' !
t1
~
; <-:=,
F++
'
.
I
,-H J-L.!
<
: : . :-.m +,·- '-:=---i---1--~ +++f--.-.

.f.j:-L
>
:.
1'
•~
. •
'
-, r+l- 1 ,··rl r-t
: j ; .
. 1 : : .. !--~
. ' . I ' '. I . I . j .
0 .02
0.04 fi r! '_ _,
1 1 3
5
: \ ' - --
·,
:-~\
~ ~ :lJ- ttkt l.H,
.,
,
:
: ,. m
; ~. .
",. ~ : ~ ' t::±f.Fl:H-H•:+H -+

,
•
-r:c
,, , ~
+·,H
I J
'1 +-
' th; ·t- H
.
! : i 111 :H
-.!
I
-h:it~ :=±
1 1 1 , , :
::J... 1 '
...L.L
~
.j I rf-11-+t+
~ ~ 1 1 1 1 1 • 1 1 , , 1 1 1 1
· • I
1 1 : 1
I I , L
1
0.01 5
0 .01
I 'i t f~ ,1 :s :!- ~ ~.... .L.- ,-.,. ·· ~.L .-;. ..... ..L. . J....LJ _j.i...J ....L!_ _LI ' ...,,::i
, : · 1 '
I , ! tl'
...... _, . I I
~---..---:_,-ti'
j I 1 11 , , • H ~•-U -1-1 -~ : I I ' 1-.!..-W .-, I I' I I j I : I !/ It I I 0 .008
±' I i !-W-
,::: I 1/ 1 . .
~
1
I I' ,, :..: j 11 11 1 1 , : l • ftl J l 0.00 ~
11 11 ...l..!.:: S ~
~~
. f
I ': i
UI j ILLi...... I I J1U LI I 111 __ ;
1 ! 1-I ~! ::i
...
u
~
0.()3 _ --. ·• ""':1 Re., I I'
\\ f±ti. ' ~~ --
~ :...:..:..; 1 u J
- , '-
--
",-_! I I
I tt· I • n:::t :t::L LL l,.J. hi I-; - -+
0.00 4 C
u
C
.5?'
0.02 5 ~~,~.·-~·i fif=':I=!=f:i±:'" •- +- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~b ~~Jif~ttr..t'.:.... .: l p:: ;+b}t d~ +- i=/:;::ltFl u¥
§=ffl
--~~ g>
e
f t - -,- , t-+- ~ ~
-r·tr ~
~;, _l !I I,.
L.c.
_
J : =:F R = A ~ , I I ~-- '
0.00 2
~ H -+1-1 --- ' . ' : .
~~ ""- c:::r:r:r-:;:rr: t I l t J.-...!...-.: ' . "'
, ... ~
I
r • ""· , 1 t.; -~
I I , , l: r : : : n : : t : l . . , . ~....--i.-
......., ~
'.S j I 1ii
, -
-,~ ,1 r, ,,-r-
•
•-:- -•
--LI :i:= tt ,-;-, ~ · ...J_j.
.._ J
0.02 _ TT
I I \
I H-. ,- ,1 I ,, ·
1 I •
·1 ~
~~ l......-.L..J-,~ , ~ 0.00 1 ai
a:
_ Tr 1 1' T- 1 • l ~ 1.. , 1 I
0.00 08
J I J.. I II ! I ~- I
~
...........J
:· I
• j
--n--
I
I I I I
f : ·
--r • : • • • • • :
_
' •
•
i : :
0 .00C i6
' I I I
I Ill ""'- Z~ I 111 ,. t 1 1..Jl !l l l l i ! ! I I ,1 , I l!I
I I I
o.·01"5
I
TT
I I I ! I
, , , , _ ~ _l j I j LL£ i...L LJ I t j , 1 H+
!
' "
iI
11 1 0.00 04
I 11
1 , , I 1 1 !J '.J I I ; I
. •-:--; - ri~i-;-
1 ,
J : Smo~th pip es- -f ~~.- ;.....r 1 I j • •
~
0.00 02
I ; . -H 4rt t I I I
I
I
I I
-~
I t~ ,~
t+t-Htn-7--JT.iit tn 0.0001
· 1 1 111_1 ' f--l- l 11' 1i !! i
Iii I II I I i
I i~ I I ! .! I I ~ I I
I I
/ '.....l.
I L L;-t ":.-W '- !...l- 0 .000 ,05
0.01 i I : .....!.. 1 .' I .i..·H-=
'--,' --t:J:.. . L.... 1 I ! I r -.I · ·ri I ~, , ~ • ,, -J,- , r:-',-t~~
- , Ir · - r,
t..l. ' ,I
- -r---t--t- - t-ri ,·-1 -r:,........t-i 1 [ I I I I ! I ~·-•.;; :;:::~-.... ' i 1 1
~
I :'
it: . : : : ::::
0 .009 -1· I . I
1 1 1
0,00 8 :
3
: I i: II 1 / : I : I : 1 I i i I I ; ;:::: : : , I I ' ; 0 .000 ,!:)l
8 la8
. 10 2 3 4 5 6 8 lo' 2 3 4 5 6 8 l<P 2 3 4 5 6 8 1a6 2 3 4 5 6 8 1/
Reynolds number, Re = P_xo --f,: = 0 .000 ,001 7J: = 0 .000 ,005

Fig. 8.13 Frict ion facto r for fully deve loped ·flow in circular' pipes. (Dat a from Moo dy [8].)
The unk now n func tion . ,p2 (Re , e/D ). is defi ned as the fr(c tion fac tor ,f,
f=<P2 (Re; ; )
and
_ .,_
. L v~-
fit= f jj ·2 (.$.34)
o r-
2
L V
Hi-; =/- - (8.3 5)
D 2g
tor is dece m1i ned exp erim enta lly. The res ults , pub lish ed by L. F. Mo ody (8], are sho wn
111 e fti<;tion fac .
in Fig . 8.1 3.
ne hea d loss for full y dev elop ed flow with kno wn con qjti ons , the Rey nol ds n~ be r is
To dete rmi
tor, /, can
eva luat ed :f irst. Rqu ghn ess, e, is obta jned from data s uch as inT abl e 8. l . The n the fric tjon fac
be read from the approj_:,riate curv e in Fig . 8.13 , at the kno wn valu es of Re and e/ D. Fin ally , hea d loss can
be fou nd usin g Eq. 8 .34 or Eq. 8 .35.
2
foc1o rdcfi ne<I by Eq. 8.34 is lhe Darc y fricn 'onft ictor . The Fa1uritig fncti o11f c
a_ tor, less freq uent ly used. is defi ned ; 0
Toc •fricl ion
1crms_: or" lhe wol_l shel lf sLTCSS. The Darc y fi'ic1io11 facto r is fo.ur time s lhe Fa11111i1gfrictio11factor-.
302 Coapter 8 Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow
Table 8.1
Roughness for Pipes of Common Engineering Materials
Roughness, e
Pipe
Feet Millimeters
Riveted steel 0.003-0.03 0.9-9
Concrete 0:001-0.01 0.3-3
Wood stave 0.0006-0.003 0.2-0.9
Cast iron 0.00085 0.26
Galvanized iron 0.0005 0.15
Asphal!ed cast iron 0.0004 0.12
Commercial steel or wrought iron 0.00015 0.046
Drawn tubing 0.000005 0.0015
Source: Datn from Moody [8).
Several features of Fig. 8.13 re_q uire some discussion. The friction factor for laininar flow may be
obtained by comparing Eqs. 8.33 and 8.34:
h1= (64)
ReD2
!::_ y2 =J !::_ 172
D2
Consequently, for laminar flow
64
liiuniniir.=:;:R< (8.:36)
_e
Thus, in laminar flow, the friction factor is a function of Reynolds number only; it is independent of
roughness. Although we took no notice ofroug!iness in deriving Eq. 8.33, experimental results verify
that the friction factor is a function only of Reynolds number in laminar flow.
The Reynolds number in a pipe may be changed most easily by varying the average flow velocity. If
the flow in a pipe is originally laminar, im;reasing the velocity until the-critical Reynolds nwnber is
reached causes transition to occur; the laminar flow gives way to turbulent flow. The effect of transition
on the velocity profile was discussed in Section 8.5. Figure 8.11 shows that the velocity gradient at the
rube wall is much larger for turbulent flow than for laminar flow. This change in velocity profile causes
the wall shear stress to increase sharply, with the same effect on the friction factor.
As the Reynolds number is increased above the transition value, I.he velocity pr9file continues to
be.c ome fuller, as noted in Section 8.5. For values of relative roughness e/ D ~0.001, the friction factor at
firs 1. tends to follow the smooth pipe curve, along which friction factor is a function of Reynolds number
only. However, as the Reynolds number increases, the velocity profile becomes still fuller. The size of
the thin viscous sublayer near the tube wall decreases. As roughness elements begin to poke through this
layer, the effect of roughness becomes important. and the friction factor becomes a function of both the
Reynolds number and the relative roughness.
At very large Reynolds number, most of the roughness elements on the tube wall protrude through
the viscous sublayer; the cl.rag and, hence, the pressure Joss, depend .only on the size of the roughness
elements. This is termed the "fully rol.\gh" flow regime; the friction factor depends only on e/ D in this
regime.
For values of relative roughness e/.P~0:Q0I, as the Reynolds number is incrl!asecj above the tran-
sition value, the friction factor is greater than tjle smooth pipe valiJ.e. As was the case for .lower values of
e/D, the value of Reynolds number at which tile flow regime becomes fully rcitigh decreases with
increasing relative i;oughness.
To summarize the preceding c!iscussion; we See that as Reynolps -number is increased, the friction
factor decre_ases as long as lhe flow remains laminar. At transition;/ increases sharply. In the turbulent
flow regime, th~ friction f~ctor dec~ases gii:lcj.ually and finally level_s oµt,at a constant value for large
Reynolds number.
8.7 Calculati on of Head Los·s 303
_.,
Bear in mind that the actual loss of energy is 1,1 (Eq. 8 .34), which is proportion al tof and v-. Hence,
for laminar flow h 1 ex V (because/ = 64/Re. and Re ex V): for the transition region there is a sudden
increase in li1; for the fully rough zone h,ex y 2 bec:ause/:: ::constant.. and for the rest of the rurbulent
region h, increases at a r'.lte somewhere between V and \7 2 • We conclude that the head loss always
increases with flow rate, and rii~,::e rapidly when the flow is turbulent. .
To avoid having to use.a graphi¢!!1 method. for obtaining / for turbulent flows, various mathemao cal
expression s have been fitted to the data. The most widely used formula for friction factor is from
Colebrook (9). ·
.1 . .... ·(e/D
1;51
-rz =;;-2.0 log - .. + . .. n
VJ . ~.7
) (8.3.7}
Rf!v_;, .
Equation 8 .37 is implicit inf; and an equation solver can be used to find/ for? given roughness ratio e/ D
and Reynolds number Re. Eq. 8 .37 is not difficult to solve for /-all we need to do is iterate.
Equation 8.37 is quite stable-alm c.>st any initial guess value for f in the right side will. after very
few iterations. Je·a d ·to a converged value for J to three sig-rtificant figures. From Fig. 8. 13, we can
see that for tu.rbulent flows f < o·. 1; henc.e J = 0 . I would-·ma ke a gq9d initial. value. Another strategy
is to use Fig. 8.13 to obtain a good fii:st espmate; then usually one iteration l!Sing Eq. 8.37 yields a good
value for f. As an alternative , Haaiand [ 10] developecl t)le .following equation,
I
-=-l.8l og
-.If .
[(e/D)u, +6.9]
- .-
3 .7
- Re
as an approxima tion to the Colebrook equation; for Re> 3000, it gives results within about 2 percent of
the Colebrook equation, without the need to iterate.
For rurbulent flow in smooth pipes, the Blasius correlation . valid for Re 5 105 • is
f = 0 .316_ (8.38)
Re0.25
When this relation is combined with the expression for wall shear stress (Eq. 8.16), the·expres sion fot
head loss (Eq. 8:32), and the definition of friction factor (Eq. 8.34), a useful expression for the wall shear
stress is obtained as
-r,.. =0.0332p V (
2 u
-=
)025 (8.39)
RV
·This equ~tion will be us<:d later in our study _o f turbulent boundary- layer flow over a fiat platE_:
(Chapter 9).
All of the e values _given in Table 8.1 are for new pipes, in relatively good condition. Over
long periods of s¢rvice, corrosion takes place and, particularl y in hard wat~t areas, lime deposits and
rust ·s cale form on pipe walls. Corrosion can weaken pipes, evenrually leading to failure. Deposit
formation increases wall roughness appreciabl y, and also decreases the effective diameter. These
factors combine to cause e/D to increase by factors pf 5 to 10 for old pipes. An example is shown
in Fig. 8.14.
Curves presente<J in Fig. 8. 13 represent average values for data obtained· from numerous experi-
!Tlents. The curves should be considered accurate within approxima tely ± 10 pei:-cent, which i$ s.ufficient
for many engineerin g anaiyses. If more accuracy is needed, actual test data should be used.
Minor Losses
The flow in a .piping system may be required ·to pass through a variety of fittings, bends; or abrupt
changes in .-area. Adp.itiona l head losses are encountere d, primarily as a result of flow separation ,
Energy eventually is dissipated by violent ~ g in the separated zones. These losses will be minor
304 Cha·p ter 8 lnteri'i~I Incompressible Viscous Flow
Fig. 8.14 Pipe section removed ;ifter 40 years of service as a water line, showing formation of scale.
(henc~ the term mi11or losses) if the piping systein includes long lengths of canst.a nt-area pipe. Minor
losses are computed as.
(8.40)
where the loss coefficie,u, K, must be detennine_d experimentally for each situation. For flow through
pipe bends and fittings, the loss coefficient, K, is found to vary ,vith pipe size (diameter) in much the
same manner as tbe friction fo,ctor,f, for flow through a straight pipe. T)l¢.A.Sf!/?A.E Eicmdbopk-Funda. -
melllals (12] and wel;>sit°i;s such as The En~eering Toolbo~J35J.provide·~wea!!4 of_data on fitting loss
coefficients. Tbe data presented here should be considered as representative for so111e. commonly
encount¢red situations.
a. Inlets and Exits

A .poorly designed inlet. to a pipe can cause appreciable head Joss. If the inlc;t has shai:p comers, flow
separation occurs at the comers, and a· vena contracra -is formed. The fluid must ;i,c,;celerate locally to
pass through the reduced fi.ow ~a at llie vena contracta. Losses in mecbanical 'e'1etgy result from
tbe unconfined mixing as th·e (low stream dec¢lerates again to fill the_pip•e. Three basic inlet geometries
•a.re shQwninTable 8.2, Frorri the table it is clear that the Io~s coefficient is reduced si~nifi~antly when the
inlet is rnunded even 11lightly. For a well~rouhded bile~ (r/1) ~ 0.15) ihe entrance loss coefficient is
almost n¢gligib1e. ~xai;rtp1e 8.9 iU!,1.s irates a procedure for exe~timerjta:Ily detertpin.ing th~ loss coef-fi-
~m fu a~¢ W~ . ~ ·. . .. . ..
The kinetic energy per unit µi.:is~. er~,-/2, is completely dissipated by miitjn,g when flow discharges
from a duct into a large reser\!.Oir or p!~p.11r1 ·chambet. T!ie situati0n co~p~li9_s t_o J19w throµgh an
a.!>ruPt expansion with AR:;= o Witt 8. 15 )._The mlnc:ii: los_s goefficieriuhus equals ':f, whi¢h as we saw
jn tli~ previoµs section ~e usQallysef to 1 for turbuleil(fl(>w: NQ im_J1rQvementfa minor loss coefficient
2
f\">r an exit is possiQle; howev~r•.adc!ition ,of a diffuser can rc;(JiJce·.v /2 and therefore h 1,. considerably
(see Example 8. 10);
b. Enlargements and Contractions

Min~r Joss coeffici~nts for. sug~en expai:isiQP-SJ,and.'co.il.~~OQ$-in ci~!llar ducts are .g iven in Fig_ 8.15.
Note that.b_oth loss ~oeffici~nts .a¢ :b¥¢d on:
fbe,;"(ar,g_e r V'J,2, Thµf losses for a sudden expansion are
based on V}/2, and those·for;a, cootrac;t;i.Q~i'ai:e b~ed· on V2/2.
8.7 Calculati on of Head Loss 305
Table 8.2
Minor Loss Coefficien ts for Pipe Entrances
Entrance Type Minor Loss Coefficient , Ka
0 .5-1.0
Reentrant
--+-
m- (depending on length of pipe enirance)
11-
Sql,lru-e-edged
- m
r----
., . D
0.5
Rounded ~1 0 .02 0.06 >0.15

r/D
--+-
(lF---f- K 0 .3 0.2 0.04
1
"Bnsed. on hi~ = K(V /2). where V is the mean velocicy in the pipe.
Source: Data from Reference (12].
Contraction
1.0 k------.~--- '--'-.L....-,, -- ~. , . . . ~ - ; 1.0 c:

!!! .----,
0 .. 8 E~1N
0.6 8 ,.t
0 .4 ~ I~
0 ,2 ""
Area ratio, AR
Fig. 8.15 Loss coefficients for flow through sudd_
e n area changes. (Data from Streeter [ 1 ].)
Losses caused by area cl)ange can be redm;:ed·so mewhat by installing ~ nozzle or diffuser between
the two secti_ons of straight piJ>e. Data for nozzles are given in Table 8.3. Note that the final column (data
for the included angle 0= 180"). agr~es with the data e>f Fig. 8.15.
Losses in diffui;ers depend on a nurit!>er of geometric iµ1d flow variables. Diffus.e r data rpost com-
monly are presented in terms of 11 pressure recovery coefpcient ; c,,, defiqe~l as the ratio of static pressure
rise to inle_t dynamic pressure,
This shows what fraction of the inlet kinetic energy shows up as a pressure rise. It is not difficult to
show (using the Bernoulli and continuity equations) that the ideal (frictionless) pressure recovery coef-
ficient is given by
Table 8.3
Loss Coefficie nts (K) for Gradual Contractio ns: Round and Rectangu lar Ducts
Included Angle. 9. Degrees
th/Ai 10 15-40 50-60 90 120. 150 180
0.50 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.12 0 . 18 0.24 0.26
?)Flow
------- 0
A2 0.25 0.05
0 .05
0 .04
0 .05
0.07 0.17 0.27 0.35 0-41
,II . 0.10 0.08 0.19 0.29 0.37 OA3 -
Note; C~ffic;icnts nre bnscdon_lr,. =K(\/~/2).

Source: botn from· ASHRAE [12).
306 Chapter 8 Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow.
3.0 .
2.0
1.8
i
-s:
II 1.6
"'-s: b a.sci
,.,
.e 1.4 l).,q;-Q.4!;i
i§ ½
"' il'l9,-Q,40
l!! 1.3
<C o.35 cp
1.2
o.s 0.8 1.0 1.5 2 .0 3.0 4.0 5.0 8 .0 10.0

DimensiQnless length, NIR1
Fig. 8.16 Pressure recovery·for ~onl~al diffusers with fully developed turbulent pipe now at Inlet. (0ata from Cockrell and
Bradley (13).)
where AR is the a.rea ratio. HeQce, the ideal press11re recovery coefficient is a function only of the area
ratio. In reality a diffuser typically has tutbulent flow, and.the static pre,ssure rise in the direction of flow
may caust1 flow sepa'ratipn from the Walls if the diffi!ser is poody d~sigried; f)pw pulsations can even
-occur. For these reasons the actual CP will be somewhat: less lbai:l indic.ated by Ee( 8.42. For example,
data for-conical diffusers with fµlly developed-turbulent pipe flow at the iniet are, pteseM~d in Fig. 8 .16 as
i!, fi!ndiQn of geometry. Note that more taperer! diffusc!;"rs (smail divergence angle rj, or large ditn:ension-
l~s I~ngfh N / R 1 ) are more likely to approach th~ ideal' ccmstailt va)ue for Cp. As ,ve make the cone
shorter, .fof a given fixed area ratio we start to see a drqp in Cp--'-We ca:n consider ihe cone length al
whlch this starts to hl!ppen ~e 9ptimum length, whlch is the shortest Ieng~ fcir which we obtain the
maximum coefficient for a given area ratiO--'-Clpsest to, that predicted by Eq. 8.4i-. W,;, can relate Cp
to the head loss. If gravity is n·e glet:ted, and a1 = _<t2 = LO, the head loss equation, Eq. 8.29, reduces. to
-2] · [
pz -2]
~
Pl Y1 V.,
~+-
p · .-.. --.+·-.
2 ~ P 2- =h, ~hi r . .,
Thus,
· •
Vf[: (A•)
ht=--,;.,. _-I~ ~
2 th
2
- -C ]·
.p
8,7 Calculati on of Head Loss 307
or
11,
~
= v;
2
[(i- -~)-cp]
1
(ARt
(8.43)
=
The frictionles s result (Eq. 8.42) is obtained from Eq. 8.43 if h,~ O. We can coml:!ine Eqs. 8.42 and 8.43
to obtain an expression for the head loss in terms .of the actu.a l and ideal Cp values:
(8.44)
Performan ce maps for plane wall and annular diffusers [14) and for radial diffusers [15) are avail~
able in the literature.
Diffuser pressure recovery is e/,Sentially independe nt of Reynolds number fqr inlet Reynplds f!UID-
l;>ers. greater than 7 .5 x 10~ (16). Diffuser pressure recovery with uniform inlet flow is somewh_at better
than thllt for fu_lly developed inlet flow. Perfonnan ce maps for plane wall, conical, and annular diffus.e rs
for a variety of1rtlet flow con_d itions are presented in [ 17]. .
Sipce static pressure rises in the direction of flow in a diffuser, flow may separate from the walls. For
some geometrie s, the outlet ti.o~ is distorted. Fqr wide angle diffusers, vanes or splitters can be used to
suppress stall. and improve pressure recovery [18].
c. Pipe Bends
The head loss of a bend is larger than for fully developed flow through a straight section of equal length.
The additional loss is primarily the result of secondary flow. The loss coefficien ts for bends of different
constructi on, geometry, and angle are given in Table 8.4. Because they are simple and inexpensi ve co
construct in the field, miter bends often are used in large pipe systems. Miter ben_ds often have turning
vanes installed inside them, and, as shown in Table 8.4, the loss is reduced significan tly. Bends and
fittings in a piping system may have threaded, flanged, or welded connection s. For small diameters ,
threaded joints are most common; large pipe systems frequently have flanged or welded joints.
d: Valves and Fittings

L<;>sses for flow through valves and fittings are also expressed in terms of a loss coefficien t. Some rep-
resentativ e values are given in Table 8A.
The ·resistance for fully open v~lves is low, but losses increase rnarlcedly when valves are parci~y
open. Valve design varies significant ly among manufactu rers. Whenever pos.s ible, loss coefficiet1 .ts
furnished by .the valve supplier should l;ie used -if accurate results are needed.
Table 8 .4
Represen tativ~. Loss Coefficien ts for Fittings .and Valves
Fit!.ing Geometry K Fitting Geometry K
90" elbow Flanged regular 0.3 Globe valve Open 10
Flanged long radius 0.2 Angle valve Open 5
Threaded regular 1.5 Ga!e valve Open 0.20
Threaded long mqius 0.7 75% open 1.10
Miter 1.30 50% open 3.6
Miter with vanes 0.20 25% open 28.8
45" Elbow Threaded regular 0.4 Ball valve Open 0.5
Flanged long radius 0.2 l/3 closed 5.-1
Tee, 9ividing 111readed 0.9 213 closed 200
line flow Flanged 0.2 Water meter 1
Tee, branching Thread~d 2.0 Coupling 0.08
flow Flanged l.O
Source: Datil from Referenc;cs [12] nnd [34].
308 Chapter 8 Internal Incompressible Viscous flow
In an installation, losses for fittings and valves may be considerably different from the tabulated
values, depending on the care used in fabricatin<r u1e pipe system. IT bUJTS from cutting pipe sections
are allowed to remain, they cause local flow ob;tructions, which increase losses appreciably.
Alll10ugh ll1e losses discussed in this section were tenned "minor losses," ll1ey can be a large frac-
tion of the overall system loss. Thus a system for which calculations are to be made must be checked
carefully to make sure all losses have been identified and their magnitudes estimated. If calculations are
made carefully, ll1e results will be· of satisfactory engineering accuracy. You may expect to predict actual
losses within ±IO percent.
We include here one more device that cbanoes the energy of llle fluid-except this time the energy
of llle fluid will be increased, so it creates a "n:gative energy loss."
Pumps, Fans, and Blowers in Fluid Systems

In many practical flow situation_s (e.g., llle cooling system of an automobile engine, llie HVAC system of
a building), ll1e driving force for maintaining the flow against friction is a pump for liquids or a fan or
blower for gases. Here we will consider pumps, alll1ough all lhe results apply equally to fans and
blowers. We generally neglect heat _transfer and internal energy changes of llle fluid and incorporate
them later into ll1e definition of the pump efficiency, so lhe first law of thermodynamics applied across
llle pump is
We can also compute the head ~hpump (energy/mass) produced by the pump,
}i,pumr
4hpump=--.-= (P-+?+gz
_V 2
)
- (P-+?+g,_
Y
2
-- ~) (8A5)
m p - WSChllJl;C p - suction
In many cases ll1e inlet and outlet diameters (and therefore velocities) and elevations are the same or
negligibly different, so Eq. 8.45 simplifies to
~Ppump
/
Alpump=--- (8.46)
p
ll is interesting to note that a pump adds energy to llle fluid in the_form of a gain in pressure-the every-
day, invalid perception is.that pumps add kinetic energy to llle -fluid. It is tnie mat when a pump-pipe
syslem is first started up, llle pump do~ work to accelerate the fluid to its steady speed; lllis is whe11 a
pump driven by an electric motor is most in danger of burning out ll1e motor.
The idea is that in a pump-pipe system ll1e head produced by me pump (Eq. 8.45 or 8.46) is needed
to overcome llle head_Joss for llle pipe system. Hence, the flow rate in such a system depends on the pump
characteristics and llle major and minor losses of the pipe system. We will learn in Chapter 1O that the
head produced by a given pump is not constant, but varies with flow rate lllrough the p1,11up, leading i;o
the notion of "matching" a pump to a given system to achieve llle desired flow rate.
A useful relation is obtained from Eq. 8.46 if we multiply by 1h= pQ (Q is llle flow rate) and recall
that ,h~hpump is the power supplied to the fluid, ·
(8.47)
We can also define the pump_ effo:;iency:
(SA8)
where wpump is the power reaching the fluid, and W-;n is the power input (usually electrical) to the pump,
8.8 Solution of Pipe Flow Problems 309
We note that, when applying the energy equation (Eq. 8 .29) to a pipe system, w~ may ~omelime s
choose points I and 2 so that a pump is included in the system. For these-cases we can simply mclude the
head of the pump as a "negative loss":
( : +a1 :~ +gz1) - ( ; +ai:; +gz2) =h,7 -M1pump (8.49)
Noncirc ular Ducts

The empirical correlation s for pipe flow also may be used for computati ons involving noncircula r d _u cts,
provided their cross sections are not too exaggera1e d. Thus ducts of square or rectangula r cross
section may be treated if the ratio of heiaht to width is less than about 3 or 4.
The correlation s for turbulent pipe fl~w are extended for use with noncircula r geometrie s by intro-
ducing the hydraulic diameter, defined as
-- 4A
D1,= p '.
in place of the diameter, D. In Eq. 8.50, A is cross-secti onal area, and Pis welled perimeter, the len;!ili of
wall in contact with the flowing fluid al any cross-secti on. The factor 4 is introduced so that the hydraulic
diameter will equal the duct diameter for a circular cross section. For a circular duct, A = r.D2 I4 and
P=HD, so that
7C) .,
4A - 4 (-:- D-
4
D1,=-
p = r.D =D -
For a rectangula r duct of width b and height /z, A= bh and P = 2(b + h ), so
4bh
D,,=2(b+ h)
1f the aspect ratio , ar. is defined as ar=h/b, then
2h
D1,=- · ---
I+ar
·fqr _i:ectangula r ducts. For a square du·c t, ar-= 1 and D1, = II.-
As noted, the hydraulic diameter concept can be applied in the approxima te range¼ < ar < 4. U oder
these conditions , the correlation s fQr pipe flow give acceptably accurate results for rectangula r ducts-.
Since such ducts are easy and che·a p to fabricate from sheet metal, they .ire commonly useq in air con.,.
ditioning, heating, and ventilating_application s. Extensive data on losses for air flow are availabie (e.g.•
see [12, 19]). ·
Losses caus~d by secondary flows increase rapidly for-more extreme geometrie s, so the correla tions
~ not applicable to wide; flat ducts, Qr to ducts of triangular or other irregul~ shapes. Experime ntal data
must be· used when precise design informatio n is required for specific situations.
8 .8 Solutio n of Pipe Flow Problems

Section 8.7 prov.ides us with a complete scheme for solving many different pipe flow problems. For
c(mvenien ce wt;, collect together the relevant corilpilting equations.
The eilei•gy equ{l{ion, relaµng the conditions at any two points 1 and 2 . for a single-pat h pipe
system, is
(8.29)
This equation expresses the fact that there will be n loss of mechanical energy ("pressure," kinetic and/or
potential) in the pipe. Recall that for turbulent flows aRJ I. Note that by judicious choice of points l and 2
we ca? analyze not only the entire pipe system, but also just a certain section of it that we may be inter-
estec! m. The total head loss is given by the sum of the major and minor losses. (Remember that we can
also include "negative losses" for any pumps present between points 1 and 2. The relevant form of the
energy equation is then Eq. 8.49.)
Each major loss is given by
(8.34)
where the friction factor is obtained from

64
f =- for laminar flow (Re< 2300) (8.36)
Re
or
1
"'f = -
VJ
- (e/D 2.51 )
2.0 log - - + _n
3.7 Rev'f
_ _ -
for turbulent flow(Re ~ 2300)
·
(8.37)
and Eqs. 8.36 and 8.37 are presented graphically in the Moody chart (Fig. 8. 13).
Each minor loss is given by
vi
ht... =K- (8.40)
2
We also note that the flow rate Q is related to the average velocity 17 at each pipe cross section by
D2_
Q=,r4V
We will apply these equations first to single-path systems.
Single-Path Systems
in single~path pipe problems we generally know the system configuration (type of pipe material and
hence pipe roughness, the number and type of elbows; valves, and other fittings, etc., and changes
of elevation), as well as the fluid (p and 11) we ,viii be worltjng with. Alihough not the only possibilitieS,
usually th~ goal is to determine one of the following values: ·
(a) The pressure drop t:i.p, {or a given pipe (Land D), and flow rate Q.
(b) The pipe length L, for a given pressure drop t:i.p; pipe diameter D, and flow rate Q.
(c) Toe flo.w rate Q, for a given pipe (L and D), an,d pres~tire drop 6.p.
(q) 'pie pip~ di~eter D, for a given pipe length ~. pressure grop 4,p, and_flqw rate Q.
Each ofthese cases often i).rises i11 ~ill-world situations. Forexample; case (a:) is~ iiecessru:y step in select'-
ing the.correct size pump to mainta.41 ~e desire~ floi.v rate in a systelll--'-tbe pump must be able to produce
the sysiem t:i.p at the specified flow rate Q. (We will discuss this in more detail in Chapter IO.) Cases
(a} and (b) ~ comp11tationally straightforward; we will see ~at cases (c) and (d) can be a li~tle tricky to
evaluate. We will discuss each case, and present a:n examplefoi: ¢acli. T _IJe Examples present solutions as -
you ~ght do them using a c_alculinox, tint there is also an Excel wp_rkpook for each. (Remember Lhat
lhe course website has an Ex.eel adcHn1.liat once installed will au_tornatically compute/ from Re and
e/D!) The advantage of using a computer application such as a spreildllneet ~s that we do not have to
use either the Moody chart (Fig. 8. 13) or solve the implicit Colebrook equation (Eq. 8.37) to obtain
turbulent friction factors~the application c~ f.'ljid them for us! fa addi!ion; as we_'ll see, cases (c)
and (d)involve significant iterative calculations that can be .i.voided by tise ofa computer application.
Fli1ally; once we 11ave a solution using a computer application:. erigiileering "wh~H(s'' b.e come easy, e.g. ,
if w~ do1,1ble the head produced by a pump, .h owmuch will th¢ flow rate in a given system increas~_?
8,8 Solution of Pipe Flow Problem s 311
a. Find 6p for a Given L, D, and Q .

nu~se J:ypes of problems are quite straightfor ward-che energy equacion (Eq. 8.29) can be solved directly
fot 6.p= (p, -pi) in cenns of known or computabl e quantities. The flow race !~ads to theReyn~ lds num~
ber and hence the friction factor for the flow· tabulated data can be used for minor loss coefficien ts. The
energy equation can then be used to directly ~btain the pressure drop. Example 8 .5 illustrates this type of
problem.
b. Find L for a Given Ap, D, and Q .

These types of problems are al_s o str~ghtfor ward-the energy equation (Eq. 8.29) can be solved directly
for L in te-rins of known or computabl e quantities. The flow rate again leads 10 the Reynolds number and
hence the friction factor for the flow. Tabulated data can be used for minor loss c;c;,efficients. The energy
equation can then be rearranged and solved directly for.the pipe length. Example 8.6 ill_ustrat~ this type
of problem.
c. Find Q for a Given Ap, L, and D

These types of problems require either manual iteration or use ofa computer applicatjo ~ such <1-S ,::Xcel.
The unknown flow rate or ·velocity is needed before the Reynolds number and hence the ftiction .factot
can :t,e found. To manually iterate we first solve the energy equation directly for V in terms of known
quantities and the unknown friction factorf. To start the iterative process we make a guess for/. A good
choice i"s to talce a value from the fully turbulent region of.the Moody chart because many practical-f lows
are in this region and obtain a va]ue for V. Then we can compute a Reynolds number and hence obtain a
new value forf. We repeat the iteration processf-- ,v--+ Re .......f until convergen ce (usually only two or
three-itera tions are necessary) . A rnilch "_quit,:k¢r proc~dure is to use a computer applicatio n. For example,
spreadshe ets (such as Exce[) have built-in solving featur!!S for solving one or more algebraic equations
for one or more unknowns . Exarqple 8,7 illustrates this type of problem.
d. Find D for a Given ap, L, ana Q

These Lype-s of prc;,blems arise, for ex;µnple, when we_have designed a pump-pipe· system and wish to
choose the ·best pipe diameter~ tbe.best being the minimum diame;:ter (for minimum pipe cost) that will
deliver the design flow rate. We need to manually iterate, or use a ·c omputer- ·applicatio li such as peel.
The unknown diameter is needed before the Reynolds ni:unber and relative roughness , ang. hence the
friction factor, can be_found. To mimualJY iterate we ·con.Id firs_t solve the eQ.ergy equation c;lire.cµy
fqr D in terms of known quantities and the unknown friction factor f. and then iterate from a starting
guess for f in a way similar to case (c) above: f--> D---+ Re anq e/D->f. In practice .mis is a -l ittle
unwieldy, sq.lnst~ad to mamial..ly fiJid a solution we m*e successive guesses for-D until me·cc;,rrespon d-
ing pressure drop P,..p (for the gi:ven flow rate Q)com_put eq from the energy equation matches the design
A.p~ As.in case (c) a much quicker procedure is to use a computei:' application . For·example, spr¢adshe ets
(Such :is E-.:cel) have built-in solving features foi: solving one or m:ore algebraic equAtions for one ot more
urtlaiowns . Ex8JI1pl_e 8.8 illustrate:( !:his type of problem. · · ·
in choosing a pipe size, it is l9gi¢al to workwith diameters that axe available eomm~ia Uy, Pip¢ is
m1lillif,ict ured in a limited number of stand~d sizes, Some data fot stahgard pipe siz~ _a re given iµ
Table a..5. For data on extra strong or double exn-a strong pipes, c:onsult a qan,dbook ; e.g,, [l t] and
[35]. Pipe Iaeger than: 12. in. nominal diameter is prt>du~ed in multiples of2 iµ. up to.a nomin~ diameter
of 36 in. and in multiples of 6 in. for still larger sizes.
We .have solved Examples 8.7 and s;S by ite111-tion. Several sp~cialize d foqns of friction factor
-versus Reynolc;ls nur_nb,er diagrams have been intr0dm;ed to, solve problems ·or this type without the
need for iteration. For examples of these specialized diagrams, see Da.ily and Harleman ['.?OJ and
White [21]. -
Exampl~ 8 .9 and 8. 10 illustrate the evaluation c;,f minor loss coefft¢i~n( $ and th~ applicatio n of a
diffuser LO reduc_e exit kinetic energy fi;om a -flow system. ·
312 Chapter 8 lhternaHncompres·sibl~ Viscous flow
Table 8.5
Standafd•sizes for Carbon Steei, Ailoy Steel, and Stainless Steel Pipe
N°<>niiiial'Pjpe Size (iii.) Insid!! Diameter (in.) . Noiiuiial Pipe Size (iii.) "inside Dia.meter (in.)
I ?l 2.4§9
8 0.469 -2
! 3 3.068
4 0.364
;l
ii 0.493 4 4 .026
! s 5.047
2 0 .622
;! 6.065
4 0 .824 6
I 1.049 8 7 .981
l½ 1.610 10 i0.020
i 2;067 12 12.0()0
·" $('11f?:!!= Dntn.from Refcren~ [_IJJ .l!Jld. [35] ,
~!=i:;~f51f!tj'.jcr«~~!;.';it;~.;i:::.::~:i:,=w~;;:~::~:~
~;~-;;~:: tr:;:t9IIW~~ttir_QJU.@Vs•.~1,1gh a.:7~'~1ttm.~~i¥.ii~!¢r-·~m.qpfu0ri~p~.,,w.~~.L,<'i:'.J .®;rg,;i~i.9__
;11~~ll§.t~i?-1¢v.~1 •~~f-v.~ir
Find:: if-9mP.,iP.~s~. l?i: -rec_illli"ed to rt1afuri\itt !!!¢'. flow.

CV
,S9.lµ_d on:
.~qv.~t,:,,iri~-~qu_,;,dqns:
where
:;:._-; .
==~1£ -. pt40!f},
:{s.~t• ai!f
C : }if• .
.-it:~rtt!:N~t~!~;~:X}f;;i~u:~~;,i~!~~~f~AB' :!?1=flt~Bi>,~~P,/Vi g,v~T!t~~\ ~-(~iP!?~-sl~1~U.@<L~_i ~.1xr~

9
.; -~1~:.;!$4• t$:;;~~~
This in t1,lm [assuming water at 20°c, P = g99 kg/ml, and Jl = 1.0 x 10.-3 kg/(m -s)] leads to the Reynolds number
PVD k m
Re= - - = 999--2. X 2.26-
. m ·s s
X 0.075 m X _3 = I ,70 X 1.0
µ ml s . 1.0 X JO kg
For Llirbulent flow in a smooth pipe (e=0), fro~ Eq. 8.37.f=0.0162. Then
2
..
Ppumr,=.6.p=p L y )
( gd+fr5 ,Tfjjs problem iUustra es the.method or
2 manuaflY. i:atc:'ulating p,reis.ure drol).
2 2 :rtie, Excel ~rl<book for,this i>roblem
ka ( m 100 in (2 26}2m ) N ·s automatically~ mpu~Re and
=999 7
rn
9 .81--=,-xlOm+(0.016 2)'><
s-
_ x
0.Q7.:, m
· .,
2s-
x-k--
-g · m
f.
,from ~~~•; I.v~rfcJa.?,,V,t t.11~ffS<?~~~-f:q. 1
5 aire<,tl~~~~~ pressu_rg':P;p~mi,~ itft__out fiaving
Ppump == 1.53 X 10 N/rp2 (gag€;)
to ~i>h~•tl;YsoJve for-i~_.1rse i~'he wm-kbook:
Henc.e , can tie easily usj!a ~§e~ for e~,'l'P.le, how
he punjp_i>r.essu!~Rpump re9uireino
Ppump = 153 kPa gage.,._---,-~-~------ ,--------P_pu _m_
. -~P maintain.fl= Qi~~ffe _}>y_c_hanging the
clia e~ f>; it rf easilye(litable for othe,;
case Ca) ~e problenis.
Example 8.6 FLOW IN·A PIPELINE: LENGTH UNKNOWN
Cr:ude oil flows througli alevel section of t11e Alas)<:llll pipeline at a rate of 1.6 tniJ].ion l;>arrels pe·r: day {1 b~l = 42:gal-). The'pip¢
insi9e·diiµneter is 48 in.; its ro_1Jghriess is equivalent to galvanized iron. The m~_ um ;illowable·pressute' is V?QO psi; tb'e' min;.
imuni pressure n!guired to keep dis$ol.ved gas.e s in solution in Jhe crµde oil is 50 psi. The crµde oil has SG = 0 ,9.3 ; i~ '(iscosity
a.t the pumping temperature of 140°.F .i.s JI= ~ -5 x 10-4 lbf · sift2. For these conQitionsT .determine. the maximllll) possible
·s p~c.ing berwe.e n pumping sUitio11S. if·tl1e. p'tnjip· ¢ffi¢iency is 85 percent, determine the power that must be supplied, a,t ~<;;h
pumping statipn. · · ·
Gi:v..e n:Fiow of crude oil throu$h .horizoriral sei;;tion of Alaska,ti. pipeline.

D =4.8 -.iji. (roughneSs ofgajvaniz.ed iron), ,------~ · - - ~~ - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - ' - - ' - ~ - - - - - ,
s·o = -0.93, ,, =3.s x 10~4 1br. $/fr
Firid: (a) MaxiinµtiJ spacing, L.
(b) Power rieede~ at each 'J>llm'p sta~on-
So.lutiori: As sli<;>wn in th¢ figure, w.e assume
UJM the Ala:ska:n pipeJ,in(; is made lip of repeating
plii:Qp-:pipe sections. We can dra\v t\Vb control
v.olutn~: CV 1 , for the Pipe flow (state (2) to sta~e Q)); CV2, foi:- the purn:p (s.fute .(D to state (2)).
First we -apply the energy equ.ition fot steady, ificompressible: pipe flow to 1, c:.v
GQ11ernin9 equatio.ns:
lh vfi . a1: ).
-;;+~2f.t+7-,2 - v~ al)
(Plp. +a1t,t+ _,_, =lztr=h1+hr. (:8.:49)
( 1
where
L V
2
y2
h1=J...:.., - .
D 2
(8.34) and h,
"'
= K2- (8.40a)
314 Ghaptet:S:'!iit ernal Incompressible Viscous Flow
Assumptions:
-2 -2
a ,V, = a2 V 2 .
2 Honzonml pipe, z1= z2.
3 Neglec t minor losses.
-1- Constant viscosity.
Then, us mg CV1
(1)
or
2D 6.p
L = - ---::,:-,;- wheref =f(Re,e/ D )
1 pv-
bbl 0 al 6 ft3 day hr
O=1.6xl0-x42 "b-b lx . x-x--=104f t3/s
day 7.48 gal 24 hr 3600 s
so
3
- Q fL 4
V=-=104-x , , =8.27ft/s
A s ,r(4Y-ft-
p Tl D sluo ft_ ft2 !bf • s2
Re=--= (0 .93)l.94 "3"' x8.27-x4ftx · 4 x-._.-· - .-
11 ft s 3.5 x Io- lbf · s slug · fl
Re= 1.71 X 105
From Table 8.1 , e =0.0005 f1 and hence e/D=0.00012. Then from Eq. 8.37,f=0.017 and thus
2 lbf ft3 s2
L = - - x4 fix (1200-50) - ? x - , - - - , - - - x ? 2
0 .017 in.- (0.93) 1.94 slug (8.27)- ft
in .2 slu 0 • fl
X 144- , X ~ =6.32 X 105 ft
f1- lbf · s-
.-
L = 632, 000f1( 120 mi) ... - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - ---=L
To find the pumping power we can apply the np.U3.1w of thermodynamics Lo CV2. This control volume consists only of the
pump, and we saw in Section 8.7 that this law simplifies to
Wpump= Q6.ppump (8.47)

and tbe pump efficiency is
W'pump
11=-.- (8.48)
W,n
We recall that \Vpump is the power reachin_g the fluid. and Winis the p_o wer inpuL Because we have a repeating_~stem the n,ressure
rise through the pump (i.e., from stale (D lo state (2)) equals the pressure drop in the pipe (i.e., frcim state (V ·10 state Q)),
.6.Ppump = .6.p
8.8 Soluti on of Pipe Flow Proble ms 315
so that
wpump = QAuppump = rt3 (1200-

104~ X , ?
50)1bf 144 in.
X .,
2
s m.- fr
hp · s . .
X . :::::31,300 hp
550ft · lbf
artd the require d power input is
W· _ W'pump _ 31300h p Wnccdc<I

m. - , - Q.SS 36,800 hp.-·- - - - - - - - -
1
Exam ple 8.7 FLOW FROM A WATE R TOWE R: FLOW RATE UNKN OWN
A fire ·protect ion sys tem is supplie d from a water tower and standpi pe 80 ft tall. TQe longes t pipe in. the system is 6QCl ft apd _is
niade of cast iron ab9ut 20 years old. The pipe contain s one gate valve;.other minor losses may be negif;c ted. The pipe diamet er i.&
4 in. Determ ine the ma.xifnum: rate of flow (gpm) through this pipe.
Given : Fire prcitection system , as shown.

Find:
Soluti on:
Q, ~m. -,-:ft:
Ir= 80
-
I
1 CV . Ga_te valve" "
_I_ : •--- ~D = 4 1n. _ .- - - - - - - . ~ Q
_Gc,v.erning equatio ns:
, __ _ _ t,,;pc = 600 ft - - - - - i
®
{8.29)
wh¢re
2
L V
·-·
lt;::::::f.:..,...- (8'34) and (8.40b )
D :2
As_$ umptio ns:
I p, = p2 == Pmm
2 V1 =O, imd a2 ~ 1.0.
Then Eq. 8.-29 can be w_ritten as
~i _ .,
g(z1-z 2)- ~ 2
· -
=h1r=· t(LD + L.,)
D · 2
v; (1}
Fon.i: fully open gate valve, from Tabie 8.4, 1,,.,/D·= S. Thus
g •cz1 -z2 ) = v;
2- rr.(L
~: D + ~ )
. + 1].
To manually iterate, we solve for V 2 and obtain
V2=[f(L/D+S)+
2g(z1-z2) ]1/2
l
(2)
To be conservative; assume the standpipe is the same diameter as the horizontal pipe. Then
L 600 ft+ 80 ft 12 in
-D= . X - · =2040
4m. ft
Also
-z2 =h ,,,;go ft
Z1
T0.solVeEq, 2_ m@ually we need to iterate. To start, we mak;e an estimate for f by assuming the flow is fully turbulent ( where f is
cpnstant). This va}i.ieccU1 be obtained from solving Eq. 8.37 using a calculator or from Fig. 8.13. For a large value of Re (e.g .• 108 ).
and a roughness ratio e / D:::l::0.005 (e = 0.00085 ft for cast iron is obtained from Table 8.1. ahd doubled to allow for the fact that
the pipe is old). we find thatf~0.03. Thus a first iteration for \72 from Eq. 2 is
- [ . ft J ] 1-/2
V2= 2x32:2°?x80ftx-=--:~c::-::-----,-- =9.08ft/s
s- 0 .03(2040+8}+ l
Now obtain a new value for f:
pVD VD ft fl s
Re=--= - =9.08- x - x - - - - - = 22 . 5 0 x 105
JI V S 3 l.21 X 10-S ft
For e/D = 0.005J = 0.0308 from Eq. 8.37. Thus we obtain
- [ ft 1 ] 1/2
V2 = 2 x 32.2 s2 x 80 ft x 0.0308(2040 + 8) + I = 8.97 ft/s
The values we have obtained for V2 (9.08 ft/sand 8.97 ft/s) differ by less than
?,%--an acceptable level of accuracy. If this accuracy had not been achieved we
would continue iterating until thls, or ~Y other accuracy we desired, was
aehieV:ed (usually only one or two more iterations at most are necessary for re_a-
scmabl~.accuracy). Note that instead of starting with a fully rough value fo-.f, we
co_llldhav.estarted ,vitb a guess value for Y2 of, say, 1 ft/s or 10 ft/s. The volume
now rate is
Q. =
- ~ - $lY
· - = v .,_
·· V?A
ft
- -·-4· - ::;::.8.97-_
· s
;r(l):zfr., x
x -4 -3
gal s
7 .48 ,-_'] x 60-.
re- · mm
Q
"(J::::;3.51 ~IiJ.---·- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Example 8.8 FLOW iN AN IRRIGATION SYSTEM:: DIAMETER UNKNOWN
Spr:ay .l:>.eacls in 811. agricultural spraying system are to be supplied wit:11 water throu~h SOO ft of ~wn alulllinurn tubing from an
engiri~-,driven p_ump. In iLS most efficient operating ran~e. the.pump o_utput ~s 1,500 gpm at ll. c.li!_;chatge pressure not exceeding
65 psig.. For sl!,.tisfa<;tory operation, the sprinklers mus~ ope~te at 30'ps1g or higher pressure. Minot losses And elevation changes
may be neglected. De~ennine the smallest standard pipe size that can be used.
Given: Wa_ter supply system. as shown.

Find: Smallest standard D.
Solution: Ap, L , and Qare known. Dis unknown, so itera-

tion is needed 10 determine the minimum standard diameter
tha t satisfies the pressure drop conslraint at I.he given flow rate.
The maximum allowable pressure drop over the lengl.h, L. is
~\:.:'Q" : f'- - 1- Q- 1500,om
p1 s; 65 ps,g P2 ~ 30 ps1g
APmox =p,= -p2,.._, = (65-30)psi =35 psi
(8.29)
Assumptions:
I S~e~QY flow.
3 h1r ·= h1, i.e., iz,ft == 0.
4 Z I = z 2.
5 Vi =V2=V;a1 ::::a2.
Theri
(l)
Equation I is difficult to solve for D because both V andf depend on D! The best approach is to µsea computer ~ppli~tion such
as Excel to automatically solve for D. For completeness here we show the manual iteration procedure~ The first step is to expres s
Eq. l and the Reynolds number in terms of Q instead of V (Q is constant but V varies with D). We have V Q/A = 4Q/1rD2 =
so tbat
Ap=JL p
D 2
(4Q)2=
:,.D"l.
8jLpQ2
r.2b5 -
(2)
The Reynolds number in terms of Q is
Re = pVD =VD= 4Q D = 4Q
JI V KD2 V KVD
Finally, Q n,ust be converted to cubic feet per _second.
min gal
ft3
Q= 1500 minx 60 s x 7 .48 gal =3.34ft3/s
For an initial guess, take nominal 4 in. (4.026 in. i.d.) pipe:
4Q 4 _ ft3 s in.
Re=--- = - x3.34- x -----=--=X- -- x 12--1 06= 106
1rvD 1r s 1.21 x 10-s ft2 4.026 in. ft - · "'
6
For drawn tubing, e=5x 10- ft (Table 8.1) and hence e/D= 1.5 x 10-s, sof ~0.017 (Eq-. 8.37), and
2
8JLpQ 8 slu0 ft.6 1 · 3 lbf . s2
A p = ~ =---:, X0.012x500ftx 1.94---; x(3.34}2- x . x 1728m. x
1r-u- JC- ft s2 (4.026) 5 in.5 ft' slµ~ · ft
l:l.p= 172 lbf/in.2 > Apma.~
Since this pressure drop is too large, try D = 6 in. (actually 6.065 in. Ld~)=
4 ~ s •
Re= - X3.34--'-X x---xl?~-6 95xl05
5·
7r - S 1.21 X 10- ft:2 6.065 in. - ft - .
3 18 Chapt er 8 Intern al Incom pressi ble Viscou s Flow
For drawn tubing with D=6i n., e/D= I.Ox 10-s. so/'.:o! 0.013 (Eq. 8.37), and
8 s~ · ~
2
4P='-:' > x0.0} 3x500 ftx 1.94--x (3.34) -
n- ft3 s2
I · 3 ~
X .. x(I 2 )3~ lbf - s-
. (6.065 )5 in. 5 fr3 x slug . ft
Ap ===24.0 !bf/in. 2 < .6.Pmnx .
Since this is less than the lµ}owa ble pressµr e drop, we should check a 5 in. nom-
inal pipe ,with an actual i.d. of 5.047 in.,
4 . . R. s in.
Re= - x..3.3 4- x . ·•, 5 t2 X.,,,-,- -.,-- x 12- = 8 36 x 10s
· ~ S 1.21 X JQ- fi · 5.047 in. ft .
ForQi:8 .wn.tub ing.w.i tliD= ~in .• e/D= 1.2 X 10-5 • so/'.:o! 0.0122 (Eq. 837), and
8 . ~a
2
~
.6.p= ~ x0.01 22x50 0 ftx l.94 ° x {3.34) -
,.- ft3 s2
X l . X {12)3in .3 X !bf . s2
(5.. 047)5 jn.5 ft3 slug · ft
.6.p = 56.4 ll;>f/in.2 > .6.Pmox
Thus the ¢titerio n for pressu re drQp is satisfie d for a minimu m nomina l diamete r
.o 'f 6 in. ·pipe. D
&am ple 8. 9 CAl,.C ULATI ON o'F ~NTRA NCE LOSS COE:FFiCIENT
f(~to n [2~] reports results of measur~ments made to c;ieterntine entranc e losses for flow from a reseryo ir to a.pipe with variou s
, d ~ ~ of e!}¢anc:e r:oundi ng. A c;opp~r pipe 10 ft long, with i.s in. i.d., was use.d forthe tests. The pipe cJiscb1;U'~ed to atmos phere,
:Eo.r~a square- eeqg¢d,enmµic;e. a dischar ge 9f 0.566 fr/ s was measur ed when the reservoir level Wll$ gs; I ft above the pipe. cen-
l~rline ; From these di!~ .ev~µa te the loss coeffi.~ ierit for a square-edged entJ:artc;e.
Giy~ri : Ripe with-sg µ,a re-e.d g¢d entfallc e dischar ging from reserv;oir as shown.
Fin.d : Kenii'niice·
11 • .•· . . ··- ·
Sqluti on:· Apply tlie energy eqµatio n for steady, incomp ~ssible pipe flow. ~
I 9,V:
gciv..er:ning equations:
·=0 }i'.~•85. l·lt .
l·zc L:.• '.• /

I
.Entrance· .
t< i . IrD-
- 1 .5 in .
_., -2
:i ~-~ .. ~---~.. .. . --~
L v; v2 t J~ . I{ = o.s66 tt:31s
h1r· =f--
D =2 +Kenlr.
. lJlcc-2·
· · 1-L= lOft .
2
A$stimptions:
1 P,i ~p2;'.=;::;=p ?,~-
2 v,.~Q, y2 L v; v;
g
S1-,1bst:iniJing. for /z1r and, divi.din g by g gives z1 = h.= a2 ; + / D 2 + Kenlr.lJlcc
2 ig
(1)
8.8 Solu tion of Pipe Flow Pro blem s 319
The aver age velo city is
- Q 4Q
Vi= -=- -.,
A ,cD-
2
- 4 ft3
V,= -X 0.5 66 -x-I--- X 1.44-in.., =46 .J ft/s
- ,r s (i.5) 2 in.2 n-
Ass ume T = 70°F, so u = 1.05 x 10-s fr /s (Tab le A.7) . Then
VD ft s fc s
Re: ;=- =46 .1- x l.5 in . x
u S 1.05 X 10-5
fr x-
·2 .1 =5.4 9 X 10
m.
For draw n tubin g, e=5 x 10- 6 ft (Tab le 8.1), so e/.0 =0.0 00,0 4 and f =0.0 135 (Eq. 8.37 ). . _ . . . .
I.n this prob lem we need to be care ful in eval uatin g th<:; kine tic ener gy corr ectio n fact or a2, as it 1s a s1gm fican t facto
r m com -
puti ng Kcn,r ancc from Eq. l. We recal l from Sect ion 8.6 and prev ious Exam ples that we have usua lly assu med a
·~ 1, but here we
will com pute a valu e from Eq. 8.27 :
a= (
U) V
3
211
2
(3 +11)(3 +2n :)
(8.2,7)
To use this equa tion we need valu es for the turbu lent pow er-Ja w coef ficie nt II and the ratio of cent erlin e to mea
n velo city U /V •
For 11, from Sect ion 8.5
= - l.7 + 1.8 log(R eu):: :;: 8.63

n (8.2 3)
whe re we have used the appr oxim ation Reu ~Rev. For V / U, we have
v= 2112 =0 .847 (8.t 4)

U (n+ I)(2 n+l )
Usin g thes e res1,1lts in Eq. 8 .27 we find er= 1.04 . Subs titut ing into Eq. l, we obta in
K.cn1rnncc -~ 2 X 3? ? ft
· -•--- ;, X ·85 . I·ft X .
si ., .,. IO ft in.
(0.0 135 )-·- - x 12- -1. 04
s- (46. 1)- n-2 1.5 in. ft
Kcnlr a,icc =0.4 59 ..-- -- Kcatr nncc
- -- - -- - - -- - -- -- - - - - - - - ---
This coef fi9ie nt com pare s favo rably with that show n in Table 8.2. The hydr aulic and ener gy gra<,le line s are show
n belo w. The
larg e head loss in a squa re-ed ged entra nce is due prim arily to sepa ratio n 11t the shar p inle t com er and form atio n of
a vena : cont ract a
imm e~ia tely dOWll$tream from the co~ er. The effec t.i ve Oow area reac ~~ a min imu m at the vena conc racc a, so
the flow velo city
is a maxirtn1m there . The flow expa nds agai n follo wing thev ena cont racta to fill the pipe . The unco ntro lled expa
nsio n follo wing
the vena cont racta is resp onsi ble for mos t of the head loss. (See Exa mpl e 8.12 .)
100 -
---1,~~,,\1 '
I o .459 2v ~
-.::::.., _ _ _ s Energy grade line
.11/~(;--r~--~~-----:~~~~~~--~,~:
/
~ 50 - - \ - - - --2 - - - I
0 1- ~----~Exit
Hydra ulic grade line
Entra nce \ Local veloc ity r eache s a maxi mum
at the vena contr acta.
Rou ndin g the inlet corner redu ces the exte nt of sepa ratio n sign ifica ntly. This
redu ces thci· velo city inc;r ease throu gh the Vl;na cont racta and cons equ.e n!ly
redu ces the bead loss,cmis ed by the entra nce. A "wel l-rou nded " inle t almo st elim -
inat es ..flow s~pa.ration; the flow patte rn appr oach es that show n in Fig. 8.1. Toe
adde d· head loss in a well-rou nded inlet com pare d with fully deve iop¢ d flow is
the resu lt of high er wall shea r stres ses in the entra nce leng th.
Example 8.10 USE OF DIFFUSER TO INCREASE FLOW RATE
Water rights grcµ1ted to each citizen by the EmIJeror of Rome gave permission to attach LO the public water main a calibrated.
circular. rubular bronze nozzle [23). Some citizens were clever enough to take unfair advantage of a law that regulated flow rate
by such an indirect method. They installed diffusers on the outlets of the nozzles to increase their discharge. Assume the static
head available from the main is zo = 1.5 m and the nozzle exit diameter is D == 25 mm. (The discharge is to atmospheric pressure.)
Determine the increase in flow rate when a diffuser with N / R 1 = 3 .0 and AR== 2.0 is attached to the end of the nozzle.
Given: Nozzle attached to water main as shown.

find: Increase in discharge when diffuser with N /R 1 =3.0 and AR=2.0 is installed.
V
Splµtion: Appiy the .energy equation for steady, incompressible pipe flow. ""'
Governing equation: I
1.5m
- 25mm
(8.29)
I • 1
Assumptions:
1 Vo~O.
~. fl I
2 :a 1~L
For tJ1e nozzle alone.
~o(l) ~1(2) =O
l+aof/+gzo= i+J~~ +l,+lz1r

y2
lztr = Kcmrance 21 _
Thus.
(I)
S,ol:v:in~ for .the velocity ,@4 substituting the. valu_e of Kcnunnce ~0.04 (from Tal:ile 8.2),
/2gi;,= ✓ 1.04 x9.8ln_:xl.5m=5

v,= VT1>4 s-
2
.32m/s
!2= V 1A1 =V I H:i =5.32: xix (0.025)2 m2 = 0.00261 m3/s ...- - - , - - - - - - - - - - - - Q

°RQ.f'•'fp_e. no7¢1e-'wi1;h .di{Tuser attached,
::::::.Q (l)
ft:+q ,.+gzo=j}+J-~; +g/+h,r

~1(2) ==0
(.
0
-I
~=r
I
CV I.
-V 2 · • _
.,,2I
_
I
I
htT = KcnlrUllCe
.
___ + Kd,ffuscr
2
1
2
i
·or -~
-2
v~2 Vi (2)
gzo = 2 + (Kcntrancc + Kdiffuscr)2
8.8 So lut ion of Pip e Flo w Pro ble ms 32 1
Fro m con tinu ity 17 1A 1 = 172 A2. so
and Eq . 2 bec om es
g~ = --l
-? + ] 17!
Kcn trnn cc + K<1iffoscr ? (3)
[ (AR )- -
Fig ure 8.1 6 giv es dat a for Cp = p:pVj
~•" for diffusers.
2
To obt ain K<1i1Tuscr, app ly the ene rgy equ atio n fro m CD to (2).
- + a 17-
Pl
p 2
~
0
p,+a Vi
, -1 +g 1 =~
-?
0
2- ? +g 2 + K diff useVI
r-;,
-2
p - -
Sol vin g. wit h a2::i:I 1. we obt ain
Fro m Fig . 8.1 6, Cp =0 .45 , so
l
Kd,f Tu.s cr= 1 - -- -., -0. 45 =0 .75 -0. 45 =0 .3
(2.0 )-
Sol vin g Eq. 3 for the vel oci ty and sub stit utin g the val ues of Kcn trnn cc and Kdi! Tusc r , we obt ain
-2 2gz
VI= ---- =-- .;;. o __ _
....
0.2 5 + 0.0 4 + 0.3
so
czu9= ·✓-.0 .59

-V1= 19.--0.5
·- 2
-x9 m,xl .5m =7 .06 rn/ s
.81 --,
s-
and
-
Qd = V1A1 = -v,- 4- =7 .0601
,rl) ~
-; X 4 X ( 0.02::,-)2 m-
,r, ., =0
.00 347 m 3/ S < - . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(2,i
-
Th e flo'W rate inc rea se tha t resu lts fro m add ing the diff use r is
6.Q
or 33 p e r c e n t . . - : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Q
--
Ad dit ion of the c!iffu:,;er. sign ific antl y. inc rea ses the flow rate ! Th ere are two wa
ys Io exp lain tl1is-
Fir st, we can ske tch the EG L and HG L cu.~ es- app rox im ate ly to sca le- -as sho wn
bel ow . W ~ can see tha t, as req uir ed. the
HG L at the.exi t is zer o for bot h flow s (rec all tha t the HG L is the s um of sta tic pr;::ssu
re and pot ent ial hea ds). Ho we ver , the -pr ess ure
ri.s ~ dm :iug h the diff use r, so Ille pre ssu re at the diff use r inle t wil l be, as sho wn ,
qui te low (be low aon osp her ic). Hen c;e, wit h the
dif fvs er, the Ap driv ing forc e for the noz zle is mu ch larg er tha n tha t for the bar e
noz zle , lea din g to a mu cn gre ate r vel oci ty,; and·
flo w rate , at the noz zle exi t pla ne- it is as. if the diff use r act ed as a suc tion dev
ice on the noz zle.
Sec ond . we can exa min e the ene rgy equ atio ns for the two flo ws (fo r the bar e noz
zle Eq. 1, and for the noz zle wit hdi ffu ser
Eq . 3). Th ese equ atio ns can be rea rran ged to yie ld equ atio ns for the vel oci ty at
the noz zle exi t,
2gZo 2czii
Vi = (ba re noz zle )
I + Kcn trun cc ( noz zle +d iffu ser )
322 Chapt er:,g . intern al lncqff lp.ressi ble Visc.pu s, Flow
Compa ring these [WO expres io ns, we see that Lh<f di'ffiiser in'trodhces an extra term (its lo.ss c6€ffi~ enl Kd,ffus cr =Q~~-·toiJ!te
?.f:Jn~
denom.ina~or, Lendin_g t~ reduce the ~ozzle :,-e).9..f) ty, but on the otpe.t, hand we _reP,_face ~Wl!!c:m 1, reJire,~e.n#-Qg l o.s s, t(a:ie
nozzle exn pla:1e lcineoc e nergy. \.~llh I/ (A!J) - "." p·:2s, ~e~~~ ~~g{,t:~lW~Je'( ff;is~, o ~"i:he' ~~,er eX:itJ?,lJihe tj~i~~e "tj~¢.~W -
The net effect IS Lhat we replace l m the den1:ml!..D~a,to r W l(Q o·:2s.-*J:ta-;;:'OrSS,.Jeilqing to a neOfi~rease 10 the no~~~:-¥e1Q~_1.ty .
The resis tance to_flow introd~ced by ad~ing Wf~'f!£trser is m~fl:UW~\pjfiad~:°Q)?.:b.Y:tn~''tlj:;(t!J)il:-y,,ifrtlii-Pw away" mu"c!R"!~s:1?° efic
energy at the exit of the device (the ex It velocit y for the baf€W6 zzl1! "is 3:32"n1)s, wfiereaf for the 'oiJfuser it is I. 77'mf s).
-I r
l 1
Water Comm js_s_ioner Frontin us s tandard i~ed conditi ons for ~$.,QJllans in 97 A.O. He,r_egµ_l-n;c!,that the tube at1ache d to .4l.f:!, nozzle
of each custom ei,.s pipe be the s ame di'a.meter fo r at least 50 lu'ieai feet from the pti!Wic w:iter maii:i.{s'ee Ex:io\p te s':f°d).
I Th~ .QeJ" ,tl~Q,,W 6,iiJJg.f;,~¥~~0:d~-~~ng_rio.Q). i~ P<r.o✓..

2 E1t;liictd~Jr.~~\ij.µµ.qQ~.:i1~sµceJ1i;a:d 1'(HGL):·
o urn! :~~~~; ~?~~ 1:1 s t¥Jfi: ~t!S: ~lftli t;!tr~ :t:ii~t ~::rt3 /f&ff i3i~~ t:,~~t !;t ~ !~'
8.8 Solu tion of Pipe Flow Prob lems 323
A: L= 10 ft, D = 1.5 in.

8: L = 20: fl, D = 1 ..5 in.
C, L=•·10 ·1t, D= 2. in.
=
D ; l. 10 ft:, D..= 1.5 in.
£: L = 5 ft, D= 1.5: ln.
F.: L = i<Ht. D =·-1 in.
(;, L =. lQ.ft, r:r= J.5" in.
M 4 = 5 ft, _ .o·~.2· in.
'S
·F,g, 8~17 Scheri iatfc of part ofa pipe networ k.
!ii;:ide 6 Jess the:lo sses through pipe F oc pipe G, as well

~~ . .
ru;·etjµal to the head at node 3 plus the loss- i:n:
. .. - · .
·· Tlies e rules apply in aj:ldition to all the pipe- flow const raints we have dis~u sseg (e,g.• for Re ~ -23().Q
the flow Will be t;µrbulertt. arid ~e fact that ,ve may'!1ave_ signif icant minor. loss~•from f~tµr es such:·as
sudd en expan sions ), We can antiti paJe. that the flow in pip~ F (di.iro eter 1 in,) wiil be a good (Jeal less
!:{lan the flow in pipe G (diarpetec i ..5 in), iind the flow throu gh bcruJch E will be large r than that throu gh
i,:@lc h R .
The probl ems !'.hat arise.with pipe:networks can be a,s varie d as those .we disc1,1ssed when study ing
5µ:igle_~paih. syste ms; but ,the1most.conim9ri. in,volve fi.nding. fu.e:flow deliv ered to: ea~h.; pipe, given an
· a_ppUed:p~t§sw:e di:.ft'ererice. We examineth.is,cas e in:.Ex ample 8.lt. Obvi 9usly ,.pipe netw oiks,~ muc h:
mote diffic 4lt and time~corisutaj_-ig to analy ze thail stitgl e-path probl ems; alfnqs~ !l,lways requiritig iter;;,·
:~tj_ve $Qh1tion rriethQds. 11I1d. in practi¢e are 1,1sul!ll,y only s9lv~ d µsing the co(rlpj;lter-A numb et 9.fcp qi~
pute~ scliem e.s for artal.Y._~ii'lg .i:ietw.o~ IJ_~y.¢· ·t,i;en .developt:;4 [24]. and many ¢Ijgµ i~~rµ ig co~u l@g
coinp aiii¢s use propo etafy spftwilre·appi.ication$.f ot s1,1ch anaiy sk A sp~a dshe et su¢h as,~c _elis a:iso
veo/; usefui fot's~ttin~· u,p•an d s9lv1Qg SQCh probi ems. . . . . .. -
~ ablea rpo~ rl ~l00 ftof
Give n : P~_;w;~!ij i_a~-lfh{i/~fil:)_Q}ft:_~c~ss;:"I>!~~ i~.6r.k.

Find : The flow rate"in fach pipe>
Solu tion:
G..9,y,_~rni"'g gq4_q(ig1'if
P&rY¢a_~fr;piJ?~"~;,c,_tiqm.
·= ·0(1) _ ·;.:;ti'(lf - · "-0€9)
~).:;.; .,i~,+.;,4~1;'~:r-~~j"~~;!r:~.·~1.:i-tt~ :~=
0f}:-17:~1;:~+_
~ - - . -~ : '. -:__ -_ .. -- - (~4.9,)__; :
wher e
(8.34 )
324 Chapt er 8 Intern al Incom pressi ble Viscou s Flow
andfis obminec;l from either Eq. 8.36 (lamin ar) or Eq. 8.37 (tuI"bulem). For the cast-iron pipe, Table 8.1 gives a roughn ess for cast
iron of e = 0 .00085 ft.
Assum ptions :
I Ignore gravily .e ffects.
2 Ignore minor losses.
Assum ption 2 is applied to make the analysi s cleare r-mino r losses can be incorpo rated easily later.
ln additio n we have mathem atical expres sions for the basic rules
l TI1e nei flow out of any node Guncti on) is zero.
2 Each node has a unique pressu re head (HGL) .
We can apply basic role l to nodes 2 and 6 :
Node 2 :
Node 6 :
and we also l1ave the obviou s constra ints
QA=Q c (3)
Q A =Qo (4)
QE=Q H (5)
Wf;, q~ apply basi~ rule 2 co obtain the follow ing pressur e drnp constra ints:
"1 - 5: h=hA +ha +hc+ ho (6)
h2-3 : ha =fir:. + /IF+ htt (7)
"6-7 : h F=hG (8)
This set of eight eql.lation:s·(as well as Eqs. 8 .29 and 8 .34 for each pipe section !) must be solved iteratively. If we were to manua lly
iterate , we ,vould use Eqs. 3, 4,and $to immed iately reduce thenum bercofu nknown s and equatio ns to five (QA, Q8 ,Qe , QF, Qo)-
There are· severa l appr9a ches to the iten,.tio n, one of which is:
l ~ e ~ guess for Q,:\, Qa, an~ QF.-
1 Eqs. 1 a,n'd 2 then . lead to values for QE ii.nd {?G-
3 Eqs. 6, 7, aI)d 8 are finally used as a check to see if rule 2 (for l!nique pressur e heads at _the nc;,des) is satisfie d.
4 If any ofEqs . 6, 7 , or 8 ~ not satisfie d, use knowle dge cif pipe flow to adjust the values of QA, Q 8 , or Qr-.
5 Repea t s teps 2 throug h 5 until conver gence occurs.
An examp le pf-app lying step 4 would be if Eq. 8 were not satisfie d. Suppos e /zF > he: then. ,.,.e would have seiecte d too large- ~ -
value for QF, ancl woulo reduce this slightly , and recomp ute all flow rates and heads. _
This ite rative proces s is obviou sly quite unreili s!ic for !11at1Ual calcula tion as obtain in~ each head loss /z from each Q involv es
a gqog ~pun t of calcula tion. We_can use a spread sheet s~ch as Excel to autotmi te all these c~culat ions~ it will simult aneou sly
solv¢ for al] _eight unkno wns-au tomati cally! The first step ts to set up one worksh eet for each pipe section for compu ting the p i p e
'.h ~d --h, gi-ven the flow rate Q . A typical such worksh eet is shown belo'w :
:....=-•
~
• ;,,. ·t, X
Pipe A Data:
~
Pl Data Com · taUons
L (R) D (lo) • (0) J' (Cl/ s) Rr e/i, It (R:li)
10 1.5 ~0&-114 ~ a.1 91009 6.S0&-03 0.0342 I n
·-a ;• .., ··· c .· _· = o:- · . · :HJ " ~"',s;-r

,J-1,.- - -- - - - :
. ,.: -,-_.-. --,..- - -~
llrthese worksheets, knowing L, D, and· e, a giveri flow rate Q is used to compute V, Re,f, and finaIIr·li from i ,.:ip. ~51" ~.
·1:1e·next step -iS·to setup a cak:ulntion page that collects together the flow rat~ and.c·o rresppnditjg Q~<f losses,foralfofth'~-i>J~-
~!:i-C.q.?ns, ~d tl:!en use these to chec)c whether Eqs, 1 through 8:are satisfied. Shown below"i_s this page·w.itli iiiltj~ _g µ~s val'u~:·df
Q,-rft3:js f9t ·¢ ~¢b pftl:)e flow rates. Th¢ logic.of the workbook is that the eight values entered for (2;.. tru:i:)ugll_@Hde(~ne,•iµI,tbe-
·otliei: values~tha_t _is, hA thi:ougtr.iiti, ru\cl the .v alues of th¢ constraint equations·. The: ~bsoiute e·rro.rs for ea:cn of the· C.Qoi~'t
-~q!,1.iP-Pfi$:.~shown, -11$.'w~ll-as_ttieir-s~: W~ can:the~ us~ Ii:xcei· s S~Lv~r feanµ-e (~pea,t~c.Jl:Y a.$·n~essary) to minimize tiie'tgtaJ
,:e.ft~if{<;,~~Uy 73.5%) by varyivg.QA WPu~ti QR- . . .
. . . -
!~ l~ , 'I,lt' -~c -.;"'"iJ!!. -. 1-. Dot<> ___ _•.,.,, ·- -· -•
. fi IJll·t)'•?)a""f!,1,"11.- -~·~&· ,ii l'tlll"4tl•..,;,. ~-i~~
~ ~~W,cl ,,. I~ J .!1,.B>"
A1 ··; K
Available Head:
·- 100 n
1
Flffl:
J
Heade: • cfrlrl
. 10
ha(fl') " (R)

.,(II) •n·(ff)
3 0
Conslr.llnts: a... -a.•C!t

100.0%
la -ft,,+lll.+llc+hn h • •Ac+ h,+lra

18.l<U· . J58.7Mr
. , . .. .,...
The• final ~$ults:. 9ofameci-by·Expel ,fue: ·
Available.Head:
Ii • 100 It
J:J_aws:
Heade: & 1rr,o · • ,rr,.· ,. ,. -,

•
ll O •0 ·.. trW') " .ctr/0
-~•- •
22.
• cri'is'l
.....
I ··,r> I IS
•eCD>
a r 1tDtro
39 I "1 ([1),
' I ,..,(0)
7
•ccn>•
7
•nao
1
Consirnlnts:
Ci? ... -e.•e..
a.....
• ••·A+~•.••c••o
a.o,-
Em>r. 0.0K.
dittX-11
326 Chap ter 8 Inter nal Inco mpre ssibl e Visco us Flow
The flow rates are:

QA = Qc = (2b = 167 gpm
Qs(g pm) = 72. gpm
QE (gpm ) ;;=: QH (gpm ) = 95 gpm
QF(g pm) = 24 gpm
Qa(g pm) =71 ~~
Par t C FLO W l\1E ASU REM ENT

Thro ugho ut this text we have referr ed to the flow rate Q or avera ge veloc ity V in a pipe. The ques tion
arises : How does one meas ure these quant ities? We will addre ss lhis quest ion by discu ssing the vario us
types of flow mete rs availa ble.
The choic e of a flow mete r is influe nced by the accur acy requir ed, range , cost, comp licati on, ease of
readi ng or data reduc tion, and servic e life. The simpl est and cheap est devic e lhat gives the desir ed accu -
racy shou ld be chose n.
The most obvio us way to meas ure flow rate in a pipe is the direct meth od-si mply meas ure the
amou nt of fluid that accum ulate s in a conta iner over a fixed time period ! Tank s can be used to deter mine
flow rate for stead y liquid flows by meas uring the volum e or mass of liq1,1id collec ted durin g a know n
ti.me interv al. If the time interv al is long enoug h to be measu red accur ately, flow rates may be dete mun ed
preci sely in this way.
Comp ressib ility must be consi dered in volum e measu remen ts for gas flows . The densi ties of gase s
gener ally are too small to perm it accur ate direc t measu remen t of mass flow rate. Howe ver. a volu me
samp le oft~n can be collec ted by displa cing a "bell, " or invert ed jar over water (if the press ure is held
const ant by count erwei ghts). If volum e or mass measu remen ts are set up carefu lly, no calib ratio n is
requi red; this is a great advan tage of direc t metho ds.
In speci alized appli cation s, partic ularly for remo te or record ing uses, positi ve displ acem ent flow
mete rs may be speci fied, in which the fluid move s a comp onent such as a recipr ocatin g pisto n or oscil lat-
ing disk as it passe s throu gh the devic e. Comm on exam ples includ e house hold wat~r and natur al gas
mete rs, whic h are calibr ated to read direct ly in units of produ ct, or gasol ine meter ing pump s, whic h meas -
ure total flow and autom atical ly comp ute the cost. Many positi ve-dis place ment meter s are avail able com -
merc ially. Cons ult manu factu rers' litera ture or Refer ences (e.g., [25}) for desig n and instal lation detai ls.
8. 9 Res trict ion Flow /Vleters for Inte rnal Flow s

Most restri ction flow meter s for intema,1 flow are based on m;:celeralion of a fluid sln;am throu gh som e
form of nozzl e, as show n schem atical ly in Fig. 8. 18. The idea is that the chang e in veloc ity leads to a
chan ge in press ure. This l:ip can be meas ured us ing a pressu re gage (elect ronic or mech anica l) or a
mano mete r, and the flow rate inferr ed using either a thc;oretical analy sis or an exper iment al corre latio n
for the devic e. Flow separ ation at the sharp edge of the nozzl e throat cause s a recirc ulatio n zone to form ,
as show n by the dashe d lines down stream ·.from the nozzl e. The mains tream flow conti nµes to ae<:: elerat e
from the nozzl e throa t to form a vena contr acta at sectio n ~ and then decel erates again to fill the duct .
,---
,- ---- -,
_,, ,,,,
Flow
:-
I-
I '"°'.,,..,..~ ---
---i-- -~ - --
-- - -~
1- 1'1 D, Vz Dz
:-
,_ I
cv :- -,,
--- - ---"' --- ..... ....
CD ®
Fig. 8. ,_8 Intern al ·flow throug h a gen!'ralized nozzle, showin g contro l volume,used for analysis.
8.9 Restrictio n Flow Meters for Internal Flows 327
At the vena contracta, the flow area is a minimum, the flow s treamlines are essentially straight. and the
pressure is unifom1 across the channel section.
The theoretical flow rate may be related to the pressure differentia l between sections CD and (2) by
applying the continuity and Bernoulli equations. Then e mpirical correction factors may be applied to
obtain the actual flow rate.
B~ic eqt1ations:
We will need mass-cons ervation,
'°"
L..ics v -A=O
(4. 13b)
[we can use this instead of Eq. 4 .12, because of assumptio n (5) below) and the Bernoulli equation,
Pi
-+a1-+
p 2 ·
Ii
Vf g • 1 =-+a2--
Pi
p
=-+g~2
V;
2
(6.8)
which we can µse if assumption (4) is v~d. For the short section of piP.e considered , this is reasonable .
Assumpti< ;ms:
Steady flow.
2 Incompres sible flow.
3 Flow along a streamline.
4 No .friction.
5 Uniform velocity at sections CD and (2).
6 No streamline cuFVature at sections (D or (2), so pressure is uniform across those sections.
7 ?:1 =z2.
Then, from the Bernoulli equatio.n ,
and from continuity
or
Substituti ng.gives
Splving for the theoretical velocity, V2 ,
(8.51)
The theoretica l mass flow rate is then given by

or
1ir1hcorclicul = A:2 J2p(p 1 -p1) (8.52 )

✓ l-{A 2/Ai) 2
Equa tion 8 .52 show s that, under our set of assum ption s, fora given fluid (p) and flow mete r geom etry (A 1
and .A2), lhe flow rate is direct ly propo rtiona l to the squar e root of the press ure drop acros s the mete r taps,
1iz1hcorcueol CX ,/"i5:p
whic h is the basic idea of these devic es. This relatio nship limits the flow rates that can be meas ured
accur ately tQ appro xima tely a 4: l range.
Seve ral facto rs limit the utility of Eq. 8.52 for calcu lating the actua l mass flow rate throu gh a mete r.
TI1e actua l flow area at secti on~ is unkno wn when the vena contra cta is prono unced (e.g., for orifi ce
plate s when D, is a small fracti on of D 1 ). The veloc ity profil es appro ach unifo rm flQw only at large Rey-
m;:,Jcjs numb ers. Fricti onal effec ts can becom e impor tant (espec ially down stream from the mete r) when
the riiete r conto urs ate abrup t. Final ly, the locati on of pressu re laps influe nces the differ ential press ure
readi ng.
The theor etical equat ion is adjus ted for Reyn olds numb er and diame ter ratio D, / D 1 by defin ing an
empi rical disch arge coefficie/11 C such that, replac ing Eq. 8.52, we have
1izuc1ual = CA, J2p( pi -p2) (8.53 )

2
/1 -(A1 /A1}
Letti ng {J=D ,/D1 , then (A 1 /1-l1) 2=(D1 /Di)~ =~ , so
(8.:5 4)
In Eq. 8 .54, I/ ✓ I - ~ is the veloc io•-of -appr oach facco r. The disch arge coeff icient and veloc ity-o f-
appro ach facto r frequ ently are-co mbin ed. into a single flow coejfi cicm,
C
K=---- (8.55 )
- ✓ 1-rr
In terms. of this flow coeff icient , the actua l mass flow rate is expre ssed as
(8.56 )
For stand ardiz ed meter ing eleme nts, test data [25, 26] have beeq used to devel op empi rical equa -
~QD$ that predi ct disch arge and Oow coeff icient s from me~er bore, pipe diame ter, and Reyn o.Ids num ber.
Thej 1.c;curacy of the equat ions (witb in speci fied range s) usual ly is adequ ate so that the mete r can be used
witho ut calib ration . If the· Reyn olds nui:ciber, pipe size, or bore cliameter fall outsid e th<, speci fied rang e of
the eq~at ion, the coeff icien ~ must be meas ured experimeiltAlly. ·
For the turbu lent flow regim e. (pipe Reyn olds numb er greate r thajl 4000 ) the disch arge coef ficie nt
may b_e expre ssed by an equat ion of-the fom1 [2,5]
(8.5 7)
The c;orre spo11 ding form for the flow- coeff icient equat ion is
8.9 Restri ction Flow Meter s for Intern al Flows 329
Table 8.6
Charac teristic s of Orifice , Flow Nozzle, and Ventur i Flow Meters
Flow Meter Type Diagram Head Loss Initial Cost
Orifice
- High Low
I
o, P----1.. Aow
o,
I tr-.- a
Aow Nozzle
Venturi ~
I
o,
t ,-,
'----' Flow
Dz-
-
Interme diate
Low
Intenne diate
High
o, I Flow
o, ---
~
In Eqs. 8 .57 and 8.58, subscri pt oo denotes the coeffic ient at infinite Reynol ds numbe r; consta nts b and n
aliow for scaling to fini_te Reynol ds number s. Correla ting equatio ns and curves of coeffic ients versus
Reyno lds numbe r are given in the next three subsect ions, followi ng a genera l compa rison of the char-
acteris tics of specifi c meterin g elemen ts.
As we have noted, selectio n of a flow merer depend s on factors such as cost. accura cy, need for
calibra tion, and ease of installa tion and mainte nance. Some of these factors are compa red for orifice
plare,f low nozzle, and ve~ruri meters in Tabl~ 8.6. Note that a high head loss means that the runnin g
cost of d1e device is high-i t will consum e a lot of the fluid energy . A high initial cost must be amorti zed
over the life of the device. This is an exampl e of a commo n cost calcula tion for a compa ny (and an
indivjd tial!)-b etween a high initinl but low running cost. or low initial but high runnin g cost.
· Flow meter coeffic ients repo):led in the.liter ature have t;,een measur ed with fully develo ped turbule nt
velocit y distribu tions at the meter inle_t (Sectio n (j)). lf a flow meter is to be installe d downs tream from a
valve, elbow, or other disturb ance, a straigh t section of pipe must be placed in front of the meter. Approx .~
imately IO diamet ers of straigh t pipe are require d for venturi meters, an/;! up to 40 diamet ers for orifice
plate or flow nozzle_me_ters. When a meter has been properl y installe d, the flow rate may be-com puted
from l!q. 8.54 or 8.56, after choosin g an approp riate value for the empiric al discha rge·coe fficient .. C, or
flow coeffic ient, K, defined in Eqs. 8.53 and 8,55, respectively, Some design data for incomp ressibl e
flow are given in the next few section s. The same ba,sic method s can be extend ed to compr es~ble flows,
but these will not be_treated here. For comple te detail~. see ASME [25) oi:- Bean [26].
The Orific e Plate

Theqri fice plate (Fig. 8 .19) is a thin plate that may be clampe d betwee n pipe flanges . Since its geome try
is simple , it is low in cost and easy to install or replace . The sharp edge of the orifice will not foul wi th
scale ·or.susp ended matter. Howev er, suspen ded matter can bUild ·up attbe inlet side of a concen tric ori-
fice in a horizon tal pipe; an eccentr ic orifice may be placed ·flush with the bottom of the pjpe to a:void this
Flange taps
1 tn. 1 In.
/Corne r taps
--o~ I-%
tJ and f taps Fig. 8.19 Orlfl~e geometr y and pressure tap location s
(based on [25)).
330 Cha pter 8 Inte rna l Inco mpr ess ible Visc ous Flow
0 .80 . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .
0 .78 . D,
0 1ame ler ratio. p = -o,
/
0 .76 0 .75
0.74
0.60
0.2
0 · 5 ~0~4-c-----2.___ _s.___ 1--'o' ""s--- '-2--- '-s--1 ...J
· o'--6-__.2_ _ _,_s_ __,101
pVD1
Reyn olds numb er, Rc01 = - -
11
Fi~- 8.20 Flow coeff icien ts fo r conce ntric orific es with corne r taps.
diffi culty . The prim a,ry disa dvan tage s of the orifi ce are ilS limit ed capa city and the high perm anen t hea d
loss caus ed by the unco ntro lled expa nsio n dow nstre am from the mete ring elem ent.
Pres sure taps for orifi ces may be plac ed in seve ral locat ions, as show n in Fig. 8.19 (see [25) 01· [26]
for addi tion al deta ils). Sinc e the loca tion of the pres sure taps influ ence s the emp irica lly dete nnin ed flow
coef ficie nt., one mus t sele ct hand book valu es of C or K cons isten t with the loca tion· of pres sure taps .
The corr elati ng eqµa tion reco mme nded for-a conc entri c orifi ce with com er taps [25] is
0 - 0 ?/J2 1 nS 91.7 1/J2.5

C= .::,95 9+ .03L -0.1 84p + Re0 .15 (8 .59)
o,
Eq1,1ation 8.59 js the form of Eq. 8.57 for the disch arge coef ficie nt C for the orifi ce plat e; it pred icts
orifi ce disc harg e coef ficie nts with in ±0.6 perc ent for 0 .2 <P < 0.15 and for 104 < Re0, < 107 . Som e
flow coef ficie nts calc ulate d from Eq. 8.59 and 8.55 are prese nted in Fig. 8.20 .
A simi lar corr elati ng equa tion is avai lable for orifi ce plate s with D and D/2 taps. Flan ge taps requ ire
a dµ'f e~nt corr elati on for ever y line size. Pipe taps, loca ted at 2½ and 8 D, no long er~ reco mm end ed for
accu rate work..
·· · Exa mpl e 8.12 , whic h appe ars later in this secti on, illus trate s the appl icati on of flow coef ficie nt data
to orifi ce siziJ lg.
The Flo w Noz zle

Flow nozz les may be used as mete riJlg elem ents in eithe r pleQums or duct s, as -show n in Fig. 8 .21 ; the
.n ozzl e sect ion is appr oxi,m ately a quar ter ellip se. Oesi gn deta ils and reco mme nded loca tion s for press ure
taps are give n in [26).
The corr elati ng equa tion reco mme nded fot an ASM E long~radi us flow nozz le [25] is
6.53/J° 5
C::::;0.99 75 (8.6 0)
Eqµ ation 8.60 is ~e fo,:m .o f Eq. 8.57 ~o~ the disc b~g e coef ficie nt C for -~ e flow_ ~ozz le; it pred icts dis~
diar geco effic ients for flow nozz les with in ±2,0 perceQt for0 .25 </J < 0.75 for lO <Re o, < 1 o?. Som e
8.9 Restrictio n Flow Meters for Internal Flows 331
cz:10~ nozzl~..
,. G .~ L
v 1 =o ~ --
~•o•m:=f'
P2 f
In ~licl
(a) (b) In plenum
Fig. 8.21 TyP.ical Installations of nozzle flow meters.
flow coefficien ts calculated from Eq. 8.60 and Eq. 8.55 are presented in Fig. 8.22. (K can be greater th~
one when the velocity-of -approach factor exceeds one.) ·
a. Pipe Installatio n
Fqr pip_e installation, K is a function of /J and Reo,. Figure 8.22 shows that K is essentfally independe nt of
Reynolds number for Re0 , > 106 • Thus at high flow rates, the flow rate may be computed directly using
Eq. 8.56. At lower flow rates, where Kis a weak function ofReyriold s number, iteration may be required.
b. Plenum Installatio n
For plenum installation , nozzles may be fabricated from spun aluminum , molded fiberglass, or other
inexpensi ve materials. Thus they are simple and cheap to make i;m<;I install. Since the plenum pressure
is equal to P2, the location of the downstrea m pressure tap is not crjtical. Meters suitable for a wide -r ange
of flow rates may be made by installing_several nozzles in a plenum. At low flow rates, most of them may
be. plugged. For higher flow rat~, more nozzles may be used. ·
1.22
0.75
1.20
1.18
1.16
1.14
Diameter ratio,P= D,"""
>< 1.12 o, \
C: 1.10 0 .65
"'
·.::;
~u LOS
3:
0 1.06
ii:
0.55
1.04
1.02 0 .45
0 .35
1.00
0 , 25
0.98
0.96
10• - 2 5 105 2 5 2 5 107
Reynolds num!:)er, Ren, = piiD,
JI
Fig. 8 -. 22 Flow coeffic(ents for ASME l9ng-radius flow. nozzles.
=
For plenu m nozzl es /J o, which is outsid e the range of applic ability of Eq. 8.58. Typic al flow coef -
ficien ts are in the range, O. 95 < K < 0 .99; the larger values apply at high Reyn olds numb ers. Thus the
mass race of flow can be comp uted withi n appro ximat ely ±2 perce nt using Eq. 8.56 with K = 0. 97.
The Ven turi

Vent uri mete rs, as sketc hed in Table 8.6, are gener ally made from castin gs and mach ined lo close tol-
eranc es to dupli cate the perfo rman ce of the stand ard design . As a result , ventu ri meter s are heav y, bulk y.
and expen sive. The conic al diffus er sectio n down stream from the throat gives excel lent pressure reco v-
ery; there fore, overa ll head loss is low. Ventu ri meter s are also self-c leanin g becau se of their smoo th
intern al conto urs.
Expe rimen tal data show that disch arge coeffi cients for ventu ri meter s range from 0.980 to 0.99 5 at
high Reyn olds numb ers (ReD, > 2 x I o5 ) . Thus c = 0 .99 can be used to measu re mass flow rate with in
abou t ±1 perce nt at high Reyn olds numb er [25]. Consu lt manu factur ers' literat ure for speci fic infor ma-
tion at Reyn olds numb ers below 1o5 •
The orific e plate, flow nozzl e, and ventu ri all produ ce pressu re differentials. propo rtion al to the
squar e of the flow rate, accor ding to Eq. 8.56. In practi ce, a meter size must be cho_sen to acco mrno date
the highe st flow rate expec .ted. Beca use the relatio nship of pressu re drop to flow rate is nonli near, the
range of flow rate that can be meas ured accur ately is limite d. Aow meter s with single throa ts usua lly are
consi dered only fo.r flow rates over a 4: 1 range [25].
The ~nrec overa ble loss in hem;! acros s a meter ing eleme nt may be expre ssed as a fracti on of the
differ entia l press ure, Ap, acrQs s the eleme nt. Press i,lre losses are displa yed as functi oni; of diam eter ratio
in Fig. 8.23~Note that the ventu ri meter has a much lower pem1anenL head Joss than the orific e (whi ch
h!!-S the highe st loss) or nozzl e, confi rming the trends we summ arized in Table 8.6.
The Lam inar Flow Elem ent

The lamin ar flow eleme nr3 is desig ned to produ ce a pressu re differ ential direct ly propo rtiona l to flow
rate. The idea is that the lamin ar flow eleme nt_conta ins a meter ing sect.ion in which the flow pass es
throu gh a large numb er of tubes or passa ges (these often look like a bunch of stra,v s) tliat a:re each narro w
enou gh that the flow throu gh them is lamin ar, regard less of the flow condi tions in the main pipe (reca ll
=
that Reiub c p V10beD1u be/J1, so if D,uh<: is made sm;lll enoug h we can ensur e that R e 1ubc <Reen,~ 2300 ).
For each lamin ar flow tube we can apply the result s of Sectio n 8.3, specif ically
nD~00
Q,uh<: = 1"8 ,
- µ'-•tub< :
6.p ex D.p (8. 13c)
iii 100
.;:;
C:
~
~
'i5 80
0
ca,
0 60
;;;
D.
::i" 40
.s?.
-
"'O
· CU
~ < Venturi
c 20
"'cu
C:
E
:;; 0
a..
0.2 0.3 0.4 0 .5 0.6 0.7 0 .8 0.9
Diameter ratio fl
Fig. s. 23 Perma nent head loss produc ed by variou s flow meteri ng eleme n~,.based on References [25] and [33].
J Pntcntc:4 apd manuf acture d by Merfam Instrum ent Co., J09iO"Madison Ave., Cfovclond, Ohio·4 4101.
8.9 Restri ction Flow Meter s for Intern al Flows 333
Exam ple 8.12 FLOW THRO UGH AN ORIFIC E METE R
An air flow rate of 1 m / s at standar d conditi ons is expecte d in a 0.25-m diamet er duct. An orifice meter is used to meas.U re the
3
rare of flow. The manom eter availab le to make the m¢asur ement has a maxim um range of 300 mm of water. What diamet er orifice·
plate should be used with comer taps? Analyz e the head loss if the flow area at the vena contrac ta isA2 = 0;65 A,. Compa re with
c;hita frori1 Fig. 8.23.
Given: Flow through duct :and Qri.fice as shown.

L..1_ Air
Find: (a) D,. D
1-,'
(b) Head loss betwee n section s (D and~-
(c) Degree of agreeni ent with data from Fig. 8.23.
Soluti on: The orifice plate may be designe_d using Eq. 8.56·-ao d data
from Fig. 820.
Govern ing equatio n:
ca:.s6)
Assum ptions :
J St'e4dy flow.
2 Incomp ressible flqw.
Since ti,/A, = (D,/D1 )2 =/J_i,
ot
Kp2·== 1n~~•ua1
A1 ✓2p(p r -P2)
= 2✓1,gp:oAh
3 1 2
- m 4 1 _ [l __ kg _ si
• mJ 1 ] 1
3 3
- l s x ; (Q.25)2 m2 2 X l.Z tn X 9.8lm X 999kg X 0.30 ai
95
. = Q.195 or K. = O.ip2
K{P (1)
SiQce K is- a furn;:tioq of both P (Eq. l) and Reo, (Fig. 8 .20), we ini,lst iterate to fin<;l p, The d!l_c t Reyno lds m.imJ;,er is·
Reo, =fJV1D 1 p(Q/A1 )D 1 4Q
µ. µ = TCLiD;
4 . m3 _ s l
. ·- x
Reo = - x l - - x~- - 3.49x 105
- I TC s 1.46 X 10-sm2 0 .25 iiJ.
Gu~s P=-0.7 5. From Fig; 8.20, K sho.uld be 0:77,_. From Eq. 1,
0 ?9:'
K - ·. ·- :, · 0 5?4
- (0.7sf = · ..:..
Thus o.ur·gu ~s for Pis too large. Guess /J=0:7 0. Ft9m Fig. 8,20. K shc:mld be 0 .69•. FromE q. l,
0.295 .
K= -
(0.70)2
=0:60 2
Thus our guess for Pis still too large. Guess /J=0.65. From Fig. 8.20, K should be 0.67. From Eq. 1,
0.295
K=---~ =0.698
{0.65)-
There is satisfactory agreement with /J ~ 0.66 and
D,
D,=/JD1 =0.66(0.25 m) =0.165 m + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
To find tbe permanent head loss for this device, we could simply use the dillffieter ratio /J~0.66 in Fig. 8.23; but instead we will
find it from the given data. To evaluate the permanent head loss, apply Eq. 8.29 between sections (D and (j).
Governing equation:
(8.29)
Assumptions:
- ? -2
3 a1Vj=ci3V3.
4 Neglect AZ.
Then
(2)
Eqµation 2jnclicates our approach: We will findp, - p3 by usingp 1 -p2 =300 mm fhO, and obtain a value forp 3 -p2 by apply-
irtf;- the x cOJJ1ponent of the momentum eqµation to a ~oiltrol volume between sections (!> and (j).
L X
I
I
I
1 CV
Governing equation:
=0(5) =0(1)
Fs +FI= !If
• /IJ, fit Jcv upd¥+1 upV -dA
.CV
{4.18a)
As$.umptions:
5 FB~ =P
6 UnifOIJri flow at sections (i) and ®·
7 .Pressure uniform across dµct at sections ~ an~i (j).
8 Ne~lect friction fon;e on CV.
Th~n. sµnplifyin~. and tearraQging.
(p2 -p3)A1 = u2(-pV2A2) +u3(/iV3Jh).= (113 ~u2)pQ= (V3-V2)pQ
Qr
s.9 Res trict ion Flow Met ers for lnte r·nal Flow s
·'Jiius,
-.· ·· -1 .., ,. ; .. r.
- ~~ . .
.. ..A . • - - ... · - . _! -- _._ . --
. ~ ·.:
- . : -~ :., :.··- . ·:· . ...
lflfi~-~ ~11P.~'~ I?;i j~r!~f1~-;l\b:01~ ·q1Sy;i-~iys~}~:J~~f~i#~~ ~~~~~~~i: : ·:;:::! _.
:: :;; . • •• • ':,--- ~ •
s.o' tlieif lqwr nt~ iit each _ti.lbe is a iineaf ~ilc::ti<:>n-o:£ the:p_ressute-~ op ·acro ss· the-d evk e. Tb:e:flow rate in the
-w liol~::pip e·-wULbe· ib:e:sum of e;:ich -of thesif tube f:iows, ancbi~-w ill :also be a .linea'.t functions ofJ> ress ~ ~ -. .
_d rop: Usually.:this line ar relat io.n is,prov:icled•trt,i! c~t> ~tio nifrofri:.t,l'ie.¢.ap.ufacrurei::; an4 the met er ct!n be ~ -·
.. . ·. ~
tis¢d ,ov:er:a icki tang i.rnf flow rat~ . The reiat ions hip betw een pres sure dn;Jp:and flow ratef or-la ii:lll $"
flbW ,aJsq depe nds on· v.isc::osity,. whit;_h ·is ~ stron g funo tiott of. tem per a~:. Ti,;¢refore, the flui(J:.tem pet""' gph,
atur e mus t ti~ know n to obtlilit nc::~urate mete ring with a )fillllllar flow mete r; .
·· A ifunini:if. flow eienienc CC>st s.·.ap proxi niat~~y -as--m uch as a ve)uun., btit .it- i$ ;muc li lig!ite.r i;m.d:
s~q. Qfa. .thu s-it is oe9ori:iing \Videly ·4 sed .in appl icati ons whe re coin paco iess.. and exte nded nu:lg e; $.
im_po~arit: ~0--
20
Un ear Ho w Me ter~
The d1Siidyantage of restriction :flow met~rs (exc~pt the larru nadl ow Qle.te1;);is,_tbaqµ 1t m;e .~~4 .J~µ_tpµ t
H lQ
(t::.p~ is -not_lin,ear with the fl.ow rate Q. S.1~vera1 flow me_ter type s, prod µ¢¢. o.utp4l$" Ui~t are· <;ii¢i;:_~y
ptop_9 Ition al--to,fl9w ,w te; Thes e m.eters p.roduce.s_igijalsv.rithou~-tlie,ne_ed.to,riie ~ur edif fe¢q tialp ress ~.
The·mc;>St com mon. linear flow meters·-~ Q.iscussed l;>rief!.y in-.the follo wing .plll'_agr:aphs:
F(oa t mete rs may be µsed to indic ate flo_w rate.direc tly for liqu ids or gase s, An exam ple-~ sho: Wil ip..
Fig. '8s24: )#soperatiort; ,tlie. b~ m:;floa:t is,ca.¢ ~d upwru:d in•the tape ~d,clelll' tub,e b:Y -the fl win g ·& id
9
unti l tbe~~g-f p~e and float weig ht are in equil!l>ritmi. Such mete rs (ofte n ca]J.edcr. q(a~ ete~; ) ai;eavail.,.
~ble_whh l~ctt jcy c:;:ilibratiorn for a: nµm per of,co mmp n -fluids and flow ~te rang.es.
, A free;._nmriing '-v~e d impe ller rilay:be.m o.liilte,d in.a .cyli ndri qal secti.ou .of-.tube (Fjg . 8,25.):__to !mik e
~' tut bine.:fl.ow nzet et. -With,- prop er desig1_1, the rate .of rota tien o_f ·tb.e. i.¢pelle.r ma) l
prc;>p6tti6nal te., vdlqroe .fl&w nite over a wl~e !.'tlnge.
mad e, c{!l)s_e ty oe
.. ·-· -
Fig. 8.25 Turbine flow meter.
Rotational speed of the turbine element can be sensed using a magnetic or modulated carrier pickup
external to the meter. This sensing method therefore requires no penetrations or seals in the duct. Thus
turbine flow meters can be used safely to measure flow rates in corrosive or toxic fluids. The electncal
signal can be displayed, recorded, or integrated to provide total flow information.
An interesting device is the vorrexflow meter. This device takes advantage of the fact that a uniform
flow will generate a vortex street when it encounters a bluff body such as a cylinder perpendicular to the
flow. A vortex street is a series of alternating vortices shed from the rear of the body; the alternation
geneG;1.tes an oscillating sideways force on, and therefore oscillation of, the cylinder (the classic example
of this being the "singing" of telephone wires in a high wind). It turns out that the dimensionless group
characterizing this phenomenon is d1e S1rouhal number, St=JL/V (f is the vortex shedding frequency. L
is the cylinder diameter, and V is the freestream velocity), and it is approximately constant (St ~0.21).
Hence we have a device for which V rxf. Measurement of/ mus directly indicates the velocity V (bow-
evei:, the velocity profile does affect d1e shedding frequency so calibration is required). The cylinder used
in a flow meter is usually quite shpn in length-IO mm or less-and placed perpendicular to the flow
(and for some devices is not a cylinder at all but some other small bluff object). The oscillation can be
measured using a strain gage or other sensor. Vortex flow meters can be used over a 20:l range of
flow rates.
The electromagneticflow meter uses the principle of magnetic induction. A magnetic field is created
across a pipe. When a conductive fluid passes through the field, a voltage is generated at right angles to
the field and velocity vectors. Electrodes placed on a pipe diameter are used to detec_t the resulting signal
voltage. The signal voltage is proportional to the average axial velocity when the profile is axisymmetric.
Magneric flow meters may be used with liquids d1at have electrical conductivities above l 00 micro-
siemens per meter ( l siemen = l ampere per volt). Thi: minimum flow speed should be above about
0.3 m/s. but there are no restrictions on Reynolds number. The flow rate range normally quoted is 10: 1.
Ulrrasonic flow meters also respond to average-velocity at a pipe cross.section. Two principal types
of ulo-asonic meters are common: Propagation time is measured for clean liquids. and reflection fre-
quency shift (Doppler effect) is measured for flows carrying paniculates. The speed of an acoustic wave
increases in the flow direction and decreases when transmitted against the flow. For clean liquids. an
acoustic path inclined to the pipe axis is used to infer flow velocity. Multiple paths are used to estimate
the volume flow rate accurately.
Doppler effect ultraSonic flow meters depend on reflection of sonic waves (in me MHz range) from
scattering particles in the fluid. When the particles move at flow speed, the frequency shift is propor-
tional to flow speed; for a suitably chosen path. output is proportional to volume flow rate. One or
two transducers may be used; the meter may be clamped to I.he outside of the pipe. Ultrasonic meters-
may require calibration in place. Flow rate range is 10: L
Traversing Methods
In situations such as in air hanqling or refrigeration equipment, it may be .impractical or impossible · to
install fixed flow meters. In such case_s it may be possible to obtaip flow rate data using traversing
techniques. _ .
Tb make a flow rate measurement by traverse, the duct cross secuon is conceptually subdivided into
se!!lllents of equal area. The-velocity is measured at the center of each area segment using a pitot rube, a
to~ bead tube, or a suitable anemometer. The volume flow rate for each segment is appro,µmated by the
prod~ct of the rne!!-5ured velocity _a nd the segment area. The flow rate through me entire duct is the sum of
these segmental flow rates. Details of recommended procedures for flow rate measurements by the tra v ~
erse method are given in (27).
8.10 Summary and Useful Equati'on·s 337
Fig. 8.26 A 2 - component Laser Doppler Anemomete r Probe Vol!Jme.
Use of pitot or pitot-static -wbes for traverse measurem ents requires direct acc·e ss to the· flow field .
.l;'itot tubes give uncertain results when pressure gradients or streamline curvatu~ are present, and their
reSpon.se times are slow. Two types of anemomet ers-then11 al anemomet ets and laser Doppler anem-
ometers (LDAs)-o vercome these difficulties partially, altflough they introduce· new complicat ions.
Thermal anemomet ers use tiny elements (either hot-wire or hot-film elements) that are heated ~l.e c-
trically. Sophistica ted electronic feed~ack circuits are used to maintain the tem~ranu e of the element
constant and to sense the input heating rate needed to c,!o this. The heating rate js ~lated ~o the. lac.a l flow
vel9city by calibration (a higher velocity leads to more heat transfer). The primary advantage of thermal
anen1on1e ters is the small size of (Jle sensing element. Sensors as small as 0.002 mm in di~eter .a nd
0.1 mm long are _a vailable commercia lly. llecause the thermal mass of s1:ich tiny elements is extremely
small, their response to fluctuation s in flow velocity is rapid. Frequency responses to the 50 kHz range
have beenquote d [28]. Thus thermal.an emometers are ideal for measuring .rurbuleric equantitie s. Insu-
lating cpatings may be applied to permit their use in .conductiv e or corrosive gases ·or liquids.
Because of their fast response and s:mc1-H siz!;:, thermal anemomet ers are used extensivel y for
~search. Numerous schemes have been published for treai:i.og the resulting c,lata (29l Digital processing
techiiiqu¢ s, .including fast Fou_rier transforms , can be applied to the signals to obtain mean values and
momep.t$, and to ~nalyze frequency content and correlation s. ·· ··
Laser Doppler anemomet ers are becoming wjdeiy used for specia.Iizet:l c1-pplic~tions wher:e direct
pbysicaJ access to the flow field is difficult or impossil;>le. One or more laser beams ~ foc.1.1s~d. to a
small vohmie in the flow at the location of interest (as shown in Fig 8.26). Laser light is scattered from
partjcies th::it are present in the flow (dust pr particulate s) or introduced for this purpose. A ftequen,cy
sb.jft.is caused by the loc~ flow speed .(Doppler effecn. Scattered light lll)d a reference beam are collected
by rec¢ivip.$ optics. The fu:.quency shift is proportiof1<1-l to the· flow spe_e d; this relati.911sh,ip inay be cal-
culated,,sd_the~ is no need forcalibrat jon. Since velocity ~s measured direcUy, the signal.is unaffected!by
changes in te!llperatur e, density, or co·mposil:ion .iJi. the flow .field·. The prim~ disadvanla g¢s ofLDAs
an: th!!-ti:he optical eqtiipment is expensive and fragile, arid that extremely careful alignment is nee_d ed (as
the authors can· attest). ,
8.1 o Summa ry and Useful Equations

in· this chapter·w e have:
✓ Define.d .rn;my terms used in the study of ii:,t~rnal incompre ssible vi.s cous flow, su·ch as: the
entrance length, f_ ully developed fl~,w, the fn_ction veloc;;ity, Reynolds stress, the kinetic'en~rgy
coefficien t, the fm:t1on factor, maJor and minor head losses, and hyQ~1,11ic diamet.~.r-
✓ Analyzed_ lam_inr;1f flo~ between parallel plates and in pipes and observec;I t~at we can ~btain
the velocity d1stnbut1on analytically, and from this derive: the average velocity, the max1m_um
velocity and its location, the flow rate, the wall shear stress, and the shear stress distribution.
✓ Studied turbulent flow in pipes and ducts and learned that semi-empirical approaches are
ne7ded, e.g., the power-law velocity profile.
✓ Written the energy equation in a form useful for analyzing pipe flows;
✓ Discu_ssed how to incorpor;:ite pumps, fans and blowers into a pipe flow an;:ilysis.
✓ Described variol!s flow measurement devic~s: dirett measurement, restriction devices (orifice
plate, nozzle, and venturi),linear flow meters (rotameters, various electromagnetic or acoustic
devices, and the vortex flow meter), and traversing devices (pitot ti.Jbe·s and laser-Doppler
anemometers). ·
We hr;1ve learned that pipe ;:ind duct flow problems often need iterative soluticm~the flow rate Q is
not a linear function of the. driving force (usually ap), except for lamin_a r flqWs (which are not
common in practice);_We haye a,lso seen that pipe networks <;i;ln be analyzed using the same tech-
niques as a single-pipe system, with the addition ofa few basic rules and that in practice a com-
puter application such as ~eel is needed to solve all but the simple~t networks.
Note: Most of tl1e equations in tl1e table below have a null)ber ofconstraints.or limitations-be s11 re to
refer to their page numbers for details!
Useful Equations
Velocity profile for pressure- (8.5) Page 280
_d ,riven laminar flow between
stationary parallel pl~tes:
II= ; : ( : ) [ (rf -(~)]
Flow rate for pressure-driven 3
(8.6c) Page 281
laminar fiow between Q 1 [ - Ap] 3 a Ap
T=- 1211 -y;- a = 1211 L
starjonary parallel plates:
Velocity profile for pressure- (8,7) Page 281
qriven lamiQar flow between 11a
-- (op)
-2µ ox [C~Y-¼]
2
-
stationary parallel pl.a~es
(ceme~d coor9inates):
VelQcicy profile for pressure- (8.~) Page 284
Uy (op) [ - e')]
2
clri,vep (;uninar flow between I L = - +a-
· a 2µ ox ~ (3')2 -
a
~
(I
parallel plat~s (llpper plate
movmg):
Flo.w rate for pressure-driven
laminar flow between parallel Q
T=
(ja
2 -
cap)a3
I
12µ ox
(8.9b) Page 284
plates (upper plate moving):

(~-12) Page 290
OX · [l - Cf]
Velocity profile for laminar
flow in a pipe: 11
= - R2
4p cap) R
Flow rate for laminar flow in (8'13c) Page 290
__ ir/?1 [- Ap] = ~Api?:1 = nApD~
-a pipe; Q- Sy L 8pL 128µL
(8. 14) Page 291

VelQCity profile for laminar
flow in ,a pipe (normalized -I/= 1 - -
u
(i)2
form):
Velocity profile for turbulent (8.22) Page295
.flow in a smooth pipe. (power-
~ = (~) l/11 = ( l-i) 1/n
l~w equation);
Table (Continued)
Head loss equation:
ti
p
2
- 1 +gz: 1) - (P2
-+a1 17
2
17; +gz2 ) =ht,
- +a2?
. p -
(8.29) Page 299
Major head loss equation: (8.34) Page 301

2
LV
h,=f--
D2
Friction factor (laminar flow): (8.36) Page 302
64
Jinminnr = Re
Friction factor (turbulent (8.37) Page 303
flow-Colebrook eql!ation): I (~D 251)
-./1 = - 2 .0 log . 3. 7 + Re-./]
Minor loss _,, (8.40) Page 304

v-
htm=K 2
Diffuser pressure recovery (8.41) Page 305

C =p2-P1
.c oefficient: p- I \/2
2P I
Ideal diffuser pressure (8.42) Page 306

1
recovery coefficient: Cp,=l- AR2
Head loss in dj.ffuser in terms _,, (8.44) Page 307

-of pressure recovery v-1
htm=(Cp,-Cp)
cqefficien~: 2
f>i.Jrop work: (8.47) Page 308
~vpump= Qflppump
Pump efficiency: (8.48) Page 308
·wpump
,,=-.--
W,n
Hydraulic dillilleter: 4A (8.50) Page 309

D11=-
. p
· ·M~s flow rate equation for a (8.54) Page 328
flow m~ter(in terms of = ✓~A_:_rr ✓2p(p1 -p2)
J11~~tlla_i
discharge c.o efficient C):
Mass flow rate equation for a (8.56) Page 328
flow meter (in teril\s of flow llluc1uljl =KA,V2p(p1 -pz)
coefficient K):
.Pischarge coefficient (as a b (857) Page 328
.fu1.wtion of Re): .C=.Cco+--
. Re'l-
D,
Flow coefficient (as a (8.58) Page328

K-K
- oo+ L -b-
function of Re):
✓ 1 -fr Rf!'b,
340 Chapt er 8 Intern al Incom pressi ble Viscou s Flow
1. Streeter . V . L.. ed., Ha11db ookof Fluid Dy11am ics. New York: 18. Reneau. L . R., J.P. Johnston . and S. J. Kline, "Perfo rmance
McGra w-Hill, I 961 . and Design of Straighl, Two-Di mensional Diffuse rs." Transa c-
2. Rouse, H.. and S . Ince, History of Hydrau lics. New York: tions of 1/re-ASM E, Journal of Basic Enginee ring. 89D, 1. March
Dover, 1957. 1967. pp. 141-150.
3. Moin. P,. and J. Kim. "Tackli ng Turbule nce with 19. Aerospa ce Applied Thermo dynamic s Manual . New York:
Superc ompute rs," Sciemij ic Aineric a·n , 276, J, January 1997, Society of Automo tive Engineers, 1969.
pp. 62-68. 20. Daily. J. W., and D. R. F. Harlema n, F.iuid D)•nam ics. Read-
4. Panton , R. L. Incomp ressible Flow, 2nd ed. New York: ing, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1966.
°Wiley, J 996. 21. White, F. M., Fluid Mec/,a11ics, 6th ed. New York: McGra w-
5. Laufer, J., "1be. Structu re of Turbule m:e in Fully Develop ed Hill, 2007. .
Pipe Flow." U.S. Nationa l Adviso ry Commi ttee for Aerona utics 22. Hamilton. J.B .. "The Suppres sion of Intake Losses by Var-
(NACA ), Techni cal Repon I 174, 1954. ious Degrees of Roundin g.'' University of Washin gton, Seaule .
6. Tennek es,H., and J. L. L .u mley, ,d..First Course in Turbule nce. WA, Experim ent Station BulleLin 51, l 929.
Cambr idge, MA: The MIT Press, 1972. 23. Herschc,I. C., The Two Books 011 the Water Supply of the
7. Hinze, J. 0., T11rbi1/eni:e, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw - City of Rome, from Sex r11s Julius Fro111i1111s (ca. 40-103 A.D.)
Hill. I 975. Bost,;m, I 899.
8. Moody, L. F .• "Frictio n Factors for Pipe Aow," Transac tions 24. Lam. C. F., and M. L. Wolin. ..Comput er Analys is of Water
oftlzeA SME, 66. 8; Novem ber 1944, pp. 671-68 4. Distribution Systems : Pnn I, Fonnufaticin of Equatio ns," Procee d-
ings of the ASCE, Journal oft/re Hydra,1/ics Divisio n. 98; HY2.
·9 . (;p}¢bn ;lO~ C. F., "'Turbu lent Flow in Pipes, will~ Panicul ar Februar y 1972, pp. 335- 344.
"R¢fei:en.AA to the Transit ion ·.Region betwee n lhe Smooth and
25. "Flow Measurement". Perform ance TesL Code (PTC)
R~i,,ghii"ipe· ~ws,'' Jo11t:i1al -ofil,e I,~rit11tion of Civil Enginee rs, 19.5. Ne.w York: American Sociely of Mechan ical Engine ers
.i;;piidon• .11, 1938~3 9~ pp. 133-15 6. (ASME ), 2004.
1 o. Haala,nc;I, S. :E....Simple and Explici t Formul as for the Friction
26. Bean, H . S .. ed., Fluid Meters, Their Theory and Applic ation,
Factor in Turbul ent Fto,v," Transac tions of ASME, Journal of New York: America n Society of Mechan ical Eilgirie ers, 197 1 .
Fluids Engine ering. 103, 1983. pp. 89- 90.
27. ISO 7145, De1em1i1rario11 of Ffowra1e of Fluids in Closed
11. ASME Standa rd B36. ASME, 2 Park Avenue, New York. NY
Ca11duits or Circula r Cross Sections -Iv/er/ro d of Velocit y Deter-
10016. 2004. 1ni11arion at One Point i11 the Cross Section , ISO UDC
12. ASHRA E Handb ook-Fl indame mals. Atlan\a . GA: Americ an 532.57 .082.25:532.542 . 1st ed. Geneva: Intemalionri.l Standa rds
Si:lci~zy of· Heating , Refrige rating. and Air Conditi oning Engi- Organiz ation. I 982. · ·
neers, -Inc.., 2009. · 28. Goldste in, R. J., ed., Fluid Mec/ranics Measur emems. 2nd ed.
13. Coc~ ». p. J., and C . t Bradley , "'The Respon se of Diffuse rs Washin gton, D.C.; Taylor & Francis, 1996,
to Flow ·condit ions n.l Their Inlet," Paper No. 5, Sympos ium on 29. Bruun, H. H .• Hot-Wir e A11emo111et0~Pri11ciplcs and Signal
1;,1ema l Flow.s. Univers ity of Salford , Salford . England . April Analys is. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
1971 , pp. A32-A 4L .
30. Bruus. H .• Theoreti cal Microj1uidics (Oxford Univer sity
14. Sovran , G., and E . D . Klomp. "Experi mentall y De1erm ined Press, 2007).
Optimu m Geome lries for Rectilin ear Diffuse rs with Rectang ular,
Conica l, or Annula r Cross-S ections :· in FluidM eclwnic s of Inter- 31. Swamee , P. K., and A. K. Jain, ''Explic it EquaLio ns for Pipe-
nal Flows. G. Sovran , ed. Amster dam: Elsevie ,. I.967. Flow Problem s," Proceed ings of tlrl! ASCE, Journa l of the
Hydrau lics Division , 102, HY5. May .(9.7 6,- pp. 657-66 4. ·
15. F.¢ierei s~n. W. J_, R. W. Fox, and A. T. McDona ld.. "An E~pe_r-
imenui.I investig ation of Irn:::omp.rcssible Flow Withou t Swirl U\ 32. Potter, M. C .. and J . F. Foss, Fluid.M echanics. Ne"" York:
Ronald, 1975. ·· · ·
I~Ai:adi~· Di.ffiiiiers," Proceed ings. Second Jmema1 ional Japan·
S~ci~ry :ojMechan ical Engine ers Sympos ium on Fluid Machin ery 33-. Ifft, S. . A., ''Perman ent Pressure Loss Compa rison among
,and· Fluidic: s, Tolfyo, Japan, Septem ber 4-9, I 972, pp. 81-90. Vanous Flowme ter Te.c hnologie s." White paper. Hemet. CA:
Microm eter Inc., 20!0.
16. McDon ald. A- T., and R. W. Fox, "An Experim enlal Invesli~
gation o'f .fucomp ressible A<,>w in Conical Diffuse rs,'' Jn1erna- 34- The Enginee ring Toolbpx , ht1'p://w ww.En girieeri ngTool -
tiono.l -Jo·u mal of M_echaniq;zl Science s. 8, 2, Februar y I 966, Box.com . · ·
pp. 1.25-l3 9. 35. ASTM Standard A999; ASTM West Consho hocken , PA,
17. Runstad ler. P. W., .J,;, ..Diffuse_r·Daui Book," l::lanover, NH: 19428-2 959 USA. 2014. .. '
Cxeare. Int., Tecbn,ica,J NoJe 1~6. 1_975.
Problems 341
Lamina versus Turbulen t Flow 8.8 Calculate a for the flow in this two-dimens ional passa$e if q
·8.1 Consider incompress ible flow in a circular channel. Derive gen- is I.5 m 3/s •m.
eral expression s for Reynolds numbe.r in terms of (a) volume flow
(lite and tube diameter and {b) mass flow rate and tube diameter.
The Reynolds number is 1800 in a section where 1l1e rube diameter
•is 10 mm. Find the .Reynolds number for llie snme flow rate in n
I
0 .6 m
3 mis
Paraboals•
section where ll1e tube diameter is 6 -mm.
8.2. What is ll1e rraaximum flow rate of air 1l1nt may occur al laminar
I
'condition in a 4-in.-dinmc ter pipe ,at :an- absolute pressure ·of 30 psi'a PS ..8'
rind l 0O°F? If ll1e pressure is raised to 60 psia, what is ll1e maximum
flow ,;ate? if ll1e tempernrure is raised to 200°F, what is the ma.,cimum 8.9 Th~ velocity profile in a two-.d imensional open channel ma:)' ·be
flow rate? Explain the differences in WlS\vers in te_rms of the physical approximat ed by me parabola shown. Cnlculate the flow rate._iµtc!-the:'
mechanism s involved. kinetic energy coefficient a.
Q 8.3 ~or flow in circul:u- ru~es. tra11siti_on 1_0 turbulence·usu:illy_occ_u ts
-around Re~2300. Invcsttgate ll1e-cll'Cumstanc.e s under wl:uch the
-l
floi.vs-of (a) standard air and {b) ,va1er at J5°C become rurbulerit.
On log-log g'rnphs, plot: the average ~elbcity, llie volume flow -rare.
arid the riinss flow rate at which turbulence first occurs as functions-of
·tube diameter.
8 ft
Laminar Flow between Paraliel Plates.

8.4, Air flows in l0Q°F in n pipe system in which the diameter
increases in · two stages from 2 in. to 3 in. to 4 in. ·Each section is
6._ft long. The initial.flow rate is high enough-so that ll1e flow is tur-
I
PS.9
bulent in nil sections. As ll1e flow rate is c!ecrensed. which-sectio n will
):>ecome tnminnr first? Determine the flow rates at whkh one, two, 8.1 o A large mass is ~uppor,:ed by a piston of di~_~tc;t:O =4;iIJs and'
1µ1d then three sectjons first become lamin;ir. At each of these-flow length L .= 4 iQ. The p_iston sits iJ! a cylinder .,clos!,:d at. the bottom,
rotes, determine whic!t •.if any. of the s~ctions :main fully deveioped and the gap· a= 0.00 l in. between the ~ylindet w·a11 ·<!Jld pist9n is
f:tow. filled wilfi SAE (o· oil at 68"F. The piston slowly sinks due to t.li~
mass, ~d oil is · forced out at a rate of O. l gpm. Wh;u is the
mass (slugs)?
l~F-= .~---~ ~ .::-:.-=-..:_L___:_=.-o.,c..=...:-JI

_a.
pg;4
·D
·g·,5 An iricompress ibie fluid flows be.tween two in:finiie stationary
pru:u11¢1 plates. The velocity profile is given by II= 11,n:u (Ar+
By +C) .. where A , B; .lll1d C: are ccinsiants and y is meas.u red upw~ PS.19, PS.12
·trpm the:Jower pint¢. The total g:\p w1dth is Ii units. Use appropriate
boundary c;ondftions lo express llte magnirude and units of the con- 8.11 _A hyc;lraulicj~ ck s1.1pp_Qrts a.load of9Cl0Ci kg. Tlie:foUow ing data
sumLS in:-terms· of h. Oevelop an expf'l}ssion for volume flow i:at(}·per are g_iveri: · · ·· · · · · -
unit ·depth· and evaluate Jhe ratio V /11nw,.~-•
Diame~er. of pistori 10()·.~
8 ';6 Oil' is co•n fined.in-a 4-in.-diame·cer cylinder by-a pis1on having a
Rawal. cl~ilranc;e between piston and cyllildec 0.05 milj.:
·radial clearance of 0.001 in. n1,1d_a length of 2 in. A steady force of
Le1,1gth of piston ··
4500lbf is ripplied \0 Ille piston. Assume ll1e propenies of SAE 30 oil 1:~0.µlPl-
:ar: 120°F. ·Estimate the raieat which oil leaks past me piston. Estimate ·the qite of leakage of hydraulic fluiq- p~t.the pistori, assµm;;.
S.'i Viscous' oil flqws steadily between pnrallel plates. The flow is ing the fluid is SAE 30 oil at 30°C.
fully develqped and laminar. ·The pressure gradient is 1.25 kPa/ii1 8 ·.1,2 The basic component of a pressure g~ge tester· C9!1SLS~ of.~
:1i1d the channel half~width is Ir= I ;S (Jlm, Calculate the rilngnitµde piston-cylin del' apparatus as .s hown. The piston', 6 Jlll'll· in::diniri·~cer-,
~d'di;ectio rt of' the ~val! sh_¢!lf s_tress J}t the upper plate; surface. Find ~s loaded to qevelop 11 p~sure of knQWf.1. magiiitjicl~ Titc; piScor:i
thi vdiGrtll~ flQ\Y 11\te thro1.1ih 'tlie chann.~ l C,1;,, 0S0 N · s/ri.12). length is·. 25 mm; Calculate ili~ rq.iss, M; teq~~: to prodt(ee i.~
MPa gage in the cylinder. Detettnii)e•the leakage flow ratcias n func- =

·stationary and the upper plate moves at constant_ speed U 20 ft/s,
tion of radial clearance. a, foi: ill1s·load if the i1qui<;l is SAE 30 oil at what is the velocity at the interface? Assume lanuoar flows, and that
20°c. Specify the maximum allo,vnble radial clearance so the verti- the pressure gradient in the direction offlo,v is zero.
cal movement of the piston due to leakage will be less 8 .21 The record-read head for a computer disk-drive memory
than 1 mm/min. storage system rides above the spinning disk on a very thin film
8.13 When a horizontal laminar flow occurs between two parallel of air (the film thic_kness is 0.25 µm). The head loc ation is
plnteS of infinite extent 0 .3 m ·a part. the velocity at the midpoint 25 mm from the disk centerline; the disk spins_at 8500 rpm. The rec-
between the plates is 2.7 m/s. Calculate -Ca) the flow rate throui?h a ord-read he\ld is 5 mm square. For standard air in the gap between the
cross section 0.9 m wide.. (b) the velodcy gradient at the surfac~ of head and disk, determine (a) the Reynolds number of Lhe flow. (b) the
the plate.. (c) the wall shearing stress if the fluid has viscosity viscous shear stress. and (c) the power required to overcome vis-
1 .44 Pa-s. and (d) the pressure drop in each 30 m along the flow. <;ous shear.
8.14 In n laminar flow of water of Q.007 m 2 /s between parallel 8.22 Consider steady, incompressible. anci fully developed laminar Q
plnteS spaceq. 75 min apart. LJie measured shearing stress at the pipe now of a viscous liqui_d down an incline with no pressure gradienl.
wall)s4,:7.!J P_a. What;is the viscosity of the fluid'? Is the flow laminar'? TI1e velocity profile was derived iii Example 5.9. Plol tl1e velociry
Q 8.1'5 Consider the simple powerc.lnw model for a non-Newtonian profile. Calculate the kinematic viscosity of tl,e iiquid if the film
fluid .given by .l;:q. 2.16. Extend the analysis of Section 8.2 to show thickness on a 30° slope is 0.8 mm and. the mnx.imum velocity
that the velocity profile for fully developed laminar flow of a power- is 15.7 mm/s.
law fluid berween sqitionary parallel plates separated by diMance 2/r 8.23 In a flow of air between parallel plates spaced 0.03 m apart, the
may be ·wriuen centerline velocity is 1,2 m/s and that 5 mm from the pipe wall is
0 .8 m/s. Assuming lan,inar flow. deL<mnine the wall shear s tress
II-= (~
k
Ap)
L .
l/n _!!!!_
rr+l
[I - c~) /r
(n + 1)/n] using each of the measurements, Explain whether the flow is lruninar
or turbulenL
wherey,is the :coorciji_uit',! _mensured from the channel centerline. Plot 8.24 Two immiscible fluids of equal density are flowing down a _Q
thi profil~ u/ilrNU< versus y//r for n = 0 .1, LO, and 1.3. surface inclined nL a 60° angle. The two fluid layers are of equal
thickness h= 10 mm; the kinematic viscosity of the upper fluid is
8 .16 A sealedjoumalb~ng is formed from concentric cylinders. I/5th Lhal of the lower fluid, which is UJower==O.Olm2 /s. Find the
Th~ inner and outer radii are 25 and 26 mm, the journal length is velocity at the· interface and the velocity at _the free surface. Plot
106~. arid inums at 2800.rpm. The gap is filled with oil in laminar
the. velocity distribution.
motion. The velocity profile is linear across the gap. The torque
needed to turn the journal is 0.2 N · m. Calculate the viscosity of 8 . 25 Consider f-ully developed flow between parallel plates .Q
the oiL Will the torque increase or decrease with time? Why? with the upper plate moving at U=5 ft/s. The spaci.tJg between
the plates is a =0. 1 in. Deierrnine th·e flow rate per unit depth
Q. 8 ·. 17 Using. the profile of Problem 8.15, show Ljiat the flow rate for for the case of zero pressure gnidient. If the fluid is air, e v aluate
fully develope d lamin_a r f19w of a power-law fluid between staLi9nary the shear stress on the lower plate and plot the shear stress disuibu-
p~el plat~ may be written as · tion ncross the chnnnel for Lhe zero. pressure gradient case. W,11 the
flow rate increase or decrease if the pressure gradient is adverse?
·. = (·_!!.. l!.p-) 1/ n 2nu;1zl
Determine the pressure gradient that will gh;e zero shear st.ress at
Q k I., . 211+1-
y=0.25a. Plot the shear stress distribution across the channel for
Here·w-is-.the ·plate width. In such an experimental setup the following the latter cnse; ·
d a ta on applied pressure diff~il¢e 6.p and flow rate Q were 8.26 The velm:ity profile for fuUy developed flow of castoi: oil at Q
o_btained: · 20°C between parallel plates with the \lpper pl11,Le moving is given
by Eq. 8.8. Assµme V = 1.5 rn/s nnd a= 5 mm. Find the pressure
:~:!~: g;~~1 ,o~~'g ,1:g~.;~~~ -i~!1 igT 1~~6 /:~ }a5,I~ gradient for which ihere is no net flow in the.x clire_cti_on_. Plot the
expected velocity distribution and the expected s_hear stress distribu-
D~(~g:t)io.e if' t!:}e fl,!,_tld is pseudoplnstic or dilnt.ant and obtnin an tion across the channel -for this fl,9w. for LJ,e case where 11 = U /2 ~t
~p~ihnen:uil vajue fc>r n. y/a = 0.5, plot the ~/'pci;t~d. velCJ!liLy distribution and shear stres~-
s) rS".Jii a lruninar: flpw b.etween pru:a.llel plates s paced J2 in. apart, distril:>ution across the cltaiine_l. Co$!rient. on:f~a_rures of tl1e plots_.
iiie Jh-~ ~t:rt:s·;·
,ilt the ·wall, is L O psf and the fluid viscosity _of 8.27 Freeasuiface ,vav~. )Jegin to form oit-,a laminar liquid film
.O~OQ2 lbin s/(t2 • Wl~aU.s the centerline velocity and the ve\9c1Ly flowing down an inclined surface wp~never the Reynolds number,
gnifilent 1, in. from -the centerline? based on mass flow pet uqihvjdLh of frim. is lntger than about 33.
_a . 19, A 'tlujd ·of s~ciffo gravity 0 .90 flows at a Reynolds ~umber of J::stima\e .t he maximum thiclcn¢ss of .a laminae film of water _that
1°$00,between parallel ·plates i.paced O.J m apan. The velocny ~O mm
remains free from wav'"s while: flowing dowil a v~rti9J..1. sui:face.
(aj_iµthev.ill.ij:is 3m/s. Calculate .the flow :rote and the veloc_ny g~- 8 ,28 A _visc ol.ls-sheat pump.is made fr9m a-stationary housing wi_th
11 dose-fitting rotating drum inside. Th~ cl_ eru:ance js sm:µl compared
dien.t at the· will.I.
with _the diameter of the di:tin,, .S 9 How in the ,annular space m a y - be
8.20 Two.inunis.c ible fluids are contain!!d b_etween infini~ paralJ~J
~J~es. Th;; plates are>separated .by dist.lllce 2~1. an~ the Lwo flwd treated _!IS fl9w between pamllel plates. Ai.lid is .dragged llfOt.1:nd the
annuh1s_by viscous fori;!!s, fivaluate Ilic. perfonn_ari:ce chnracteristif;;S
,4iyers ~ of equal thickn.~s s. Q: tb,e q yµain_ic vµ.sos1ty of ipe upp~r
fluid is_ three µm~ .lh1;1,t of tlte. .lower .flmd. If the. lower p_laLe JS of the snear p:ump (pf!lSSUre diff~reotiai, inputp.o wer; ~ci effic ien9y)
Problems 343
·ns,funi:tions of volume flow rate. Assume thauhe depth normalto the value ofo lhal can be sustained without having the paint flowdown:lhe
diagr:am is b. wall. Calculate the maximum thickness for lithographic ink.whose,
3
yield stress -r:, =40 Pa and density is approximately IOOO:kg/m ,
8.33 When dealing with the lubrication of bearings, lhe governing
equation describing pressure is the Reynolds· equation, gen·eraJly
written in one dimens.i on-as
a
d
d.'C
('fJ dp) + 6 Ud}r =O
µ dx . d.'C
where h is the step hei•ght and U is the,velocity of the l.o wer surface.
Step bearings have a ~latively simple design and are use<,)· with low-
viscosity fluids such as water-; gasoline. and solvents. The minimum
film thickness in these applications is ·quite small, The stej> height
PS.28, PS.29 ~ust be smail enough for goocl IQad .cap11city. yet large enough for
the bearing to Qccommodate some wear withput losing its load capac-
g 8_~29 The. efficiency of the viscous~shenr pump of Fig. PS.29 is ity by becoming smooth and flat. Beginning with the lD equation for
given by fluid motion in me·" direction. show that the pressure distribution in
the step bearing is as shown, ,vhere ·
. (1-"'q)
I/= 6q ----.-
(4-6q)
where q= Q/obRw is :i dimensionless flow rate, Q is the flow rate tu
pressure differential t:i,p. a,id b is the depth non'nal te> the di!lgram.
Pl<;>.t the efficiency versus dimensionless -flow ·rate, and find the flow
rate f9r, maximum efficiency. Explain why the efficiency pe,iks and
,vity it is zero at cennin v:ilues of q.
8.3<> An inventor prµposes to in:ike a "viscoµs timer" by pl:icing a
weig!11eq cylindeflnside a slightly larger·cyHnder coritain.ing·viscous
liquid, creating a narrow annutar·gap close to the w11.IL An:ilyze lhe
fl~"" fieid created when the apparatus is inverted and the mass begins
to i'aO under gravity. Would. lhis system make a· satisfactory tirrier?
I"1 l ·-
r ·
u
If so, for what range of time intervals? Wh:il would be lhe effect P8~33
of a: temperature change on measllred time?·
8,31 A·continuous belt. passing uj:>wru:tl lhrouglt a chemical bath
at speed Uo, picks up a liquid film of thickness /r, density p, and Laminar Flow in a Pipe
vis'cc:,~ity ,,. ·Gravity tends io m:ike· the liquid drain.down, but.the 8.34 C:onsider first water and then SAE. 1OW lubricating oil flqwi,ng
movement of the belt keeps the liquid froin running· off completely. al 40"C in a 6-mm-diameter rube: Dererrilirie·the ma,timum' fiow·ra~
Assume µint the fiow is fully d_e ve!o~d and laininarwim zero pressure arid the i::Q~ponclirig pi:cs~ gradient. iJp/ii'C for eac;l;J. flajd. :;it
gradient. and that me atmosphere produces np shear stres~ at the which·la.minar flow would be expected_ .
oucer'surface Qf the film. State dearly ihe-boundary conditions to he 8.35 Using Eq, A.3 in Appendix A fc;,r the viscosity pfw;.~ ~ fwd' El
satjsfied by the veloc;icy at y=O and y •= fr. Obt.i,in an expression the viscosity at .,.,-20°(: and 1;zo C. Plot ~e v:is~9sicy.9yei;tliis.@iM.
0
·
.f ot the ·velo~ity profile. Fmd me maximum laminar flow rate ([./hr-) in a: 1:5-rfun.'-9i~eter
nibe ,a t the.Se temperii.rures. Plot the -~iiniµnfiµniit~ fl6W-ci¢ 9V:~!-"
Uo mis tempera~ range, .
t 8.36 Cqnsider fully deve!opecllamiriar flc:,w inthe,anmiius.b¢.l ,W.~
two concentric pipes. The outer,pipe is s1,1tionary. iiil{l tl.ie iruier. pipe
h-- moves in the x direction with speed V. Assume me axial pressure gra
7
dient is zero ( op/d'C'=.0). Obtain .a general expt.ession fonh,e shear
P=Patm S~S, 'r, as li function Of th.e radius,. f, lll. teQDS; Of ·a .CC>llStmll;. Cl•
Obtain a geni;ral exp~icin for the velocity pr:o.f:ile, u(t), iri' tt;l'lli.s
of two C<>nstalits, C1 and C2. Oblllin. expressions for Cr.ancl Ci
cl'
y
Bath
....
_.,,..___B_ell - _- .- ·-x
. ~
PS.31
8;32 Awel paint:film oft1nifonn mickness. Ii. is pain.led on a vertical P&.3~
wall. The wet paint can be opproximnted as n Bin:gnam fluid with a 8.37<:arbon di<>xide flowsW:·a .5 P-mm~tli~ter.pi~aJ:avel¢iey-Qf
.yield stress,.i:,., and 4ensity.p.Qeri"e an expre.ssi<>)ffo~ _the-maximum 1.5. m/s. temperature 6.6 "C, uµ.d absot111e p,ress~ ;>!):lc:l?~ 4ih:iilow
laminar or turbulent? If the temperature is lowered lo 30°C. what is 8;43 In a laminar flow of0.007 m 3 /s ina 75-mm-diameter pipeline
the flow reeime'? lfthe pressure is reduced to -20 kPa.what is the flow the shearing stress al the pipe wall is known lo be 47.9 Pa. Calculate
regime? E~l:tin the differences in nnswers in lerrils of the physical the viscosi1y of 1he fluid.
mechanisms involved. 8.44considerbloml flow in an artery. Blood is non-Newtonian~ the
8.38 Consider fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe. Use a shear slreSs versus shear ra1e is described by the Casson relationship:
cvlindrical control volume as shown. Indicate llie,forces acting on 1he
c~ntrol volume. Using the momentum equation, develop an expres-
sion for the velocity distribution.
rL ~ ,---t~----
.T-
------'-CV
~ - ''"'t
. ·- l~t1x-l ........-.
where Tc is 1he cnlical shea; slte.ss. and 11· is-a con·s tant having the
same dimensions as dynamic viscosity. The Casson relationship
shows a linear relationship between ,f'i and Jdu/dr. with intercept
.Jr;: and slope ,/ii- 1l1e Casson relationship approaches Newtonian
P8.38 behavior al high values of defom1ation rate. Derive the velocity
profile or s1eady fully developed blood flow in an artery of radius
8.39 What is the largest diameter of pipeline that may be used R. Detem1ine the flow rate in 1he blood vessel. Calculate the
t~ carry 100 gpm of jet fuel (JP-4) al 59°F if lhc flow is 1_0 be flow rate due to a pressure gradient dp/dx= -100 Pa/m. in an
laminar? anery of radius R = I mm, using the following blood data:
Q 8.40 Consider fully developed laminar fl9w in the annular space 11=3.ScP,rc= 0.05dynes/cm2 •
formed by tl1e two concentric C)llinders shown in 1he diagram for 8 .45 TI1e classic Poiscuille flow (Eq. 8.1-2), is for no-slip conditions
Problem 8.36, bul with pressure gradient. iJp/ox. and tl1e inner cyl- at the walls. lf the fluid is a gas. and when the mean free path. / (the
inder stationary. Let ro =Rand r, = kR. Show Ulat the velocity profile average dis1ance a molecule travels before collision with another
is given by molecule). is c;omparable lo lhe.lenglh-scale L of lhe flow. slip will
occur at the walls, and 1he flow rate and velocity will be increased for
u=
R
2
i)p [
-4Jt i)x _ I - \R (!__)2
+ .
1-k2)
( r]
R
ln(l/k) In
a given pressure gradienL 1n Eq. 8.11 , c 1 will still be zero. butc2 mu~L
satisfy the slip condition u=/011/or at r=R. Derive the velocity
profile and flow rate of gas now in a micro- or nanotube which
·show that the volume flow rate is given by has such a slip velocity on Lhe wall. Calculate Lhe flow role when
R= 1011m, µ= l.84x w- 5 N . s/m2 • Lhe mean fn::e patl1 /=68 nn1,
2 2
rr/?4 op [ .i (1-k ) ] and -iJp/ox= I.Ox 106 Pa/m.
Q=- 8µ ax (l-k)-ln(l/k) 8 .46 For pressure-driven, steady, fully developed laminar now of
an incompressible Du_i,d through a straight channel of lengtl1 L. we
_Compare the volume: flow rate for the limiting case, k--. 0, with l_h e can define the hydraulic resistance as R11yJ = t:.p/ Q. where t:!..p is
,ccm:~P.OP4ir!g expression fot flow in a circular pipe. lhe pressure drop _and Q is the flow rate (analogous 10 the electncal
g:41 Consid~r .(ully_developed press_ure-driven flow in a cylindrical resistance Rc1cc = t:. \I/I, where t:. \I is the eleclrical potentia.l drop and
tube ofroclius. R, rmd length.L= 10 mm, willl (Jow generated by an / is 1he.elecuic current). TI1e folli:,wing mble sumtnarizes tl1e hydrau-
nppli~a p~ssu.:e- gradienC 6p. Tl!Sts are performed with room tem- lic resistance of channels wilh differenl cross sec1ional shapes [30]:
pp@llJ~, water for various v~ues o~ R, willl a fixed flow rate of
.(2::;= to ;,L/.ttiin. 'flie hydraµh~ r,es1St<1JlCe IS defined as Rhyd = Shape Fonnula for R11yd
C::omputed
/J.p/Q {~y an.alogy with the electrical res~tance Rc1oc_= 6 V / /, where Ri,.yd
:6.Y is die electrical potr,:nti~l t)rop and / 1s th_e electnc current). Cal-
culnt.e;'.t he 1'.l<qt,1irei::I. pressu!J! gradient and hydraulic resist°'.1c~ for the 8µL
rang~ oftuberiidii list~ i,n the table. ~.ised ~n ~e ~ults, 1s 1t appro- Circle(:::,
Jr.fr
.·nate "t_o-µs~:-~,press.ure gradient to pump fluids m nucrochannels. or
~boWd some other·t]rNirig mechanism be used? 4pL[l +(!J/CI}2]
nab3
tS.p (Pa) . Rbvd (Pa· s/m3 )
. 1: 320,,i
10 . • v'3cri
. 10-2 12µL
. w-3 Two plates !h
~- - - - ~ }13 w
Rectangle l"'!J_:_-'-
.-1,1_·· _ __,
l2JiL
{13 11,[I ~b.63(/r/w)]
8.42 lJl the laminar flow of an oil of viscosity J Pa: s. ~e v,eli:,~ity ~1
th
...
1
e cen er
ofa o 3 m pin.- is 4.5 m/s and. tl1e veloc11y d1s1.nbuuon i_s
• ..-~ ·m· th
p!U'.'.tbolic. Cil.lcuJate the shear s~ss at the pijle wall and w1 m e
Sq\l.U:C h L~-I l2µL
0;~7h4
flui<l 75 mm from the p.ipe wil.11.
Problems 345
<?niculate the h~drnulic resistance of a straight channel wit)l. the Fit.each set of data to the ••power-law" profile for urrbulenti flow,
listed cross-secuonal shapes using Uie. following patruhcters for Eq. 8.22•.and ·obtain a value of n for each seL Do the dai:i.tend io·
water flow: µ= I mPa•s, L= lOmm.a= IOOµm. b=3311m, h= confirn, the validity of Eq. 8 ,22? Plot the-data ancl their
l00pm, and w=300µm. Based on the calculDled hydraulic corresponding trendlines .on the same graph.
resiSlll!)CC, which shape is the most energy efficicntW pump waicr? 8.55 Equation 8 ;23 gives the po\1/er-law velc>city profile.exponent. Q
8._47 In ? laminar flow in a 12-in.-diamccer pipe the shear stress at -n . as a function ofccnte.rline ReynoJds:numher;-Re u, fot-fi.Jlly devel-
~e wall 1s 1.0 p sf and the fluid viscosity 0.002 lbf. Calculate the oped turbulent ._flow in_ smooth pipes. Eq1,1_a tion 8 .24 relates· i:nean
-v~!qdty gradie_nt I in. from the centerline. velocity. V ,.to centerline:;velecity, U, for various-values.ofn. Prepm:_e
a plot of V / U as a function of Reyno_lcls m~m.® r,_R~-
8,48.:A, Oui.d of specific gravity 0,90 flpws at a Reynolds number
9f 1'500 _in a. 0.3-m-diameter pipeline. TI1e velocity 50 mm frog1 Energy CQn$ide·rations in Pipe Flow
the wajl 1.s , ;3 m/s. C<1-lculme .the fh,,v rai~ _
aml ilic velocity gradient
:iiC:.the: wall. 8.56Consider fully cleveloped intninar f)ow..of w:ill!r l:i~tw~n s~
tionary plirallel plates. The.-maximum flow sp~. plaie,spacing. and
Q ,8.4_9 In a food indusuy plnnt. two immiscible fluids are pumped width ace 20 ft/s. 0.075 in. and 1.25 in., respectively. Find the kinetjc
· µu;o.ug,h ~ t1c1be. such that fluid ~(µ 1 =0.5.N ·s/m2 ) forms an inner energy coefficient. a .
·c ote c.=D/4 and fluid i_(µ 2 =;~l'l-s/m2 ) forms-an outer amiulus.
The tube has D=5 .mm diameter aj,d_leogtl1 i=5 m. Derive an.d 8,57 <.:;:onsicler.fully cleveloped Jami11ar flow. inca circular tub~. !;:yaj-
plot the ve\ocity distributipn;if th_e applieci' pressure diffe'rence, 6.p, uate the kinetic energy coefficien_t for- µus flqw: _
is 5 MPa. 8.5~ Show that the kinetic ~nergy c.o efficient,a.forth_e: "powet'l!!,W~ Q
8 -.50 A hQciwntal pipe carries fluld in folly developed turbulent cuij)ulent vel~ity profile ofEq_ 8:22 is give9 by-!?,4 lp.7:,~Jg~a,aS·:~ -·
flpw. The static pressure diffe~11~ measured between two sections function of Rey, for Re;;= l_x. t~ 19 ·J xIQL When,.ana)yzj*'g ,i;ii~-
is-750· psi. Tiie distnnce QCtween the sections is 15 ft; 011d th~-pipe fl_o w problems it is common practice to a,si;umct a.}:==: t- ,~ lo.f~~~:eirc,r
:di_n rm;ter is 3 in. CalculntcHhe shear s~s. r,.., that acts .oil r..he·w ~lls. associated ·with thi,s assuJI1p!iOI1· as ..a. function of ~ ;- fpr
Rei, =,l -X IQ4 · to: IX 107 •
·s.51 Kerosene is pumped through a sniooth u.ibe with i·n side warn~
eter D = 30 mm at _c lose to the cri'tical Reynolds numb~r~The flow is 8.59.Ifthe turbulent velocity profile for water flow in-i:fpipe 0.6 m iii
_u nsta_l;?le. OJJd fluctuates-between laminar- ~d iurbulenl'~tates; ~nusing diameter may ),:>e approximated by
the 1~ressure gradient to imermittently chruige fivm upproximn_tely
-.4SkPa/ri1 10 -11 kPa/m. Which rressui:-e gradient corresponds
tp, .J.arnin_nr, .a nd which to, ~,:b_l!lent, ·flow? For each_. flow. co111plH~
~=cw c-iY l/7_ 1
11
_the :shiinr streSs at .the tub.e wall, tind sketch the ~hclic stress where u is in mis and -y is in m, and the vclocify-O~IS:m J ron:ft,ll~.Jii~
-~ sµi\ju(.ions. · · · · ,. · ·· · · ·· · wall 'is '~f7 mis, ·estimate the wall sh~ stress and voluffie•tIOwl:II~
.,8 .j2 ln n fl'ow ofwater i_n a 0.3-rn~diameter pipe, the centerline 8. 6 O Water flows'in a horizontal <;:pnslllllt<area.:pip'e;·_tJje pipe;-; cija,meter:
velocify_ is . 6 m/s and that 50 rrim frQn,' the p•ipe wall is 5 .2 rriN. is 75 mm anc;i the average flow speesji,s_~:-m/~- Ai iliepipe iille~ _the
.A_s~!:!!l:U~g lil,l;ninar flow, det~ne Jhe wall shear .su:es_s _using.:each gage pressure is 275 kPn, :ind t11e outietis:at atii:iospheric press.u n:.
o.f!-be-measuremen~. Explg.lrnvbeth~r tlle flov,. is. JtlQ1,inac-or tilrbulent. Determine· the '-1end loss in the pipe. Iftl!e pipe is.now aligned so th.µ:
the outlet is 15 m alieve the iniic. wb_ac will the inlet pn;,ssµre need:oo·
8._53 A :liquig.-drug, ·with ihe:vtscosity and. de·nsity of water, is te be
be to maintain tl!e same flow rare? lfthe pipe.is now aligned·so _U!,lµ.
:a~m,i!}isu;11=d through ·a ·hypodermic rieedle.-The-inside-~lianieter of
the outlet is 15 m beiow the inle~ what will the iijl~J p~µrn _n eed-:10:
·me rieedl_e i_s, Q.75 mm and its lengtll )s 50 mm. Petergiioe (<1-) t!Je
.m :a ~i1m1rn·- Vc:>)ume flow pte f9r ~hich the fJO\V ·)Viii t,,e· l_;µuin;it.
!:>e .to main~ the s_ame flo"w. rate? Fio31Uy~.hQw._muc.ii:.iower !J!~· t,ti.~.
inlet m1,15t tl)e oµtlet-be·so th;u the.sallle fleiw:rare.is·niaiht.a.ined iti:,oth·
-.~ l .tl~t; p.t essu~ dn::ip: reqµi~d to deliver the ~axi111um flow rate. (i.e:,
ends of the pipe ~ at a~~spheric press~ ·ghivi~_:.r~~j? .
,an'd (c)' tl1e·correspon:dini wal_l she,¥' S~_s. ·
T_i11\b~len.t--Ve)o·c ity Profiles in Fully t>:eveloped Calcul~tion of He~.d Le>ss.

Pipe Ff()W . 8. 61 For: a given.v.e>lµm~ no.\Y rate an4 p_ipi~gs.ys_t e~ will tl\e P.~"'
.Q 8.,5'4 _~P.u[.er [$] measured the foi,to.wing data formenn veloci~ iii sure loss be ~aµir (at.hot ,vacei:;,Q!c cold water-? ~pl_;im.
(11.lJy,:de,y.eleiped tur.b!JJ,e_nt pipe. flow at Reu = 5Cl,QQO: 8 , 67 Consider the pipe' f,low :i;rom.the ~ r ,p,v.et offu~pl~..8,7.
To increase d.e !iv:ecy, tl:ie pipe 1¢ngtli,is reduced from 600 ft to 4.50,ft
(the flow i,s still full,y·tw:Qulenrandf;, Q,03$); Wh~t'f~di~·flow ~;/i
:iittt -:8:!!i f& i:~~fJ;_!i; ·-,g~:~~~.-~If~'.~
; ;t ~ -~-63 At· thdril!lt to a constailr-,q.ill.Dl.etec section of ipe Alnskaii pjpe,-,
Jt :ss.t
:~JI~ lit~-g]:'. g}~~ t:~; 0~024, hne, the. pressure is 8~ M}>a.: and·.the el~"'.ati9µ is:45'i;i:i;-,!i.t,.th~· p u
t®,eJevari.oo is US.. m.. Tlt~ ~ea,d loss iii th_is s~.ctiog.,Ja>f pi~!ijip.,~
6,9 k.T/~g, Ca!culnti; the o_utie.t p~s~. . - .
_ tlet
lii. µi:lc:;lition, Laufer qiensun;d t'1e.following d.!itaTor l'(lean velocity in 8 , 64 When: oil (kine:matic-visc95ity l •x 1Q~4 .m 2 / s.-Specific.gr-,!..v.ity-
fully_ devefope(J turbulent pipe· floi.v l)t Reu =5.0 0,0(!0: . 0:92~ flowsata>mean;v.elocify of L5 m/s thtough,;i·5~ ~ e ~
pipeline, the heasjl ost in 30 ~ -c;,fpipe is ~A., o;ic Whnt-Wil,I. re) h~.Mad-
:.u'};J!l loss when the velocity is iiu::rease:d 19 j rn/s? . · · · . '
.yo//fi 8: 65 When t'lui4 of spegijic; .w eight...501\>m/ft'~flows~~ 4.:§:aini.-,
:i~ diameter pipeline. ·th~ .frictionaj. stress .6ehytj~ flwdc au.a °Eff~ is
0.5 psf: Cli.).clllllte. the h,ea~l lost pet foo\ of pipe. lf._th_e fl9w rate is
2~0 cfs, how m11c:;9 power-isJpst· per foot of pipe? ·
3 46 Chapter 8 Internal Incom p ressible Viscous Flow
S.66 Jf the head lost in 30-m-diameter of 75-mm-diameter pipe is at a point in the pipe is 345 kPa. and the head lost between this
7.6 m for a given flow rate of wnter. what is the· total drag force point and the constriction is 3 m. Calculate the pressure in the
exerted by the water on this length of pipe? constriction.
8.67 Water flows at 10 L/min through a horizontal 15-mm- 8.73 Toe Colebrook equation (Eq. 8.37) for computing the turbulent CJ
diameter cube. The pressure drop along a 20-m length of mbe is friction factor is implicit inf. An explicit expression [31] that gives --=-
Q
SS kPa. Calculate the head loss.
S.68 Laufer [51 measured the following data for mean velocity
near the wall in fully developed turbulent
Reu =50,000(U=9.8 ft/sand R=4.86 in.) in air.
pipe flow at
reasonable accuracy is
/o=0.25 (1og(e:.~ + ;~~~) r!

Compare the accuracy of this expression for f with Eq. 8 .37 by com-
puting the percentage discrepancy as a function of Re and e/ D. for
u/U 0.343 0 :31)! 0:300 0 :264 0 ,228 0;221 0 .179 .0,152 CJ. 140. Re=lO~ lo 10H. and e/D=O.o.obo1.o.001.o.01.a:ndo.os. What is
~•/R 0:008_2 0;0075 0 ,0071 O:oo6l 0 .0055 ·o.0051 OJ>M.1 0 :0034 0 .0030 the mnximum discrepancy for these Re ancl e/D values? Plot f
against Re wnh e/D as a parameter.
Plot the·dala and obtain the best-fit slope, dfi/dy. Use this to estimate 8. 7 4 We saw in Section 8.7 that instead of the implicit Colebrook CJ
the wall shear su:ess from r,.. =.,,
du/dy. Compare this value to that equation (Eq. 8.37) for computing U1e mrbulent friction factor f. an -
obtain~d using the friction factor f computed using (a) the Colebrook explicit expression that gives reasonable accuracy is
formula (Eq. 8:37). and (b) the Blasius correlation (Eq. 8.38). 111
8.69 Wa1er is pumped at the rate of 0.075 m 3 /s from a reservoir I
-=-18100
,/J'
[(e/D)
--
"' 3 .7
6.91
+-
Re
20 rtt above a puMp to a ~e dischnrge 35 m above the pump. llte
pressure on the intake side of the pump is 150 kPa and the pressure Compare U1e accuracy of this expression forf witl1 Eq. 8.37 by com-
on the discharge side is 450 kPa. All pipes are commercial steel of puting tl1e percentage discrepancy as a function of Re and e/ D . for
15 cm diameter. Determine (a) the head supplied by the pump and Re= 10~ to J08 , and e/D=0.0.0001.0.00I.O.Ol,and0,05. ~Vhat is
(b) (he total head loss between the pump and point of free discl1arge. the maximum discrepancy for these Re and e/ D values? Plot f
against Re with e/ D as a parameter.
@ 8. 75 Water flows U1rough a 2-in.-diameter tube U1at suddenly con-
D= 15cm _ tracts to I in. dian1eter. The pressure drop across the contraction is O .5
{Elbows are flanged} Free discharge psi. Determine the volume now rate.
::.. = 35 m
8.76 A 50-mm-diameter nozzle termina1es a vertical 150-mm-
diameter pipeline in which water flows downward. At a point on
p3 = 450 k Pa U1e pipeline a pressure gage reads 276 kPa. If this point is 3.6 m
above the nozzle tip and the head lost 1:!etween point and tip is
l.5 m, calculnt.e the flow rate.
8.77 A 12-in.-diameter pipe leaves a reservoir of surface elevation
p2 = 150 kPa 300 at elevation 250 and drops to elevation 150, where it temunates
PS.69 in a 3-in.-diameter nozzle. If the head lost through line. and nozzle is
30 ft, calculate U1e now rate.
s. 70 Jus t downstream from the nozzle iip ~e velocit)'. di~tribulion 8.78 A water pipe gradually changes from 6-in.-diame ter to 8-in .-
is as showrL Calcul:l ite the now rate past secuon l . the ~euc ~oergy diameter accompanied by an increase of elevatipn of IO ft. If lhe pres-
coefficiem·a. nnd .the momentum flux. Assume water 1s flowing. sures at the 6 in. and 8 in. sections are 9 psi arid 6 psi, res pectively,
what is the direct.ion of flow: (a) for 3 cfs and (b) for 4 cfs?
ri"\ 8. 79 Air at standard conditions flows through a s ud.d en expansion in
\.V1
a c ircular duct. The upstream and downstream duct diameters are
75 mm and 225 mm. respectively. The pressure downstream 1s
5 mm of water higher than that upstream. Determine the average
speed of the air approaching U1e expansion and the volume flow rote.
8.80 Water flows from a larger pipe. di;i.meter D 1 = I 00 mm. into a
15 mis smaller one , diameter b2""50mrn. by way of a reenunnt device.
PS.70 Find the head loss between poitits (D and ®·
e,.71 A hopz.ontai nozzle having a cylin~c8! tip of75 mm di~eter

attached to a 150-mm- diainet_er water pipe discharges 0.05 m /s. Iil
·(lie ,pipeJust ups_u-e.µn £rom the nozzle the pressure is 62_.6 kPa '.1°d
a
· 1 ·0;;: .Jn the· issuing
ts . • ..,. .
J·et
.
a .is I.OJ.
.
Calculate the head losses
h d mI the?
nozzle. Which .losses contribute the most to the total ea oss •
Which could be neglected?
8.72 When Q.3 m' /s of ,vater flows through ~ 1?0-[QJTI-diameter
~onstrictio~ in a 300,mm0 diameter horizontal pipeline, the pressure
~ - r
P8;8.o
Probleri'1s 347
Q 8.-8 1 Ac,w lhrougb a sudden· co_mrnction is sbown. The minimu'.11 loss across the expansion as a function of area ratio, and. compare
now !lf'Ca al the vcna contracta 1s given in terms of the nren_rn110 witb the data of Fig. 8.15.
by_l)le _c ontraction coefficient (32), 8.-8 7 Water at 45°c enters a shower head thro~gh a cirt:ular tube
with J 5.8 mm in.s ide diameter. The water leaves m· 24 streams, _each
of 1.05 mm diameter. The volume flow rate is 5.67 L/min. Estimate
Cc= A\c = 0 .62 + 0.38 (A2 ) j
~ 2 J\1 the minimum water pressure needed at the inlet to the.shower head.
The Joss in a sudden ·contraction is mostly a .result of the vena ·c on- Evaluate the force needed to· hold the shower head onto the end .of
tr:icta: Toe· fluid accelern1es into the ·c_o ntrnction, there is flow sepa- the circular tube. 10:dica te whether this is ·a compreSsion or a tensio~
m _tion (as shown by the dashed lines), and the vena con1rncta acts as a force.
mini;irure sudden expansion .with significant sccondliry flow losses. 8.88 Water disch,u-ges 10 atmosphere from a ,Jatge-rescivofr through
Use·- these· assumptions 10 obta_in -and plot estimates of the minor a.moderately rou·n ded horizontal nozzle of 35~mm-diameter. The~
loss ci;>efli_cient for a sudden con1raction, and compnre with the. data surface is 2 .5 m above the· nozzle eitit-plane. Calculate the change 1n
p~ente_d in Fig. 8.-15. flow rate when a short section of5Q-nim-diametei:,pi pe is atcaphe.1;l"to
the end of tbe nozzle, 10 form a sudden expansion. Determine the
location and estim~te the magnitude of ihe-minimutn pressure with
the sudden expansion in place. If ihe· flow were frictionless with
the sudden expansion in place, .w ould the ininimum p~ure be_
higher, lower. or the same? Would the flqw rate he-,higher, lower,
or the same?
8;89 You are·asked·to·coinpare thebebavioroffi,Jlly deve_lhpeir-laii'i~
Pl;l.81 mar flow and fully developed turbulent 'flow fu a honzonta!"_ pipe
under differe~t conditions. Poi: the same ·flow rat~. wbich·will·.biive
8.8'2 A flow rate of 1.0 I/min of·oi) of specific gravity 0 .92·exists in the largei: ce nterline velocity? Why? Ifthe pipe discharg~ to ai:mc,s-
this-pipeline. Is this flow laminar? What is ihe visi:osifY of the oil? For phere, what would you expect th~ mijectocy of the Qis!eharge stream
_the·s ame flow in the opposite.direction, wh_n t m_anoinetcr readingis 10 10 look Ii.Re for the·same flow !'.-It~? Sketch youi: expectations fQr each
be e~p_ected? case. For the same riow· rate. which flow ,vould g1ve thC? larger wall
shears.tress? Why? Sketch the sheai:stress disnibution-i/~... ~ -<1 tjmc-
tion of radius foi: each flow. For the same·.Reynolc;ls-m.u'.11bet, ·w.lj;icli
flow would have the larger pressw:edrop pei: unit lenttl.i_fi' ~Y?-¥~r.,i;,,
given imposed pressure_differential. which f)o-w w9ulg,havc.che.-lar-.
gei: flow rate?·Why?
1.2 m
NQTE: Most of the ~m,umng problems in: this c!'taptef involve
detei:mination of the n.u-hulent friction ~ctor- f from .the Reyncil_ds
nu~bei: Re and di.qu~nsionl~s .:Oughness -e/P , f'.or appro)Wllate
calcufation,s,f can be .read from Fig- 8 . 13; a more accor.i,le·aRPJ:9111;b
is, IQ use this value (91: sorQe other value. ev1;n f = -L) as the ~ t
value for iterating·-in:. Eq. 8.37- The most convenient llPE,;i;!_o.i;:h- is· to
use a nuqierical solution of Eq, 8.37 using ·an _eqp.µion, solver. T p
avoid nced)ess_dl!l)lication, the comp_utei: symboi will 9nlY.-~q.s~
8 , 83 Water flows in a smooth pipeline !l_t a Reynoids number of °106 • next to [1!maining problems in .this-. chapter when there. il!
A(ter mp.ny yenrs of use, it !s ob~erved that half the.original flow rate an additional benefit (e.g .. foi: iterating to :a solution; Qr fot-
prpduees the same head Jc,ss as for the original l'.low."Estimate·the size graphing). -·
of th¢ reJ_.~i:ive roughness ofl11e deteriorated pipe. 8. 9 o A lnboratocy experiment is set up to\ measure.pressure clz:op fcir
8 .. ~4-Air flows out of_a cl_enn room lest ctiillnbe_r L11rough a 150-mm-
.dio.meter duct of length L, The original d11ct had a squ_~ --edged
flow of wate.i: through a smpoth tube. Th~ w~
diameter is 15.9 IDPl,
and its length is 3.,?6,m . _Flow eilters,th~tube.froIIt:a~ ~fVQjr thrpugh
entrance, b:ut, this has ·bee_n replaced will1 a w¢Usrounded -orte. The a sq_uar¢~edged-ent:raiice . Ciµ_ c u.iate the v9lul:!le flow .rate· n~de4 to
p~s~~ ii\ IJi~-chiµnber is 2.5' nun of water above::ambien~--Losses obtain turbulent flow in th~ rub(:.Evaluate the resei:.vc,jc h~igbtdiffe~-
trom :friction are negligible_ compared with the e11tra,1ce and exit ential i:equii:e_d .to -obt:,tln tur:t>1,11¢nt flow in the, tube;; ·
Jc,s·s~s .· &timate the Jncrease in volume flc,w -rate that res~lts from
8.91 The·appli_l:4 p~ure differem;e. t:.p, and .i;ci~Qiidiij:g,:·vol- Q
the change_in entrance contc,u_r.
.uine' flow rate; Q, fut larninlli: flow in a cµbe:~lii:i be cqinpiJre4 to ·
8 ·.85 A .conical diffusei: is used to expand n pipe flow from a diam- the applied DC vol~aie-V a:ct 9ss, ll,l)d current:J ~l!gh, ancele<;~~
eter.of IOOmro to_adiameter.c;i_f 15.0 mm. Fiild the-mi~µm length of resistor, respectively. Inv~tigate whelhei: oi:·not this :µ;i_ !l,l,~gy-is valid
µi~- diffuser if we want a _loss co¢!'ficie!ll (I!-) KdiffU>tt ~0.2 or foi: turbulent flow qy plottirig-_tb,e ..resistan!=e" t,,pf"Q _a s a fw!cfi-o!l:9f
(b) /(diffl&SCr 5 0.35. <2·for tµi:bulent flow of k~sene {.it 40°C) .in a _cµ~ +?.0 mm:Jqj;ig_-
Q_ 8.86 By applying the ~µsic equations to a-control volume starting at with inside. diameter 1.-S Q1QJ; ·· ·
{he:expansion and-endmg·de>wnstrel!,m, .analyze flow-thro_~ gh: a-sud- 8.92 Plot the ~<_!µired reservo~ ~~pth cif wn~r; tQ:.c:~a~.flow iQ ·.I! fil
c)_e !l explinsion .tissµming that the folet_ p~sure Pt nets on lh_e area A2 smo.o th tu_~ of diameter 10 mm and length LOO m. f9r:;,, ijoi,v r:ate
tii the expp.qsion. Develop an ex,p~s1on for and plo_t th~ mmor-hend fa!!ige of l L/m.i"n tlµpugh lOL/nµn:
348 Chapter 8 Internal Incompressible Viscous.Flow
8.93 Oil with kinematic viscosiLy &=7.5 x 10--1 ft2 /s nows at jet, of D 2 = J in. diameter. Estimate lite supply pl'CSsure required at
45 gpm in a JOO-ft-long horizonml drawn-tubing pipe of 1 in. diam- iliis flow rate.
eter. By what percentage ratio will the energy loss increase if the 8.99 Aow in a lube may alte~alc between _l:iminar and turbulent Q
same flow rate -is maintained while the pipe dinmeter is reduced to SLltes for Reynolds numbers m the tmns1Uon zone . Design a
0.75 in.? bench-top experiment consisung of a constant-head cylindrical trans-
8.94 ',,Voter from n pump flows tlu-ough a 9-in.-diameter CO<TUT!ercial parent plastic tank will1 deptJ1 graduations, and a lengtJ1 of smooth
steel pipe for a distance of 4 miles from tlte pump discharge to a res- plastic tubing auachcd at the base of the tank through which the water
er voir open to the atmosphere. The level of tlte water in the reservoir nows to a measuring container. Select tank and tubing dimensions so
is 50 ft above the pump discharge. and the average speed of the water tl1at lite system lS compact, but will operate in the transition zone
in the pipe is 10 ft/s. Calculate the pressure at tJ1e pump discharge. range. Des ign ll1e experiment so 1.hat you can easily increase the tank
head from a low range (laminar now) tlll'Ough transition to turbulent
rn
. flow, and vice versa. \Vrite instructions for students on recognizing
when the flow is laminar or turbulent. Generate plots on the same
Pu~ graph of tank depth against Reynolds number, assuming laminar
or turbulent flow.
-- - d5 . - 8.100 When you drink a beverage wit11 a straw, you need to over- Q
PS,94 come both gravity and friction in lite straw. Estimate the fraction
o f lite 10111.I effon you put into que nching your thirst of each
8.95 A 5-cm-diameter potable water line is to be run through a factor, making suitable assumptions about tJ1e_ liquid and straw
maintenance room in a commercial building. Three possible layouts propenies, and your drinking mte. For example. how long it would
fo~ th~ water line are proposed, as s hown. Which is the besL option, take you lo drink a 12-oz drink if you drank 11 all in one go (quite a
basecl on.minimizini losses? Assume galvanized iron, and a flow rate feat with a straw)? Is tlte now laniinnr o'r turbulent? (Ignore minor
of jSO L/min. losses.)
Solution of Pipe Flow Problems

8.101 What flow rate (gpm) will be produced in a 75-mm-diameter D
125m water pipe for which there is a pressure drop of 425 kPa over a 200-m
length? TI1c pipe roughness is 2.5 mm. The water 1s at o~c .
,·
8 .102 You recen1Iy bought a house and want to improve the g
5.25 m flow rate of water on your top floor. TI1e low flow rate is due to three
(a) Two miter bends (b) A standard elbow (c) Three standa_rd elbows reasons: The city water pressure at ll1e water meter is low
PS.95 (p = 200 kPa gage): the piping has a small diameter (D = 1 27 cm)
and has been crudded up, increasing its roughness (e/D=0.05):
_g 8 , 96 A system for testing variable-out-put pumps con~ists of Lhe and the top noor of the house is 15 m higher tlmn tJ1e water meter.
pump; four standard elbows, and an open gate val_ve fomung a closed You are considering two options to improve the flow rate: Oplion
_c ircuit .as _s_hown.· The circuit is 10 absorb tlte. energy added by the I is replacing all the piping after ll1e water meter witlt new smooth
,pµn:ip. The tubing is 75~rtun-dinmeter c~t iron, _and th~ total length piping with a diameter of 1.9 cm: and option 2 is ins111.II ing a booster
.o ftbe .circuit is .10 ri1. Plot tlte pre~sure difference '.;quired Jrom the
_
3
pump while keeping the original pipes. 111e boos ter pump has an
pun1p· fo_r water flow rates Q rongmg from 0.0 I m /s to 0 .06 m /s. outlet pressure of 300 kPn. Which option would be more effective?
Neglect minor losses.
D=l.9Ji:m l~ D = 1.27 cm lm
1
elD=O e/D= 0.05
15 m 15 m
p = 200 ki>a p=200 kPi! _
.-----~ p = 300 kPa
8.Si7 Two reservoirs are connected by three clean cnsc-iron

- Water
meter 7 ni -l ~:~=~ I 7 m ~"--pump
BoosteT
.pipes in series, L 1 =600i:n, D1.=0.3m, L2.=900m,_D2=0.4,;n, Oplion 1 Option 2

cfu=l,500,m. an.d lh=OA5nL W11en the d~charge i_s O. llm- /s PB.102
of watet ,at t5"C:. qe(1;:rinine tbe cljfference m elevauon between
the resel'V:oi,p;. 8.103 Gasoline flows- in a long, underground pipeline a t a constant Q
8.98:Water; arvolumeflow rate Q=O. 75 fr /s, is delivered ~ya fire iempe_rature of l5°C. Two pumping stations at tlte same elevation are
hose and nozzle assembly. The hose of L = 250 ft, D 3 m .._and = located 13 km apart. The pressure drop between · the s tations is I .4
e / D ~ 0.004 is rfia de up of four 60-ft sections joined ~y couplings. MPn. The pjpeline. is in;_ide f-rom 0.6-cn°diameter pipe. Although
The entrance is square.,edge_µ; the minor lo_s s c_o ef.fi1e1ent for each the pipe is mad_e from commercial slee::I, age and corrosion huv~
· · · -liri · .
c,oup _g 1s
K =0·.s based on mean velocity Lhro.! lgh t11e hose.
c - , -- - - - . _d· · · th ,xit
raisc;d the pipe roughness to approximately that for galvanized iron.
1 Complite die volume flow rate. ·
The nozzle loss coefficient.is K,, -= Q.Qi, ,pase .9n ve oc•L¥ m- e e
Problems 349
8~1<)4 An 18-in.-diameter new riveted steel pipeline 1000 ft long 8.112 Water is flowing. Calculate the direction and magnirude of the
rui:Js from an elevation of I 50 fl Lo an elevation of 200 fL lf the manometer reading.
pressure nt 150 ft is 100 psi and at 200 ft is 72 psi. whnt now rate
can be ex:pected though the line?
8. 1 0 5 What diameter of smooth masonry pipe is needed to carry
~O ·cfs between two reservoirs of surface elevations· 250· and I 00 if
the pipelin~ is to be 2 miles Jong?
8.106 Laboratory tests on cylindrical pipe yield the empirical
formuin /,L = 0.002 583 /\/2 · 1~ d-0 -86 with head loss, length, and
diameter in m. and velocity in mis. Water of kinematic viscosity
T .12 tn cl
g
9;3 x I 0-7 m 2 /s was used _in the tests and ranges of d and. V were:
0.03 < d < o:b6 and 0.6 < V < L5. Analyze the formula and com-
ment-on its possible validity.
8:197 W.Jier flows steadily in n l25~mm-di~eter cast~iro!l pi~
l::>Q rt'! lQ!lg, The. pressure .drop betwee.n se~uons (D nod (2) 1s
150 kPa. and section (2) i:;; l~t.e d J5 m above secuo·n CD- Find
I -~--
the vohin'Je flow rate,
g_,8.108 '.J\yo galv~ized iron, P!~~- of ctinmeter D are coitri~ct~,d .to ;<!
large water reservo1.r, as shown. Pipe A has lc,mgtl) L .ind pipe B has 8.113 Investigate the.effect of rube -roug!ln~s .on flow rate br_co~- _g
!eng_th 2!-,, B:oth pipes discharge to,a~o~pbere. Which pipe will pass puting the flow generated by a: pressure:. difft_::,a#1ce 4j.f==,;: 1Q9·kP?-
the. larger fio_w r:ate? Justify wlt_hout calculating the flow i:n~i; in each applied 10 a length L= 100m of tubing, with diam_eter D=:25 mm.
pipe. Compute the flow rates .if H = .10111,D=$O rqm,l!nd I.= JO m. Plot the flow rate against rube relative rougliness e/D for e/D
ranging from O 10 0.05 (this could be repijca.ted ex:periinenuilly_ by
progressively toughe~l)g the.:· rube surface), Is · ir possible that this
l
tubing ·c ould be toughened so rriuch that the flow c·o uld be· slowed
to a laminar flow rate?
H 8.114 Investigate the effect of rube length on watex: flow rlile .Q
-
I. 1-L-
:~X}_;:~:=z._: - .-
I
•- -
--2l
,u,_;=:;~:z:;:;-;:; .-~_,;.;:
I j
=-... -
by computing the flow gener.iced, by a _pressi.tl-e, ~~nc::~ ·
AP= 100 kPit applied to a length L of smooth tubing,_of •dfainetef
D = 25 mm. Plot the .flow ~e .Jg.J4tst rube. length for flow ~gi.µg_
T
D
\.. P 'i pe· r\ I I Pipe s./ Tp from low speed laminar to fully futbuleilt. ·
PS.10~ 8.115 For the pipe flow int9 a reservoir of Example 8.5 consid~r the g
effect of pipe mughness on: flow rare. assu~g the;: pressure of·thc?
Q Bis1 o~ A.aiili,ing engineer_plans to do hydraulic mining· with_a !ti~- pump is maintained at 153 kPit.. Plot the flow rare ag~nst pipe ro1,1gh-,
.s_pee.:c.l JCt Qf water. .A.lake· 1s locate.:d.H.,;=300:m.abo:ve the. mme,s1_1e; ness ranging from smooth (e=·0) co very roµgh, (t;>::;:).75 niiri). Also
W.ateC;-Will ~ deliv.e.:red through L=900 m .of fire hose; the;l1os·ehns corii;ider the effec;_t of pipe lerigth assuming the pump .ii.ways _pro;,
inside· -dinmeter D .=75 mm -aQd .re(a_tiv.e roughness ejD=0.0.l. duces 153 kPa for smooth. pipe. Plot the flow rate ngainsc•pipe·Je~gtp
CQupµngs n:re locaiecl e.very_ IO m nJong.: the hc:>se: The.:, nozzle .outlet for L= 100m t.b,rough L .= 1000m. ·
diru:i1eter IS d = 25 mm.. lts minorios_s_ coefficient·is K' ~ 0 .02 baseq on
8.116 Calculate the magnitude and clirec;tiqn ofthe manomc~ i:ejicl-
outlet vel~~ity, Esti~i_ttf! the max.iin_urn: outlet velgcity. lhnt .this
ing. Water.is. flowing.
~y-s~~-;., ~o~l!).·deliver. Determine th~ m~i.wµm force exenec.\ on a
rock, fp.Ge ~y this ,vater ji:J..
8.11 o · The •.flow. of w_au~r through n 150-!llm·diantetet horizomaJ
pipe t~9~ ,mlw:,ges ~bruplly 10 300_mm diameter, is 0. 14 m 3 /s. The
2A m
pre.ss.~ ..in ilic s[T}aJler pipe is 138 kPa. Calcu.1!11e the pressure in
the:300.mm-diameter pipe, neglecting pipe friction.
-_l
8.111 Toe fiuid flo,ving has spe~ifii: gravity 0.90.; Y1s=6m/s;
t
0. 9 m
Re= ros.
Calculate the gal!e readii)g.
-L
P8.~1.1:6
8.117 E.~perimental detenhlri:ioon qf lo.cal losses: an_d loss, c~ffl"-

i;l. -27 m cients ru:e mnde from measurements of the hydraulic grn~e-14ies-in
zones of establis.h ed flow . .CaJcuiate-tlie head.loss -and loss· cocftc-·
ci.ents for this 1!1'1d~al exp_a nsion ~in the data gi~e~. ·· ' · , ·
350 cthapter 8 Intern~! Incompre ssible Viscous Flow
.6-90m
. I
6.71 m
I
n l- I~ -.J.J.
IN.!!~l!r
_ B
f .,,=o-ll_s_ __
·•
_,__ _,,,
PS.123
8 ..1.1·8 Water is· flowing. Calculate the-.gnge rending when the veloca 8.124 A horiz()ntal 50-mm-di:im eter PVC pipeline leaves (squ~-
icy•.jn ::tlle 1:i',.in."oiam cter pipe is 8 ft/s. edged ·entnuice) a water tank 3 m below i~ free surface, Al 15 m from
the tank, it enl;irges abruptly to a 10'0 -minsdinme ter pipe which
Elevattpn = 200 rt runs 30 m horizontally to another tnnk. entering it 0.6 m below ilS-
-~ ft. 6-1n.-diameter, surface. C:ilculate IJ)e .fl.o w rate through ·the line for a water temper-
f = 0 .020 ature of 20°C::, including fill head losses.
8.125 Yqu are w:ite_ring your lawn witl} qn old hose. Beenuse Ii.me g ·,
deposits hnve· built up.over the· yeru-s, the 0.7,?'-in.-ID. hose now has
an nverilge roughness height 6f0.02i in. One s ·O aftlenglh of the-hose,
auache_d to yo_ur spigot, delivers 15 gpm ohvater (60°F). Compute
the pressure nl the· spigot, in psi. Es[Jmate the delivery if two· 50-ft
PS.118 lengths of the ·hose--nre connected. Assume that the pressure at the
spigot varies with flow rote and the water main pr:essure remains con-
-a ·. 119/ rii¢:sjphl;w.:~hq,~) s frihriCAte;d from 50,.nµn-ID drawn aJ~mi- stant al 50 psig.
:num;ftj_pij)g, @e:•.ijquid is water nt 15°C. .Compute !,he volume flow
~~; ili~u$'b the siphor;i. i;'.stimate the minimum pi::cssurc; .jnsi~e
!3.12Q Your boss claims th:il forpipe·flow l)leflow rate, Qoc ~ . g
where l!.p is $~ pressure diffen;nce driving the flow. You dispUle -
:the; tµ_¥ ; this, so· perform some cli.lculntions. Ypii take_a l-in.-dlaril eter com-
mercial s_teel pipe nnd assume ;in inilinl flow ~te 9f 1.25 ga.)/min
R = '0..45m -
of wa,ie;r. Y 0.11 ~en iilcrense::the applied ,press11re _in -~ qua! increment s
and cornpule the ne,v: flow rat~ sq you cn;n plot Q versus Ap. as com-
l p1,1tcd by you tq1JI your boss. Plot the twq curv~ on the some graph.
·r
W'/Js your boss right? ·
8.127 A hydra1,1lic press is powered hy ii. remo_te high-pres.s ure
pump. The gage·· pressure l!t the puI!lp•oUJ.let is 3000·, psi, where.is
the presSl,lre o:qu_j~d for the press. is :21so psi ·gage; at n .now rate
ofQ:02 ft3 /s. The'pr:css arid pump nre cqnnec.t ed,by l65 fl of smooth,
PS•.119
i dr.Mn steel tub(ng, The fluid-is SAE IOW·oil ~t 100°F. Det_e mune the
minimum· tubing diameter that m_a y \le used.
8.128·0ne-q'°'arter of n cubic meter pe'r second of liquid at 20°C is to
•·
_8.12OA tiµ:ge open wnu~r !Jlllk:hns a horizontal C'.15t irQn dra4'pipe of
· dinmetet,.D = Un. and length L=4 _ft attached aurs base. If the dep':11
be carried between two tanks hav_irig a di_fference of surface elevation
of 9 ni. If i.he pipelin,; 1s smootl1 and 90 m long. what pipe size 1s
.·6f W,?tet .is _l~:=3 f~ find the flow r.ite (gpm) if the pipe ~ntra11ce 1s required if the liquid is·.(a) crude oil, (b) water?
(~)~rt~ t, (l,}sqiiru:e.~dged_, and (c} rounded (r=0.2m.) . 8.12·9 Calcul~te_the.flow J'l!,te from this water failk if the 6 in. pipe-
·• :-·8'i°:t~•1 A ·t,ii;.Qk c;g1_1~$~ 3Qm3 of kei:osene is to be emptied by
•. · · .!cl, ~\'1!)' feed iis!~~f ~ ~ n hose o_f .c li~eter 15 mm, roughness
lipe hns a friction facfor'of0,0'.?,Q :ind i~ 50 ft long. is-cavitatio n to be
expected in tl\e pipe entrance? Tiie water in the,lank is 5 ft deep.
.O:Z.rlim;-.~4 i_e~m J;;m. 1.be·.top of the tnnk 1s open to the a~?s~~ere
0
-~~-~E L2QO
iuid,tlleih6 .siexits.iojm_,e>p:ert <;h(UJ)bel'. If the-kerosen e level IS m~!J~Y
-1•0 •fu:_~boye the.~ exit, e;si:im:ate, assuming sready flow, th_e 1ruunl
·d@To····•· :.: :ur Estiiliate·t h-e 'flow rnte_wben the kerosene level ,s down
1&is ~~:;:;: tb~:J!)~~ ·co-] '~ ~Based on tliese three estim:i1es, make a
,ie_~gH::tstimale of ~e 9Jlle it co.o lqo drain to the 1-m level.
'8~:ti2•a. 9,(1-.,, s~w~d .elbow is itjsl?,lled in a 2-in.-diameteryipeli_ne
;h~~fu-~ ~:frlt:_ ti9p :f~~orqfo.o:t 1,be-he:id Io_sc at the elbow 1s equiv-
alent fo-ihat fosL in how maqy f~t _9 f the pipe? What would be tbe
eq~,vhl~ritJici!gg;i,f.q~ ;i. l~fn.~_d,i;m1eter pipe?
&; 1 :1.3Jtli.l..culate the totnla~o n. iii.tb~·b.Qi~--~eglect e:ntrance loss.
•T iie pi:¢. :i $ 30 :11), Jou~. w;e.ciiamet er is -J-50 -mm; .and f = 0.020.
Problems 351
8.130 A 6-ft-diametcr pipeline 4 miles long between two rescr- V1 = 120 fUs
vous of surface elevations 500 and 300 fl carries a flow rate of
Pipe. D = 4 in. ---...... ..
250 cfs of water (68°F). JI is proposed 1o increase tJ,e flow rate (aluminum) ----... ·
through lhe line by installing a glass-smooth liner. Above what liner Total length, L = 700 fl .·
diameter may an increase of flow rate be expected? What is the Joints· 15, each with
maximum increase to be expected? Assume the 6-ft diameter 10 be K101nl = I 400 ft
measured to the midpoint of the roughness projections. Neglect all
g
local head losses.
8 .. 131 De_tennine the ~inimum size smooth rectangular duct with an
aspect rauo of 3 that will pass I ml /s of 10°c air witl1 a head loss of
25 mm of water per 100 m of ducL
8.132 A_ new industrial plant requires a water flow rate of PS.137
I
5. 7 rri3 /mm. The gage pressure in the water main, located in the sircet 8.138 You are asked 10 size a pump for installation in the water
50 m ftom the plant, is 800 kPa. The supply hne will require instal- supply system of the Willis Tower (formerly tlle Sears Tower) in
lation of 4 elbows in a total length of 65 m. The gage pressure Chicago. The system requires 100 gpm of water pumped to a reser-
required in the plant is 500 kPa.. What size galvanized iron line should voir at the top of the tower 340 m above the street. City water pressure
be installed? at tlle stree1-level pump inlet is 400. kPa gage. Piping is to be com~
Q 8: 133_What diameter wa1er pipe is_required t? handle 0 .075 m 3 /s mercial steel. De1erminc the minimum diame1er required to keej:>
and a :,00 kPa pressure drop? The pipe lengtll 1s 175 m, and rough- the average wa1er velocity below 3.5 m/s in lhe pipe-. Calculare
ness is 2.5 mm. the pressure rise required across the pump. Estimate the minimum
8.134 A pipe friction experiment for air consists of a smooth brass power needed to drive tlle pump.
tube with 63.5 mm inside diameter. the distance between pressure 8.139 Heavy crude oil (SG=0.925 and v= I.Ox 10-~ m 2 /s) is-
tap_s is 1.52 m. The pressure drop is indicated by a manometer filled pumped through a pipeline laid on flat ground. The line is made from
with Meriaril red oil. The centerline velocity U is measured with a steel pipe with 600 mm ID and has a wall thickness of 12 mm. The
pilot cylinder. At one flow condition, U=23 . I m/s and tlle pressure allowable tensile stress in the pipe wall is limited 10 275 MPa by cor-
~lrop is 12.3 mm of oil. For this condition. evaJua1e tlle Reynolds rosion considerations. It is imponant to keep the oil unde.r pressure to
number based on average flow velocity. Calculate tlle friction factor ensure tllat gases remain in solution. The minimum recomµiended
and compare wtth the value obtained from Eq. 8.37 (use 11 =1 in the pressure is 500 kPa. The pipeline carries a flow of 400,000 bili:Tels
p·o wer-law velocity profile). (in th.e pelrOleum indUSII)', a ..barrel" is 42 gal) per oay. Pe~~-~
8.135 Oil hac; been flowing from a large tank on a hill to a tanker a_t the maximum spacing between pumping stations. Compute th~
tJ1e wharf. The comparunent in the tanker is neady full and an oper- power added to the oil at each pu_mping station.
at~r is. iri tlle process of stopping the flow. A v;ilve on the wharf is 8.140 Pe1r0leum products ate cransponed over long distances by
closcJ:i at a. rate such that I MPa is maintained in the line immcdia1ely pipelines such as the Alaskan pipeline (see Example 8 .6). Estimate
upsiream of the valve. Assume; the energy needed ~o pump a typical petroleum product.. expressed
as a ftactiO!l of the throughput energy earned by tlle pipeline;;. State
·and critique your assumptions clearly.
·.i.,ejlgih, of Urie· from ~ t() vqlve. '3:km
in•side•.c;ti=.eter-qf.line icidmm 8.141 A water pump can gener.ite a pressure difference l!.p (psi) Q
Elevation .of-oil surfac~ in tarik 60.in given by t::.p = 145-0.1 Q2 • where the flow rate is Q ft' /s. It suppli~
Elev~1ijn of v,il"C? on wharf 6m a pipe of diameter20 in .. roughness 0 .5 in., and length 2500 ft. Find
Instarfraneo~ flo,li rate 2.5 ml /min the flow ra1e. pressure difference. and-the powe!' supplied 10 the pump
·Hend io~~--in 'li~~ (eifclusiv~ Qf vn!Ve,oeing i~' ll}'Of oil if it is 70 percent efficienL lf the pipe were replaced with one of
.~fo~~d)'nf µus mte .ofno,v roughness 0.25 in .• how much would lhe flow increase. and· what
$p~cJtk:~ravity. of oi! would 1he required power be?
8.142 The head vel'Sus. capacity curve for a certain fan may be Q
approximated by the equation H = 30-10-7 Q2 • where H is the out-
C,::alcuhite the initial instanianeous ra1e of change ofvolumeflow rate. put static head in inches of water and Q is the air flow rate in rt3 /min.
8.136 111e pressure rise across n waler pump is 35. psi when the vol- The fan outlet dimensions are 8 x 16 in. Determine the air ·flow rat¢
ume flow rate is 500 gpm. If the pump efficiency is SO percent, deter- delivered by the fan into a 200 ft straight length of 8 x 16 in. rectan-
~in·e the power 'input to the pump. gular ducL · ·
8,137 Cooling water is pumped from a reservoir to ro.ck drills on !
8. 4~ A swimming pool has a p:irtial-flQw filtration system. Warer at g
a· construction JOl:i' using the plpe system shown. -Thi; flow rate 75 F 1s pumped from the pool through the system shown. The pµmp
m.u st QC 600 gpm and water must leave the· spray nozzle at delivers 30 gpm. The pipe is nomin;u 3/4-in. PVC (IO= 0, 824 in-)-
t1b ft/s, Calculate the minimum prc;ssure needed at the pump The pressure loss through the filter is appi:eximately l!.p.= 0.6 Q2.
o1,1tlet. Estimate·me: required power input if the pump efficiency is where C,p is in psi and Q is in gpm. Determine the pump press~
70 percent. and lhe flow rate through. e.,.ch .branch of the system.
Total l~ngth: 8.150 Air nows through a venturi meter with a 3-in.•diameter
-- ( 40 ft throat placed iii a 6-in.-diameter line. Assume llial the upstreain

From
pressure is 60 psi and the temperature is 68°F. Determine the
pool
P$,143
Filte) =1,.. maximum possible mass flow rate of air for which the assumption
of incompressible Dow is a valid engineering approximation. Com~
pule the corresponding differential pressure rending on a mercury
manometer.
8.151 \Valer at l0°C flows steadily ll,rough a venturi. The pressure
8.144 Water n.t 65°C flows thro4gh a 75-mm-<liameter orifice upstream from the throat is 200 kPa gage. The throat diameter is
-installed -in n lSO. mm,W pipe. The flow rate is 20 L/s. Determine SO mm; and the upstream diameter is 100 mm. -Estimate the maxi-
thePressure cliffe.r en.c e between the comer taps. mum flow rate this device can handle without cavitation.
g ~.:i 45 A :-rnooth 200-m pip~. 100 m~ diameter connects two 8.152 Drinking straws nre· to be 1.1sed to improve the air flow
- _t:C$eFV6irs, The· entp!nc.e iw,d CXll of ll1e pipe.are sharp-edged .. At the in a pipe~ciow experiment. Packing. a section cir the air pipe with
@dp_oj~J. o(:tij~ p_ipe .i s an orifice plmc will, (.liameter 40 mm. if ll1e drinking straws to foqn_a "laminar Dow elemenl'' might allow the
water iev¢1s·'in.-the ·r es~rvoirs. differ l;>y 30 m, estimate ll1e Pre$SUre air flow rote to be measured directly, arid sirn:ultnneously would
,diff~~n_tia,f md.~cµtec(by llle-orifice plate ancl ll1e flow rate. net as a flow stril..i'g_h tener. To evnluate this idea, delerinine (a) the
8.146 A 1-2 -i,n . x 6 -in. Venturi meter· is installed in a horizontal Reynolds number for flow in each drinking straw, (b) ll1e friction
-~ ilterline. TI1e pres.sure gages read 30 and 20 psi. Ci/.lcul11,te the flow factor for··flow in ,each straw, and (c) ilie gage pressure at the ex.it
.oue for a .wn_u:;r ten:ip_erature of68°F and ·the head loss between the
0 from.the.c!.rin_king s1rnws. For laminar flO\v in a tube, .t he entrance Joss
b~e;~d: t.hi'oat of the·ineter. Calculate _the fio,v rate if llie pipe is :..,er- coefficient is Ken,= 1.4 arid a=:2.0. Comment ~n the utility of
.'t icfil ~ith tlie tlm;>nt of the meter 2 :ft below·me base .and ilie pressure this idea.
.gagc;s,~act the.same v~lues.
L m
:=:J mm
's.147 A. H.i:l.•cJiQillCCC::r nQ"zzle is -auathed to.a 3-in.-dinll,leter hose.
Wb~t- fi~w,@te o(wncer wm·o c¢ur lhrllugh the nozzle.when ll1e pres-
s~~-m:lh'e·Jios~ris·.PO psi? ·:A.ss\lJlle that llle Reyilolc!s:nµmber is 105 •
w.hat,i s the•,;eJoci1,y ofthejet n_uhc:: nozzle tip? H.ow much·head is k>sl
.thrt>:~gh the ooµ.ie? 'f.o w)lnt r,:,nx:imum height \v~ll. tne jet rise,
)~ L"' 230
cf'
'\:; Slrii\Vli (d "' 3 mm)
D"' 63.5
311°10om'lo,
P8. t52
nc:gli~ting .a ir· fr:iction?
8.1·48 A sharp~edged orifi.ce with cpnvetilionnl pressure <;onnec- 8.153 In some we.stem states. water for mining nnd irrigation was
tio'ns ,iµ'iq -~ - oru_ice: <;oefficient of I(= 0 ,6 is to l:!e -in'stalled in a sold by ll,c "miner's inch." ll,e rate at ,vhid, ,va.ter flows through
30Q~JDJTi~diametci" w'aterline. :For n flow rote of 0.28 m 3 /s, ll1e max- an Qpening in a vertical plank.of I irt.2 are_a, up to 4 in. tall. uncicr
.-iro.imr,lillo~vabl_e •b~d· loss.-i s .7 .6 m. What is the smallest orifi!:e thal a bead of 6 lo 9 in. Develop un equation to predict the flow rate.
in.~A~; ;~eci-t through such an orifice. Specify clearly ll1e aspect ratio of ll1e open-
·s;?1•49·, A -y~tj_tµtj_,m.eter with a 3-in.-diani'eler thro!11 is placed _in a ing. thickness of ll1e plank, and dawm leyel for nieasurenient of head
:6 '\ain.~di~eter :t:me· ·ciiqyfog: ,v_iiter nJ 75°F. The pressure dtop (top, bottom. or middle·of the opening). Show _iliat ll,1e unjl of meas-
bet\~~¢'n.-tll~ upsl:rl!am. wp and the·vertniri throai: is 12 in. of mercury. ure \faries from 38.4 (in Colorado) IQ 50 (in Arizona. Idaho, Neva~n.
~gmp,µ~e u,e..rate of flow. and Utah) in units of miner's inches per rt3 /s. ·
C HAPTER 9
External Incompressible
Viscous Flow
P,~n;;A_ Boundary Layers 9.5 Pressur~ Gr-adien_ts in. Boundary~Layer Flow-
9.-1 The: Boundary-:-Layer Concept P;:irt B Fluid Flow A bout Immersed B'odiits
9_.:z- larn.i nar Flat-Plate ~olind"i:iry Layer: Exact Solution 9~6 Dr-~g
. ('on the Web) .
._9 .7 Lift
.9.f3, .JX':o.m~r:it1,1m_1.ni:eg@IEqµati9,o . ·9 J{ Sumrna'¥ and Usef uFEquatfons,
9-•4 : lJs~'.of the Mgaj¢ri~i,intlntegral Equ~figrjJ d;rfl.QW
·· ·-w,fth..:zero Pre$si,tr;:e-Gradient
Case St udy
T h e Blended Wing- Body Aircraft how engines mounted to the rear and above the body help to
shield the ground from engine noise on takeoff and approach.
Boeing Phantom Works has partnered with NASA and the U.S. _Air It also features tail fins for additional noise shielding and for
Force. Res.e arch Laboratory to study an advanced-concept, fuel-
flight control. . . ..
efficient, blended wing-body. It is called a blended wing-body The big difference between ewe· aircraft and the trad1t1o_n~I
(BWB) because it looks more like a modified triangular- shaped tube-and-wing aircraft, apart from the fact that· the tu.\).e ·. •~-
wing than traditional airqaft, which es~entially consist of a tube a.bsorbed into the wing shap.e, is that it does not have ial tail. Tra -'
and wing with a tail. The concept of a BWB actually goes back to ditional aircraft.need.a tail for-st.ibilit;yand control; the BWB uses
the 1940s, but developments in composite materials and fly-by- a numb~r of different multiple-control surface)> and possibly tail
wire ·controls a.re making it more feasible. Researchers . have fins to control the-vehicle-. .There will be a number ofadvarit_a ~es
tested a 6.3:...m wingspan (!i.5 percent scale) pro·t otype-of the
t~ the BWB iit prow~s feasible. Because th~·entire structure _g:en.,.
x...:·488, a BWB aircraft that could have military and commercial erates lift, less power is needed for takeoff. Studi~s h_ave :also
applications. The next step is for NASA to flight-test a scale-
shQwn that BWB designs can fit into the 80-m (~6.o -ft,)'eriv.el9j:i~
model variant called X-48C. The x .:.4gc will be used to. examine that is the current standard for airplane man·e uy_e r at" .airpqrts.
A BWB could cany up to 1000 people, making such ·a f°u~ure
U.S. product a challenge to Airbus's A380 and future streJched
versions.
Apart from possible fuel savings of up to 30 perc;:enc due ,to
improved streamlining, the interior of a q:>mmercial BWB. air:-
plane wo1,1ld be radically different from that of current airplanes.
Passengers would enter a room like a movie thea_ter rather than a
cramped half-cylinder, there would be no windows (yideo.-screens
would be connected to external cameras instead), and pa_ssengers
would be seated in the large· movie theater-like ro.o m (be~use
seating is not only in the central core but also well oµt into t.he·
blended .wings).
In this chapter we wi_ll study how lift for the BWB is created by
the flow of air over the surfaces. We will al~o learn how aero,-
dynarnic drag on the BWB occurs. Lift.and the dr:ag.bo.th depend·
on the nature of the flow pattern and the shape of the airfoiL
The material in this chapter will give you insight into tt-fe
The j(-48B prototype in the full-scale NASA, tunnel. mechanisms of flow over surfaces.
354 Ch~pter 9 External Incompressible Viscous Flow
External flows are flows over bodies immersed in an unbounded fluid. The flow over a sphere
(Fig. 2.14b) and the flow over a streamlined body (Fig. 2.16) are examples of external flows, which were
discuss~d qualitatively in Chapter 2. More interesting examples are the flow fields around such objects as
airfoils (Fig. 9.1), automobiles . and airplanes. Our objective in this chapter is to quantify the behavior of
viscous, inqompressible fluids in external flow.
Video_: Flow A number of phenomena that occur in external flow over a body are illustrated in the sketch of
around a n viscous flow at high Reynolds number over an airfoil (Fig. 9.1). The freestream flow divides at the
Aiifoi/ stagnation point and flows around the body. Fluid at the surface talces on the velocity of the body as a
----· --·-- result ·o f the no-slip conditi"0n. Boundary layers form on both the upper ;md !oyver surfaces of the
., - - -.-_-.::: 2:, _'l,lqdy. (The boundary-layer thickness on both surfaces in Fig. 9.1 is exa.ggera\ed ,grea.tly for clarity.)
Th_e flow in the boundary layers initially is laminar. Transition to turbulent fi9w occµrs at some dis-
f < - - =---;~~ -~
- -- .
tance fntm the sta.~nation point, depending on freestream conditions, surface roughness, and pressure
- - . -- - - - - $fadient. The tr~nsition points are indicated by 'T' in the figure. The turl;!ulent boundary layer fol-
10· -~: .· ·. lP_Wing .transit:ion grows more rapidly than the laminar layer. A slight dispiaceinent of the streamlines.
'6 .f the e,cternal flow is caused by the thickening bbucidary layers· t:m the sµrfo.~¢- Jn a region of
increasing_. pr~sµre (an adverse pressure gradient~so called because it opp·o ses the fluid motion.
"tending to decelerate i:he fluid particles) flow s~pariltion may occur. Separation points are indicated
by ·"s_" in the figure. Fluid that was i11 the boundary layers on the body surface fonns the viscous
walce °Qehind tl1e separation points. · ·
This ·cb~pter -h,ll> two paqs. Part A is a review of boundary-layer fl·ows. Here we discuss in a little
more detail the ideas introduced in Chapter 2, and the!l apply ¢e flui9 mechanics concepts we have
leanied to analyze the bo1,mdary layer for flow along a flat plate-the simplest possible boundary layer.
pec:ause the pressure field is constant. We will be interested.in s¢eiog how the boundary-layer thickness
grows, what the surface friction wiH be, and so on. We·_will explore a.classic analyt1cal solution for a
laminar boundary layer, ancl see that we need to resort to approximate methods when the boundary layer
is turbulent (and we wiU i.tl::;o be ;ible to use these approxjmate meth_o ds for laminar-boundary layers, to
avoid using the somewhat cliffi_c u!t analytical method). This wili conclude mtr
.introduction· to boundary
layers, except we will briefly discuss the effect of pressure gradients (present for dllt;,ody shapes except
Video: Flow flat plates) on boundary-layer behavior. ··
Scpara,t1<i(I '011 In Pan B we will discuss the force on a .submerged Qo!;iy_,'suc:i) as the airfoil of Fig. 9 .1. We will
'"'· A,iifoJI see that this ·force resul~ frorrr both :Shear-and pressure forces acting c:;m \he l;iody surface•.and that both
of these are profoundly affe_c ted by the fact th11~ we have a· boundary iayer, ,¢sp.e ¢i?l-1Y \\lllen this causes
flow separation and a ,vaice. Traditionally the f<m;e a body experiences is dec0l!lpo_sed, into the compo-
nent parallel co the fl9w, tile drag, and the component perpendic_µlar to the flow; ·the .lift. Because
m<;>st bodies do have a point qf separation and a -walce,it is difficult to µse analysis to determine. the force
compo11en~. so we will present approximate analyses and experimental dat:ffor:variousinter esting body
shapes.
--
u~Uniforni velocity. field upstream
~-_,,..._..;.---- ----,_~s'tr1,e~mlines
~ ---11!1:.___ - - - -- ""
-- ---~I
. . -r - - _-.- ~ ""-
~
--------.a..,. ~
- --- -
-
-v1scQyi,-·wal(l!·-
Stagnahon point/
-
LB_L
.
T
TBL
__S
------
· .- · - .
- -
---
- Ll}L.;,c_p1mlriar boundary i~y_er-
TBJ.,~ Turb.ulimt pquiiiJciiy":lay~r
. T- Transition_ .. .
S- Sepafi!lion pom_t
Fig. 9.1 Details of viscous flow around an airfoil.

9 .., . The.. Boundary--layer Concept -355
Part A BOUNDARY LAYERS

9.1 The Boundary-Lay er Concept
Th.~ concept of a boundary layer was first introduced by Ludwig Prandtl [I], a Ger'li)an aero<!ynamicist.
iil 1904.
Pri9r to Prandtl's historic breakthrough, the science of fluid mechan.ics had been.developing-in•two
rather different djrections_, Theoretical hydrodyr,p_nri£s evolved. frprn_ ~uler's equatjon of_motion fo~ a
nonviscous fluid (Eq. 6.1, publisheff by Leonhard Euler in I 755). Sirice the results_,of hyqrodynarrucs
c.o~tradicted many experimental observations (especially, as we saw in Chapter- 6, that under th~ass1;1mp-
,tjon ofJ.tjvisfid flow no bodies experi~nce drag!), practicing engineers developed their.•own empirical3in
of liydtaulics. This was based on experimental data and differed significantly from me pu.rc;ly mathe:..
nw.tic.al approach of theoretical hydrodynamics. _.
A:lthmigh the complete equations describing the·motion ofa viscous fluid"(the Navier...Stokes..equa-
tfoi'ls; Eqs. 526; developed by Navier, 1827, an'd iridep¢ndently by Stokes, 1845) were known ptio.t to
.Pi'andtl, the mathematkalclifficli lties in solving thes¢· equations (except fora few simple c~es) prohib~
[t~d atheoretic;µ treatment of viscous-flows. Prandtl showed·[l] that many viscous flows.can beami.lyzed
l>Y ·dividing the flow into two regions, one close ~o solid bouiidaries, the-other coveri.J:ig the 'rest of die
tfow. ·only in the thin region adjacent to a·solid boundary (tfie·boundary iayer) .is tbe ·effecrof viscosity
itj.ipocti/,_ilt. In the re~ion outside of the boundary layer, the effect of viscosity is negHgible and the fluid
niay b~ treated as invisc:id.
The boundaryc.Jayer- concept provided the link: that had been missing between tbeoi:y and practice
((or one thing, ·it introdtic~d the theoretical possibility of drag!). Furthermore, tbe· boundaiy-]ayer con-
cept··pemutted the solution of·visc9us flow problems that would have l:ieen 4Dpossible. through appli~
1
cation of the Navier-Stokes· equations ~9 ¢e complete fiow field. Thus tije inu-oq.uction of tbe
~Qi.1.ri/:lary--layer concept rparked the begjnning. of th~ ·m odem era of fluid mech?IDcS.
'The deyelopment of a 1:icitiqdi'jcy layer pn a :solid·surface·was c;lisc::ussed in s:ecnon 2.6~In th,e QQlµld-
ary layer bcith viscous and 'inertia forces are in'lpor'tant. Cortseque11tly, it is rn;>t surprising-that gie R~y-
110\ds ·number (which rep~ents the..ratio qf ii')ertia to' v_iscous 'forces) is sighijican~ in cbaracte~g
b•un4acy :.:1 iiyer flows. The chaiµcteristlc fongth us~d in th¢ Reynolds nllhlber is eitl'!eir the length in
the··o o.wdirection ciyer which the bQuii<Jw:y !ayer bas developecl or some measure ciftbe·:b,6updary,:,fay er
tbickriess. · ·
· ···· :· ·A .fjs u;µe for flo\vin:lldµ~t, flow in a boundafy 1a,yermay be laminar oi:: tµip~ent 'there is no uniqµe Video: Effect nf
·value 'd f R,eynQlds number ·ac whidl transition·fro.rrdru:i:liniµ, 'to turbµlerit flow occiu's in a· boundary layer. \liscosil)• 011
Among the factors that affect boti.ridary-liiyer transition ate pressure gradient; S\1rfac~ roughness. heat Boundary Lay er
Growtl,
~~fer, body·fotces, and J;rees1;ream distilrbanc~s. Detailed consideration of these effects is beyond
tfte,scope of this book,
fifma.nfre.aI·flow siruations, a houn_d ary. layer'develops over a long, essentially -flat surface. Exam-
pl.~ ,.-i.r).clude·.t1chv civet ship and submarine hulls, aircraft wings, and·annospberic motions over fl~t ter~
•n,u.il. Sin9e_the basic fea~s of all d1ese flows 8fC illu~trated in tbe simple£' case of flow over a flat pl~te,_
we .c t;,psider this.first. The s4µpli~ity of the flow over- i).n infinite flat pl~te is that the velc:icity U outside
t11eboundacy layer is constant, and therefore, because this·region is steady, inviscid, and i.r).comp~sible,.
_$e pressure ;,.vill also be _qonstanL This constant pressure is tbe pressure fel~ J:>y .the boundary layer- .-
.o!,y.ie>µsly ti.le simplest p~_ sure field possible. This is a zero pressure gtadie11tflow. ·
A qiJ,tlitative picture of the b1;mndary~layer growth over a flat plate is shown io,Hg. 9.2. The bo.unc.1-
acy fayer _is Jamjnarfora short distance q.ownstreacn from the· leacljµg edge; trnl!sir;ign occurs iivtr a
~iion .o f:the pfait¢ rather than ·at a Single line across the plate. The transition regii:>n.ex,tc;_o ds.. down:screaw
·t6 ·r11e-tpcation where tlie Q«;>_unoacy~layer flo\v becomes: completely turbajent. ·
For' )JJ!;;Ompressiple flow 9.ver a smood\ flat pJa~e (zero p~s.u re ,gramen~). in..the ~bsence of beat·
.mms(~i:.J fllJ)Sition from htininar to turbulent- flow in the b.ounditj l~yer can; be.d.elaye!:Lt~ _a;, Reyno!~
rrn.wbet, Jjex-=P.l/-"!:/µ, greater than one milJiqn if external disturbaQ:ces are minµnjz.ed •.._(Tii~ i¢4.gih-.:r is
356 Chapter 9 External Incompressible Viscous Flow
u u
--- ----
u
:
1
.,,,--
--
--- ---
..,1,'
------
I
I
-- I
I
1--- Lami:, ----'--------Tu

Trans1lio~
rbulent - - - - - - -
Fig. 9.2 Boundary layer on a nae plate (vertlqil thickness exaggerated greatly).
mea_s,.ued from the leading edge.) For calculation purposes, under typical flow conditiom,, tra11sition usu-
ally is c;ons~dered LQ occur al a lenglh Reynolds nuD1ber of 500,000. For air at standard conditions. with
freestreain velocity U =30 m/s, this corresponds tox ~ 0.24 m. In thequalitalivepictute of Fig. 9.2, we
.have shown the turbulent boundary layer growing faster than the laminar layer. In later sections of this
ch_a pter we shall show that th.i_s is indeed true.
The boundary layer is the region adjacent to a solid surface in which viscous s~sses are presenL, as
opposed to the free s_tre,am where viscous srres_ses ;ire negligible. These su:esses are present because we
have shearing-of the fluid layers, i.e .• a velocity gradient. in the boundary layer. As _indicated in Fig. 9.2,
botJl l.m,inar and turbulent layers have such gradients, but Lhe diffi<;:ul_Ly. is that _the gradients only asymp-
totically approach zero as we reach the edge ofU1e boundary layer. Hence, the location of the edge, i.e.,
of the boundary-layer:- thickness, is not very obvious-we cannot simply define it as where the boundary-
layer velocity u equals the freestream velocity U. I3ecause of this, several bcmndary-.layer definitions
have been developed-: the disturbance thickness o, the displacement Uiickness o·, and the momentum
thickness 0. (Each of these increa.!\es as we move down the plate; in a mariner we have yet to detemune.)
The most siniightforward definition is the disturbance toickness; 8. This is usually defined as the
distance from Lhe surface a_t which the ·v elocity is within l percent of the free stream, u ~ 0 .99U (as
shown in Fig. 9.3b). The_oth·<;:r two definitions are based on th~ notion that the boundary layer retards
the fluid, so that the mass flux and_mo!Tlentumfiux are both less than they woulc! J?e in !.be absence of the
bourtdary layer. We imagine that the tlow remains at unifom1 velocity U, but Uie surface of tile plate .is
moved upwards to ~du_c e either the mass or momentu_m flux by. the sll.rne amount that the boundary layer
acl:Ually does. The displqcement thickness, o·, is the distance the pill.Le wou_ld be moved so that the loss of
mass flux_.(due to reduction in 1,miform flow area) is equivalent to the loss the boundary 111-yer causes. The
rtiass flux if we ha_d no boundary layer would_ be .f»"" pU dy IV, where IV is the width of the plate perpe~-
dicular to the flow. The actual flow mass flux 1s Jo p11 dy IV. Hence, tile loss due to the boundary layer 1s
Jo°" p(U-u).dy w. If we imll.gine keeping the velocity at a cons_tant U, and instead move the plate up a
distance 0 • (as shown in F\g. 9.3a), the loss of mass flux would be pUli'w. Setting these losses equal to
one another gives
pUo"w= 1"" p([J-11)µ.yw
For incompressible flow, p = constant. and
(9.1)
=
Since 11 ~ u at y 0 , the integrand is essentially zero for.)'~ o. Application of the displacemer:it-thick ness
concept is illustrated in Example_9.l. _ _ _
The momentttm rhic:lazess. 0, 1s the distance the plate would be.moved so that the loss of momentum
fl~. 1·s eqw· valenl Lo the loss the boundary layer actually •causes.
~
The-momentum flux if we had no bound-
. -· layer would be Jo"" pu Udy w (the actual m;iss flux 1s Jo p11 dy iv, and U1e momentum per unit mass
~ of the uniform flow is U itself). The actu~ momen~m 12,ux of the !>oundary laY,er is foco
pu2 dy w.
Hence, the l.oss of momentum in the boundary layer 1s fo p11(U-11)dyw. If we imagine keeping
9.1 The. Boundary-Layer Concept 357
u u u
u 0 .99 U u
u
ti· (in
momentum -f,
fiux> l0
<.~> Oi!iR!i:l~ement _ttuckness, 6* (b) Disturbance thickness, ·o Cc) Momentum thi_c kn·e ss. O
F-ig; 9,3. fiqundary-layer thickness definlt_ions.
the ·velocity.at a construt_t u~ ai:i(lj!)stead move the plate up a q.istanc~ 0 (ii$ ~hown iii Fi$"•. 93q)~ theJos.s
of.mqo,entui:n flux. would be .f:pUU dy w =pU2 1b;~ Setting· these losses equal to· orje.another gj,ye,s ··
pU 0 =
2
1 00
pu( CJ -11) dy
,6:. . = , L:.· oo -it.-·(1·- ;_,ii.)··•dy:~.1····1\u

~f·. .
1··:· ·.Lf_
::- )
.··.·•
dy
. - :Jt ·[!.·· ·.· 7! · . ·_-. ii lP\- TI '".
Again, the integrand is esserlti!!lly zero for y ~ ii.

· Th¢ displac~ment and momentum thickoes·ses; $~ and e, are iriregral rhi,cknesses, because their defi-
nitions, Eqs. 9.1 and,9..2, are in terms Qf integnils across the boundary layer'. Because they are defined in
term,s· of i.Qtegrals for which the integrand vanishes in the freestream, ·they are appreciaply easier to evah-
riate accurately J;rom expefurten,tal d~ta than the b:ouridary-:laye·r disturbance thido1es~, q, ~ fact,
coupled with. their physj~al significanc~. accounts for their colTIJQ~>n use in specifying boulidaiy-fa.yer
thi~kness.
·We hav_e seen that th~ velocity profile in·the boun~ary layer merges into the1b¢al freesaeam:velociey
asymptopca.lly. Little error is introdµ_c ed if the slight diffe~nce between velocitj~ a:r_the edge of the.
1:>oimdary layer is ignored (or an approJC.ima,te a,nalysis. Simplifying,assumptions usuil.lly made for engi~
~eeri.J1g analyses of bqtiridary-:layer development _ are: .
1 u...,.. U .aty=.lJ.
2 {)~1/iJy-+ o at y= ~
3 v-<<·U witlJin the bounc;Iacy layer
:'.Resi.llt/;;9fJij~iJDajys es·devefope9:_in· ili~ nexL cwo·section.s show that the boundary layer is very thin
.p:9µ,:ip~ci witl'i'its' dev~\op111ent len:gth ·a"iqng the surface. Therefore it is also reasonable to assum:e:
4- Pres.si.µe-Vriri.i,ition acres~ tl1e thin boµodary layer is negligibie. The ~es~am pressure distribution is
h~1pf.~~se'i { on. th¢ boundary: iay~r. ·
358 Chapter 9 External Incompre ssible Viscous Flow
Giv¢n: Flew of standiµ-~ ;µr m -labora~ory

wind t:uIJ.P~l. Test section is L = 305 m:m u u L- 2t5"
sq:unre. pispl~ceri l.e!lt thicknesse s ru:e ~-= . I I
1;5 mm and o:; = Z..l niTTl. Freestream spe¢d
is v, ==2fi:rn/;, ·
.·F in•d :. Ch$.ge• in -static pressui¢ between
·
p .·
J.;
_L_
!
)
I
1l\;-1
L-21,·
-
- ---- !
s~tiens df apd(i)'. @.iq:i~s ai., a fraction of
IM
~ < -
... J•
.. -
I,______
.l 1 _l
free§q:e~ cly:namic·p ressµre M se¢tion (D.)
{al Actual velocity profile t (bl _Hypothetical velocity profile (c) Cro_ss section of
wind tunnel
.S.o lutioit: The We~ tiere is that at each
lecliti.00 the hci:un<!i!n'-l°ayer dis~facem ent
'.t lli~~s ,effe:cti:vel;y ~dU~!':S the ~a oftiil.ifcirm .flow, as indicated in the foiiowiil~( fi~res: Loc11,tion_(2) h~ a smaller effective
fl.ow--.~ thi,tq lr::i~~tion (D-(b;;:cnti;;e i51 ~ 8j), Hence, {roq'i: mas.s·conservatiq n the uniform velocity at io¢atiorf (2) wiil be higher.
Fmil¥Y; fr.Qin t;h~)il~m{;lUUi equatil:ln . the pressure at loc:ation (2) will \:>e lower th~, that at .location, (D.
)\ppiy the coi:iti.~ujfy. a,nd)3erno ulH eqqations to freestream flow ·o'QJSig~ ~e..
p,ol.i11r;lru:y-layer displ!!cement thickness, where
vi$_~·qus ¢ffects are negligipl~ . ·
Gov.er.ninJj equ<Jtfon s:
=0(1).
0
1 r_ pd¥+ _r pV•ciA=o (4.12)
7Ji lcv- l(;s
~
P., + 4 +g
-~ v.2
· ,{ =P- + i +g· <
(J 2 ,., p 2 · · 1-'1· (4.24)
,A~sqmptions:
1 ·-st~ad:y flow.
2· ip'cpi;iiptessibie.ffow. .
e~
3 Flow unif,oi:m a.t. each s_e ction oti~ig_
4 -F.i.Q:w along_a st£¢~¢ h¢tw:e:en, sections Q)>ajld (2).
-s N ((friqti9n ai effects~ -~ tieam.
i;. Nc;gU_gH>.le ti}e~;,ition chang~',
From the B~ti>-<.>:ull..i eej!J;,uion we obtain
2
p,-pi=½ p(Vf-vn ::;;.½ p(U]-uf ) =½p~t{(b:) -1]
F.rem ,<e0ntn1uity, V 1A 1 =U1A.1 = VtA.2 ;=;= U2A2, so . lhJU1 =Ai/I.~. where

A-.:_ (L-2~)7, is the effective flow area. Substitutin g ~,ves
p,1-
. f; =(·A
.1_)2 -t=·[(L...,Uj):]2-1
½. pfflr · ·Ai . (~~ '.U;)
P:/.: J; == [:6~0-=I~!:i~r- 1 =o:oI 61- or

:!' ,,., .-n.. ~--· . .
9.3 Momentum Integral Equation 359
9.2 Laminar Flat-Plate Boundary Layer: Exact Solution

(on the Web)
9.3 Momentum Integral Equation
Blasius' exact solution, discussed in Section 9.2 (on the web), analyzed a laminar boundary layer on a
flat plate. Even this simplest case (i.e., constant freestream velocity U and pressure p, laminar flow)
involved a rather subtle mathematical transfonnation of two differential equations. The solution was
based on the insight that the laminar boundary-layer velocity profile is self-simj)ar--only its scale
changes as we move along the plate. Numerical integration was necessary to obtain results for the boµnd-
ary-layer thickness o(x). velocity profile 11/U versus y/o, and wall shear stress ,..,(x).
We would like to obtain a method for analyzing the general case--that is, for laminar and turbulent
boundary layers, for which the freestream velocity U(x) and pressure p(x) are known functions of posi-
tion along the surfacex, such as on the curved surface ofan airfoil or on the flat but divergent surfaces of
a flow diffuser. The approach is one in which we will again apply the basic equations to a control vol-
µme. The derivation. from the mass coris~rvation (or continuity) equation and the momentum equation,
will take several pages.
Consider incompressible. steady, two-dimensional flow over a solid surface. The boundary-layer
thickness, o, grows in some manner with increasing distance, x . For our analysis we choose a differential
control volume, of length dx, width w, and height o(x), as shown in Fig. 9.4. The freestream velocity
is V(x) .
We wish to determine the boundary-layer thickness. o. as a function of x. There will be mass
flow across surfaces ab and ed of differential control volume abed. What about surface be? Surface
be is not a streamline (see Example W9.l, on the web); it is the imaginary boundary that separates
the viscous boundary layer and the inviscid freestream flow. Thus there wili be mass flow across
surface be. Since control surface ad is adjacent to a solid boundary, there will not be flow across ad.
Before considering the forces acting on the ·c ontrol volume and the momentum fluxes through the control
surfm;:e, let us apply the continuity equation to determine the mass flux through each. portion of the
control surface.
a. Continuity Equation
Basic equation:
=0(1)
(4.12)
a/ f pd¥+ f p V •dA=O
ftr Jcv Jes
Assumptions:
Steady flow.
2 Two-dimensional flow.
U(.d - b_-.::-_,.._,...=-.Jf-------1-
--,,,- I
.,,.~- I I
I I
)'
Lx
·cv-· - :
I
•at
:
I
J,1
I
,f(x)
Fig. 9-4 Differential control.volume hi a

1-dc-l boundary layer. ·
360 Chapter 9 External Incompressible Viscous Flovv
Hence
or
Now let us evaluate these terms for the differential control volume of width w:
Surface Mass Flux

ab. Surface ab is located aL'c Since the flow is two-dimensional (no variation with z), the mass flux through
ab is
-{L pudy}w
6
11100 ==
cd Surface cd is located at x+dx. Expanding the 1i1 in a Taylor series about location x. we obtain
a,n]
ffl.r+d•=ri,x+-a. dx
.t ;r
and hence
1i1,J ={ ks pu dy + :.\' [L 6
pu dy] cl\'} w
be Thus for surface be we obtain. from the continuity equation and the above results,
{Note that the velocity u and boundary-layer thickness t;, both depend on x .)
Now let us.consider l,he momentum fluxes and forces associated with control volume abed. These
are related by the momentum equation.
b. Momentum Equation
Apply the x component of the momentum equation to control volume abed:
Basic equation:
=0(3) =0(1)
Fs, +?,=$k.v 11pd¥-+ k/P V•dA (4.18a)
Assumptions:
Then
Fs, = tnf.,li + mfbc + mfcJ
where mf represents the x component of momentum flux.
To apply this equation to differential control volume abed, we mµst obtain expressions for the
x momentum flux through the comrol surface and also the surface forces acting on the control volun1e
in the x direction. Let us consider the momentum flux first and again !=Ortsider each segment of the
control surface.
9.3 Momentum Integral Equation 361
S1,!rface Momentum Flux (mf)

ab Surface ab is located at x. Since the flow is two-dimensional, the x momentum flux through ab is
mf0 1, = -{1° II p11 dy }w

cd Surface cd is located atx+d.\'. E.,cpanding thex momentum flux (mf) in a Taylor series about location
x, we obtain
umg
mf.,+dx=mf.,+-;-
u:c
dx
.x
or
mfcJ ={1 6
11 pu dy + :.y; [1 6
u p11 dy] d.r:} w
be Since the mass crossing surface be has velocity componenl U in _the_x directio11, th.ex momentum flux
across be is given by
mfbc = Um1,c
-u{:.1: [l p11dy]c1.r:}w
1
mfbc=
From the above we can evaluate the net x momentum flux through the control surface as
-{fo 11pudy}w+ {1
0 6
[ 11 pV -dA. = upu dy}w
5
Collecting tenns, we find that
Now that we have a suitable expression for the x momentum flux through the concrol surface, lee us
consic.Jer the surface forces act_ing on the control volume in the x direction. (For convenience the differ~
ential control volume has been redrawn in Fig. 9.5.) Note that surfaces ab, be, and c d all experience
--
----,--,
C
Idil
normal forces (i.e., pressure) that generate force in the x direction. In addition, a shear force acts on sur-
face ad. "Since, by definition of the boundary layer, the velocity gradient goes to zero at the edge of the b:_-j I I
boundary layer, the shear force ~cting along surface be is negligible. · I I
l ,;l :
Surface Force aL- _______Jd
ab If the pressure 111 xis p, then the force acting on surface ab is given by l-,fr--l
Fig. 9.5 Differential
Fab=pwo <;oncrol volume.
[11ie boundary layer is very thin; its thickness has been greatly exaggerated in all the sketches we have
mude. Because it is thin, pressure vruiations in the Y direction may: be neglected, and we nssume that
within the boundary layer, p=p(x) only.
cd Expanding in a Taylor series, the pressure at x+dx is given by
dp]
Pi+J.r = p + d1: di:
.,
(Continuecl)
362 Chapt er 9 Extern al Incom pressi ble Viscou s FloiN
(Conrin ued)
Surface Force
Th~ force on surface cd is then given by
FcJ= - G+:Ldx)w(o+do)
be The average pressure acting over surface be is
I
p+-- dp] dx
2dx.,
Then the x compon ent of the nonnal force acting over be;: is given by
Foc~ G+½tLcl~)w4o
ad Th~ avel1!,ge shear·fo rce acting -on ad is given by
Fi1=-(-r..-+½d,. -)wdx
0
Summ ing these x compo nents, we obtain the total force acting in the x directio n on the contro l
volum e,
Fs
'
= { - -dx . 2 dx
t
'"
~o
dp8 dx-~I ~dp dx'do- T dx--1 d .dx
2 ·" ·
~o
tJ. ..} w
where we note that dx do<< odx ii,nd d-..., << -...,, and so neglect the second and fourth terms.
Substir uting the express ions, fqr fcs11 pV · dA andFs. into Otex momen tum equatio n (Eq. 4.18a) , we
obtain
Dividi ng ~s equatio n by w dx gives
-o.,..--
dx
a
dp ,-T.., =-
axo
15 - - a 15 --
1t_p1rdy ~U-
. . axo
pudy (9.16)
Equati on 9 .1-6 is p: " mom¢n rum integra l" equatio n th?-t giv~ a relation betwee n the ,t: compo nents of th~
forces acting in a bounda ry layer .and the x momen tum flµX.
Tbepre ssure gradien t. dp/d.x , c;in. be determ i_n ed by applyi!ig _~e-~em o.ulli ~uatio n to the invisc id
now outside the bounda ry layer. dp/rb;. = -pU dU/dx. Uwe recogmz~ that 8,;:, Jody, tbenE q. 9 . 16 can
be written as
a1
5 a1
5 5
T..,= _ _;_
ax 0
ttpudy + u.-a :xo
du
pttdy+ -·-
1
dx 0
pU dy
Sitrc.e
-a.
U-_
oxo1
5
!A'.o
15
pu:dy= iJ.a_ p11 Udy~ du
dx
.
o
pudy
1
5
iJ [ 5 dU [ 5
-.,..= iJx}o pu(U-u ).~y+ d.x } p(U-u )~j
0
9.4 .Use of the Momentum Integral Equation for Flow with Zero Pressure Gradient 363
and
11
rw=~U2 f6p!!..(1-!!..)dy+U dU {" p(I-U)dy
o,t } 0 u U dx lo
Using the definitions·of displacement thickness, 0 • (Eq. 9.1), and momentum thickness, 0 (Eq. 9 .2), we
optain
-.v = dx
·ip: ii(.-.· 2 .) · _ ·ou4U
Uf) + . . dx
(9.f7.)
E;:quation 9.17 is the mome111u11i integral equati,;m. This eql_lation will yield an ordinal)'._differential
equation for boundary-layer thickness oas a function of x. Where does o appear in Eq. 9.17? It. appears
in the upper limits of the integrals that define 0 • and 0! All we need to do is provide a suitable expression
for the velocity profile 11/ U and somehow relate the wall stress -.... to other variables-not necessarily
easy tasks! Once the boundary~l~yer thickness is determin¢d, expressions for the momentum thiclcrtess,
displa<;ement thickness, and ~vall shear stress can then be obtained.
Equation 9.17 was obtained by applying the-basic eq.u ations (continuity anC,. x momentum) to a dif-
ferential contr(?l volume. Reviewing the.assuµ1ptipns wt;made in the derivation, we s.e ~ that i:p_e-equation
is ~t;ricted to steady, incoII1pressible, two-dimensioqal f.low with 110 pody forces parallel to the surface.
·We h~ve not made any specific assumption relating the wall spear Stre$S, Tw, to the velocity field.
Thus Eq. 9.17 is valid for either a laminar o~ turbulent boundary-layer flow. In order to use this equation
to estimate the boundary-layer thickness as a_function of x, we must first:
Obtain a first approximation to the freest.ream velocity distribution, U(x). This is detemtlned from
inviscid flow theory (the velocity that woul_d exist in the absence of a boundary layer) and depends
on body shape. ·
2 Assume a reascmable velocity-pro.file sh~pe inside the boundary layer.
:3 Derive an expression f<>r i:w using the ~ults obtained from item 2.
To illustrate the application 9f Eq. 9.17 to bounqacy-Jayer flows, we consider first the· case of flow
with zero pressure gradient over a fiat p_late (.Section 9.4,), The results we obtain for a lan:µnar boundary
layer q:m. then be compared to the exact Blasius results. The effects of p~sure gradients in boundary-
Ia:y~r fl<;>w are ttien discuss_e d· in S~ction 9.5.
9 .:4 (Jse of the Momentum Integral Equation for Flow

with Zero Pressure Gradient ·
For the special case ofa flat plate (zerQ pressure _g radieiu) the freestream pressurep and velocity u are
b6th constant, so for item 1 we have U (x) = ·-U = conStariL ·
· · The. mom-en.cum integral equati•o n then reduces to
Tw =pU
2
:i =;.pU
2
;1"; ( 1- ; ) <ly (9.18)
Tll~ velocity disttib_ution; 1i/U, in the boundary ·layer fa assumed to. be similar for aU values of x -and
noti:Qally is specified as a fimction 6f y/o. (~ote that 11/ U is dimensionless and o-is a fun~ti.on of x only.)
C<:,nseguently, it is convenient to change the variable of integration from y toy/S. Defining · ·
,, =~0
we get
dy=.od11
364 Chapter 9 External lrit:ompre ssible Viscous Flow
and the momentum integral equation for zero pressure gradient is written
? de r1
-, do
-r:..,=pU~ dx =pU- dx}o U
II ( II)
I - U d17 (9.19)
We wish to solve this equation for the boundary-l ayer thickness as a function of x. To do this. we
must satisfy the remaining items:
2 Assume a velocity distributio n in the boundary layer-a functional relationshi p of the form
;=t(~)
(a) The assumed velocity distributio n should satisfy the following approxima te physical boundary
conditions :
aty=0, 11=.b
l).ty=-0, u=..U
aty=o, ()11 =~
i)y
(b) Note that once we have assumed a velocity disnibution , fu;im the definition of the momentu m
thickness (Eq. 9.2), th·e pumerical value of the integral in Eq. 9.19 is simply
fo' ~ (1- ;)d,1= ~ =constant=/}

apd the momentum integra1 eqµation becomes
do
2
-r..,=pU - /J
d.x
3 Obtain an expression for -r:,. in terms of o. This will then pennit us to solve for c5(x), as illus-
trated below.
Lamina r Flow
For laminar flow over a flat plate. a reasonable assumption for the velocity profile-is a.polynom ial in y:
11=a+by +cy-
Tbe physical boundary coµditions ··are:
aty=0, 11=0
aty= c5, U·= U
a:ty=c5; i}u = -0
ay
Evaluatin g constants a, b, and c gives
~ =i(i)-(~)2 =2,,-,;2 (9.20)
Equation 9.20 s*tisfiei; item 2. For item 3, we recall that the-wall shear stress is given by
-t-.,-=.µ<)11)
i)y y=O
Substitl.lti n~ the assumed velocity profile, Eq. 9.20, into this expression for '"' gives
-rw=µau] =µUiJ(u/U)] =11Ud(11/U)]

· iJ,>• r=o §o(y/o) · ,-/6=0 °
d11 - ,,=o
9.4 Use of the Momentum Integral Equation for Flow with Zero Pressure· Gradient 36'5
,,u
cl
r,..=--(2,,-r,2)
]
= JlU (2-2'1)
] 2µU
=- -
0 c1,, ,,,,,,o 8 •1=0
0
Note that this shows that the wall su-ess r , is a function ofx, since the boundary-layer thickness o=li(x).
Now that we have completed items 1, i'.
and 3 , we can return to the momentum integral equation·
?dol' u (
r,.. =pU- dx o U 1 - U c1,,
11) (9.19)
Substituting for r,.. and u/U, we obtain
2,,u
- = p U2 -
15
do1• dx o
?
(2'1-'1-)(1-2'1+'1-?) dq
- = -do1•
or
2,,u
- (2q-5172 +4113 _,,4) c1,,
lipU2 dr: 0
Integrating and substi~ting limits yields

2µ 2 do 15µ
or odo=-dx
lipU = 15 dx pU
which is a differential equation for Ii. Integrating again gives
li2 15
-:,-= · uµx+c
- p
Ifwe assume thatli=0 atx=0, then c=O, and thus.
. vpU
Ii=~
Note that this shows that the laminar boundary-layer thickness Ii grows as v'x-, it has a parabolic shape.
Traditionally this is expressed in dimensioniess fortn:
Videq: Examples
(9.2T) of BmmdtzT)'
Lay er Gro ,.·tli
J;qua4on 9 .21 shows that the ratio of laminar bol,lndary:-'l ayer thickness to distance along.a flat plate
'. -
r?:~-:~_:-:r :T :. . ·,•.
varies inversely with the square root oflength Reynolds number. It has the same form as the exact solu.- I =..,.....,,..~...;r.....-::..
tioa derived from the complete differential equations of motion by H. Blasius in 1908. Remarkably, ~ ::-:--:1,::: :
lP~~~-~;;:-:::~:/'j
• 1£J _---f- . • : A
Eq. 9.21 is only in error (the constant is too large) by about 10 percent compared with the exact solution
(Section 9.2 on the web). Table 9.2 summarizes corresponding results calculated using other approxi- 0
mate velocity profiles and.lists results obtained from the ex.act solution. The only thing that changes in
~e aniµysis when we choose a different velocity profile is the value of p in •iv=
pU2 (do/dx)fJ. The
shapes of the approximate profiles may be c·o mpared readily by plotting u/U versus y/l>.
On<;e w.e know the boundary-layer thickness, all c;ie(ails of the, flow may b~ d,etc;:rq:uaed. The wall
:,pear stress, or "skin friction," coefficient is defined as
Subs.cicµting from the velocity profile and Eq. 9.21 gives
c = -.,.. _ 211(U/o) _ .4µ _ 4 JL x= ~ ,./Re;

4
f ½ptP ½plP pUo pUxo R,e.~ 5.48
Table 9.2
Results of the Calculation of Laminar Boundary-Layer Flow over a Flat Plate at Zero Incidence Based on Approximate
Velocity Profiles
/j a
Velocity Disaiburion U
ll =f C')
6 =f(11)
0
P=-/j
/j"
H-=-
/j" Constant a in -
x
= ,/Re;
Re:r
Constant b in cf= _b_
.JRe;.
{j 0
f(17) =I/ I 3.00 346 0.577
6 2
f(,1) =2,,-,l 2 I 2.50 5.48 0.730
15 3
3 1 39 3 2.69 4 .64 0.647
f(q) = 2 ,,_ 2 ,, 3
280 8
f<,,) = 2,,-2.Ir + ,,4 37 3 255 5.84 0.685
315 10
4-Jt Jt-2 2.66 4.80
f(q) = sin (~'1) 2Jt It
0 .654
Exact 0 . 133 0.344 2.59 5.00 0.664
Finally,
0.730
c- ·
1-..J&; (9.2~)
Once the variation of •w

is known, the viscous drag on the surface can be evaluated by integrating over
the area of the flat plate, as illustrated in Example 9.2.
Equation 9.21 can be used to calculate the thickness of the laminar boundary layer at transition. Al
Re.,= 5 x l 0 5 , with U = 30 m/s, for example, x= 0.24 m for air at s_tandard conditions. Thus
o 5.48 5.48
-= rir=-= ~=0.00775
X vnex v5 X 10·
and the boundary-layer thickness is
8=0.00775x=0.00775(0.24 m) = 1.86 mm
The boundary-layer thickness at transition is less than I percent of the development length, x . These
calculations confirm that v iscous effects are confined to a very thin layer near the surface of a body.
The results in Table 9.2 indicate that reasonable results may be obtained with a variety of approx-
imate velocity profiles.
· 6J(~_ntfi l~ :9 ,.2 LAMINAR ~0-~"N,OARY LAYER ON A- FLAT P.LAT6.: APPROXIMATE SOLUTION USING
1s11:~04sn10AL VELOCITY P1:tQF1 tE
c;~~@::t <two-'Qimenstonal laminar boundary-layer flow along a flat plate, Astu.m e,the velocity profile in the boundary layer is·
sin:.qs¢i,paj.·
1_,: •· (:n:y_
· ·)
f.I =sm 1'6
'p,i#q.(}xp~sions ,for:
(a) T.be: rat¢- of grow.th of 5 M a-fuIJctfon of x .
.(b) 'f.h¢ (l_i~plac~([).ente thickness; 6
as a function of~, . . .
• ,
:(~) ;I$e Jqtal fri~t;iqn J orce on a plate of length L and w1dJh b ..

9.4 Use of the Momentum Integral Equation for Flow with Zero Pressure Gradient 367
~iveri: Two'-dimensionaJ, laminar boundru:y-layer flow along a flat plate. The boundary-layer I --,---·
velocity profile is
'i.--,------ 'r'
and
~=l for y>o
u
Finc:f_: (a) o(x).
(b) lJ.
(c) Total friction force on a plate of length L .and w'idt_h b.
s,fiutfon: For flatplate flow, V= <;onsfant, dp/dx:;= o, a11cl
,;-d0
-r,.. ==?PU"'· d,~. ~pu- dxJo
., do f I
II (
tJ I -
u)
CJ d17
(9.19)
As$um~tions;
i Steady flow .
2 Tocompress ible flow.
Substituting t= sjn;11 into Eq. 9. l9, we obtain
:Z:w ;= pU/ .r..·

f°-.
1
sin~ 17
ib:::Jo. · z _
(1-sin~11)
.
2 _· · ·
···. {
drr= pU .do
dx}0
2
1
(sih ~,,- sin~~
.
· 2 2
11)_d,;
1
. iil
~ rl f .
·
·t[ n; -1· 1t· 1. . . .. ]. . • ,, do 1 [·. . .1 --,'-+0+0=0
·;c . ·]
:,;:::;pu-·~ . ·- •·-
· dx ft .c•·os-,7:-a.,,...-17+-sm.
2 2:2 · 4 · · · .,,, .. · . .~dx.- · .0· .+-
,.n ,=pU- 4 .
<;, 'eQ.J'37J>~ : -PP tf. '.:; P ~0,137 ° •
Therefore,
-,rp.V ._., dli
-r,..:;=- .?j
'"'u
=0.l37pU-·-
. •. . d.--c
Sepat~tfng variables ;giv~

odli= 11;sLt1x
pU
i:ntegratin&, we obtain
52 . µ.
-? = 11.5-
._-. x + c
- p&·
·-
:· M;
o= . _xµ
23.0-.-..
. p-U
ot
~ =4,80 fZ_µ_
·_ = 4 :80 6(~)
x · · VpUx ,/Ri;+---------- ~-...,......--~ -~-~-'--- - -~-'-"--- - __::~
368 Chapt er 9 Extern al Incom pressi ble Viscou s Flow
Toe displac ement thickne ss, o, is given by
0 = /j 1 d)
I ( 1- d17
=l> 1• ( l-sin; ,,)d,7 =0[1+ ~cosi, ,]:
o =0[1 -0+0 -;] =0(1- ~)

Since, from part (a),
l> 4.80
~=../R e;
then
o· = ( I -
~ 2) ,/Re
~ 4.80 ;=~,
I .74-. o·...:_::_
- ___ ___ ___ ___ __ ___ ___ ___ ___ (x)
Toe total •ftjcti.oil force Qn one side of 1.he plate is given by
F=1-r.,.dA
$.irlce dA, = b dx and 0 5= .,: 5= L, then
"'"
Turb ulent Flow

For the flat plate, we still have for item 1 that U =const ant.As for the lan-unar bounda ry layer, we need to
satisfy item 2 (an approx imation for the turbule nt velocity profile) and item 3 (an expres sion for ,,..) in
order to solve Eq. 9.19 for I>(.~):
-r =pU-_ :_
"'·(lx
.,do1 11 (
0
1
-
U
1 -11)
- d11
U {9 . 19}
Details of the turbule nt velocit y profile for bounda ry layers at zero pressur e gradien t are very simila r to
those for turbule nt flow in pipes and channe ls. Data for turbule nt bounda ry layers plot on the unive rsal
velocit y profile using coordin ates of fi/11. versus yu./v, as shown in Fig. 8.9. Howev er, this profil e is
rather comple x mathem atically for easy use with the momen tum integral equatio n. The mome ntum inte-
gral equatio n is approx imate; hence, an accepta ble velocity profile for turbule nt bound ary layers on
smooth flat plates is the empiric al power- Jaw profile. An expone nt of½ is typical ly used to model I.he
turbule nt velocit y profile. Thus
ull -_ (Y)
B l/7 __,, 1/7 (9.24 )
9.4 Use of the Momentum Integral Equation for Flow with Zero Pressure Gradient 369
However, this profile does not hold in the immediate vicinity of the wall. since at the wall it predicts
du/dy= oo. Consequently, we cannot use this profile in the definition of •w
to obtain an expression
for -r.., in terms of 8 as we did for laminar boundary-layer now. For turbulent boundary-layer flow
we adapt the expression developed for pipe now,
T,.,
_., [
=0.0332pV- RV
// ]025 (8.39)
For a ,t-power profile in a pipe, Eq. 8.24 gives VJ U = 0.8 I 7. Substituting V = 0.817 U and R = 8 into
Eq. 8.39, we obtain
., ( // ) 1/4 (9.25)
r,.. = 0.0233pU- US
Substituting for r.., and u/ U into Eq. 9.19 and integrating, we obtain
0.0233 ( -
v )l/4 =d81
- 111
1
117 7 d8
I1 (1-11 )d17= ?? dx
U8 dx o -
Thus we obtain a differential equation for 8:
//) 1/4
8 114d8=0 ?40 ( - dx
·- u
integrating gives
4 514 (//) 1/4
8 =0.240 U x+c
5
If we assume that 8 '.:,! 0 at x= 0 (this is equivalent to assuming turbulent flow from the leading edge),
then c=O and
//)1/5 4 5
8 = 0.382 ( U x l
Note that th.is shows that the rurbulent boundary-layer thickness 8 grows as x 4 15 ; it grows almost linearly
(recall that 8 grows more slowly, as ,/x, for the laminar boundary layer). Traditionally this is expressed
in dimensionless form:
(9.26)
Using Eq. 9.25, we obtain the skin friction coefficient in terms of o:

114
C =~=0.0466(__!!___)
f ½PU2 Uo
Substituting for 8, we obtain
c ~ T,.,_ _ 0.05~4
f- Fp·CJ2--R 1/5 (9.27}
2·· . E:x
Experiments show that Eq. 9.27 predicts turbulent skin friction on a flat plate very well for
5 x l pS < Re_. < I o7 • This agreement is remarkable in view of the approximate nature of our analysis.
Application of the momentum integral equation for turbulent boundary-layer flow is illustrated in
Example 9.3.
Example 9.3 TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER ON A FLAT PLATE: APPROXIMATE SOLUTION USING
.!.-POWER VELOCITY PROFILE
7
Water flows.at U = l m/s past a flat plate with L = 1 min the flow direction. The boundary layer is tripped so it becomes turbulent
.at the le~ding edge. Evaluate the disturbance thickness, 8, displacement thickness, o, and wall shear stress, •w• at x = L. Compare
with laminar flow maintained to the same position. Assume a +.power turbulent velocity profile.
Given: Flat-plate boundary-layer flow; turbulent flow from the leading edge. Assume
f power velocity. profile.
Find: (a) Disturbance thickness, lh.
U=lmls -
______________ r 0
EL:l=:J
(b) I>isplacemenl thickness, 8i_.
(c) Wall she.ar stress, -i-,,.(L).
(d) Compa,rison with results for laminar flow from the leading edge.
Solution: Apply results from the momentum integral eqllalion.

(9.26)
(9.1)
(9.27)
Atx=;L, with v= L.00x 10- 6 m 2 /s for water (T=20°C),

UL . m . . s
ReL = - = 1- X 1 ni X . 6 = 106
V S . 10- ml
From 134. 9:26;
0.382 · 0.3S2 l 0 0241 ~ 24 1
1h==~e}_l5 L={l06 ) 115 x in= . .. . m or uL= • mm:
117
Using Eq. 9.1, with u/U = (y/8) ::=17 1/7, we obtain
Si= 1"' ( l-
1
;)dy=6L fo (;)d(~) =Oc, fo
1
(l -17
1 7
1 )d17=8c, ~,-i,,8/7L
OL 24.linm 15;_
8i.=g= · S =3.0lmm ...
·--~--------------
C = 0.0594 = 0.00375
f {l06)1/S
2 2
. 1 . 1 .,kg .2 m N · s
~ , =Cr-pU-=0.00375x-
. X999-3 x(I) --:;-X-k-
" , 2 · · 2· m s- g•m
-i-.,(L)
-i-,..=·1.87N/m 2
+---------------------~---
For-Jiµxlina.t flow, µse Blasius solution values. From Eq. 9.13 (on di!! web),
s;o s.o
DL=../Rei,L=(l0 ) ;
o oo·s
xlm= . .. m or s.oo mm
6 1 2
FrpJ;D. Example W9_ l, <5•/5 = 0344, so

8'=0.344 Ii= 0.344x 5 .Q mm= 1.72 mm
9.5 Pressure Gradients in Boundary-Layer Flow 371
0,664
FromEq. 9.15, Cf= .r=-• so
vRe.,
_ 1 . 2 _ 0.664 1 kg . 2 m2 N · s2 _ 2
-i:-..,-Cf~pU - =x-x999-x{l) 2 x -.- -0.332N/m
2 v 106 2 m3 s kg • m
Comparing values at x=L, we obtain
D1urbulcnt 24,l rom
Disturbance thickness,
01nminar
= 5.00mm
4.82
o:urbulcnl 3.01 mm
Displacement thickness,
8 iaminnr
= 1.72mm 1.75
Wall shear stress, '<w,lu,bulcnl l.lFN/m\ = 5.63

'l"w,laminor 0.332-N/m-
Summary of Results for Boundary-Layer Flow with Zero Pressure Gradient

Use of the momentum integral equation is an appro~mate technique to predict boundary-layer deve!.c.
opment; the equation predicts trends correctly. Parameters of the laminar boundary layer vary as Re:; 11-;
those for the turbulent boundary layer vary as Re."; 115 • Thus the turbulent boundary layer develops more
rapidly than the laminar boundary layer.
Laminar and turbulent boundary layers were compared in Example 9.3. Wall shear stress is much
higher in the turbulent boundary layer than in the laminar layer. This is the primary reason for the more
rapid development of turbulent boundary layers.
The agreement we have obtained with experimental results shows that use of the momentum inte-
gral equation is an effective approximate method that gives us considerable insight into the general
behavior of boundary layers.
9.5 Pressure Gradients in Boundary-Layer Flow

The boundary layer (laminar or turbulent) with a uniform flow along an infinite flat plate is the easiest
one to study because the pressure gradient is zero-the fluid particles in the bowidriry layer are slowed
only by shear stresses, leading lo boundary-layer growth. We now consider the effects caused by a pres-
sure gradient, which will be present for all bodies except, as we have seen, a flat plate.
A favorable pressure grcidient is one in which the pressure decreases in the flow direction Video: Flow
(i.e., ap/ax < O); it is called favorable because it tends to overcome the slowing of fluid particles caused Separa1io11:
by friction in the boundary layer. This pressure gradient arises when the freestream velocity U is increas- Airfm l
ing with x, for example, in the converging Oow field in a nozzle. On the other hand, an adverse pressure
graclient is one in which pressure increases in the flow direction (i.e.. ap/ax>O); it is called adverse
be.cause it will cause fluid particles in the boundary-layer to slow down at a gr~ter rate than that due to .
. ------ :
----
'·~~.:_(~~- ·:· .
--
.
boundary-layer friction alone. If the adverse pressure gradient is severe enough, tbe fluid particles in
~
the boundary layer will actually be brought to rest. When this occurs, the particles will l;>e forced away from -=--
the body surface (a phenomenon called flow separation) as they make room for following particles, ulti-
mately leading to a wake in which flow is turbulent. Examples of this are when the walls c,f a diffuser diverge
~--
100 rapidly and when an airfoil has too large an angle of attack; both of these are generally very undesirable!
This description, of the adverse pressure gradient and friction in.the boundary layer togt!ther forcing
flow separation, certainly makes intuitive sense; the question arises whether we can more formally see
when t11 is occurs. For example, can we have flow separation and a wake for uniform flow over a flat
plat~. for which op/ox= O? We can gain insight into this question by considering when the velocity
in tlle boundary layer will become zero. Consider the velocity u in the boundary layer at an infinitesimal
distance .6.y above the plate. This will be
0
lly=ay=llo+ oou)
'.)' J·=O
Ay= 11)
O)' y=O
Ay
372 Chap ter 9 Exte rnal Inco mpre ssibl e Visco us Flow
wher e 110 = 0 is the veloc ity at the surfac e of the plate. It is clear that 11,=liy will be zero (i.e., sepa ratio n
will occur ) only when ou/oy) .= 0 =0. Henc e, we can use this as our litmu s test for flow separ ation . We
recal l that the veloc ity gradi e~t near the surfac e in a laminar bound ary layer, and in the visco us subl ayer
of a turbu lent boun dary layer, was relate d to the wall shear stress by
•11•=Jl:11)
cJY ,·=O
Furth er, we learn ed in the previ ous sectio n that the wall shear stress for the flat plate is given by
,..,(x) const ant
plf2 = .,/Re;
for a lamin ar boun dary layer and
-r.,.(x) const ant
plf2 = Re!15
for a turbu lent boun dary layer. We see that for the flow over a flat plate, the wall stress is alwa ys r.,. > 0.
Henc e, a11/i:Jy)y=O > 0 alway s; and theref ore, finally , uy=liy > 0 alway s. We concl ude that for unifo rm
flow over a flat plate the flow never separ ates, and we never devel op a wake regio n, whet her the boun d-
ary layer is· lamin ar c;>r turbu lent, regard less of plate length .
We concl ude that flow will not separ ate for flow over a flat plate, when ap/ox=O. Clear ly, for flow s
in whic h ·op/ax< 0 (when ever the freest ream veloc ity is increasing), we can be sure that there will be no
flow separ ation ; for flows in which ap/ax> 0 (i.e., adver se pressu re gradie nts) we could have flow sep-
aratio n. We shoul d not concl ude that an adver se pressu re gradie nt alway s leads to flow separ ation and a
wake ; we have only concl uded that it is a neces sary condi tion for flow separ ation to occu r.
To illusu-ate these result s consi der the variab le cross- sectio nal flow s hown in Fig. 9.6. Outs ide the
boun dary layer the veloc ity field is one in whicl l the flow accele rates (Regi on 1), has a cons tant velo city
regio n (Regi on 2), and then a decel eratio n region (Regi on3). Corre spond ing to .these , the press ure gra-
dient is favor able, zero, and adver se, respe ctivel y, as show n. Note that the straig ht wall is not a simp le
flat plate -it has these vario us press ure gradi ents becau se the flow above the wall is not a unifo rm flow .
From our discu ssion s above , we concl ude that separ ation canno t occur in Regio n l or 2, but can occu r in
Regio n 3. Coul d we avoid flow separ ation in a devic e like this? Intuit ively, we can see that if we ri1a.k e
the diver gent sec;tion less sever e, we may be able to elimi nate flow separ ation. In other word s, we may
elimi nate flow separ ation if we make the adver se pressu re gradie nt ap / ax small enou gh. The final
quest ion rema ining is how small the adver se press ure gradi ent ne_e ds to be to accom plish this . This ,
and a more rigoro us proof tl1at we must have op/ox>O for a chanc e of flow separ ation , is beyo nd
the scope of this text [3]. We c;onclude tl1at flow separ ation is possib le, but not guara nteed , when we
have an adver se press ure gradie nL
Region l Region 2 Region 3
up ()p >0
ax 0 ux
,_ tfa
Separation point: ,J")

tJy ,-~o
=0
Fig.
9 .6 Bound .iry-la yer floww \th pressu re gradie nt.(l:!oundary- layer thickness ~xaggerated for clarlty }.
9.5 Pressure Gradients in Boundary~Layer Flow 373
· - - - ~ - - - - - --
1.0;- ------,
)'
5
II 1.0
u
(al Velocity profiles (bl Momentum-flux profiles
Fig. 9.7 Nonill.mensional profiles for flat plate boundary-layerflow.
The nonclirnensionaI·velo city profiles forlaminar and turl5uJent boundary-layer flow over a flat plate
ate shpwil in Fig. 9.7a. The turbulent profile is much fuller (more blunt) than the laminar profile. At the
same frees1reai:n speed. the momentum fhoc within the turbulent boundary layer is grea(er than witlim
the la.min~ layer (Fig. 9.7b). Separation ~curs' when the momentum of fluid layers near the surface is
reduced tci ?:ei-o by the combil)ed }ic~ion of pressure and viscous forces. As shown in Fig. 9.7b, the
momentum of the fluid Qear the surface is· Signi:fic ant.ly gre·a ter for the turbul~nt profile. Consequently.
the q.irbulent layet is better able to resist sep;inition in an
adverse pressure gradient. We. shall discuss
s·o me consequences of this behavior in Section 9.6.
Ad<.•erse pressure gradients cause significant changes in velocity profiles for both laminar and
·turbµlen.c boundary-layer flows. Approx:.imil.te solutions for nonzero pressure gradient flow may be
6btained from the momentum 'integral equation
-'Z'fv ·= -cJ (U20) +u . ·u·· -dU

. . """ (9~17)
p dx . ·· · d.i:
Expanding the first term, we can write
-rw
p
= u2d0
dx
+ (5' +20) UdU
· · dx
or
- •w-
p{/2
CJ ·. d0 (H.
=-=-+
2 dx
) 0 dU
+?- - -
U d.T
(9.28)
where H = o /0 is a velocity-profile "shape factor'." The shape factol' increases in ah ~dver-se pressure
gradient. For t1,1rbulent boundary-layer flow, H increases from 1.3 for a zero pressure •gradient to approx-
imately 2.5 at.separation. For laminar flow with zero pressure gradient, H=2.6; at separation H=3.5.
Toe fr:eestream velocity dislribution, U(x.), must be known befo.r e Eq. 9.2 8 cari. be applied. Since
dp/ilx= -pUdU/dx, specifying U(x) is equivalent to specifying the pressure graoienL We can obtai11.
a first approximation for U(x) from ideal flow theory for an inviscid flow under th¢ .s ame cortclitiolis.
As. pointed out in Chapter 6, for frictionless irro.tational flow (potential flow)~ the stn;llll) functio~. 1/f,
ari4 the velocity poter1tjal, </?, satisfy Lapla¢e's equation. These can be used rp detenilµle U(~) over
the body• surface.
Much effort has been devoted to calculation of velocity distributions over bodies of known
~jiape (th¢...direct'' problem) and to th: det,ennination of body shap~.s to produce ,a Qesir.ed pt;ess~re dis~
tril,>ution (the "inverse" problem). Smit~ and co-worker-s (6] have developed calq~lation me.t bqds that
use singularities distribllted over the body surface to solve the direct problem for two,.:dimensional or
ax.i sy~melric body shapes. A type of finite .el~riwnt. method that uses singularities defined on Qiscrete
0
surface .p<!Jlels (the ..panel" method (7)) recently has gained l)lcreased popularity for application to
374 Chapt er 9 Extern al Incom pressi ble Viscou s Flow
three-d imensi onal flows. Recall also that in Section 5.5 we briefly reviewe d some basic ideas of CFO
(Comp utation al Fluid Dynam ics).
Once the velocit y distribu tion, U(x), is known, Eq. 9.28 can be integrat ed to detenn ine 0(x), if H
·and Cf can be correla ted with 0. A detailed discuss ion of various calcula tion method s for flows with
nonzer o pressur e gradien t is beyond the scope of this book. Numer ous solutio ns for lanlina r flows
are given in Kraus [8]. Calcula tion method s for turbule nt bounda ry-laye r flow based on the mome ntum
integra l equatio n are review ed in Rona [9].
Becaus e of the importa nce of turbule nt bounda ry layers in enginee ring flow situatio ns, the state of
the art of calcula tion scheme s is advanc ing rapidly . Numero us calcula tion scheme s have been propo sed
[ 10, l 1]; most such scheme s for turbule nt flow use models to predict turbule nt shear stress and then solve
the bounda ry-laye r equatio ns numeri cally [12, 13]. Continu ing improv ement in size and speed of com-
·p uters is beginn ing to make possibl e the solutio n of the full Navier -Stokes equatio ns using numer ical
method s [14, 15].
Part B {?LU ID FLO W ABO UT Il\.1MERSED BOD IES

Whene ver there is relative ~otion betwee n a soUc;I body nnd the viscous fluid surroun ding it, the body
will experie nc~ a net force F. The magnit ude of this force depend s on many factors ,-certa inly the rel-
ative velocit y V, but also the .b ody shape and size, and the fluid propert ies (p, JL, etc.). As the fluid flows
around the bQdy, it will generat e surface stresses on each elemen t of the surface , and it.is these that lead to
the net force. The surface stresses are composec;I of tangent ial stresses due to viscous action and norma l
stresse s due to the local pressur e. We might be tempted to 1.hink that we can analyti cally derive the net
force py integra ting these over tile body surface . The first step might.!,e: Given the sh;ipe of the body (and
ass~un ing that the Reynol ds nuQ1ber is high enough that we can use inviscid How theory) , compu te the
pressu re distribu tion. Then inte~t e the pressur e over the body surface to obtain the contri bution of
pressu re forces to the net force F. As we discuss ed in Chapte r 6, this step was develo ped very early
in the history of fluid m!!Ch!).Ilics; it led to the resulL that no bodies experie nce drag! The second step
.might be: Use this pressur e distripu tion to find the surface viscous stress -r,.. (at least in princip le. using,
for examp le, Eq:...9.17). Then integra te the viscous stress over the body surface to obtain its contri bution
to the net force F. This proced ure sounds concept;µally straight forward , but in practic e is quite diffic ult
except for the simple st bqdy shapes. In additio n, even if possibl e, it leads to erroneo us results in most
cases becaus e it takes no accoun t of a very imp•ortant conseq uence of the existen ce of bound ary layers-
fl.ow separa. tion. This causes a wake, which not only creates a low-pre ssure region usually leadin g to
l~ge drag on the body, but also radicall y change s the overall How fielc;I and hence the invisc id flow
region and pressur e distribu tion on the body.
Video: Flow For these reasons we must usually resort to experim ental or CFO method s to determ ine the net force
u~ut a Spun.< for most body shapes . Traditi onally the net force F is resolve d into the drag force, F 0 , define d as the
Car compo nent of the force p~lel to the directio n of motion , and the lift force, FL (if it exists for a body) ,
defuied as the compo nent of the force perpen dicular to the directio n of motion. In Section s 9.6 and 9.7
.
-=~
----- ... - .--...,.
·-· : . . -- ,:.. :·.
we will examin e these forces for a numbe r of differen t body shapes.
9.6 Drag
Drag is the compo nent of force on a body acting parallel to the di,rection of relative motion . In discus sing
the. need for experim ental results in fluid mechan ics (Chapt er 7), We conside red the proble m of deter-
mining the drag force, F 0 , on a smo9tl) sphere of diamet er d, moving through a viscous , incom pressi ble
flµid ~ith speed V; the fluid density and viscosi ty were p and J(, respect ively. The drag force, F v, was
~ritten in t,he functio nal form
Fo=fi( d. V,µ.p)
Appli.cati(>n of the Buckin gham Pi theorem resulted in two dimensio(lless II paraIT1eters that were writte n
i_n functio nal form as
9.6 Drag 375
Nole thal d 2 is proportional to the cross-sectional area (A =,rd2/4) and therefore we could write
Fo
pV2A
=/J(pVd)
µ
=h(Re) {9.29)
Although Eq. 9.29 was obtained for a sphere, the form of the equation is valid for incompressible
flow over a11y body; the characteristic length used in the Reynolds number depends on the body shape.
The drag coefficiellt, Co, is defined as
Fo (9.30)
CtJ~!pV2A.
2 .
The number½ has been inserted (as was done in the defining equation for the friction factor) to form the
familiar dynamic pressure. Then Eq. 9.29 can be written as
Co=f(Re) (9.31)
We have not considered compressibility or free-surface effects in this discussion of the drag force.
Had these been included, we would have obtained the functional form
Co =f(Re,Pr,M)
At this point we shall consider the drag force on several bodies for which Eq. 9 .31 is valid. The total
drag force is the sum of friction drag and pressure drag. However, the drag coefficient is a function only
of the Reynolds number.
We now consider the drag force and drag coefficient for a number of bodies, starting with the sim-
ple$(: a flat plate parallel to the flow (which has orily friction drag); a flat plate normal to the flow (which
has orily pressure drag); and cylinders and spheres (the simplest 2D and 3D bodies, which have both
friction and pressure drag). We will also briefly discuss strearillii1:ing.
Pure Friction Drag: Flow over a Flat Plate Parallel to the Flow
This flow situation was considered iii detail in Section 9.4. Since the pressure gradient is zei::o (and in any
event the pressure forces are perpendk1,1lar to the plate and therefore do not contribute·to drag),.the tetal
drag is equal to the fricl;ioiJ drag. Thi.ls
Fo=1 r,.dA
plntc surface
and
F r,.dA
C o = -I;>1 =~Ps=----
1 (9.32)
-pV2A 1 .,
2 -pV-A
2
where A is the to.tal surface area in contact with the fluid (i.e., the wetled area). Toe drag coefficient for a
flµt _plate parallel to the flow depends on the shear stress di/;tribution along the plate.
For laminar flow over a flat plate, Lhe shear s.t ress coefficient was given by
C =~=0.664 (9.15)
f lpCfl
2
rJfe
yne.r
The drag coefficient for flc;,w with freescream velocity V, over a flat plate of length L nod width b, is
obtained by substituting for -r,.. from Eq. 9. 15 into Eq. 9.32. Thus ~
Co=A
l 1
,1
0 . l (L (y)-o.s
¢A= bL}o 0.664 -;; x-osbd.\:
0.664 Re_-; .5_
0.664
=-- -
(u)O:S [·\,o.5]L
-
_ .33 (-u )0.5
-1
L V 0.5 0 . VL .
376 Chapter 9 External Incompre ssible Viscous Flow
1.33
Co=-- (9.33)
flfei.
Assuming the boundary layer is lurbulent from lhe leading edge, the shear stress coefficien t, based
on the approxima le analysis of Section 9.4, is given by
..... 0.0594
Ci- --- (9.27)
- lp''2
2 u-
- R e,T1/S
Substituti ng for r.,. from Eq. 9.27 into Eq. 9.32, we oblain
Co= -1
A
1
1\
0.0594 Re_;- 0 2dA = - I
bL
1L
(")-0.2x-
O
0.0594 -
II
0 2
· b dx
_ 0.0594 (11)0.2[·\ll.s]L ( )0.2 II

--- - - =0.0742 -
L \I 0.8 0 VL
C _ 0.0742
D -- ~ (9 .34)
ReL
Equation 9.34 is valid for 5 x 105 < ReL < 107 •

For ReL < 109 lhe empirical equmion given by Schlichting [3]
· 0.455
Co= . . 1 58 (9.35)
(log.ReL) ·
fit,s experimen tal data very well.

For a boundary layer that is initially laminar and undergoes transition at some location on the plate,
the turbulent drag coefficien t must be adjusted to account for the laminar flow over t;he initial length. The
adjustmen t is made by subtracting the quantity B/ReL from the Co detemuned for completel y turbulent
flow. The value of B depends on the Reynolds number al transition; Bis given by
B=Reu-(Co .,..,._-Coi.n wu.) (9.36)
For a transition Reynolds number of 5 x 105 • the drag coefficienl may be calculated by making the
adjustmen t to Eq. 9.34, in which case
0.0742 1740
Co.= - R.1/5 - ReL (9.37a)
eL -
or to Eq. 9.35, in which case
0.455 Hi!O
Co= (iog R.:1,fss Re,_ (9.37b)
The variation in drag coefficien t for a flat plate parallel to the flow is shown in Fig. 9.8.
In the p~otofFig . 9.8,transit ion was assumed to occuraLRe ..,=5 x 105 for:flows in which the bound-
ary layer was initially laminar. The actual Reynolds number at which transition occurs depends on a
combinati on of faclors, such as surface roughness and freestream disturbanc es. Transition tends to
occur earlier (al lower Reynolds number) as surface roughness or freestream turbulence is increased .
For transition at other than Re:r = 5 x 105 , lhe constant in lhe second term of Eqs. 9 .37 is modified using
Eq. 9.36. Figure 9.8 shows that the drag c<;>efficient is less, for a given length of plate, when laminar flow
is maintained over lhe longest possible distance. However. al large ReL ( > I 07 ) the contribut ion of the
laminar drag is negligible. Example 9.4 illus~tes how the skin friction force due to a turbulent boundar y
layer is calcµ.l,i.ted.
9.6 Drag 377
0 .010 , - . - - - - - . - - ~ - - ~ - - ~ - - . - ~ - - - - , , - - - - . - - - . - - - - - . - - ,
0 .008
---;;:: Turbulent
0 .006 • '-....: / boundary layer
·'-....: (Eq 9 .34)
·'-....:_'-....;:
c: ·0 .004
"'u
~ -------- Turbulent
;t--·~-~
__ .. _____ ___
C
u ,,"'( Transition .,...-boundary layer
:ll' ' ,/ .......__Re,= 5 x 105 • ·-- / (Eq. 9.35)
a 0 ;002 ,' (Eq. 9.37b) ~--
Laminar ·-
boundary layer__,.
(Eq. 9.33)
0.001 '-;,--..L_ _-1.,_ _!_~....L---1..--.L, ..-......L----1--....1 .:::-........l----:'--.. J9
107 8
. 105 2 5 2 5 2 5 10 2 5 10
Reynolds number, ReL
Fig. 9.8 Variation of drag coefficient with Reynolds number for a:smooth flat plate parallel to. the flow.
Example 9.4 SKIN FRICTION DRAG ON A SUPERTANKER
A- s1.1pe.rt~er is 360 Iii lo,ng, an_d has a. beam witlth 6f 70 J11. and a d,raft of '.?,5 m. lu,µm_a te the fon:e and power ~ql,!.ir¢ to.
~vercqr,ne skin fti9ticm drag at a crµi_si.JJ~ sp.e ed 6£ 13 kt in s¢aw;iter at.10°.C.
Giv.¢n: Supertanker cruisi.J:ig,at U ~ 13 kt,

Find: ca> F9ree,
· · (b) Powe[ r¢gµireg co o:verc_ome::s'9ri frie;:tiQn drag,
S~lµtiqli: l',,fodelthe t~er.h_ulfas-a..flat<piateJ of l~ng1l1cLandwidth:
b:~ ..B-+2:J;>;- in coi1tact .w ith water. Estimate sldnmction di:lig from. the
9-fS.g, 9Qefficient.
Gf?ve_ri.fing..f!q.u_a tions:
Cv~ 1_f,.tJ. · · (9.32)
2 plflA
0.455 16lQ
Cv= · ·. -~.ss . (9.37b)
·· . (logRei.):- · R?JL
1ii:e ship speed is i3 let (iiriµtical rriiJes' p~r hpur). sQ

U
= l3nm 60
ht .X ' . 7 6
m;n X 0.305 r{x 3600 ./= 6,69 m/s
ft · · ·.· oi · hr
From App~ndix..A, ·at· lQ"C, it= J .37 xf0~ 6 r;ri2/s for seawat~r. l"hen·
lJL . .m .
Re1:,=-· =6.69- x360mx
s
·. 6 - . =l.76xl09
.
11. s · 1.3'.7x 10:- m:? ·· · ·
;\ssuini9g ~q. 9'.37b is vli:i.i9.
1610
L76x t()9 =0.00147
378 Chap ter 9 Exte rnal Inco mpre ssibl e Visco us Flow
and from Eq. 9.32 •

. 1 .,
Fb= CoA pU~
2
• 2 2
. )
kg ( )12m N •.s
=0.0 0147
. · · x(36 0tn){ 70+$ 0. mX;~:;XlQ W~3
m x 6.69 -;,X -k-
~ g-m
=
Fo 1.45 MN +---
Fo
~-----------------
The •co~p ondi ng powe r is
6 m W-s
/!ft•=: Ft;U = 1.4S- x 10 N x6.69'-:- X - N.
· · s . •m
</Jf ;;;;o:•9:70;:M:W <---"~_.......,.,..........:..,- -- - - - ~ - - ~ - - -.:.,_
Pur e Pres sure Drag : Flow over a Flat Plat e Norm al to the Flow
In flow over a flat plate norm al Lo the flow (Fig. 9.9), the wall shear stress is perpe nwcu lar to the flow
direc tion and there fore does not contr ibute to the drag force. The drag is given by
Fo=surfnrc
l pdA
For this geom elI)' the flow separ ates from the edges of the plate; there is backflow in the low ener gy
wake of the plate. Altho ugh the press ure over the rear surfac e of 1.he plate is essen tially cons tant. its
Video: Pfau, )llagn itude canno t be detea niiled analy tically . Conse quent ly. we must reson to exper imen ts to dete nnin e
1 1\'om1a l Iu tht.~
the drag force .
Flow
The d.!:ag coeff icient for flow over an imme rsed objec t usual ly is based on the front al area (or pro-
jecte d area) of the objec t. (For airfoi ls and wings . the pla11fonn area is used; see Secti on 9.7 .)
The drag coeff icient for a finite plate nom1al to the flow depen ds on the ratio of plate width to heig ht
and on the Reyn olds numb er. For Re (base d on heigh t) greate r than about 1000, the drag coef ficie nt is
essen tially indep enden t of Reyn olds numb er. The variat ion of C0 with the ratio of plate width to heig ht
(b/h) is show n in Fig. 9. IO. (The ratio b/h is defin ed as the aspec t ratio of the plate. ) For b/h = 1.0, th~
drag coeff icien t is a minim um at Co= 1.18 this is just slight ly highe r than for a circu lar disk (Co = l .17)
at large Reyn olds numb er.
The drag coeff icient for all <;>bjects with sharp edges is essen tially indep enden t of Reyn olds num ber
(for Re;;::; 1000 ) becau se the separ ation point s and theref ore the size of.the wake are fixed by the geom etry
of the objec t. Drag coeff icient s for selec ted objec ts are given in Table 9.3.
Fric tion and Pr~s sure Drag ; Flow over a Sph ere and Cyli nder
We have looke d at two speci al flow cases in which either friction or press ure drag was the sole form of
dn!-g prese nt. In the forme r case, the dtag coeff icient was a stron g fum;tjon.ofR eyno lds numb er, whil e in
the latt~r case, C 0 was essen tially indep enden t of Reyn olds numb er for Re;;:;1000.
fig. 9.9 Flow oyer a flat plate normal to the flow.

9.6 Drag 379
2 .0 r----.- -~---- ---.--- --.--,- ---r--, -----,
1.5
1.0
0 . 5 OL-_...J2L--. ..14_ _J.6_ _8L---lLO-- lL2---'14L- --'l6-:---:'1 8::--2::0.
Aspect ratio, b//1

Fig. 9 .1 o Variation of drag coefficient with asp·e ct ratio for a flat plate offlnite width normal to the flow with Reo > 1 oo.o C~ 6 J.
Table 9-3
Drag Coefficie nt Data for Selected Objects (Re,::; 103 ) 4
Object Diagram
Square prism b/h = co 2.05
blh =1 1.05
Disk 1.17
.Ring
Hemisphe re ( open end 1.42

f~cj.ng flow)
Hemisphe re (open end 038
facing downslrea m)
Cssection (open side 230
facing .flow)
Object w ir/r "
Hig /r Drag
Coefficie11t
C-section (open side 1.20

facing downstrea m)
u Dain from Hoerner (16].

b Based on ring :uca.
In the case of fl<;>w over a sphere, both friction drag and pressure drag contribute to total drag. The
drag coefficie nt for flow over a smo.,oth sphere is s~own in Fig. 9 .11 as. a function of Reynolds number.
At very low Reynolds number,- Re :$1, there 1s no flow separation from a sphere; the wake is lam-
inar and the drag is predomina ntly friction drag. Stokes has shown analyticall y, for very low Reynolds
number flows where inertia f<;,rces may be neglected, that the drag force on a sphere of diameter d ,
moving at speed V, through a flujd of viscosityµ , is given by
Fo=3nJtV d
The drag coefficient , Co, defined by Eq. 9.30, is then
24
Co= -
Re
:tsee Shnpi_ro (-17] for 11 good (liscussion of drag on spheres.and other shapes. SJ:C al.so Fnge ( 18].
380 Chapt er 9 Extern al lncom pressit >le Viscou s Flow
400~~~ ~..-~... .,...~,-- -,---,--, -,...--,-- -,---rr,- -,--,,-,r r-..,.--- ,--,-,rr- --,-r---; -Tl
200
100 .
60
40
20
4 681002 4 6810 1 2 ·4 68102 2 4 68lQ3 2 4 68104 2 4 6Bl()5z ~ 68106

Re= VD ,.
Fig. 9.11 Drag coefficie nt of a smooth sphere as a function of Reynolds number (da~ from References (38], (39], and [3]).
As shown in Fig. 9.11, this expression agrees with experim ental values at low Reynol ds numb er but
begins to deviate signific antly from the experim en.tal data for Re> 1.0.
As the Reyno lds numbe r is further increas ed, the drag coeffici ent drops continu ous ly up to a
Reyno lds numbe r of about 1000, but not as rapidly as predicte d by Stokes' theory. A turbule nt wake
Vi~eo: £wm1p/e s
of Flow aruund (not incorpo rated in Stokes ' thec;,ry) deve lops and grows at the rear of the sphere as the separa lion point
a Sphere moves from the rear of the sphere towi;ird the front; this wake is at a relatively low pressur e, leadin g to a
large pressu re drag. By the time Re~ 1000, about 95% of total drag is due to pressu re. For
103 < Re < 3 x I 0 5 the drag coeffic ient is approximaLely constan L In this range the entire rear of the
sphere has a low-pr essure turbule nt wake, as indicat ed in Fig. 9. 12, and most of the drag is cause d
1.0 ~-~- -,--- r--~ --..- -~- ---- -~-~

,
,,
0 ,8 . '
'
0 .6
V-+-® Measured pressure ,
I
/
0.4
dlstribut1pn ,·
(tu.r buhinl) ~
0.2
~
11~
~ -~ -0.2
0
-0.4
I
I
I
--0.6 I
I
I
- 0.8 ,...__Theoretical
,' distributi on
I
I
- 1.0
,, ''
- 1.2 ' ' - ~', S = Separation point
- 1.4 L...-..L.. .- ....L--' '-,--c-' ::--~ ::---:-: '~-'--- -'----_J

O 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 16 0 180
.o. degrees
Fig. _ Pressure discribut i<m aro!,ln.d a smooth spher~ fQr laminar and turbulen tbounda ry- fay.er- flow, c:ompar ed with
9 12
inviscid flqw [.18).
9.6 Dr-ag 381
by the front-rear pressure asymmetry. Note that Co oc J/ Re corresponds to F o oc V , and that Co consL ~
corresponds to Fo oc V2 • indicating a quite rapid increase in drag.
For Reynolds numbeis larger than about 3 x J D5, transition occurs and the boundary layer on-the
for-ward portion of the sphere becomes turbulent. The point of separation then moves downstream from
the sphere midsection, and .the size of the wake decreases. The net pressure force on the sphere is reduced
(Fig, 9.12), artd the drag coefficient decreases abruptly.
A turbulent boundary layer, since it has more momentum flux than a laminar boundary layer, can
better resist an adveise pressure gradient, as discussed in Section 9.5. Consequently, turbulent boundmy-
layer flow is d~irable on a blunt body because it delays separation and thus reduces the pressure -drag.
Transition in the boundary layer is affected by roughness of the sphere surface and turbulence in the flow
stream. Therefore, the reduction in drag associated with a turbulent boundary layer does not occur at auniqtie·
value of Reynolds number. Experiments with smooth spheres in a flow with low turbulence level show that
5
transition may be delayed to a critical Reynolds number, Re0 , of about 4 x I 0 • For rough s urfaces and/or
highly turbulent freestream flow, transition can occur at a critical Reynolds number as low as 50,000.
The drag coefficient of a sphere with turbulent boundary-layer flow is about one-fifth that for lam-
inar flow near the critical Reynolds number. The corresponding reduction in drag force can affect the
range of a sphere (e.g., a golf ball) appreciably. The "dimples'' on a golf ball are designed to ..trip" the
boundary layer and, thus, to guarantee turbulent boundary-layer flow and minimum "drag, Tei illus~te
this effect graphically, we obtained samples of golf balls without dimples some yeais ago. One of our
stu~ents volunteered to hit drives with the smooth balls. In 50 tries with each type of ball, the average
dist~ce with the standard balls was 215 yards; the average with the smooth baUs was only 125 yards!
Adding roughness elements to a sphere also can suppress local oscillations in location of the tran~
s~tion between laminar and turbulent flow in the boundary layer. These oscillations can lead to variations-
in drag apd to random fluctuations in lift (see Section 9.7). In baseball, the "knuckle ball" pitch is
intended to behave erratically to confuse the barter. .By throwing the ball with almost no spin, the pitcher
relies on the seams to cause transition in an unpredictable fashion as the ball moves on its way to the
batter. This causes the desired variation in the flight path of the ball.
Figure 9.13 shows the drag coefficient for flow over a smooth cylinder. The variation of Co with
_R eynolds number shows the same cha:racteristi<;s.a~ observed in ,the flow oyet a smooth sphere, but the
values of C-0 are about twice ~ high. The use of Fig. 9.13 to determine the. drag force on. a chimney is
shown in Example 9.5, and the use of the dra{:l;·coefficient data in Table 9.3 to.find the <tnig.of a-parachute
is given in Example 9.6. ·
· Flow about a smooth circular cylinder may de_v elop a regular pattern of alternating vortices c;lown-
stream. The vortex trail~ causes an Ol!Cillatory lift force on the cylinder perpendicuiar to the stream.
100.-"T"""-.-......-r----r---.-......-r-"T"""--.-..........--.-~........---r-~~~~~~~~ -- - -
10
Fig; 9 ,13 bra~'coeffident.fot <!-S_ITIC>()th circular cylinder as_a function of Reynolds number (data from Refe-renc~ [JS), 1391,
,fr1~(3]}.
~--The regular puuem of vonices in the wnkc of a cylinder soi:netimes is called ~ Knnnnn vonex street in hooo~ of lhc prominent fluid -
mechanicinn. Theodore von Krum6.n, who was first to.predic t the stable spacing of the vortex trail on lheorcticnl grounds in 1911 ;
see Goldstein (19].
382 Chapt er 9 Extern al Incom pressi ble Viscou s Flqw
m o tion. Vortex sheddin g excites oscillat ions that cause telegraph wires.to "sing" and ropes on flag.poles
Vrd~o: Vo rre.-
Trail be/rinil a
to '"slap" annqyi ngly. Someti mes struc.rural oscillat ions can reac!i dangero us mazyit udes and cause high
Cy lindt!r s~s¢s ; they-clih. be re~lliced or elimina ted by applyin g roughness elemen ts or fins---- either axial or hel-
i_c al (sqmet imes seen ·on ·chimne ys or.auto mobile a.ritenn as}-tha t destroy the sy.rnnjetry of the cylind e·r
and stabiliz e the flow..
Experi mental data show chat regular vortex sheddin g occurs most srrongly..in the .range of Reyno lds .
numl;,er front about 60 to 5000. For Re> 1000 che dimensionless frequen cy of vortex s heddin g,
expres·sed as a Strauh al number , St=f D/V, is approximately equal to 0_21 (3)..
Rough ness affects drag of cylinde rs and spheres si.milarly: the-criti cal Rey110 IQS numbe r is reduc ed
by !'.he.rou gh .surfac e, and transiti on from lamina r to turbulent flow in the bounda cy,l_
a:yers-occurs earlier .
The ~g .cpeffic ient is reduced by a factor of about 4 when che bounda ry iayer on the -cytinder becom es
.turbule nt.
~.1=~'!.Tu~ :~,;~;;~~,¥'.tfti:;i,"t;,= ~~:~t -= t=i' t: :;_fl¥f~: .d1tiQ~... - : · -· -=-~
N~gl~ct·eii'ii.~
e#e;;o.!iqnfl;ir. '
Find: Bendin g mome iit :~.J{~t}Uq ifi:J>l.'} <Jwtfn~¥~
~~::; i~ -= = = i: E ~J.i 'fr;;;D~:r:: F'o
U2
I
I L= 25 m
'Ni(i,'·=:.'Fpt=:'¢~jpvtt;;;:eg,1 p·v~.'- r ©
v~ 5.o~ >x-ib~ ; )i$. $~s-. ,. ., l ~:§ m.J s
f:-li.>.t:~6-,~at ·Stafi\: f~"¢pif.gji;iQps; p,;:;e;, l.23"k~/ m3-:;) tj'.iq·,ji,~ 1.;,7~;-~ t0~$k)t /(m·.; s), i.¾i"Js,
From Fig✓-~~jj)co ,,:,,rJ).li,. Fot:'a:.oy:lij ide_.t,A ~P~~ $(f
Mf):~7Jc~i ipM2 =;s€:o:PP.i.,:rvt == C.o/).1:pt/!
= l~iih3§,}~'t ¢:* (i$f :ni x i.2'.lt~::x(J;3;9Ji~tx-:::,: :

Mf
.,Mor=itl 1P1~ ·-·~ -"---- - --'--"--'-'~ ~ ~ ---=- ~- ~ ~
•• • • r ' • • ~
9.6 Drag 383
Example 9.6 DECELERATION OF AN AUTOMOBILE BY A DRAG PARACHUTE
A dragster weighing 1600 lbf attains a speed bf 270 mph in the quarter mile. Immediately after passing through the timing lights,
the driver opens the drag chute, of area A= 25ft2; Air and rolling resistance of the car may be neglected. Find the time required for
the maehine to decelerate to 100 mph in standard air.
Given: Dragster weighing 1600 lbf, moving with initial speed Vo== 270mph, is slo\1/eJJ by the dra'g force on a chute_of. area
A =25 ft2. Neglect air aw;! rolling resistance of the car. Assume standard air.
Find: Time required for_ the machine to decele~te to 100 Inph.
Sol1.1tion: Talcing the car as a system and ,vriting Newton;s second law in the dir(:ctioil of m:otioti gives
V0 =270mph
v1 = 100mph
p = 0.00238 slug/rr3
F 2A .
SinceCD= ,C:.,
1 pv-A ,lhenFo=¼C
- 0 pV
2
Sµbstitµ ting into Newton's se¢onc! Jaw gives
Sepatar;irig variables and jim;grating, we obtain
2
L
--Cop-
· mp
AL' _1~dV
.dt= . -. -
Vo~
2_
1 A .
in ·
l]v' .
V -v0
l l_
VJ
{ Vo.-.V:.)
· . · _Cop-t- ·i _-.,___ _~ - .__+ --. - , · .. _ f .
Vo · 'l'fVo
Finiilly.
=
t - (Vo-Vi)
.·• _.'..2.m
·-.- - . -.. ·---'-• (Vci-'\1-)
. 2W
,.,,__~ --
VjVo Ct, pA VfVo CD-pAg
.M•cJ~l the drag chute as a berrtispnere(with open ¢nd facing flow). From Ta.tile 9 '.3 , ,( :0 = 1.42 (3$Suming Re > I.03). Tolf!n, sµb+·:
stitu ting hurri¢ncljl values,
.._ - . .
ht . l 1 ft'
i=' (270- I00)mphx2x 1600 lbfx . .·. . x ..,....,...-
.. · ·: x _.,...c.,.,. x . · · ·
· l 0· 0 mph 270 rm 1.2 0.00238 slug
l . s2 slug · ft ini . . ... . .._ s
3
X 25ft2 X 32.2 ft X lbf •s x 5280 ft x QOQlir
2
1
r=s.os s,__- - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' - - -_ _:..
Check the -a,ssumption-on:Re;

112
vv_ .·· =
Re=- - [4_
-_A-._]· -v
_·
.· V 1t II
1 2
4 .•-]· I ___ . . . mi . hr . - ft s
=_ ~ X 25ft"
[ 1t
X 100 hr X
36
Q0s X 5280 mi X
... • .. .. .
. · _4
1.57 xlQ ft7
R,e=;,.11 X 106
Hence the assumption is v~lid.
384 cha pte r 9 Exte rnal Inco mpr essi ble Visc ous Flow
All expe rime ntal data pres ente d in this secti on are for sing le obje cts imm erse d in an unb oun ded
fluid strea m. Toe obje ctive of wind tunn el tests is to simu late the cond ition s ofan unbo unde d flow . Lim -
itati ons on equi pme nt size mak e this goal unre acha ble in prac tice. Freq uent ly it is nece ssar y to app ly
corr ectio ns to mea sure d data to obta in resu lts appl icabl e to unbo unde d flow cond it;ion s.
In num erou s renli stic flow situa tions . inter actio ns occu r with near by obje cts or surf aces . Dra g can be
redu ced sign ifica ntly whe n two or more obje cts, mov ing in tand em, interacL This phen ome non is wel l
know n to bicy cle rider s and thos e inter ested in auto mob ile racin g, wher e "dra fting " is a com mon prac -
tice. Drag redu ction s of 80 perc ent may be achi eved wilh optim um spac ing [20) . Dra g c1.lso can be
incr ease d sign ifica ntly whe n spac ing is not optim um.
Drag can be affec ted by neig hbor s alon gsid e as well. Sma ll parti cles fallin g und er grav ity tra·v el
mor e slow ly whe n they have neig hbor s than when they are isolated. This phen ome non has imp orta nt
appl icati ons to mixi ng and sedim enta tion proc es.ses.
Exp erim enta l data for drag coef ficie nts on obje cts mus t be selec ted and appl ied care fully . Due
rega rd mus t be give n to the diffe renc es betw een the actua l cond ition s and the more cont rolle d con diti ons
und er whic h mea sure men ts were mad e.
Str eam lini ng

The exte nt of the sepa rated flow regio n behi nd man y of the obje cts discu ssed in the prev ious sect ion can
be redu ced or elim inate d by strea mlin ing, or fairing, the body shap e. We have seen that due to the con -
verg ent body shap e at the tear of any obje ct (nfu~r all, ever y obje ct is of finit e leng th!), the strea m.I ines
will dive rge, so that Uie velo city will decr ease, and there fore, more impo rtant ly (as show n by the Ber- ,
_noul li equa tion , appl ic;ab le in .the fTeestream regio n) the press ure will incre ase. Hen ce, we initi ally hav e
an adve rse pres sure grad ient at the rear of the body , lead ing to boun dary -laye r sepa ratio n and ultim atel y
to a low~ pres sure wak e lead ing to large pres sure drag . Strea mlin ing is the attem pt to redu ce the drag on a
body . We can rei;i ucet he drag on a body by mak ing the rear of the body more taper ed (e.g. , we can redu ce
the drag on a sphe re by mak ing it "tear drop " shap ed), whic h will redu ce the adve rse pres sure grad ient
and henc e mak e the turb ulen t wak e smal ler. How ever , as we do so, we are in dang er of incr easi ng lhe
skin frict ion drag simp ly beca use we have incre ased the surfa ce area. In prac lice, there is an opti mum
amo unt of fairi ng or lape ring at whic h the total drag (the. sum of press ure and skin frict ion drag ) is
mini mize d.
The pres sure grac jienl arou nd a "tear drop" shap e (a "stre amli ned" cyli·n det) is Jess seve re lhan that
arou nd a cyli nder of circu lar secti on. The tradesoff betw een press ure and fricti on drag for this cas e .is
show n sche mi;it icall y in Fig. 9.14. The pressur:e drag incre ases as the thick ness is incr ease d, whi le
the frict ion <;l.nig due lo the boun dary lay~r flow decr ease s. TI1e lotal <!rag is the sum of the two con trib u-
tion s and is a mini mum a( som e valu e oflh ickn ess. This mini mum drag is cons idera bly less than I.hat of a
lThickness
Press_u re
drag
=::::::-...:::::..__________Skin friction
drag
Thickness
F.ig. 9 .1 4 Drag. coeff icien t on a strea mline d airfoil as a function of thickness·show_lng-contrib_utions-of-sk in frict ion
and
p~es.s ure.t o total d~g (adap ted from [191).
9.6 Drag 385
1.0 . - - - - - - - - . - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - . - - - - - - , - - - - - 7
0.8
0.6
- V
Poo
Ima,,
C
= 0.15
0.4
0.2
-0.2
--0.4
-0.6
--0.8 Re= ~c =6 X 106
-l.0'--- ---.J.._ _ _ _ _.1.__ _ _ _....J._ _ _ _ _.....,._ _ _ _ __,

0 0.2 · 0.4 0.6 o:a 1.0
Dimensionle ss distance, :r:lc
Fig. 9.15 Theoretical pressure distributions at zero angle of attack for two symmetric airfoil sections of 15 percent thickness
ratio. (Data from Abbott and vqn Doenhoff(21 ).)
cylinder with a diameter equal to this value Of thickness. As.a result, streamlini ng· of the strucrural mem- 1
bers on aircraft and automobile s ·Jeads Lo significant s;ivings.

4
The effect of the airfoil shape on the pressure distributio n and drag coeffici~n t is shown in
Figure 9.15 for two symmetric au-foils of infinite span and 15 percent thickness at zero angle of attack.
These results were generated by the National Advisory Committe e for Aeronauti cs (NACA), which was
founded in 1915 and undertook aeronautic al research and clevelopm ent until it was replaced by the
National Aeronautic s and Space Administra tion (NASA) in 1958. Transition on the conventio nal
(NACA 0015) airfoil talces place where the pressure gradient becomes adverse. at x/c=0.13 , near
I.be.point of maximum thidcnes$. Thus most of the airfoil surface is covered with a turbulent boundary
iayer; the drag coefficient is Co ~ 0.0061. The point of maxi.mum thickness has been moved aft on the
airfoil (NACA 662 -015) designed for laminar flow. The boundary layer is maintaine d in the laminar
regime by the favorable pressure gradient to x/c=0.63 . Thus the bulk. of the flow is laminar;
Co r:: 0 .0035 for this section, ba$ed on planforin .area. The drag coefficien t based on frontal area is
Co, = Co/0. 15 = 0.0233, or about 40 percent of the <:>ptimum for the shapes shown in Fig. 9.14.
Tests in special wind tunnels have shown that lauunar flow can be maimaine d up to length Reynolds
nurnb_ers as high as 30 million by appropriat_e prQfile. shaping. Because they have favorable drag char-
acteristics , laminar-fl ow.. riiifoils are used in the design of most modem subsonic aircraft
Recenq1.d vances have macJe possible developme nt of low-drag shapes even better than the NACA
60:..series shap~s. Experimen ts [21, 22] led to the developme nt ofa pressure distributio n that prevented
separation while m?intainin g the turbulent boundary layer in a condition th~t produces negligible-skin
4 Notetli!!t jjrag ~oef(icicnlS for airfoils are boscd on lhepla11fon11. areo. i. e .• Co= F 0 / ½p vi;1p, w"ere,t\p is the.mnxim!!m prpjectcd
wirii ~n.
386 Cha pter 9 Ext erna l Inco mpr essi ble Visc ous Flow
Fig. 9.16 Nearl y optim um shape fQr low-d rag strut (24].
frict ion. Imp rove d meth ods for calcu latin g body shap es that prod uced a desir ed pres sure dist ribu tion
[23, 24] Jed to deve lopm ent of near ly optim um shap es for thick strut s with low clx1!g. Figu re 9.16 sho ws
an exam ple of the resu lts.
Red uctio n of aero dyna mic drag also is impo rtant for road vehi cle appl icati ons. Inte rest in fuel eco n-
omy has prov ided sign ifica nt ince ntive to bala nce effic ient aero dyna mic perf orma nce with attr acti ve
desi gn for auto mob iles. Drag redu ction also has beco me impo rtant for buse s and ·truc ks.
Prac tical cons idera tions \unit the over all leng th of road vehi cles. Fully strea mlin ed tails are imp rac-
tical for all but land -spe ed-re cord cars . Cons eque ntly, it is not poss ible to achi eve resu lts com para ble to
thos e for opti mum airfo il shap es. How ever , it is poss ible to optim ize both front and rear cont ours with in
give n cons train ts on over all leng th [25- 27].
Muc h atten tion has been focu sed on fron t cont ours . Stud ies on buse s have show n that drag redu c~
tion s up to 25 perc ent are poss ible with care ful atten tion to fron t cont our [27]. Thu s it is pos sibl e to
redu ce the drag coef ficie nt of a bus from abou t 0.65 to less than 0.5 with prac tical desi gns. Hig hwa y
tract or-tr ailer rigs have high er drag coef ficie nts- Co valµ es from 0.90 to 1.1 have been repo rted . Com -
merc ially avai lable add- on devi ces <;>ffer impr ovem ents in drag ofup lo 15 perc ent, part icula rly for win dy
cond ition s whe re yaw angl es are nonz ero. The typic al fuel savin g is half the perc enta ge by whi ch aer-
c;>dynamic drag is redu ced.
Fron t cont ours and d~ta ils are impo rtant for auto mob iles. A low nose and smo o.t hly roun ded con -
tour s are the prim ary featu res that prom ote low drag . Radi i of "A-p illar' ; and wind shie ld head er, and
blen ding of acce ssor ies to redu ce para site and inter feren ce drag have recei ved incr ease d atte ntio n. As
a resu lt, drag coef ficie nts have been redu ced from abou t 0.55 to 0.30 or less for. rece nt prod ucti on veh i--
cles . Rec ent adva nces in com puta tiona l meth ods have led to deve lopm ent of com pµte r-ge nera ted opti-
·11\um shap es. A num ber of desig n_s .hav e been prop osed , with claim s of Co valu es belo w 0. for veh icle s
4
com plet e with runn ing g_ e ar.
9.7 Lif t
For mos t obje cts in relat ive IT}Otion in a fl1,1id, the mos t sign ifica nt fluid force is the drag, How ever , ther :e
a.r¢ som e obje cts, such as airfo ils, for whic,h the lift is signi fican t. Lift is defin ed as the com pon
ent of flui d
forc e perp endi cula r to the fluid moti on. for an airfo il, the Lift coefficiem, CL, is defi ned as
(9.3 8)
It is wort h noti ng that the. lift coef ficie nt defin ed abov e and the drag coef ficie nt (Eq. 9..30 ) are eac h
defi ned as the ra!:io of an actu al forc e (lift Cir drag ) divid ed by the prod uct of dyn; unic pres sure and
area . This deno mina tor can be view ed as the force that wou ld be gene rate_d if we ima gine d brin ging
~o rest the fluid direc tly appr oach ing the .area (rec,all that the dyna mic pres sure is tpe diffe renc e betw een
~;,ta! and stati c pres sure s). This give s us a ..feel" for the mean ing of the coef ficie nts: The y indi cate
the -ratio _of the actu al forc e to this force . We note also that the coef ficie nt defin ition s incl ude V 2 in
the de~o mina tor; so that FL (or Fo) bein g prop ortio nal to V2 corre spon ds to a cons tant CL (or Co) ,
and th~t FL (or Fv) incre asin g with Vat a low.er rate than quad ratic corre spon ds to a decr ease in CL
(or Co) with V ,
9.7 Lift 387
The lift and drag coeffic ients for an airfoil are functio ns of both Reynol ds numbe r and angle of
attack; the angle of attack, a, is the angle betwee n the airfoil chord and the freestre arn velocit y vec~or. Vid~o.- Flow
Pas t an
The chord of an airfoil is the straigh t line joining the leading edge and the trailing edge. The wmg .- \i,joil (_a=O" J
section shape is obtaine d by combin ina a mean line and a thickne ss distribu tion (see Refere nce [21]
for details ). When the airfoil has a symr':ietric section , the mean line and the chord line both are straigh t
lines, and they coincid e. An airfoil with a curved mean line is said to be cambe red.
The area at right angles to the flow change s with angle of attack. Conseq uently, the planfo rm
area, Av (the maxim um projec;ted area of the wing), is used to define lift and drag coeffic ients for an
airfoil.
The phenom enon of aerodyn amic lift is commo nly explain ed by the velocit y increas e causing pres-
sure to decrea se (the Bernou lli effect) over the top surface of the airfoil and the velocit y decrea se (caus-
ing pressu re to increas e) along the bottom surface of the airfoil. Becaus e of the pressu re differe nces
relativ e to atmosp here, the upper surface of the airfoil m_a y be called the ~uction surface and the lower
surfac e the pressu re surface . ·
As was shown in Examp le 6.12, lift on a body can also be related to the circula tion around the pro- Video: Flow
Pasl an
file: In order for lift to be generat ed, there mus_t be a net circula tion around the profile . One may imagin e
Aiifoil (a = IO" J
the circula tion to be caused by a vortex "bound " within the profile.
Advan ces continu e in comput ational method s and compu ter hardwa re. Howev er, most airfoil da~
r;:-·. - ·- =----- - -
availab le in the literatu re were obtaine d from wind tunnel tests. Refere nce [21] contain s results from a
large numbe r of tests conduc ted by NACA . Data for some represe ntative NACA profile shapes are
describ ed in the next few paragra phs.
~:- ~~~~~-=; ::_
Lift and drag coeffic ient data for typical conven tional and lamina r-flow profile s are plotted in
Fig. 9.17 for a Reynol ds numbe r of 9 x 106 based on chord length. The section shapes in Fig. 9.17
are design ated as follows :
==~~ - - --
-
Conve ntioiza l-2301 5

2
LL
30 15 V-ul~o: Flow
Past an
l
secrioo d>ickn ~, (15 pe,cen , cho.-d) Airfoil (a= 20" j
maxim um cambe r locatio n <½ x 30 = 15 percen t chord)
design lift coeffic ient<! X 0.2 = 0.3)
"/..4minar Flow- 662 - 215
-l L
6 6 , - 2 15
Lsect ion d>ickn ~s (15 petten ,)

design lift coeffic ient (0.2)
· . maxim um lift c·o efficie ot for favora ble

pressu re gradien t (0.2)
locatio n of minim um pressu re (x/c ~ 0.6)
series design ation (lamin ar flow)
Both section s are camber ed to give lift at zero angle ofattack. As the-ang le.of anack is increas ed, the D.p-
berwee n the upper and lower surface s increas es, causing the lift coeffic ient to incre<!5e smoot,h ly until a
maxim um is reached . Further increas es in angle of attack produc e a suqden decrea se in cl:.. Toe airfoil is
sai4 to have stalled when Ct. drops in this fashion .
38 8 Ch apt er 9 Ext ern al Inc om pre ssib le Vis cou s Flo w
LB .--- -r-- ~-- -,.- ---- -,-- ---, ,--~
1.6 '
\
I
1.6
I
I
1.4 I
I
1.4 0.
I
I
''
1.2 I
I 1.2 <>
CL. 0 Cl
1.0 1.0
b.8 0 .8
0.6 0.6
Conventional sect ion Laminar-flow sect ion
(NACA 230 15) (NACA 662 -215 )
---,
v L
-
"
~ : ..
0 .___ _.__ _.,___ _.__ _.,___ -L.... ....J

_y_, •S
-~ -
I~
ir
0 ...__ _.__ __,__ _...__ ~-,- -L-- -l--_ _J

0 4 8 12 16 20 0 4 8 12 16 20
Angl e of attac k, a (deg) Angle of attac k, a (deg )
(a) Lift coef ficie nt vs. angle of attac k
0.02 0 ,----r---.----r----<'. )---r-~ 0 .020 r-- .-- --. --- -,- --. --- -,- -.
0.01 6 0 .016
Co Co
0.01 2 0.01 2
0 .008
Conv entio nal sect ion Lammar- llow sect ion
0.00 4 (NACA 230 15) 0.00 (NACA 66, 215 )
0 L.. .-- '--- ~-_ ,__ _ .,___ _.___, O 0~- ~4_ __._8_ _1_._2_ _1-'-6 --...J
0 4 8 12 2'--0 -'
16 20
Angl e of attac k, a (deg) Angle of attack, a (deg )
(b) Drag coef ficie nt vs. angle of attac k
Fig. 9.17 Lift and drag co.ef ficie nts vers us angl e of attac k for two airfo il sections of 15 perc ent thick
ness ratio at
Rec= 9 x 106. (Dat a from Abb_ott and von Ooe nhof f (21]. )
Air foil stal l resu lts whe n flow sep arat ion occ urs ove r a maj or port ion of the upp er sur fac e of the
airf oil. As the ang le of atta ck is incr ease d, -the stag nati on poin tm9 ves bac k alon g the low er sur fac
e of
the airf oil, as sho wn sch ema tica lly for the sym met ric lam inar 4low sect ion in Fig. 9.1 8a. Flo w on
the
upp er surf ace then mus t acc eler ate shar ply tQ roun d the nos e of the airfoil. The effe ct of ang le of
atta ck
on the theo reti cal upp er-s urfa ce ptes sur~ dist ribu tion is sho wn in Fig. 9.18 b. The min imu m pre
ssu re
bec om es low er, and its loca tion mov es forw ard on the upp er surf ace. A seve re adv erse pre ssu re
gra -
clie nt app ears foll owi ng the poin t of min imu m pres sure ; finally, the adv erse pre ssu re gra die nt cau
ses
the flow to sep arat e com plet ely from the upp er surf ace and the airfoil stal ls (the uni form pre ssu re
in the
turb µlen t wak e will be app rox ima tely equ al to the pres sure just befo re sepa rati on, i.e. , low ).
Mo vem ent of the min imu m pres sure poin t and accentuation of the adv erse pre ssu re gra die
nt
are resp qns ibJe_ for the sud den incr ease in Cp for the laminar-flow section, whi ch is app are
nt in
Fig . 9:17 . The sud den rise in Co is cau sed by earl y transition from laminar to turb ulen t bou nda ry- lay
er
fl.ow oil the up~ r surf ace. Airc raft with laminar~flow sect ions are designed to crui se in the low
-dr ag
reg ion .
9.7 Lift 389
- ----c::=
V
~ ;:,...--a-=_0_
- ---~~~==-=--=--=--=--=--=--=-=====
V
- - - ~- - - - ~
~ ·· -
·>----
/ a>O
Stagnation point
(a) Flow patterns
1.0 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - ,
0.8
x..._.
I
-=.a_ _ «.. ·- NAGA 66z-Ol.5
0.6 \
0.4
0.2
Q ,a.= 0° (CL.= OJ
a= 0.5° (CL= 0.1)
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
~1.0 - - - - - - ' - - - - - - ' - - - - , ' - - - . . . I . . . . - - - - - - ' ~ - - - - - '

I
_ ..
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Dlrriensii>nless distance• .Tic
(b) Pressure distribution on upper surface
f'ig. 9.1 s· Effect of angle of artack ·o n flowpattern and .theoretical pressure distribution for a symmetric lamrnar~flow airfoil
of 15 percent thickness ratio. (Data frorri Abbott and lion Doenhoff [211')
Because laminar-flow sections have very sharp leading edges, all of the effects. we hav_e described
are exaggerated, and they stall at lower angles of attack than conventional sections, as shown in
Fig. 9.17. The maximum possible lift coefficient, CL,.,.,, also is less for laminar-flow sections.
Plots of CL versus Co (called lift-drag polars) often are used to present airfoil data in <;Ompact fortn.
A polar plot is given in Fig. 9.19 for the two sections we have discussed. The lift/drag ratio. CL/Co , is
shown at the design lift coefficient for both sections. This ratio is very important in the design of au:craft:
The lift coefficient determines the lift of the wing and hence the load that c~ be carriedt a.o,d the drag
coefficient indicates a large part (in addition to that caused by the fuselage, etc.) ofthe drag the airplane
engines have co work against in order to generate the needed lift; heµce, in general, a high c L/Co is the
goa:l, . at whieh the laminar ~irfoil cl~arly excels. . . . . __ . _
Recent improvements m modeling and computational capab1lines have. made 1t possible to desi1m
airfoil sections that develop high lift ,vhile maintaining very low dr-ag [23, 24J. B.ounda.ry-layer calc':i-
lati~n codes. are used with inverse methods for calculating potential flow to develop pressure
39 0 Ch ap ter 9 Ex ter na l Inc om pre ssi ble Vi sco us Flo w
1.8 ~ - - - - . - - - - - - . - - - - - - - , - - - - - . - - - -
----,
1.6
l.4 Conventional section

(NACA 230 15) " '
'-.L ami n~r -llo w section

INACA 662-21 5)
0.8
0.6
0 .4 ~: =4 7.6
~- .,. --- - - - - CL= 0.3
0 .00 4 0 .00 8· 0.0 12 0 .01 6 0_0 20

Co
Fig - 9.1 9 Lif e-d rag pol ars for two airfoil sec tion s of 15 per cen t thickness
ratio, (0a ca from Ab bot t and von Oo enh off (21 ).)
cli str ibu tio ns and the res ult ing bo dy sha pes tha t pos tpo ne trartsition to the
mo st rea rw ard loc ati on po s-
sib le. Th e tur bu len t bo un dar y lay er fol low ing transition is maintained in
a sta te of inc ipi en t sep ara tio n
wi th nea rly zer o ski n fric tio n by app rop ria te sha pin g of the pre ssu re dis
trib uti qn.
Su ch com pu ter -de sig ned air foi ls hav e bee n use d on rac ing car s to dev elo
p ver y hig h ne ga tiv e lif t
(do wn for ce) to im pro ve hig h-s pee d sta bil ity and cor ner ing perfom1ance [23
). Air foi l sec tio ns esp ec ial ly
des ign ed for op era tio n at low Re yno lds num ber we re use d for the win gs
and pro pel ler on the Kr em er
pri ze- wi nn ing ma n-p ow ere d "G oss am er Co ndo r" [28 ], wh ich now han gs
h:1 the Na tio nal Ai r an d Sp ac e
Mu seu m in Wa shi ng ton , D.C:.
Al l rea l air foi ls- wi n.g s-a re of finite spa n and hav e les s lift and mo
Vid eo·: Win g Tip re dra g tha n the ir air foi l
sec tio n da ta wo uld ind ica te. Th ere are sev era l wa ys to exp lain this . If we
con sid er the pre ssu re dis tri -
bu tio n ne ar the ~n d of the win g, the low pre ssu re on the upp er and hig h
pre ssu re on the low er su rfa ce·
cau se flo w to occ ur aro und the win g tip, lea din g to trailing von ice s
(as sho wn in Fig. 9.2 0), an d
the pre ssu re dif fer enc_e is re9 uce ~. lea din g to les s lift. Th ese trailing vortice
s can als o be ex pla ine d mo re; :
abst:Ql.ctiy, in ter ms of cir cul ati on: We lea rne d in Sec tio n ($.5 tha t cir cul
atio n ~o t1n d a wi ng sec tio n is
pre sen t wh ene ver we hav e lift, and tha t the cir cul atio n is sol eno ida l-th
at is, it can no t en d in the flu id;
hen ce, the cir cul ati on ext end s beyonq. the wi ng in the for m of ~il ing vor
tice s. Tra illn g vo qic ~s c~n ~e
ver y str on g and per sis ten t, pos sib ly bei ng a haz ard to oth er ai.rct31} for
5 to 10 mi les be hi! ld a lar ge
air pla ne --a ir spe eds of gre ate r tha n 20 0 mp h hav e bee n measured.
Induced
"downwash"
i veloi;1t1es
Fig . 9.2 0 ScheriH1tlc repr!!sen;.itiori of the. tra ilin g

vo.r:cex sy~t~'!' of a .finite.wing.
s~fO(Zll,,P. Jvl., ••.Afii:mftVortic,!=s: Bc;nigri or Baleful?" Sj>11<l#Acronnu1ics. 53, 4;

April 1970; pp. 42- 49.
9.7 Lift 391
. Trailin g vortice s reduce lift because of the loss of pressur e differen ce, as we just mentio ned. This
reduct ion and an increas e in drag (called induce d drag) can also. be explain ed in the followi ng way: 11u~
0
downw ash" velocit ies induced by the vortice s mean that the effectiv e angle of attack is reduce d-the.
wing "sees" a flow at approx imately the mean of the upstrea m and downst ream dire.c tions-e xplain ing
why the wing has Jess lift than its section data would sugges t. This also causes the lift force (which is
perpen dicular to the effectiv e angle of attack) to "lean backwa rds" a little, resultin g in some of the lift
appear ing as drag.
Loss of lift and increas e in drag caused by finite-s pan effects are concen trated near the tip of the
wing; hence, it is clei,u- !hat a short. stubby wing will experie nce these eff~ts more severel y than a very
long wing. We should therefo re expect the effects to correla te with the wing aspect ratio, defined as
where Ap is planfor m area and b is wingsp an. For a rectang ular planfor m of wingsp an b and chord
length c,
b2 b2 b
AR= -=-= -
Ap be c
The maxim um lift/dra g ratio (L/D = Cd Co) for a modem low-dr ag section may be as high as 400 for
infinit e aspect ratio. A high-pe:;rfonnance sailplan e (glider) With AR=4 0 might have L/D= 40, and a
typical lighc plane (AR ~ 12) might have L/D ~ 20 or so. Two exampl es of rather poor shapes are lifting
bodies used for reentry from the upper atm<>sphere, and water skis, which are hydrofo ils of low aspect
ratjo. For both of these sllap~, L/0, typicall y is I~ tban unity.
Variati ons in aspect ratio are seen in nature. Soarin g birds, such as the albatro ss or Califor nia
condor , have thin wings of long. span. l;Jird1; that must maneu ver quickly to catch their prey, such as
hawks . have wings of relative ly short span, but large area, which gives low wing loading (ratio of weight
to planfo rm area) and thus high maneuv erabilit y. · · ·
It makes sense that as we tty togener'l).te. more lift from a finite wing (Qy, for exampie. increas ing the
angle of attack) , the trailing vortice s and therefo re the downw ash increas e; we al.so learned that tii~·
downw ash causes the effectiv e angle of attack to be less than that of th¢ coq:esp onding airfoil
section ·(i.e., when AR= oo), ultimat ely leading to.loss of lift and.to induce d drag. Hence, we conclu de
tha.t the effects of !he finite aspect ratio can be charact erized as a reducti on. Aa in the effectiv e angle of
attaclc, and that this (which is 1,1suaHy undesir able) beeome s worse as we gepei;a te more lift (i.e., as the lift
coeffic ient CL i:Qc.reases) and as the aspect ratio AR is made smaller . Theory and experim ent indicat e that
Aa :::::
Cl
-. - (9AO)
n:AR
Compa red with arpµ1fo il section (AR= oo ), the geome nic angle of attac~ qf a wing (finite AR) must pe
µicreas ed by tnis. amoun t to get the Sain~ lift, as shown in Fig. 9.21. It also means that inste~d.of being.
Geometric angle of attack, u Lift coefficie nt, CL
f':ig: 9.21 Effect of finite-asp ect ratio on II.ft and.dra~ coefficient,s for a wing.
392 Cha pter - 9 Exte rnal Inco mpr essi ble Visc ous Flow
Total (profi le) drag 1 }
Sk1n- frict1o n J. Pres sure j Nonli fting bodies

drag : drag :
I
Total drag 1
Profil e (form ) drag I Induc ed drag :} Liftin g

- - 1 '"' 1 bodie s
Sk1n-fr1ct1on ..l Press ure J
drag : drag \
Fig. 9.22 Drag break down on nonll fting and liftin g bodi es.
perp endi cula r to the moti on, the lif1 force lean s angl e Ila back ward s from the perp end icul ar-w e hav e an
indu ced drag com pone nt of the drag coef ficie nt. From simp le geom etry
c2
6.Co:::::: CL/la :::::: ltA~ (9.4 1)
This also is show n in Fig. 9.21 .
\Vhe n writ ten in tenn s of aspe ct ratio . the drag of a wing of finite span beco mes [21)
. C· oo:, + C01= C Da o+Cf

C o= --
. . . ~\R (9.4 2)
whe re Co." " is the secti on drag coef ficie nt al C1.,, Co., is the induced drag coef ficie nt at C1.,, and AR is the
aspe ct ratio of the finite cspa n wing.
Drag on airfo ils arise s from visco us and pres sure forces. Visc ous drag chan ges w ith Rey nold s num -
ber but only sligh tly with angl e of attac k. Thes e relat ions hips and som e com mon ly used tem tino logy are
illus trate d in Fig. 9 .22.
A usef ul appr oxim ation lo the drag pola r for a com plete aircr aft may be obta ined by add ing the
indu ced drag to the drag at zero lif1. The drag at any lift coef ficie nt is obta ined from
Co= Coo + Co ;=C oo+ _L_

c2
. . ' itAR (9.4 3)
whe re Co.o is the drag coef ficie nt at zero lift and AR is the aspe ct ratio. The optim um crui sing spee d of aa
aircraf1. brin gs in thes e lifl and drag relat ions, as show n in Exam ple 9.7.
&a mp le. 9- 7 OPT IMU M CRU ISE. PER FOR MA NCE OF A. JET TRA NSP ORT
Jet •e ngin es bµm fuel at a rate prop ortio nal to .thru st deliv ered . The optin ium cruis e cond ition fora jet aircraft is at max jmu m spe ed
(or a giv.eo thrusL ln ste~ dy leve l fligh t. thru st and drag are .e qual . Hen ce, optim um cruis e occurs at the spee d whe n t11e
rati o of
drao_forc.e to air spee d Js .tniQimized. .
.. A ~ :qein g 7270 200 jet triln spon has wiri gpla nfom i area Ap =_1600 fr, and aspe ct ratio AR= 6..5. Stllll spee d ~t sea !eve .I
for ·
this ,airi: raft. with flap s up and a gros s weig ht of 150, 000 lbf is 175 mph . Belo w M Q.6, dra~ due to corr ipre ssib jlity effe cts
=
is:rtdgli~~1¢, so Eq. 9;43 may be used to estim ate total dnig Qn the aircraft. Co,o for tbe aircraft is cons tant at 0.01 82. Ass ume
soni ~ s~E;id. atse alev el is c = 759 mph . .
Eva iuat e the p~tf orm anc_e enve lope for this ain;r aft al sea leve l by plott ing drag force versus spee<J., betw een stall and
M =;; 0_6_
Use this grap h to e$"ti.mate opti mum crui se spee d for the aircr aft at sea-lev¢1 conditions. Com men t on stall spee d anci opt imu m
at
c@i se spee d for the aircr aft 30;0 00 ft altitu d~ ~n a stand ard day, _ _ .
Give n:- l3.9,e ing 727- 200 Jet ll:Wlsport at sea~level copclitions.
W = 150;000 lbf, A= 1600 ft2 , AR== 65, and Co,o =0.182
$_tall spee d is Vstaji = 175-niph, an.d com pres sibiJ ity eff¢c.ts on drag. .µ'e negl igibl e for M ~ Q,6 (son ic spee d at sea leve
l
is-•¢ =75 9 mph ). · ·
Find: Pnig fop::.e :as a ftiri:¢PJ>n, of spe_e d from V~1n11 to M = 0.6; _plot r.esults,
(?.-)
(b) ~ _tima te Qt optiq iutif·.<;.[)llS.¢ .$~!!9 at sea l~~eJ. . . _
(~} SJal l ~pe¢d.,~i ):,optimtm1. crµ.1~~. sp,e~d at 30;0 00 ft almu de.
9 .7 Lift 393
Solution: For stendy, level flight, weight equals lift and thrust equals drag.
~Qv~ming equations:
l c;_
h=CLA 2 pV2 = w C D ·=Co·•· o +1CAR
--
1 2 V
F 0 =CoA pV =T M=-
2 c
At sea level, p == 0.00238 sl'\lg/ft3, and c = 759 mph.
Sin¢¢ F ,_ = W for level flight at any spe<:;d, then
At stall speed, V= 175 mph, so

2
. hr. mi . fi:3
. s] 1 [slug· ft
5 36
Cc. =Z.X l 0,000lbfx Ci.00238 slug [Vmi x 5280 ft x 00 hr 1600 fr X lbf· S2
. .· · 4 4
Ct. = 3.65 X 10 3.65 X 10 . = Ll9 and o,
. [V(mph)] 2 (175)2° .
c2 (1 196)2 .
Co=Co,o+~=0.0182+ n:(6 ,5 ) =Q,0882
FD= w~1 0 2
=:150,000Jbf( ~~~: ) =l l,100 ltif
Al M=0.6, V=Mc::::;:(0.6)759 mph::::;:455 mph, so C,_=0.177' and

. . ..·.· . (o:p7)2 _ .. .
Co=0,0182+ .x(t:i.S) =0.0_
1 97
0
Fv = l50,QQO.Ibf( ~~1~;) = lei,700 lbf
Similar calculatioqs lead to the follo\'ving table (COffiJ)Uted using -~cei):
V(mph) 175 200 300 400 455
CL l.196 0.916 0.407 0.??9 0 .177
Ct, 0 .0882 0.0593 0.0263 om.os 0.0197
Fo(lbf) 11,100 9,710 9,700 13, 600 t6,700
The.se data may be plotted as:
20
M::0.6
~
D 15
D
D
C Stall
., I
I:!
~ 10
~ ✓ ....._______Optimum
✓
-5 ✓ cruise
speed a:: 320 mph
,,,---------
ls
,,,,,,.,,,,.,,,,.,
0
0~
·_-'----1~0~0---2~0----3~0- • • ---4loo-·-· -_jsoo
Level flight speed, v (mph)
39 4 Ch ap ter 9 Ex ter na l In co mp res sib le Vi sco us Flo w
·Ft:Qm di¢ :pl at. ."µi"¢ o_ptjm(lm' cru ise sp ~~ at sc;,.:t lev ~l is est im ate d as 32
0 m~ h
(l:i:n'cl 4~i:Qg~ctl -~ eo b~ P~ . mph~. _ _, .
A1t ~0~~@"4 :(9 14 0m ), alt iaj q~•.th¢::.d ens itr is,:only abo ut 0.39:,5 times sea _
lev:et
d~~i:W• .fro m~ ijb l~ A :3..·To es~ e~ ds'f6tcoqespont'iln"1~Jo~es are-calculated.from
..... ~ leii.~ f l __.6 ·
V::t!! _
!;i_r: V=v~ c;>r- Vs~=-v/)3 ~.,,..VOYis-l. .3
Tiitl$_; ~p:¢ecl$d nc rea se' 6J·:p¢rii~nt at ~0.<100" fr aitlwd~t
\/.~(#.I! ~'i.:&§:yppli
V.:ruisc•~ 522 mph
It is po ssi ble to inc rea se the effe ctiv e asp ect ratio for a win g of giv en geo
me tric rat io by ad din g an
end pla te or win g/e t to the wing. tip. An endpla te ma y be a sim ple pla te aua
che d at the tip . pe rpe nd icu lar to
the wi ng spa n, as on the rea r-m oun ted wi"ng of a rac ing car (se e Fig . 9,2
6). An end pla te fun cti on s by
blo cki ng the flo w tha t ten ds to mi gra te fro m the hig h-p res sur e region bel
ow the wi ng tip to the low -
pre ssu re reg ion abo ve tl1e lip wh en the win g is pro duc ing lift. Wh en the
end pla te is add ed. the str en gth
of the tra ilin g vo rte x and the ind µce 4 dra g are red uce d.
WingleLS are sho rt, aerodynamicii.Uy c·o nto ure d win gs set per pen dic ula r to
the wi ng at the tip . Li ke
the en( \pl ate . the wi ng let red uce s me str eng m of me trailing vortex sys tem
and the ind uc ed dr ag , Th e
wh 1gl et als o pro du ces a sm all com pon ent of for ce in the flight dir ect ion ,
wh ich has the eff ect of fu rth er
red uci ng the ov era ll dra g of the ~rc raf t. Th e con tou ran d ang le of atta ck of
the win gle t are ad jus ted bas c:; d
on wi nd tun nel teSLS to pro vid e opt im um results.
As we hav e see n, air cra ft can be filled wit h low -dr ag airfoils to giv e exc ell
ent pe rfo rm an ce at cru ise
con dit ion s. Ho we ver , sin ce me ma xim um lift coe ffic ien t is low for thin airf
oils, add itio nal eff ort mu st be
exp end ed to ob tai n acc ept abl y low lan din g spe eds . In ste ady -sta te flight
con dit ion s, lift mu st eq ua l air -
cra ft we igh t. Th us,
1 .,
W= FL =C L p\1 -A
2
Mi nim um flig ht spe ed is d1ere_fore obt ain ed wh en CL = Ci...., . So lvi ng for
Vm in,
(9 .44 )
Ac cor din g to Eq . 9.4 4, the .mi nim um lan din g spe ed can be requc¢d by inc
rea sin g eit her c,._,_ or wi ng
are a. Tw o bas ic techn.iq\les are ava ilab le· to conLrol the se variables: var
iab le- geo me try· wi ng se cti on s
(e,g., ob tai ned thr oug h the use of flaps) or bou nda ry- lay er con tro l techni
ques.
Fla p~ ru:e mo vab le por tio ns of a win g tra ilin g edg e tha t ma y be ext end ed d1,1
ring \M eli ng an d tak eo ff
to incre<l-Se eff ect ive wi ng are.a, Th e eff ect s on lift and dra g of two typical
flap con fig ura tio ns ~ sh ow n
i~ Fig . 9.2 3, as app lie d to the N.A,CA 23 01 2 air foi l sec tio n. Th e ma xim
um lift co eff ici en t fo r thi s
sec tio n is i.rtcreased fro m 1.5 2 in the "cl ean " con dit ion to 3.4 8 wit
h dou ble -sl ott ed fla ps. Fr om
Eq . 9,4 4, the cor res po nd ing red uct ion in l~d ing sp·e ed wo uld be 34 perc;e
nt. _
Fig ure 9.2 3 sho ws tha t sec tio n dra g is inc rea sed sub sta nti ally by high-lift dev ice
s, Fr om Fig . 9.2 3b ,
sec tio n dra g at CL,,,.. (C o~ 0-2 8) wit h dou ble -slo tted fla ps is about- 5 tim
es as hig h as sec tio n dr: ag at
Ct ..- ( Co ~0 ;05 5) for the cle an air foi l. Ind uce d dra g ~u e to lffl mu st be add ed
to sec tio n dra g to OQ tai n
tot alc lra g. Be cau se ind uce d ~g is pro por tio nal to Ci. (Eq . 9.4 1), total dra
g rise s sba rpl y at low air cra ft
spe ecl s·. At sp ee ~ nea r sta ll, dra g ma y inc rea se e~o ugh to exc eed the thr
ust ava Ua ble fro m the en gin es .
To avo id tb.js.d ang ero µs re-gion ofu nst abl eop era tio ri, the Fedenl.l Aviation
Ad mi nis tra tio n (F AA ) lim its
operat.I"onc.o f c::ommercial air cra ft to spe eds _abo ~e 1.2 tim es st~ ! spee!i.
· Ai tho ug b (\ ~~ ~ be_yond the sco pe oft h,1s.bo ok. me bas ic pµrpose
of all bo un da ry- lay er co ntr ol
~¢c;h.Itiques:is ·t~: d~lay sep ara tio n ot red uc~ ,<!rag, b>' add ing momeiltµm
to the bo un dar y lay er thr ou gh
9.7 Lift 395
Configur ation
3.5
3.5
~=
CL
3 .0
2 .5
2.0
""
3 . Double-s lotted
~~
flap
2. Slotted flap
/: 3 .0
2.5
2.0
CL
1.5 1.52 ~ 1.5

1. Clean (no flap)
LO 1.0
0 ,5 0 .5
-5 0 5 10 15 20 0 0.05 0 .10 0.15 0.20 0 .25 0 .30

Angle of attack, a (deg} Co
(a) Lift coefficie nt versus angle of .a ttack {b) Lift-drag polar
Fig. 9 . 23 Effect of flaps on aerodyn amic characte ristics of NACA 23on~ airfoil section. (Data from Abbott and von
Ooenho ff [21).) ·
blowin g, or by removi ng low-mo mentum bounda ry-laye r fluid by suction. Many examp les of practic al Video: l..eodmg
bounda ry-laye r control syslem s.may be see[l on comme rcial trailspo rt aircraft at yollf local airport . Two E.dge Slat.<
Lypical system s are shown in Fig. 9.24.
Aerody namic lift is an importa nt conside ration in the design of high-sp eed land vehicle s such as
racing cars and land-sp eed-rec ord machin es. A road vehicle genera tes Jift by virrue of its shape (29].
A represe ntative centerl ine pressur e distribu lion·me asured in the \vind tunnel for an automo bile is shown
in Fig. 9.25. The regions of positiv e and negativ e pressur e coeffic ient are iabeled wjth +and -, respec-
tively, ~d indicat e the levels of pressur e on .the automo bile siu:face s.
The pressu re is low around the n¢se becaus e of streaml ine. clirvat1,1re as the flow rounds the
nose. The pressu re· reaches a maxim um at the: b1;1.se of the windsh ield, again as a ~sult of stream. line
curvat un;. Low-p ressure regions also occur at the WLl\dsJtl.eld header and over tqe top of the auro-
mobile . The air speed across the top is approx imately 30..percen t higher than the freestr eam l;lir speed.
The same effect occurs arqund the "A-pill ars" at the windsh ield edg~s. The CU'ag increas e caused
by an added object, such as an antenn a, spotligl:tt, or mirror at that locatio n, thus would be
( 1 .3 )2 ~ l. 7 times the drag the object would experie nce ip ail undistu rbed flow neld. Thµs the parasire
drag of an added compo nent can be much higher than would be predict ed from its ciJ:ag c~cula ted for
free flow.
At high spe.e ds, aerody namic lift forces can unload tires, causing serious reducti ons in steerin g con-
trol.an d reducin g stabilit y to a dangero us extent. Lift forces on: e1;1.rly racing cars were counte racted some-
what by "spoile rs," at conside rable penalty in drag. In I 965 Jim Hall introdu ced the use of movab le
inverte d airfoils on his Chapar ral sports cars to develop aerodym i.ink qownfo rce l).Iid p~vid e aerody -
namic brakin g (31]. Since then ~he develop menls in applica tion of aerody n,imic.device s have b_e en rapid.
Aerody namic design is used to reduce lifL on all modem racing cars, as exemp lified in Fig, 9.26. Liebec k
airfoils [23] are used frequen tly for high-sp eed automo biles. Their high lift coeffic ients and relativ ely
low drag allow dowilfo rce equal lo or greater than the car weight to be develo ped !lt racing sp.e eds.
•·Grou nd effect" cars use venniri -shaped ducts under the car and side skirts to s.e!l1 leakag e flows.
The net result of t)1ese aerody namic effects is that the downw ard force (which increasj !S with speed)
genera tes excelle nt traction withou t adding signific anl weigbt to the vehicle , allowin g faster speeds
throug h curves and leµding to lower lap times. . .
Anoth er method of bounda ry-laye r control 1s use of moving surface s to reduce skin friction. effects
on the boµnda ry layer [32]. This method is hard to apply to practic al devices , becaus e of geome tric and
weigh t compli cations , but it is very i?1ponan~ in recreat ion. Most golfers , tennis ph).yers, soccer players ,
and baseba ll pitcher s can attest to this! Tennis and soccer players use spin to control the trajecto ry and
bounc e of a shot. In golf, a <;!riv~ c~n leave the tee _at 27_5 ft/s or more, with packsp in of 9000 rpm! Spin
provid es signific ant aerodynru,ruc Lift lhat substan tially increas es the carry of a·drive. Spin is also largely
39 6 .Ch ap ter 9 Ex ter nal .Inc om pre ssi ble Vis cou s Flo w
1
ia
..,
~~- "--- '--" ~"" "'-' -'=. ,.... a"- =-- '-a- ---- '--- '- =: '.! !!! E: :~ ~~ ~~ ... ..: ..-
,,- --' -= -~ ~~ 6
Fig . 9-:.24 (a) Applh:atlon of h_igh- lift b_o und ary- laye r control devices to reduce land ing
spee d of a jet tran spo rt air cra ft Th e
win g ~f the Boe ing 777 is high ly mech;mlzed. In the land ing configuration, large slot
ted tr.ii llng -edg e;fla ps roll ·ou t fro m
und er the win g and defl ect dow nwa rd to incr ease win g area and cam ber, thus increasi
ng the lift coe ffic ient . Sla ts at the·
lead ing-edg e of the win g mov e.forward and dow n, to incr ease the effective r.idlus of
the lead ing edg e and pre ven t: now
sep arat ion , and to ope n a sl_oJ that help s kee p air flow atta che d tp _the wing's upp er
su~ ce. Afte r tou chd own , spo iler s
(no t sho ~n In \!Se) ;ire.,.ii_sed in·fr ont.of each flap to decr ease lift and ensu re that the plan
e rem ains on the gro und , des pit: e use
of the_1lfi:-a1.1gmenting.de vlce s. {This phi;,I<>graph was take n duri ng-a flight test . Flow
con es are atta che d to the nap s a·nc1
alhi°rons to Iden tify regi ons cif sep arat ed flow on thes e.su rfac es;)
Fig i9., 24 .(b,) P,-pplic;atiim .ofh l$h•-,1ift~o11i:idacy.~li1~er_i:ontrol_-_d evic ~ to reduce takeoff_•~peed'.of aje t·tra
Thl ~Jsa noih er..v iew,of.,the·Bo.e:ing 7/l,7;Yli ng, ·1n. th.e•talte off.conf_l_g_ura t1gn, larg e slot ted. nsp·on: air cra ft
tra 1hng-edge.fli!Pl>,de_flec.t to inc rea se
the;llf(~~~(fi~l~rit Thdi:i'iY,:,Sp,!!,~~; ;ii!~ro,n nea r thew ingtiP, i!.IS<> 4efl ects to imp rovf sp;m
l<>aping d11ring, t,!k eof f, Thi s vie w
ii;q;;h:9.~~:tfiiqlilg!~-~-1p;µj!~_•o11_ttfgatd flap, the hlgh:-:~P.eE!d aileron; ahil. nearest the. fuselage, .the dou ble -slo
tted
lnl>oiii:d:fl@P.~
9"7 lift 397
C - P -p_~
,.- },,vz
.----, ,
Fig. 9.2~ Pressure distribution along th_e centerline of an automobile (based on data from Reference [39]).
a
c,.
i
l
I
:i
:a;
~
o·
e
m
.i
L-__:_..- - - - '= - ~ - ~ ~ ~~ ~~~__,____;.....;;__;.:_~- -'-''---"-----'-"---'-"--"-c;;_.;'--"'.....;;_- - ' ---'-~--'-'---' "'·
Fig. 9.26 Contemporary racing c.1r showing aerodynamic features. The air's front and rear wings are designi;,d to.
provide significant downforce at speed to lmprov.e traction, Also visible are fairings to direct hot.air from the·radiators around
the rear tires, and at the front of the car, cool air toward the brakes. Not shown are· other aeroqynamic features such as
··theifuselage· bottom, which is designed to route the airflow .ca~efully, using diffusers, to develop the most negative
pr~sure, arid. to cause this _negative pressure to act,o.ver the liirgest possible.area under the car; .to develop adc;liti<>nai
c:lownforce.
responsible for hooking arid slicing. when shots are not hit squarely. The baseball pitc:her uses spin to
throw. a curve b?,.11.
Flow about a spinning sphere is shown in Fig. 9.27a. Spin alters the-pressure distribution and also
affeGtS the location -of boundary~layer separation. Separation is delayed on the upper surface of the
sph~te in Fig. 9.27 a, and it occurs earlier o~ the lower sµrface. Thus pressure (bec_m~se of the Bernoulli
effect) is reduced on the upper surface ;u:id mcreased on the lower surface; the wake is deflected down-
ward as shown. Pressure forces cause a lift in.the direction shown; spin, in the opposite direction would
prt:iduc;:e negative lift-a ~own~v~d force. The fon:;e is directed perpe?dic~lar to both v iµid the spin axis.
Lift and-:drng data for spmnmg smooth ·spheres are presented m Ftg. 9.27b. The most impoctan,t
parameter is the spin ratio, (J)D /2 \I, the i:ntio ~f su~ac_e speed _to fi:estream flow speed; Reynolds nun:i~
ber plays a secondary mle; At
low spm ~uo, 11ft IS neg?~ve 10 terms_ of the directions shown iii
Fig, 921a. Only above wD /2 V ~ 0.? does hft become posmve and co.n nnue- to increase as spin ratio
39 8 Ch ap ter 9 Ext ern ;;1l 1n·c om pre ssi ble Vis cou s Flo w
Lift force, FL
0.6
· . . _ . ·.
~ . ---- .
Wak:·
~ 0.2
~
0 2 3 4 5
Spin ratio ;~
(a) Flow patt ern (bl Lift and drag coef ficie nt!;
Fig . 9.2 7 FIQW patf ern , Ifft, an!) drag coe ffic ient s for a smo oth spin ning sph ere In unif
orm flow . (Da ta from
Referenc;:e [19 ].)
·
0,3 Con_v,mtlonal
Co
-He~
u""
-.:,·
...
c:: Q.2 .
d
O~l Ct.
Q.Q l ().1 0 .3
Spin ratio; ~ Fig. c).2 a Comparison ofco nve n.t!~ nal and hex -·dl mp led -
gol t balls (bas·e d on data from Ref eren ce· [30 ) ).
inc rea ses , Lif t coc;fficierit levels out ata oou t0.3 5. Spi n has little effect on sphere dra g-co
eff icie nL, wh ich
var ies fro m about- O.~ to abo ut 0.6:S ove r th_e ran ge of spin ratio shown.
E;n :lie rwe. mentioriep th¢ effect of dimples on the drag ofa gol f.ball. Elq:ieriro¢n~al. qat
a for lift an d
~g Gbeffic:ients for spinp:ing. gol f l;>_aUs are presented in !<jg. 9.2 8 for sub crit ital Re yno
lds nu mb ~rs
betwec;n 126,0.Q0 and. 238;0!)0; ,Agiµh lh_e independent varia:ble is spin •ratioi a mu ch sm
all er ran g~ of
spi n [Jl_ti<;>, typ ica l of goi f balls, is preseqte".d in Fi~: 9.28.
Ac lea i:~ nd .i s.e,vi(!ent Th e lift c:l;Jefficient.increases consistently wi!Jt spin rati o for bot h
he xa go na l
_a nd ·•conventi.o n~ " (i:Qu.nd ) dimples. 1Ji e Uft ~oefficient on ·a gol f _!:)*II witn hex ago
nal dim ple s is
sJgllincantly~ii-S iimcli as 15 per cen t~h igl )er than OP a ball with roµnd dim pI~, Th
e, <J.dvap.tage fo_r
b¢X;llgQnal dimples·c:o ri~,u~ toJ he lar ~es upi n.ratios that were measured. Th~ dra g co~
ffic ien t for a
q·11Jrw i.t bbe xag ona l diriiples i$ -consistently; 5 to7 perc~pt lower: than the drag c:;oe(f.icient
for a ba ll wi th
rpµp(J pu np l~_- at. low spi n fl!.!ios, .~l,it tlle ·difference becom¢s 1~.s pronounced as
spi n ratie> ii:i cre ase sa
. Th¢ com bin ati.o n of high~_r lift ancl lower drag increases the cai:ry of a gol f shot. A rec ent des i•g n-
tlie.1 G~aw~.Y HX,___,.has improved peµopmlrlc:;e further by using .;i, <'t1,1bular lattice rietWork" usi ng rid gt,:
.s
·,o.flieXagQn~~iw4-p,~n~gons (atca,p~c:;ise hhl gtit o.fQ.0083 in.) i.ilstead of dimples, so tha t
spo ts, at :fill .:6ri tQ~ s)iifll~J3,4}- .Callaway c:la,ims the HX flies fiµ::t!Jer-'than any bal l the y
thei:e no fla t are
ev er tes ted .
~an :ip le 9::8·i}liigrates th~ effect .of spin off tlie lift of a spinning gall .
9.7 Lift 399
Example 9.8 LIFT OF A SPINNING BALL
A smooth tennis ball, with 57 g mass and 64 mm diameter, is hit at 25 m/s with topspin of7500 rpm. Calculate the aerodynamic
lift acting on the ball. EvaluaL~ the radius of curvature of its path at maximum elevation in a vertical plane. Compare with the
radii.ls for no spin.
Given: Tennis ball in flight, with m=57 g and D=64 mm, hjt with V=25 m./s and tqpspin of7500 rpm.
Find: (a) Aerodynamjc lift acting on pa.II.
(b) Radius of curvature of path iil vertical plane.
(c) Comparison with_ raqius for no spin.
Solu~io11: Assume ball is smooth.

Use data from Fig. 9.27 Lo find lifl:
Ct,~J(~i•Ren).
From given data (for standard air-, v= 1.46 x ~o- 5 ni2 /s),
wD l .. rev . s rad min ,
-. . - . = ,-.x7500- . xO.OMmx.- -X2n:-x
· mm
= ~-0.1
2V 4 25m rev 60
.. s
VD _m . s O s
Ren--=--11·· =2.).-'--X0.064mx
s .
. 5- 2 =1..1 xlO
L46x ro~: m
'Flvm i:=ig. 9.27. cL~o.3, so
. 1 . ?
Ft,= cui 2 pv-
. 1'1)21, 1t - · ?
= CL pV-=;;. Cl')Yp_V-
42 8 2
. n: - · 22 kg . 2m N·s2 _ _ . F
. ---..,.....,.......,~----,..~ - - - - - ~ - ~-~ ,_
Fu=::;- x0.3 x(0,9.64} m X 1.237 X.{,i.5) -'-::,:- X k- ~~ -- =0.3.71 N..-
·8 m - s- g-m ·
Bec;a.m;~ meball is. hit witQ topspin, this .force acts d9Y{nwru:ct.
Use. New tori's .se¢9nd law to evaluate th~ cµrvatu~ of the p,ath. In .the v.erti~al pl?J;te,
. v~ vi
_X:F~ = - F 1:, - mg,= mat= - mR or: R=. .
g+FL/m
2
R = (25)2~ [ -· l 1 . k ·· · ]
_, +0.371 Nx . _ :: ·
s- _9.8lm x g•m
s- Q.057 kg N. s2
'R :=38,,3ti:i{with spin) <------ - ~- ' - - - - - --'-'----- ~ ~'---"-----~_.:.: R
2
. ai2 s"~
R=(25) . ~ 2 X 9_s"111~=6::l.71rj (wi'1toutspiti) ....- ~- --~-~~~---- ~__;R:.:·.
Thus· tppspin has a significa,it effect on trajectory ot'the shot!
le has Jong been known that a spinning projectile in flight is affected by a force perpendicular to the
clirection of motion and to the spin axis. Th.is effect, known as the l\tfagnus effect, .is responsible foe the
systematic drift of artillery shells.
Cross flow about. a rot~tin~ circ~lar cylinder is_ qualitatively similar to flow about the spinning
sphere s hown schemaucally m F1_g . 9._7a. lf_the _veloclly of the upper surface of a cylinder is in the same
direction as the freestream veloc1Ly. separation 1s delayed on the upper surface; it occurs earlier on the
lower surface. Thus the wake is deflected and the.pressure distribution on the cylinder sucface is altered
40 0 Ch ap ter 9 Ex ter nal Inc om pre ssi ble Vis cou s Flo w
12 -- -- -- -- ~ -- ~ -- -, -- --
-
10
V
8
- - - - - - - - - - Co
.,.,-
2
-- .,".,
-2 '-- --- -'' --- --' --- ~- --- '-- --' --- -'
0 l 2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 9.2 9 Lift and drag ofa rota ting cyli nde r as a fun ctio n
of rela tive rota tion al spee d; Mag nus forc e. (Da ta fro m
Spin ratio , wD/ 21'
Reference [35].)
wh en n;>tation is pre sen t. Pre ssu re is red uce d on the upp er sur fac e and inc rea sed on
the low er sur fac e.
caus ing a net lift for ce act ing upw ard . Spi n in the opp osi te dire ctio n reverses the se
eff ect s and cau ses a
dow nw ard lift for ce.
Lif t a:nci dra g coe ffic ien ts for the rota ting cyl ind er are bas ed on projected are a, W .
Ex per im ent all y
me asu red lift and dra g coe ffic ien ts for sub crit ica l Rey nol ds num ber s bet wee n 40, 000
and 66 0,0 00 are
sho wn as fun ctio ns of spi n rati o in Fig . 9.2 9. Wh en sur fac e spe ed exc eeds flow spe ed,
the lift coe ffi cie nt
inc rea ses. to sur pris ing ly hig h val ues , wh ile in two -dim ens ion al flow, dra g is ~fe cte
d onl y mo der ate ly.
Ind uce d dra g, wh ich mu st be con sid ere d for finite cyl ind ers, can be red uce d by usi ng
end dis ks lar ger in
dia me ter tha n the bod y of t.he cyl ind er.
To e pow er req uire d to rota te a cyl ind er ma y be esti ma ted from the skin fric tion
dra g of the cy lin de r
sur fac e. 'flo em er [35 ] sug ges ts bas ing the ski n friction dra g esti mat e on the tan gen tial
sur fac e spe ed an d
sur fac e are a. Go lds tein [19 ] sug ges ts tha t the pow er required to spin the cyl ind er, wh
en exp res sed as an
equ iva len t dra g coefficient:, ma y rep res ent 20 per cen t or mo re of the aer ody nam ic
Cv of a sta tio nar y
cyl ind er.
9. 8 Su mm ar y an d Useful Equations
In thi s cha pte r we hav e:
✓ De fin ed and dis cus s~d v~ripus ter ms com mo nly USEld in aer ody
namics; suc h as: bo un da ry -
hJyei;- dis tur ban ce, dis pla cem ent and mo me nt~ ':' thi~knesses; flow s1:p_aratio~; str eam
ski n fric tio n and pre s.s ure dra g and dra g coeff1oe11t; lift and lift coefficient; wi ng ch lin ing ;
ord , sp an
and asp ect rat io; and ind uce d dra g. .
✓ De riv ed exp res slo ris for the bou nda ry- lay er thic kne ss on a fla t pla te
{ze ro pre ssu re gra die nt)
usi ng exa ct and apl:'roximat;e 1;1etl:iods (us ing the m~ rne ntu m inte gra l e9u ati on) .. _
✓ Lea rne d how to est im ate the hft and dra g fro m published dat a for
a var iety of ob Jec ts.
wh ile inv est iga tin g the abo ve phe nom ena , we developed insight into som e of the ba
sic co n-
cep ts of aer ody nam ic des ign , suc h .as how to mi_nirnize ~rag, h~w to det rrn ine the
7
cru (sii lg -s p.e ed of an airp lan e, and how to det erm ine the hft required for flig ht. op tim um
No te: Mo st oft he eqµ ~tio ns in the tab le bel ow hav e a num ber of constraints. or lim ita
tio ns- be su re-10
r.~Jer to,.t h~f rpa g_~ ~t1mb,ers for det ails !
9.8 Summ ary and Useful Equat ions 401
Usef ul Equa tions

Defini tion of dis placem ent 6 (9. I) Page 356
lhick.n ess: o·= 1°"(1-i7)t1_v;::;1 (1 - ~)d_v
Defini tion of momen rnm
thickne ss:
1°"
0= o U l - U dy;:,;
II ( 11 )
o 11
U 1{i ( II )
I- U dy
(9.2) Page 357
Bound ary-lay er thickne ss 5.0 5.0x (9. 13) Table 9 -2,

o~
~ ..fl]Tv -
x- -
~
- Page W9-2
(lamin ar, exact- Blasiu s):
Wall stress (lamina r, exact - 0 .332pU2 (9. 14) Page W9-3

B·lasiu s): T..,=0.332U ✓pµU/x=
fl[e;
Skin friction coeffic ient (lamina r, rw 0 .664 (9.15) Table 9-2 ,
exact- Blasiu s): CJ = l p
2
u2 = ,JRii;
.t"
Page W9-3
Mome ntum integra l equatio n: (9.17) Page 363

T.,. =!!_(U 20)+o ·udU
p dx cb::
(9.21) Page 365
Bound ary-lay er thickne ss for flat
plate (lamin ar, approx imate- b ~ 5.48
~= p Ux = ,./Re;
polyno mial velocit y profile) :
Defini tion of skin friction Tw (9.22) Page 365
C1=1 U2
coeffic ienL: '5.P -
Skin friction coeffic ient for flat C _ 0.730 (9.23) Page 366
plate (lamina r, approx imate- 1- ,!Re;
polyno mial velocit y profile) :
Bound ary-lay er Lhickness for flat ~ =0.382 ( ~ ) li S = 0.382 (9.26) Page 369
plate (turbul ent, approx imate- x Ux Re_!l 3
½--pow er-law velocit y profile);
Skin friction coeffic ient for flat C = ~ = 0.0594 (9.27) Page 369
plate (turbul em, approx imate- f ! plP
:!
R ex1/ 5
+-powe r-law velocit y profile) :
Defini tion of drag coeffic ient: Fo (9.30) Page 375
Co= 21 p V1-A
Drag coeffic ient for flat plate C _ 1.33 (9.33) Page 376
. O- ,./Rii;_
(entire ly lamina r, based on
Blasiu s solutio n):
(entire ly turbule nt, based on o- 1/ 5
ReL
½--pow er-law velocit y profile);
9 o- . .,
(empir ical, ReL < 10 ): {log ReL)_.5s
Drag coeffic ient for flat plate Co= 0.0742 _ 1740 (9.37a) Page 376
5
(based on -½th power- law velocity Re~/ ReL
5 7
profiJe , 5 X 10 <ReL < 10 ):
brag coeffic ient for flal plate C _ 0.455 1610 (9.37b) Page 376
5 9
(empir icaJ, 5 x l0 5,ReL 5' 10 ) : o - (log ReL)2 58 --- ReL
Defini tion of lift coeffic ient: -

C L- FL (9.38) Page 38~
- ½pV2 Ap
(Ca111in111:d)
40 2 Ch ap ter 9 Ex ter na l In co mp res sib le Vi sco us Flo w
Ta ble (C on tin ue d)
De fin itio n of asp ect rat io: bi (9. 39 ) Pa ge 39 1
AR == -
Ap
Dr ag coe ffic ien t of a win g (fin ite
Co = Co•00 + Co•; = Co•00 + _L _
c2 (9. 42 ) Pa ge 39 2
spa n air foi l, usi ng Co. 00 ) : 1CAR
D~ g coe ffic ien t of a win g (fin ite ci (9. 43 ) Pa ge 39 2
spa n air foi l, usi ng C 0 , 0 ): Co = Co.o +C o,, = Co O + _L _
. 7CAR
~ ~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~ - .;lie:

G
1. Pi:a ndt l. L., ''Ailicl Mo tio n wit h Ve ry Sm all Fri ctio n (in
-. etm. an) •.. p roc
·
eed"mg s oif I I1e Tl.
""d I ntemat1011
.. I C a ong res s 011
Ma the ma tics , He ide lbe rg, 190 4; Eng lish lral lsla lion ava ilab le as
14 . Fl11e111. Flu ent Inc orp ora ted
O .
1 Cav end ish Court., Leb ano n NH•037 66
Ce l
n err a
(
R
eso
fl urc es Pa rk •
~
NA CA TM 452 , Mo rch I 928 . 15. STA R- CD · Adapc . ' ww w. uen t.co n~ ).
o. 60 Bro adh ollo w Ro ad, Me lvi
. 11747 (ww w.c d-a dap co. com ). lle , NY
2. Bla siu s, H .• '1" he Bo unc lary Lay ers in Flu ids wit h Liu le Fri c-
16 . Ho e~e r, S. F., Fluid-Dynamic Dra g, 2nd ed. Mi dla nd Pa rk
tio n (in Ge rm an) ," Zei tsc hri ft ftlr Ma the ma tik 111,d Physik, 56. I,
NJ: Pub hsh_e d by the aut hor , 1965. •
190 8, pp. 1-3 7; En gli sh trnnslaLion ava ilab le ns NA CA TM
J 256 , Feb rua ry J 950 . 17• Sha piro . A. H., Shope and Flow, tire Flu id Dy na mi cs of Dr ag
Ne w Yo rk: An cho r, 1961 (pa per bac k). ·
3. Sch lich tin g,_H., Bo und ary -I.A yer The ory . 7th ed. Ne w Yo rk:
t',,1¢draw~Hill, I 979 . 18 . Fag e:. A., "Ex ~e~ me nts on a Sph ere al Cri tica l Re yn old s
Nu mb ers , Gre atB ntru n,A ero na1.11ica/ Res ear ch Co unc il R ep or ts•
4. Sto ~_e s_, G. G ., "O n tl-!e Ef.(ect of the Int ern al Fri ctio n of Flu ids and Me mo ran da, No. 1766, 1937.
on the Mo ti1 ,n of Pen dul um s," Cambr.idge P/rilosophical Tra nsa c- '
•tioris, 1X, 8, 185 1. 19 . Go lds tein , S., ed., Mo dem De vel opm ent s in Flu id Dw zan uc s
Vo ls. I nnd 11.. Ox for d: Cla ren don Pre ss, 193 8. (R epr int ed 1~
5. Ho wa rth , L .• "O n the Sol uti on of the Lam ina r Bo und ary - pap erb ack by Do ver . New Yo rk. 196 7.)
La yer Eq uat ion s," Pro cee t!in gs of rlie Ro yal Soc iety of Lo11do11,
Al 64 , 193 8. pp. 547 -57 9. :2,0. Mo rel, T., and M. Bo hn, "R ow ove r Tw o Cir cul ar o· ks
m ~ao d~m ," Transactions of the AS ME; iou ma l of Fl, ~d s
6 .• H~ s. J. L., and A . M . 0. Sm ith . "Ca lcu lati on of Pot ent ial Errgmeerurg, 102. 1. Ma rch l98 0, pp. 104 -11 1.
.FiQw Ab out .Ar bitr ary l3o die s," in Pro gre ss in Aero11a11fical
Sci enc es; Vo ). _8 , D. K1Jchem,!.!ln et al., eds . Elmsford.. NY:Pe rga- 21 . _Abbott., I. ~-· and A. E. von Do eoh off , Th eor y of w,11g
Secflons, Jncl11d111g a Sunmrary of i\i, foi l Da ra. Ne w Yo rk:
mori ~ s, 196 6. Do ver , 195 9 (paperback).
7. Kra us, W •• ·''P ane l Methods in Ae [9! iyn am ics ," in.N um eri cal
Me tho ds in Flu idD ynt ,mi cs, B., J.. Wirz. nnd J. J. Sm old ere n_, eds . 2~ - _s~~ for d, B, S., "An Experimenllll Flo w wi th Ze ro Sk in
Fnc uon , Jou rna l of Fluid Mechanics 5 Pt- 1 Jan uar y 19 -9·
Wa shi ngt on, D~ :H i:m isp h~ . 197 8. pp. 17- 35. ' ' . • ::> '
8. Rc; ,sen hea d. L., ed., Lam ina r B01uul_ary lAy ers.. Lon don :
23. Lie bec k, R. H., "De sig n of Sub son ic Air foi ls for Hi gh
Qx fon :l Un ive rsit y Pre ss, 196 ~.
Lif t," AI M Jou ma l of Aircraft, 15. '9, Se pte mb er J-9 78,
9. Ro na, J. C., "Tu rbu len t Bo und ary Lay ers iri lncOIJlpressible pp. 547-56 1.
Flo w," in Pro gre ss in Aeronaurica/- Si:i1mces, A.. Fer ri, et al..
eds . ~e w Yo rk: -P erg am on Pre ss, 1.96 0, pp. 1~2 20. 24 . s~.th: A. ~- 0., "Ae rod yna mic s of Hig h-L ift: Ai rfo il
Sys tem s, m Flurd Dynamics of Air cra ft Sta llin g AG AR D
1 o. Kli ri¢ . S. ) .. et al.•.. eds ., Pro cee din gs, Comp1itation of tur CP -10 2, 197 3, pp. 10-1 thr oug hl0 -26 .
bu• •
ten t }Jo_iqiqa,ry [,,a yer s-1 96. 8 AFOSR-IFP-Stanfor_d Conference,
'Vol. l: lvte.tbp ds. Pre dic tio ns, Ev~ hia tion , ~! i Flo w Strucfiire, 25 - lv!orel, T., •:E ff~ ~of Ba seS lan ton Flo w in the Ne ar W ak e of
,imd Vol. .n; Compi_le<J p~µi, ~tnnfof(I, <;;A :Th enn osc ieri c~ an Ax isy mm etn c Cylinder," J'\eronawical 'Q11arrerly XX ,Y.I Pt: .,
Ma y 198 0. pp. 132 -14 7. . ' • . -·
I)iy 1si oil. De pan me nt of Me cha nic al Engineering; ~.tanfqrµ
..uruvei:j;~ty, 1969. 26 . Hucho_. W. H., "Th e Ae rod yna mic Dra g of Ca rs- Cu rre nt
Uµ 9er stan
11, Ki. inc . S. J., et al., e!is.•.Ptpc_,e!!_dings, 1_980c-:81 AF OS R-H TIM
- • -A d dm g,. Un D res olv ed Pro ble ms, nnd Fu.tur e Prospe cts ...
Stt;uJfor:d Co nfe ren t,e on _qom pJe..--c Turb11leilt Flows: Compariso11 m P_ero y11an11c rag Mechanisms- of Blu ff Bo die s an d Ro ad
of Co mp uta tio n qn_t!. _& per im. e.m , uu:ee vol um es. Sta nfo rd, CA : Vehrcles, G. Sov ran , T. Morel, and W. T. Ma son , eds . Ne w Yo rk:
T~ em .tds i;je :nc ~· Div isio n, De pnr troe rit of Mechanii:;al Eog ine er- .Ple num , 197 8.
iil& St,m !Qr d Vn ive rsiL y, 1-982-. ~1 ~ M~ Do nal d, A._J .• and G. M. Pal me r, "A ero dy nam ic Dr: n.g
1-2 ,. ,Ce bcc i, T., iµ:i.c:I ?- ,8:radsba:w, Mo me ntu m Tr.ansfer-i,., 8q1111dc ~educuo_n of Int e_rcuy ~u_ses ," Transactions, Sdc ief) • of A1 11, ;mo -
aty wy ers . Wa shi ngt on, b:C .: He mi spb e~, l97 7. 11ve Eng me ers , 89. Sec uon 4, 1980, pp. 44 69 -44 84 (SA E p
Np. 80.1.404 ). · ap er
13 . Bra dsh aw , P .• T; C~ b.e<;i,, anc! ); H. Wh itel aw , e,1giJ1.eeri11g
Ca lcu lat ion M, ;th o.d sfo r Tur bitl e,it .Fl ow . N~w Y P~ ,A,cad~mic 28·. Grosser, M., Gossan,er Odyssey. Bo sto n: Ho ug hto n MH -
fi.4i; 198 L
Pn} ss, 19.8 1.
Proble ms 403
29._Carr, G . W ., ''The Aerodyn amics of Busic Shapes for Road 35. Hoerner , S. F .. and H. V. Borst, Fluid-D ynamic Lift. Brick-
Vehic~e s: Pan 3: Si:renmlincd Bodies," The Motor Industry Researc h town. NJ: Hoerne r Fluid Dynam ics. 1975.
Assocrn Lioh, Warwic kshire, England , Report No. 107/4, 1969. 36. Chow, C .-Y., An Introduc tion. 10 Comput ational Pluid
30._Goetz, ~ -· '.'The Influenc e of Wind Tunnel Tests on Body Mec hanics. New York: Wiley. 1980.
Design , Venula uon . .µid Surface Deposn s of Sedans and Sports 37. Carr. G. W ., ' The Aerody namics of Basic Shapes for
Cars," SAE Paper No. 710212 , 1971. Road Vehicle s, Part -I ; Simple Rectang ular Bodies :· The Motor
31. Hall, J., "What's Jim Hall Really Like?" Automo bile Q,iar- Industty Researc h Associa tion, Warwic kshire, England . Repon
te r/y, VIII, 3, Spnng l970, pp. 282-293 . No. 1968/2, l967.
·3 2. Moktar ian, F .. and V. J. Modi, ..Fluid Dynami cs of A irfoils 38. L. Prandtl, Ergebni sse der aerodyn amische n, Veersuc hsan-
with Moving Surface Boundn ry-Laye r Control " A/AA Jo11mal sralt•su Gollin.gen. Vol TI. 1923.
of Aircraft , 25, 2, Februar yl988, pp. 163-16 9.' 39. H. Brauer. D. Sucker, "Umstr omung von Platten, Zylinde m
33. Meht;i, R. D ., "Aerody namics of Sports Balls," in Annual und Kugeln, " Chemie /nge11ie11r Technik , 48. Jiibrgan g, No. 8,
Review of Fluid Mechan ics, ed. by M. van Dyke, el al. Plilo Alto, 1976, p 665-67 1. Copyri_g ht Wiley-V CH Verlag GmbH & Co.
CA: Annual Review s, 1985, 17. pp. 151-189 . KGaA. Reprod uced with permiss ion.
34- 'The Year in Ideas,;' New York Times Maga;:ine, Decemb er 9,
2001, pp. 58-60.
The Boun dary- Layer Conce pt Boun dary- Layer Thick ness
g 9. i The roof of a minivan is ~pp1"9ximn1<;d as a horizon tal ~at 9.8 Veloci( ¥ proffies in laminar bounda ry layers pften ~ approlti - g
plate. Plot the length-o f the lam,nar boundar y lay~r as n .fl!nc_l.jon maced by cite equ_:itions
cif miniva n speed, V, as the minivan accelera tes from JO mph ll y
lO 90 mph. Linear :
U =o
9.2 A model of n river towboat is 10 be. tested at 1: 18 scli.le. Tl'\e boat
is designe d to travel at 3.5 m/s in fresh ,vater at I0"C. Estimat e the Sinuso idal : tt (:li:Y\ .
U =Sm 1.8)
distanc e from the bow where transitio n occurs. Where should transi-
tion be.stim ulated on llie model towboat ?
9 ·.3 For flow over a smooth plate, what approxi m.ately is the maxi.-
Par,:ibo lic :
U
" _ ·-G)· ()1)2
--2 - -
8
-
p
=
muqi length oftl1eln nlinai bound;u;y hayer if V., 9.0 m/s:in the irro-
Corppar e lhe shapes of th~e velocity profiles by plottin gy/6 (on i:pe
inr,iona l uniform flow and the fluid is air? Water?
ordinate ) versus 11/ U (on the abscissa ).
9 . 4 A model of n thin streamli ned body is placed in a flow fortC!,t·
ing. The: body is 0.9 m long and the flow velocity is 0.6 rrJ/s. What,., -9 . 9 An approxi mation for _the velocity profile in ,i_l;m;µgar bounda ry
layer is · -
is needed to· ensure that the boundar y Jaye~ on the body is lam,in,u-?
9.5 A student is to design an experim ent involvin g dragging a
sphe~ tluough a tank of fluid 10 illustrat e (a) ..creeping flow''
(ft.eo <I) and (b) flow fpr which the brnmdar y layer become s [).lrbl!·
li;:(Jt (f?e0 :;::2.5 x lCP). The.s_tudent propose s to u_s e a smooth sphere Dc:>es this express ion satisfy boundar y. conditi ons applica ble· to· ·the
of d iameter l cm in SAE 10 oil .at room tempera ture. Is.this realistic laminar bouncla ry-layer velocity profile? Evaluat ~-8' / 6 ·and 8 /6.•
·for both cp.s_es? If either case: is unrealis tic, select an alternat ive 9. t O Evalual e 0 /8 for each of tlie l:imi.nnr bounda ry-laye r velocity
re~o11s ~bie sphere d_iameter and commo n fluid (or that case.
profiles given in Problem 9.8.
9.6, A 1 m x 2 m sheet of-plyw ood is auac;hed the f'!l!)f of your
10
9- 11 Evaluat e the displac ement thiclole ss 5" and th~ momen tum
vehicle after being purchas ed at the hardwar e store. At what speed
(in k.ilome iers per hour) iii 20°C air will the boundm y layer first thicknes s 8 fora·v.elocicy prof4e given.b y 'iJ = f Plot.ih.e n<;~!l~en:-
start becomi ng curbu_lent? At wh;it speed-is about 90 percent of the
bounda ry layer cur;bulent? s_ionnl velocity proftle and sho.w the thickne sses ~ ap.cj.1 on .the_plo~
g 9.7 The extent of the lamin_a r boundar y layer on the surface of Does this expression satisfy the boundii ry coticj,itions applit:a bl~
to n lamina£ bounda ry layer?
an aix:cr:nft or .missile varies with altitude. For a given speed, will
the Jaminar _boundar y-layer Jen~th increase or decrease with altitude ? 9-i 2 Evaluat e the displac ement tl;lic;:kness /, an~ the momeiitj_ilii
Why? Pl~t the r.itio Qf laminar bo.undar y-layer leng_th at alticude .z. 10 u ~}
1
·
th'1ck ness O ,or: a p _o wec ll).w vi;:locity profile .given oy ,..C..= :.:.:. /7. •
b.ound ~-lnye r leilg_th at sea le v_e t_as a function of;:, up lo altitude
&,
.. . .
- .· .u s
=
z :fo km, fqr a siandard aLmosphere. Plot the non9,lll lensiona l velocJcy. profile and sqqw the. thic~ ~
4 04 Chaj>ter ·9 External Incompre ssible Viscous Flow
~ ·and ~on the ploL Does' this ·eicpression satisfy lhe boundary con-
dition·s . appH9aple co -a laminar bouildtuy lnyer?
9 . 13 A -fluid, w.ich densit:r p = 1.5 slug/ft3. flows at U= 10 ft/s over
- J -·,
@T
03:tn.
1--1
,8 .fiat,plilte lO ftlo!lg 1µ1cl 3 f1: wide. At[he trailing edge, lhe boundary-
3iri.
1a_yi:;r thickness-is o-~.l in. Assume the velocity profile is linear, as 6 2 = 0 .035 in.
shown, and-'thilt the flow is cwojiimens ionol (flow conditions are P9.19
indepcnde: ot of z). Using·cono :oi volume abed. shown by the dashed
Jines. <:_op:ipute _the mass flow rat~ across s~nc;e .ab. Determine 9.20 A flow of68°F air develops in a flat horizt;>nl.;11 duct followino
ihe drag force on che 11p~ swfac;e of lhe plate. Explain how !his a well-rounde d entranc·e section. The duct height is H = I ft . Turbu':
~cc;,qs clrag .can b:e computed from tJ,e given da1a _even !hough lent boundary layers grow on the duct walls, but the flow is not ycL
-w.~-dQ not-know che flu_ii;I_visc;osity. folly ~evelopcd. Ass~re lha1_1he veloci~y p~file in each bounc,lary
-u
~a
- , - - . ------- - ---,-=--.:- -
~ ___,.-cv __ - ---
b ~-
~
rr.-
u
I.
laye_r JS 11/U=(y/~) I. The mlet flow IS uniform at V=40 fl/s nl
sect1on (D. AL sectioncr>, the boundary-la yer thickness on each wall
of Ilic ch~el is 82 =4 in. Show that, for this flow, t, =o/8. Eval-
uate the stnqc gage pressure.at section (D. Finq lhe average wall shear
>' -,. _ -- ~ 6=l 1n. stress between Lbe entrance and section cr>. located at L = 20 f~.
L- . . :r: ~ ---
~
. ,..
C
I
9.21 A flow Qf air develops in a horizontal cylindrical duct. of diam-
P9.13 eter D= 1.5 in., following a well-rounde d entrance. A lurbulent
bo1,1ndary grows on the duct wall, hut the flow is not yet fully devel-
9 .1:4-"Solve'Pri>blen.19.1~ wi~•lhe velocit~ profile at sec;tion b.c give!l oped. Assume,; .! hat the ve!C>city profj.le. in .tl1e boundnry .layer .is
111
J~y :tl1~, p!II"iii:iQUc ·expression from PrqbJem 9.8. l1/LJ_=6'/c5) . The lnle_t flow i_s U=50ft/s tit section (D. At
9.15 Air flows in a horizontal cylindrical duct of diameter section (2). the boundary-la yer tluckness is 62 = 4 in. Evaluate the
v :..::.. iOO'nirii. At.a :section a few meters from the enl.raJ!ce, lhe turbu- cr>,
static gage press.u re at section located at L.=20 ft.. Fmd the aver-
age wnll shear stress. ·
len~.b:c i"u"nd~ layet is ef ~ic~ess o, = s:is mm. and the vel~ity i,n
ilie -in½scJdce niral c9~ is U1 = 1.2.5 m/s. Farther downstn:am the
b!)updary lnye~ is of thickness 02 =24 mm. The velocicy profile in laminar Flat- Plate Boundar y Layer:
the boundaiy layer- \s. npp,roxima ted well by the ½-power expression. Exact Sol_ution
'Fi_nd the velocity, U2. in lhe invi_scid cent:n:il core nt lhe second sec- ?-22 Using nµmerical results for the Blasius exact solution for lam- g
tion, and the_ p~sure drop betwe.en tl1i: two sections. m.ar b?und3:1"Y-layer flow _on a flat plate, (Section 9.2 on the web) plot
9A 6 Ev1.Uunte the displncemi; nt thickness o and the momentum the d1mens10nless velocity profile, u/U (on the abscissa), versus
dimensionle ss distance from the surface, y/~ (on-the ordinate). Com-
· ~cm~s 0·for: the profile given by t,
= 2 (~)- (~}2.
Plot tlte non- pare witl1 lhe approximate parabolic velocity profile of Problem 9 ,8.
. .. . . . thi ,5• 9 9 . 23 Using numeri~-n1 ~u_l1s obtained by Blasiµs (Table 9 .1. on· t.he .Jd.:
di.m~p,$i99.jll.~el9.ci~y pcofile and show the cknesses ---g and on tl1e
6 web), evnlume lhe.clistnbuuon of shear stress iii a laminar boundary_
-pio.1:. hoes:pµs:¢ ~p~.sipµ si(tisfy-Lhe'.b ouildmy conditions applicable layer on a flat plate. Plot T/T,.. versus y/ o. Compare with resu lts·deri ved
~o boundilfy .layer?
ii,.1llllllllar from lhe approx.im_n_tCe parabolic velocity ·p rofile given in Problem 9 .8.
9.17 Evaluate th~ dispiaceme nt chickness o · and the momentum 9.24 Using ~umeric~ results ob1aine<! by Bln_siu~ (Tnbl<: 9.1. on the ·; .Q:.
Lhic;kriess 0for'-a velocity profile: gjven ~Y ; =sin(~). Plot lhe non- web). evaluate lhe v~rucal.comp1:mcn1 of'veloc1ty ma lammarbo und- -
. . S' 9 ruy layer on a flat plate. Plot v/U versus.y/,5 for Rex = l os.
c!,i.µieitS.iona1 v_e locity_profile and show th~ t.hicknes~es · and on the8 5 9 . 25 A smootl1 _flat plate 2,4 m long and 0.6 m wide is p laced in an
plot:. PP.es llµs e~p~S\00 satisfy the boundary co.n1ihi9ns applicable airs!,renm at 101.3 kPa.15°C, and.ve!ocity 9 m/s. C.i!c;:ulate the roQll
~9.'!!-•.la@Iia r boundruy ll!yer? .drag-.forc~ cin t!tis plate (2 sic!es) if tl1e boundary layer at the ttailing
lss:t~!!
.:sectibri ~!~i~~
inlet,
?:0=1 ~~s~est& ie:t;ro~; : ;.~~ut;
turbulent bounclnr'y layers (ocm li)ll Jpe Jqp, b.Qitom,
edge is (a) J;µninnr, (D) lninsition, apd (c) tµtQulent.
9.2_6 Consider ?ow of!!ir_over a flat plate. On one graph. plot the
lam.mar boundary-la yer thickness as a function of distance along
.Q.
and -~de-_*al..l; ~f .~e: lµflllaj .. '.!Ae bpundmy-J ayer thick:n~s i~ the plate (up ~o transition}f or freestream speeds U= l m/s,2 m/s,
·;;;~ 610 mm.~t ilii ini~~·and-~ .= 30·rtun $_t th¢. o,u tletfrom;the test sec- 3 rn/s. 4 m/s; 5 m/s. nild lOm/s.
ii<:>n. Th~b6~nd_il.cy:--l!!Y~r y¢!Qcity profiles are ·of power-law fc;mn,
w.i!b u.ff:! =fr/6>1 /7. Evaiuate tbe:frees~run velqcil:f:, U2, at the exit laminar Flat-Pla te Bounda·r y Layer
fu:>m •the w.i.nd-Llllllli l .test secnon. J)etennioe the cliange Iii ~t,!lii_c 9-~7 A thin flat plat~, L= 9 in. long and b =3 ft ,vide, is installed in ..Q.
;p~s~,a iP~g, th~i~t secti~ri; a wat~rlunne l as_ a sphller, The freestream.s peed is U-;:::: 5 ft/ s •.and the ·
9"19 .Aif. £1\jws. jn tJ.1e -e11~ce re~ion of a sqµare duct. s!,own. as V!;log1ty, pf9fiJe m the boulidilry layer is ·approxirpa ted as parabolic .
'flle v¢.l~.ityis iihifol:m, V.o = lQQ.i't/~; @d-;t)le_.d uct is 3:.iit, 'square;
0
Plot li; 11'·. and Tw versus xiL for. the plate.
At a sectiori' I ft cJPWt:lS~ ~ from llie c;p~l;e, the ,wspl11i;ement
.:::~t~~:-~J.!~~:~~;Q:035.in. D.ecenninet he.p~s~
9:iS.:For 'a laminae boundary layer on a tlnt piate, evaluate the
kinetic eij1;,-gy l9s1 ~tween the free strewn arid any poin~ th~
b9µnd_ru:y layer. Assume that .t he boundary ia:yer is linear (see
in
Problem·s 405
Problem 9 ,8) and use a control volume so ihnl the flow rate for the Momentum Integral Equation
onc~rni~g flow and boundary layer are equal. How may this loss 9.34 A horizontal surface. with length L = I .8 m and width Q
of kineuc energy be accounted for? b = 0 .9 m. is immersed in a stream of standard air flowing at
9.29 Air al atmospheric pressure and 20°C flows over both sides of U=3 .2 m/s. Assume a laminar boundary layer forms and approxi-
a flnl plate tha1 is 0.8 m long and 0,3 m wide at a velocity of 5 m/s. mate the velocuy profile as sinusoidal. Plot 8; o. and -r"" versus :c/ L
Determine the total drag force on the plate. If tJie single plate is for the plnle.
replaced by two plates each 0.4 m long and 0,3 m wide, what is 9.35 Water at I 0° C flows over a nm plate at a speed of 0 .8 m/s.
tJ1e totnl drag force? Explain why there is a difference in the 1otal drag The plate is 0.35 m long and I m wide. The boundary layer on
even though the total surface area is the some. each surface of tlle plate is laminar. Assume that tlle velocicy
9.30 A thin flot plate is installed in a water 1unncl as a splitter The profile may be approximated as linear. Determine the drag force on the
plate is 0.3 m long and I m wide. 1l1e frecstrcam speed is 1.6 m/s. plate.
Laminar boundary layers fom1 on both sides of the plate, The bound- 9.36 Use the momentum integral equation co derive expressions for
ary- layer velocity profile is approximat~d ns parabolic. Determine the displacement thickness /;'. the momentum thickness 0. and the
the total viscous drag_ forte on the plate assuming that pressure drag c
friction coefficient 1 -for a linear velocity profile. Compare your
is negligible, results co tJtose in Table 9.2. What is the percent error in the total drag
9.31 Assu_m c lammar boundary-layer flow estimate the drag on
10 on a plate if the linear approximation is used?
the flot plate shown when it is placed piu-.tllcl 10 a 15 fl/s air flow. 9.37 A smooth flat plate 1.6 fl long is immersed in 68°Fwat.er·now-
The air is at 70°F and I atm. ing at 1.2 fl/s. Tn the center of the plate is a small 1-irt.-square·sensor.
---- What is the friction force on chis sensor?

9.38 A horizontal surface. with length L= 0.8 mand width b 1.9 m, _= Q
-- is immersed in a stream of standard air flowing nt U = 5-.3 m/s.

Assume a laminar boundary layer forms and approximate the veloc-
------ ~2fl
P9.31
ity profile as linear. Plot 8. o. and -.,.. versus :c/ L for the plate.
9.39 A developing boundary layer of standard air on a flat plate is
shown in Fig. P9. 13. The freestream flow outside the boundary layer
is undisturbed with U = 50 m/s. The plate i.s 3 m wide peri>endicular
to the diagram. Assume flow in the boundary layer is ru:n,ulen_l., with
a ½-power velocity profile, and tllat l5 = 19 mm ac swfac¢ be. Calct,1-
9.32 Assume laminar boundary-layer flow to estimate the drag on late the mass flow rate across surface ad and the mass flux _a cross
the flat plate shown when it is placed parallel to a 15 ft/s air flow. surface ab. Evaluate the x momenrum flux a,cross surface ab: Deter-
The air is oL 70°F an<! I alm. (Note tliat the shape is given by mine tlle dn;ig force exened on the flat plate between.d and c. Esti-
x=},2, wbere·.,• and y arc in feet.)
mate the distance from the leading edge at wbich tranSition from
--- )'
laminar to rurbuJent .flow may be expected_
9.40 Assume the Dow conditions given in Example 9..3. Plot 8, o . .Q_
--
. ....,...-
and.-,.. versus :i:/L fol" the plate.
9 .41 A Dat~bonomed barge having a 150 ft x 20 fr bottom i.s cowed
--
-~
~lfl
x=y2
P9.32
through still water (60°F) at LO mph. What.is the fricri~maldrag force
exerted by the water on the bonom. of the barge? How long could 't he
laminar portion of the boundary layer be. using a c·riucaJ Reynolds
number of .537 ,000? What is the thickness of the 'laminar layer ai.
its downstrenin end? What is the approximate thickness of the bound-
ary layel" at the renr e·n d of the bottom: of the barge?
9;:33 Assume laminar boundary,layer flow to estimate the drag on
four square pl~tes (each 3 in. X 3 in.) placed parallel to a 3 ft/s water 9.42 European lnterCity E:<press trJ.ins operate at speeds of up to
flow, for the 1,vo configurations shown. :Before calculating. which 280 km/hr. Suppose that a train is 120 m 10011:. Tc:eat the sides and
configuration do you expect to experience the lower drag? Assume top of the train as a smootll Oat plate 9 m wide. When the train moves
Lhat the plates attached with string, are far enough apart for wake through stiU air at sea: level, calculate the possible length of the lam:;.
effecLc; 10 be negligible and that the waler is al 70°F. inar boundary layer lllld the thickness of tllis layer at its downstream
--- end. What is 0.1~ thickness of the boundary layer at the rear. end. of.the
train? What i's the viscous drag force on the train an!i what power
must be expended to overcome this resisµmce at ma.tjmµm speed?
--
At 50 percent of mllJl.imµm?
9.43 Grumman Corp. has proposed to build a magnetic levitation
train to operate-at a top speed of300 mph, The vehicl~ is I 14 ft loi:ig.
-- P9.33
Assuming that the su.les and top can be created approximately-as-a·
sm09th flat plate .of 30 ft width with a turbllient bounc!Jµy lay~
Culculnte the-drag force an<! the power expended.· to 9verc:ome -~
drag nt the maxim.u m speed.
(:h apt er 9 Ext ern al trrc om pre ssib le Vis cou s Flo w
.9.4 4 Rep eat Prob lem 9-3 Z "f:-o.r an air flow at 80 ft/s, assu ming : n ~pre sent ed by the ½cpower-velocity prof ile. At the inle t the tun nel
rorb ulcn t b!:n1n4/IIY l~y ~. cros s sect ion is ·squa re, with heig ht H, ruid wid th W1. eac h equ al
9.4 5 'f\lc·vel oci_ty prof ile-i n a-tti tbul entb oun dary -lny erflo w nt ~ero =
to I ft. Wi1,h frees tream spee d U 1 90 ft/s, mea sure men ts sho w tha t
1>r.eSSUr'e
~ie nt is aifp ro~i mot ed -bY the -/i-power prof ile expr essio n, = =
c5 1 0.5 in. and.dow nstr eam c56 0.65 in. Calc ulat e the heig ht of the
tunn el walls al .@ . Dete rmin e the equi vale nt leng th of a flat pl_ate
y t11a1 wou ld prod uce the inle t boun d;µy laye r thic kne ss. Est ima te
whe re 11= - the su:eamwise disia nce betw een sect ions (D and @. in the tun nel .
t;
Assu me stan dard air.
,O 'se ih!' mom .entµ tn inte gml equa tion will~ t11is prof ile 10_ obtl!'.n
~pr essi ot1s ror· 8/x and c1 . Co°'plll'.l! wuh resu lts obta med m
Pre ssu re Gra die nts in Bo und ary-- La yer Flo w
:, sect io1f 9.4 for the tpo We r prof ile.
9.5 2 Air ijow s in a: cylindrit:nl duct of cH_a met er D = 6 in. AL
9.4 (, Tile U.S. Na" ¥ hns buil t the _Sea Sha dow ,_ whi~h is a s1~1alf sect ion (D; tlle mrb ulen t bo.un<;Jan• lnyc r· is of thic kne~ s o = 0.4 in~
wate-,P'la ne.· }wi n4m ll (SW ATI-:1) ·s hip who se obJeCt 1~ IQ nch1c".e 1
a.nd the "eloci1y in _the invi scid cent ral core is U 1 = 80.f t/s. Fun her
·.the ,,snm e:-~1,1cej:1 rada r •pro file us Qle STE ALTH rurc rnft. 1111s downs"tream, at secli<>n (2). the l?ound,ary laye i: i!,i of thic kne ss
~ Ii~ is T60 ft ·lon g· an4· its twin hull s hav e a qtnf t of 14 ft. o,. = J .2 tn. The velocity profile in the bounc(ary laye r is app rox i-
:Ass urrte ·ma t che·oce an·m tbul eilc e trigg ers a fully ~urp ulen t boun dary
riirited well by the ½-power expr essio n. Find the velo city , U-:!.. iri
j;ye~ 0
·~ : the side s of ench hull . · Trea ,t _these ns flnt plat e bo~n dary
the invis cid cent ral core at the seco nd sect io·n ;_and the press ure dro p
hi.ye is tµlc;I c~c.uhn,e !-Jle. dra i on the ship 1111d J,he po,'l.er f"!!q\11red to ber.v een the \\vo sect ions. Doe s the· mag nitu de of the pres su·r e· dco p·
p\le tcOm e it as a fonc \ion of ~pee d. Plot the ¢su its for spee ds from in<:licat~ that we are justi fied in appr oxii na_ting i,he flow betw een sec -
5 to 13 kno ts. tion s CD and ·@ as one with zero p~s ure. grad ient ? Est imm e the
:9.;-4 7 nie tw.P rect an_g ular si:no oth .flat pll!t«;s are_to hav e the s.im_e leng th of duct betw een sect ions (D and (2), Es_tim:i.te the dist anc e
drag jn the sllll1e._fluid s_tteam - Cal_c ulnt e the re~u i~d value, of x. _If dow ns.lii:am from secti<>n (D at whic h the bou nda ry laye r thic kn~ ~
the:'iwo. ,pla t~ are com bine d into tl:t~ T-sh ,\pe md1cated., wha t rauo is c5-= 0 .6 in. Assu me-s tand ard air. ·
-;xjS~
.•
bet w~ n !AC <trng of the <;on:tbination nild thi!I of eith er. one? 9.5 3 Perf on'n a cost-.effectiveriess anal ysis on a typi cal larg e
Assume "1'.l!ffiIB~ bou nda ry Inr.ers in al! c!J]culations. tank er used for trans port ing petro leum . Det eani ne, as a per cen tag e
of tl1e petr oleu m carg o, the amo unt of petrc;>leum that is con sun 1ed
~ in trav eling a disia nce of 2000 mil~ . Use datn·. from Ex ~p le 9 .4,
. 1~ ~ ~
4 ·
-- - ·1L~--'°.·_-, fi
and the fo.llowing: Assu me the: petr oleu m carg o con stitu tes 75% pf
the iota! weig ht, lhe prop eller effic ienc y is 70% , the wav e ~ g
l!-lld pow.er to run auxi liary eqliipmeiic co11csti1uce loss es equ ivai ei:i t
P9,47
to an addi tion al 2()%, the engi nes hav e a' ther mal effi cien cy of-
:_9 ,4~ $~d atd .air flow s ove r-a hori zonm l _smooth flat plal~ at ~e- 40% , !Uld the· petr oleu m ener gy is 20,Q OOB tu/lb m. Als o com par .e
sttea:fri;a j:,~d U =20.~/s . The plat e leng th 1s L= J.5 m and .us w1d';11 tlle perf onna nce of this tank er 10 that- of the Ala skan Pip elin e, -w hic h'
is -b:,::6 :_8 -in.· Toe pres sure grad ient is zero . The bou ndar y laye r 1s requ ires ;ibou t 120 Btu of ener gy for eaC:l) ton- mile of pet role um
tti ··.fjed:iio lh.iit.it is' ti!!"b.u lent from .the lend mg edge; \he velocity prp- deliv ery.
ru!- ,yill
is . ~ pi:e"sented by the ,}-p owe r ~p tess ion. Eva luat e the 9.5 4 Tn~ le 9.1 (on the: web ) show s ~e n11m_e ricn l resu lts oh t~e d _Q
bou rida cy~l ayer· tlii1;lgless•.6, at \lie trail ing edg e of ~e plat~. C3-Jc:;u- from Blas ius e.'(act solu uon of the }am mnr bou nda ry-l aye r equ auo ns.
'fate· i:he waii sh¢ar stre ss at th~ !J:l,',lli11g edg e.oft .he plate . Esu ~me the Plot the veloi;ity distribution. On tlle sam f grap h, p_louh e turb ule nt
~15h fric\i_on ~ g oQ i,he ~.ort io.o of the plat e betw een x= O.~ m and velo.city distr ibut ion give n l?Y lhe ½-ro wer exp ress ion of Eq. 9:2 4.
the trnii;i;ig ¢dg e. Whi ch is mos t likel y to sepa rate first whe n ~nco11nteriI1g an adv erse .
9.-4.9. Air ,n.L sUll_lcl..llrd c;_ondiJ.iorts flow s ewe r a fl;:i.1 plat e, 1_J1e•~e- pres sure grad ient' TTo justi fy yourc answ er, com pare the mo me ntu m
~~ -sP:Ced. is,3 0. ft/s . Find 8 an.d -r.,. a,t .l'. = ~ JtJr om thel e~di ri~ ed~ e flux es of thes e prof iies (Ihe lami nar dalll can be inte grat ed usi.Q g· a.
'li~i i.iru.n.g (a) coqi ple1 ~i:r 11!,Dlinar flow (ass ume I!- p~b o!1 c·ve)oc'.LY .num erica l meth od sm;:h as Sim pson 's rule ),
('!O.fil¢-);;:wd ,(b) _c omp lete tr tµrb ul!m t:flo w (1!5s1.1m~ a 'f"po wer velo cny 9,5 5'·A fluid flow ente rs the plrilie-wii.11 diffuser. tl1at hns an ent ran ce·
nrea of An al a• velo city of Vo, (o) Assi lmih·g the flui d is inv isci d.
,profiJID,
dete !ll)in e the.v elod.i.r ~!li ent' ~~ iri term s o.f U.,,i µid A., fpr a :val ue ·
,Use of~ he .Mometit;1,1m tnt ~g r.a l-E9LJation. =
of-,P Q0 rutd.tf,""' 20~; (b}A ssum ing,a real :visc ous• flui d. wh at 'is .the
thr-~FfoW-W ith .:zer o Pre ss~ _r¢ ~r~ d1e rit -effe ct c;>f tl1¢ boi.lndar,y laye rs on the pres sure grad ient ? In wh ich
g:..sd~i ~~om1.:fiow of star itl~ .?it Bl 6.b m/s_·enters:a plail~sW ~ assu mpt ion (inv iscid: or v_iscous) will the com pute d exit pre ssu re
-
.;c:liffusif:wiib t,.~gµgti;;t!} i,p.1.1Dd.aty. Jaye r-thit:lwess. Th~ u~let\V1gth ~ • be high est? Exp lain you r !Jnswer;
'1;8.i ~ ni· 0
.diffuser. wiil !s 4iv~rge sµ~ptl.y to ~coi_nmoda;le: the

,b titµ ii~:::li:i-y~r: _m,w .tb s.o that the pre ss~· g:r?cli~nt 1~ negligible.
~s!,IQ;ii;..i lliit -,Pl t¢ 1?.q~d,~;-)0,y,er:~b11-Y.1PL_Exp law ~hy. ~e ~er- + \
-f,p
>.'"
'iilfr. · witl on.is..appl iciio le•to chi~ .flq~;_;);;.\i.uma \e Lbe ~1ff µser w1d lh
7:i·~:~'!f.w~~ Ji~i.t(m~ eJJ:~n~e, ..
Fl~A
u0
0
Lx
;~;1::d~=~:~~~~:dt::~~~~e~:.~~;~~;:;;;;~r!~
M~,g@l iei:it .i tlPn $,ihe:tes t s~ !i9.ri. The w.11,i1 bQ\ID¢ll1 laye rs are.w ell
4i#e9
&
Problems 407
Q 9.56 Bounducy-laye~ separation occurs when the shear stress ot the wave·drag behavior? Is the·boundw:y layer·on the prototyp¢ predom-
s_iµ-fii~e becomes zero. Assume a polynomial represenuition for the in·ontJy laminar or turbulent? 0-oes the.model ·boundacy layer become
laminar boundary layer of the form, 11/ u == a-+ b). + cJ.2 + d).3 • where turbulent at the comparo,ble point? If noL the·,model boundary- layer
A=:y/6. Specify 1;,oundary conditions on the velocity profile ot sep- could be artificially r;riggcr.cd tl:nurbulent by placing a tripwire a.crt>ss
ru:alion; Ffod appropriate constants, a. b, c. and d, foe the separation the hull. Where could this be placed_? Esrim11_!~ r,he sl.in-friction d~g
profile. Calculate the shape factor H .nt separation. Plo_t the profile and on model and protocype.
compare with the parabolic approximate profile. 9.64 A nuclear submarine cruises fully submerged at 27 ·knots. 1jl_e
9 .-57 For flow over a floe pl;i,te with zero pressure gradient, will the hull is approximately a circular cylinder with dian1eter .D = 1J :om··
shear stress in¢rease, decrease, ot remain const_11.m along the plate? and length L= J07 m. Estimate the peccemag~ of the h_ull leng\h
Justify your answer. Does the momentum flw( increase, decrease, for which the boundary layer is laminar. Calculate the skin friction
or remn.in cpnstant as the flow proceeds oJ6rig the pl111e? Justify your drag on the hull and lhe power consumed.
_:µiswer. .Compare_the behavior of laminar-flow and turbulent flow 9.65 You are asked-by your coHege crew to estimate lhe skin fric-
from .lbe leading edge for over a fiat p·lat~. A,--a given distance from tion drag on their eight-seat racing.shell~ The hull of the shell may be
the leading edge, which flow will have the larger boundary-layer approximated as half a circular cylinder with 457 mm diameter and
tbi_c kness? Does your lfriswer de:p·cnd.on the distance nlong the plate? 7.32 m length. The speed of the shell through the water is 6.71 m/s.
How wo_u ld you justify your-answer? Estimate the location of transition from laminar to rurbl.!lent flow- in
9. 5 8 . A laboratory wind tunnei has a test section that is square in lhe boundary layer on the hull of the shelL Calculate the thkkness of
cross SC!=tion, wi_th inlet width W1. anc,I height H1, each equal -to the turbulent boundary layer at the rear of the h_ull. Di;t~t¢i11c;,."the
1 - fL At- freestream speed' U 1 =80-ft/s, measuremen!S sl1<iw the totill skin friction drag_on lhe hull under ihe given•conditions.
boundary-layer thickness is lh =0A ifi. with a ,t-power tuibulent <>rrm1t-~,
9.66 The drag goefficienc of a c_irc_ular disk wfieJI pl,i"c~il ·g_
velocity profile~ The pressu[!: gradient.in this region· is given approx~ the.now is 1.12. Calculate lhe force apd _pow!.r !l~essruy to drive
im_a tely by dp/dx= -(>.035 in. H2 O/in. Evaluate the reduction in ~ o :3 ~ ·disk at 48 km/h lhll)ugh. (a) stanclartf ::iir ac sea i',vet nnd
effective flow area caused by-the bounc!µcy layers on the tunnel -bot- (o) water.
_c om, tpp. and \Valls-at sectiQn (1). Caku_lare -lhe rme of _c_h ang~ of 9.67 A steel sphereof0.25 in. dinIIl~ter has a velocity of209 f.t/s-,it
bo.imdarydayer mo1t1_~ncµ1J1. thickness,48/~~. ac s~ctipn_(D. Estimate an nlttcucle·qf.3Q;QOO ft. in the U.S. Standard Atmosphc;~. Calculate
the_morp.entum thickness at lh~ end Qf _lhe t¢st section; ·Jo.c a.ted, at
Ille drag (orce on this sphere.
L= lO _in _downstrerun. ..
9.68 A ste_e l sp!l_e re (S.O = 7 .8)of 13 mm diame~i;fallii ~ta:<;onstn.i:it.
t>r-a$ velocity of 0 .06m/s t.hiough an oil (S0.=0.90)s Calcufa~ tfi~ ~
g 90.59 A.flat-bot_tome<J blitge. 80 ft long ancl 35 fl. wide, subrne~efl _19 cosity of the.oil;. ass!lmjng th~t tl1e fall occurs_1n,,; 1 ) ~ ~ ~
n d_e pth of :5 _ft., is .to be p~shecl ~p a river lit.60°F. Esti!T!ale 11J1d plot 9.69 A- shc;ec of. plastic material 0.5 in~ tli_iqk. with specific' gravity
t11e ppwer required to overcome skin (riction f9r speeds rangil)g SG= 1.7, is dropped into a large t.an.k.-cont_niitingw:µer, ·The sheet is
UJ>. to. 15 mph. · 2 ft x 4 ft. l=;slima1e the termiiiiil- spc;ed 9f" the. sheet as: it falls · with
.9, 6 _o. A )pwboatfor river barges is tested .in a towiog.tanlc, U.te_.t ow- (a) tbe short side vemc;il ;mc!--Cb}the long, side: vertj~. Ns_ u me-lhat
boat model is-built at a s_ca:le ratio of l : I 3.5. P.i.lJlensi_ons,of the 01otlel the .drag is-due on)y t<> slpn.fi:iction, and wart-he boundary l~yei:s ~
~ ·ov.erall length-3.5 m, berun J m, and draft 0 .2 in. The model :<li~- turbulent from lh.e leading edge.
jJ,iac,eiµ~~~ in fresh woteris 5500 N. Estimate tl1e nV~r?ge l~~gth Qf 9. 70 In Sectji;,n_7.5 the w;i.ve.resism.ace a,ad visc;ous resi~~~~,C?~•a, C]
wetted sud'ace OIJ. \he hull. Calculate _the skin friction d("i,lg _force of model _and. pro!ocype s_hip wc;re di,scussed. .fO!'. !,hi;. prototype~ ·
the protptype at a .speed of7 lqlots rellitive. to -the ,va!er._ L= JJ0 m and A= ~8,00 ~- From the data.of Fig_s_7.-~2a.tjd· 7.J.,pl9_t
9 , 61__Plot the loc_al fric;tiqn-.~o:efficient <;J, tJ.ie-b9uodlll):' layer t_hick- onone-grap_h the wav.e, visc_o u~. IIJl,d-toml resis~ae-(N}~perie nae~-
n.e ss rutjo 5/.r, .and_ the drngcoeffi<;ien~ Cf,.for-bolh lllf!limu· ~ti tut- by the prototype, as a fuoc;.tion of speed. ~lot a si.milat gx:aylt fQ.i; :t1:ie·
bu-lent ·t?.o.undar.y- lnyen; _Qn _11 flat plate for R,, fro[!l O to soo;ooo. model Di~cuss, y_otµ" results. finally. plot the po',\'~!" (!c,W)_reg!i~P -
assuoiing_.il'.I th~. turbu.lent c~e-lhatll_ie layer is tripped at the leading for the pr9totype s~p to overcome the; total' i:esistnnce. .
~-dgc a,ml is·.l\tHy •turbulent along the length of tl1e pla~e, Discuss lhe 9. 71 As part of the 1976 bic;entennial c;elebra_tiqri, an, enteq>rismg
r:a~jc;,.of drug foFC¢s as a function of~-•· groµp hung a giant ~~Qcµ.o flag l94 (-c h_igh ~d 367 ft wid~ from
the suspension c;al>les o.f the Vemµ:mJ<> Namlws I:3ridge, They app~-
9 .62 A. smqqlh plnle 3 m long !!Del 0.9 rn wide fiJpves th!"(l!,igh still entJ_y were relulttam to make _b oles in-the. flac. to ·alleviate ·the wind
sea level air ill 4 .5 m/s, A,sg1ming the bound;!cy Jayer to be whoUy
.lari'tlnfu". ciµc,l,l)~lC (11) tl1e thickness 9f tile.layer Ill o.~. LO, t.S. 2.0. f9rce. and hence they eff~ctj.:v~ly b,ici a ·nht plfue no~al to .ili~ flo:w.
2,5.. Wt~ ;3.0 m from the le_a di1nted~eofthe plat!=:()>) t!1e shear ~~ss. Th~ fl;ig tore lo.o se from its ~ountings when ihi ~~d.!!p~~i:~hai
;-ro, l!-l th6s~-ppincs_; aJJ.d (c)the total d"rag force on one.side of ljic} plate. LO mph. Esli.a!ate the wind fe>rce ac,ting on th¢ ~g at dus:~<!~4-
.(d.)-Calc,iita~e thethickn_e{is a.tthe apeve poin)s if the layer is cufuulenL Shoul.d ~ey have oe.e_q siµ:prised tba.t qi~ fl~~ bl~w.·q!l.Wl!:1
(~):.c ~c.u late the total grog for the turblllenl boµ~daty layer. (f} What 9-7~ What const®v speerJ.· ~iU be attain_c d l;>y _a lt!ad• ($.G=:dl,fl,)
p~r¢~pt~ge. s.aving in df,tg _is effec;ted by II la~ar b_o,,mdary lay~r? spbere-of0.5 in. diameter falling ~ .ely through nn -oiLof kinematic.
9._6 3.,Resistnn~_e of a.barge is to be dett~m~tne~Jro:m,model __t~st datn. vis1,.ositY, O.q ff /s arid .SC,.()~~. iilhe Ja)l oq;:w-s in ·~-l.m~:~ f -
Th~ mo.d~I js constiuct~d to_11 sea!~ ru.t io of 1-: p.ii !l,09·hlis ler:ig!h, 9.7~ Assuming· n _c;[i,tic_nl R~ynqlds number of 0.-1, -crilc;ul.ate ,tb~
-5~run at.id driift of 7.00 111.J.4 rn, .and 0 .2 m.•-~spec.tive!y. 111c. lest
0
approximiu~-9!@1etel' of t.lieJiµ:geS t ~ ' bubblc;'lh~lwill.,q_~y.S:191(~~

i~ ,i.6.-;imu.lll\C. p.erfonnnrite, e>f._the prototype ~t U>::lgw_ts. ~Y_hat>m.ust
IJ)e mo~ei speed be for the model and pryro.~pe to exJ:tib~t s_llilllar
1~<i' Jf
~~ ri.siai _tru.:9µ&b a.lar~~ tall~ of 9il.ofv.\s£9ajt): o. i9,j:,a._, s :µ,i__~
4 08 Chapter-9 Extei"lii!l ·lnciompressible Viscous Flow.
,9.74 Glass spheres of 0.1 in. diarnete~ -fall at constant velocities 9,83 A cyclistis oble to nttnin a maximum speed of 30 km/hr on a .Q.
of 0 ,1 and 0J:)5 ft/s :lhrough ~vo different oils of the same specific calm day. The total mass of rider and bike is 65 kg. The rolling resist- -
~yicy. in ·very large Ull!lqi. :If the -viscosity of the first oil is ance of the tires is FR=7.5 N. and the drag coefficient and frontal
o :002lbf. s./fr. ,vhnt is the viscosity ,of the second'? area are Co= 1.2 and A== 0.25 m!. Determine the maximum speeds ·
·9~':tS A rotmy mixer isconstritctedft'om two circular-disks :is shown. the. bicyclist is actually able to attain with the l O km/hr wind
-Th~ mixer is rotnted at 60 rpm in a lnrge vessel containing a brine (a) cycling into the wind, and (b)cycling with the wind. If the cyclist
solution . (SG = 1.1 )~. Neglect the drag .on the rods _a nd the motion were to replace the tires witJ1 high-tech ones that had.a i"ollino resist-
induced in: the· liquid: ·Est,iim1te tJ1e minimum torque and power ance of only 3.5 N, determine the m:iximµm s1,>eed on a c ~ day.
re~uired to driv_e the mixer, cycling into _the wind. an_d cycling with the wind_ lf the cyclist in
ndditio!l atuu::lies an nerociynanlic fairi11g that reduces __thc drag coef-
ficient to Co=0.9, what will _b_e_ tJ1e new maximum speeds?
,,, = 60 rpm 9.84-A standard marine torpedo is 0.533 m iri diameter and about
. i. I 7.2 n1 lllng, Ma,ke an engineering estimate of the power required to
+ ·=---- -=------~- . :--=·-- + 100 mni dia.
· · -o:~
·. I-
.
m-r- 0.6 m-l
P9.75_ .
· ··
drive this ioql°edo ot 80km/h through freshwater at 20°C. Assume
hemispherical nose. cylindrical body. and fhit tail. Co for n solid
hemisphere (flat side downstream) is abou\ 0.42. ·
9.85A large u:u.ckhns an ei;~entililly boxlike b_o dy .t hat causes Dow
Q ,9a.76 As a . design .ertgini!_er you .are asked io design .an em_e:rgency separation at the front edges. of the c:ib-at nny speed. The drag is
braki:ng p~c;:tiute system for use with a military aircraft Qf mass mostly profile drag and Co =0.75. If the projected frontal urea ·or
9~00 kg. The plane lands at 350 km/hr. and the parnchu1e system \he truc_k is 9 m2. detennine and plot as afum:1~on of speed between
alone aiust s)o,v ¢e airplane to 100 kni/li.r in .1¢ss. than 1200 m. Find zero and the legal lilllit tJ1e power that·niust be deliv~red to the road tc:>
the minimum diruneter required for a single parachute. arid for tllree propel the .truck. ·
rit>iiliiterfering . pnfuc;:hutes. Plot the airplane ·speed versus .distance
:img·versus time. \Vhat is the maximum "g-fon::e'' ei.peiienced? ~-86 At a suqirise party for a .friepd you've Li_e d a series of 20-cm- _g,
g.J _
;9.'77-Ari·•em~rgen9y 1:>rw.-,;_il-9 Pnr:1chute system
. . . consisis·.ofa large· plll'."uChule of dn1metcr 6 m. Jf
ontheamrplane
~ilitary ail'!=t11ft
mass
IS
dmmeter hehµm balloons . to a flagpole, each tied with a short
string; The f11Stone is tied I m above tl1e groil~d. arid the othei:- e'iohi
are tie~l_:it L m spacings, so that the last is ti¢d at a height of 9'."'m_
8500 kg, lilid it lands a! 400 km/hr, find the lime and <,listnnce al You notice tlmtin the steady wind,each bal_loo.n is bloi.vn by the wind
;w.liii:h the. ~l1111e is sio,,•ed to lOOkm/hr by the parachute alone. so it looks like the angles that the strings make with the verticn.l·
Pi~t t.he-iiitcmftspeed ,•c;rsus·dislJ}n·ce and versus time, What is the are about 10°. 20°. 30°. 35°, 40°, 4;5°, 50°. 60°, arid 65°. Estii-na:te
mrutimurn •·•g~fqn;:e...; experie'r1ced? Ail engineer proposes that less and plot the wind velocity profile for ·1he 9-ni range. Assume· the
~p_a~:W~iuld be.taken '1p-by ,;epincing the large parachute wi1h tl1ree helium is at 20°C arid .10 kPa gage and tirnt each balloon is made
·nbtiiliterf'ering paroc:hutes each cif diameter 3.7~ m_. What effect of3 g of la_tex. · ·
\'1Q),i.ld,·thi1 have on·_;th:e, tim~ nnd ~isuwce to slow 10 I 00 kni/hr?
9 .87 A: .0.Scm-diameter hollow plastic sphere containing poUu_tion
.9;.78 ·oi_>,1¢uJi:it;e-!h~ drag .of a smooth sphere ot 0:3 m cfiameter in a test equipment is bei_n g dragged through the Hudson River in 'New
-~~ !.lf•stiindard seji- level air ai Reynolds n_umbets of l,L0,100, York by a diver riding :in underw~\er jet devi•c e. 1l1e sphere with
and ·lOOQ,. an•.effec(ive specific gravity of SG=0:30 is f4lly sµt,mergeci, artd
•9./'l i;l·C!jlcu.liJ.re·ilie·dmg of: a S!DOOth sphe~ of o;s in diameter when it is tethered to the diver-by a thin l.5°111-IQ!)g wire. What is ti1e nnele
plnced i:rt '!!ri _nirstr_ellltl (15°C and 101.3 kPa) if i!}e velocity is the wire makes wiili 1he horizon.tal if the vi;ilocity of the dives:- ~ci.
·(a) 6.m/s. and :Ct!) 8:4m/s. For the same drag coefficient as ,at sphere relative LO the wntefis 5 m/s7 The water .is at l0°C. .
8A mis. :lit ~yh11t -v~)ocity will tlie sphe¢ at~nin tJ1e same drag tliat 9 . 88 A siinpl¢ b~t ¢ttectiye an·e moriieter to measure\ vind speed can
•i t,had:at-a ,,e\odcy ofMn/s? be made frortra thiri pliitc binged to deflec.Un i.l)e wind. Consider a ..
m
9.SQ A cy.l,indpc;lll,c;liimney 0.9 i'ri in {iiaJP:elei: and Z:t5 hi~h is tJ1.iil pla/e rrtacJe fiq1n brass .that is. 20 mm high and lO mm wide;
e~posed 10.a •5:6'k:ni/h whid (15°c lll)c.! l_O L3 kPar ~tini_at~ the beri<,l_- D.erivearelatioris)jjP,for ,vind sp-eedns nJun_ction of deflection 'angle,:
ll!lfi:ii<?Jti~µt :iit~e bottom of llie chiriiney. Neglect encl effects. fJ. What thickness 9fbrass should. be used to"give 0= 30° at 10 m/s?
,9::_$.j•th,r resist1irice -to;n1qtio.n qf a iqod bjcycle on sn)oot11 pave~ 9~&9 the Willis Tower (forynerly 'the Sears To,ver) ·in Chicago-. is
,;riiedfis '.nearly-aJ.i (l.ue lo •nerodyn#nic clpig. NS.1,m1e, tJ1at the tolll.l 1454ft lllll. AssumingJhat.it is ntnll rectangle •with a ·square . base
ofJ20 ft sides, cal_c~lnte th!'l: m1J,Ximum drag force oi1 the building
.l~Itilif~~~~~
ndimt~:.de¢eic"i:ate irorti:c50:fi/s.tCI.30;.(t/swhile i!"oastiil&' after- fy;ich~
;irii l~~~t:J#ng\ . .
and th_e foi:ee when the wind is along the qiilg!,'>nal of the structure.
as a -function of wino spee_d from Beaufort-Wind Scales of strono .
_l:>reeze (28 mph) co hurricane: (75 inph). Assuming that the wind
-field is uilifonn, c_alculnu; !he mn·ment about the· base of the
1J9wer .nll!O.
Q~?O Iris· proposed to bl.iilda pyramidal building with a square base:
·
~~i~t515¥
-witl}0sitles of 160.ft. which b~ th~ s~.e volume~ns tlie Willis- 'i'o-1.ver;
on
9n1,;ajl!J!fth~ m~imumdrag,foi'ce tnis builcling, D9 you ~pect
thedr:!g_fort:eio tie great!l"r/ the'same; or less thliri t11at for the Willis
ToW~t?:W!iy?;and ·compare-it'to' thatfor·lb~Willis Towei:-·under·hu.r-
iicnne.:fofui,h:onditic;ms (75: mph~, . .
Problems· 409
9.:9;1 .Calcul:ue the dr.ig.forccs.on a 11200. scale model of the Willis base.the1orque calc:ulations-on-the drag generated at the insta_ntcwhen
.T ower lhat:-is tested -in a. lru:ge wa1et flume under conditions corrc. two of the cups are orthogi:>nnJ-and.the other-two cups are parallel,:aiid,
spending lo lhose m problem 9,89. Ignore any free surface effects ignore friction in the bearings. Explain :why; in the libs_e nce of fric~
nnd assume dynamic similarity and lhat the drag coefficient is tioo, l!t ariy given ,vind SJ).ClCd,.the :µ1emcimc;tf?r i:uns a1.co11st;01_t·wee<J
1,!!:11;:h_iµiged. ratlier than·accclemting.wi!ho ut limiL Ifth_e actual-.:aiieiilometet.~ -
ing has-constant.friction-su ch th~t the nn~mon,:eter _n ecd_s ~ m_i11i~um
g 9--? 2 A circu!ar disk is hung in an· air stream from a piv:ptcd strut as wi.nd spc;~d of OS;mpl! 10. begin CQtating_,_!:Qmp~.the.rotation.s ~
· shown. In n wmd-nmnel experimem, performed in air at I 5. m/s with
·a:,25-!l:un diameter disk, a was measured at l 0° . For. these conditions
~ith .anci without friction for V = 20 mph.
n nin,e the mass of the-disk. Assume:_the drag,.c oeffi~ient for tile
<!¢U;:_
diskapf>lie"s when the component ofwiild speed normlil _to_th_e c!isk is
use.d , Alj_sum~.-.drag .on the slrutand frictipn in lh~ pivot
Plot ll. lheoretical curve of a as a function of air speec!.
nre
neg)igible,
·
~1
I"'
P?s97
-v 9.9'8 An object-falls m air clown a long vertic~l<;pJ1~. -1'.b~ sp~~y:9 f
the objeer is consmm at 3 m/s. The· flow panei:n nroun·d -tfie:oljject>:is -.
shown, The stati,;: press'U~ is-uriifotm,acrt>ss sections(j):iutd (2);,pa;s~-
P9,92 sure is atmospheric at section (D, The effective ·o ow.area at·section·(i)·
is.20_percent of the-chuie ~a. Frictj.onnl effects betw~:s~ti_o,ns'Q )
9 ·. 93·A vehicle is l:i_uikt<! rcy for the lrujd-spi:!;d recor:d at life Boiirie- DJ'i_d (2) are negiigil;Jle.. E~aJuate the flow s11_eed,rel~ti.ve D;>,the object ai:
•vµje_:Sa!t Fia~•. elevatit)tl 4400_ft. The e~girte deii v~rs 500 hp t~ the sec.tion (2). Calculate.the static p~sure at section (2). Det.emJ.i-q~ the·
rear wJi~els, arid careful s~nmiiniitg 'iiru.- resulled in n dr;ig coeffi~ ~ s o_f the:o.bjecL
cierit of 0.15, based·.on a rs·fi.2' frontiµ o,'!'t!~. ~9~puicnhe:th'eor¢tical
i'l1~4ii.u rn gn:m ntl spe·e d oftll~ i:lij (n) in still air-ruid -Cb)',vith _a 26 rilph
b!';"~~Wirid. . . .
9~"94 An _F-4_11ir:craft is slo,ved ,ifter l;inding by dimJ prirachut~
~~jfloyeci. from 01e rear. Elich parachute is 12 ft jµ <,lil;iinc;.1e~.:.+i1e
'F-4 ,veighs 32.000' lbf and lands at 1'60 ~01$, '~limate the time
tu:id dist~c~ requ~d t9deceleriiJeCtJ~e aiirnHio100 knci:ts, assun:i,iag
*
ili_ ~1e~rakes nre not used and the dmgof ll1e·_wfi;r~i't is negii'glbl~.
;.9-5,~ tiiicmratraUer rig_ bas fronml ~ -a!',\ a= 102 (t2 and drilg~oef-
fici~nl t:;i, = 0.9. Rolling resistam;e i_s 6. lbr°per 1000 !bf of Yelif~le
we~ghL Th¢ specific foci COl)SUinptiori of the diesii engi~e is 034
Jb.fu'-of..fucl ~C. ho~epoW.ei" liout; iirid di:iveu:ain efficiei'i~y" is_92 per- Ai ;;;, 0.09 m 2
cent. Tiie•dertsity ofdles"¢ffuei is:6.9. lb"rri/gal. Estimate the fuelecon- P9.9~
tflhtt~~~!&Jti:~
·v~ii •12'.c(OiJO miles
m::ro~J:a:~:~;ti
Caici:iiate
per year.
r1~~t!~~:! t:r~~ 0
tfi~ fti~I saved [ii:1:"yeru' by)he

9~99 An obj¢ct of m;iss ";, with cross~sectional area ~qu!ll .to-.liaif
the size oft,be-chute. fulls:down a.mail chi.(re; Jhemolion:Is1s~_Y,-
i:c:iaffaiting. . . . . .. . ~ . . .. The wake a.Rais fthe size·oflhe.chu~ at-i!S mruumuoi·area. Use..t he
assumpti!m of consmni: pr.essw-e in- the wake, App Ly -tii~ cbntjjiigty,
g . .9_.:9.,6:,1\. i&Occh:p spons,c;nr 9f front.Ill aren.l.72 m~. wir,h a-drag co,ef- Beqioulli. artd mo men tuQI equations•to develop an:exp~si9n.fol' rei-
. .iii::{enl-of:0.;3 J, ~91.\-~--L7 hp. to cruise At lQ0-~1/h~ At what speed
midnJ speed. of tlie obj¢cc in. terms, of its IDl!5S and otlfef quani,iti~_;
J~-~ ·rieJQd}'Jl!!mic dro~- ij~t t~cee9 rontn~ resismnc,e? The. rolling
resistance :is l.2 pert;t;lnl of :the caf ,vei"gl1t, and. llie car mass is 9..1 oO Aligfit pllll!e tows an ad:ve~µig banner ove)' a (o.otbiill..sui~
i :fso·-K,f.Flng the ciriveti:airi c:f:fid_cncy. Wliat is the·in/L't!l1lurri accel- cliLim o~ n Satllcrd~y aftem.90~- The bnruiei, is ·4 ft. call nild 45 ~ .1.Q ng.
~rot1o~ ~doei koj/li1'\Vlll)l is the rfiil.>tinuim speed? Which ced~igJl Ac1;~ajmg to··Hoerner- UPl, the ~g c:9efficienc:p~¢.ctqr;ijmea tlf#):
~;;U:i:iiu:~no 'ii h_igh~r maxiliiuiri spe~:ci: improving me ~riv~ lrllin·effi- .f\>r ·such a b!lf\ner is· approJUIDated by Co =:;Oi05'-L/h". ~'1~ ,C,. •is
ciei:ic;y bY'6 pereerit from i1s-curr¢nt value, redueing· the drng·coelli- the ~armer length ~d Ii is the l;,anJJer heigfit ~ciiiiate• the pow~-
cJe.ono 0"29; OI'~d.u ciilg' the·toJlirtg··rei,i~ianc:e· to 0.91· _percent of-the req~~ to r9w tlie· bw:mer at -V==..--55 niph. Compare. wigI the- drag
of n ng1.d flat plate. Why is lbe. dr;l.g Iarget fC>r _ihe Qlll).ne"t'.?
car weig~t-'t
9 :97 An.-aneh16meter to mens·u re, ,vind spi:¢d is m!)de from four 9 ~:1_01 Th1;. ~teJ>nil on-a qu, is 10 ~-iri,~e~er. lin_4 ~$',m, loiig..·
h¢itiispherjcai cups of 1~in. diameter, ns ·snown. Tile· ~eater ofeach f.s_nID!lte: the..ben<ling. mo·m eiJJ.~~ -tends to snnp_,it,off:if,ll'i~-~ t;_
'is
c;·!,lp ~Jlice~r iit ·fe==·3·in, front u1cf pivot. Find :1hcftlieoretic!l,I calibrn~ tlnven.nt UO:km/hr ·.o n a ,staQdaitl.,_d~y.. · · ··
-ticiil cdn_sra,nt.•k, in•theci).li_1;>mri1:)IJ e~1,1ntio1t V ==·ka.i:.wb.~V{mph) is 9;10~ Co.risider Sfl!all· oil _d,i:ppiets {SG...:.:0.SS). rising ·iq ~ -
tlie·-,vib·o spe~d and (JJ (tprn)..is.'the ronitjc;m_sp·eed.-m :your analysis, De:velop a r;elatiori' fqr _.i ;~ctilati4g tc,mnin;{r speeci · of' a-~~Jet (in:
4 -10 Ghapter :9 External Incompressible Viscous Flow
mis~ as"a function'cifdroplet diameter (in mm) assuming Stokes flow. 9c111 A rectmigular airfoil of 9 m span and LS m chord moves hor~
For whnt range. cif droplet clil!Jlleter 1s Stokes flow · a rensonuble izontally al an angle.of attuck through still nir al 240 km/h·. Calculate
8.S$Ulllpticin? the lift and drag, and the power necessary 10 drive the airfoil at this
9.1<>.:l:Smndnrd airis drawn into alo,v-speed wind tuririel. A 30-mm speed through air of (a) 101.3 kPa and l5°C, and (b) 79.3 k.Pa and
-di:u:neter·:s phere is molinre~ on a force balance to measure lift and -18°C. Co=0.035; CL=0.46. C.nlculate the speed and power
~rage An 6il~fille4 .manometer is us"ecl to measure static pressure required for condition (bl 10 obtain the lift of condition (a).
msicle the·tu.nneh the,reading is -40 mm of oil (SG =0.85). Calcu- 9.112 An air bubble, 0.3 in. in diameter, is released from the ·regu- CJ
l~te .the. freestreiµn air speed in the tunnel, the Reynolds number of lator of a scuba diver swimming 100 ft below the sea surface where -
now overthe sphere. and the. drag fort:e on the sphere. Are the bound- the water temperature is 86°F. The air bt1bble expands as it rises in
ary Jnye.rs.o·n the sphere laminnr or turbulent? Explain. water. Find the time iL takes For the bubble· to reach the surface.
9.:104 Compute the tenriinnl Speed of a 3-mm-diameter spherical Repeat for bubbles of diameter 0.2 in and 0;6 in. Compute and plot
¢~A«!P· in stnrtdard rur. the depth of l)le bubbles as a function of time.
9 ..105 Asinall~&P.q~re ,yitli D =6 mmis observed 19 fall through cas- 9. 113·Why is ii possible 10 kick a football farther in a spiral motion
fot.·011 at ·a terminal speed of .60 lllm/s. The temperature is 20°C. .than in an end-over-end tumbling motion?
Cciinpute the draj(coeffi~ienlfor ihe sphere. Determine the density 9.114 If CL=l.0 and Cv=0.05 for an airfoil, then rind the span
of me sphere. if clrt'.lpped in ,vli.ter, would Ille sphere foll slower or needed for u rectangular wing of 10 m chord 10 lift 3560 kN al a
faster? Why? take-off speed of 282 km/h. Whur is 1he win.g drag at take-off?
9.106 A tennis ball with a mass of 57 g and diameter of 64 inm is 9 .115 A wing model of 5 in. chord and 2.5 ft span is tested at a cer-
clrQppe.i:1 in standard sea level air. Cal,;:ulate the lerminnl velocity of tain an~le of auac;:k in a wind tunn.el at 60 inph using air at 14.5 psia
the ball. Assuming as. an approximation that the drug• coefficienl and 70°F. TI1e lift and drag are found 10 be 6.0 lbf ancj 0.4 Jbf respe~-
remains constant ill its 1erminal-veloci1y value, estimate the tirne tively. C:::11lculate the lift and drag coeffi.ci.ent for lhe model at this
t1.11d di.S~cc required for the !:!all .to .reach 95% of its terminal speed. angle of aLtack.
·9·.197 A water tower consists ofn l2"m-dinmeter sphere on· top of 9.116 Ab11.rgeweigµing 8820 kN Iha! i!i 10 m wide, 30 m long. and
:a v:ei:ii® ·tower 30 m tall and 7 m iil diameter. Estimate the 7 m 1,iJJ has come f~e .from its rug boat in the Mississippi River. It is
Sehding-mbrtle;l!'I~. exened on lhe base of the to,ver due to the aerody- inasectirin cifrivefwhicb has a current of fn1/s. and there is a wind
namic force imposed by a 100 km/hr wind on ii. staildlin:I day. olowing sLraigh1 upriver at 10 m/s. Assume that the drag coefficient
N~glecl interference at the joint between the sphere and tower. is 1.3 for both the pan of the b:irge in lh.e wind as well as the Par:t
9.108 A cast-iron "I 2-pounder·• cannonball rolls off the deck of a below water_ Determine the speed at which the barge will be. steadily
ship and falls into the ocean at a location where the depth is 1000 m. moving. Is iL moving upriver or downriver?
Estim:111.e the time that elapses before the .cannonball hits the sea 9.117 A spherical sonar u:a,ts.ducer with 15 in. diameter is 10 be
bpttbm. iowed in seawater. The transducer must be fully submerged rit
g 9.1t,9 Th.e plot shows pressure difference versus angle measured 55 fl/s. To avoid cavitation, the nuqimum pressure or1 the surface
of the 1r11nsµucer must be greater than 5 psia.'Calc:uli11e_ .the i)yc4"ody-
for air fl.ow around a 'circular cylinder at Re= 80,000. Use these daiil.
to estimate Co for this flow. Compare wi1h data from Fig. 9. 1~. How namic drag force acting on the transdu<;«;r at the required towing
speed. Estimate the minimum depth lo whicli the tnmsducer must
can you explain the clifforence?
be submerged lo aVoid cavitation.
0.6 ~--.....-,---,-----,----,----.--~------, ·9.118Whih:wnUcingac;:rosscampusone windy dn_ y . an eng\neering
s1uclen1 speculates about using an umbrella· a& a. '!sail"' 10 propel a
bicycle .µ!'.mg . 1)1c; sid.ewall<- Develop an algebraic expression. fol"
the speed a bike could reach on level gro1Jncf wjtl1 !he ur;nbrella ··p~
pulsion system." The frQntnl area of bike anti rider_. ls estimmed as
0.3 m2 • and the drag coefficient is about i.2. Assu~m; the rolling
resistanc~ is 0.7511,crce,11 of the bike and rider weight; the combicied
mass is}5 kg. Evalua1e·1he bike speecl 1ha1 couhfbe .achieved with nn
umlirella 1.22 min diam.e.ter in a ,vind.1harbfows·at 24 km/hr. Di~-
c11s_s the practicnlily oflhis propulsion system.
~-f1'9..If tbc. menµ velociLy adjacent 10 the top of a wiilg of 1. 8 m
~hortl is 40,in/s arid lhtit adjacent to lhe bouom of the wino is
120 150. 180 31 ijj/s when :the wing lllQV~ through still air at3;3:5 ~/s. eslin~ate
.O.ngle, o(degrees) the HO. per nieter of span. ·
p9,109 9;129 'l'he NAC~ 23.015 airftiil is 10 movi, at J80 ITlph through
sJa:ndard.seaJevel=- Pe_t~nnine Lhe minimuin•drag, drng at optimum
9.11.0 Are.cr.nniuJar airfoil of 40 fl spllll .µid 6 fl chord has lift and ,L./,JJ .!inctdr::ag at point of.maxjmum lifL (:alcµ!iite tl1e lifl. .at these
poinis and the power that .mus.t be eX:peilded to obtain· these lifts,
~g.coefficients,o.f,0.5.µJd 0,04. ~pecuvely; at an an~le of -~ t~k ~f
.6•. Calculate the clcag and bocsepo.w er n~ess~ 10_ dnv~ this.airfoil 9:l~:1. Ahuman-powered ~ti;r.uft. has a gro_s s weight of .240 lbf
irt¢luding- lhe pilot. [ts wing hns a ijft co_e ffidenL.of 1,5 and a .lift-
:~r~): WQ;t Uft
'.'"Q 100 ancU50 mphhoriz:onlally lhroµgll suU mr (49 FancU3.~
fo~es. ~ obllli.ne.cl at these speeds? tp-<!ra..g• ratio. of 70. Estirm1~~ lhe wing .area ..11eeded and the•. pilt>t
Problems 4 11
power that must be provided for this craft to cruise al 15 mph. airfoil ·section. Wilh this airfoiJ. its cruising speed ·on a standard
Assume that the wing profile drag is about 40 percent of the total drag day near sea level is 150 mph- A redesign is proposed in which
nnd the propeller efficiency is 80 percenL the current conventional airfoil section is replace4 with ~oth_er. cqn-
ventional airfoil section of the sam_e area; but with aspect ratio·
~-122 WiffieTM balls made from light plastic with numerous holes
AR== 8. Determine the cruising speed thalcould be achieved with this-
~ used to practice bnseblill and golf. Explain the purpose of the
new airfoil for the same p·o wer.
h~les. and _why they work. Explain how you could test your hypoth-
esis expeamentally. · 9.131 Assume the Boeing 121' aircraft has wings with. NACA
23012 section, plaofonn area of J600ft2, dc;,ul:ile-sloticd' Oaps. an.cl
g 9 . 1-2 3 The :•shot tower," used to produce spherical lend shot, has
effective aspect ratio of 6.5. If LIJe aircnµt flies at.15.0 knots iri stand-
· .be_en re.c ogmzed as_ a mechanical engineering lnndmn.i'k. In a shot
ard air at 175.000 lbf gross weight, estimate the. thnl~.t ~ui~ co
cower. molten lead 1s dropped from-a high \qwer; as the lead.solid.i~
fies, surface tension pulls each shot iri!o n spherical shape. Discuss maintain level flight.
the possibility of increasing the "hang lime," or of using a shorter 9.132 Jim Hall' s Chaparral iF sports-racing cars in the 1960s
tower. by dropping mol_cen lead into an air stream that is moving pioneered use of airfoils mounted above the rear sus~nsion to
upwarcl._S1,.1pport your discussion with apprpprinte calculations. ennance stability and improve braking performance. The airfoil
was effectively 6 ft wide (span) and had a 1-ft c:horcl. Its angle-of
9 ;124 A model airfoil ~f chord 6 ·in. ruid span 30 in. is placed in a
attack-was variable between 0° and -12°. AssumelifC:artd drag CQef-
,vind tunnel with an air flow of I 00 fc/s at 70°F. jt is mounied on a
ficient data are gi~en by curves in Fig. 9.17. Consi~el'~car speed-of
c;:ylin~cal suppon rod 1 in. in d_iameter and lO in. tall. Instruments
120 mph on a calm day. For an airfoil deOectiQn of .12° dov.,rl, ~ :-
at-ihe base of th~ rod _indicate n v_erticnl force of 1O lbf and a horizo~-
culnte (a) the maximum downward, force and (b) .·ihe ,ml!)ci[!lum
tal . force of 1.5 lbf. Calculate the lift and -~ g coeffici~i'its 'of the
!).irfo~. . increase in deceleration force produc;:ed by ch~ airfoil,
9.133.Som~ cars come wiLIJ a ~sp:oiler, a w.ing-~cig,i._moun~,~!l
0
9.1_2? An antique a,i.Ipl;in~ carries 50 m of. ext~ll)nl .guy Wires

the rear of the vehicle that sal,;speople somtlimes claurt significan~;y
sc;reii::'1e:d norqial lei ·the direction cif motion. llie wire <liwneter is
5 mm_.Esl,imace che ma,.ur(iuqi pq~~~ s~Vi~g thri_tresul~ 6-Qm-~ ~pri-
increases traction of the tires at.highway speeds. Investigate_ th.~ viili!'.J:-
ity· of this claim. Are these devices really just cos.m etic?-
murn strelfrnlirung orthe wires lit \l pl_ilrle spe_ed bf FiS lmi/hi.- i n
SUl.!1~o.rd ;tir. a_t·se.a. level. 9 .134 Roadside signs tend -co oscillarc:in a twisting motion·whe11 a
9.1 :~.6- Ho.i.,• do tjil;Hrtp_untec! wi ii'cl .deflectors- for tractoNtailer strong wind blows_ Discuss cfie phenomena cha.t must-occur t:ei cause
trucks ,vcirk7 ~plain ~S~& -diagriuns of.t.i~~ 'n ow pattern aj-qi!n(i cWs behavior.
the· !,rl-1.s:IC: l).l'!d wesstire.<listt_ibtiti911 ·Qn the-surface of the truck. - 9 .135 Air moving over an automobile is aci:elerat~' to ~pe¢c(i;Jiigfiet-
9 .• f'27 An .ii~lane i.viQi U!1 effective lift area of 25 m 2 is fitted With ilil!Il the crave! speed, as shown in Fig, 9;25. This t:aus~:c;:h~g~,.~
airfoils-of NAQA 230.12 sec.lion' (Fig.'.9.23). The maximum flap set- interior pressure w)l~n windows are·opeiledor dpsei:i.'t;Jse .i he·cliita·o f
.tip_&. tp_a_t can .b e used at takeoff corresponds 10 co11figµ_;.itio_n (;!) iii Fi_g, 925 toestimace the-pressure re~uction·wbeli a.,viiidow is o~ned'
Fig. 9.-23, Determ.inc _the maximum gross ma,ss. possib,le,fcir the hlr- slightly at a speed of .100 km/ht. What is the-air sp~~ in ·the frte~
plruie .ifilS takeoff speed·is 150 km/hr at sen ·1e~ei. Find the mi_n.imwn. siream. rte;ir the window opening'?
~qkeQff speed required for this gross mass if the airplane is instead 9,136 A cbss de[!lqµs$-cion sbo:we4 that lift is 2rese11t w.hen a cyl-
takin~: off frQm De11ver (elevation-ap_pri:,xi_mately t6 km). inder rotac,;s 41. an iµr $tream..-A stting.wrapp_ed, around-apa_E>e!'-cyJ:.:
9.1-2 8 'The· U:S . Air Force F-16- figf'!rer aircraft has wing pJanform inder qnd _pulled caure.:;- the cylinder to spin _and mo:v.e. 'focwaI:Q·
aiea .A =300 ft2; it c_an a.c hieve .n -maximum lift:- coefficient of s4tlultaoeously. Ass\!-Ifle a cylinder of .5 cm diametei:- and 3'(j, cm·
(;i.:? h6. When fully loaded;- its weight is 26;000 lbf. The airfr;une le11gll:1_is g~v~n a rotation-!l spe~d of 240 rpm and a Jq~~ s~eg·
is capµ.!;>le of nianeuv.ersthat· pmduce 9-g .vertic.µ accelelJlt\Ons. How~ of 1.5 m/s. ~tilpa!e. th!; approxim~ lift force chat aces on the
cylinder. . . . -. .. - . -
ever, s .r udeht .pilcits are restricted 10 5 g ·maoeuvers during training,
Consider a turn flown in level flight with the aiccraft banked. Find 9-137 Rotating-cylind~rs were .propos~d, as .i. ·m eans-of.s_li.ip: p1:9pµl~
t-11e .rri_inimum speed in sl(!ll(lan.l air al which the pilot can prod1.1_ce sion in 1924 by the German ~ngineer, Remier- The original Fiettn¢r
n 5-g foi/;ll acceleration. Calculate the coqespon•dihg· fligtic .rawus. roto~ ship had two-rotors,_each .about lO fi in diameter ap:9
So:.n high,
Discµss : the. effect :of nlti[u(le qn these. results. rotatmg at µp to 800·rpm. Cak;ulai:~·the ma.'tiinum lift and·drag focces
9.-1-29 A light airplane, with mass M = 1000 kg, has accinvencional~ that act on each rotor µi, a 30..mph wind. Compare the. total fqn:e t~
section (NA<;:A 23015) wing of planfonn ·area A"" 10 m?. Find the that producc;d.11,c the optimum.¼/D at .t he same wind.spe.~<L Estj.ma.tc;.
angle.of attack-of the: wing fora.cruising speed of V "".6 3 ro/s. ~at the power needed co spin the.rotor at 8_0 0 rpm. · ·
i~-·the re_ q µ~d power'? Find the maximun1 instan1an~ous verucal .9,138 A baseb.n ll piti;:her thn:,ws a ball.at 80 mpti. Home_j>lat~.i,$ 60:ft
•~g j;:qi;ce" experie_nce~Lat cruisini speed i.f the angJe:of auac:k is sud- away from. the pitcher';, mound. \1/lu,lt spin should be pl~ed on th~
derily inc·r e.ised. bµJ.J for ma:<.imum hcirizo_n ~ deviation from ;1· sn-aigtiJ patb?
9. ,ib A.,light-airphµ1e h:is35-ft effective wing~p!lO, al)d 5.5-ft chocµ. A baseball has a m·a s~ of 5 o:z. ·and. a cireumference of-9 ·hi_ How
f;u- will the ball deviate from a straiiht ·line? · · · ·
(t,was qpgi_n aUy c)esigned to us~ a c:ww~_nticinlil (NACA 23015)
C HAP TE R 1 0
.Fl-uid· Machinery
1 .0.1ln:t:tql:lugion and Classificaticm of Fluid Machines 10.5 Hydrauli<: Turbines
10.2 Turboit).a~hiri(!Jy Analysis 10.6 Propellers and Wind-Power Machi_
n es
i<>-3 Pumps; Faris, ~rid Slriw~rs 10.7 Compressible Flow Turbomachines
10.4 Posifive' Displacement Pumps 19.a ~µm·m~ry and Useful Equations
Case St udy
The Little Engine T hat Could!
Alan Epstein, a professor of aeronautics and astronautics at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and his team have done
a ,lcit of res¢arch on tiny gas-turbine engines made of silicon. They
are about•.the size ofa·quarter (as shown in the figure) and can be ...::E
easily rtt~ss produced. Uniike conventional large turbines that are c'
ass~-mbled from many corrtponen~, these turbines are built basi-
c.1.liy from a splid piec:~ ofsilicon. P(ofessor Epstejn discovered that
the basic concepts of turbine theory (discussed in this chapter)
l C
-1
apply even to his microtlirbines; the fluid mechanics turns out to 0
-be the same a.s .that for larger engines, as long as the passages a
~ade for gas flow are larger than about 1 ,,m in diameter (smaller I
than this .1n.dnonconcinuum molecular kinetics is needed). "-~---~~~~--=-""-~- _J .§.
The toter and its airfoils are carved out of a single wafer, c!S Silicon gas-turbine engines suitable for powering laptops
shown in the figure. Additional "plumbing'' and bearings are or cell phones; a 6-mm-diameter turbine assembly.
et~hed'ohtothe wafers that are to.sandwich the rotor. Combustion
6c~rsj1.1st ciutsidethe roto.r, at the same wafer level, spinning it by
pushin·g-on its airfoils from the outside. At more than a million rpm, In this ~hapter we will discuss how to analyze and design
the·s e turbines make no aud.ibl.e noise (it's there, but not even your turbomachmery, such as this little gas turbine·. Most of the
dog can hear it)! Electricity.will then be generated using, for ~xam- devices you will _en~ounter are much 1;:irger than this turbine,
ple, a tiny g!;!nerator. The fuel source could be packaged with the but the same principles apply. We will study pumps, blowers;
engine or come as a replaceable cartridge l!ke a ~l&arette ligh~er. fans, and compressors that cause a fluid to "flow; turbines and
lri'terms of power density, the little engine will easily beat batteries, windmiUs_ that extract energy from.a flowing fluid; and propellers
.with a~ butput of somewhere l;>etween so and 1 oo watts! that provide the propulsive force for airplanes .
Humans have sought to control nature since antiquity. Earl;( humans carried wa:ter by the bucket: as
larger groups formed, lhis process was mech;mized. The first fluid niat:liines developed as bucket wheels
ano screw pomps Lo lift waler. The Romans introduced paddle wheels around 70 B.C.E. to obtain energy
from streams [1 ]. Later,.windmills were developed toharness wind power, but the low power density of
the wind Limited output Lo a few hundr~d ht>rs~power. Development of waterwheels n1acle it possible Lb
extract thousands of horsepower at a smgle sue.
Today we take many fluid machines for granted. On a typical day we draw pressurized water from
the tap. 1,!Se a blower to dry our hair, drive a car (in which fluid machines operate the l1Jbrication. cooling.
4 12
1o.1 Introduction and Classification of Fluid Machines 413
~d power steering systems). a_11d work in a comfortable environment provided by air cir.culation. The list
could be extended indefinitely. ·
A :fl':"d m_achine is a device tha(eithcr performs work on or extracts work (or power) from a fluid~As
yo1,1 ·c an unagine, this is a very large field of study. so we will limit ourselves mostly to incompressible
flows, First the tenninology of the field is introduced and machines are· classified by ope.rating principle
nn~ physical-characterist ics. RalherJhan a~~empt •a.treatment of th:e entire field, we focu~ on machines in
wluch-energy transfer to or from the fluid is throuah a rotating element. "Sasic eql!ations are reviewed-'and
then simplified to fonns useful for. analysi~ of ~uiii machirjes. Performance c;h~cteristics of typical
machines are considered. Examples. are given of pump and turbine applications in typical·systems. Next,
we. will discuss propellers anc.,I wind.turbines, which-are unique in that they achieve·energy ti:ansfer with a
fluid without the benefit of an external housiog..A .dis¢iJssi'on of compressible ti0w machines. conclu4es
the•chapter. ·
10.1 lntrpduction qnd ClassificatJon Qf Flt1id Machines

Fh.\id machines may .b~ .bi:oadly cia<;sjfied l!S ei.t her positive displacf!TTJenL or dynan~ic. In p0s10ve-
:displa~em~,n_t machines, em:rgy transfer is .{):scomplisl)ec.,I t;,y volume changes that occur due to mo.ve~
ment of the boundary in which tJ:ie fluid is. co-nfineci. This indud_t::s piston-cylinder: arrangements, gelµ'
pµmps (for example, the oil pum1:ffor a car engine), and lobe pumps (for example, those used in med~
icine for ~irculating blood through a machine). We will n_ot analyze these devices.i11 this i;h.ipcer. we will
.review them briefly in Section 10.4. Dynamic fluid-handling. !ievic;:es that direcl the flow with blades or
..vanes. attached to a rotating men1be·r ~ -terqied 1i1d;o;1;;u,hi11~s. In concrast to positive displaceJTient
qui'~I.ui:iery, _ther_e.is.no close_c! :vqlum~iila tµ_(borj]a,chine. These devices~ very widely used in industry
for. po;w er gene~ti911 (for example, wacer: anc.,1 !l.l eam i;url>.ines) and in numeroµs pther applications
(for exampie, the turbocharger of a high-pefform~c~ car). The en1phasis in this chapter .is.on c!ynamic
fuacbines;
A further distinction among .types of turbomachi11ei; is based on the geomeo:y of the flow path. In
nr{/Jal-flow machines, the flow path is es_sentially radial, with significant changes _in. radius from inlet to
oµ~et. ·(~uch machines sometimes are caUe,d .<;.t!11trifi1gal machi11es.). In axial-flow machin~. the· flow
path -is ne.arly pa,raiiel to the machin.e centerlio¢;!!-_Qµ the radius of th~ flpw path. does no~ vary signifi~
Gantly. tn.m~xed-jlo111·.m achines the flow-palli radius -c~ariges on}..y mod~taie1y.
AJl :w.ork interactions in a Lurbomachille ~~•It froro dynaniic·effeccs of.the;!'qtor ~m the fhildst:re._uri;
tha_t js,. th~ transfer of Work t,elween the. fluid ;,i_nd the:,i;o_tating machine either incre:as¢s or decreases the
. ~peed of the ~P~- However; in conjunctiqn ,vith this,kineijc energy tra.nsfer, machines tl).at j"m;:lq(leexcer~
nal housings (e.g., comp~sors, pumps, and turbines) :als0 .involve either the conversion of p.i:essure
eh¢tgy to:kin•e nc energy, or vice versa. This acceleration ordecelerai:ion ofthe. flow allows for maximum
p.ressu~ rise in pµmps and comprei;sors and for qill?(imurn po,ver output from turbines.
M~chines for Dofng Wor:k on a Fh.rid

Machines l11at add energy to a· fluid by performing i.vork on it are called pumps when the .flow is liquid or
.slu!TY, and-fans, blowers, or coi11press9rs for gas- 0r vapor-handling units, depending en pressure rise .
.F~s usu~IY have small pressure rise·(less than I ind1.ofwater) and blowers have-m0derate pn:ssure rise
_(p~rh~ps l inch of tne'rcury); pumps :ind c:ori1presso~ may have very high pressure .rises. Current indus-
i:riai -syst¢ms op:erate' at pressti@ up to 150;000 psi (104 atmospheres),
· ·· Pumps and compi:essors consist of a rotating'wheel (called an ilrwelLer·or rotor, depending on the
cypc;,ofmachine) cJriven byan external power souree (e.g., a motor ~rag.other fluid machine) to increase
. dje .flow kinetic energy, fc;,Uowed by ao element ~o decelerate the flo,v, the~by increasing its pressure.
This--coml;>ination is knO\Vil ns,a:srage. n,ese elements_ are containedWithin a hoi.1:Sing·or casing. A single
p~mp or c;orilpr:esso.rmightco risist_of several stages Within a single hous1?g· ~ependin~-qn the amount of
: ."i-essure rise· required of the machme. The sh~-must penetrate the hpus10g m order .to te~eive mechari-
.r~fil work•from the exlemal power source. B.e~ngs ~d seals are needed to i:ninin.uze frictional (mechan-
'lefil) losses and prevent leakage-of the \~or~~ flu,1d,
414 chap ter :1 0 Fluid Mach inery
Tore¢ typic al centri fugal mach ines are show n schemlitically in Fig. 10. I. TI1e.r otatin g elem ent of a
¢eqtr ifuga 1 pump or comp resso r is frequ ently called the impeller. Flow enters each mach ine nearl y axi-
aily:n t.sina ll raqiu s throu ~h the eye of the impel ler, diagrn1'11 _(a), at radius r 1• Aow is turne d and leave s
i,hrou gh lh-e irqpe ller d.i schar ge at radius ,-2 , where the wi_d lh is b 2 • Diffu sion qfthe .flow is achie ved in a
cent:ri:fQgal mach ine as it leave s the impel ler and is collec ted in the scroll or volute , whic h grad ually
incre? ,Ses in area as it nears-the oull~ t of the mach ine; diagra m (b). The impel ler usual ly has -vane s;
it may :be shrou ded (encl osed) as s\1own in diagr am (Q), or open as show n in diagr am (c). The impe ller
vane s may be relati vely.-stroig ht, or they may c.u rvelo becom e ntmradial at the ouil~t. Diag ram (c) -show s
that th¢·di ffQse r may have -vanes to direc t the floW tietwcen theim peller disch arge aIJ.Q the volut e; vane s
nllow for more effici ent diffus ion, bu_L atfac rease d -fabrication.c_ost. Cenni fugal mach ines are capa ble -of
highe r press u~ ra,tios than axial mach ines, but-th ey·ha ve, a-high erfron tal -area per unit mass flow .
Typic al axial -flow a.nd mixed -flo,v ttitborriacbiJ;les are show n schem atical ly in Fig. 10.2 .
Vide.o : F/ui,, i11
✓ ai, A,.i:ip/ Flow Figur e 10.2a show s a typic al axial- flow cotnp resso r stage. In these mach ines the rO_tating elem ent is
•Cnmprcssor referr ed to as the ro_tor. and flow diffus ion is achiev.ed. in the stator. Flow enters nearly ..p~U el to the
(A11i111ario11) rpt<;>r axis and main t~ris nearly the_same radius throµgh the. stage. The 1:nixed-:flow 'p.um p .ii;i, 4iag ram
(b) show s the flow being tufl!·e d outwa rd ·a nd movin g to larger radius as it passe s lllrou gh the stage .
Axia l flow rni;ichines have high~ t effici encie s and less frontal area than centri fugal jtj~c;:hin•es, but they
cann ot-ac hieve ·as high press ure ratiqs . As. a res_1-\ll, l!Xial flow mach ines·- are--m ore likely to ·cons ist of
µiglti ple stage ~; maki ng them n-i.ore comp lex tbari c:e:ntrifugal mach in~. F:igure 10.3 show s a mult i-
ple-s inge axial flow ¢omp resso r, In this photo grap_h, µte :outer hq_ijsiI1g (to ,vhich the stato r vane s are
.atmc hecl) l)as been rento ved, cl~ad y show fog the rows ·o f rotor vanes.
The· pressu re: rise that can be achie ved e!'figiently in.a singie siaie is limite d; clep¢ ~dirig on the type
of inach ine. The reaso n for this limita tion earl' I>~ u_rid¢ri!tqod based on .1be press ure gtadi ~Pts-in these
n:i~eh ines (see Secti on 9.;i). In a pump or co-m presso r, the b:oi,i_ridacy layer sµl;>jected to an adv~ ~e pres -
sl,ire gradi ent is not stable ; so flow is.m<;>re likely to encou nter botihdiuy~Iay¢f sepa,ran,6J1 in a -ceim ptci;i sor
(·a) C~ntri fugal Ji.urrip (b) <;:enlrffugal blower (cl b _

entrifµgaJ \:Ompress9r
Fi~. 10, 1 schem atic diagra ms of i;ypical ce_n trifµga l-flow turliomachlne:s, a~apte<! fr9.m· l;i_ased _on ·Refer eilce-( 2].
~lilge ,·I,
I
-,
.I
I
I
I
·S.tafor vanes
--- ,,- • • .,~ ·r.,:;;:

. - ------;:-_-_.-..A:::RBtor
·- - -Hub
,-~
. ..
a~!a._
-- .
_''.~..,.
"
t~l Axi~l-flow compressor ~~ge Cb) Mi.X.~!HloW P.iimp-s tage·
f(g,· lo.. 2 s~hemati~ dlagr.i.ms oft}ip kalaxi aHJow-;i~il i;nlx~d--ffo)Y turbi>machln_~s,_ba_secl onre.fe.renc:e[2J.
10.1 Introduction and Classification of Fluid Machinl!"s 415"
_Fjg, 1_0 ;3 ·Pho~o~,.iph of a rriulclpte-s_tage_axial-flow compressor rotor for a t,,s turbine.
p:r,_p_u mp. Boundary-layer separation -i nc~ases the,_d rog on th~ impeller, resulting in a decrease in effi~
q~ei:l~Y; _.t herefore additional wofk is need~!i .to,c;pmpress, the flow.
·· Fans, blower:s, i:;omp~sors, :µip pumps ~ ,found in many sizes and cyp,~ •. ranging. from simple
}io.us:e hold units co complex industrial uajis oflarge capacicy. Torque,and power req~ire!llencs-for idea,.
lize!i pumps. and turboblowers can be analy~e!i by applying the. anguJar~momentum principle using a
stiitaql~ ~qntn>l ve>lunie, · · ·
.~i!~~jJ~~i;f~!~~!!ifE!fit;:~~
Ma.¢hlrt~s far E~tra.t.titig W:o_r~ (P9w~r} fh>;ni .~. fluid
~a~h izj¢_s.J .Qpq ~xtr:acteM~m fr<:m1 aJ ii.11d:ht;¢ ~,@1)f i>f'. w0tkJp(P,~)Her).are:call~"il tj,_,if.l ii&s. Irtl,yq,r.aulic
rurbilj.es.,,t!i:e:·\YCi@Pg-flui.d-is·.,vacer;.sQ,.tQe·floW·isi.h~9¢pl:§s ible. I!igas tu.rbi,z.es.ap~J..sf.¢Jw r rurbines, the
d~~itfy·p;fllie ~orldiigtiuid may change sigriificarttlya,fo a rorhi..tie,-a stage·normall.y, :cen,sists of.axt ele-
·rti.edtto ;iccelerate the flow, conv.e rting some of its pressure energy to kinetic energy,-followed by a roror;
·wiieel; or rul'/11er extracts the kinetic energy from the flow -via a set of vanes,. bla.d es, 0£ buckets mounted
·on the wheel.
·· · The cwo most general "Classifications of 1urbines are irnp1,1ls.e and reaction turbines. Impulse turbines
anH:Jriv~ri by one or more high-speed free jets. The classic ex;unple ofan impulse turbine is the water.-
wii~¢l..Ih,.a ,w~cerwheel, th~ j~ts of water -~ driv¢ij by gravicy; i:he kinetic energy of.th~ water is crans~
fer-red co qi~:-wheel, resulting ip work. In more mo~tem.fo.rms ofinipulsecturbi..cies, -the jet is ac.¢elerated-in:
-~-_rt6zzie'.·~X:t~maj to i:betutbiile wheel. If friction-_and gravity are-neg_l~cted~neither the--fluid press~re nor
:$p~¢J relative to the ruone~ changes as the. flui:d passes over the turbine buc~ets. Thus for an impulse
.tu.thine,. the fluid accelerallo!l and accompany~ng press~ drop take pl~ce m rto~~- external to the
blades,-_a.Qd ~e runner- does not f low full of flu1_d ; ·work 1s extrac;ted as a result: of the birge momel!tµm
·¢hange··~f tile fluid.
In f eCJctio.n turbbies, part of i:he pressure.change tak~ place externally and p;i.r:t ~es_place witbJn
t.ht :rnovin;g bladess E~temal accelei:aiion o~<;U{S .a nd the flow is ~ec;l .to enter the runnf!t in. the;! proper
.:dire,q.l;ion as-it passes tllrough nozzlesorstati.oqacy blades; caUedgmd!;!'vanes or. .yicket gates_Al'fc;litional.
416 Chap ter ·1 o Fluid Math iner- y
fluid accel eratio n relati v¢ to the rotor .o ccurs withi n the movin g blade s, sci bcith the relati ve veloc ity and
the·p ressu ~_of the· stream chang e ·a cross the runne r. ~e<:nuse re.a ction turbin es flow full of fluid . they .
gener ally can .prod uce more powe r fcir a g ive n overa ll size lhan impul se turl,,ines.
Figur e i:0.4 show s turbin es used for differ ent applications. Figur e 10.4a shows a Pelto n whee l, a
type of impu lse turbin e whee l used in hydro electr ic powe r plants. Figur e 10.4b is a _photo graph of an
axial steam turbin e rotor . an exam ple of a reaction turb~ e. Figur e l0.4·c is a wind turbi ne farm .
A wind ·rurbi ne is anpth er .e;,c,ample of a reacti on turbine. ·but, like a propeller, also opera tes with out
·;m. outer housi ng. Mod.~m wi11d turqin es typica lly collec t wind energ y an~ conve rt itj mo elect ricity .
Seve ral fypic al.by dtaul ic tµrgin es are
show n schem atical ly in Fig. 10.5, Figut e 10.Sa . show s an
:impu lse turb~ri.\\ .d riven by a. single jet.. which lies. in the plan¢ of t,he tµrb1.ne runne r. Wat~ r from the
jet strike s each !>ticket in succe ss.i on, is.tur ned, and.lei;ives the t\tickl::t with.rel.a~ive veloc ity n!;:;irly oppo -
site to that whh which it ~ritete.tLi.lJei:mcket. Spent .water falls -into the tailr.ac.e (not show n).
A reactj on tm'bi ne of tlie Front is fype is show n in fjg._l 05b. Incom ing wat¢r f.lqws circu mfer en-
tially throu gh th~ i.urpine.cas ing. It enter s the pei;iph~ry of the statio nary guide vanes· apd flow s towa rd
the runne r. Wate r ent~r s the runn.e r rteaily radially 3!1c.l is i.urned down waul Lo.leave .neatl y ~x.ia lly; tbe
flow patte rn :may be Lhpt1 gpt9f as·a centrif11gal pump in reverse. Wate r leijviilg the runne r flow s throu gh
a diffu ser knqwri-i,1.s a draft 11,be,b eforee nterii :ig the; tailrace. Figur eJ0.5 c s_hows.a prop~llenu rbine of the
Kapl an type. '.flie w~ter..entry is.Silllliat to that iri tlle :Francis turbin e; but it is turned to.flgw nearl y axiaU y
befor e encou nterin g the; turbin e· runne r. How ieavj.ng the runne r may pass throu gh a 9raft tube.
Thus turbin es range from simple; windm ills to comp lex gas and steam turbin es with.m any stage s of
caref ully desig ned bladi ng. These .devic es also can pe analy zed in idealized form by apply ing Lhe angu -
lar-m omer itum princ iple.
The aUow able amou nt of pressu re drop in a turbin e stage is usually greate r than the amou nt of pres-
su~ rise allow able in a comp re~so rstage; ·T he differ ence is due Lo the favqra ble press ure grad ient (see
secti on 9.5), which make s boun<!ary-layer separ ation much Jess likely Lhan in the case of the com pres sor.
· · Dime nsion less param eters. such as sp ecific speed, flow coefficie111, torqu e coejf itiem . po1\ie r coef-
ficien t, and press ure ratio, frequ ently are used to chru;acterize the perfom1ance of tilrbo maJ:;h ines. Thes e
(a) Pelton .wheel (bl S.t eam lurbine rotor (cl Wind tu_rbine ·1.irm
Fig. ·10.4 Ph'citograph of tlirt:,ines use_i:I in differe nt appllc atl ons.
Stai°lon11ry
guide _vari·es Rotor .va_nes Gui de vanes
(a)- lmpu_1 ~·turb ine ~(b) R_eac_tiori turbine (cl Prope ller turbin e·
(Pelton.wli~l l (Francis trJ1e) ~Kaplan type)
Fig. :10• Schem;1tic·dl a~ram s of typica lhydra ulldui biri~•.b~sed on Referente·l2J .·
5
10;2' Turbomachinery Analysts 417
p~ete~ were introduced in Chapter 7: their development and use will be considered in more detail
Jater m this chapter.
Scope of Coverage
Acc::or~ling to Japikse (3], "Turbomachinery represents a $400 billion market (possibly much more)
with enormous worldwide growth at this time. It is estimated that industrial centrifµgal pumps alone.
consume 5 percent of all lhe energy produced in the lJSA .. In addition, the demands for widely avajl-
able, economical, green power wili continue to drive research and development in the turbomachinecy
inp1,1stry [4]. Therefore, proper design, construction, selection, ancJ application Qf pomps anQ compres-
sors are economically significant.
D~ign of actual niacliines involves.diverse technical knowledge, including fluid mechanics, mate-
rials. beiirihgs, seals, anc:l Vibratioris. These topics are covered in numerous specialized texts. Our objec-
tive. here is. to present only enougjl detail to illustrate the analytical basis of fluid flow design and to
discpss bciefly the limitations on res(!lts obtajned, fi:0Jll simple analytical models. for rriore de.tailed
qesigrf i().formati9n,. consult I.be references. ·
Applications or "system" engineering requites a wealth of experience. Much of this experience must
be gajnecl by working with other engineers i.n the field. Our c.overage is not intended to be comprehen-
·•s ive·; inst~ad we discuss only the most imponartt corisid~rations for successful syscem application of
pumps, compressofl!, and turbines,
· The material io this. chapter is of a different nature from that in the. previous chapcers. Chapcers .I
through 9 covered much ofthe funciarnental material of fluid mechanics, ,vith detailed analytical results
fu :most cases. This chapter ,viJI also involvesignificaripunoun~ of analysis, but the inherent complexity
ofthe topic means lhaCon litany occasions, we need to resort to empirical results and correlatibiis. To the
stuclt~nt. this may appear as so much "hand-waving," but combining theory arid 1;xperimerit to deduce
results is a very co111mon: approach in eO:gineering sciertc;e. · · ·
1:0. 2 Turbomach'inery Analysis.

As in other analyses, the med1od of analysis used for turbomachinery is .c hosen according to _che,infor~
.rnai:i.on sough·L If:Pverall infomiati5>11 on'.fic;,w ra:te, pressure ch~nge, tOi:qile, aiid power is desired, then. a
finite-'con:t;rol-volume analysis ma:y be used. If detailed information is des.i.recf about l;>lad:e angles or
:v'e!o.c;ity profiles, theninclividua] blade elemena; mus.t beanalyzed using an infinitesimal-contr0l-volwne
or ot:het·detailed procedure. We consider only idehlized'flow processes in this book, so we concentrate
Oll t:.b~.approach )JSLllg µJe finite conu-ol volume, appl~iQg the ~gµlar-momenturri p,rinciple. 'T:Qe ana_ l ysis
a:
that follows. applies to mach.ines both for doing work on, ruid .extracting work ftorp., .fluid flow.
Tf:le,.Angular--Mcfrnentum Principle: The !:;tiler Turbomachine t;:quation
The anguJar-mome.ntum principle ,vas 11ppHed to finite control volum~s in Chapter 4. The result
wi:is Eq. 4.46.
.rx.Fs+ Jrxgpd¥-+Tshp(t=:l;J rxVpd¥+J "Fx..VpV-dii (4.46)

·cv CV CV
}EgQat.ion 4.46 states t:lta,t the moment of surface forces and body forces, plµs the applieg torque, le.id tq a
;diarige in. ci1e angular Ql0(Tle11wm of the flow. The surface fo~es, are dµe to friction and p,;essure; the
pocly fotce is. due. L• g~yity, the ~ppJied torque <eoul9 ~ positive ~r negative (depencUp.g .Qn whetQ~r
-we are doing work on or .exu-acung work from the fluid, re:specl:lvely), and the an~ulru--monientum
¢haQge.cah arise as a chan_ge in angµ_lar 111omentum wi~hin the cciritrol volurrie or a flux. of angular
tnomenrum across the control surface. . . . . .
· ·We will now simplify Eq. 4.46 for Malys1s of curbomachinery. First, it is convenient to choose ,1.
fixed c~_o trol volume enclosing the rotor to evaluate shaft torqu~- Be_c ause we are lookin~ at control
·vqlutne$ fgr which we expect l.u-ge sh<1,ft torques; !ll> a first approx1,IPat1on torq:u.e s.due to.surface fo.rc.es
418 cha pte r 10 Flui d Mac hin•ery
~y
Fig. 10.6 Finite control volum e_and abso lute velo city
com·p onent s for analy sis of:an gular mom entu m.
may be igno red. This mea ns we are·n egle tting friction and torqu e gene rated by pres sure chan ges. The
body forc e may be negl ecte d by sym metr y. Then , for stea9 y flow, Eq. 4A6 beco mes
f.11nr,= J
CV
rxVpV • dA (lO . Ia)
Equ atio n IO. la state s: For a turb oma chin e with workinp11r, the lQrque requ ired caus es a chan ge in the
fluid .~gu lar mom entu m; for a turl,>omachine with work outp111, the torqu e prod uced is due to the cha nge
m ·J1uid angu lar mom entu m. Let l!S writ e th.is equa tion in scala r fonn and illus trate its appl icati on to axia l-
arid radia 1-flo w m9c hine s.
As show n in Fig. J 0.6, we selec t a fixed conu:ol.volu me ericlosjng a gene raliz ed turb oma chin e roto r.
The fixed coor dina te systeri1 is chqs en with the :::-a.xis align ed with the a.xis of rotat ion of the mac hine.
The idea lized velo city com pone nts are show n in the figure. The fluid enters the roto r at radia J loca lion ,
r 1 • with unif orm abso lute velo city. V1; the fluid leave s the rotor at radial locat ion, r2, with unif orm abs o-
lute velo city Y2.
The integ rand (>n the righ t side ofEq . 10.l a is the prod ucto fwit h the mass flow ra(e at each secl ion.
For 1mifo m1j low into the.r otor at secti on ICU , and out of the rotor at iiecti on 10.1 , Eq. 10. la bec ome s
(10. 1 b)
(No te that in rxV the posi tion vect or ·r is p_µrely t'adial; so only the tangential velq city com pon ent V,
coun ts.) In scaJax: form,
The ·assu mpti ons we mad e in deriv ing this equa tion are steady.fricrio11less jlo,v ; u.n ifom i flow at inle t ~d
e xit; and 11_egligiblepressure effec ts. Equa tion 10.l c is the basic relat ionsh ip·be twee li torq ue and ang ular
mom entu m for all turb oma chin ~.. It often is calle d the Eule r mrbomachi11e eq1iation.
· Eac.b velo city that appe ars in Eq.1 0.lc is the tang entia l com pone nt of the abso iute velo city of the
fluid cros sing the cont rol surfa ce. The tru:igential velo cities are chose.i:i_positive whe n in the sam e dire c-
ti.oh ~ the bJad e spee d, U. This sign csmv entjo n give s Tshor, > 0 for pum ps, fans, l>lo_wers, and com pres -
sors. and -rshnft < O.fpr turb ines . . .
· · · The rate of wor k don e on a-tur bom achm e r9tor (the Elechanical powe r, W,,,) ii; ~ve n by the dot
prod uct of ~otQr angu lar velo city, -w,
and appl ied torqu e, Ts11nfl• Using Eq. IO.l b, we obta in
\.Vm =in· Tstu,fl =wk •T.11.,ik= wk• (r2V,, -r1 v,,),iik

or-
(10 .2a)
10.2 iurbomachinery Analysis 419
According to_Ecj. 10.2a. the angular momentum of the fluid is increased by the addition ,o f shaft work.
For: a .pump, W;,, > 0 and th~ angular momentum of the fluid must increase. For a turbine. W;,, <0 and the
angular momentum of the fluid must decrease.
Equation 10.2a may be written in two other useful forms. Introducing U = rw. where U is the tan-
gential speed of the rotor at radius r, we have
Dividing Eq. 10.2b by ,i,g, we obtain a quantity with the dimensions of length, which may be viewed as
the theoretical head added to the flow. 1
Equations 10. land 10,2 are simplified forms of the angular-momentum equation for a conttol'·v ol'-
ume. They all are written for a fixed conrrol volume under the assumptions of steady, uniform flow at
eacl:i section. The equations show that only the clifference in the product rV, or UV,, between the outlet
and inlet sections, is important in determining the torque applied co the rotor or the mechanical power.
Although r2 > ,., irfFig; 10.6, no testricti_on has been .m ade on geometry; the fluid may enter and leave at
the ~rune or different radii. Therefore; these equ_ations may be used for axial,· radial, or mixed-flow
machines.
Velocity Diagrams
Tpeeq_µ11qops that we have derived also suggest the.importance of clearly deliiling the velocity coµi-
ponents of the fluid and rotor at the inlet and outlet S:ectjon,s. f'or this purpose, it is 1,1seful co develop
ve.locil)• diagrams (frequently called velocity poiygons) fot the inlet and outlet flo,vs. Figure 1.0.7 shows
tpe v~l99.ity diagrams and introduces the notatio!1 fo_r !;>lade ai:J.d-flqw angles. The imp9mu1tnotation to
reroemb~r is that the variable Vis typically used t9 ii;J_d!<::ate absolute velocity, tha~ is, the vel<;>cjty oft,lle
f19w relative to a stationary observer, while th.e variable Wis.used toindicate flow velocity relative _to th~
(OUJ.l-il'lg_blade.
··· · · Machines are designed sucll th:i.c. at design con(/ic(o_n the fl_uid moves smoothly (without !fistur-
bances) through the blades. In the idealized situation at the design speed, flow relative to-the rotor is
'as.sumecl to en tee artcl leave tangent to .th~ blaqe profile at eacti. section. (This idealized inlet condition
- V Viz
1v2 ,_ nz_-£
.f;:;;;2_~-.7-~ vV22
~ U2 - ~
{c) Velot:,ty comppnents

at outlet
(afAbsolute velocity as sum

of velQcrty relative to blade
arid r_o lor velocity
!"jg, 10_7 ~eo.nietry arid not~~iQI) 11sed to develop velocity ~i;~grams for- typl~I radlaJ,-_fJow _m ;ii:hines. .
1___ ,. ,_ dimensions of energy per unit time nnd ti1g is weight flow per unit lime. head. H-, is actuiµly energy per unit weig'ht
5 ,nee r1. n, . 1105 . . . .- . --- .
of n~wing fluid.
420 ·C ha·p ter 10 Flui d Mac hine ry
is sem etim es calle d slwc kles s entcy flow.) At spee ds othe r than desig n spee d the fluid may imp act
the blad es at inlet . ex.it at an angl e relat ive to the blade, or may have sign ifica nt flow sepa ratio n.,
lead ing to mac hine ineff icien cy. Figu re 10.7 is representative of a typical radial flow mac hine . We
assu me .the fluid is mov ing with out majo r flow disturbances throu gh the mac hine . as sho wn in
Fig. 10.7 a, with blad e inlet and exit angl es [J 1 and {J2 , respectively, relative to the circ umf eren tial
dire ction . Note that altho ugh angl es /J, and (J are both less than 90° in Fig. 10.7 . in gene ral they
2
can be less than , equa l 10. or grea ter than 90°. and the analysis that follows appl ies to all of thes e
poss ibili ties.
The runn er spee d at inl~t is Vi= r 1c,J, and there fore it is specified b.y the impe ller geom etry and the
mac hine oper ating spee d. The abso lute fluid velo city is the vecto r sum of the impe ller velo city and the
flow velo city relat ive 10 the blad e. The abso lute inlet velocity may be deter mine d grap hica lly. as sho wn
in Fig. 10.7 b. The angl e of the abso lute fluid velo city. a1,.is measured from the direc tion nom 1al to the
flow area , as show n.2 Note that for a give n mach ine, angles a 1 and a 2 will vary -with flow rate . Q,
(thro ugh VI and \/2) and roto r spee d, w (thro ugh U1 and U2), The tangential com pone nt of th(!: abso lute
velo city. \/11 , and the com pone nt norm al to the flow area, V,,,, are also show n in Fig. 10.7 b. Not e from the
geom etry of the figu re that at each secti on the normal com pone nt of the abso lute velo city, v,,. and the
norm al com pone nt of the velo city relat ive to the blade, Wn , are equa l (because the blad e bas no norm al
velo city) .
To help dete rmin e the abso lute velo city at the mach ine entrance, il is nece ssary to .de.te rmi ne
whe ther swir l exis ts at ll1e entm nce. Swi_rl, whic b may be prese nt in ll1e inlet flqw or intr.o duc ed by
in[ec guid e vane s, is the pres ence of a circu mfer en_tj:µ velocity com pone nt. Whe n the inle t flow is
sw,i,rl_ free, the abso lute inlet velo city will be purely radial. The inlet blad e angl e may b~ spec ifie d
for the desi gn flow rate and pum p spee d to prov ide a smoo th entry flow relat ive to the orie ntat ion .o f
the blad es.
The velo city diag ram is cons truct ed simila,rly at tl1e outlet section. The runn er spee d at the
outl et is U2 ;::: r2 w. whic h agai n is know n from the geometry and operating spee d of LJ1e turb oma chin e.
The ¢lat ive flow is assu med to leav e tl1e impe ller tang ent to the blades, as. show n in Fig. 10.7 c. Thi s
idea lizin g assu mpti on of perf ect guid ance fixes the direction of the relative outle t flow at des ign
cond .itio ns.
For a cent rifug al pum p or reac tion turbine, the velocity relative to the blad e gene rally cha nge s in
miig niru de from inlet to outle L The c~mtinuity equa tion mus t be applied, using the impe ller geo met ry. to
dete rmin e the norm al com pone nt of velo city at each secti on. The nomml com pone nt. toge ther with the
outl et blad e angl e, is suffi cien t to estab lish the velo city relative to the blad e at the imp eller outl et for a
radi al-fl ow mac hine . The velo city diag ram is com plete d by the vect or addition of the velo city rela tive to
the blad e and the whe el vel~ ity_, as show n in Fig. 10.7c.
The inlet and outl et velo city diag rams· prov ide all the information needed lo calc ulate the idea l tor-
que or pow er, abso rbed or deliv ered by the impe ller. using Eqs. IO.I or l0.2. The resu lts repr esen t the
perf orm an·c e of a turb oma chin e unde r idea lized cond ition s at the desig n oper ating pojn L sinc e we hav e
assu med :
• Neg ligib le torq ue due to surf;ice force s (visc ous and pressure).
• lnle t and exit flow tang ent to blad es.
• Unif om1 flow at inlet and exit.
AJJ actu al turb oma chin e is not likely to conf orm to_all of these assumptions, so the resu lts of oµr ana lysi s
repr es~n t the up~ r limi l of the perfo rm:in ce _of actua l ?1achiries. In Exam ple I 0.1 we will use the Eul er
Turb oma chir ie Equ ation to anal. rze. an idea lized cent nfug al pump.
Perf orm ance of an actu al ma.chine ma>' be estim ated using Lhe SIWle b~ic appr oach , but acco unti ng
for varia tions in flow prop erti~ ac;ross the \:,laqe span al the inlet an~ ouLlet secLions, as well as for dev ia-
~ions:bet wee n the blad e angl es ~d the _flow direc lions . Such detailed c;alcula_tions are beyo nd t11e sco pe
of this book . The alter nativ e is ro mea sure the ov~oi.11 perfommnce of a machine on a suita ble test stan d.
Man ufa~ turer s' data are exam ples of meas ured perfo rman ce information.
:? Th~ noiation viiries from book to_boo~. so be careful ~hen comparing refcreni;~.
10. 2 Tur bom ach ine ry Ana lysi s 421
Ex am ple 10 . 1 IDE ALI ZED CEN TRI FUG AL PU MP
A.c entr ifug al pum p:is used to pun w 150 gpm of wat er. The wat er ente rs the· imp elle r axia lly thro ugh a:.LZS ,.in. -dia met er inle t. The
.uni fonn . The .imp elle r outl et diam eter is 4 in. Flo w leav es the imp elle r at 10. ft/s rela tive to the blad es.
iiile .t velo city is axia l and
spe ed is 345 0 rpm . Det erm ine the imp elle r ex:it wid th. b2, the torq ue inpu t. and the pow er
wh jph,are rad ial at the exit . The imp_e ller
p_t-¢di cted by the Eul er turb ine equ atio n.
Giv en: Flo w as sho wn in the figu re:

Vr., = IO ft/s , Q = 150 gpm.
Fin d: (a) bz.
(b) T shufl • R1 = 0 .625 in .
(c) w'".
Sol uti on: .Ap ply the Eul er turb oma ch4 te.eq uati on t0·a
I
J __ _
fi~e d c6n trol. volu me, -l l--

b2
.G ove rnin g equ atio ris:
(iO .lc)
::::::0(2)
(4.1 4}
§ f pd¥ + fp _V•dA = O
/Jr Jcv Jes
A.s sum ptio ns:
N,_e_g \l}ct t<;>rques due tc:i b_ody aJ)d surf ac¢ fgi;c;es.
2 Ste ady .flow .
3. {Jtt ifor m ctlow at inle t and .outl et sec9otts,
4 Inco ml> ress ible flow .
The n, from con tinu ity,
6.t
so. tha t
Q l gal 1 s tt3 min .. in,
--= -=- ;:: 2,.w X 15 0- X ;;p- - X .- ji-~ X 7.4S gal X -·60s
- . X 12~
2;n-R2V~ nµn_ - m. 10 - · ft
b 2 ==Q ;O:,l l9 ftor 0.38 3 in. +---, -,- - --- c-- -- ~ ~- e--- - -- '--- '- ' - - -- ~-- -.:.. .:l,: :_~
Fdr--art·:~a ] . irtle t the ' t;:iligenti iil velo cily v,, = ·0; niid for· radi al 'exi t.blad es v,, = R2<iJ, S!:f .Eq, 10'. l~ redu ces 'to
2. • ? . -
T.shaf t= R i wni:,;: WR'i_PQ
where··,ve hav e used''con tjnu ity (riz =pQ ).
.2 - . rev .. ( )'· ~ slug a.al

Tshan==wR?pQ =34 50~ -x 2 -m .-x 1.94 .,_';i X -15 0~ ~n
- · mm u-
2 . rt:3 ft2 Ibf - sl-
rad min
x ?,r- X · · , .:X - - - X l44 in.--, X· slug· . ft
- rev 360 0-s- 7.48 g_~
Tsi,!lf, = .6,.S lft · lb f.- --~~ --;--- -- ----~ - ~~ - .......- - - ------.-- - ~ -:-~ ~T.s
:.: .. ~
~hllli~
42 2 Ch apt er 10 Flu id Ma chi ner y
and
·-· · ___ .•_. __ - rev _ _ _ _ . rad nun hp • s
W;, , = @'Tsh:ifl:;=;: 345 0 r¢n.X:6AH fy .. Jbf X 2r. rev X 6.P s X 55q ft . ibf
Pe rfo rm an ce -H yd ra ul ic Po we r
Th e tor que and pow er pre dic ted by app lyin g the ang ula r-m om ent um equ atio
n to a rur bom ach ine
r9t or (Eq s. 10. 1 c and 10. 2a) are ide aliz ed val ues . In p~c ti_c e, roto r pow er and the
rate of cha nge of flu id
en_ergy are n·ot equ al. Ene rgy tra nsf er bet wee n roto r and fluid cau ses loss es bec aus
e of vis cou s eff ect s,
dep arr ure s fro m uni for m flm v, and dep artu res of flow dire ctio n from the bla de ang
les. Kin etic en erg y
tra nsf onn atio n to pre ssu re rise by diff usi on in the-fix ed cas ing intr odu ces mo re los_
s es. En erg y dis sip a-
tion occ urs in sea ls and bea ring s and in flui d frictj.on bet wee n the roto r and hou sin
g· of the ma chi ne
("w ind age " los ses ). Ap ply ing the firs t law of the rmo dyn am ics to a con trol vol um e
sur rou ndi ng the rot or
sho ws tha t Jhe se ''lo sse s" in me cha nic al ene rgy are irre ver sibl e con ver sion s from
me cha nic al· ene rgy to
the rma l ene rgy . As wa s the ca:se for the pip e flows disc uss ed in Cha pte r 8, the the
rma l ene rgy app ear s
eith er as inte rna l erie rgy in the flui d stre am or as hea t trans.fer to the ·sur rou ndi ngs
.
Be cau se of d1ese los ses , in a pum p d1e actu al pow er del ive red to the fluid is less dm n
pre dic ted by the
ang ula r-m om ent um equ atio n. In the cas e of a turb ine , the actu al pow er del ive red to
the sha ft is les s tha n
_the pow er giv en up by the flui d stre_a m.
·we can def irie the pow er, hea d, and effi cien cy of a turb om ach ine bas ed on wh eth
er the ma chi ne
doe s wo rk on the fluicl or ext rac ts wo rk (or pow er) fro m the fluid.
fo_r a pum p, the hydraulic; pow er is giv en by the rate of mec han ical ene rgy inp ut
to the flu id.
(10 .3a )
wh ~re
2
-
L +v~_-+z)- (- P •
~ ----+-
2
-v +-z·) _
H_ p=
, (_pg 2
[f . <.lis'c:hnrge pg
- 2"--
_lJ slicii~n
(10.3.b.)
Fo r a pum p the hea d ris·e rne asu red on a test stan d is less than Lh_at pro duc ed by the
imp elle r. Th e rat e of
me cha nic al ene rgy inp ut is ~a ter tha n the rate of hea d rise pro duc ed by the imp
elle r. Th e me cha nic al
ippu~ pQ we r nee ded to driv e the pum p is rela ted to the hydraulic pow er by def inin g pum p eff ici enc y as
,,,. = --
W,, jj.Qgldp
; - = - --:-· -·
.P - w;,, - (J)T (J,0.'.3c)
To ,eva lua te tbe .act ual cha nge i_n hea d acr oss _a ma chi ne fro m Eq. l0._3 b, w_e mu st kno
w the pre ssu re, flu id
vel oci ty, and .ele vat ion at tw,o rii~ ure rne nt sec tion s. Flu id velo city can be cal cul ate
d fro m the me asu red
vol um e flo w care and pas sag e dia ine t~ra,
· Sta tjc pre ssu re 1,1sually is me asi l~d ip stra iph t sec tion s of pip e ups trea m fro m tb.e. pum
p inl et an d
dow ~st reiµ p, fro m the pum p oul let, a:fterdiffusi<;m has occ urre d wit hin I.he plirrip
cas ing . Th e ele vat ion
of :eac li pre ssu re g~g e rpa y be rec ord ed, or the s_ta~c pre ssu ~ readings may be cor rec ted
to the sam e
ele vat ion . To e pum p c;en terl ine pro vid es a conver;uent refere11ce level.
· Fo r a hyd rau l,!c _t:url:>ine, the )iyd rau (ic pow er. is def ine d ~ the rate of me cha nic al
ene rgy rem ov al
fro m the flo win g flui d s~ ;
10.2 Turbomachinery Analysis 423
wbere
v- )
p _., ( p V2
- ) (10.4b)
H,= ( -+-+z - -+-+z
pg 2g inle1 2pg g outlcl
For a hydraulic Lurbine, the power ouLpuL obLained from Lhe roLor (the mechanical power) is less than
the rate of energy transfer from the fluid to Lhe rotor, because Lhe rotor must overcome friction and wind-
age losses.
The mechanical power ouLput obtained from the turbine is related to the hydraulic power by
defining turbine efficiency as
- w,,,,_ _!!!!__ (10.4c)

'I, - w,, - pQg1I,
Equations 10.4a and 10.4b show that ro obtain maximum power 011tplll from a hydraulic turbine, it is
important tQ minimize the mechanical energy i11 the flow leaving the wrbine. This is accomplished by
making the outlet pressure, flow speed, and elevation as smali as practical. The turbine must be set as
close tc;> the tailwater level as possible, allowing for the level increase when the river floods. Tests to
meas1.1re turbine efficiency may be performed at various output power levels and at different consLant
bead condiLions (see the discussion of Figs. J 0.35 and 10.36).
Dimensional Analysis and Specific Speed

Dimensional analysis for turbomachines was introduced in Chapter 7, where dimensionless flow, head,
and power coefficients were derived in generali_z ed form. The independent parameters were the flow
coefficienl and a form of Reynolds number. The dependent parameters were the head and power
coefficients.
Qilr objective here is Lo develop the forms of dimensionless coefficients in common use and to give
examples illustrating their use in selecting a machine type, designing model rests, and scaling results.
Since we developed ail idealized theory for rurbomachines, \Ve can gain additional physical insight by
developing dimensionless coefficients directly from the resulting Computing equations. We will then
·apply these expressions to scaling of turbomachines through similarity rules in Section 10.3.
The dimensionless flow coefficient, <ll, is defined by rionuali.zin g the volume flow rate using the ex.it
ar:ea and the wheel speed at the outlet. Thus
where Vn, is the velocity component perpendicular to the ex.it area. Thi& component is also referred co as
the meritlio11al velocity at tl1e wheel exit plane. It appears in true projection in the meridional plane,
which is any radial cross-secLion through the centerline of a machine.
A dimensionless head coefficient, 'P, ma:y be obtained by noDI1alizing the head, H (Eq. 10.2c), with
Ui_/g. Thus
(10;6)
A dimensionless t0rqµe coefficient, r:, may be obtained by normalizing. the torque, T (Eq. IO.le);
with pA2 V'l;_R2. Thus
(10.7)
4 24 Ch apt e·r 1 o Flu id .Ma chi ner y
Fin ally . the dim ensi onle ss pow er coef ficie nt, n, is obta ined by norm aliz ing the pow er, W
(Eq . l0.2 b), with ri,Ui =p QU f llm s
For pum ps, mec han ical inp ut pow er exc eed s hyd raul ic pow er, and the effi cien cy is def ine
d as
11p = W,,JWm (Eq. 10.3 c). H_e nce
· 1 . pQgHp
Wm =T w= -W 1,=·-- - (10 .9)
'lp 11p
Intr odu cing dim ensi onle ss coef ficie nts tl> (Eq. 10.5 ), 'P (Eq. 10.6 ). and -r (Eq . 10.7 ) into Eq. 10.
9. we
obt ain ;m ana logo us rela tion amo ng the dim ensi onless coef ficie nts as
'Pct>
-r= -- (10 . 10)
'lp
For turb ines , mec han ical outp ut pow er is less than hycl,raulic pow er, and the effi cien cy is def ine
d as
17,=Wm/W1, (Eq. 10.4 c). Hence ·
W,,, = Tw= /'/; W,, = 17,pQgHp (10 .11 )
Intr odu cing dim ensi onle ss coef ficie nts Cl>, '¥, and -r into Eq. 10.11, we obta in an ana log ous rela
tion
amo ng the dim ens ionl ess coef ficie nts as
(10 . 12)
The dim ens ionl ess coe ffic ient s form the basi s for desi gning model tests and scal ing the resu lts.
As
sho wn in Cha pter 7, the flow coef ficie nt, ct>, is trea ted as the inde pen den t para met er. The n, if
vis cou s
effe cts are neg lect ed, the hea d, torq ue, and pow er coef ficie nts are treated as mul tipl e dep end
ent par a-
met ers. Und er thes e assu mpt ions , dyn ami c similaricy is achi eve d whe n the flow coe ffic ient is
ma tch ed
betw een· mod el and pro toty pe mac hine s. ·
As disc usse d in Cha pter 7, a usef ul para mete r call ed spec ific spee d can be obta ined by com bin
ing
the flow and hea d coe fficients and elim inat ing the mac hine size. The resu lt was
N _m. Qi/2
. s- iiJ/4 . (7.2'.?a)
Wh en hea d is exp ress ed as ene riy per unit mas s (i.e. , with dim ensi ons equ ival ent to L 2 JP, or
g runes
h~ d jn heig ht of liqu id), and w is exp ress ed in radi ans per seco nd. the. spec ijjc spe ed def ine d. by
Eq. 7 22a is dim ens ioni ess. . .
Alth oug '1 spec ific -spe ed is a dim ensi onle ss para met er, 1t is.c omm on _prac tice. to"u se.an "en gin eer
ing "
equ atio n form ofE ,q. 7 .2Z- a.in whi ch ro ari~ Qar e spe cifi ed~ 1JO!ts that are_ con ven ient buq nco
nsis cen ~•
.and ene rgy per unit .ri1aj;s, Ii, is. repl aced with ene rgy per urut wei ght of fluid, H. Wh en this is
done , the
spe cifi c spe ed is not :ii- uni tl~s p~m ete r ~d the mag ~itu d~ of the s~ecific spee d dep end s on
the uni ts
use d to calc ulat e· it. Cus tom·acy .uruts. used m U .S . eng mee nng pract:Ice for pur:nps are rpm for
_w , gpm
fot .Q. and feet (ene r$)' per unit w.eigbt) fpr H. In prac tice , the sym bol N is used to rep rese
nt rate of
-rota tion (<.Q) i.n.rp JP. Thu s, the-dim e_nsiong.l spec ific spee d for pum ps. exp resse.o in l).S . cµs tom ary uni
ts,
as ~ -••e tjgin ee!i ng,, equ atio n, bec ome s
... .(:g>,.m)[Q
_;N, . _. ~gpm
f. )]i/2
.· .
Nsiu{ -[H(ft)]3/4 - -{:7.221:?)
Val ues 0 f the dim ens ionl ess speci,fic spe¢ d, Ns (Eq . 7 .22a ), mus t be mul tipli ed by 273 3
to opt ain
$¢ Val ues of spe clfi.c spe ed co~ spo ndi ng to.Jb js :com mon ly used buti nco nsis tent set of uni ~ (se e
Ex.@J,pl~ l 0;2).~
10.2 TL,irboma chinery Analysis 425
. For hydraulic turbines, we use the fact that power output is proportion al to flow rate and head,
@ or::.pQh in consistent units. Substitutin g (JJ>/ph for Qin Eq. 7.22a gives
w ( Y!)'I /2. <,JPJ /2 (l0..13~)

Ns = Ji3/4 \j;;;_. .= p.1/2hs/4
,as the nondimen sional form of the specific speed.

In U.S. engineerin g practice it is customary to drop the factor p 1/ 2 because water is invariably th.e ·
wptking fluid in the turbines to which the specific speed is applied and to use head H iii place·of ~nergy
per unit mass h . Customary units iJsed in U.S. engineerin g practice for hydraulic turbines are rpm for w,
horsepow er for W'. and feet for H. In practice, the symboi N is used to represent rate of rotation (m) in
rpm. Thus the dimension al specific speed for a hydraulfo turbine, expressed in U.S. customary units, as
~ "'engineei jng" equation, becomes
11~
N. N(rpm)f9J1
. L (hp))
. . .
.• S,;, =;_. [.Tf(ft}j~/4 . . .
Values of d1e dimension less sp·ecifi~ speed for a hydrauljc mtbine, Ns (Eq. 10.13a), must be multiplied
by 43 .46 to obtain the values.of specific speed correspond ing to this commonly LISed but inconsiste nt s~,t
of units.
Specific speed may be thought of as the operating speed at which a pump produces unit head at unit
volume flow rate (or, for a. hydraulic turbine, ifnit t>"oWet at unit head). To see this, solve for N in
Eqs. 7.22b and 10. 13b, respectivel y. For pumps
.. [H(ft)] 31"_
N(rpm) =Ns..,. [Q(gpm)] 112
and for hydraulic turbines
N m -N [if(ft)j5/4
(rp )- s..,. {~(hp)]l/2
Holding spe.ci.fic speed constant descrjb~ all operating comlitions of geomenica Uy similar machines
widi similar flow conditions . ·
It is c1,1stomru:y to c:hl1.racterize·amachine by its specific speed at the design point. This specific speed
,bas been found tc;> characteriz e the hydraulic design features of a machine; t ..ow specific speeds corre-
·spond to. efficien~ operation of radi.a l-flow machines. High specific speeds COrrellpond to efficic,m~ oper-
atio.o gf axiaJ,-flow maehine.s. -For. a specified head.and flow qite, one can chpose either a low spe.cific
'~peed macpiQe (which operates at low speed) or a high spe¢ific speed machine (which ope.yUes .at
tugher speed).
· Typical proportion s.for collUIJercial pump designs and dleir variatiop. widl dimensipn less specific
speed are shown in Fig. J0.8, ~ this figure, the size ~feachma chine has bee[! adjµsted to give the same
head and flow rate for rotation at a speed co~po·ndtQg.to the specific sp·e ed. Thus it can be seen that if
are
tl;e roac:hihe •s -size and weight critical, one should choose a higher specific speed_ Figure L0.8 shtjws
~the rrend from rad.i;.11 -(purely centrifl.!gal pu!Tips), through mixed,..flow, to axial-flow geometrie s as spe-
cit1~ speed· increasc;s. .
· · -The correspon ding efficiency trends for typical pumps are shown. in Fig. L0.9; which shows that
pump ~apa_c ity &en:tally ~nci:eases as specific speed increases. 11,i.e figure ~o sho~s that ?,t any· given
. specific sp¢ed, efficiency IS lugh~r for large pumps than fo~ s~~ ones, Physically this scale effuc.t means
that viscous losses become less 1mport1µ1[ as the pump size 1s mcre.a sed.
•. Characterl stj.c proportion s .o f hydraulic Lurbines also are correlated by specific speed, as. s)l.Qwn in
Fig. IO.JO. As in Fig, 10.8, the machine ~ize ha,s been scalecJ in thi$ illustration to deli.veI'ap proxima~e ly
the sam_e power. at unit heacJ wh n rotanni at a spee~ eq~al t.o the specific speed. Th~, cqn:esponc ling
7
efficiency treod·s for typicaf .nicpme types are shown. m Ftg. 10.l l. ·
4 26 cha pte r 10 Flu id Ma chi ner y
Radi al flow Mixe d flow Axial flow
~
- - ~_ __ ___ __ J_ h _______ _u __ _ _ ~, ~-
0 ,2 l 4
Dimensionless spec ific speed, N5
Fig. 1 o .8 Typi cal geom etric prop ortio ns of com merc ial pum ps as a func tion of dime n.s_i_onless spec
ific S!)eed, ada pted from
Refe renc e [5]. ·
90
~0,000gpm
~0003~
~~rn~~~=pm gpm gp
. 100 gpm
50
40'- ..L- -'--' -'-'-_ _.,__ .__. ...,,__ _.__._L-JL...l-'-.,___ _J
.5 7 103 2 3 4 5 7 104 1.5
Spec ific speed, N,~ N (rpm ) IQ (gpm)] 112
[H (ft)J3 1•
Fig. 10. 9 Avel"i!ge effic ienc ies of com merc ial pum ps as they vary with specific speed and p_u mp size
[6].
Impu lse Mixed flow Axial flow
-1 _
-- : _______ _ft______--
j
l
'.'•
_5 __ _
0.2 0 .5 4
Dimensionless spec ific speed, N 5
Fig. 1 0.1 o Typi cal g~n ietr k prop ortio n~ ot'co mm·e rdal hydr aulic turbl nes·as they vary with dlme nslo
nles s·sp eclf ic spe ed,
ad.ip ted from ·Refe renc e·[5] .
ioo•.--- --,- --,
-~ 90
c:-
,,:;
<.>
C
I\
"'
13
I: 80
-~ -
Impu lse Francis Axial-flow
70, - -
·o io .20 6Q lOQ .1 40. 180
Si'>ecilic. l!Pee\l, N,~" ' N (rpm) c~ (hpll112
[H (lt)j514
Fig . 1 o.,. , Aver ;ige efflc ieric ies.o f com merc i.al hydr a(!llc turl:dnes as they vary with specific speed
[6].
10.2 Tur bom achi nery Ana lysi s 427
~ev e~ varia tions of spec ific s peed , calc ulate d direc tly from engi neer ing units , are wide ly used in
proc tlce. The mos t com mon ly used form s of spec ific spee d for pum ps are defin ed and com pare d in
Exa mpl e 10.2 .
Exa mp le 10. 2 COM PAR ISO N OF SPE CIFI C SPE ED DEF INIT ION S
At the- best effic ienc y poin t, a c~rit ri:fug al pum p, ,vith impe lier diam eter D 8 in., prod uces H== 21 .9.ft at Q=3 00 gpm with
SI units ( rad/s , m 3 /s. m2/s2 ).
N = 117 0 rpm . Cqm pute the corre spon ding spec ific spee ds usin g: (a) U.S. custo aHli' y units , (b)
aqc;I (c) Euro pean units (rev /s,m ~/s,m2/s2)~t>ev eiop conv ersio n facto rs to ~ela te the spec ific spee ds.
al purri p at best effic iepc y po.iii t_(BEP ). Assu rrie the pum p char acte risti cs are H=2 t.9f t.Q, ;::;3 00~ m.
Giv en: Cent rifug
and N= 1170 rpm .
Find : (a) The spec ific spee d in U.S. cusi oma ry units .
(b) "fhe spec ific spe~d in SI units-.
(c) The spec ific sp·e ed in Euio pean units .
(d) App ropr iate conv ersio n facto rs to relat e the spec ific spee ds,
~elu tion :
QJ/? NQl/'f.
Gov erni ng equa tion s: N s = ~
i,3/4 and N s~-=------ --
-- ·- l:f3/4
Fro m the give n infor mati on, th~,s pecj fic.s peed in JJ:,S. c11$tomacy µnits is
Ns
~
= i 110 rpm x (300 ) i/2 gpm112 x (21.9
-- - 0 - ,
_
-1 t3/4
- )3/4r = 2000
- --------------____,..
;Con ven info ritta tion to SI units :
rev rad min
co= 117 0- · ·- _x -_- = 123 rad/ s
_ -. x2,.1r-
!JUn -rev 60 s ·
-- gal ft3 min ( -- - - 3 m~ - - 3
Q =300 rrtl~ X 7 ,48 gal X 60
s X 0.30 5) fi3-= Q.O 190 m /s
- m - -
H= 21.9 ft X 0.30 5 fl = ,6 .68 m
:11i~ eMr g;y per unit qiass is . _.,_ in - . ., _')•
h=$ H,.= 9.81 s:1 «9.6"1:~ n r =65 .5m-:-/ s-
ni~ dini ensi onl¢ ss spec ific spee d is
d - 3/2 (·8?-)3/4 Ns(.$1)
. ,ra _ -_ , - 112m '" _ . ~ _ -~- ~-= --- ~'- --' ~~
N;,= 123 -.-x. (Q,0 190} - ifi" x _ __ 114
(65.5 ). · (rp.2) 314
-0. 73
-
6+ --- ~--
s s
.(;:011-Yer-t the oper ating· sgee_d to hertz:
- - rev _ min Hz - s
w= ll7 0-. x--- _ x -·- = 19.5 Hz
mm 60s · rev ·
Fin!llly, th~ spec ific spee(I iP !;_1,1ropean -unit s •is.
-3/2 ( 2)3/4
JYs
---·u·r:·)
_,.; (-E = - - -
112
19.5 Hz·x (O,d l90) rn1·12 - K S (65.5 ) 1~(rrt'.1) -~
. - - ~ - --
- s3- ; - 31 , =Cl. 117...
-
N._:...:..(E_:ur_:;_J
--- -,._ _ _ _ _...,.
To, rel~ te the spec ifii; speec!s, form ratios:

N 2000
N:.(ffiir) = ·o:117 = l7,LOO
Ns~ = 2QOO = 2720

.f\.'s(SI) 0.73 6 --
428 Cha pter 10 Flui d Mac hine ry
10 .3 Pu mp s, Fans, and Blo we rs

We will now look at the vario us types of fluid mach ines in grea ter detail. We will begi n our disc ussi on
with rotat ing mac hine s that perfo rm work on an inco mpre ssibl e fluid. name ly pum ps, fans and blow ers_
Ap plic atio n of Eul er Tur bom ach ine Equ atio n to Cen trif uga l Pum ps
As dem onst rated in Exam ple JO. I, the treat men t from Sect ion 10.2 may be appl ied dire ctly to the ana l-
ysis of cent rifug al mac hine s. Figu re l 0.7 in Sect ion 10.2 repre sents the flow throu gh ~ simp le cen trifu gal
pum p impe ller. If the fluid ente rs the impe ller with a purely radial ,ibsolute velo city, then the flu id ente r-
ing the impe ller has no angu l,ir mom entu m and V,, is iden tical ly zero.
With V,, =0, the incre ase in head (from Eq. i0.2c ) is give n by
H= U2V,,
g
( 10. 14)
From the exit velo city diag ram of Fig. 10.7 c,
Vn,
V,, = U2 - W2 cos /12 = U2 - -;--fl· cos /J,- = LJ,,- - V,..- cot /J, (10 .15)
• sm 2 -
The n
H = Ui-U 2 V,., cot/h_

g (10 . 16)
For an impe ller of widt h w, the volu me flow rate is
(10 .17)
To expr ess the incre ase in head in term s of volu me flow rate, we subs titute for Vn, in term s of Q from
Eq. 10.1 7. Thu s ·
H = Ui _ U2 cot/J 2Q
g 1rD2wg (10 .18a )
Equ atio n l 0.18 a is of the form
(10 .18b )
whe re cons tants C 1 and· C2 are func tions of mac hine geometl}' and spee d,
Ct = Ui and C2 = U2 cot/J2
g HD2wg
Tb.u s Eq. IO. l Sa pred icts a linea r varia tion of head , H, with volu me flow rate, Q. Note that this line ar
relat ion is an idea lized moµ el; actu al devi ces may have only an appr oxim ate linea r vari ation and may be
bett er mod eled with a curv e-fit ting nieth od base d on meas ured data. (We will see an exam ple of this in
Exa mpl e 10.5 .)
Con stan t C 1 = U}./g- repre sents the_ideal head deve lope d by the pum p for zero flow rate~ this is
calle d the shur ojJ head . The. slop e of the c urve of head versu s flow rate (the H-Q curv e) dep end s
on the sign ~~ mag nitu de 9f C~. .
=
For radi al outle t vane s, /)2 90° and Ci = 0. The tang entia l com pone nt of the abso lute velo city at lhe
outlc ;t is equa l to the whe el spe~ d and is inde pend ent of flow rate. From Eq. 10.1 8a, the idea l hea d is
inde pend enl of flow rate. This char:acteristic H-Q curv e is plott ed in Fig. lQ.1 2.
If the van ~ are back ward curv ed (as.sJ:iownin Fig. I0.7 a),/J2 <90 ° and C2 > 0, The n the tang enti al
com po~ ent ·of the abso lu.t e outle t velo city i~ less than the whe el spee d and it clec reas ~ in prop orti on to
the flow rate. Fro.m Eq. 10.1 8a, the idea l htad gecr ease s linearly wjth incr e~in g flow rate. The corr e-
spon ding H. -Q c.1.,rv e is plott ed in Fig. 10.1 2.
10.3 Pumps, Fans, and Blowers 4 29
Volume flow rate. Q

Fig. 19.12 Idealized relationship betwe_e n head and volume flow rate for centrifugal pump with forward- curved, radial, and
backward-curved impeller blades.
If the vanes are forward curved, then p2 > 90° and C2 < O. J:'he tangential component of the absolute
-fluid velocity at the outlet is greater than the wheel speed, and it increases as the flow rate increases. From
Eq. 10.7a, the ideal head increases linearly with increasing flow rate. The corresponding H - Q curve is
plotted in Fig. 10.12.
The characteristics of a radial-flow machine can be altered by changing the outlet vane angle; the
idealized model developed above predicts the trends as the outlet vane angle is changed.
The predictions of the idealized angular-momentum theory for a centrifugal pump are summarized
in Fig. 10.12. Forward~curved vanes are almost never used in practice because they tend to have an
unstable <;>perating point.
Application of the Euler Equation to Axial Flow Pumps and Fans

The Euler Turbomachine Equation developed in Section 10.2 can be used for axial-flow machines as
well. However, in order to use this model, some assumptions need to be made. The most important
ass umption is that the flow properties at the mean radius (the midpoint of the rotor blades) fully repi:esent
the flow at all rndii. This is a good assumption, provided the ratio of blade height to mean radi~ is
approximately 0.2 or less [7]. At larger ratios a three-dimensional analysis will be necessary. Such
an analys is is beyond the scope of this work, but other sources can provide information on this phenom-
enon, such as Dixon [7]. A second assumption is that there is no radial component to the flow velocity.
This is a reasonable assumption, since many axial machines incorporate stators or sets of vanes which
gi,Jide the flow into the machine, removing unwanted radial velocity components. The third assumption
is that the flow only varies in the axial direction. This is not the same as saying that there is only an a.\ial
componelll of velocity! In fact, there will _b e a significant component of the velocity in the tangential
direction as d1e flow passes through an axial-flow m1,1.chine, i.e., the flow will b_a ve "'swirl." The meaning
of this assumption is that at a given axial location, the amount of swirl in the flow is constant, rather than
varying between the blades of the n~achine [7]. . _
The primary consequence of this model applied to ax.ial-flow machines is that the radius used in
Equations ( 10. l) is constant, Le.,
(10.19a)
Si,nce the angular velocity w of the rotor is also constant, it follows that
U1 =V2=U (10.19b)
430 Chap ter 10 Fluid Mach inery
There fore. Equa tions (10. l) and (10.2 ) reduc e to:
Tsbo.ft = Rm(V ,/- V,, )111 (10.2 0)

Wm= U(V, :-V,, )1h (10- 21)
Wm U-
H=- .-=- (V,, -V,, ) (10.2 2)
mg g
In Exam ple l 0 .3 these speci al versio ns of the Euler turbo mach ine equat ion and veloc ity diag rams
are utiliz ed in the anaJy sis of flow throu_g h an axial-flow fan.
Exa mpl e 10.3 IDEA LIZE O AXIA L-FL OW FAN

An axial -flow fanop er_at ~ at 1200 rpm. The bfade tip diame ter is 1. l m and th~ hub diame ter is 0.8 m. The inlet and exit angl es at
th~ mean blade .radiu s are 3Cf and 60°, respe ctive ly. lillet ~ide vanes give the absolute flow entering the first stage an angl e of
30°. The fluid is air at standru::d condi tions and the flow may becot isidet ed incom pressi ble. There is no chang e in axial com pone nt
~f veit>c;:ify acros s the rotor . Ass_ume the relati ve flow enters andJe aves che.,r otor at tbe geom etric blade angle s an(j use prop ertie s at
the~ ean blade radiu s for calcu lation s. For these.idealize<;\ conditioP!l, draw th~ inlet velocity diagram, deteq ni~¢ the volu me flow
rate of th~ f~, ~d sketc h the rotor bl_acle shape s. Using tl)e daui. so,Qbtainep, clta"" the o.utlet velocity diagr am and calcu late the
-~inim um torqu e ancl powe r neede d to drive_the f,m. ·
_G iven : Flow throu ,gh ~tgr of~a J,..Jl owfa n.

Tip.c;lil;llileter. 1.1 rn
Hub c,fiiµneter: l).8 m
Oper ating spee( i: i 200 i:p:ril
Abso lute iiilet an·g le: ~o• Flow Statio nary CV
1s flow chann el
Blad e inlet angle : 30°
Blad ¢ qµtle t apgle : 60°
:f4µid ii;; air-at stand ard condi tions . Use prope rties at mean diame t¢t of b\ac;les,
Find : (a) Iitl¢t. veloc it¥ diagr am.
(b) Volu me flow rate.
(c) Roto r blade shape .
(d) Outle t veloc ity diagr am.
(e) Roto r torqu e.
(f) Powe r requi red.
s ·o lutio n: Appl y the E _uler turbo mach ine equat ion to ,a fixed contr ol volum e;
Gove rning equa tions :
T shafl = Rm( v,, - v,, )m:;::: R,,,(V;,-- --V;i )pQ: ( 10.2, 0}
Assu mptio ns:

1 Negl ect torqu es due to body or surfa ce force s.
2 St¢ad y flow.
3 Unit: oim flow at inlet and outle t sectio ns.
4 -:tiicornpre:sslbl.e flow -
5 No chan ge in axial flow area.
6 Use mean radiu s of roti:>r blade s, Rm-
10.3 Pumps , Fans, and Blowers 431
The blade shapes are
(Note .that for an axial-flow machine the normal velocity components are parallel to the.axis, not normal to the circutnferential
·s1,1rf~ce!)
The inlet velocily diagram is
Frnm continuity
or
Q == V,:,,A I = V,i,A2
Since A 1 == th, then Vn, = V,,,, and the oytlet velocity diagram is as shown in the followinl~ fi~:
A,t th~ mean blade ijcJius,

· . Dm
U.=R,,..r.tJ=·2W
1 . ...
7(Ll +O,B)m . . rev . rad min ..
U -- ? X 12 0 0- . · X. --· =59.7m/s
. -. X2:l'r-
.,,· mm rev 60s
i,'i-om the geometry of the inlet velocity diagrani.
tI ·· m 1
V.,,= ta.. 1.1.a1. ·+cot
. pI =59.7-:-X
s
.• . . -. =25.9m/s
tan 30° + cot 30? ·· · ' ·
432 Chapt er 10 Fluid Machi nery
Conse quentl y,
Vn, m l
Vi =-.- -=25 .9-x- --=2 9.9m /s
cos a1 s cos 30°
m
V,, = V.sin a 1 =29;9 - x sin 30° = 15.0 m/s
s
mid
Vn, m l
W 1 = -:---/J =25.9 - x - - =5l.8 m/s
sm I s sin30°
Th~ volum e flow rate is
n ( 2 . .,) ,r m ., ., .,
Q:;;:Vn ,A1= Vn, D,-D; ; = x25.9-;- [(l . l}--(O .S)-Jrtr
4 4
Q = l l .6m3 /s _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _Qc:....
From the geome try of th~ outlet velocit y diagram ,

tan.a -, = V,2 = U-Vn, cQ~{J2 = (j - V,,,cotf 32
- V,.1 \i112 V,. 1
.or
ni -25,9 -m xcot60
59,7- . .°]
a2 =tart- • s · .~ =59.9°
[ 25 .9-
s
Vn, Vn, ._ m I
V-,= ---- .: :;:-·-.-=2::> .9.- x 51.6m/ s
- cos a2 cos ci2 s cos 59.9O
finally ,
V,. = V2sin a 2 =51.6i: n x sin59.9 ° = 44.6 m/s
- s
Appiyi rtg Eq, 1 Q.20

T sb;,It = pQRm( V,2 -V,,)
.. k g m 3 0 .95 m N • s2
= 1.23-3· x 11.6- x -?- mx (44.6-1 5.0)- x _k _ __
m s - s ·g · m
T shnft = 201 N · m ...

. - - - - - - - - -- ~-- - - -- - - -- - ---T.....:•:::11::
•fi~•
T hµs the torque on the CV is irt the s ame sense as iii. The power require d is
_ . .rev
rad min W ·s
Wm . =w.
.
T=WT
·
sbart= 1200-ITU!l
.- x21r
rev- X 60 s x 201 N · mx -N· · m
..
Wm = 25.3 kW..,__ _ _ __ __ __ _ __ _ _ _W;,,

_
Perfo rman ce Chara cteris tics

To specify fluid machines for flow system s. the designe r must know the pressur e rise (o r head ) . torque ,
power require ment, and efficien cy _o~ a mac~h ~. For a gi_ven machine, each of these charac te ristics is a
functio n of flow rate; the c haracte nsucs for surular macbm es depend on size and operati ng spee d . Here
we define perform ance characreristic s for pumps and turbine s and review experime ntally m e asuc-ed
trends for typical mac hines.
10.3 Pumps·, Fans, and Blowers 433
The idealized analyses presented in Section I 0;2 are useful to predict trends and to approximate the
desi_g n~point performance pf an energy-absorbing or an energy~producing machine. However, the co~
.plete ~rformance of a real machine, including operation at <;>ff-design conditions, must be determined
~~p~nmentally.
To determµie performance, a pump, fan, blower, or compressor must be set up on an instrumented
_test stand with-the capal,ility of measuang flow rate, speed, input torque, and pressure. rise. The testmust-
qe pei:fonped according to a standardized procedure corresponding 10 the ma~hine ~i(1g tested [8, 9].
M.easilrements are made as flow rate is varied from shutoff (zero flow) to maximum delivery by varying
the lead from maximum to.minimum (by siarting with a. valve that is closed. and opening-it to.fully operi
in stages). Power input to the. il!a.chine is determine.d from a calibrated.motor or calculated:.from meas-
qred speed anp torque, and then ¢fficiency is co~puted as illustrated in Example l0.4. Fin·a11y, the cal~
ctila:ted characteristics are plotted in the desired engineering units or noridiniensionally. If appropriate,
_s mooth curves may be faired through the plotted p9inr_s or cur;ve-fits may be made to the results,~ illus-
t:iated in Example 10.5.
. - -
·Motor-
Rate~of ·Sucbon
,p:·.J~~it:ig)_
0
_J,Jgw-~i'ri) _. '.),"re:s~j~ CPli!~ , ' ¢.i#fe:ri! Jlifflp)}__

.. ·-·fr ·:S3f3~-:- '.¥1th
toti:, 4sj ~ Jff
,800 i42•.3) 31·:0 '-
f6.0~- ~~;f •·. l.. •.... : , :3-a'iJ:..
l-:l00} ,23(0 35S2- I"
-~i; if1i~1
z.t ao3. ft
1500
Ji;~
t~ .~-~Jlti.__ _ .J
Given: Punm: test'.!fi9~\ijs.~~J 1i:idt d~f!,i'.~,E!;iW'.n ~_ .. 1
Fi
nd
: it},;=f}~!;:!1!!!~i:~t~i;!~~~i:~11fQQn~t?f,v~~ij~~flow~~~~'~Q1\th·e,resulcs.
Solution: ,_: ..
Govern i ng equatib'hs:
AssumP,JiP.lJSi' ..
2 ~:f:!tZv at"eaeii secti~if,.__

0
·--.
·-=
3 V -, =V1 -
4 C~ue,c( all:J\,~4Q.s, !Q:J!!~,~a,mettllev,l!.t;i.,<?n,
tr,,--· _-;:_· -- f .- - • • ,
434 Ch apt er 10 Flu id Ma chi ner y
Sin ce v ·1 = V 2, the pum p'h¢ acl is
Hp=¾ [ (;+ gz) d -(; +g z) =P J 2

;:•
, resp ecti vely .

.w bet em~ dis_c:har -ge and suc tion ·p"fussures, corr ecre d ro the sam e elev atio n, are desi gna ted p 2
and p 1
Cbr rec t m.¢a,sui:ed $tat ic pres sure s to the pum p ¢en terli ne:
P1 .'= ps+ /Jg zs
· . · lbf . sJug . ft !bf . s1 . ft:2
Pi = -0 .92 ~ + 1.94 ,,j · X 32. 22 X 1.0 ft X . . .. . X . ? = ....:Q.49 psig
· m. rr- s -slu g· ft l44 m.~
and
P2 ·= fid + P8Z:d
lbf . slug . _ ft . . !bf . s2 ft2
? = 38.2 psig
P2 = ~6.9-;-,;- + 1.9 4- 3- X 32. 2~ X 3.0 ft X - -- -·-. X
m.- ft s- slu g-f t 144 in.-
cai cul ate tlie. pW ilp'. hec1d:
ii;, = (p2 ::-p t)/p g
. lbf s 2
. in.2 slug • ft
_ft3 H
.. . ·. . •
· S9.2 ft P
Hp =[3 ~.2 -(- 0A 9) J~ x 19.,,.. " . X -- ftX l44 ,,,2 X-- :-:- -=
m; . s 1ug ~2.2 u lbf • s2 ~ -- ---. ..... .,.- ----
~ te :the hyd rau lic pow er deliv ered to the flui d:

·Gq ajp_
W1i =pQ gHp =i.Q,(p2-P1) .
·· ga,i . . . . . .. I!,f . ft.3 .. min . . in.2 hp. s
:::;J,OOOriiin X (38. 2-( -0.4 9)] i.Jf 2 X 7A8 _ gii]. X 6.0 s X 144 ft2 X 550-ft, }bf
Wh .=2 2J: i·hp
Cal cyla tl}-.tbe mo tor pow er-o utp ut (the m¢.ch.i,nic;al pow er inpu t to tiie: pum p)
Jrortl el~c:tric:al info rma tion : .
?Jlrn==:m .13 (PF )Ei .
'.21>in=.=:0 .90 x y{j x.O :!P 5X 460 Vx 33. 9A x ~ >< 14 1:w = 28.5 hp
'the ;co~ pqn <'.l µlg pajµp .effi cien cy is

2. 2 ·6 hp = 0.7 92 or 79.2 ~rc ent. .,__ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ 'Ip
_
28.S bp
R.eS iilts tcqµi: sfuufar calc ulat ions at the othe r volu m!; flow rate s are plot -
tec f beiow-:
150
-&-E ffic iency (%)
-o-P owe r Inpu t (hp)
~P um p Head (ft)
100
g
sob 100 0 150 0

\lolu m~·f low rate, Q (gpm )
10.3 Pumps, Fans, and Blowers 435
Example 10.5 CURVE-FIT TO PUMP PERFORMANCE DATA
Pump test data were given and perforrnarice was calculated in Example J0.4. Fit a parabolic curve, H = Ho-AQ
2
, to these
calculated pump performance results and compare the fitted curve with I.he measured data.
Given: Pump test data and performance calculated in Example 10.4.

Find: (a) Parabolic curve, H =Ho-AQ2 , fined to I.he pump performance data.
(b) Comparison of I.he curve-fit with the calculated performance.
Solution: The curve-fit may be obtained by fitting a linear curve to H versus Q2 • Tabulating,
From calcuiated perfomiance: From the curve fit:
Q (gpm) Q2 (gpm2) H (ft) H (ft) Error(%)

0 0 123 127 2 .8
500 25 X 10• 113 116 3.1
800 64 X 104 100 99.8 -0.5
1000 100 X 10"1 89.2 84.6 -5.2
1100 121. X 1.04 80.9 75.7 -6..5
1200 144 X 104 69.8 65.9 -5.6
1400 196 X 104 42.8 43.9 2..5
1500 225 X 104 25.5 31.7 242
Intercept == 127
Slope=,
. ., -4.23x 10~5
r= 0.984
Using the method of least squares, the eqllafion for the fitted curve is obtained as
H(ft) = 127 -4.,2~ x 10-5 [Q (gpm)]2
with coef'fici1;:nt of determination ?- = 0.984. (The clqser ?- is co unify, its maximum possible value, the benc::r the fit. )
Always CPlllPa,fe the resuits of ii. curve4it witl'l the. data LJsed to develop the fit. The figure shows the curve-fit (the solid line)
a,ncl the experimental values (the po1ritsr
140
o Head rise (ft)
120
100
g
:t:: 80
oi
-~ 60
-c,
"'
QI
:c 40
20
0
0 500 1000 1500
Volume flow rate, Q (gpm)
43 6 Ch apt er 1 o Flu id Ma chi ner y
Loss due to recir culat ion
/ Idea l head-flow curve (Fig. 10. 12)

""""" '" .___ . / Loss due to
flow I ncho n
Actu al / ' -,·-
head -flow ; ~, ,
curv e /
Appr oxim ate
best effic ienc y poin t
Volume flow rate, Q

Fig. 1·0 ~13 :C<>mparlson of idea l and actu al head -flow curv ~ for a centr ifuga l pum p with back
w.,r d-cu rved imp elle r
blad es (1 q).
The bas ic pro ced ure used to calc ulat e mac hine pei:formance was illus trated for a cen trif uga l pum
p in
Exa mp le 10.4 . The diff eren ce in stat ic pres sure s betw een the pum p suct ion and disc har ge was
use d to
calc ulat e the hea d rise prod uce d by the pum p. For pum ps, dyn ami c pres·sµre rise (or flui d kin etic
ene rgy
cha nge ) _typic ally is a sma ll frac tion of the hea d tise develop ed by the pum p, so it may be neg
lec ted
com par ed with the hea d rise .
Typ ical character.is"tic curves for a cen trifu gal pum p tested al constan t spee d wer e sho wn qua lita
3
-
fi:vely -in Fig . 7.5 ; the hea d vers11s cap acit y curv e is repr odu ced in Fig. 10.1 3 to com par e wit h
cha rac -
teri stic s pred icte d by tbe•idea lize d,~rialysis. Fig ure 10.13 sho ws that the head at any flow rate in
the rea l
mac hin e may be sign ific antl y low er than i"s precli.cted by the idealized analysis. Som e of the cau
ses are :
At very Jow flow rate , som e flui d reci rcul ates in the in1peller.
2 Fric tion loss and leal<age loss both increase with flow rate .
3 "Sh ock loss " resu lts from a mis mat ch betw een the direction of tbe relative velo chy and the tan
gen t to
-the. imp elle r bl~d e at the inlet.-1
Cur ves suc h as thos e in Figs . 7 .5 and l 0.13 are mea sure d at con stan t (des itn) spe ed :wi_th a sin
gle
imp e_ller diam eter. It is com mon prac tice to vary pum p capa city by chiµigjng the imp elle r size i·n
a gi vea
c;iish1g. To pres ent info nna tion com pac tly, c!ata from tests of several imp elle r diam eter s. may be
pla ned
on .a sing le grap h, as sho wn in Fig. l 0.14. As befo re, for each diameter, hea d is plot ted ver sus flow rate , .
eac h cur ve is h1beled with the corr espo ndin g dian;ieter. Effi ciency con tour s are plot ted by join ing
poi nts
hav ing the s_ame con stan t effi cien cy. Power-requ.iremeC1tconcoi:irs are also plot ted. Fin ally , the
NP SH
req uire men ts(w hlch we hav e not yet defi ned ; we will disc;_u ss,i ts mea ning later.in this sec tion ) are
sho wn
for the. extr eme .dia met ers; in Fig. 10.1 4, the curve for the 8-in. imp elle r lies betw e.e n tl1e
cur ves for the.
6-in. and 10-in. imp elle rs.
· · The data of Fig . 10.L 4 are ofte n tabu late d for quic k acce ss by desi gn soft war e and the refo
re dat a
are not .µw ays pres ente d in the man ner sho wn in this fi.gure, The data of Fig. 10. 14 are -s imp lifi ed by
rep orti ng .an ave rag e ~ffi cien cy as a func tion ofth ~ flow rate only , as sho wn in Fig . 10.1-5, rath
er tha n
as a futic tion of flow rate and hea d. The figu res in Append\>f; C disp lay pum p pet fom 1an ce in this
fon nat .
For this typi cal mac hine , heac!· is a m~ um at shu toff and (lec.reases con tinu ously as flo w rat
e
incr ease s. Inp ut pow er is min imu m at shu toff and incr ease s as deli.very is incr ease d. Co nse que
ntly,
to· min imi ze the star ting load , it may be adv is able to star t the. pum p with the out let val ve
clo sed '.
(Ho wev er, the valv e sho uld not be left i::lQsed for long , lest the pum p ove rne atas ene rgy dis
sip ate d
>Th e only impof1!111l pl!IDP cbnrac1eristic not show_n in _Fig, 1:5 is the neL positive siictfon head (NPS
H)_-~ quir ed to p reve nt ca,•-
ilation. Cavj1ntion and NPS H will be treat ed Inter.in !his sec.u on.
~-This· l~ss is larg ~t al high and low now rn1cs; it d~re nses essentially _10 ..zcrq ·as· <i_p tiniu m opcn iting
con ditio ns at:e
appr oncli t!9 [ ll].
10.3 Pumps, Fans, and Blowers 43:7
/ Impeller diameter
IO in. 60 Best efficiency point
/ 70 80 /
: --;~'?''--- ....! a_o 7o
I
8 In.
6 1n 10 in.
Net positive suction head
Volume flow rate, Q

Fig. 10.14 Typical pump performance curves from tests with three Impeller diameters at constant speed [10].
Bes.I efficiency point

/ Impeller diameter
I
,. --·-- --
101n.
✓
,. -- ~,,
....
Bin. ' ><Total
· ", head
-ci'
:ll 6 in. ''
:r: , - - - - '' \
I
I
I
I
I
I
,(
I '-._ .
, Efficiimcy
Volume flow rat~. Q

Fig, 1.0 .15 TypicaJ pump performance curves from tests wit_h .three impeller diameters at constant speed, showing
-efficiency as ·a function of flow-ritce·onl y [12].
by friction is tJ;an$ferred Lo the wat~r in the housing:) :Pump efficiency increases with capacity i.uitil the
_b est efficiency_poin,t (B_EP) is reached, then decreases as flow rate is increased further. For niinimwn
energy c:onsumpt ion, it is desirable t_o operate as close to BEP as p_o ssible.
Centfili,Igal pumps m11y be combined in paiaUel to. deliver greater flow .o r iii series to deliver greater
head: Anlimber;9f manufactu rers build multistage pumps, which are essentially several pumps arranged
i~ ; eri~ within a single casing. Pumps and blowers are usually tested at several constant speeds. ccim~
moo practice is to d.nv~ tnac;:hin~s with electric motors at _nearly constant sp~ed, but in some sys tem appli-
cations impressiv e energy savmgs can resJJlt from vanable-sp eed o.peration. These pump applica!:ion
topics are q_iscussed later in this sectic:m.
Similar ity Rules

J,=>,ump maQufa~_rurers offer a limhed nun~ber of_ca,sing _sizes and d~si~s. Fce~uen~y , C8$ings ofcijfferen t
. -. · are cieyeloped from a common design by mcte.ll$tng or decrel!Smg all dunension s by the Sllllle scale
: ~ :. Addiliopa l variation in chanict~risiic curvennay be obtain.e d by varyii;lg the'operati ng_speed pr by
4 38 Chap ter 10 Fluid Mach inery
chang ing the impe ller size withi n a given pump housi ng. 1l1e dimen sionle ss param eters deve loped in
Chap ter 7 fonn the basis for predic ting chang es in performance that result from change s in pum p size.
opera ting speed . or impel ler diame ter.
To achie ve dynam ic simila rity requir es geom etric and kinematic simila rity. Assu ming simi lar
pump s and flow fields and negle cting visco us effect s, as show n in Chap ter 7. we obtai n dynam ..ic sim-
ilarity when the dimen sionle ss flow coeff icient is held constanL Dyna mical ly simil ar oper ation is
assur ed when two flow condi tions satisf y the relation
Q1 Q2
--3=--3 (l0.2 3a)
W1D1 W2D2
The dime nsion less head artd powe r coeff icient s depen d only on the flow coeffi cient, i.e .•
h Q
w2D2 =/1 wD3
()
Henc e, when we have dynam ic simila rity, as show n in Exam ple 7.6, pump chara cteris tics at a new con-
dition (subs cript 2) may be relate.d to those. at an old condi tion (subs cript 1) by
h1 lt2
(10.2 3b)
wrDi = w1D1
and
(10.2 3c)
Thes e scalin g relati onshi ps may be used to predi ct the effect s of chang es in pump opera ting spee d. pum p
size, or impe ller diam eter wlthi n a given housi ng.
The simpl est situat ion is when we keep the same pump and only the pump speed is chan ged. Theo
geom etric simil arity is assur ed. Kinem auc simil<!-Qty holds if there is no cavita tion; flows are then
dynam ically simil ar when the flow coeff icient s are match ed. For this case of speed chan ge with fixed
diam eter. Eqs. l 0 .23 becom e
(10.2 4a)
(10.2 4b)
( 10.2 4c)
In ExaJD ple 10.5, we show ed that a pump perfo rmanc e curve may be mode led. withi n engi n~er ing
·a ccura cy by the parab olic relati onshi p,
H=H o-AQ 1. (10.2 5a)
Since thls repn~ sentat ion conta ins two param eters, the pump .c1,1_rve for the new opera ting,.c ondi tion coul d
be deriv ed by scali, ng any two point s from the perfo rmanc e curv_e measi,ireq at tile ori~i nal oper ating
condi tion. Usua lly, the shuto ffco11dirio11 and the best efficiencypoi111 are Ghosei::i f9.rsc alirig . Thes e po}n t$
are repre sente d by point s B .and C in Fig. 10.16. _
As show n by Eq. 10.24 a, the flow ~te \ilci:eases by the. ratio of op¢ra tjog speed s. so
Wz . W2 ·
QB'= - Qn=O and Qc= - Qc
W.1 <OJ .
'I;"hus. point B' is locate d direct ly above point B, and point C' mo.ves to the right of point C (in thls exam .-
pie W2 > <L!J ). . •
The head incre ases by the squar e of the speed ratJo, so
H!J'=Hs(w•)•
2
.and
. .( )2
. , . <02
Ht!= Hc .-'--'- .
m .2 .. .<#,J .
10.3 Pumps, Fans,. and Blowers 439
·so:r·.:.=--- --.---. ----,,. ._..______,

. B'
1750 rpm
g-40 . · .,
, , ,.
✓
,,,
1 B. ,
~ ~-Q.t.: ----;1~1- :;_-,:;:;o::r:::pm::-~ -'--- ''
0 ~---:-=7 """--±-- -,,.!,---. .1.,,...-- .-J Fig. 10.16 Schematic of a pump p~rformance:c!Jrve;
. 0 lQO 200 300 400 . 500 Illustrating the .effect of a·chante !rt pump
Volume flow rate; (! 1gpm) oper:atlrig speea.
Poiii,ts C and. C', where d.Yna!Ilically si..miiar flow CQ!l'diti:ons are present, are termed homologous :Poin.ts.
for the puhip. ·· ·
We can relat~ the old operating c_9 ndil;ion .(e.g,_, run~ng at speed N 1 =ll70rpm , as shown in
Fig.10.1.6 ) to the new, ppme~ one (e.g., ruriiµt'!g-a(spe~cl,N.2 :a= 1750 rpm in Fig. 10.16) using the par~
.ti.bplic relation aJ)d Eqs. 10.24~. arid 10.24b,
-H " '·' ) 2 =Ho ~11Qi =fl~ ("'•)· 2:_,_:AQ'2 (~• )

= H' (·..(IJi i
. ·"'2 · (1)2-
H' ==H~-,-AQ'2 (10.25b)

so tbrit for a given pump the fa9tor A remains urichangc;d 8li we;chaitge·pump spe.ecL as we will verify in
Example Io.~.
Givej:1: C~q¢ifu&~Ji4.rr@;~~fth•D 1=18li~tj.~,Ji~pil.fol,J•Q":P~m!~tf?~l;:lfk·.I,il\1o'r(:5m,

- .• . - ·- - ----. . - .
--
. ,.. _,.
~~; ~ ~f~j~Jl ~,~~ijdi~~f:~}.~~,ti\::!~tt::~::~:1J.lPi~~ ~
nd
Fi : ;:
(c) Cori1panso'iifp16t) cff"i:ffe\,-results. ~ · .- . · . .
Solution : Assume a parabolic variation in p~~ih..~a<l}C>flW~fopn,,_.:!t~ffo:;=- i:ij%/$iW,i4'i:ir-t:Qi;--~f?i~~,-
A1 = Hoi.t.-..~H s;=('.p,0'./ 2rJ.-QS!~~";___ ~~~ ) _
-.,--o;:i::::~
3,~~o;~ iifiMo-ri~\ ~-
- . i.z-' ,_. - · r300\-f, • •- --,:1; • - , -- • ·
y .J"'.i:~W!, -lt \ar. ... -~
< ., ~ ..-
~ 0 Chapt er 10 Fluid Machi nery
since D 2 = D 1 • For the shutof f condili on,

N2 1750rp m
Q2= N,Q1= ll?Orp mx0g pm=0 ~m
From che best efficie ncy point, the new flow rate is
N2 1750rp m
Q2 = N, Q, = rpm X 300 gpm = 449 gpm
1170
The pump heads are related by
h2 _ H2 _ Ni_D~
or
hi- H 1 - Nfbi
since D 2 = D 1 . For che shutof f conditi on,
. _=
H-, (N2) H =
N,
2
1
(1750 rpm)
1170rpm
2
?_ _
_::,,0ft- 55.9ft.
Ar the best efficie ncy point.
H2 = (Z~)
The curve pa.rµm eter at 1750 rpm may now be found. Solving for A, we find
2
H, = e:~~ ::) 2
21.9 ft=49 .0ft
Ho2-H 2 .;. . l 5
?
A2= ,, =(:>5.9..,-49.0 )ftx ? . ? . =3.44 x 10- ft/(opm )-

0
Qi (449t( gpm)-
Note that A 2 at 1750 rpm is che same as A 1 at 1170 rpm. Thus we. have demons trated that the. coeffic ient A in u,e parab olic
equatio n does. not change when the pump speed is c;:hanged. The "engine ering" equatio ns for the two curves are
Hi =i).0 - 3 .44 X 10-5 [Q (gp01)]2(at 1170 rpm)
5
H 2 = 55.9 - 3 .44xl0 ~ [Q.(gpm )]2(at I ?5Orpn i)
The pump curves are ¢omp ~d in the followi ng plot:
60
s· 1750 rpm
,.,.
40
,. ,."'
-:i:: ,. ,.
✓
"O B ✓
"'
CJ
✓
::c: 20 1170 rpm c
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Efficie ncy remain s relative ly constan l bel',veen dynami cally similar operati ng points when only the
pump operati ng speed is change d. Applica tion of these ideas is illusLrated mExamp le 10.6.
In princip le, geomet ric similari ty would be maintai ned when pumps oflhe same geotne rry, differ ing
in size only by a scale ratio, were tested atthesa me qperaJi ng speed. The flow, head, ·a nd power would be
predict ed to vary with pump size as
Q2=Q1
. (D;,) (D,;)2
3
·
D~ ,H2:::.H1 D: _· •
.
and (10.2 6)
It is impractical lo manufacture and lesl a series of pump models that differ in size by only a scale ratio.
Ins_tead it is common practice lo test a oiven pump casing at a fixed speed with several impellers of dif-
ferent diameter (13]. Because pump c~ino width is the same for each test, impeller width also must be
the same; only impeller diameter D is ch,;ged. As a result, volume flow rate scales in proportion to D 2 ,
3
not to D • Pump input power al fixed speed scales as the product of flow rate and head,-so it becomes
proportional to D 4 • Using this modified scaling method frequently gives results of acceptable accuracy,
as demonstrated in several end-of-chapter problems where the method is checked against measured per-
formance data from Appendix C.
It.is not possible to compare the efficiencies at the two operating conditions directly. However, vis-
cous effects should become relatively Jess important as the pump size increases. Thus efficiency should
improve slightly as diameter is increased. Moody (14] suggested an empirical equation that may be used
to estimate the maximum efficiency of a prototype pump based on test data from a geometrically similar
model of the prototype pump. His equation is written
1/5
l-17" = D,,, (10.27)
1-qm ( Dr )
To develop Eq. 10.27, Moody assumed that only the surface resistance chariges with model scale so that
losses in passages of the same roughness vary as J/D5 • Unfortunately, it is difficult to maintain the same
relative roughness between model and prototype pumps. Further, the Moody model does nor account for
any d_ifference in mechanical losses between model and prototype, nor does it allow determination of off~
_peak effi<;iencies. Nevertheless, scaling. of the m;iximum-efficiency point is useful to obtain a general
estimate of the efficiency curve for the prototype pump. ·
Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head

Cavitation can occur in any machine handling liquid whenever the local static pressure falls below the
vapor pressure of the liquid. When this occurs, the liquid can locally flash to vapor, forming a vapor
cavity ~d significanlly changing tl1e flow pattern from the nc;mcavitating condition. The vapor cavity
changes the effective shape <>fthe flow passage, thus altering the local pressure field, Since cpe size and_
shape of the vapor cavity are influenced by tl1e local pressure field, the flow may become unsteady_ The
unsteadiness may cause the entire flow to oscillate and the machine to vibrate.
As cavitation comipences, it reduces t11e performance of a pump or turbine rapi,;ily. Thus cavitation
must be avo)de9 to maintain staple and efficient operation. In addition, local surface pressures may
.bec<;>me high when cpe vapor cavity i_111plodes· or collapses, causing erosion damage or s1,1rface pitting.
The damage may be severe enough to destroy a machine made from a brittle, low-strength material.
Obviously cavitation also rriust be avoided to assure long mach\ne life.
In a pump, cavitation tends to begin at the sectioti where the flow is accelerated into the impeller.
cavit:ation in a turbine begins where pressure is low·est. The tendency to cavitate increases as-local -fiow
speeds increase; this occ1,1rs whenever flow rate or machine operating speed is increased.
Cavitation can be avoided if the pressure everywhere in the machine is kept ~bove the·vapor pres"
su~-of the operating liquid. At constant speed, this requires that a pressure somewhat.greater th;i:n the
vapor pressure of t11e liquid be maintained at a pump inlet (the sucrion). Because of pressure losses in.the
inlet piping, the suction pressure may be subatmospheric. Therefore it is important to carefully limi:t
tbe pressure drop in the inlet piping system,
· Ner- positive suction head (NPSH_} is defined as the difference between the absolute stagnation
press_u ~ in. the flow at the puil~p suction and the li~uid vapor pressure, expressed as bead of fl.owing
liquid. ["15].s Hence the NPSH 1s a meas~re of th_e d_1 ffe~nce betwee~ the maximum possible p~ssure
in-·the given flow and the pressure at which the bqµ1d will start flashing over to a vapor; the larger the
NPSH, the less likely cavitatio~ is to ?ccur: The tie~ p~siti.ve suction head required (NPSHR) by asp¢-
ci..fic pump to suppress cavitaaon vanes wllh the liqwd pumped, and w.ith the liquid temperature aiu\-
~ NP.SH muy ~ c:xpri:ssed in any convenient unil.S of mc~urc, such as height of lhe llow~g liquid, e.g., feet of wmcr'(hence the
. 1,-e·o· ,,-, psia or-kPn (abs). When expn:ss.e d as heqd, NPSH is measured relauvc to the pump impeller centcr1·,ne·
. . s1.1c1ton u,. .• -
·tcnn · - . --. . . •
pum p cond nion (e.g. , as criti cal geom etric featu res of the pum p are affec ted by wear ). NPS HR may be
mea sure d in a pum p test facility by cont rolU ng the inpu t press ure. The results are plot ted on the pum p
perf orm ance curv e. Typi cal pum p char acter istic curv es for three impellers teste d in the sam e hou sing
were show n in Fig. 10.14. Expe rime ntall y dete rmin ed NPS HR curv es for the large st and sma llest imp el-
ler diam eters are plott ed near the botto m of the figure.
The net posi tive sucrio11 head avai lable (NPS HA) at the pum p inlet mus t be grea ter than the NPS HR
to supp ress cavi tatio n. Pres sure drop in the inlet pipin g and p~p entra nce incre ases as volu me flow
rate
incre ases . Thu s for any syste m, the NPSHA decr ease s as flow rate is raised. The NPS HR of the pum p
incre ases as the flow rate is raised. Ther efor e, as the syste m flow rate is incre ased , the curv es for NPS HA
and NPS HR vers us flow rate ultim ately cros s. Henc e, for any inlet syste m, tl1ere is a flow rate that can not
be exce eded if flow thro ugh the pum p is lo rema in free from cavit ation . Inlet pres sure loss es may be
redu ced by incre asin g the diam eter of the inlet pipin g; for this reason, man y cent rifug al pum ps hav e
larg er flang es or coup lings at the inlet than at the outle t. Exam ple 10.7 show s the relat ions hips betw een
the NPS H, the NPS HA, and tl1e NPS HR.
f.xa mp /e 10. 7 CAL CUL ATI ON OF NET POS ITIV E SUCTION 1-iEAD (NPSH)
A Peer less Typ e 4AE 11 cent rifug al pum p (Fig . C.3, App endi x C) is tested at 1750 rpm usin g.a flow syst em with
the layo ut of
Ex~ ple I 0.4. The wate r leve l in t11e inl~ t rese rvoi r is 3.5 ft abov e the pum p centerline; the inlet line cons ists of
6 ft of 5 in.
diam eter strai ght cast -iron pipe , a stan dard elbo w, and ;,i fully open gate valv e. Calc ulate the n_e t posi tive suct ion head
ava ilab le
(NP SHA ) at the pum p inle t at a volu me flow rate of 1000 gpm of wate r at 80°F . Com pare with tlle net posi tive
suct ion hea d
requ ired (NP SHR ) by the pum p at this flow rate. Plot NPS HA and NPS HR for wate r at 80°F and l80° F vers us volu
me flow rate .
Give n: A Peer less Typ e 4AE 1 l centrif1,1ga) pum p (Fig . C.3, App endi x C) is
t~te d at J 7;50 rpm usiil.g a .flow syst em with tl1e layo ut of E;,c.ample ld.4. The D"' 5 in.
wate rlev el in the in1et ~e.rvoi r is 3.5 ft abov e the plirrtp cent erlin e; the inlet
line has 6 ft of.5 in. diam eter strai ght c;,ist-iron pipe , a stan dard elbo w. and a
fw.}y open gate valv e.
Find : P,i
(a) NPS ffA at Q;= 100 0 gpm of wate r at 80°F . /
(b) (:om p'a rison with NPS HR for this puni p at (2 = 1000 gpm .
(c) Plot of NPS HA and NPS HR for wate r at 80°F and 180° F vers us
-,-
ZJ"' 3 ft
volu me flow rate. _I

so.l utio n: Net posi tive suct ion head .(NP SH) is defin ed as the diffe r¢nc e
betw een the:; abso lute stag natio n pres sure in ilie. flow at the pum p sucti on
~d the Iiq1,1id vapo r pres sure , expr esse d as head of flo~ ing liqui d. Ther efor e
it is nece ssar y co .calc ulate the. head at the pum p s1,1cno_n. . .
App ly the ener gy equa tion for stea dy, incompress_ible pipe flow to com pute the pres sure at the pum p inlet a.Qi:!: tlws the
NP SHA .
Den ote the rese rvoi r leve l ~ CD and the pum p sucn on as 0, as show n _a bove.
c;overning equation:
Assu mpt. iori: V I is negl igibl e. Thu s
(1)
The total heag. lo.ss j.s
(2)
Substituting Eq. 2 into Eq. 1 and dividing by pg,
Hs=H1 +zi
~ . ~
-z..- ( ~ K + L..Jf D
L.,
+fD
L
+I
)v;
28
(3)
Evaluating the friction factor and head Joss,

pVD VD 7!D2
Q
-v- -· A=-
f =J(Re,e/D); Re.= - - = - ; . - A '
µ V 4
For 5 in. (fiomirtal) pipe, D=5.047 in.
. ft 7!D 2 . ?
D=5.047in. x--=0.421 ft, A = - =0. 139fr
12 in. · · 4
_ aaJ ft3 min
V;::::lOOO~x . x ?x =16.0ft/s
min 7.48 gal 0.139 fc.- 60 s
From Table A.7, for water at T=80°F, v=0.927 x w- 5·fi2 /s.

The Reynolds number is ·
VD ft s 7 .27 X :1 0s
Re=-;;-= 16.0-;x0.421 fix 0, x _ 5 ft2
927 10
FrQm Table 8. 1, e =0.00085 ft, sci ¢/D ;::::.0.00202. Froni Eq •. 8.,37, f ;:= 0.0237. The minor loss coeffieients are
Entta~ce K=0.5
L.,
Standard elbow 1) =~0
Open gate vlili.Je i)=.8

Substituting,
c~K + Lf~+tt + 1)
6
= o.s-i-'(J.'t)237(30 +s) + 0.0231(·-0 . ) + i :::i2.i 4
· · .;471 .
The Mads are
2 3
Ibf .
.Patm . . •ln. f~ s2 slug . ft
. .7 - 2 X 144- ? X .
Ht=--= 14 . x -, ---X-.;;;:c_-
pg ip. ·· ·· ft- L9Jslug 32.2 ft lbf. s2
.=; 34. l ft(aps)
y~ 1 , . . ·. 2fc2 s2 _ ..
- = - .x{J6.Q) 2 X :f t ~3.98ft
3:~-2 .
?.
. 2g 2. s·
#r.=34.l ft+ :3.~ft-{'.4.74)3.9~ _ft= 2§.7 ft(abs)

To· obrairt NPf/SA, add velocity lleac,1. ~cl: subtract vapor head. Thµs
.. . v~
NPHSA ='fls + s ~H.,
2_g
1me vapor pressure ft:?!' water at80°F is p-;, =OSO? psia. The cw:responding
=
:bead is Hu 1.17 ft of wat¢r. Thus,
NPSfJA-:o= 26.1 + ;3 .98- 1.17 = 2Q.5 ft ---'---:---------..::.. N:.:P;:S:.::'HA~

·
The pump curve (Fig. C.3. Appen dix C) shows tlmt at IOOO gpm the pump requires
NPSHR = 12.0 ft,__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ N_P_S_H_R_
Result s of similar compu tations for water at 80°F are plotted in the figure on the left below. (NPSHR values are obtain ed from the
pump curves in Fig. C.3, Appen dix C.)
40 40
- - - NPSHA (fl)
-
::t:
-0
30
- - - NPSI-IA (ft)
30 - - - - - NPSHR (ft)
"'
QJ
-"'
20 - - - - · NPSHR (rt) 2 0 1 = - - - - --
----
C:
.2
u::,
en
10 --- 10
0
0 500 1000 1500 °o 500 1000 1500
Volume flow rate, Q (gpm) Volume flow rate, Q (gpm)
(a) Net positive sµct1on head, water at 80"F (bl Net positive suction head, water at 180"F
·Result s .o f <;:amputation for watei; at 180°Fa re plotted in the figure on the tight above. The vapor presslire for ,vater at l 8O°F L5
Pu= 1.si psia, the corresp onding- head is H~ = 17 .3 ft of water.. This high vapor pressur e reduces the NPSHA, as shown in
the ploL
Pump Selec tion: Appli catio ns to Fluid Syste ms

We define ajl11id system as the combin ation of a fluid machin e and a network of pipes or chann els that
convey fluid. The engine ering applica tion of fluid machin es in an actual system require s match ing the
machin e and system charact eristics . while satisfyi ng constra ints of energy efficien cy, capital econo my.
and durabil ity. We have alluded to the vast assortm ent of hardwa re offered by compe ting supplie rs~ this
variety verifies the comme rcial importa nce of fluid m;ichinery in modem enginee ring system s.
Usuall y it is more econom ical Lo specify a product ion machin e rather than a custom unit, becau se
produc lS of establis hed vendor s have known, publish ed perform ance charact eristics , and they must be
durable to survive in the markeLplace. Applica tion enginee ring consislS of making the best selecti on from
catalog s of availab le produc ts. In additio n to machin e characterisLic curves, all manufa cLurers provid e a
wealth of dimens ional data, alterna tive configu ration and mounting scheme s, anc;I technic al inforn tation
bulletin s Lo guide intellig ent applica tion of their product s.
This section consist s of a brief re view of relevan t theory, followed by examp le applica tions using
data taken from manufa cturer literaLure. Selecte d perform ance curves for centrifugal pumps and fans are
presen ted in Appen dix C . These may be studied as typical exampl es of perform ance data suppli ed by
manufa cturers . The curves may also be used to help solve the equipm ent selectio n and systern design
problem s at the end of the c hapter.
we will cpnsid er various machin es for doing work on a fluid, but we first make a few genera l points .
As we saw in Examp le 10.4, a typical pump, for exampl e, produce s a smaller head as the !low rate is
increas ed. On the other hand, the head (which include s major and minor losses) require d to mainta in.
flow in a pipe syst!!m increas es with the flow race. Hence, as shown graphic ally6 in Fig. 1 O. l 7, a
pump~ system will run at th.e operati ng poim, the flow r~te at which_lh~ pu_mp head rise and requir ed
system head match. Figure I 0.17 also shows a pump efficiency curve, md1catmg that, for optim um pump
selecti. on, a pl.imp should be chosen that has maxim um efficien cy -at the operati ng point flow rate.
6 While a grnphica l represenllltion ,s useful fc;,r visualizing lhc pump-system mo1chiµg, we Lyp1colly use onnlytic al or n umeric al
.methods 10_dc1enninc the _o perating poinL
-Pump hea/capacity CU~0perat,ng point
-0
"'
a.,
:i::L--....,-----
\
System cuive
~ effic,enc;y curve
Fig. 10.17 Superimposed system head-flow and pump

Volume flow rate head-capacity curves.
The pump-system shown in Fig. I 0.17 is stable. If for some n;ason the flow rate falls below the operating
flow rate, the pump pressure head rises above the required system head, and so the flow rate increases
back to the operating point. Conversely, if the flow rate momentarily increases, the required head
exceeds the head provided by the pump, and the flow rate decreases back to the operating poinL This
notion of an operating point applies to each machine we will consider (although, as we will see. the
operating points are nm always stable).
TI1e system pressure requirement at a given flow rate is composed of frictional pressure drop (major
lo·s s due to friction in straight sections of constant area and minor loss due to entrances, fittings, valves,
and exits) and pressure changes due to gravity (static lift may be positive or negative). It is useful to
discuss the two limiting cases of pure friction and pure lift before considering their combination.
The all-friction system head versus flow curve, with no static lift, starts at zero flow and head. as
shown in Fig. 10.18a. For this system the total bead required is the sum of major and minor losses,
L y2 ( L V2 V2)
h1T= Lh1+ Llz1m= L fD 2 +L f; 2 +K2
For turbulent flow (the usual flow regime in engineering systems), as we learned in Chapter 8 (see
Fig. 8.13), the friction factors approach constant and the minor loss coefficiepts K and equivalent
lengths Le are also constant. Hence h 1, ~ ~
V 2 Q2 so that the sy~tem curve is approximately parabolic.
(In reality, because the friction factors/ only approac_h constants as the regime becomes fully turbulent, it
tu·ms out that Q 1 75 < h1r < Q2 .) This means the system curve with pure (fiction becomes ste~per <!-S flow
rate increases. To develop the friction curve, losses are computed at various flow races and then plotted.
S 150
":.100
...
-0
"'
:r: 50
0 i.c::::.._...__ _.___.,.L._....J
0 4 12 8 16
Volume flow rate, Q (100 gpml
(al Purely frictional pressure drop
40,--,--.---.--- --,
Combined
S 30 system
-, ~____,, =>:_ 20
tie~
10 ft _200 ft ~
Cl
1 ·-
of 3-m. pipe
200 ft
of 4-in. p_ipe
:r: 10
0
o~-=5'='0--10~0~·-1..1..so~·--'200
Volume flow rate, Q (gpml
(b) Combination of friction~! and gravity pressure changes
Fig. 10.18 Schem.atlc diagrams illustrating basic cypes-of system head-flow curves (based on Reference (io]).
446 Chap ter 10 Fluid Mach inery
Press ure chang e due to eleva tion differ ence is indep enden t of flow rate. Thus the pure lift syste m
head- flow curve is a horiz ontal straig ht line. The gravit y head is evalu ated from the chan ge in eleva tion
in the syste m.
All actua l flow syste ms have some fiictio nal pressu re drop and some eleva tion chan ge. Thus all
syste m head- flow curve s may be treate d as the sum of a frictional comp onent and a static -lift com pone nt.
The head for the comp lete system at any flow rate is the sum of the frictional and lift heads . The syste m
head- flow curve is ploLted in Fig. 10.18 b.
Whet her the result ing system curve is steep or flat depen ds on the relativ e impo rtanc e of fricti on
and gravi ty. Fricti on drop may be relati vely unimp ortant in the water suppl y to a high- rise build ino
(e.g., the Willi s Towe r, forme rly the Sears Towe r, in Chica go, which is nearly 400 m tall), and grav icy
lift may be negli gible in an air-ha ndlin g system for a one-s tory buildi ng.
In Secti on 8.7 we obtain ed a form of the energ y equat ion for a contro l volum e consisting of a pum p-
pipe syste m,
(pPl
+ cz1
_Vi,
2
+ 8Z1
)(
-
~
; + cz2
_,
V;
2 + gz2
) =h,, - .O.hpump {8.4 9)
Repla cing Ll..hpump with h,,, repres entin g the head added by any mach ine (not only a pump ) that does work
on the fluid, and rearra nging Eq. 8.4, we obtain a more gener al expre ssion
P1
-
v~ p, v 2
+ cz1 - ? + gz:1 +ha= --=-+ cz2---1. + 8Z2 + h,,
p
( 10.2 8a)
- p 2
Divid ing by g gives
_., _.,
Pl Vi Pi Vi h1,
- +a1 -+z1 +Ha = - +a2 -+ z2 + - (10.2 8b)
pg 2g pg 2g g
wher e Ha is the energ y per unit weigh t (i.e, the head, with dimen sions of L) added by the mach ine. Note
that these equat ions may also be used to analy ze a fluid mach ine with imern al losse s as well.
The pump opera ting point is defin ed by super impos ing the system curve and the pump perfo rman ce
curve , as show n in Fig. 10.17 . The point of inters ection is the only condi tion where the pump and syste m
flow rates are equal and the pump and syste m heads are equal simul taneo usly. The proce dure used to
deter mine the match point for a pump ing syste m is illustr ated in Exam ple l 0.8.
Exa mpl e 1 o.8 FIND ING THE OPE RAT ING POIN T FOR A PUM PING SYSTEM
Toe ,purn p of E:xar nple 10.6, opera ting at 1750 rpm, is _used_to pump water throu gh the pipe system of Fig. _I0: 18a. Deve lop an
:algeb raic exp~ ssion for the gene ~ sba~e of the_sy stem res1Sf!!Ilce curve ._Cal culate ~d plot the system res~s tance curve . Solv e
graph ically fot the syste m opera l;l~g po~t . Obtam an appro ximat e an~ly uc_a l expre ssion for-th e system resist ance curv e. Solv e
-analy ticall y for the -syste m qpera ung pomL
(iiv~ n: Pump of I!,xam ple 10.6, opera tin~ at 17~0 rp_m; withH :;= Ho -AQ2 , whete_Ho =:' 55.9 ft an~ A:;::;: 3.44 x 10- 5 ft/(gpm)2_ .
!)ys~eQJ offig . 1Q.18 a, wher e Li =2 ftofD 1 _= _IO m . pipe and.h i ==;3000 ftof D 2 =8 m ; pipe, conve ying water betw een two large
t¢se~.Qirs whos e surfa c.e s are at the same level.
Find: (!l) A,
g~ne ral algeb raic expre ssion for the sy~t¢in head curv.e .
(b) The system head curve by cfu:e.ct calcula1:1~n. _ .
(c) The syste m opei;:ating point using a graph ical soluti on.
(d) An approxima te analytical expression for the system head curve.

(e) The system operating point using the anc!.lytical expression of part (d).
Solution : Apply the energy equation co the flow system of Fig. 10.l~a.
Governin g equation:
-? -2
Po Vo . P3 V3 hrT (J0:24b)
-+ao-+ zo+Ha =-+a3 -+ Z3+-
pg 2g pg 2g g
wh¢re zo anc,1 Z:l are the surface elevations of the supply and discharge reservoirs, respective ly.
Assumpti ons:
Po =P3 =Po1m,
2 Vo= V3=0 .
3 zo:;::z3(gi ven).
Simplifyi ng, we obta.i.n
hIr IiITo, . lzITn

· -H:·
Ha = - = - - + - . - - . Ir (l)
.g g g
wh~re sectjons CD and (i)_are located just upstream ~q do\\fllstceam from the pump~_a;spective ly.
The total bend loi,ses are the sum .o f the major and minor losses, SQ
Fn;,m continuity ,
Ffence
. . -2 . · 4 ~z
= (. Kent +f1 _D..·I )?(D· )
h;r . L1 V2 . D 2 •. . . . Li V:,•
H,T=-
8 -8 . I
+ (hv·•-2 +Kcxit)?
-C,
or; upon simplifyin g,
This i& di!! he~d loss equation for the system, At the operating point, as i!)di!;:ated in Eq. 1, the head loss is equai .ti:> the head
ptoduced by the pl!mp, given by
Ha=Ho-A Q2 (2J
wh.ere Ho =$5.9 ft and A=3.44x 10-s ft/(~m/.
The head loss in the system and head produc ed by the pump can be comput ed for a range of flow rates:
Q (gpm) \1 1 (ft/s) Re 1 (1000) /1 (-) \/2 (ft/s) Re1 (1000) h (-) H,T (ft) H 0 (ft)
0 0.00 0 000 0 0.0 55.9
100 0 41 32 0.026 0.64 40 0.025 0.7 55.6
200 0 .82 63 0.023 l.28 79 Q.023 2.7 54.5
300 1.23 95 0.022 l.91 119 0 .023 5.9 52.8
400 1.63 127 0.022 2 .55 158 0 .022 10.3 50.4
500 2.04 158 0 .021 3 .19 198 0.022 15.8 47 .3
600 2.45 190 0.021 3.83 237 0.022 22.6 43.5
700 2.86 222 0.021 4.47 277 0 .022 30.6 39.0
800 3.27 253 0.021 5.11 317 0 .022 39.7 33. 9
900 3.68 285 0.021 5 .74 356 0.021 50.1 28.0
1000 4.09 317 0.021 6.38 396 0.021 61.7 21.5
l 100 4.49 348 0.020 7 .02 435 0.021 74.4
1200 4 .90 380 0.020 7.66 475 0.021 8S.4
1300 5.31 412 0 .020 8.30 5 15 0 .021 103
1400 5.72 443 0.020 8 .94 554 0 .0~1 120
1500 6.13 475 0.02() 9.57 594 0.021 137
The pump curve anq the system resistan ce curve nre plotted below:
60
lii
140
0
-ci 20
"'
"'
:x:
200 400 600 800 1000

The graphi cal solutio n is shown on the plot. At the operati ng point, H ~36 ft and (2~750 gpm.
We can obtain more accurac y from the graphic al solutio n using the followi ng approac h: Becaus e Lhe Reyno lds numbe r cor-
respon ds to the fully turbule nt regime ,J~con st., we can simplif y the equatio n for the head loss and write it in the form
H,r~c Q2 (3)
where -C= 8/n:2Ir.,g times the term in square bracket,s in the express ion for H1r• We can obtain a value for C directly from Eq. 3 by
·using values for H1r and Q from the table at a point close to the anticipa ted operati ng point. For exampl e, from the Q = 700 gpm
data: point,
30,6ft ., -624
- . x 10-Sf/ "pm)2
r (o
. _Hlr_
C - -., - .,
Q- 700-(g pmt
Hen.ce.• th!.! approx imate analyti cal express ion for the system head curve is
Hir =6.24 x 10- 5 rt/(gpm )2 [Q(gpm )]2 ,,_

_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ __H....:._1r
Usin,g Eqs. 2 and 3 in Eq. 1,. we obtain

Solv:ing for Q, the voluiiie flow rate· at the ope:tating point, gives
H, ] 1/2
Q- 0
- [ A+C
For- this case.
. . ? 1/2
Q '= 55.9ftx ·· _(gpm)_- · · ] =160gpm,-._a._ _ _Q_
[
(3.44 x 10-5 + 6.24 x lQ:- 5 )ft ·
The volume flow ·rate may be substituted into either expression for he·ad to
cnlclilate the head at che tiperating point as
: _ _ _ _ _fl_.
ff=C,f'°=6.24x rn-s~x(760}2(g pm?=36;0ft ·.....
. . ~pm~ ..
:We·cari ..see' 'that in this-problem 'our reading· of the-operating p·o int froin
the ·g~ph was pretty go9d: The reading of·hea~ ·,vas i'n 'agreement with the
dilcillated be.rid; the readirig 'of flow rate was Jess than 2 percent cJifferen·t
from the ·calculate(! res.tilt.
Nqte U\ai:- both ·sets of resuits ate approliliriate: We can get a more ·atcu:..
jji~e. -~rid easi¢r, result by li~irig Excel' s· Solver or Gqt:il Seek to find the
operating point,-:aIIchving fot tlie·fad that the friction factorS·vafy, however
0
slightly, with Reynolds number. Doing so yields an 9perating point flow rate
o'f 761 ·g(.iIJ1 arid head of36'.0·ft.
The. shapes of both the pump curve and the system. curve can be important to syscem srability in
c~rtain applications. The pump curve shown in Fig. 10.17 is typical of the curve for a new centrifugal
pump of intermediate specific speed, for which the head decreases smoolhly and monotonically as the
flow rate increases from shutoff. Two effects lalce place grac!ually as the system ages: (1) The pump
wears, and its performance decreases (it produces less pressure head; so lhe pump curve gradually moves
downward toward lower head al each flow rate). ('.?) The system head increases (the system curve
gradually moves toward higher head at each flow rate because of pipe aging7 ) . The effect of these
changes is to move lhe operatin~ point toward lower fiow rates over time. The magnitude of the change
in flow rat~ depends on the shapes of the pump and system curves.
The capacity losses, as pump wear occurs, are compared for steep (friction dominated) and flat
(gravity dominated) system curves in Fig. I 0 . 19. The loss in capacity is greater for the flat syste!Il curve
than for the steep system curve.
The pump efficiency curve is also plotted in Fig. 10.17. The original system operating point usually
is chosen to coincide with tl1e maximum efficiency by careful choice of pump size and operating speed.
Sleep system curve , Fl

, .,,...,--- at system curve
.,~_ .........
-c:,
"'
cu ,,,-- New pump head-capacity curve
::c
,,....--worn pump. head-capacity curve
_.,,,.-'
--- _J-
t Capac,ty loss-steep system curve
C_apac1ty loss-flat system curve
Volume flow rate
Fig. 1o.19 Effect of pump wear on flow delivery to_sy~tem.
7 _:As-thc pipe ages. ntincrol deposits fomi on the wall. (see Fig. 8.14), raising thc·relalive rpughn~s and reducing the pipe diameter
.compared wi1i1 lhc as-new comliuon.
4 50 Cha pter 10 Flui d Mac hine ry
Pum p wea r incre ases inter nal leak age, thus redu cing delivery and lowe ring peak effic ienc y. In add itio n.
as show n in Fig. I 0.19 , the oper ating poin t mov es towa rd lowe r flow rate, away from the best effi cien cy
poin t. Thu s the redu ced syste m perfo rman ce may nol be acco mpa nied by redu ced ener gy usag e.
Som etim es it is nece ssary to satis fy a high -hea d, low- flow requ irem ent; this forc es sele ctio n of a
pum p with Jow spec ific spee d. Such a pum p may have a perfo rman ce curv e wilh a sligh tly risin g hea p
near.sh_ti.t<;>ff, as show n in Fig. 10.2 0. Whe n the syste m curv e is steep , the oper ating poin t is wel l-de fine d
and no prob lems wilh syste m oper ation shou ld result. How ever , use of the pum p with a flat syst em cur ve
coul d easil y caus e prob lems , espe ciall y if the actual syste m curv e were sligh tly abov e the com pute d
curv e or t11e pum p deliv ery were belo w the char ted head capa city perfo rman ce.
· lf there are two poin ts of inter secti on of tl1e pum p @d syste m curv es, the syst em may ope rate at
eith er poin t, depe ndin g on cond ition s at start -up; a distu rban ce coul d caus e I.he syst em oper atin g poi nt
to shift to the seco nd poin t of inter secti on. Und er certa in cond ilion s. the syste m oper ating poin t can alte r-
nate l:>etween the two poin ts of in_terse ction , caus ing unste ady flow and unsa tisfa ctory perf orm ance .
Inste ad of a sing le pum p of low spec ific spee d, a mult istag e pum p may be used in this situ atio n.
Sinc e the flow rate thro ugh all stag es is the S<)me, but ilie head per stage is less than in tlle sing le-s tage
unit, the spec ific spee d of the mult istag e pum p is high er (see Eq. 7 .22a).
The head -flow characteristi<;: curv e of som e high spec ific spee d pum ps show s a dip at cap acit ies
belo w the peak effic ienc y poin t, as show n in Fig. I0.21 . Caut ion is need ed in appl ying such pum ps
if it is ever pec_essary to oper ate the pum p at or near the dip in the head-:flow curv e. No trou ble sho uld
occu r if the syst em 9har acter istic is steep , for I.here will be only one poin t of intersec!:j.on with tl1e pum p
curv e. Unle ss this inter secti on is near poin t B, the syste m shou ld retur n to stabl e, stea dy-s tate ope rati on
follo wing any trans ient disturl>anc¢.
Ope ratio n with a flat syste m curv e is more prob lema tic. It is poss ible to have one, two , or thre e
poin ts of intersecti~>n of the pum p and syste m curv es, as sugg ested in the figure. Poin ts A and C are
stab le oper ating poin ts, but poin t Bis unsta ble: Ifd1 e flow rate mom entar ily falls belo w Q , for wha teve r
8
reas on, the flow rate will cont inue to fall (to ~) beca use the head prov ided by the pum p is now less than
that requ ired by tlle syste m; conv ersel y, if the flow surg es abov e Qo, the flow rate will con tin_u e to
incr ease (to Qc) beca use the pum p head exce eds the requ ired head . With the flat syst em curv e, the pum p
may "hun t" or osci llate perio dica lly or aper iodic ally.
Seve ral otl1er facto rs can adve rsely influ ence pum p perfo rman ce: pum ping hot liqu id, pum ping liq-
uid with entra ined vapo r, and pum ping Liquid with high visco sity. Acco rding to [91, the pres ence of sma ll
_,.,-- Steep system curve

,,'____ _.---- Flat system curve
I
-Pu mp head-capacity·curve
- - - - - - -Pu mp efficie ncy curve
Fig. 10.2 0. Oper ation of low speci fic spee d pum p

Volume flow rate near shuto ff.
_ Steep sy"stem curve

I
,' /'"" Flat sysle!fl curve
I -•
.., I --
"'
•ci,
:I:
Fig. 10,21 ·Oper ation of. high·speci flc-sp eed pum p

Volume flow ra.l e near the <!_Ip.
amounts of entrained gas can drastically reduce performanc e. As little as 4 percent vapor can reduce
pump cal:'acity by more than 40 percent. Air can enter the suction side of the pumping circuit where
pressure 1s below atmospher ic if any leaks are present.
Adequate submergen ce of the suction pipe is necessary to prevent air entrainmen t. Insufficien t sub-
mergence c an cause a vortex to form at the pipe inlet. If the vortex is strong, air can enter the s uction pipe.
Dickinson [16J and Hicks and Edwards [17] g ive guidelines for adequate suction-ba sin design to elim-
inate the likelihood of vortex formation.
_ Increased fluid viscosity may dramatical ly reduce the performan ce of a centrifugal pump [ I 7J.
Typical experimen tal test results are plotted in Fig. 10.22. In the figure, pump performan ce with water
=
(p = I cP) is compared with performan ce in pumping a more viscous liquid (µ 220 cP). The increased
viscosity reduces the head produced by the pump. At the same time the input power requireme nt is
increased . The result is a dramatic drop in pump efficiency at all flow rates.
Heating a liquid raises its vapor pressure. Thus to pump a hot liquid requires additional press ure at
the pump inlet to prevent cavitation. as we saw in Example 10.7.
In some systems, such as city water supply or chilled-wa ter circulation , there may be a wide range
in demand with a relatively conscant system resistance. In these cases, it m ay be possible to operate
constant-s peed pumps in series or parallel to supply the system requiremen ts without excessive energy
dissipatio n due to outlet throttling. Two or more pumps may be operated in parallel or series to supply
flow at high demand conditions , and fewer unics can be used when demand is low.
For pumps in series, the combined performan ce curve is derived by adding the head rises at each
flow rate. as shown in Fig. 10.23. The increase in flow rate gained by operating pumps in series depends
Increasing viscosity
Power
Head
Increasing viscosity
Efficiency
Volume flow rate

Fig. 10.22 Effect of liquid viscosity on performance of a centrifugal pump based on Reference [9].
Efficiency curve
T
HA
J_,_____ _ _ _
1--QA-I
(a) Single-pump ope_ration (Q) Two pumps 1n.seri~
Fig. 10 _23 Operation of c.wo centrifugal pumps in series.

452 Cha pter 10 Flui d M~t :hin ery
on the resis tanc e of the syste m bein g supp lied. For two pum ps in serie s, deliv ery will incr ease at any
syst em bead. The char acter i_s tic curv es for one pum p and for two iden tical pum ps in serie s are
2
Hi =Ho -AQ
and
H2, =2( H0 -AQ2 )=2 H0 -'.M Q2
Figu re 10.2 3 is a sche mati c illus trati ng the appl icati on of two iden tical pum ps in seri es.
A reas onab le matc h lo the syste m requ irem ent is poss ible -wh ile keep ing effic ienc y hig h-if the sys tem
ctirv:e is relat ively steep .
In an actu al syst em, it is not appr opria te sinip ly to conn ect two pum ps in serie s. If only one pum p
were pow ered , flow thro ugh the seco nd, unpo were d pum p wou ld caus e addi tiona l loss es, rais ing the
syst em resis tanc e. It also is desir able to arran ge lhe pum ps and pipin g so lhat each purr ip can be take n
out of the pum ping circu it for main tena nce, repa ir, or repla ceme nt whe n need ed. Thu s a syst em of
bypa sses , valv es, and chec k valv es may be nece ssary in an actua l insta llatio n (13, l7].
Pum ps also may be com bine d in para llel. The resul ting perfo rman ce curv e, show n in Fig. 10.2 4, is
ob\a ined by addi ng the pum p capa citie s at each head. The char acter istic curv es for one pum p and for two
iden tical pum ps in para llel are
and
H 2r =Ho -A
Q)2
(2 1 .,
=H o- AQ·
4
Toe sche_mati c in Fig. i 0.24 show s that the para llel com bina tion may be used mos t effe ctive ly to incr ease
syst em capa city whe n the syste m curv e is relat ively flat.
An ac;tual syste m insta llatio n with para llel pum ps also requ ires more thou ght to allo w sati sfac tory
oper ation with only one pum p pow ered . It is necesl:iary to prev ent back flow throu gh the pum p that is n ot
powered. To prev ent back flow and to perm it pum p remo val, a more c;omplex and expe nsiv e pipi ng s e tup
is need ed.
M:).Ily othe r pipi ng arran gem ents and pum p com bina tions are poss ible. Pum ps of diff eren t size s,
bead s, an~ capa citie s may be com bine d in setie s, para llel, or series-parallel arra ngem ents . Obv ious ly
th~ com plex ity of the pipin g and cont rol syste m incre ases rapidly. In man y appl icati ons the com plex ity
is due to a requ irement that lhe syste m hand le a varie ty of flow rai.es- a rang e of flow rates c an be gen -
erate d by usin g pum ps in para llel and in series and by usin g throt tling valve s. Thro ttlin g valv es are usu -
ally nece ssary beca use cons tant- spee d moto rs driv e mos t pum ps, so simp ly usin g a netw ork of pum ps
(wit h som e on and othe rs off) with out throf tling yalv es allow s the flow rate lo be varie d only in disc rete
step s. Toe disa dvan tage of throt tling valv es is that they can be a majo r loss of ener gy so that a give n flo,v
rate will requ ire a larg er pow er supp ly than wou ld othe rwis e be the case. Som e typic al data for a thro t-
tling valv e, give n in Tab le 10. l (18] , show a decr easin g valv e effic iency (the perc enta ge of pum p pres -
sure avai lable that is not cons ume d by the valv e) as lhe valv e is used tQ redu ce the flow rate .
Sysie m c_u rve

\_,
------ --- -
----
Volume floYJ rc1te

Eig. .1.0.2 4 Oper ation -of tw.o centr ifuga l pun:ips in paral lel.
10.3 Pum ps, Fan s, and Blow ers 453
Tab le 10.1
Pow er Req uire men ts for Con stan t- and varia ble- Spe ed Driv e Pum ps
Thro ttle Valv e Cont rol with Cons tant- Spee d ( 1750 rpm) Moto r
Flow Sys tem Valv e" Pum p Pum p Pum p Moto r Moto r Pow er
Rate (gpm ) Head (fl) Effic iency (%) Head (ft) Effic iency ( % ) Pow er (bhp ) Effic iency (%) lnpu t (hp) Inpu t" (hp)
1700 180 100.0 180 80.0 96.7 90.8 106.5 106.7
1500 150 78. J 192 78.4 92:9 90.7 102.4 102.6
1360 131 66.2 198 76.8 88.6 90.7 97.7 97.9
!JOO 102 49.5 206 72.4 79.1 90.6 87.3 87.5
900 83 39.5 210 67.0 71.3 90.3 79.0 79. J
600 62 29.0 214 54.0 60.1 90.0 66.8 66.9
Varin ble-S pecd Driv e with Ener gy-E fficie nt Moto r

Flow Pum p/Sy stem Pum p Pum p Moto r Moto r Moto r Cont rol Pow er
Rate (gpm ) Head (ft) Effic iency (%) Powe r (bhp ) speed (rpm ) Effic iency ( % ) lnpu t (bp) Effic iency (%) Inpu t (hp)
1700 180 80.0 96.7 1750 93.7 103.2 97.0 106.4-
1500 150 79.6 71.5 1580 94.0 76.0 96.1 79.1
1360 131 78.8 57.2 1470 93.9 60.9 95.0 64. I
I JOO 102 78.4 36.2 1275 93.8 38.6 94.8 40.7
900 83 77.1 24.5 114.0 92,3 26.5 92.8 28.6
600 62 72.0 13. 1 960 90.0 14.5 89. l 16.3
Sour ce: Bnse d on Anni ntor ond Conn ers [18j.
"Val ve effici ency is the ratio of syste m press ure 10 pump pressure.
1• Powe r inp41 1s moto r input divid ed by 0.998 sfane r effici ency.
50 100
Perce nt Rated Flow
Fig. 10.2 5 Mean duty c:ycle for centr ifuga l pu·m ps in the chem ical and petro l~um indus tries, base.ii on Refer ence ft
8].
Use of vari able -spe ed oper ati.on allow s infin itely varia ble cont rol of syst em flow rate with high
ener gy effic ienc y and with out extra plum bing com plex ity. A funh er adva ntag e is that a varia ble-s peed
driv e: syst em offe rs muc!l simp lifie d cont rol of syste m flow rate. The cost of effic ient vari able -spe ed
driv e· sy$t ems cont inue s to decre;ise beca use of adva nces in pow er elec tron ic com pone nts and circu its.
The syst em flow rate can be cont rolle d by vary ing pum p oper ating spee d with impr essiv e ~avi hgs ~
pum ping pow er and ener gy usag e. The inpu t pow er_redu c~on affo rded by use of a vari able-spe ed driv e
is iUu$ trate d in Tab le 10. 1. At 1100 gpm , the pow er mpu t 1s cut almo st54 perc ent for the varia ble-s peed
syst em; the redu ction at 600 gpm is more than 75 perc ent. ·
The redu ction in inpu t pow er requ irem ent at redu ced flow with the-v ariab le spee d driv e is impr essiv e.
The ener gy savi ngs, and there fore the cost sav~ngs, dep_en:d on the spec ific duty cycl e on whic h the mac hine
oper aces . Anr iinto r and '?on ners [ 1~) prese~~ mfon natlo n <?n mea n ~uty cycl es for cent rifug al-pu mps used
in the chem ical proc ess mdusLry; Fig. 10.2::> 1s a plot show ing the histo gram .of thes e data . The plot show s
that alth oug h the syste m n1ust be des! gned ~d lll$talled to deliv erfu ll rated capa city; this cond ition seld Qm
o~c ~~. lo stea d, mor e than half the u_me ,-the syst e~ oper at~ at 70 perc ent capa city or belo w. The ener gy
savf ogs that resu lt-fro m use of a vana ble spee d driv e for th1s duty cycl e are estim ated in Exa mpl e 10_9 _
Exa mp le 10. 9 ENE RGY SAV ING S WIT H VAR IAB LE-S PEE D CENTRIFUGAL PUM P DRI VE
Com bine the info rmat ion on mea n duty cycl e for cent rifug al pum ps give n in Fig. 10.25 with the drive data in Tab le
10. 1. Esti mat e
the ~~ul !,l savi ngs in pum ping ener gy and cost thal coul d be achi eved by impl emen ting a varia ble-s peed driv e
syst em.
Give n: Con side r the vari able -now , varia ble-p ressu re pum ping syst em of Tabl e 10. l. Assu me the syste m oper ates on the typi
cal
duty cycl e show n in Fig. 10.2 5, 24 hour s per day, year roun d.
·
Find : (a) An estim ate of the redu ction in anm1a) ener gy µsag e obta ined with the varia ble-s peed driv e.
(b) The ener gy cost s and the cost savi ng due to v&ri able- spee d oper ation .
Solu tion : Full -tim e oper ation invo lves 365 days x 24 hour s per day, or 8760 hour s per year . Thus the perc enta ges in
Fig. 10.2 7
may· b e mult iplie d by 8760 to give annu al hour s of op~r ation . .
Firs Cplo t the purn p inpu t pow er vers us flow rate usm g data from Tabl e 10. l to allow inter pola tion, as show n
belo w.
150
ci.
5
~ Cons tanl•s peed drive
.: 100
l=> \
0.
5 50
0.
E
:::, Variable-speed
a.. dnve
0 L-----'-----L-----'-----J
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Volum e flow rate, Q (gpm )
Illus trate the proc edur e usin g oper ation at 70 perc ent flow rate as a samp le calcu latio n. At 70 perc ent flow rate
, the pum p
deliv ery is 0.7 x 1700 gpm =.11 90 gpm. Frc:>m the plot, the pum p inpu t pow er requ irem ent at this flow rate is 90
hp for the con -
stan t-s~ d qrive . At tlus flow rate, the pum p oper ates 23 perc em_of the time, or 0.23 x 8760 =20 15 hour s per
year . The tota l
en~r gY ¢oQ sum ed at this duty poinL is 90 hp x 201 5hr= l.81 x IO'h p · hr.T he elec;tri<;al ener gy cons ume d is
. 5 kW · hr
E= 1.81 x 10 hp · hr x0.7 46 hp . hr = 1.35 xl05 kW· hr
Toe corr espo ndin g cosL of e)ec tri~i ty [at$ 0.12 /(kW · hr)J is
5 12
C= 1.35 x 10 kW · hrx k~- ~$1 6,2 50
· · hr
The follo wing table s were prep ared using simi lar c;alcu lqtio ns:
Consl.W'1t0 Spee d Drive , 8'760 hr/yr
Fiow (%) Aow (gpm ) Tim e(%) Time (hr) Powe r (hp) Ene rgy (hp • hr)
100 1700 2 175: 109 1.91 X 104
9.0 1530 8 701 103 7.20 X IO"'
80 1360 21 1840, 96 17.7 ·x L04
70 1190 23 2015 90 18.1 X 104
60 1020. 21 184Q 84 15.4 X 10"'
50 85.0 15 1314 77 10.2 X 10..
40 68.0 IO 876 71 6 ..21 x. io4
1?Qtal: 76.7 X 104
10.3 Pum ps, Fans , and Blow ers 455
ump tion is
Sum min g the last colu mn of the table show s that for the cons tant- spee d driv e syste m the annu al ener gy cons
5
7 .67 x 10 hp · hr. The elect rical ener gy cons ump tion is
£= 7 .61x 10 hp· hrx0 .746 kW. hr =57 2,00 0kW · hr- 1-- --- --- --- --- E_ c_ s_o_ _
5
hp· hr
At $0. I 2 per kilow att hour , the ener gy cost for the cons tant- spee d driv e syste m is
2 $68, 700. ,.__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _Ccso
_ __
C=5 72 000 kW. hr $O.l
' X kW· hr
Varia ble-S peed Driv e. 8760 hr/y r

Flow (%) Flow (gpin ) Time (%) Tin-ie (hr) Pow er (hp) Ener gy (hp • hr)
JOO 1700 2 175 109 1.90 X 104
90 1530 8 701 81 5.71 X 10~
SQ 1360 21. 1840 61 11.2 X lif
79 1190 23 2015 46 9.20 X 104
6() 102(), 2! 1840 34 6.29 x Io-4
50 850 15 13f4 26 337 X Ia'
40 680 10 876 19 1.68 X 104
Tom i: 39.4 X IO"'
of the .tabl e show s· that for the vai;i .1ble -spee d driv e syste ll), the ;mnu al ener gy cons ump tfon is
Sum min g tqe last colu mn.
5
3 .94 xl0 .bp · hr-. The elect rical ener gy cqx:isumption is
105
bp · hrX·0 .74frlchW · hr=2 94,0 0Q kW · hr Evso
4"= 3.94 x
P· 1ll . --~---
At $0.1 2, per kilo watt hour , .the eqer gy cost for the varia ble~ spee d driv e:
syst em is only
. $0.1 2 _. . Cvso
. ~'- -~- --, .--~ ~
C::;::.294,000.l;cW · hrx kW . hr=$ 3:>, 250 ...
Thus, in. this. appl icati on;..1'1~ vm;iaQle~speed dijvc; f!!duces, ener gy (ion~
sum ptio n:,by 278,Q Q0 lcW. hr (47 percen~)._ The cost.savin .g js @ i,mp ressi ve
$.3~.,450. annu ally. One co1,1Jg affor d to inst11l.l !. l•viµjabJe~sp~ec! grj.v.~ even at
conS id¢n ,ble_cost pena lty. The !lav:ings in ener-gy c.o s.t are.11ppreci;ible each
yea.r ~d ·cont inue tlm;>ugbout the l.ife of the syste m,
Blo we rs and Fan s

Fan s are desi gned to hand le air or vapo r. Fan sizes rang e from that of the cool ing fan in a note book
com pute r, whic h mov es a cubi c mete r of air per hour and requ ires a few watt s of pow er, to that of
the vent ilati on fans for the Chan nel Tunn el, whic h mov e thou sand s of cubi c mete rs of air per minu te
and requ ire man y hund reds of kilow atts of pow er. Fans are prod uced in varie ties simi lar to thos e of
pum ps: The y rang e from radia l-flo w (cen trifu gal) to axia l-~o w devi ces. As with pum ps, me char acte r-
istic curv e shap es for fans depe nd on the fan type . Som e typic al perf orma nce curv es for cent rifug al fans
are pres ente d in App endi x C. The curv es may be used to choo se fans to solv e som e of.th e equi pme nt-
sele ctio n and syst em desi gn prob lems at the end of the chap ter.
A sche mati c of a cenlri:fugal fan is show n in ~ig. l 0.26 . Som e com mon ly used tenn inol ogy is sqow n
the figu re. The pres sure rise prod uced by f~s 1s seve ral orde rs of magnituc;ie less than that for pum ps.
00
Ano ther .cUf fere nce betw een fans ~d pum ps 1s_tha.t mea sure men t of flow rate is mor e diffi cult in gase s
and vapo rs than in liqui ds. Ther e 1s no conv erue nt anal og to the catc h-th e-flo w-in-a-b ucke t meth od of
Inlet
Scroll
Impeller
Fig . 10. 26 Sch ema tic of a typical cent rifu gal fan.
me asu rin g liqu id flow rate s! Con seq uen tly, fan test ing req uire s spe cial facilities and
pro ced ure s [20 . 21 ] .
Be cau se the pre ssu re rise pro duc ed by a fan is sma ll, usu ally it is imp ract ical to me
asu re flo w rat e wi th a
res tric tion flow me ter suc h as an orif ice, flow noz zle, or ven turi . It may be nec ess
ary to use an aux ilia ry
fan to dev elo p eno ugh pre ssu re rise to per mit me asu rem ent of flow rate wit h acc ept
abl e acc ura cy usi ng a
res tric tion flow me ter. An alte rna tive is to use an insr rum ent ed duc t in whi ch the
flow rat e is cal cul ate d
fro m a pito t trav ers e. Ap pro pria te stan dar ds ma y be con sult ed lo obt ain com ple te inf
orm atio n on spe cif ic
fan -tes t me tho ds and dat a-re duc tion pro ced ure s for eac h app lica tion [20 , 21] .
Th e tes t and dat a reducl;ion pro ced ure s for fan s, blo wer s, and com pre sso rs are bas
ica lly the sam e as
for cen trif uga l pum ps. Ho we ver , blo wer s, and esp ecia lly fan s, add rela tive ly sma
ll am oun ts of sta tic
hea d to gas or vap or flow s. For the se ma chi nes , the dyn ;un ic hea d may inc rea se fro
m inle t to dis cha rge ;
and it ma y be app rec iab le com par ed wit h the stat ic hea d rise. For the se rea son s,
it is im pon ant to sta te
c)~ arly the bas is on Wh ich per for mw ice calc ula tion s are mad e. Sta nda rd def init
ion s are ava ila ble for-
nia chi ne effi cie ncy bas ed on eith er the stal;ic-lo-static pre ssu re rise or the stat ic-t
o-to tal pre ssu re ris e
[20). J;)ati,i for bot h stat ic artd total pre ssu re rise and for efficiency, bas ed on bot h pre ssu re rise s, are fre -
que ntly plo tted on the san1e cha rac teri stic gra ph, as sho wn in Fig. 10. 27.
To e coo rdi nat es ma y be plo tted in phy sica l uni ts (e.g ., inc hes of wat er, cub ic fee
t per mi nut e, an d
hor sep ow er) or as dim ¢ns ion less flow and pre ssu re coe ffic ien ts. The diff ere nce
bet we en the tot al an d
sta tic pre ssµ res is the dyn am ic pre ssu re, so the ver tica l dist anc e bet wee n the se two
cur ves is pro po rtio nal
to Q2 •
Cen tpfu gl!. l fan s are use d freq uen tly; we ,vill use the m as exa mp les. The cen trif uga
l fan de ve lop ed
fro rn sim ple pad dle-wh eel des i~n s, in wh ich the wh eel was a disk car ryin g rad ial
flat P.la tes. (Th is pri m-
itiv e for m stll i is use d in non clo ggi ng fan s suc h as in com mer cial clo the s qry ers;)
Re fin em ent s ha ve led
to ihe thr ee gen era l typ es show11· in Fig . l0.2 8a- c, wit h bac kwa rd-c urv ed, rad ial-
tipp ed, and for wa rd
cur ved bla des . All the fan s illu stra ted hav e bla des tha t are cur ved at thei r inle t
edg es to app rox im ate
sho ckl ess t}o w bet we en the bla de and the inle t flow dire ctio n. The se thre e des ign
s are typ ica l of fan s
wit b she et-m eta l bla des ; wh ich are rela tive ly sim ple to man ufa ctu re and thu s rela tive
ly ine xp ens ive .
~
/
·Fan stati~ pr~ssure, Hi
--0
'°
c, II
:x: ,
L- --' --- --- '--:,v,-
o""lu_m_e--;; Fig. 10. 27 Typical ch"arai:teristlc-clir ves for fan -wi th
flo=-w-ra--=t-=-e-,_-Q:-:•-:- --- -'- -',- ~- '-'
back war d-cu ived blades.
----~-.
(a) Backward-curved (b) Radial-tipped (cl Forward-curved
n
✓,
~_,
(d)
~
Airfoil blades
Fig. 10.28 Typical types of blading used for centrifugal fan wheels.
l
I
'-.__Head ',..,_Head
__.,,
-- -----
_ - - - - ·--;::_Power __ ,-<Power
-- Q
-- a
(al. Backward-curved blades (b) Radial-tipped blades (cl Forwardscurved blades
Fig. 10.29 General features of performance curves for centrifl!gal fans with backwatd-, radial-, ·a nd forward-curved
blades,
The forward-curved design illustrated in the figure has very closely spaced biades;. it is frequently called
a squirrel-cap.e fmi because of its resemb]ance to the exercise wheeis found in animal cages.
As fans become larger in size and power demand; efficiency becomes· more important. The stream-
Bned airfoil blades shown in Fig. 10.28d are much less sensitive to inlet flow direction and improve
efficiency markedly compared with the thin blades shown in diagrams a through c. The added expense
of airfoil blades for large metal fans may be life-cycle cpst effective. Airfoil blades are being used more
·frequ.;ntly on sin~ fans a:s impellers molded from plastic become corrtmon. .
is
As is true for pumps, the total pressure rise across a fan approximately proportional to the absolute
vekic;ify of the fluid allhe e"it from. lhe whC:;el. Therefore the d:iaracteristic curves produced by the basic
biade shapes tend to differ from each other. The typical curve shapes are shown in Eg. 10.29, where both
pressure rise an9 power requir'emenr.s are sketched. Fans with backward-curved blade rips typically have
a p·qwer curve that reaches a max.iniuril and tlien decreases as flow rate increases. If the fan drive is sized
prbp,e rly to handle the peak power, it is impossible to overload the drive with this type of fan..
· The power curves for farts with radial and forward-curved blades rise as flow rate increases. If the
fan operating point is higher than the design flow rate, the mo~or may be overloaded. Such fans cannot be
run ft>rlong periods at low back pressures. Ail example of this would be wben a fan is run without a load
t~· i-esist the flow-in other words, the fan is almost "free~wheeling." Because the power drawn by che fan
monbtohicallY increases·witl1 flow ·race, the fan niotor could eventually bum out und_e r this free-wbe~ling
condition.
· · Fans with. backward-cun•ed blades are !)est for installations with large power demand and contin-
uous qperation. The forward~curved blad_e fan is preferred Where low first cost ~d small size are impor-
tant and where service is inte'i:m.ittent. Forward curved blades require lo-.ve!'. tip speed t<;> produce a
specified head; lower blade~~ Sp~ed mea~s ~duced n~i~e. _Thus ~qrward-curved blades may be speci~
fled •for heating and air condmomng appltcauons to rmnnmz.e n01s~.
· · .., Chacnctedsuc curves for axial-flow (prop~llt:r-) fans differ markedly from those for centtifuaal.fans..
Toe power curve; Fig. 10.30, is especially d.iffe~nt, ~ it ten~s to decre~e continuoµsly as, flow rate
increa.s es. Thus it is impossible ~o ~verl?ad a properly stzed_dnve for an a."{ja]..flow fan. The simple pro:-
p_e ller f~ jsgften used for ventilation; 1~ m~y. be ~ -~~standing. or mounted in a,n o~nL11g; ~ -a windqw
fan, widi 00 inlet or outlet duel work. Duc.ted ax1nl-Uow fans have been stu.d ied extensively and
45 8 Ch ap ter 1() Fh,iid ·Ma ch ine ry
l
-0
C
~
..
"'
:i::
Volu me flow rate

Fig . t 0.3 0 Cha l"i!a eris tlc curv es for a typical axia l-flo w fan [221.
dev elo ped to hjg h eff icie nH [23 ]. Mo der rt des ign s, with !lfrfoil blades, mo unt ed io duc
ts and oft en fitt ed
wit h gui de vanes; can del jv~ r larg e vol um es aga ins t hig h fe)>istances wit h hig h ·e ffic
ien cy. Th e pri ma ry
def ici~ ncy of the_axi aU low fan is the non -mo not oni c slop e of the pre ssu re cha rac
teri stic : In cer tai n
ranges of.flow rate the fan ma y pul sate . Bec aus e axial-flow fans tend to hav e hig h rot atio nal spe eds ,
the y can be noi sy.
Sel ect ion and in~ tall atio n of a fan alw ays req uire s com pro mis e. To min imi ze ene rgy con
sum pti on , it
is des irab le to ope rate a f<!Il atif S highe)>t effi cien cy poi nt. To red uce the fan size for a
giv en cap aci ty. it is
teIT)pLing to ope rate at hii her flow rate tha n tha t at ma xim um efficiency. In an act
ual ins tall atio n, thi s
trad e.o ff niµsfl:>e ma de c.o nsi der ing suc h fac tor s~ ava ilab le spa ce, initial cos t, and ann
ual hou rs of op er-
atio n. It is not wis ~ to ope rate a fan at a flow rate bel ow ma xim µm efficiency. Su_c h af!!
Jl wo uld be lar ge r
tha n nec ess ary anc,1 som e d<!Signs, par ticu larl y tho se wit h forward-curved bla des , can
be uns tab le an d
noi sy wh en ope rate d in this reg ion .
·
It is nec ~sa ry to con si_d er the dµcJ sys teil l _a t bot h the inlet and the oµtlet of the fan
to dev elo p a
sat isfa cto ry ins tall ati_on. An yth ing tha t ~is rup ts the uni form flo,v at the fan inle t is ijke
ly to im pai r pe r-
for ma nce . No nun ifo rm flow pt the inle t cau ses the wh eel to ope rate uns ym me tric ally
apd ma y dec rea se
cap aci ty dra ma tica lly. Sw irli ng flow also adv erse ly affe<;Ls fan performance. Sw irl
iri the 9ir ect ion of
rot atio n red uce s the pre ssu re dev elo ped ; swi rl in the opp osi te c!irection can inc rea se
the poweI" req uir ed
to dri ve the fan .
· Th e fan spe cia list ma y not be allowec.l total free dom in des ign ing t11e _be.st flow sys
tem for the fan .
Som etim es a poo r flow sys tem can be imp rov ed wit hou t too mu ch effo rt by add ing
sp1 iu~ rs or str aig h-
ten ing van es to the iJ1}eL Som e fan ma nuf act ure ~ off er gui de van es tha t can be ins taii
e.d f9r _thi s pu rpo se.
Flo w con diti ons at the fan dis cha rge also affe ct installed per form anc e. Eve ry fan
pro duc es no nu -
nif orm out let flo w. Wh en the fan is c9n nec ted to a len g_th of straigl~t duc t, ·t11e flow
bec om es mo re up. i-
foa il and som e exc ess kin etic ene rgy is tran sfo rme d to stat ic pre ssu ~. If the fan di_s cha rge
s dir ect ly int o a
larg e spa ce wit h no duc t, the exc ess k_\ne_tic; ene rgy of the nonuniform flow is dis sip
ate d. A fan in a flp w
sys tem wit h no dis cha rge duc ting ma y fall consj9erab}y sho rt of the per for ma nce
me asu red in a lab o-
rato ry tes t setu p. _
Th e flow pat tern at the fan out let ma y be affeCte<;I ~y tl1e ruj:J.o_unt of resi stan ce pre sen
t do wn str eam .
Th e eff ect of the sys tem qn fan per for ma nce ma y b_e diff er~ nt afc!ifferenL poi nts .al.on
"!~. the fan pre ssu re-
flow cur ve. Th us, it ma y not be ·pos sib le to acc ura tely pre dic t the pei:t'ormance pf a
fan , as i11 s1a lled , on
th~ bas is of.cur ves me asu red in the lab ora tory .
Fan s ma y be s_caled up or dow n in siz~ or spe ¢d usi ng the basic law sde \le} ope d for flui
.!i ma chi nes in
Cb;i.pter 7. Ids pe>ssible for two fans to ope ~t~ wit h flui ds of signi.ucantiy diff ere nt d.e 8
nsit y , so pre ssu re
is use d ins tea d of hea d (w)licli use s.de nsi ty)·a$ i;i c.lepenQent p~a me .ter and den sity mu
st be ret ain ~d in the
dim ens ion les s gro ups . To e dim ens ion less . gro ups app rop riat e for fan sca ling are
Il1 = Q. rr· p and TI - •<!J>

· (10 .29 )
wD 3' -~;::::; pw 2v2 ' 3.....,pw3D5·
~'Density- of the fltie_gas hnn dlcd bx-w:r in1;1u·c:ed-dr-.ift tiui'.oii,a:o.si~ powcrplnnt mny-lie 40 perccilt less :lhn n the den sity of I.he a,ir
honclle.4:.by •-'t~,fort;ed--dnift-fnocin:.tb_e -snmi:.plnnL
Once again, dynamic similarity is assured when the flow coefficients are matched. Thus when
w (D')
Q'=Q (w')
3
(10.30a)
D
then
( 10.30b)
and
~'=~(;) (:Y (~Y (10.30c)
As a first approximation, the efficiency of the scaled fan is assumed to remain constant., so
.t,' = ·11 ( 10.30d)

When head is replaced by pressure, and density is included, the expression defining the specific speed
of a fan becomes
(J)Ql/2p3/4
Ns= (10.31)
p 3/4
A fan scale-up with density variation is the .subject.of Example 10.10.
Example td.1 O S<::ALING .OFF-AN

·- - PERFORMANCE
Peifotrnanc;:e curv¢s [i6Jare $ivei'i below for a centr:ifug;il ffil.iwjth D = 36 in. and N= «=!00 rpm,.as rnea:surecfo_q ~~t $1'@.cf~Jf
coof air (p=Q,Q75l bm/ft3), S_cale the data to preilist th~ performance of a similar faq .with 1Y=4-2 m-,, N'= 1J$o~:tptii,
and p' == Q.Q45Jbm/ft', Estifuate the delivery and pqwet qf the larger fan wh~ri it operates a:t a, sy$~¢ffe pt¢§~; eqriiva'.l~ii_tJ o
7 :,-4 in, of Hi0, §:_Qe!=J( the specific sp~erJ of the fan at tlie 11ew operating point. . - . .
80 4
70 Ii
30 60 j3
~
:a.
5-
@50
c:-
,;;
9
.."'
.<=
~20 .,g40 g2
~
1i :t::
ffi 30
Q.
10 20
..
-0
"'
:r: l
Test fan-Type SXW
Size 6, o =36 in.
N=600 rp1J1
10 p == 0.075 lbm/lt3
0 - 0 0
0 10,000 20,000 30.000 40,000 50,000 60,000
Volume flow rate, Q (cfm)
460 Chapter 10 Fluid Machinery
solution: Develop the performance curves at the new operating condition by scaling the Lest data point-by-poinL Using
Eqs. I 0 .30 and the data from the curves at Q = 30, 000 cfm. the new volume flow rate is
(N') (D') (l600

150) (42)
3 3
Q' = Q N D = 30, 000 cfm = 91 , 300 cfm
36
The fan pressure rise is
, p'
p =p-
p
(N') (D')
N..
1
-D
2
.
=2.96m.H20 (0.045)
- - 1150
0.075 ·( 600
- - ) (36
- ) =888in
. . H?O
-
2
42 2
and the new power input is
1
qp'=W>(~) (;y (~Y =21.4hp(~:~~~) c6iir G~Y = 195 hp
We assume· the efficiency remains constant between the two scaled points, so
11' = ,, = 0.64
Similar calculations at other operating poinlS give the results tabulated below:
Q (cfm) . p (in. H 2 O) <!.I' (hp) 1/ (%) (! (cfm) p' (in. H 2 0) g>' (hp)
0. 3.68 11.l 0 0 JI.() J()l
10,000 3.75 IS.I 37 30,400 11.3 138 -
20,000 350 18.6 59 60,900 10.5 170
30.000 2.96 21.4 65 91.300 8.88 195
40;000 .2.12 :p.1 57 122,000 6.36 211
50,000 1.02 2;3.1 34 152,000 3.06 211
60,000 0 21.0 0 183,000 0 19?
To ~low i.pterpolatiori among I.he calculated points, it is convenient to plot the results:
70
~ ; ...
.,..---- ....11 '
~
·.,.
60
50 200
.!!!
"'~
0
:n
s::
10
.,,.,
----- ',
''
''
40
~
u
C
'c: 150
E ~
u
I
' \
\
"' 30 :i:: \
_g ~ 100 ..,; 5
I
I.
\
tJ 20 ., "' 'Computed fan-Type SXW, Size 7
\
\
0
~ "'
::i:: ,' D' = 42 in. \
\
0.. 50 1 N' = 1150 rpm
10 I
,' p' = 0.045 lbm/ft3 I
0 L -_ _ __.___ _ _.,___ _ _.,___....,.
0 0
0 50,000 100,000 150,000
Volume flow rate, Q' (elm)
f"CQm the head~capacity curve, the lw-ger fon should deliver 11 (),000 cfin at 7 ,5 in. H2:0 system head, wid1 an efficiency of
i!.Pp)lt 5$ pe~ent. . . . . .
~ opeI11ting,point is only slightly to the niwt of pea)l: efficiency for thisJan, s.o:1t !S -~teas0n~ble point at which to operate the
fan. Th~ spe~j,fiit_speed of the fan at tltjs opera_ting .pojjit Un U.S. customary units) 1s given by direct.substitution into Eq. 10.31:
2 3 314
·. wQ1l2 p3l 4 (1150 rpm)(l l0,000 c;fin/! (().045lbm/ft )
N:rci, = . . p3/4 =.. (7 Sin. Hi0)314
.=8223 -. ....,.-----'----~ ----~----- ---'-..__~_ _N_
. s:-=-=
10.4 Positive Displacement Pumps 461
iiI~I~ problem,iUus~fa~ttie~procedure:fol'.
In ri6ndirnensionai (SI) units, scali.ng pertornf.ince of'fans operating on
~ with two . ifferent <fensities.
3 1 2 3 3 4
N :r= (1_2 ()rad/s)_(3:10m /s) / (0.72t kg/m ) / = IS.S iftieb'celWQr . _ le for.this problem
(1.86 x 103 N/ml)3/4 +------ was us-e#or'pJottrng the graphs, for
obtaining th°1fi'n~-.-k~lar&t:daia,and for
-
P.erforming all cakuia"i1oiis::1t can·be easily
modififd for. othe~~such"ranalyses.
.
Three melhods are available to control fan delivery: motor speed control, inlet dampers, and outlet
throttling. Speed control was treated thoroughly in the section on pumps. The same benefits of reduced
energy usage and noise are obtained with fans, and the cost of variable-speed drive systems continues
to drop.
Inlet dampers may be used effectively on some large centrifugal fans. However, they decrease effi-
ciency and cannot be used to reduce the fan flow rate below about 40 percent of rated capacity. Outlet
throttling is cheap but wasteful of energy. For further details, consult either Jorgensen [ 19) or Berry [22];
both are particularly comprehensive. Osborne [24] also treats noise, vibration, and the mechanical design
of fans.
Fans also may be combined in series, parallel, or more complex arrangements to match varying
system resistance and flow needs. These combinations may be analyzed using the methods described
for pumps. ASHRAE [25) and Idelchik [26) are excellent sources for loss data on air flow systems.
Blowers have performance characteri~tics similar to fans, but they operate (typically) at higher
speeds and increase the fluid pressure more than do fans. Jorgensen [19) divides the territory between
fans and compressors at an arbitrary pressure level that changes the air density by 5 percent; he does not
demarcate between fans and blowers.
1 o. 4 Positive Displacement Pumps

Pressure is developed in positive-displacemen t pumps through volume reductions c aused by movement
of the boundary in which the fluid is confined. In contrast to rurbomachines. positive displacement
pumps can deyelop high pressures at relatively low speeds because the pumping effect depends on vol-'-
ume change instead of dynamic action.
Pm,itive-displaceme nt pumps frequently are used in hydraulic systems at pressim:s i::anging up to
40 IV[Pa (6000 psi). A principal advantage of hydraulic power is the hi·g h power density (power per unit
wei ght or unit size) that can be achieved: For a given power output, a hydraulic system can be lighter and
smaller than a typical electric drive system.
0
Nuqierous types of positiv.e~displacemen t pumps have be<:;n developed. A few examples im;:lude
piston pumps, vane pumps, and gear pumps. Within each type, pumps may be fixed- or variable-
displacement. A comprehensive classification of pi.Imp types is given in [l(i].
The performance characteristics of most positive-displacemen t pumps a.re similar; in this·seccion we
shall focus on gear pumps. This pump type typically is used, for example, to supply pressurized lubri~
eating oil in internal combustion engines. Figure 10.31 is a schematic diagram of a typical gear pump. Oil
enters the space .between the gears at the· bottom of the pump cavity. Oil is carried outward and upward
by the teeth of the rotating gears and exits through the outlet pon at the top of the cavity. Pressure is
generated ~ .the oil is forced toward the pump ou~et; leakage and backflow are prevented by the closely
fitting gear teeth at the center o~ the pump, and by the small cl~arances maintained between the side fates
of the gears a,nd the pump housmg. The close clearances requue the hydraulic fluid to be kept ex.tremely
ciean by fuJl~floW filtration.
· · Figure 10.32-is a photo showi?g the Paf!S ofan acrual gear pump; it gives a good idea of the robust
housing and bearings ne~ded tow1tl1s.tand the .~arge.~ressure forces develo~d within the pump. It also
sboWs pressure-loaded side plates designed to float -co allo~ thermal e~pansiQn-whilem aintaining
tbe small~st possible side clearanc~ between ~ears and housmg. Many ingenious designs have been
6
d veloped for pumps; details are bey.and tne ,scope of our treatment here, which will focus-on perfor~
·rrtanc;e characteristics. For more detruls consult. Lambeck [27) or Warring [28].
462 Chapter 1.0 Fluid Machinery
Inlet
Fig. 10.32 Cutaway photograph

of gear pump.
Fig. 10.31 Schematic
of typical gear pump.
Increasing pump speed
I I
.'
..'
'' '''
'.
'' .
''
'
'.
---- Efficiency
I I Fig. 10.33 Performance tharac~eri$tlcs of typical
\blume flow rate gear pump.
Schematic performance curves of pressure versus delivery for a medium-duty gear pump are shown
in Fig. I 0.33. The pump size is specified by its displacement per revolution and the working fluid is
characterize<;! by its viscosity and temperature. Curves for three constant speeds are presented in the dia-
gram. At each speed. delivery decreases slightly as pressure is raised. The pump displaces the same vol-
ume, but as pressure is raised, both leakage and baclcflow increase; so delivery decreases slightly.
Leakage fluid ends up in the pump housing; so a case drain must be provided to return this fluid to
the system reservoir.
Overall efficiency is defined as power delivered to the fluid divided by power input to the pump.
Overall efficiency tends to rise (and reaches a maximum at intermediate pressure) as pump speed
increases. Volumetric efficiency is defined as actual volumetric delivery divided by pump displacement.
Volumetric efficien<;y decreases as pressure is raised or pump speed is reduced.
Thus far we have shown pumps of fixed displacement only. The extra cost and complication of
variable-displacement pumps are motivated by the energy saving they permit during partial-flow oper~
ation. In a variable-displacernent pump, delivery can be varied to accommodate the load. Load.sensing
can be used to. reduce the delivery pressure and thus the energy expenditure still further during part-load
qperation. Some pump designs allow pressure relief to further reduce power loss during standby
operation.
There are system losses with a fixecl-disp]acement pump compared with losses for variable-
displacement and variablespressure pumps. A fixed-displacement pump will deliver fluid at a fixed flow
10.4 Positive Displacement Pumps 463
rate. If the load requires a lower flow the remaining flow must be bypassed back to the reservoir. Its
pressure is dissipated by throttling. A variable-displacemen t pump operating al constant pressure will
deli~er_jus t enough flow to supply the load. but at a lower pre85 ure. Thus the system power loss will
be sigmficamly reduced. The best system choice depends on the operating duty cycle. Complete details
of lhese and other hydraulic power systems are presented in Lambeck (27]. The performance of constant
and variable displacement pumps are compared in Example I 0.1 I.
Example 10 . 11 PERFORMANC~ OF A POSITIVE-DISPLA CEMENT PUMP

A .hydraulic pump i.vith performance characteristics represented in Fig·. I 0.33 delivers a flow rate of 48.5 gpm at zero pressllre and
46.5 gpm at 1500 psig at a rotating speed of2000 rpm. The displacement volµme is 5.9 in3 /revolution. It requires Q = 20 gpi;n at
p = 1500 psig at one operating condition. Determine the volumetric efficiency at zero pressure. Compute the required pump
power input., the power delive~d to the load, and the power dissipated by throttling at this condition. Compare with the.power
dissipated by using (i) a variable-displacemen t pump atJOOO psig and (ii) a pump with load sensing that operati;s at I 00 psi above·
the. .load requitemen~.
G.1ve!i: Hydraulic pump, with.-performance characteristics of Fig. 10.33, operating at 2000 rpm. System requires ~ -=20 gprij
at.p ·= 1500 psig.
Find: (a) The volumeQ:ic. efficiency at zeto pressure.
(b) The reqµired pump power input.
(t:) The power delivered to the load'.
(d) The power dissipated by lhrottling at this condition.
(e) The power dissipated using:
(i) a variable-displacemen t pump at 3000 psig, and
(ii) a pl.imp with ioad sensing tha t operates at I 00 psi abpve the lQad pressure .reqµiremenr.
$olution: The volumetric efficiency at zero pressure is determined using the flow rate of 48.5 gpin. The volume of fluid
pumpec! per revolution is
Q ' . . 3 ¥
¥ = -N = 48.S--g~X . ffi
.. ·om .. X 231 ma]. == 5.60 in,3 /rev<-:~ - - ~ -- - - - - - - - - - - -
mm 2 00 .· rev g - ·
The vo~µmettic; efficiency ofthe pump al max.imuin flow is
.
¥-c:,.1c 5.60
1/v - ¥puinj,- 5 _9 -0.949
At 1500 psjg, the pump delivers 46.5 gpm. Toe pc:>wer deiivere_d to the fluid is
0'nuid =pQgHp·= Q,llpp

_ gai . _ tbf rr3 in.2mm 1:~p_-.s _
= 46.::, mi~ X 1500 in.2 X 7.48 gal X 60s X 144.fr2 X 550ft. ll>_f
@>nuid =.40.7 hp
The pump efficiency at this operating condition is .given as '7:=0.\M. Therefqre the ~quired iµpilt power i~
'lP· . -
. mpul -
!l1'nuid
. i7 .
= 40.7 hp =48 hp
.0.84 .
W'inpul
The pow~r delivered tQ. the load is
!!fitood = Q1ow1 .6.pro;,~

_ gi)l . .. lbf fr3 miri in.2 hp . s
- 20.0-. ~ -1500-:-;-,, X , X -. - X 144-·- X ·
mm uv 7.48 gal 60 s fr-'- · '=5-=5.-=-0-:ft-_.--1,.,..b.f,...
!lP1o:w = 17.5 hp-- - - - - - - -- -----..-=._ __:•<!J>:~
_l~!ja<I::::_'
The pow er diss ipate d by thro ttlin g is
'lJ' dissip mcd = 'll'ouid -'l/'1 0, d = 40.7 - 17 .5 = 23 .2 hp ;-

· ____________
'tJ>_d_iss
_•:_P•_
tc_d
Toe diss ipati on with the varia ble"d .ispl acem ent pum p is
'l/' vor-di sp = Q10ad (popc r - Pload )
. gal
=20 .0- lbf ft' min
· -. x{3 000 -15 00) - x - - - x -
· in 2
hp . s
2
·
- · xl4 4-· x-... .c.___
mm in. 7.48 gal 60 s ft.2 550 fl . lbf
'l/' vor-di sp = l 7 .5 hp 'tJ> vnr-<lisp
Th.e dtss ip,it jbn with me v~ab i~-d ispla c~m elit pum p iS ther¢ fore less than the 23.2 hp dissi pated with the con stan
t-di spla cem ent
pum p-an d thro ttle. '.fbe savi ng ll'i appr oxim ately 6 hp. _
"ljie ·fina l com puta tion is· for the load -sen sing pum p. If the.p ump pres sure is 100 psi abov e that requ ired by the load
, the exc ess
ener gy diss ipati on is
'l/' vnr-di sp = Q10n d (popc r - Plond )
. gal
=2 0.0. -
. . lbf ft3 min , in.2 hp.. s
· mm
X 100- :---, X?
m. - .48 g
al X - X
6Os
144ft-
-,, X 5:,0
_ ..
ft • !bf
(:i})Jond0scnsc
'll',:nr -disp = 1.1 7 h P + - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1 o. 5 Hy dra ulic Tur bin es

Hyd rau lic Tur bin e The ory
The theo ry for mac hine s doin g work on a fluid , e.g., pum ps, may be used for the anal ysis of mac hine s
extr actin g work from a fluid , nam ely turbi nes. The main diffe renc e is that the term s deno tino torq ue
work , and pow er will be nega tive inste ad of posit ive. Exam ple 10.12 illus trate s the app li~a tion of
the Eule r turb oma chin e equa tion to a react.ion turbi ne.
£xa mp l_e 10. 12 IDE AL ANA LYS IS Of A REA CTIO N TUR BIN E
r-::::::-- - -- - - - -- - - - - -- -~
In a vert ical~shaf t Fran cis turb ine the avai lable head at the inlet flang e of
the turb ine is 500.ft arid tlie verti ciµ dista nce betw een th-e runn er and the
uillr ace is 6.5 ft. The runn er tip sp#< I is 1 l5 ft/s, the velo city of the
~~~er ente png the runn er is 130 ft/s, and .the velo city of the wate r exit-
ing the rq.nn:er is cons tant and equa l to 35 ft/s. The .Oow velo city at the.
exit of th~ -ct.raft tul;>e is 11.5 ft/s. The hydr aulic ener gy loss ~ estim ated
from th~ turb ine ar¢ equa l to 20 ft at the volu te, 3.5 ft at the draft rube,
and-33.0 :ft.a t the r:unn er. Dete rmin e the pres sure head (wit h resp ect t<>
thet ailra ce) at the inlet arid exit of the runn er, th.e flow angl e at the ruii-
ne!' inl#. , and the effiden<;:y of the turp ine.
Gi:ven: Flow thro ugh a verti c_a,l shaf t Fran cis turb ine
Hea d at _e ntran ce: 500 ft
·Di~~~~ betw een num er and tailn ice.: «:>S ft
R~ ~r tip spee d: i 1.5 ft/ s
Velo city ai. runr ier e.11u-ance: 130 ft/ s
Velo city at runner exit: 35 ft/s
Flow velo city _a~ cl.raft tube exit: l i .5 ft/ s ___ ..
Loss es: 20 ft at vj:,Jute, 3,5 fi at draf t tube , 33 ft at runn er
10.5 Hydraulic Turbines 465
Find: (a) Pressure head at inlet and exit of runner.

(b) Flow angle at runner inleL
(c) Turbine efficiency.
Solution: Apply the energy and Euler turbomachine equations to the control volume.
H= ~m =.!_(U2V,,-U1V,, ) ( 10.2c)
mg g
Wm wT
,, = ·- = - -.- (l0.4c)
, W,, pQgH,
P• v~ P2 v; h,T (10,28b)
pg +a1 2 g +zi +Ho= pg +a2 2 g + z2+
8
Assumptions:
.I Steady flow
2 Uniform flow at each station
3 Tui;-01.dent flow ; a= 1
4 Reservoir and tailrace are at atmospheric pressure
.5 .Reservoir is at stagnation condition~V\ :;::;: O
(a) ff we ~pply the energy eq1,1aiion between the runn~r exit and the tailrace:
-2 -2
H 3 -_P3.-P':.tm -- V4
·
-V3
.
Au +
+<.>,nDT Z4
pg 2g
2
H3 == .!'.x [(11.sQ),
2 · s
-(3. s~)s 2
].
32.2
2
x - 1 sfi · +3:5ftc-6.5 ft= -
t
19.97 fc..,..__ ___,,.._ _ _ _ _ _H_3
(nei~tiye sign indicates suction)
Next we apply the ener~y eguation b.e t:ween (he tunnt:r entrance am;! t1"!e.t;illnlce:
H2
.
Pi -p.,m = H
v~
- l1H .- ·,-:.1.
·
pg . E ...R 'lg
H -? ;::;.500ft-,.J3.0ft-
. - . •' '•• ,..,·x
2
I ( ft).J•.. s1- .
130- X"";------;-=205ft.......
32.2 ft .
s.
l
· · ,....,,.._
.. _ ~ ~ ~ ~ - - -·-2
H,
Applying the eriergy e_qual;i.on across..lh~ epJ¥e. system prqvii:I~ the w.otk extr.a9tion througb. tlte. turbine:
. . , _., - ?
Pl V'j _ l11T . _ p4 . V;j. ~

-pg + q -1~ + .:.1 + :Ha - - +a.i -e:--+ <4 + -
2g pg 2g g
Jf. we· sµnplify the eJCRression based on l)S.~ll1ll,Ptions anq solve for the he~d _e xtracted ~t th~ !Urbine:
._? -~
. . v;; . . "
lfa= 'lg - z1 .+24 + G = A u . v:; ( ..
= 'ig - HE +z) + (Mlv+AHR + aHoT:)
Since station 1 is higher than stati_o n 4, we. will tal(e the negative 9fH0 and call. thatHr, the ti~d ex.t racred i}.t;the turbine!
y2
Hr=-~+ (H,, + z)-(¢..Hv + t::.HR+liflor)
2g
1
= ~._-? X (
.
1 L5:-
s .
ft) 2
..
X ._ -
l s
3 2 ·- r
2
( . .
? fi·.. + 500 ft +6,5 ft)'-' (20·ft + 33 n + 3.5 ft)= 448 rt
App.,ying; the Euler .tµrboma:chine eqµ citi6n to this. sysJem:

-'Hr:;:: U3 v;, -U2V,i
g
Solving Jor the tlifig~iltial velo~it;y at 2 :.
· . _g#r _ . ft . . 1 s . ft
V,; ~ ·u . -n.2-,,x44s ftx-. -== 12s.4-
.2 s~ l)Sft &-·
-l6-6 ~ap t¢r 1 .0 · Fluid Mac h in e ry
Settin g up the v e locity triangl e:

_ V,1 -U2 _ _ 1 l25.4 -1 15_ /J2
{J-, = ran
1 0
- v,,, - tan :,_ - 16 .58 ...·- - - -- - - -- - --
3
a -, =tan
- 1 \If.! -I 125.4 -85 ? o a2
- - =tan - --- - ·- - -
- Vn2 I 0 .:, :t_h is P.~c;,b.!J!.Tj!$tn:0",.~tes t~'~tnalysi.s 9,f
(c) T o c a lc ulate the effici ency: a'hydraulic tui'bine"\,.,ith 'hea·d lo'sses arid
quli"nt.ifi;;;ttio'se 1!!ff;ct:s..fh\t:eirfis'ofa,turbine
efficie;n'cy.Slfractdltion, lsint:e ttie•h eada.t'ttie
- _l~l m = -g H -r = -448 = 89.6% _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ I/
11 ,- w gH e 500
t~i-biii~'exft•is beiow'l¥m9s~~!i!fl ca·' :_m ~~
11 b.E! ta.l<en,to ensure that cav1ta t19n ~ioes·
! not,occui'i;
'Grass
.:1lliati~ ,
,a.t; piant
Fig. 10 .34 s chema tic of impuls e-turb ine,fosjaiiacion, showing deflt1l~!q'lis' of gross and nee heads.
10.5 Hydraulic Turbine·s 467
100
...
E
:::,
''
'
·,"'.
E 80
'', Ideal
E \
0
60 '
\
\
"':;;
.E
\
\
\
\
3::
0
C.
40 \
\
-g \
\
"' \
"'
:::,
e-
20 H = constant
~
0
0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0.8 1.0
Ratio of wheel speed to jet speed
Fig. 10.35 Ideal and actual variabie-speed performa·nce for an impulse ·turbine [6].
energy in the exit flow. In practice. the penstock usually is sized so lhat at rated power the net head is
85-9,5 percent of the gross head.
In _addition to nozzle loss, wjndage, bearing friction, ancJ surface friction between the jet and bucket
reduce _per:fonnance compared with tJ1e ideal, frictionless case. Figure 10.35 shows typical results from
tests performed at constanthead.
The pel)k efficiency of the impulse turbine corresponds to the peak power, since the tests are per-
formed at constant head and flow rate. For the ideal turbine,as we will see in.Example 10.13, this occurs
when the wheel speed is half thejet speed. As we will see, at this wheel speed the fluid exits the turbine at
the lowest absolute velocity possible, hence minimizing the loss of kinetic energy at the exit. As indi-
cated in Eq. 10.2a,ifwe minimize the ex.it velocity V2 _we wUI maximize the ttirbine work Wm, and hence
the efficiency. In actual installations, peak efficiency occurs at a wheel speed only sUghtiy less tllan half
tlie jet speed. This condition fix.es the. wheel speed once the jet speecl is determined for a given instaj~
Jati_on. For large units, overall efficiency may be as high as 88 percent (30) .
.Gl ve_f!:· P,elton whe,ei.ari~ :s_ifi~l~ Jet shown.
!!ef~t:m:::·:::_.,.
_
R
~
= mean radius
~~ijt pow«
E!it~:$7:¾ii;iiik!i~Z:~i::SE.!if"=:
J:fq_
v ,tfi]ll9.,,i ti_.4'14fion:
-~ _off,) .,;;='9ii) . · ~ -0 ($}
fX"~4-.( r-·'f<.,i/e~ ~Tshaft- f _rx[2wxv;<>-z +aix-('tt>-<:r-).+:~x ;ilp,-~
0
,V5' . .J:c.v 'J!: lcv J 7-r-

. . ::--Pfl:): -
==:J.f~r~x,v~lid¥+fc./'><- ~;'>-z,p,V~ --:44

4 68 ch·apt er 10 Fluid Machi nery
Assum ptions:
1 Neg~ec t i:orque due to surface forces.
2 Neglec t torqµe due co body forces.
3 ~eglec t mass of water on whe.eL
4 Steady flow with respec t to wheel.
5 All water that issues from the nozzle acts upon the buckets.
6 Bucke t hcight is sn:iall comp·a red with R, hence ,-1 -;:::,-r2 -;:::,R.
7 Uriifor m flow ·ar each section .
8 No.cbi µjge in jet spee d relative to bucket .
T)len, sinae.a ll water froin the jet cross.e s d1e buckets ,
f shor, =r1 X Vi(-pV A) +r2 X V2( +pVA)
v, = (V-U)e o V2 = (V-U) cos 0 e0 +(V-U) sin 0 er

Tshor, k=R(V - U)k(-p VA) +R(V -U) cos 0k(pVA )
so that finally
Tshofi.k = -R{l -c.o s 0)pVA (V-U) k
This is the externa l torqu.e of~e shafr on the conuul volume , Le., on dle wheel. The torque exerted by me water on the wheel. is
equll1 and opposi te, ·
T0 u 1 = - f shmt=R(i c-, ¢Os 0)pVA (V - U)k

·u1
foul= pQR( V- U) X (l -cos 0}k - - - ~ ----:---- ----- -f--= o=
Tl:i~ co~p on~n g power output is
Wau1=ai · Ta~i= Rw(l - cos0)p VA(\I- U)

Woul =i(J,U .(V~ U) x(l-co s0) -~- --- ----i"__u 0 1
TpJ:in d the conditi o:n ft:,t-1~ip timum- power; differe iltiat~ dl¢ ~Xpfi;ssi,;,n for powerw lth resp·ect 19 wheel i,peed u and set the res lilt
~ql,laj to zero.• Thus ·
~~ =pQ(V - .U)(l- cos0) +pQU (- l)(1-co S0) =0

:.(V- U)-U-::::::;V-2U::::::;0
· 1 . ; ·· U/v
. Tllµs,J<;>r .maximum power, U/V = 2 (I= V 2. - - ~ -
N:o.~e.: Tajn.in g tlie fiow throug h 0 = 180° would give maxiiniuti p9wer with
U = V /2. lJnder these conpiti oris, theqr¢t ica)ly the absolute vekicicy
of the Oµid al i.he exil (compu ted iri the .directi on of U) weuld ~e
{/ - (V -U) =V /2....:. (V~ V /2) = 0, so that th~ fluid would exit with
zerp ki.ri¢tis;, ¢0,efgy., maxim izing .the pow¢r OUtpl!t .(n pnu;Itice, it is
possib ie ~o d~fi~ct th~jet stream tbrou~ an:gles tip lo. f 65°. With
fJ-;;:;. i:65'\ 1 ~ qos:0~ 1.. 97, or .about 1 J5 percent below ~»¢.·· vii)ue. for
~ u m power,
10.5 Hydraulic Turbines 4'6 9
Iii P':1-ctice, hydraulic turbines usually are run at a constant speed, and output is varied b~ changing
the opening area of the needle valve jet nozzle. Nozzle Joss increases slightly and mechanical losses
become a larger fraction of output as the valve is closed, so efficiency drops sharply at low load, as
shown in Fig. L0.36. For this Pelton wheel, efficiency remains above 85 percent from 40 to 113 percent
of full load.
At lower heads, reaction turbines provide better efficiency than impulse turbines. In contrast to flow
in a centrifugal pump. used for doing work on a fluid, flow in a work-producing reaction turbine enters
the rotor at the largest (outer) radial section and d.Jscharges at the smallest (inner) radial section after
transferring most of its energy to the rotor. Reaction turbines tend to be high-flow, low-head machines.
A typical reaction turbine installation is shown schematically in Fig. 10.37, where the terminology used
to define the heads is indicated.
Reaction turbines flow full of water. Consequently, it is possible to use a diffuser or draft tube to
regain a fraction of the kinetic energy that remains jn water leaving the rotor. The draft tube forms an
integral part of the installation design. As shown in Fig. 10.37, the gross head available is the difference
between the supply reservoir head and the tailJ:ace head. The effective head or ner head, H, used to cal-
culate efficiency, is the difference b~tween the elevation of the energy grade line just upstream of the
ruibine and that of the draft tube discharge (section C). The benefit of the draft tube is clear: The net head
available for the turbine is equal to the gross head minus losses in the supply pipework and the kinetic
energy loss at the ttirbiiieexit,. Without the draft tube the exit velocity and kinetic energy would be rel-
atively large, btit with the drafttube they are small, leilclirig to increased turbine efficiency. Put another
way, the draft rube diffuser, through a Bernoulli effect, reduces the turbine exit pressure, leading to a
)?,Cger pressure drop across the turbine, and increased power output. (We saw a similar Bernoulli effect
used by ancient Romans in Example 8.10.)
An efficient mixed-flow turbin•e runner was developed by James B. Francis using a: careful series of
experiments at Lowell. Massachusetts, during the 1840s [29). An efficient·ax.iaJ-flow propeller turbine,
with adjustable blades, was developed by German Professor Victor Kaplan between 1910 and 1924.
TI1e Francis turbine (Fig. 10.5b) is usually chosen when 15 m ~ H ~ 300 m. and the Kaplan rurbine
90
85
~
o _
130
~
C: Pellon impulse turbine
"'
;:;
I: 75
.w.
70
0 4_0 60. 130 100 120

Output, (% o( full load)
F.ig. .1 6.36 Relati1m between effici"'ncy and output _fQr a typical Pelton water turbine, ba_s~d.9n Reference-[Jo].
Eneigy grade line
-----1--~-'---
Fig. 10.37 Schematic of _fyplcal reaction turbine

installation, showin~ d~(lnitipns;of head tem1ln:ology.
100, -~-- .--,- --.-- -.--. ----. -...-- ----- -.--- .---- --.-- .---- ,-~
Field test ----..._
---- -
*-;;. 90 Expec ted effici encie s
~ H = 238 ft
C:
OJ 280 fl
g 330 fl
w 80
N= 138.6 rpm
10~~ ~~~_ ,__.. ...__ _,__ ....__ .__.. ..__, __... ._........._..., __._ ~
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Power, ~ ( 1000 hp)
Fig. 10.3 8 Perfo nnan ce·of typica l react ion turbi ne as predi cted by mode l tests (expe cted effici encie s) and conf i~me d
by
field ·test [6).
(Fig . I 0.5c ) is usua lly chos en for head s of 15 m or less. Perf orma nce of react ion turb ines may be mea s-
un;d in the sam e man ner as perf orma nce of the impu lse turbine. How ever , bec_a use the gros s hea ds are
less, any chan ge in wate r !eve ! duri ng oper ation is more signi fican t. Cons eque ntly, mea sure men ts are
mad e at a serie s of head s to compl«!tely defin e the perfo rman ce of a react ion turb ine.
An exam ple of the data pres ent_a tion for a reaction turbi ne is give n in Fig. I 0.38 , whe re effi cien cy is
show n at vario us outp ut pow ers for a serie s of cons tant head s [6]. Th_e react ion turb ine has high er max -
imu m effic ienc y than the impu lse turbi ne, but effic iency varie s more shar ply with load .
Siz ing Hyd rau lic Tur bin es for Flu id Sys tem s
Fall ing wate r-has long been cons idere d a sour ce of "free ," rene wabl e ener gy. In reali ty, pow er pro duc ed
by hydr aulic turb ines is not.f ree; oper ating cos ts~ low, but cons idera ble capi tal inve stme nt is I"eq uire d
to prep are the site and insta ll the equi pme nt. At a mini mum . the wate r inlet work s, supp ly pen stoc k..
rutb ine(s ). pow erho use, and cont rols mus t be prov ided . An econ omic analy sis is nece ssar y to dete rmi ne
the feasi bilit y of cjev elop ing any cand idate site. In addi tion to econ omic factors, hyd rnel ectr ic pow er
plan ts mus t also ·be eval uate d for their envi ronm enta l impa ct; in recen t year s it has been foun d that suc h
plan ts are not entir ely beni gn and can be dam agin g. for exam ple, to salm on runs .
Earl y in the indu stria l revo lutio n, wate rwhe els weI"e used to pow er grain mills and text ile mac hine ry.
The se plan ts had to be loca ted at the site of the fallin g wate r, whic h limit ed use of wate_r pow eI" to rel-
ative ly sma ll and loc_al ente rpris es. The intro duct ion of alter natin g cuI"rent in the 1880 s mad e it pos sibl e
to rran smit elec trica l ener gy effic ientl y over long dista nces. Sinc e then nearly 40 perc ent of tl1e ava ilab le
hydr oele ctric pow eI" reso urce s in the Unit ed States have been deve lope d and conn ecte d to the utili ty grid
(J J ]. Hyd roele ctric pow er acco unts for abou t 16 perc ent of the elect rical ener gy prod uced in this cou ntry .
The Unit ed Stat es has abun dant and relat ively chea p supp lies of fossil fuels , mos tly coal . The refo re
at pres en_p he rema inin g hydr opow er reso urce s in the Unit ed State s are not cons idere d econ omi cal com -
pare d to foss il-fir ed plan ts.
Wor ldwi de, only abou t one- third of avai lable hydr opow er resotm:es have been.deve lo.p ed com mer -
ciall y [32] . Con side ra\,l y more hydr opow er will likel y be deve lope d in com ing deca des as cou noi es
beco me mor e indu stria lized . Man y deve lopin g co.untries do not have their own supp lies .o f foss il fuel .
Hyd ropo wer may offeI" man y such coi.mtries their only practical path to inc rease d utili ty dev elop men t.
Con sequ ently tlle desi ~n and inst_a llatio n of hydr oele ctric plan ts are likely to be imp orta nt futu re eng i.,.
neer ing activ ities in deve lopin g coun tries .
To eval uate a cand idate site for hydr opow er pote ntial , one must know the aver age stre am flow rate
and the gro~ s head avai lable to mak e preli mina ry estim ates of t'1rbine type , num beI" of turb ines , and
pote ntial pow er prod uctio n. Econ omic anal yses are beyo nd the scop e of this book , but we con side r
the fluid s engi neer ing fund amen tals of impu lse turbi ne perform,111_c e to optim ize the effic ienc y.
Hyd rauli c turb ines conv ert the pot~ntial ener gy of store d wa~~r- ~o m~ch anic al wor k. To max imi ze
turb ine effic ienc y, it is alwa ys a desig n goal to disch arge wate r nQm a turbi ne at amb ient pres sure . as
~los e to the tailw ater elev ation as poss ible and with tlle mini muin' p•~sibl~ ~!;.idual kine tic ene rgy .
· · · ~Qn v~yi ng wate r flow into the turq ine with mini mum ener gy 19:;~ al$Q is imp orta nt. Num erou s
df}sign df}Wi)s inus t be cons idere d, ~ucb as ~let geometry,_ eras!~ _rack$, e~c-. (31] . Refe I"en ces 1, 6. 10,
31 ~d 33;...3g cpnt ain a weal th of mfor mau on abp)Jt turbm e s1nng, ~e!c;ction, hyd raul ic des ign, and
200~-~,.._.- -,----.---r--,
For all curves, L = 2flandf= 0.02
l
.,.
C:
100
~
B
m
:E
5o
o L_.i......::~r:::::::::::i,__....1..__ _j
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.6
Penstock di_
am~ter, D (ml
Fig. 1·0.39. Maximum hydraulic Im.p ulse rurt;,ine ppwer output versus penstcick diameter.
ppl;imi:zati9n of.hydropower·p1~~ • Ute number of.large .miti).ufact.u rers has dw.indled to,just a fow;.but
small-scale units are becoming ple·n_tifu.l (35}. The enormous cost of a commercial-scale hydro plantj1i's:-
ti:f'ies tl:).e use of comprehensive scale-model testjng to finalize design details. See (31} for a more detailed
-coverage of.hydraulic power generation.
Hydraulic losses in long supply pipes (known aspe11stocks) must be considered when designing the
_i.ns.t allap.on for high-head machines such as imp\llse turbines; an optim_um diameter for the inlet pipe that
·miµc.irrl,_izes turbine output power can be determined for these units, as shown in E~ample 10. 14.
Turbine power output is propo~onaI to volume flow rate times the pressure difference across the
nozzle. At zero flow, the full hydrostatic head is available but power is zero. As.flow rate increases, the
net h_¢ ad at the nozzle inlet decreases. Powe r firs.t increases, reaches a m~mum, then de.c reases again as
.fiow rate increases. As we will see.in .gxample 10.14, fat a given penstock diameter, the theoretical max-
imllclI! power is obtained when the system i.~-clesigned so that one-third of the gross head is dissipated by
,friction losses in the penstock. In practice, penst<;>ck dia!lleter is choseQ la,rger than the theore.tic;;tl riµn~
.imurn, and ~mly 10-15 percent of the gross head is disi\ipated by friction [11}.
A certain mininn~m penstock diameter is i:e.quired tQ produce a given p·ower 9utput. The minimum
.d iam.~ter _d epends on the desired power output, tn'e available head; ;md the penstoclc inare_i:i;;tl and length.
Some represen~tive values are shown in Fig, 10.;39.
/ R~ervoir surface·
-ff T\lrbme wheel
\
--t---~ -----.-- ---~~~ -CD "i
Given: Impulse mrbine installation shown.

Find: (a) Expression for optimum turbine output power as a function of jet diameter.
(b) Expression for the ratio of jet diameter, Dj, to penstock diameter, D, at which output power is maximized.
(c) R~tio of head loss in penstock to available head for condition of maximum power.
(d) Parametric equation for the minimum penstock diameter needed to produce a specified output power, using gross
head and penstock length as parameters·.
solution: Ac~qrding to the results of Example !.0 .13, the output power of an idealized ~pulse turbine is given by
~ou, :::;;:.p.(JU(V - U)(l -cos£1). For optimum power output, U =
V /2==;; ½/2, and
0>ou,=pQ V(
2
V)
V-i (l-cos0)=pA;\'J
1 i V:-\1 (J-cos0)
v~
W'ou, =pA1-f(1 -cos0)
Thus outpli\ power is proportional to AjVJ.

Apply the energy equation- for ·steady incompressible pipe flow throu~h the pertstock to anajyze vI at .the nozzle outlet.
1
Designate the free surface of the reservoir as sect~on (D tliere V- 1 ~o;
Governing ·equation:
ASsumptions:
Steac,Jy flow.
2 Incomptessibl¢ flow.
j Fully develoJ1ed flow.
4 Atmosv.heric pressure ~t }et exit.
5 t:iJ =\,so V1= V1-
-6 Uniform.
. . ... . L . in penstock,
flow . so VP= V .
7 Kc:n,«f D;
8 K.J)ozl_e :::;: l. ·
·Tbi;n
. [ 2gH ] 1/2
(2)
:VJ== :{•1 +f
.. .
~(D. 1).
4
}·: ·
D · D; • . ··
The turbine power can be written as
!>~pA; 7 (i-C6'0)~p;6 DJ [{ I+/i(~nr(l-co,O)

~=C1DJ[1+1~(iY]-J/l g>
where C1 =pn(2gH)312 (1-cos0)/16=constant.

To .find the condition for maximum power output, at fixed p~tistock diameter, D, differentiate wich respect to Dj and sec equal
to zero,
Thus,
SotviI1g for D1/ D, we obtain

114
Di=
D - 2ti
[-_1
-] _____________________ OJ
D_
At this o·ptimum value of Di/D, the jet speed is given by Eq. 2 as
The head loss ac mazjmu111 power is then obtained from l::q, l after reamm:p_ng
_ L yi V7 2 _ l
h1 =f--- =gH~ 2- =gH- -gH = ,-gH
D2 2 3 - - 3
and
h1
~ l ~
gH = 3 ....- - ~ - - - - - - - - - - ~ -
Under the conditions of maximum power
A· _ (
@n,nx=pVJ; (1-cosB)=p 3gH
)3/2 4_ ,c [Ds]
~ _
1/2
(l-cos0)
16 2
Finally, tci solve for minimum pertstock 4iameter for fo<.ed output power, the
:eqilarion ,may b~ writt~n .in the fomi -
L."'\ vs (~)--21s 0
l,)Q( (H) .H .....- - - - - - - - - - - - - c . . _;:__
·
1 o. 6 Pr op ell er s an d W ind -P ow er Ma ch ine s

As me ntio ned in Sec tion 10. 1, pro pel lers and win d-p ow er mac hin es suc h as
win dm ills and wi nd tur bin es
ma y be con sid ere d axi al-f low ma chi nes wit hou t hou sing s [6). Des pite the ir lon g his
tory (pr ope ller s we re
use d. on ma rin e cra ft as ear ly as 177 6, and win d-p ow er mac hin es disc ove red in Per
sia dat e bac k to so me
tim e bet we en the 6th and 10t h cen turi es C.E . [39 )), they hav e bee n pro ven to be
eff icie nt me tho ds of
pro pul sio n and ene rgy gen era tion .
Pr op ell ers
In com mo n wit h oth er pro pul sio n dev ice s, a pro pel ler pro duc es thru st by imp arti ng lin
ear mo me ntu m to
a flu id. Th rus t pro duc tion alw ays lea ves the stre am wit h som e kin etic ene rgy and
ang ula r mo me ntu m
tha t are not rec ove rab le, so the pro ces s is nev er 100 perce11t effi cien t.
Th e one -dim ens ion al flow mo del sho wn sch ema tica lly in Fig. 10. 40 is dra
wn in ab sol ute
coo rdi nat es on the left and as see n by an obs erv er mo vin g wit h the pro pel ler, at spe
ed V, on the rig ht.
Th e wa ke is mo del ed as a uni for m flow as sho wn , and in the new coo rdin ates the
flo w is ste ady . Th e
act ual pro pel ler is rep lac ed con cep tua lly by a thin ac111ator disk, acr oss wh ich flow
spe ed is co nti nu ou s
but pre ssu re rise s abr upt ly. Rel ativ e to the pro pel ler, the ups trea m flow is at spe ed
V and am bie nt pre s-
sur e. Th e axi al speecl at the act uat or dis k is V + l!i V /2. wit h a cor resp ond ing red
uct ion in pre ssu re.
Do wn stre am , tl1e spe ed is V + f>. V and the pre ssu re retu rns to am bie nt. (Ex am ple
10. 15 wil l sho w tha t
hal f the spe ed inc rea se occ urs bef ore and hal f afte rth e act uat or dis k.) Th e con trac
tion of the sli pst £ea m
are a to sat isfy con tinu ity and the pre ssu re rise acr oss the pro pel ler dis k are sho
wn in the fig ure .
No t sho wn in the figu re are the swi rl vel oci ties tha t resu lt from the torq u_e req uir ed
to tur n the pro -
pel ler. Th e kin etic ene rgy of the swi rl in the slip stre am also is los t unl ess it is rem
ove d by a cou nte £-
rota ting pro pel ler or par tial ly rec ove red in stat ion ary gui de van es.
As for all turb om ach ine ry, pro pel lers ma y be ana lyz ed in two ways. Ap plic atio n of lin ear mo
me n-
tum in the axi al ilir ecti on, usi ng a fini te con trol vol um e, pro vid es ove rall
rela tion s am ong sli pst rea m
spe ed, thru st, use ful pow er out put , and min imu m resi dua l kin etic ene rgy in the
slip stre am . A mo re
det aile d bla de ele me nt the ory is nee ded to cal cul ate the inte ract ion bet wee n a prq
pel ler bla de an d the
stre am . A gen era l rela~ion for ide al pro pul siv e effi cien cy can be der ive d usi ng
the con tro l vo lum e
app roa ch, as sho wn foll ow ing Exa mp le 10. 15.
Am bie nt
ak (at< est l t7, Pro pell er
wak e
Afte r cha nge in
coo rdin ates : and
idealizmg wake
:__(~!~~~~~- /~,:~~
r r
\-- -- ----1 ~7 +~ ---
--- --- --- -.. .J- ---!....+-.
D '
L J____! _______
--
V
--
l!-- -.... ..-'
V+ 6.V
-- - -- - --- ---
~ -
~ .
Propell.e r Pressure
mo tion , / distribution
spe ed v / -~
- . . . · ·. • - d·.· •.. al flow mod el and con trol volu me use_d tQ analyze an idealized propeller, based
f .1g ~-10 .4_0 One •..}mens10 .n . . . . on Reference (61.
~ ft ip te t ·Q,.-1:~,..",C~NTlt@l- YQL_WN\E A~At'lSIS'-OF-IOEAlli:~D fLOWTHRQIJ.GH A PR O.R

EL LE R
t{ ··. '·d- m O ~e ~l. ao. al. ro. otl el for- the -ide .µiz ed ·f.J9,v t!:u:ou~h.ap rop elle rsh ow n 1ii.J-i~.J.(;).4,(;t 'Fh epr ope ller
:/~·£ -;
;:~s ~ ~ -ad yan c;:e ~.in to·
bii ¼,;i©ritain,expressfons for.th~ pre s~u re i_mniedi~el_)' upsu:eam ail'~ Ui~pr~S$~ imm edi ate ly do wn s~ arn
i ~~;a~~i.~ 2~ -:~ f~:lti~J
hpistcon,,the;propell~t~~--~!e pro?i!i:'.t:o frthis.p res sur eoi ff¢ ~~~~ ~~~ .the~ ~is k.u -ea . Eq_g at~ thi s,
e l§p @s i'on'.'{(;1:,~ st ~pJ_g ie.-:_Q)ftaj_neQ ;l:?)'.•a,R.\"~lmg the line ar ~om e.n!UJil equatJ.on
to the conttolv:oJume; Sho w .tbp .t ha lfthe ve loc -
ity'. i ~ ~.i.a·~ ~: ~~ ti9 f'filio}:!!a_ll:'l:?.~ ~o· the pre pe~ er- dis k. __ _ _
-·~ -·· --·--- .. -..
, - - :.
'
10.6 Propeller s and Wind- Power Machines 475
Given: Propeller adv;mcing into still air at speed V1, as shown in.- Fig. 10.40. y
Find: (a) Expression s for the pressures immediate ly upstream and immediate ly
clownstre am ftqm the actuator disk. Propeller d isk
(b) Expression for the air speed at the actuator disk. Then show that half
the velocity inci:ea;se occurs ahead of the actuator disk and ·haJf occurs
behind thi actuator disk. ·
Solution : Apply the Bernoulli equation and the x componen t of line~ inomen~
turn using the CV shown.
G.overnin g equations :
"'O(S)
vi ✓
f4=.,;-,-+g .· = :constant
p .2 .
=0(5) =0(1)
·.• ; :r·
rj t}2,- ~y
Ft+F. = · :it.xyz:.pd¥+
r = pV- -
. lcs"· -dA
Assumpti ons:
1 St~ady flow relative to the C.V.
2 Incoa:ipr¢ ssible fiow.
-~ . f,'low along ;i strearJiline,
4 \Fiic;ti.o lll~s flow.
5 ::Horizonta l fl_o w: neglect changes in i;FiJs = b.
,6 J;.!qif91Tl1 flow at eac;:li se~tl.on.
7 }]_a.tin .5_urtq1,1nps the CV,
Applying,.the Bernoulli eqliation•fr om secl;ipn CD to section (2) giv~
P~tJJi.+ 1'"":lj + lq-, Pi(g~c) == ½.o(Vr-Vi)

Apply in~ Bernoulli fr9ri1 sectibn· G):to section @) ~ves·
·Th~,J.br-usti;>n the pi.0pell~i:) s _given ,by
Fr=(p;~ p.z)A= ½p,,t(Vf-'Vn (V3 = Vi= V)

prom·the . rrtoiril';!lq.im equatibri,-u sipg r:elative ve1ociti~~,
1{,=Fr = lt1( ~riz) + 11.j( +,n) :;;:pVA(V. i-V1) {tt1 = v,, 114= \14}
F7 =pVA(V~ -V1)·
Eqµa,ting these two eicp_ressions for Fr,
Fr=== ½~A(tiJ,--Vf) =pVA(V4_,.... V1 )
or ½(l/4 + Vi)(Y4-V j) :0V(V4-V t)

Thus, V== 2lcVi + V4); _s:ci
·.
A.l/12= V- V) ::::½cv,
·
_
l
l
• 1
AV
+ V4)-V1 =2(V4~ V1)=T
*V:i4 === V-4= v = v4 - 2<Y1 + V4) = 2 (V<i•- v, . . . . ). 4V Veto·city r ..crease
=. 2 _____._..._.·c..•·_·:~.·_.LU_·~ ·;..,·;.:_
-·- ·
,' --·~~--. . · - ·
·:rn~:pureose-ot thi~ problen:_i is~t ~.appjy' the
_c ontinuity, monientiim ; and~Bemoulli
quations ,to an tdealizedifl
prop.ell
- • •'f·"."":T' ·' •- _ r.-,_ -
~
ow,model of a
~-
•~
er, and to veiify 'the Rankine theory of . • . .r.=,
\ 8.~ _5.JS~ai_half: the velocity_shange occurs on

~it her side"ot th~ PJ.Ppelle~ dis~
••. - ..._ . - - --- · - - · - '1.;.:...•• • ••
-
Th e con tinu ity and mo me ntu m equ atio ns in conrrol vol um e form wer e app lied in Ex
am ple I 0.1 5 to
the pro pel ler flow sho wn in Fig . 10. 40. Th e resu lts obt ain ed are disc uss ed fur the
r bel ow. Th e thr ust
pro duc ed is
Fr= 1i1 b.V (10 .32 )

For inc om pre ssib le flow . in the abs enc e of fric tion and hea t tran sfer, the ene rgy equ
atio n ind ica tes tha t
t11e min imu m req uire d inp ut to the pro pel ler is the pow er req uire d to inc rea se the
kin etic ene rgy of the
flo w, wh ich ma y be exp res sed as
(fJ> 1npu1
. [(V +b .V) 2
=m 2 -
\/2]
2 = Ill. [2V b.Y +(b
2
.Y)
2
] •
=Il lya y
[
l + L\V ]
2V (10 .33 )
Th e use ful pow er pro duc ed is the pro duc t of thru st and spe ed of adv anc e, V, of
the pro pel ler . Us ing
13q. 10. 32, this ma y be wri tten as
(!J>usdul =F r\/ =1i tV6 . V (10 .34 )

Co mb inin $ Eq s. 10.3 4 and 10. 35, and sim plif yin g, giv es the pro pul sive effi cie ncy
as
27' useful
l
11=--=--- (10 .35 )
0'inp u1 I + 6. V
2\/
Equ atio ns 10. 32- 10. 35 are app lica ble to any dev ice tha t cre ates thru st by inc rea sin
g the spe ed of a
flui d stre am . Th us the y app ly equ ally wel l to pro pel ler- driv en or jet- pro pel led airc
raft , boa ts, or shi ps.
Equ a~i on 10. 35 for pro pul siv e effi cien cy is of fun dam ent al importllJ1ce. It ind ica tes
tha t pro pu lsi ve
effi cie ncy can be inc rea sed by red uci ng L\ V or by inc rea sing \I. At con stan t
thr ust , as sho wn by
Eq. 10. 32, 6. V can be red uce d if 1i1 is inc rea sed , i.e. , if mo re fluid is acc eler ated
ove r a sm all er spe ed
inc rea se. Mo re ma ss flow can be han dle d if pro pel ler dii, met er is inc rea sed , but ove
rall siz e and tip spe ed
ulti ma tely lim it thls app roa ch. Th e sam e prin cip le is use d to inc rea se the pro pul siv
e eff ici~ ncy of a tur -
bof an eng ine by usi ng a larg e fan to mo ve add itio nal air flow out side the eng ine
cor e.
Pro pul siv e effi cie ncy also can be inc rea sed by inc rea sing the spe ed of mo tion rela
tive to the flu id.
Spe ed of adv ntJc e ma y be lim ited by cav itat ion in ma rine app lica tion s. FlighL spe
ed is lim ited for pro -
pel ler- dri ven airc raft by com pre ssib ilit y effe cts at the pro pel ler tips , but pro gre ss
is pei ng ma de in the
des ign of pro pel lers to ma inta in hig h effi cie ncy wit h low noi se lev els wh ile ope
rati ng wit h tra nso nic
flo w at the bla de tips . Jet:..pro p¢l led airc raft can fly mu ch fast er tha n pro pel leN lriv
en cra ft, giv ing the m
sup erio r pro pul siv e effi cie ncy .
Th e ana lys is pro vid ed doe s not rev eal the len ith. sca le ove r whi ch the axi al vel oci
ty var ies . Su ch an
ana lys is is pro ,,id ed in [40 J; the axial var iati on in vel oci ty ma y be exp ress ed as
Vc1(x) = V + 6.V (l - r-,-:

vx2 +R
)
.\'-;:;, ,
2
(10 . 36 )
In Eq. 10. 36 Vc1(x) is the cen terl ine vel oci ty at loc atio n x ups trea m of the dis k, wh
ile V is the
ups1;ream vel oci ty. Th ls rela tion shi p is plo tted in Fig. 10. 41. The plo t sho ws tha
t the eff ect s of 1..he
pro pel le_r are onl y felt at dis tan ces wit hlri two rad ii.of the actu ato r disk .
A mo re det aile d bla de ele men t the ory ma y be use d to calc ula te the inte rac tion bet
we en a pro pe lle r ·
bla de and i:11e s ~ and the refo re to.det erm ine the effe cts of bla de aer ody nam ic
dra g on the pro pe lle r
effi cie ncy . If tbe bla de spa cin g .is larg e and tlle dis k loa din g 9 is ligh t, bla des can b~
<;:o.n sid er:e d ind ep en d-
ent , and rela ti.o ns can be <;lerived for the torq ue req uire d and the thru st pro duc ed
by a prn pel ler. Th ese
~pp rox ima te.r ela tion s are mo st acc ura te for low-'so lidi ty pro pel lers . ' 0 Air cra ft pro pel
lers typ ica lly are of
failY:low solidit:y, hav ing lon g, thin bla des .
9 bis~_lq_ aJf,jg i·s th¢ priJpellei' thru sl divided by the swe pt area of the ac_tuator ~li~k.
10.·Salidil)• -is· defi ned iis the ratio of p~jc ctcd bla(J
e are·a ti:nhc swep_Larea of lhe ru:tlinu:ir disk.
10.6 Propellers and Wind-Power Machine-s 477
1.0
0.8
_;:;,
0
0
iii~ 0_5
:,. <I
!ii
C: I
s-
0
iii~
C: ~
cu
0.4
E
,5
0.2
0.0
0 1 2 3 4
Dimensionless distance from propeller, x/R
Fig. 1 0.41 Plot of veioclty versus distance for no_w of air near a propeller.
A _schematic diagram of an element of a rotating propeller blade is shown in Fig. I 0.42. The blade is
set at angle 8 to the plane of the propeller disk and has a thlckness (into the plane of the page) of dr. Flow
is shown as it would be seen by an observer on the propeller blade. Lift and drag forc,:es are exerted on the
blade perpendicular and parallel to the relative velocity vector Vr. respectively. We call the angle that Vr
makes with the plane of the propelJer disk the effective pitch angle, tp, and therefore the lift and d,rag
forces are inclined at an angle to the propeller rotation axis and the plane of the propeller disk.
Tespectively.
The relative speed of flow, Vr, passing over the blade element depends on both the blade peripheral
speed, rr:u, and the speed of advance, V. Consequently, for a given blade setting, the angle of anaclc, a,
depends on both V and tw. Thus, the performance of a propeller- is influenced by both w artd V.
If we take a free-body diagram of the airfoil element of width dr in Fig. 10.42, we find that the
magnitude of the resultant force dFr parallel to the velocity vector V:
dFr = dL cos r/1-dD sin r/J = q,cdr( CL cos </X- Co sin </J) (10.37a)
In this equation qr is the dynamic pressure based on the relative velocity Vr,
1 ~
q;-=2.pV;
c is t11e lo~al chord length, and CL and Co are lift and di;ag coefficients, respectively, for the airfoil. In
general, due to twist and taper in the propeller blades, and the radial variation of the blade peripheral
speed, CL, Co, Vr,c,</1, and qr will all be funct,ions of the radial coordinate r. We can also generate an
expression for the torque that must be applied to the propeller.
dT = r(dL sin </1 + db cos tp) = CJrrcdr( CL sin tf, +Cocos rp) (10.37b)
Lift
Fig. 10.42 Diagram of blade 11lem_e nt and_relative

flow velocity vectQr. ··
4 78 Chapt er 10 Fluid Machi nery
These two express ions may be integrat ed to find the total propuls ive thrust and torque, assum ing N inde-
penden t blades mounte d on the rotor:
r=R dF N1R (CLcos</1-Cosin</J)

Fr= Nl r=q . , cdr (10.38 a)
r=R1w1, R""" Sm- </J
T=N1 r=R dT=qN
r=R1n1b
r
(CLsin</~-2Cocos</J)cdr
}Rhub Slfl r/) (10.38 b)
In these equatio ns, qr is replace d by q/sin 2 </> based on the relation ship betwee n V and Yr. We will use the
equatio ns above to analyze the startup charact eristics of a propell er in Examp le I 0.16.
Exam ple 10.1 6 PROP ELLER START UP THRU ST AND TORQ UE

Use blade elemen t theory to estimat e the start-up thrust ~d torque for a propell er consist ing of N indepe ndent blades with con-
stant chord length, c, anci at a constan t angle, 0, with respect to the actuato r disk plane.
Given:
Propel ler with N indepe ndent blades
Chord length c is const.a nt
.Apgle with respec; t to actuato r disk 0 is constan t
Find: .Expres sions for: startup Qlrust and torque
soluti on: Apply the equatio ns present ed above to the propell er:
Govern ing equati ons:
dFr =dLco s </J - dD.sin q, =qrcdr (CL ccis <J,-C0 sin <J,) (10.37 a)
dT = r(dL sin <P + dD cos </J) = qrrcdr( CL sin <p +Cocos</~) (10.37 b)
N1R (GLcos</J-:--CQsin</,) .d
_
F r-q . , er (10.38 a)
""""" sm-,p
T=qN r
J«•..,
(CLsin</J_+;CQcos</J)rcdr
Sm q, (10.38 b)
Assum ptions:
L~ai wlnd velocit y V is n~~li.gible.
An~larv_elc;>c;ity ·{I) is constan L
!fat start.:,up,we negl~c t th~ local wind velocit y V, we fincj that µie integral s in Eqs. 10.38 wjll l:le indetep nintite since q = o and
</i~:q. ·Tb~ref ore, we wi.ll use the. differe ntial thrust and torqµe express ions given in Eqs. 10.37 and integra te them. At start-u p,
tpe ~l11-6ve velocil )' Vr is s~ply equal to the local blade elemen t velocity rw. Therefo re, the relative dynam ic pn;:ssu re q -,. is
e:qµ~td,
1 ., .,
qr=zp rw-
When. </J.•= 0; tile _difforeJ:1tial thrust and torque express ions become
l l ,
dFr = prw-c dt( CL cos 0 -CQ si.n
2., .
O
)
= par cCi,d
2 ·
r
2 2
1 z · · · ·. · 1
dT=
1
prw 2
rcdr(C LsmQ+ CDcos 0) = p{J) cCQrd r
2
2 .3
10.6 Propellers and Wind-Power Machines 479·
Wecan>theniintegqit~ th~thrustruiq fotgue6"'.¢r·th~ enti~ ac)u~t!:5.iHM$k}-

! ~.i}tpri:>bleaj_~J:OC!9Strates the an~l¥5is of a
-p~opeller using blade ·element theory,\ \Mlile
-·_
·
·.
e ,,, :
~ NJ
,'.'
·
. dFt ==.•;!pw~ccL_ JR:?.d~ = lpw~cCi,X L(R ,-,•Rl i;),
· 2. - . ' · · . '2 ·. . . . 3 . .
3
u
•tl"i~"'ex~iessii:>ris here
it
0
seem relatively simple,
is,importanFto note'.that'the lift" and 'drag
c~ffit ienis;c,t ~ntfci fart? •fonftfiii,"s'of the
~irl'oil u;e~;
s;~tion b.eltig ·-·- --~- -as-weffas'.the local
T"-Nf4t~¾J,•M);,i~,,,, if_,;2i!CkXJW:,#,,J
,-~ ½!.ii- - -·-:--- :.'T - '
an~!e -c:,f~~!.~~~. a~:--,t_Eith'fE.r.t~~) s ~qual to
the blade in'clinatlon angle o. ln' addition, it
shc5uli:f'also be notecl th~t'when airr6i(lift a nd
"Rli!>~ -.clrag co~ffiderrts _re·presented/ such'"?-as in
·% .e h we :i;qll~c;t t_e,nns and ,SiliipJi.ff we J~edbe ·fo1iowirt.~t:expressi<'.!fis: FigF:9.17 or~9,19:'.!_Hey) are _.lypically giveri·at
,highi Reynoli:rsinumbe!'.S;·wtiere,ttie:flow.is.
'Ff.;..,..ii;::'p~i~L'(R3·...;~~j,D).,, . , Jt:_t~ tf~ify]tti"rbuie'ht.-arid .th~•liff'arid'drag'are .,
. ~ '...:.. i~s~~ri:t~·io,~ni;Jg~n~ptilif!!care hiiects. to
-.----::;. ::-:-·r•~~c'"',--: · ~,- -.,_ - ~ ·_- . .,-
· _. . ~ - ' e . •.. · iir~
,b_~~'5.~r:i. Jo;,,m ~ke;~u~e :thaJ__t~~! !ft ancl~ ~~ g ?
W~liiftup = -l?~~t9b (fe4~1fil. ~)._ ·'2"i~up·: _co~ ~~!1,~,PJ':e._~~~~ppr~priate tW:..tti~ ~/-.:. ~:
~ Y.,a1';1l<!~,number;at sta,cr.u,J>- :· , :::,::bl!
While these expressions may be relatively simple to derive, they are diffi<;:ult to evaluate. Even if the
geometry of the propeller is adjusted to give constant geomettic pitch, 11 the flow field in which it oper-
ates may n<~t be uniform. Thus, the angle of auack across the blade elements may vary from the ideal, i;ind
it can be calculated only with the aid of a.cqmprehensive c:orripute_r code that c,m predict local flow direc~
lions and speeds. As a result, Eqs. I 0.38 are not normally 1,1sed, and propeller performance characteristics
usually are mea,sured experimentally. ·
Figure 10.43 shows typical characteristics for a marine propeller [6) and for an aircraft propeller
[41]. The variables used to plot the characteristics are almost dimersionless: by convention, roqi,tional
,speed., n, is expressed in revolutions per second (ratl1el' tha,n.as w, in rad1aqs p~rs~cond). The ilidepeqd~-
ent variable is.the speed ofadvance fOefficient, J,
.,-
Depenclertt variables are tl1e,rhrustcoe.fficielit, CF, the tqrque coefficient,. Cr, the power coefficient-,
Cp, and the propeller efficiency, 11; defined as ·
·:-, ...-o
r1"i"o
y ;.. -·~//,
·;i
':rll,~ peiiformaricf~.qij'fyesfi:lr both prgptllers show similar trends. Botti thrust and torqµe coefficients
are h_igli_¢~t, and efficie~cy is z¢ro, at zero,.speecl_of advance. Tliis c!)rtesponds to the Iatgest angle of
attackJ 9t ~Mb J;,iaoe elerpent (a= amax =0).. Efficiency is zero because no useful work is bej.ng_ done
by the.stitionary propeller. As ad~ance speed increases, thrust and torque decrease smqothly. Effic:iency,
incte~es to a mrudnmni_at anopttmum advarn::e speed and then decreases co zero as thrµsttends to zero.
(Fot exm:nple; ifthe -bhide_element section is sym01e_tt:ic: this ,vould tbeoreti,c;ally occut when a ==0; or
wben ta:n:0 =;; V/@r.)"Example 10.17 shows•the application of these relations to the design.. of a, mari.Ii¢
propeller.
1-1 Ptr<li is ile[lned us 11\"e'disinncc a p~pclier- woul.d lr:ivel i~ still flu!d per revolu~cm int advanced nlong the blade !;eitirig angle 8_
Tit', ·. ch .#; •oflhis•bl!ide ·cl~ment !S cqunl to,2Jrr tan 0. '.I'o ol:itnm constanr pitch nlon~ the bladC.: 8 must f9ilow.'the- ~latio·
tcmc/:.,,\1i2itr. from hub:t<HiP• Thus the gcoaieuic,blape angle is smnllest_DtJhc. tip and increasc.s steadily. tow11nftlle:ruoL . n.
£xa mp le 1 0 .17 SIZ ING A MA RIN E PROPELLER
Con side r the supe rtan ker ·9f Exam ple 9.5. Assu me the tolhl pow er requ ired to over com e visco us resis tanc e and
wav e dra g is
1J :4 MW . Use the perf orm ance char acte risti cs of the mari ne prop eller show n in Fig. 10.4 3a to estim
ate the diru nete r and
oper atin g sp~e d requ ired to ptop ~l the supe rtank er usin g a sing le prop eller.
Give n: Sup erta nker of Exa mpl e 9.5, with total prop ulsio n pow er requ irem ent of 11.4 MW to over com e visc ous and
wav e dra g,
and p~rf o,rm ance data for the marl.Tie prop eller show n in Fig. 10.4 3a.
find : (a) .Att ~tim ate of the diam eter of !l sing le prop eller requ ired to pow er the ship .
(b) Toe pp·e rotin g spee d of this prbp eller .
Splµt;ic:,n: From the curv es iii fig . 10.4 3a, at optim um prop eller effic iency , the coefficients are
1=0 .85, CF= 0.10 , Cr= 0.02 0, _a nd 11=0.66
·The ship ·stea ms at V = 6.69 m/s and requ ires W'useful = 11.4 MW . Ther efore , the prop eller thnis t mus t be
<21' useful . 6 S N · m
Ft =- v - = I I.4x 10 W x - - x-.-. - = l.70 MN
6.69 m W •s
Th~ requ ired pow er inpu t to the prop eller is
<!I' ri1 11.4 MW
<!/'input = u,7 u == _
0 66
= 17.3 MW
V
11D = Q.85, then
From J ·= -
·- ·· · ·
V m l
11D = J == 6.69 8 X _ = 7 .87 m/s
0 85
Sinc e
sohi ing for D give s
D
=[- Fr
p(tzD )2Cp
]-112 == [1.1 ox1 06N x ml
1025 kg
x s_2 - x -.-1- xkg -m]1/2
(7 .87)2 m2 0. LO N·s
2
I).= 16.4 m.-
· - - -- -- --- -- -- - - -- - -- -- - ---=-
D
V nD m_ I
From n_D =--'- ~7.8 7 m/s , n= - = 7 . ' i F -
. ) ( - .:::;:0:480 rev/ s
· J /) S 1 64
• . 111
s_q ¢.at
11
·71'= OASOrev ?.<60 ~- _=28 .8re v/m in ...
- - ~ ~ - - - -- --
. S IlllD
W.e:~q~®ci p!'.Qp.e ller is.quit e !arg e, bµt ~till smal ler than the 25 rt! draft of
'$~:'.:sy_pe_~ eir. The ship wog .ld -nee d tp ~e-on seaw ater. for balla st to keep
:tl1e;:ptQj:,~Qer sub.m erge cl whe n not carr ying a full ciu:$Q Qf petro leum.
In orde r to impr ove perfo rman ce, som e prop eller s are designed with varia ble pitc h. The perf or-
{IUl.IlCe of a varia ble-p itch prop eller is show n in Fig. 10.4 4. Th.is figure show s effic ienc y curv es (sol id
curv es) for a prop eller set to diffe rent pitch angl es. As we saw in Fig. 10.4 3, the prop elle r exh ibit s a:
max imum ,1 at a certa in valu e of J. How ever , the valu e of J needed for max imum '1 vari es with 0. If
we trace out ;:ill of the max ima, the resu lt is the dash ed curv e ill fig. 10.44 . The refo re, if we allo w
fb~ the vari~ tion of 0, we may achi iwe impr oved efficiency over a wide r rang e of J than with a
fixed -pitc h prop eller . Such a desig n, how ever , com es at the cost of the addi tiona l com plex ily in actu ator s
10. 6 Pro pel lers and Win d-P ow er Mac hin es 481
0.08 ,_
t.J
C:
0 .06 ·l:l
=
.;;
~ 0 .4 8
0 .04 .,
_g ::,
CT
0
$u 02
, 0 .02
1-
.,.
2
·=
t-
Spee d of ad_liance c'tleffii::ient, J

(al Man ne.propeller, data· from Reie renc e (61
1 . 0 - - - - ~ ~ - - ~ - - - - - - - ' - - 0.20 ,J-
,, -i
.,
0.8 ~------l 0 .16 ~
"'u
0
': 0 .6 0 . 12}
i'i'
c;
a, -0
·.:; C:
~ 0.4 ~ .08 J
C:.,
0 .04 ~
2l
u
,..,::,
0 .2 0.4 0 ,6 ·o.8 .E
,-
Spee.d of adva nce coefficient, J
(bl Airc raft P.ropeller, data from ·Reference [41] Fig. 10.4 3 Typi gil cl,la racte ristic s of two· prop eller s.
Locus cit _M;ix imum -~ffic ienc ies
Fig. 10. 44 Prop eller effic ienc y. f9r a vari able -pitc h
propellerca.t.v ariou s over.ill incic:lences Iden tifie d by oat
.~pe ed,o f adva nce ratio, J a. fixed f'l!~ial dista nce.
and con trol syst ems:necr,ied to-im plem ent the variable pitc h, so the: sele ctjo n of this,des ign dep end
s on
the rela tive cos ts· and bene.fits for the intenµed ~pplication.
Ma rine pmp elle rs tend to hl,lve high solidio/· Thi s pac ks a l9t of lifti ng,s1.1.TTiJ.i::e with in~tij~ swe pt area
of the disk to kee_p the 1?.ressute diff~rence sma ll across ~~e-prope_ll~r: and to avo,li:l cavita~oi;i:. Cav itat
ion
ten ds to urtl o!id ttie blades ofn -mani;ie prop~lle(; redu cing both•the t()rque requ ire~ anc tthe thru st
pro -
duc ed [6]. cavH"'H(:)1'ibe¢9mes more preyaleCl.t ;ilong the bJades as the ~.a vita rian· ri90,1P~G
·. ' . ·p:,- p;,

·Ca.= -1 - - -.
:rP'IP-
48 2 Ch ap ter ·10 Flu id Ma ch ine ry
is red uce d. Ins pec tio n ofE q. 10.41 sho ws tha t Ca decreases wh enp is red uce
d by op era tin g ne ar the fre e
sur fac e or by inc rea sin g V. Th ose wh o hav e ope rat ed motor boa ts als o are
aw are tha t loc al ca vit ati on ca n
be cau sed by dis tor ted flo w app roa chi ng the pro pel ler , e.g., from tur nin g
sha rpl y.
Co mp res sib iJit y aff ect s air cra ft pro pel ler s wh en tip spe eds app roa ch the
cri tic al Ma ch nu mb er . at
wh ich the loc al Ma ch nu mb er app roa che s M = 1 at som e poi nt on the bla
de. Un der the se co nd iti on s.
LOrque inc rea ses bec aus e of inc rea sed dra g. thr ust dro ps bec aus e of red uce
d sec tio n lift. an d eff ici en cy
dro ps dra stic all y.
If a pro pel ler ope rat es wit hin the bou nda ry lay er of a pro pel led bod y,
wh ere the rel ati ve flo w is
slo we d, its app are nt thr ust and tor que ma y inc rea se com par ed wit h tho
se in a un ifo rm fre est rea m at
the sam e rat e of adv anc e. Th e res idu al kin eti c ene rgy in the slip stre am als
o ma y be red uc ed . Th e co m-
bin ati on of the se eff ect s ma y inc rea se the ove ral l pro pul siv e eff icie ncy of
the com bin ed bo dy an d pr o-
pel ler . Ad van ced com pu ter cod es are use d in the des ign of mo dem shi ps
(an d sub ma rin es. wh ere no ise
ma y be an ov err idi ng con sid era tio n) to opt im ize per for ma nce of eac h pro
pel ler /hu ll co mb ina tio n.
Fo r cer tai n spe cia l application1;,, a pro pel ler may be pla ced within a shr ou
d or du ct. Su ch co nf ig-
ura tio ns ma y be in_tegr ate d int o a hul l (e. g., as a bow thr ust er to increase
ma neu ver abi lity ). bu ilt int o
the wi ng of an air cra fl, or pla ced on the dec k of a hovercrafL Th rus t ma y
be im pro ved by the fav or ab le
pr~ sur e for ces on the du ct lip , bu t eff ici enc y ma y be red uce d by the add
ed ski n-f ric tio n los ses en co un -
ter ed in the duc t.
W in d- Po we r Ma ch in es
Wi nd mi lls (or mo re pro per ly, win d tur bin es) hav e bee n use d for centuries
to har nes s the po we r of na tur al
wi nd s. Tw o we ll-k now n cla ssi cal exa mp les are sho wn in Fig . 10.45.
Du tch wi nd mi lls (Fi g. 10. 45a ) tur ned slo wly so tha t the pow er cou ld be
use d to rum sto ne wh ee ls
for mi llin g gra in; hen ce the nam e "w ind mi ll." Th ey evo lve d into large stru
ctu res ; t)le pra cti cal ma xim um
siz e wa s lim ite d by the ma ter ial s of the day . Ca lve rt [43 ] rep ort s that, bas ed
on his lab ora tor y-s cal e tes ts,
a tra dit ion al Du tch win dm ill of 26 m dia me ter pro duc ed 41 kW in a win
d of 36 km /hr at an an gu lar
spe ed of 20 rpm . Am eri can mu lti- bla de win dm ills (Fi g. 10.45b) we re fou
nd on -m any Am eri ca n far ms
bet we en abo ut 18 50 and 195 0. Th ey per for me d val uab le ser vic e in po\ver
ing wa ter pu mp s be for e ru ral
ele ctr ific ati on.
Th e rec ent em ph asi s on ren ew abl e res our ces has rev ive d int ere st
in wi nd mi ll de sig n an d
op tim iza tio n. In 20 08 , the Un ite d Sta tes had ov er 25, 000 MW of win
d-b ase d ele ctr ic ge ne rat ion
cap aci ty, wh ich gen era ted 52 mi llio n MW h of ele ctr icit y, rep res ent ing
1.2 6 per cen t of the tot al ele c-
tric ene rgy con sum pti on for tha t yea r [44 ]. In add itio n. in 200 8 the Un
ite d Sta tes ov ert oo k Ge rm an y
to be co me the lar ges t gen era tor of win d-b ase d ele ctr ica l pow er in the
wo rld . Wi nd po we r ac co un ts
for 42 per cen t of all new gen era tin g cap;i.city, up fro m onl y 2 per cen
t ill 20 04 . Am eri ca 's wi nd
be lt, wh ich stre tc;h es acr oss the Gr eat Pla ins fro m Te xas to the Da kot as,
has bc;~n du bb ed the "S au di
Ar ab ia of wine;!" [45 ).
0
]
i
~g:
0
.z:.
Q.
0
(a) Tra d1t iona_
l Dut ch M_ill (bl American farm win dm ill
Fig•.,tQ :45 pcamp!~!- .of wel l-kn ow n windmills (4-21.
10.6 Propellers and Wind-Power Machines 483
Vertlcal axis
dra2 type
(wind left-right)
Savon,us
I
Split Savon1us
+
Cup anemometer
I
0 w8
Vertical axis
lilt lypa
(wind left-riglit)
I
Darrleus Glromill Helical
Horizonlal•a.xis
lilt type
~ U.S. farm multibladed
lwind into page)
Propeller
Fig. 10. 46 Wind turbine configurations differentiated by axis orientation (horizontal versus vertical) and by nature of force
exerted-ori _the active eiement.(iift versus drag).
(a) Horizonl_al axls.wind t11rbi_ne

0
(6) \lert11;al-i!x1s wind turbine
_
F ig. 1. 0.4-7 Examples ofmo.d ern wlrid turbin!! <lesigns.
Schematics of Wifld rurbine configurations are shown in Fig. ·10.46. In.gene,:al, wind turbines .are
ciassified in two ways. The fln!t classification is the orientation of the turbine axis. Horizontal-ax.is wind
cU:rbine (HAWT) and vertical-rucis wind rurbine .(:/_ A WT) configurations have been st'udied extensively_
Mi'.)st HAWT designs feature l'wo- or three-bladed propellers tunting at high speed. mounted on a tower
aloo·g w°ith its electric generator. ~he large modem I:A
WT, ~hown in Fig. 10.47a, is capable of produ-
cing power in any wind above~ li~ht ~reez~- The wmd turbm~ s~own ~ Fig. 10.47b is a, VAWT. 'this
device uses a modem syinmetac airfoil section for the rotor. Earli_er designs of the VAWT, such as the
Darriet,~ troposkie~1 shape, 12 suffered from high bending stresses and pulsatory torques. More re.cent
designs, such as the one shown in this figure, feature helical airfoils, which distribute the lorques more
eve~y about the central ~is. '!AWTs fea~re a _g roun_d-mounted electric generator.
The second classification 1s now the wind energy 1s. harnessed. The first.-group of turbines collects
wind en¢rgy tnrough drag forces; these wind turbines are typically of the vertiq.l. axis configuration only.
12TI,is shape (which would be nssumed by n Oeit1ble co~ whirl_ed about a vc_n icnl a.'tis) minimizes bending stresses in the l)nmeus
turbine rotor,
48 4 Ch ap ter 10 Flu id Ma chi ner y
Th e sec ond gro up coll eclS ene rgy thro ugh lift forces. Lif t-ba sed win d turb ine s
em plo y hor izo nta l- or
ven ica l-a. xis con figu rati ons . It is imp ona nt to not e that mo st of the se des ign s
are sel f-s tar tin g, Th e
lift -typ e VAWT is not cap abl e of star ring fro m rest; it can pro duc e usa ble pow er
onl y abo ve a cer tai n
min imu m ang ula r spe ed. It is typ ical ly com bin ed wit h a self -sta rtin g turb ine , suc h
as.a Sav oni us rot or. to
pro vid e star ting torq ue [40 , 46] .
A hor izo nta l-ax is win d turb ine ma y be ana lyz ed as a pro pel ler ope rate d in rev ers
e. Th e Ra nk ine
mo del of one-dim ens ion al flow inc orp ora ting an idea lize d actu ato r dis k is sho
wn in Fig . t0. 48 . Th e
sim plif ied not atio n of the figu re is freq uen tly use d for ana lysi s of win d turb ine s.
Th e win d spe ed far ups trea m is V. Th e stre am is dec eler ated to V( l-a ) at the tur
bin e dis k an d to
V( l-2 a) in the wa ke of the turb ine (a is cal led the inre rfer enc efa cto r). Th us
the str eam tub e of air
cap tur ed by the win d turb ine is sma ll ups trea m and its dia me ter inc rea ses as it
mo ves dow nst rea n-1 .
Str aig htfo rwa rd app lica tion of line ar mo me ntu m to a CV , as sho wn in Exa mp le 10.
18, pre dic ts the
axi al thr ust on a mrb ine of rad ius R to be
Fr= 2;r R2 pV2 a(l -a) ( 10 .42 )
Ap plic atio n of the ene rgy equ atio n, ass um ing no loss es (no cha nge in inte rna l ene
rgy or hea t tra nsf er) .
giv es the pow er tak en fro m the flui d stre am as
'21' =2; rR2pV3 a(l -a) 2 (10 .43 )

Th e effi cie ncy of a win d turb ine is mo st con ven ien tly def ine d wit h refe ren ce to
the kin eti c en erg y
flux con tain ed wit hin a stre am tub e the size of the actu ato r disk . Thi s kin etic ene
r~y flu x is
I
KE F= p\l3 ,rR?- (10 .44 )
1
Co mb inin g Eqs . 10.43 and 10. 44 giv es the effi cien cy (or alte rna tive ly, the pr;n
ver c;p e}fi cie m [47 ]) as
'1}1, ?
11=KEF':==4a(l~a:t (10 .45 )
.Be tz [se e 47) wa s the firs t to der ive this res ult and co sho w tha t the the ore tica l eff
ici¢ ncy is ma xim ize d
wh en a= 1/3 . Th e max frnu n1 the ore ti.c al effi cien cy is 11 0.5 93. =
If.t he win d tur bin e is ligh tly loa ded (a is S!Ilall), it wil l affe ct a larg e n1ass.o f air per
uni t tim e, bu t the
ene rgy ext rac ted per tini l ma ss w11J be sma ll and the effi cien cy low . Mo st Qf the
19.netic ene rgy in the
init ial air stre am wi.U tie lefl in the wa ke and was ted . If ll\e win d turb ine is hea vily loa
deq (a~ l /2) , it wi ll
aff ect a mu ch sm alle r n'ili$S of air per uni t tim e. The ene rgy rem ove d per uni t ma ss
w~U be lar ge. bu t the
pow er pro duc ed wil i b~ srQiill com par ed wit h the kin etic ene rgy fh.1x thro ugh. the
und istu rbe d are a of the
act uat or dis k. Th us a pea k effi cien cy .occ urs at inte rme dia te disk loa din gs.
To e Ran kin e mo del inc lud es sof ne imj :>o rtan tass um ptio ns tl1at lim it its app lica bili
ty [47 ]. Fir st, the
win d tur bin e is ass um ed to affe ct onl y the air con tain ed wit hin the stre am tub e
def ine d in Fig . 10 .48 .
Sec ond , the kin etic ene rgy pro duc ed as swi rl beh ind the turb ine is not acc oun ted
for, Th ird , any rad ial
pre ssu re gra die m is ign ore d. Gla uer t (se e 41] par tial ly acc oun ted for the wak
e sw irl to pre dic t the
dep end enc e of ide al effi cie ncy on tip- spe ed rati o, X,
X= Rq ;
. . y (10 .46 )
as sho wn in Fig . l 0.49 (w is the ang ula r vel oci ty of the turb ine) .
Control volu me- ---:: :-:.- ___ __ -,-·,
:~----------m--;~~-, ( \
~
\
.1
I
Jo V . - I I V (1-2 <1)
-.J.------- .· I
\ I
I
Tur bin ed1 sk- 7 --- --- --- --- -~ ~/
Fi~ - 1 0.4 8 c:.q ntro l v<>lume c1ni:I simplified nota tion us~!i to analyze wind turblri~ perf orm
ance .
10.6 Propellers and Wind-Power Machines 485
0 .6
-------- -Hiih~;peed -
"'"" 0 .5 ,.. ,.. - Ideal efficiency twO:. or three-
€, '3,:"' , ...... - 0 1 propeller-type bladed turbine
Q.
04 ,'/ turb~
Uc.
""'"'
II
, 4ern ----- . .,
0.3
C:
v"'
le 0.2
"'
0
0
li;
~
a:_
0 ,1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Fig. 10.49 Efficiency trends of wind turbine types

Turbine tip-sp~ed .rat1.o, X = RtvlV versus tip-speed ratio, based on Refere·nce f43].
As the tip~speed ratio increases, ideal efficiency inc_reases, approaching the peak value (T/ = 0.593)
asymptotically. (Physically, the swirl left in the ,vake is reduced as the tip-speed ratio increases.) Av!].].~
lone et al. [46] presents a summary of the detailed blade0 element theory used to develop the limiting
efficiency curve shown in Fig. 10.49.
Each type of wind turbine has its most favorable .range of application. The traditional Arn¢rican
multibladed windmill has a large number of blades and operates at relatively slow speed. Its solidity;
:u (the ratio of blade area to the swept area of the turbine dislc, rrR2 ), is high. Because of its relatively
sJqw operating speed, its tip-speed ratio ~d thepretjcal performance limit ate low. Its relatively poor
performance. compared with its theoretical limit, is largely caused by use of crud.e blades, which are
simply bent sheet metal surfaces ra1-her ih~n aii:foil .shapes.
It is necessary to increase the tip-speed ratio co.nsiderably to reach a more favorable operating range_
Modem high-speed wind-turpiqe designs use carefuUy shaped airfoils. and operate:: at tip~speed ratios. Up
to 7 [48).
'·lfxampJ~ i iQ.!f$: PE'.8f°c;>l{~N.~.E ~fAfki,E>:~~rz.~p;:W1 ~~1Y1W4
!f1PE=!;E:~i~~~~ir::;rt~~,:=~~-=;,:&",~~~~~;,;r::;:
~iv.e.ij: ldealiz~~·v.,Wd.fn.W, !IS shown in fi~: :_iOA:$~an1:kDµ@:f \Vm.dmill .~~t~fdl5y::Cai.v~~
. :-.:::;::2.-6...:nf
.D N ='2. 0...•.ror.
.... .··n.··.in... v..·_•='3.·.6·.-.,;;....c
__·.·•.t
·..""
r.:1.1.l ..·..-..
ll1. "~"'.t111q;!iJ-== 41·
,,,;, .:_~ ·w
.· •' .·.
.
k
. . .
:;so.lutiQjl;,. J\ppL:y ilie·ic<i.nfil!µi_ty,.:m.QnJentu..nt.(~ ¢4'>¢ppnent); ti:ng\~!'.!ergy eqµ9tj;9~,,J1si.ag;tb~;¢Y, @<icao~ates sho,~n.
CV
Windmill disk. ~-\--
Streamline
Govern;ng equatfons: =0(3)
; fcvpd¥+ fcspV · dA = 0
=0(2) = 0(3)
+¥-= t,}c/pd¥+fcs upV -dA

Fs,
=0(7) =0(3)
/-w,= t,kvepd¥+ ks (e+~)pV-dA

A$sµmptfons:
I Atmospheric pressure acts on CV; Fs, = R.,.
2 Fsz=O.
3 Steady flow.
5 Incomprel;sible flow of standnrd itir.
6 Vi -V2 = V2-V3 = ½(Vi -V3). as shown QY Rankine.
7 Q=-0.
8 NP c;:bange in internal energy for frictionless incompressil;,le flow.
To, temts of th~ :ipterference factor. a. Vi =V, V2 = (1 ~a)V, an~ = (l-2a)V. V3
From ccin"tini.J.ity. for uniform flow at each cross section, ViA 1 =V2 A2 = V3 A3 •
From momentum.
~'.r ,is ·th~ external force acting on the cqnt:rol volume. The thrust fcirce exened by the CV on the surround.in_&s is
Kx .= -R.,= (Vi,.. Y3)f)V2A2
fa terms. of·th~ ~tej!'f~n~e factor, .the equation for llinist may be written iii the general form.
. . -v21Ep,
Kx=P ·L-4. (1·-a). + - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - . : :
i>Z? K.·•
. (Set dK-,J4ti.. :eqllal to zero to show that Iii~_µm thrust occurs when a .=½-)
The enetgy eqyaJion ~omes ·
· . . Vf . . . . Vj" .. · ..
~ Ws=-y(-pYiAi)+ -( +pV3A3)=pV2.nR
21 2 ,,
W:r-V )
2 2 1
Jli~:ig_¢§.li_
·~· . .
.Q1.i~p,ut
'. ..,
pow.et,
.
<!P; Ws- In terms of tlie I-!lt~rf¢i:enG~ factor,
i& _eqµal tQ
. . . .
~.:...Ws=PY(l---a:)n ffe
[V2 ..,,.
v 2
. _ _;_]· .3 .
(1~2a) · =.pV (l-a)
:n:R.2. .,
[1-(l-2a)~]
2 2 2
-.1\fter ~_p~g ;ajg¢b$i¢illly.
~idcul = 2p.Vj:n:R2a.(.I -a)2·..........~ - - ~ - - - - - - - --'!}:...·l..:.dc=al
-~~'.}gp,¢.ti.c,.~ nertw flux thjp_u gh a stream tube of undisturbed .flqw, equal in area to the· a¢Juator disk, is
KEF=pV-:n:R 2
i =½pV~:n:.IP
to.6 Propellers and Wind-Power Machii'res 487'
~i:i~:i~~"'.:7:::.::::;::::: eqSal tri'#O- Th~-- n \ offiefenfy.M ia0.593, which
m$~~r£~;;;k;;i;;;:;:;t;; ,<,~ ••~t t®·~W(~..
•· 1/ac,u:il:::::;~ ;!:~
,o-~p:d be ,so,, o.s,.
~a;~fg\§t:i: Q!)Jy¢,ci:-?s,;test"ti11J!!t@~-k½t~tic ·en:et~¥/:flux::i/ ~-
~~tlffi~•IR@,WS@aI~•iJE!it~!;t;tW'~x,ffi~~
3f~;;~;;~I;!}!;::~;~:.;~!;:~;::~:: ~T, =·pyi~t?ei~a~it=Cl~_ ·
~01 -ia?it_ *:l±o~ ~:~~; xr(:f3~~m?--x zfk\.f 1:-ea;t1 ,x.::-·
'i,(,,t
:.:~J~..:.tt":;•~ •:~~JJ.:;;:Eu..~i ~ :l :-,:_ .:;~ ;,;;--iif\ftJ.~& ✓ /2;,) _,' •'
i jj ..
-:f"
..N~-=--t~1,~,~Q}~--~:~-a~.~--~:-.-~:-~·f_~---~- - .>: ·
-~1~~•~+!Sii~J!!. l ~~~~-mu#rat;f~PP,~t!_oi\~t;fi,ft: _:_-

concepts of. rdeahthrust; power; and ·effi-·
cfeacy for a·windriifii; and ~lculatioi; ~f these ,
~~ titf~Jor.an' actu~lima'chiiie. ·:_:'-:-~ : ·
-~~~f ~~~.........-.r..i~-::.~ ~ : . L ..,.-4A _.,.. _ _{ •
-
~
. . . . .
The analysis of aVAWTj sslightly differentfrcim thiitof<1HAWT. The main reason for thisd,ifference
'can, beseenin Fig, l0.50.In this figure, a cross se.cti.o n of oneaij'foilin.a:OariieLLsrurbine is:shovm. rptating
~bput the turbine axis. Assuming that the wfrrcl e01anates from a constant direction, the airfoil aQgle of
e.
anack a will be a function of the azimuthal angle The_angle of acriick is due to the relation between
che effective velocity vector and the rota_tipnal dfrec~i9n., As fl varies, a will vazy as well llilt:ilit reath~,a
ma.xiffi.um value whe11 0 is equal to 90°. In that configuration,_the angle of attack is ex.p~sed by: ·
.· . -IV
a,..,;=ron
. -
-R-
-(() (JQA7~)
Eqiiatiqn Ht41a states that the maximum?ngle of attack is related to ilie w.igd yeJodty, the aJ1gµiar
velocity of th.e rQ~OI\ and the local rotor radius. In teans of the tip speed ratio x fi:om Eq. lQA-_6 ;
'q:g, i0A7a may then be rewritten as: .
a-
.,,,, =tan-•l
-· ·· · X·· (ldA7b)
Smce'.the .111axi.mliJJi:~gie of littac!( must?e-i¢§$}h@,that for stall (10° ~ 15° for,most typiqu airfow,), it
fcilltiw~:tliat:Xshotild be a I.irge n'uJJiber (at I~ast on the order of 6). The lift and drag fore~ (t a,nq D,
488 Cha pter 1·0 Flui d Mac hine ry
0-,z
Rcu = XV
Fig. 10.5 0 Veloc ities aroun d a Darri eus rotor blade elem ent at a.gen eral azimu thal angle o, as well as at o == r./2, whe
re the
airfoi l angle of attac k is maxi mize d.
resp ectiv ely) actin g on the airfo il can be seen in Fig. 10.50 . Thes e aerodynamic force s gene rate a torq ue
on the roto r. The torq ue on the roto r at a give n valu e of a is:
T= wR( L sin a-D cos a) (10 .48)
Now if the airfo il secti on bein g emp loye d is symm etric (zero camber), lhen the lift coef ficie nt is line arly
prop ortio nal lo the angl e of attac k [49]:
(10 .49)
In J;:q. 10.4 9. m is the slop e of the lift curv e, and is specific to the airfoil being used . In addi tion . the dra g
coef ficie nt may be !J.pproximated by:
ci
Co= Co.o + , r ~ (9.4 3)
In this expr essio n. <;:0 _0 is the drag coef ficie nt at zero angle of attack, and AR is the aspe ct rntio of the
airfo il. Now sinc e the air velo city relat ive to the rotor is a function of a, which depe nds on 0, it foll ows
that the liJt :;i.nd drag forc es are func tions of 0 as well. 1l1erefore, any quantification of roto r perf omm nce
need s to be aver aged over the entir e rang e of 0. Oech er [40] derived an expr essio n for the effi cien cy
of the roto r base d on lift and drag effec ts, qL/D. 1l1is expression is defin ed as the usef ul wor k out
(the torq ue in Eq. 10.4 8) divid ed by the avail able pow er in the wind . In terms of the lift and drag , this
expr essio n is:
~w(L sin.a -D ccis a)
1h;o = .
V(Lc os a+D sin a)
The over bars in this equa tion indic ate aver age valu es of those quantities. Sinc e the lift and drag forc es on
the roto r chan ge with 0, a time aver age of the forces need s to be calculated by integ ratin g. Now onc e we
subs titut e Eqs. 10.4 9 and 9.43 into this expr essio n and average over a full revo lutio n of the roto r
(0:::; 0 :s; 2.n-), the effic ienc y beco mes:
3
1-C oo.·( - -
2 .-+ ·-4X
---.. -. )
· _,C o.oAR 1 +XZ · ·
'1L/D = . i ( 3 ·· - )·:· (10 .50)
l+C oo ~ + - . .. . -,.
' .-2:# 2Cei,oA:RXJ-,: :
10.6 Propeller s and Wind-Po wer Machines 489
This efficien_cy modifies the efficiency based on actuator disk theory (Eq. l 0.45) for an estimate of the
overall efficiency of the rotor:
'l~ 11ocrdisk 11l/ D

( 10.51)
One mu st keep in mind, however, that in order to determine the efficiency of a complete rotor, one must
add the contributi ons lo the torque over the entire rotor. Since different parts of the rotor have different
radii (different values of R), they will have different values of X. Based on Eq. 10.50, one might realize
chat the portions of the rotor with small radii wi II contribute very Huie to the torque compared to central
portions of the rotor. In Example 10. 19, performan ce characteris tics of a VAWT are determined .
Exampt ~ 10.19 ANAt.¥s1s OF A GI_ROMlt;L

A Giromill wind turbine (see Fig. 10.46) has a height of 140 ft and a diameter of l IO ft. The ~irfoil section being used is a con_:.
stant-Wid th symmetric section with-a stall angle of 14° and an aspect ratio of 50. Over the normal range of operation theainoil lift'
coefficien t carr be described by the equation Ci= 0.1097(:1, where a is the angle of anack in degrees. The qtag to¢fficien t at zero
.angle of attack is 0.006, and at other angh;s of attack.the drag coefficient ¢.an be approxima ted by Eq-. 9.43. If tf\e Oir:Qnµll mtates
a:t 24 rpm, calculate the maximum allowable wind speed to avoid stall on the airfoil section. If the power generated at qi.is rµin~
imum speed condition is 160 hp, what is the effil;:jenc;y Qf the rurbi.ne?
Giy~n; Giromill wind turbine

Heig_h t: 140 ft
Diameter: I 00 ft
Minimum rotation speed: 24 rpm
Power: 160 hp
Airfoil -is symmetric
$tall angle: 12°
Aspect ratio: 50
Liftcoeft;i ci~i:itis linear; CL=0.109 7a (a is in degrees)
Dni$ coeffici~n ( is,pa:nibolic, Co;o:= Q.0()6
Find: (a). Mµ:imunia ifowat;,i¢ wj11q speed -to p~ve;n_t stall.
.(b) Tu_rb~e efficiency. ·
soiutj9n·: AppLy th~ ~qtiations:p resente_d ilbove ,to the turbine:
Governin g equations :
· -1 V - I 1
a,,.=tan -=tan - (l0.47a,b )
wR X
l 3 .,
2 7CR~
KEF=-pV .
- (fP
'1= ECEF (10:45)
c2
. . +-.k...
Co=-Coo irAR (9.43)
1- C . ( . 2 . 4X3 )
o.o C oAR + l 1(2
1
1lto= (
. t
l+Coo - + . 3
'
+-) (10,50}
• 2~ 2Co:oARX2
l{~l/pr:rduk 'll./D (l0.51)
Assumption:
Standard aonosphere: p = 0.002377 slug/ft'
(a) To find the maximum speed, we solve Eq. 47a for the velocity:
rev 2:tr rad min ft mi 3600 s
V = R<u tan ·am= 55 ft X 24-.- X - - - X - - x tan 12° = 29.4- X -. - - X - - = 20.0 mph
mm rev 60 s s 52,80 ft hr
V=20.0mph V
------- ------- ------- ------
(b) To determine the efficiency, we find the actuator disk efficiency and the lift/drag efficiency, per Eq. 10.51.To calculate the
actuator disk efficiency. f°JISl we find the kinetic energy flux:
1 3
3 2
KEF=-2pV 1rRi=;xo.002377 sl~gx(29.4~
."t) x(55fl)2x lbf•s x _hp·s =52lhp
- ft s · sl\,Jg · ft 550 ft · lbf
ToerefQre, the actuator disk efficiency is:
<!/> 160
11 = Kl;F = 521 = 0. 3o7
To· ffod the lift/drag efficiency of the rotor, we need to find the tip speed ratio:
1 I
X = - -·-· = - - . -=4.705
tan a,,. tan 12°
Talcin$ this value for X and the given <lata, we can calculate the lift/drag efficiency:
1-Cn.o(cD,02AR+ I~~)
1
1L/D= ( l 3 )
1 +CD;o 2n + 2Cb.oARJ(l
4
1-0.006x ( 2 ..4
+ x ,?°o :)5
= Q.006 X 50 1 + 4.7Q5 . = 0 _850
3
1 + 0 -006 x (;IT
+ 2 x 0.Q06 x 5o x 4. 7052 )
.So the overall effi.cie_n cy is:
,,
, ~,,ac,di.d:11L/ 0=0.307x0.850=·0..261 +------------ -----
1
1 o. 7 Compressible Flow Turbomachine s

While the interaction of incompressible fluids with turbomachines is an important topic, both from a
phenomenological and a practical point of view, there are many instances in which the flow through
a turbomachine will experience significant changes in density. This is especially important in gas turbine
(Brayton cycle) power generation (for both stationary and mobile power plants) and in steam turbine
(Rankine cycle) power generation. We will investigate the modifications to lhe governing equations
and dimensional analyses necessary in compressible flow applications. Where necessary, the reader
is directed m the appropriate sections in Chapter 12 for further clarification.
Application of t he Energy Equation to a Compressible Flow Machine

In Chapter 4 we looked at the first law of thermodynamics for an arbittary control volume. The resu It was
the energy equation, Eq. 4.56,
. . .
Q -W, - Wshcar-Wothcr=-a ak
I CV
epdIJ
...-+ [
CS
( 11
vi ) _ _
+pv+-+gz pV. dA
2
(4.56)
10.7 Compressible Flow Turbomachines 491
~uation_4.56 states that the heat added to the system, minus the work done by the sys tem results in an
increase m energy for the system. In this equation, the work done by the system is assumed to consist of
three pans. The first, known as "shaft work," is the useful work input/output we consider in the analysis
q~ turbomachmes. The second is the work done by fluid shear stresses at the control volume surface. The
third, referred to as " other work," includes sources such as electromagnetic energy transfer.
We will now simplify Eq. 4.56 for compressible flow turbomachinery. First, turbomachines typi-
cally run at conditions such that heat transfer with the surroundings are minimized, and so the heat trans-
fer term may be ignored. Second, work terms other than shaft work should be negligibly small, and so
they can be ignored as well. Third, changes in gravitational potential energy should be small, and so that
=
term can be dropped from the surface integral. Since enthalpy is defined as h 11 + pu, for steady flow,
Eq. 4.56 becomes
r (
»'s= - J es h+
v2) _ _
pV · dA
2
At thls point, we introduce the smgnarion enthalpy 13 as the sum of the fluid enthalpy and kinetic energy:
v2
h 0 =h+
2
Therefore, we may rewrite the energy equation as:
w_, = - r hopV. dA (10.52a)

Jes
Equation 10.52a states that, for a turbomachine with work input, the power required causes an increase
in the stagnation enthalpy in the fluid; fol" a tuI"bomachine with work o_111p111,. the power produced is due to
~ ·decrease in the stagnation enthalpy of the fluid. In this equation, W, is positive when work is being
done by tpe fluid (as in a turbine), while W_, is negative when woI"k is being done on the fluid (as in a
compressor).
It is imponant to note that the sign convention used in this equation appears to be contrary to that
us.e d in the Euler turbomachine equation, develope~ in Section I 0.2. If you I"ecall, in Eq. 10.2a a positive
~alue of \,\/P indicated work done on the fluid, while a negative value indicated worlc done by the fluid.
The diffeI"ence to remembeI" is that ~Vs is the mechanical power exerted by the working fluid on its sur-
rouQdings, i.e., the rotor, whereas WP is the mechanical power exerted on the working fluid by the rotor.
Keeping this distinction in mind, it makes perfecfsense that these two quantiti_e s would have equal mag-
nitudes and opposite signs. ·
The integrand on the right side of Eq. 10.52a is the product of the stagnation enthalpy with the mass
flow rate at each. section. If we make the additio nal assumption of uniform flow into the machine at
section 1, and oµt of the machine at section 2, Eq. I0.52a becomes
(10,52b)
Compressors
Compressors may be centrifugal or axial, depending on specific speed. Automotive turbochargers, small
gas-turbine engines, and ~atural-gas pi~eli~e boosters usually are centrifugal. Large gas and steam tur-
bines and jet aircraft engmes (as seen m Figs. 10.3 and 10.4b) frequently are axi.a l-flow machines.
Since the flow through a comp~sor will see a change in density, the dimensional analysis pre-
sented for incompressible flow is no longer appropriate. Rather, we quantify the pe;I"formance of a
compressor through Ci.ho,, the _ideal.ris_e in stagnation enthalpy of the flow, 14 the efficiency ,7, and th~
power <JP. The functional relat1onsh1p 1s:
6.ho,,11, <!J>=J(p, N , D , ,i,, Po, , co,. k) (10.53)
13 See Section J2.3 for a discussion of lhe s1a~m11i?n Sllltc. _ _ _ .

14 In Sec lion 12_1, i L is demonstralcd that an ndmbnuc und reversible process 1s 1senu:op1c. 1t can be proven that an isentropic com-
. . .. Its ·n· ·•1c minimum power mpu1 between two fixed pressures, and an ,sentropic expansion results in the mn.umum
prcss1on rcsu 1 " - · . . .
. . bet,vccn two fi,ted pressures. Therefore. the 1s.
c ntrop1c compress1oo/e."'pans1on process is considered lhe ideal for
power outpu1 · . · ·
co;,,pressors nnd turbines. iespccm•cly (50].
4 92 Cha pte r 10 Flu id Mac h ine ry
1n this rela tion , the inde pen den t vari able s are. in orde r, viscosit y, rela tional spee d, rolo
r dia met er, ma ss
flow rate , inle t stag nati on den sily, inle Lstag nali on speed of soun d, and ratio of spe cifi c hea ls.
If we a pply the Buc king ham Pi Lheorem to Lhis system. the resulting dim ensi onless gro ups are
:
TT2 = Po,N3D s
2
111 ND
P ,_ _
IL= -o_
Il3 =-- -
Po,N D3 Jl
ND
ns =-co,
Sin ce the effi cien cy 11 and ratio of spec ific heats k are dim ensi onle ss qua ntiti es. they can be tho
ugh l
of as TI-tem1s. The resu ltin g func tion al relation ships are:
/',.ho,
(ND )
2,11,
Po,
<!J> .
N3D5 =f1
G o,
,ii p0 ,ND ND )
2
ND3 •- - - , - , k
Jt co,
( 10. 54a )
Thi s equ atio n is actu ally an exp ress ion of thre e sepa rate func tions; that is, the term s II = t,..11 .f
1 0 (ND )2 , 11
and II2 = <!J> / Po, N D are all func tion s of the othe r dim ensi onless quantities. /',.ho,/ (ND )2 is a
3 5
me a sur e
of the ene rgy cha nge in Lhe flow and is Lhe com pres sibl e anal og to lhe head coe ffic ient \P (Eq
3 5
. 10. 6).
<!J>/p0 ,N D is a pow er coef ficie nt, sim ilar Lo lhat in Eq. 10.8. ril/p ,ND 3 is a mas s flow coef
0 fic ient ..
ana log ous to the inco mpr essi ble flow coef ficie nt cI> (Eq . 10.5). p ,ND2 /pi s a Rey nold s num ber
0 bas ed
on roto r tip spe ed, and ND / co, is a Mac h num ber base d on rolo r tip spee d. Usi ng the rela tion
ship s for
isen trop ic pro cess es and for Lhe com pres sibl e flow ofa perfect gas, we can mak e som e sim plif
icat ion s.
As a resu lt, Eq. 10.5 4a may be rew ritte n as:
Po!, ,7, -
- t,.To
-- - f2 (,i,v'fITo:
? ,
Re, ~
ND• k·)
(10 .54 b)
Po, To, Po, D- v n, 0 1
The func lion al rela tion ship s pres ente d here can be used in the man ner seen both in Cha pte r 7
and
earl ier in this cha pter to investig ate scal ing Lhe perf orm ance of sim ilar flow mac hines. An exa mp
le of this
is pres ente d in Exa mpl e 10.2 0.
Ex am ple 10 .20 SCALING OF A CO MP RE SSO R

A 115 sca le moo el of a pro toty pe air com pres so r con sum ing 300 hp· and runn ing at a: spee d of
100 0 rpm deli vers a flow rate of
2 0lb m/s thro ugh a pre ssu re rati o of 5. At dynan'licc1.lly and kine JDa tic~ y sim ilar con ditio ns, wha t wou ld the ope rati ng s pee d.
mas s flow rate , and pow er ccm sun ,pti on be for the full -sca le prot otyp e.
Giv en: 1/5 sca le com pre sso r mod el

Pow er: 300 hp
Spe ed: 100 0 r:pm
Pre ssu re niti o: 5
Ma ss flow -rate.: 50 lbm /s
F-ind: Pro toty pe spe ed, mas s flow rate , and pow er con sum ptio n at sim ilar con ditio ns.
SQluticm: App ly tlte equ atio ns pres ente d abo ve and the concept:S pres ente d in Cha pter 7 on sim ilitu
de to the com pre sso r:
G9v ern in9 equ atio ns:
(;:) p = (::t.
10.7 Compr essible Flow Turbo machi nes 493
Assum ptibn:
. .s~ln t eri1ran ce conditi ons 'for b_otli moctel anci' prototy pe: . . . .. _ _ . .
_ :$ !1111lar.e ntrance conditl<>ii& wou'ia stipulat e: that tlie sµrgna.tion sound speed and d¢nsir:y wool\'.!:be} eq1,1atfor both th~ model:and-
tlje prototy pe. ·Soly1~ g ·the fi'rst etjlja'tion for· the protbtype·spe~:
N;==N;;.•~;-:::: -~tOOO'rpm·*:¼,:cJ·='200rpm
NP.=20<itpm ,.:. . :. . ____ __~_ _:____. .:tfp
. . ____
soN:in ~ :tb:e s¢coti~ equatio rt for:the prototype, mass•fl.9w rate,
•· '"'-m···:nPo,,._
m
· .p -
.
;--. -
Np_.(-P.l
: ·- -
.Po,ftNm. Dm ·
!)-3"'.=-"?Qlbm X.
·
269 X_
---=-,-,, . ·- .- .-· -·
S .1000
-(s)
,
·
.J .
~= ·•.
·
3
·'5001.l>
-- m
· S
• ·p_:=;;:_,S00lb
l_ff .•. . ' m /· S .+ -:~- ___,.... .__-'=c c.....,.~ ---=--~.~~
......-'-'-,=-- '~ rh,;
i;,&.~aict.il~t<e t}le i'!(>wer require ment Jl>_r die prototy pe: · · • is~prQbl;m deinonstt:ates,t lie·scaling;~
co'ffipr~il:Jl~flow;rtil &'ifi~·Ni~Tu ~t if. ttie
: ,,. , . Po., (N:;,) (b,;)
·. :<!P.;t== <!P-,;;Po,p · N,,. ·
3 5
o;,,: . . . ·
=}OOt ip.x ·- 1000./ - >,c
(100\3 ·(:s)· 5
·t · : ;:;:.7 soo. pp.. ..... workihl ;fluig fo~:rt,i·two differe nt scale
' -.·. .• . .. . ... ·. ,. . ': p' . . rr.i~~!I'~vi~e~diffe~-'· .~:g.,,!i~~ "rs~~'- _. .:_~
.. . . p hel(.W; :1},~.~ a sof&(fererit g~j~~s tants,.i
'lf>;,.==- 7500 hp . ;ancl spe"dfic: heat ratios:would•~ave-to be "';'.~
~ken fnto 11c~~rit. - ·
Since .most operabi lity studies•are perform ed on a single compre ssor design withou t. scaling, and.
using· the sarne workin g fluid, nil variable s related to the scale and the fluid (specif ically; D, R, and k)
may be elimina ted from the.func tional relation ship. In adcjition, empiric afstudi es have shown' that. as in
the case study of the centrifu gal pump in Chapte r 7, for sufficie ntly high values of Reynol ds numbe r the
perl"or mance of the coinpre s_s or is not depend ent upon Reynol ds numbe r either, i.e., the flow is fully
turbill ent in ·the compre ssor. Once· i;hese variable s are elimina ted, Eq. 10.54b become s
ii.o. Aio _ . ·
(·n:;;,:/Tii
~.? ,:TJ_,-·r / =A ~ ; rr::-
; N _)
.
· P9, - Qi . Po, V-."-01
Note that this equatio n is no longer dimens ionless . Howev er, it is still useful in charact erizing the
perfor mance of a compr:e ssor: provide d th~ perforr i'l~c~ is assesse d for a sing~e machin e using a single
workin g fluid. The relatJonsh1p portray ed m Eq. 10.:,4c.1s normal ly .expces sed m the form of a compre s-
sor operab ility map, as sho_wn in Fig. 10.51. On this ma~ we can see the compre ssion ratio versus mass
flow ratio (,h-vf7o./po,) , w1lh curves of constan t normal ized speed (N / v'To,) and efficien cy. Often, the
abscis sa is a "c.orrec ted mass flow'':
. ,h ✓To,/T.,.r
"lllcorr = .
Po, /Pref
and the lines of constan t compre ssor speed are a "correc ted speed" :
N
Ncorr
494 cha pte r 10 Flu id Ma chi ner y
In thes e exp ress ions , T ref and Pref are refe renc e pres sure and tem pera ture (usu ally stan dar d con
di-
tion s one wou ld exp ect at the entr anc e of such a machine). Thi s allo ws the user to read the cha rt
qui ckl y
in term s of "rea l" phy sica l qua ntiti es and to be able to mak e adju stm ents for vary ing entr anc e con
diti ons
with a min imu m of calc ulat ion. TI1e ope rati ng line is the locu s of poin ts of max imu m effi cien
cy for a
giv en mas s flow . It is inlp orta nt to note that the com pres sor ope rabi lity map of Fig. l 0 .51 bea rs a
stri kin g
rese mbl anc e to the pum p ope rabi lity map of Fig. I0.14 . Not only do both figures sho w the per for
ma nce
of a turb oma chin e perf orm ing wor k on a fluid, but the data are plotted in a sim ilar fash ion; leve l cur
ves of
con stan t effi cien cy are plot ted on a plan e of wor k outp ut (hea d for the pum p, pres sure rati o for the
com -
pres sor) vers us flow inpu t (vol ume tric flow rate for the pum p. mas s flow rate for the com pre sso
r).
Thi s figu re sho ws two of the phe nom ena that mus t be avo ided in the ope ratio n of a com pre sso r-
Th e
firs t is cho king , whi ch is exp erie nce d whe n the local Mac h num ber at som e poin t in the com pre sso r
15 rea che s
unit y. To exp lain cho king in a phy sica l sens e, ima gine that we run the com pres sor at con stan t spe
ed and
con stan t inle t pres sure and that we can dire<;tly con trol the com pres sor exit pres sure. On the com
pre sso r
map , we wou ld b~ trav elin g alon g a line of con stan t normalized speed. Ifw e wer e to low er the exi t pre
ssu re,
the pres sure rati o wou ld decr ease . If the com pres sor spee d remains c;onstant, the mas s flow incr eas es.
Ho w-
eve r, we see that the line s of c;onstant norm aliz ed spee d turn dow nwa rd if the mas s flow rate is inc
rea sed
bey ond a cert ain valu e, indi cati ng a max imw n poss ible flow rate for a given roto r spee d, and the com
pre s-
sor is cho ked . Wh en cho king occ urs, it is imp ossi ble to increase mass.flow with out incr easi ng roto
r spe ed.
The sec ond phe nom eno n is s11rge, whi ch is a cyc lic pulsation phe nom eno n that cau ses the ma
ss
flow rate thro ugh the mac hine to vary , and can eve n reve rse it! Sur ge occ urs whe n the pres sur
e rati o
in the com pr~ ssor is rais ed bey ond a cert ain leve l for a give n mas s flow rate. As pres sure rati o inc
rea ses .
the adv erse pres sure grad ient acro ss the com pres sor incr ease s as well . Thi s incr ease in pre ssu re gra
die nt
can cau se bmi nda ry-l aye r sepa rati on on the roto r surf aces and con stric t flow thrc;it1gh the spa ce bet
16
we en
two:-adj ace nt blad es. The refo re, the extr a flow gets dive rted to the nex t chan nel betw een bla des
. Th e
•sep.a niti on is reli eve d in the prev ious cha nne l and mov es to the nex t.cha nne l, cau sing the cyc lic pul
sat ion
men tion ed abo ve. Sur ge is acco mpa nied by loud nois es and can dam age the com pres sor or rela ted
com -
po~ ent; s; it too mu.lit be avo ided . Fig. 10.51 sho ws the surg e line , the locu s of ope rati ng con
diti ons
bey ond whi ch surg e will occ ur.
In gen eral ; as sho wn in Fig. 10.5 1, the high er the perf orm ance , the mor e narr ow the ran ge in wh
ich
the com pre sso r may be ope rate d succ essf ully. Thu s a com pres sor mus t be care full y mat che d to its flo w
sys tem to assu re sati sfac tory ope rati on. Com pres sor mat chin g in natural gas pipe line app lica tion
s is dis-
cus sed by Vin cen t-G eno d [51 ]. Perh aps the mos t com mon application of high -spe ed flui d ma
chi ner y
toda y is· in auto mot ive turb och arge rs (wo rldw ide man y millions of cars are sold eac h yea r wit h
tur bo-
cha rger s). Aut omo tive turb och arge r mat chin g is desc ribe d in man ufac ture rs' liter atur e (52 ].
Constant
efficiency
lme
,,~e
li_,~<l.
,,e~ ,,-
0_!,- '
Maximum effic ienc y
-- --
Constant
N/J T01 1ine
Corrected mass flow rate, -

,;..,rr;1
-
Po1
Fig. 10.5 1 Typi cal perfo rman ce map for a c:ompressor,
1s Cho king _is also dcsc.ribc<I from the siand poin t of il<izzl~ flow_in ~ect ion· 1_2.6, . .
16 Bo un~ laye.r ~ poration due to adverse pressure grndie!)IS 1s d1scµ ssc<I m Secuon 95.
10.8 Summary and Useful Equation s 495
Choking - - - - - -
Constant
Nlffo,hne
~
,;,.fr;;
Corrected mass flow rate, - - '
Po,
Fig. 10.5_2 Typical performance map for a compressible flow turbine.
Compre ssible-F low Turbine s

The flow through a gas turbine is governed by the same general relationshi p as the compresso r, but the
actual functional relationshi ps are different. Figure 10.52 shows the performan ce map for a compressi ble
flow turbine. As in the c;ase for the compresso r !he turbine map shows lines of constant normalize d speed
on a graph of pressure ratio versus normaliied mass flow rate. The most striking difference between !his
map and that for !he compresso r is that the performan ce is a very weak function of N / ,!To;; the curves
are set very close together. The choking of !he turbine flow is well-defin ed on !his map: There is a nor-
malized mass flow !hat cannot be exceeded in the turbine, regardless of the pressure ratio.
1 o. 8 Summa ry and Useful Equatio ns

In this.chap ter, we:
✓ Defined the two major types of fluid machines: positive displacem ent machines and
turbomac h_ines.
✓ Defined, within the turbomach ine category, radial, axial, and mixed-flo w types, pumps, fans,
blo.w ers, compresso rs; and impulse and reaction turbines.
✓ Discussed various features of turbomach ines, such as impellers, rotors, runners, scrolls
(volutes) , compress or stages, and draft tubes.
✓ Used the angular-m omentum equation for a control volume to derive the Euler turbomac hine
equation .
✓ Drew velocity diagrams and applied the Euler turbomac hine equation to the analysis of
various idealized machines to derive ideal torque, head, and power.
✓ Evalu.a ted the performa nce-head , power, and efficienc y-of various _a ctual machines from
measurec; f daJ:c;1.
✓ Define.d and used dimension less parameter s to scale the performan ce of a fluid machine from
one size, operating speed, and set of operating conditions to another.
✓ Discussed various defining p;:irameters, such as pump efficiency , solidity, hydraulic power
mechanic al power, turbine efficiency, shutoff head, shock loss, specific speed, cavitation :
NPSHR, and NPSHA. . . • .
✓ Examined pumps for their complianc e with the constrain t that the net positive suction- head
available exceeds that require~ to avoid cavita_tion. _
✓ Matched fluid machines for doing work on a fluid to pipe systems to obtain the operating point
(fl<>w rate and head). _ . . . _ .
✓ Predicted the effects of installing fluid machines m series and parallel on the operating point of
a system. h' · h h ·
✓ Discussed and analyzed turbomac . mes wit out ousm~s, namely propellers and wind
turbines. the use rt
· f 'bl
✓ Discussed and pe ormance o compress, e fl ow turbomai:; hines.
Wit h the se con cep ts and tech niq ues , we lear ned how to use man ufa ctur ers' lite ratu re and oth
er
dat a to per form pre lim inar y ana lyse s and mak e app rop riat e sele ctio ns of pum ps, fan s, hyd rau
lic
and win d turb ine s, and oth er fluid mac hin es.
Not e: Mo st of the equ atio ns in tlte table belo w hav e a num ber of constraints or lim itat ion s-b
e sur e ro
refe r ro thei r pag e num ber s for dera ils!
Us efu l Eq ua tio ns
Eul er rurb oma chin e T , holl = (r2V,, - r1 V,, )1i1 (10 .lc) Pag e 418
equ atio n:
Tur bom ach ine theo reti cal ~V"' = (U2 V,, - U1 V,, ),ii (10 .2b) Pag e41 9
pow er:
Tur bom ach ine t11eoretical
W'n, 1
H= -.- = - ( U2V ,--U ,V ,)
(10.2c) Pag e 419
hea d: mg g 1
-
Pum p pow er, hea d, and W1, =pQ gHp (10 .3a) Pag e42 2
effi cien cy:
Hp = ( p 17-+ )
-+ -:, z
2
(p'\72
- -+- :,- +z) (L0.3b)
pg -C wsch nrge pg -C sutio n
W,, pQg Hp
'lp =- .-= --.- (10 .3c)
W,,, wT
Tl,u bine pow er; hea d, and W,, =pQ gH, (10 .4a) Pag e42 2
effi cien cy:
H,=
(-p
pg
+ 17:>.
- + z)
2g . pg
(p
- -+17
-+
2g
z)
2
(10 .4b) Pag e42 3
mlct outlet
\Vm wT
,,, = -.- - - -. (] Q.4 c)
W,, pQ.gH,
Dim ens ionl ess flow (10 .5) Pag e42 3
coe ffic ient :
Dim ens ion less bea d gH (10 .6) Pag e42 3
coe ffic ient :
'P= -,
Vi
Dim ens ionl ess torq ue (10.7) Pag e42 3
coe ffic ient :
Dim ens ionl ess pow er (ld. 8) Pag e42 4
co~ ffic ient :
(:entrifugl!-1 pum p spe.c ific .(7.2 2a) Pag e42 4

spe ed (in term s of hea d h):
Cen nifu gaJ pum p spec ific N ~ N(rp m)[ Q(g pin) J.112 (7.2 2b) Pag e42 4
spe ed (in term s of s,. - (H(fr)]J/4
hea dH ):
Cen nifo gal turb ine
spe cifi c spe ed (in terms of
(!)
W
Ns-= Ji3/4VJh
1/2 w<!Jl'/2 (10 .13a ) Pag e42 5
pl/2JiS/4
hea d h):
·Cen trifu gal turb ine N - N(rpm)[QJ>(hp)]'/2 (10 .13b ) Pag e42 5
spe cifi c spe ed (in term s of s~ - [H(ft)]S/4
b¢ac:l H):
Reference s 497
Table ((;ontinue d)
Axial-flow turbomach ine T,hofl = Rm ( v,, - v,, )m (10.20) Page430
ide_al perfonnan ce:
Wm= U(V,,-V,, )m (10.21)
w,,,
H=-.-=- :- V,2 -V,, u( ) (10.22)
mg g
Propeller thrust:
Fr=qN
1R
Rh•b
(CicoStp- C0 sintjJ) d
. 'r/J
sm -
c r
(10.38a) Pa~e478
Propeller torque:
T=qN
1R (
"""
CLsinip + Cocosrp) d .
. 2
sm <fa
re ,
(10.38b) J>age478
Propeller speed of
advance coefficien t:
J==;o (10.39} Page479
Prope_Uer t,hrust, torque, Fr T (10.40) Page479

po,ver, and efficiency CF= p11-'D4'
. .Cr= pn-'DS'
coefficien ts: W' FrV
Cp= pn3DS' 11-::;:=--
W';npu1
Cavitati~:m number: p-p,. (10.41) Page481
Ca=1y2
'I.P -
Acruator- disk efficiency: W' ? (10.45) Page484
11=-.-=4a.(I- a)-
KEF
Tip-speed ratio Rw (10.46) Page484
X=v
V AWT efficiency : 2 4X3 (10.50) Page488
1-Co.o - --+-- -1
11L/D= Co.oAR I+X2
I 3
l+Co.ol 2+?C
\. ,r - D.
oARX2)I
1/';::t,'loctduk'IL/D (10.51) Page489
Energy equation for Ws = -(ho, -ho, )111 (10.52b) Page 591
compressi ble; flow
turbo machine:
Performan ce parameters
for compressi ble flow
Po,.,,, 6.To =h ciz..JTo.,_!!_) (10.54c) Page493
Po, To, Po, .JTa;
turbomach ine:
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C umcu u :
m A Design Track Syllabus." TM-519. Concepts ETI York: ASlvIE. 1990. .
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23. W~ is. R. A., Axia l Flow Faris and Duc ts. New Yor k:
48. Mig liore, P. C., "Com pari son ofN ACA 6-Se ries and 4-D igit
W!h ,y. l983 . Airf oils for Darr ieus Win d Turb ines ." Jou mal of Ene rgy , 7. 4.
24. Osb orne, W . C ., Fan s, 2nd ed. Lon don : Pergami:m Jul- Aug 1983 . pp. 291 -292.
Pres s, 197 7. 49. And erso n. J. D.. flltroduction to Flig ht., 4th ed. Bos ton :
25. Am eric an· Soc iety of Hl~nting, Refr iger atio n, and Air Con di: McG r.iw -Hil l, 2000 .
tion ing Eng inee rs, Han dbo ok of Fun dam enta ls. Atla nta, GA. 50. Mor an. M. J., and H. N. Shap iro, Fwr dam enta ls of Eng ine er-
ASH RAE , I 980 . ing T/ren11odynamics . 6th ed. Hob oken , NJ: Wil ey, 200 7.
26. Jdel chik , ·I. E ., Han dbo ok of Hyd raul ic Resi stan ce, 2nd ed. 51. Vinc ent- Gen od, J., Fundamentals of Pipe line Eng inee ring ·.
New Yor k: Hem isph ere. 198 6. Hou ston : Gul f Publ ishin g Co., 1984.
27. 1,..amb eck, R, R.., Hyd raul ic Pum ps and Morors: Sele ction an~ 52. War ner-l shi Turb ocha rger broc hure . (Wa mer-JSh i. P . O . Box
App lic;a (ion. JQr Hyd raul ic Pow er Com rol Syst ems. New Yor k. 580 , Shel byvi lle, Il.. 6256 5-05 80, U.S. A.).
Oek ket, 198 3.
;8. Wn,rring, R.. H., ~d., Hyd raul ic Han dbo ok, 8th ed. Hou ston:
53. Whi te. F. M., F111idMec/ra11ics, 6th ed. New Yor k: Mc Gra w-
Hill, 2007 .
.:~.¢ !,f,µ Q~b ing·Co., 19.8 3. . 54. S,ov ern, b , T., and G. J. Poo le, " Cpl µmn Sep arat ion in
· ·. o-·-·USe,
·;2'9·.,-NO · · ·:,H:.. , •an·· ·d
. . ·s •· _Inc_ ics. fowi l City· , IA:
. · •·Hist
e .. ... on•
·· of· Hyd raul l'um ped Pipe lines ,'' iri IC. K. Kien ow, ed., Pipe line Des ign and
· ·
Ii:>wli tlriiv ~rs1 ty Pres s, )957. /11s1atlatio11, Proceedings of the Inte rnat iona l Con fere nce on Pip e-
3;o . Rus sell , G '. E ., Hyd raul ics. 5th ed. New Yor k: Hen ry line Des ign and inst11.llation, Las Veg as. N e vad a, Ma rch 25- 27.
ilcil t. 194 2. 1990. New York : Ame rican Soci ety of Civi l Eng inee rs. 199 0.
pp. 230..,.243 .
31. Gul µ.ver-;-J ..:S., and R, E. A. Af'? dt, Hyd ropo wer Engineering
Han dbo ok. New Yor k: Mc.Graw., l:µ11, 199 0. 55. U,S. Dep anm ent of the Interior, "Sel ectin g Hyd raul ic Rea ctio n
Turb jnes ," A Wat er Resources Tech nica l Pub lica tion , Eng inee ri.t, g
37. Wq rld E.n ergy C.ou ncil. "200 7 Surv ey of Ene rgy Reso urce s,"
Monograph No. 20. Den v~. CO: U.S. Oep nrun ent of the Inte rior ,
··Wo rlcl E.nc;rgy Cou ncil , 200 7. Bure au of Reclamatiqn, 1976.
33. Fritz ,, J . J., Sma_ll an.d Min i f!>'.d:opo111.er Sys te~ : Reso11rc~ 56. Orella, M .. " Aerodynamics cif Hum an-P owe red Flig ht;· in
Ass essm ent :and Pr.o ject..Feas1b.d11y. New Yor k. McG raw An1111al Revi ew of Fluid Mecfra11ics, 22, pp. 93- 11 O. Piµ o Ah o,
Hill , 198 4. CA: Ann ual Reviews, 1990..
3·4 . Gla dwe ll, J_ s., Sma (l Hyd ro: Som e Pra ctica l Pl~1111fog and 57. Abbott, I. H., and A. E. von.Dpe nho( f. The ory of W.i11g Sec tfan s,
Des ign :Con side ratio ns. ldnh o W~t er Rc;sources Insu tute. Mos - fncludiiig ,a Sum mar y of Airfoil Dat a. New Yor k: Dpv er, J 959 -
c9w , II): Univ .ersi ty -ofl dalj o; Apd l 198 0.
Problems 499
lntro~uction and Classification of Fluid 10.8 A centrifugal water pump. with 15-cril0 diamcter impeller and
Machines; Turbomachinery Analysis axial inlet flow. is driven at 1750 rpm. The impeller vanes are back~
1 o. 1 The geometry of a centrifugal water pump is r1 = 10 cm.
ward curved (P2 = 65°) and have axial width b2 = 2 cm. For a volume
r2 =20 c·m , bi =b:i =4cm, P, =30°, p, = 15°, and it runs at speed
flow rate of 225 m 3 /hr determine the ilieoretical tread rise and power
1600 rpm. Estimate the discharge requ~d for axinl entry, the power input to the pump.
g~nerated in the water in watts, and the head produced. 10.9 Consider the centrifugal pump impeller dime11sic;,µs given in· Q
10.2 The relevant variables for a turbomachine are, D, w, Q, h, T, Example IO.I. Con.s truct the velocity diagram for shoclcless flow
an!:} p. Find the resulting IT~grnupswhen D, w, and pare the repeating at the: impeller inlet, if b = constant. Calculate the effective flow an~e
variables. Discuss the me.a ning of each rr obtained. with respect to the radial impeller blades for the case of no inlet swirl.
Investigate the effect,s on flow angle of (a) variations in impell,er
1 o .3 Consider ll1e centrifugal pu!IJp impeller dimensions given in widtl, and (b) in.let swirl· velocities.
Ei-ample 10.1. Estimate the ideal head rise and mechanical power
input if the outlet blade angle is changed 10 60°, 70° •.80°,or 85°. 10.1 o A centrifugal water pump designed to operate at 1300 rpm has
dimensions
1.0.4 Dimen.s_ions of a centrifugal pump impeller are
Panime4:r Inlet Q.gtj¢~

J.>a~IJ):Ct_l!r inlet, §.e~ticm (D Outlet,,S.ec~9D ~ -- Ra~~s·. r (inm)
·10()- 175·
Radius, r (in.) is ·
:si~d;; width, fj (in.) 435
45
.3.2f?
~lade width, b (mm) nr 75
·.~i,~i,i¢ ~g(e, /ftde~) -Blade ai)gle; P(deg) AO'
40 ~
Draw the inlet velocity diagram for a volume flow rate of 35.L/s;
The pump is driven at 575 rpm and the fluid is water. Calculate the
Determine the inlet blade angle for which the entering velocity has
theoretical head and mechanical power if the flow rate is 80,000 gpm. no tangential component. Draw llle outlet velocity di;igram. Deter-
10.5 Dimensic;ms of a centrifugal pump impeller~ mine the outlet absolute flow angle (measured relative to the normal.
direction). Evaluate the hydraulic power delivered by the. _pump if
P.il~meter Inlet, Section d) Qµ0¢t,·Se~tjQJ1~ its efficiency is 15 percent. Determine the head develop¢· J>y
-Radius, t (in,) 3 ,, 9.'75 ·.• the pump.
.aiici~ width, b (in.). 1.5. J,.125
10·,- .. 10.11 A series of blades, such as in Example 10.13; movirtg·in-·ll1e
''.B---·
~rid~-angi_
..... . .. .. ;;.,p(deg) 60,
. . . . . same direction as a, water jet of 25 mm diameter- llIJd of velo.c ity
46 m/s, deflec~ the jet 75~ from its original direction, What rel,i.tion
The pump is driven at 1.250 rpm. while pumping.water. Calcul_a~e the between bl!).de velocity and blade an·g le must eitisc to sa!;isfy this con-
theoretical head and mechanical power input if the ijc;,w rate is ditjon? What is the force on the blade system?
1500 gpm.
10.12 In passing through this blade system. the absolute jet velocicy
1 o. 6 TI1e blade is one of a series. Calculate tJ,e force exerted by the decreases from 41.5 to 22.5 m/s. If the flow rate is 57 L/s of water,
jet on the blade system. calculate the power transferred to the .blade system· ruid the. vertical
forc;:e component exenecl on· the blade system.
50 min d water jet
45mls-- 10.13 A centrifugnl pump runs at 1750 rpm· while pllnjping water··ac Q
a rate of 50'L/s. The w;iter enters ax.ialJy~ and h;av~ ta1i~ntialt9 the
impeller blades. Tbe impeller exit diameter and wi_d th ~ 300 mm
and LO mm, respectively. lf.llle pump requires 45 ~Wand is 75 pen::_e nt
efficienL. estimate the exit an~le of the; impeller blades.
1 o .14 A centrifugal water pump.designed to operate at 1200 cpin has
P10.6
dimensions
1 o ..7 This biade is one of a serii:s- ~at force i~ required to move llle
series horizontally against th~ duec?on of tJ,e Jet 9f:wate~ at a v~lo~- B:~etet liii~_t Outle.t:
ity of 15 m/s'? What power IS requt.red to accomphsli tl,15 mouon . Radius, r (tj:tm) ~9JJ: .um
Blade·-~d~. b (#i.m) to . ·1.s
Blade ang!e~/1.:(deg-)!- 1$ 45:
Determine the flow rate at whic.h lhe enu;ring velocity 1!3.$ no ~gen.~
lj ~ 30 mis 50mm
tial component. Draw the outlet VC:!IOcity diagram, and determine .the
~I outlet absolute flow angle me.ll$ured. relative to the. normal. d~tioii.
by
at this flow rate. Ev.a luate llle hyqraulic powe; d~livered the p_uu:ip
if its efficiency is 70 p.e~ent. Dellm!lioe Ille bead d~veloped by
P1Q.7 the p.u mp.
.soo Cha pter 10 Flui d Mac hine ry
..1 0~15 Kero sene: is p_

l lrilpe 4 l:!Y n -certt rifu~ al pump . Whe n the .flow inlet ·a ngles lire t11 ;=5_5 ° ,/J 1 =30° . and al the exitP 2 = 60° . Esti mat e
~ -is 330. gpm. . •the puri'ip. requires 18 hp inpu t· nnd its· efficiency tl1e volum euic flow race, horsepower, and tl1e outle t angl e. a 2 •
is 82 perce·nL ··C:il cuhit e t11·e press ure rise prod uced by the pump . 10.2 2 Data measured durin g tests of a centr ifuga l pum p driv en at
Eic.press lhis resul t as (a) feet of wate r and (b) feel of ken;,sc;ne.
3000 rpm are
pom ps, Fan s, a ·nd Blo wer s
Patn._metet lnlj! l, . . Qu_tlct.
1 ~.~~-In the wate r pum p of Proi, lem lQ.8, the pum p casin g acts as a Secti ii_n (D $ect iori (2)
Q diffu ser. whic h -conv erts 60 perce nl of the-a bsolu te v,e_locity l'!ead at Gage pressuq:, p (psi)
the jlt)pe ller outle t ·to sunic ·p ressu re rise. _The hea~ loss lhrou ~h 12.$.:
Elev aµon·;ipgv~ d~\um, z (ft) 6.5 32.5
the pum p sucti on arid disch arge . chan ne!s 1s 0.75 u~es the radial
Aver age spe.e cfot fiow, V (ft/s) (?.~ 15
coiTipi:ment of yelocil;Y head leavmg_ the 1n1peller. Est1m:11e. the vol-
urtie flow ane. ·head rise. pPw er mput . and pum p effic iency at
the: l'tllli inium effic iency •poiil L Assu me the torqu e to over come The flow rate is 65 gpm and .t he torque appli ed to the pum p shaf t is
~rt g. seiil, and .spin . losse s is IQ perce nt of tl1e ideal torqu e 4.75 lbf • ft. The pump efficiency is 75 percent., and the elec tric mo1<;,r
effic iency is 85 percenL Find (a) the elect ric pow er requ ired and {b)
tit,a:=O.Q~5 m 3 /s. the gage press ure· at section (2).
10 _1 7 Use datli ·rrom J>.,ppendix ·c to clioo se poin ts from the perfo r- 10.2 3 A small centrifugal pump . when teste d at N =28 75 rpm -.vilh
Q man ce cµrv es for a Peer less horiz ontal split case Type 16Al 8B
pum p at 705 and 880 nom inal '."Pm. Obta in ~tld plot c urv ~-fitsd_of totnl wate r, deliv ered Q = 0.016 m3 / s arid H =40 m at its best effic ienc y
bend versu s deliv ery for tlus pum p. w1 1 an I 8 .0 -m.- iame ter point (11 =0.7 0). Oete nnine the specific speed of the pum p al this test
cond ition . Sketc h the impe ller sh!l,pe you expe cL Con 1put e the
impe li~. required powe r input to the pump .
. 1 o.18 Data from tests of a wate r sucti on. pum p oper ated.at 2000 rpm 10. 24 lf the impe ller of Prob lem 10.20 rot;i. t~ betw een hori zont al
Q with a J2-in.-diam eter i.mpeller are
plane s of infinite exten t and the flow rate is 25L /s. wha t rise of
pressure may be expected between one poin t ha,•i ng r= 150 mm
36 50. 74 :sa 125
and anoth er havin g r=22 5 mm?
- r@ :j9'5 ,}76 1-67 tto
'.?,.~ :f(); :35· 40 4'6 10.2 5 At the outle t of a pump impe ller of diam eter 0.6 m and
widtll 150 mm, the absolute velocity is obse rved to be 30 m/s at
an angle of 60u with a radial line. Calc ula.le-the torqu e exen ed on
Plot the -~Qn nan i;.e curv es for-t his pum p; inclu de n. i,::~rve of er:fi- tlle impelier;
cie~c y versu s volu me flow rq_te. Loca te the best effic iency pmnt
10.2 6 Typi cal perfo nnnn ce curves for a .c entri fuga l pum p, teste d
_a:nd· spt;~ ify t)te pllm_p ratin g. at this poinL
witl1 three diffe rent impe ller dinn1eters in a single casin g, are show n .
~e..~1 .9 A centr ifuga l _pump im~ ller havin g_ r,~5 0mm . Spec ify the flow rate and head prod uced by the puni p at its best
,,.#,J;SOJrtrj_ 1, and widt h b= 37.5 mm -is to pum p 2'.2::i L/s· ?f wate r effic iency point witl1 a 12-in.-diometer impe ller. Scal e tl1es e data
~d. s~~p ly i.2.2.J of ener gy 10 each newt on of ~u1d. The tmpe ller to predi ct the perfom1ance of this pump when· teste d with I I-in .
rotat es at JOQQ _w ,m. ·Wha t blad e angle s are re_q mred ? What_ powe r and 13-in.-diam eter impellers. Com ment on the accu racy of the scal -
·lS.·..
:t:CqU;JrC.
·__d .lo' . · ·e ,this
· . ··"driv . pum
. , .. p?, Assu
. . me
. . radia
. . l flow at tl1e-mle1 of ing procedure.
the itnp~ ller,
250.
1 0 _.20 Acen ttit'Q gnl pgn1p impe ller havin g diroe nsi?n s and ailgl_e s as
sb~w n r.otates nt .?00 rpin. Assu ming a radia l direc uon: of v~loc11y at 225
th~ ·blad e entra nc~. ,calc_u,1~~ tl)e .flow ra.t!!. the ,press ure cliffere_nce 200
befu reen: inlel ~d. o~tle t of blad es, and the 11:irque.an d powe r rc!qu1red g_175.
l;•n'j~t thes.~~n~iioris. ::.:
-0 150
·:ll
.c 125
'°0
1--
100
75
50
25
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 30.0 0 350 0
P10. 26
50m m 10.2 7 Apum pwil hD= 50.0 .mm deliv ers Q ·=0.7 25 m 3 /s of wat er
at H = 10 mat its besl efficiency poinL If the spec ific spee d of the
T
pump i's 1.74, im.d tl1e. reqv.ired input ·poi,vet is 90 kW, dete rmin e
the shuto ff head, Ho, aild best efficiency, ,,. Wha t type of pum p is
tllis? If _lhe pump is now run al 900 rpm. by scali ng the. perf or-
'fo.2..-1 An ·axia l- o·ow •1an
;, .. op~p1
.... ,. .__1_J;.
- s· ·m s'-n. le·v·eJ a: r al I 350 rpm and
.. ,.,...- .. ... · = · '. · ·
manc e curve, estim ate thi:,· !11,W flow .@te. he;i.d, shutc;>ff head , and
bii:s a blad e tip djaµn eter of.3 ft and il rt>.b t diam eter of 2.5 ft, The re_qui.Jzjf pqwer.
. . - .,. .. -
Proble ms 501
1':>-_:128
Ali~ bcsl e_fficiency poiol {,,=;:O.8 7). a mixed.f low pump, is specifie d 10 be 65 pcrccnL Estimat e the delivery in liters per day
w1lh D = 16 in • delivers Q = 2500 cfm of water at H = 140 ft when and select an appropr iate operatin g speed.
operati ng atN = 1350 rpm. Calculat e the specific speed of this pump. 10.34 A blower has a rotor wilh 12-in. outside diamete r and 1O-in.
Estima te the required power input. Delermi ne lhe curve-fi t para- inside diamete r wilb I .~-in high rotor blades. The flow rate through
meters of the pump perfom1 ance curve based on the shuloff point the blower is 500 ft' /min at II rotor speed of 1800 rpm. The air_al
and lhe best efficien cy poini. Scale the perform ance curve to estimate blade inlet is in the radial directio n and the discharg e angfe is 30"
lhe flow, hc:;ad, efficien cy, and power inpul required to run the same from the tangenti al direction . Determi ne the power required by the
pump at 820 rpm.
blower motor.
10.29 Using I.he perform ance curves m Appendix. C, select the
___..:1 .Sin
smalles t diapiele r Peerless 8AE2OG pump operatin g· nt 1770 rpm that
~
will deliver a Dow of at leasl 2000 gpm for the pipeline shown. Deter-
t
L:...J
mine lhe actual flow rate and the pump electric-al power requirem ent.
'''" 1 /1
lT '~
El. 200 ft
l
10.35 A centrifu gal water pump has an impelle r with an outer
•
diamete r of 14 in. and a blade height of J in. It roe.ales at 1200
rpm. The flow encers parallel to the axis of rotation and leaves a_t
P10.29
an :mole of 35c with an absolute e;,cit velocity of 75 ft/s. Determ ine
10.30 A pump (Peerles s 8AE2OG , Appendix. C) opern.tes nt 1775 lhe w~cer flow rate. the corque. the horsepo wer required . and the
tpm and llas the 2O-in. inch impeller. il supplies th.e pipe-lin e below pressure rise.
while.o peratin g at maximu m efficienc y. Find the pipeline loss coef-
10.36 Append ix c;: contain s area bound curves for pump model
fici~rit K in the e_q ua~on hL = KQ~. wilh Qin gpm, for this coqdi6o n.
Neglec t local losses.
selectio n and perform ance curves for individu al: pump· models; y.s~
these data to verify the similari ty rules for a P~rless Type'4A El2
I.f nvo. of these pumps operate in pm:allel, what is the flow race
betwee n the .lWO reservoi rs? A$:,ume the pipeline /'{ value remains
=
pump. ,vith impelle r diamete r D I LO in.. operate d l!t · 1750 and
3550 nominal rpm.
unc hanged .
10.37 Con.side r the Peerless Type l6Al8l3 horizon tal spfit case
centrifo gai pump (Appen dix C). Use these p~rfor.m .ance data lo
verify the similari ty rules for (a) impelJe r diamete r change and
(b) operatin g speeds of 705 and 880 rpm (noce the scaje ci-umic
between speeds) .
10.38 Uso;i data fivm Append L~C to verify thesimi larjty rules for the
effecl e>f changin g the impelle r dirunele r of a _t;>eerless Type_4AE1t
pump operate d 111 1750 and 3550 nomina l rpm.
El. 100 ft 10.39 A centrifu gal water pump bas an iQlpeUer witb backw.m i-
curved vanes and an inner diamete r of 0.1 m. an outer diamele r of
0.25 m. anc;I a btad~ heighl of 4 cm. lt operall!S at.1200 rp~--Wl).ter
enter.. lhe impelle r at lbe blade angle of.SO~ and leaves at the blaqe
1 :o .31 A pumpin g sy~tem muse be specifie d for a _lift stntj~n ~ta ,~ns- angle of3O" . The volume flow rate is O. l8rn? / s.. Determ ine tp_e shaft
lewate r treatme nt fncillty. Tl:ie ave.r age_flow rat~ 1s _1_10 nulhon ht~rs lorque and power. Determi ne lhe pressu~ rise when the flu.id velocity
· · d the required lift is IO m. Non-clo gging .impellers musl be
per d ay· an . . . . . d .F , • I leaving the pump .d iffuser is lhe same as lliar enterin i,
us~d;· about 65 percent efficien cy 1s expecte . _o~ converu ent_mstn -
· • · - otors of 37 · 5 kW or less are. desired. Determi ne lhe 10.40 Calalog data for a centrifu gal watel' pun:ip at design .conc;li-
latton. e 1·ecm
···c··m
.
n~mbe r of ·m otor/pu mp units.needed nnd recomm end an appropn ale tions.ar e Q= 250 gpm and 4,p= 18.6 psi at 17$0 rpm. A h!l;o~e fy
flume requires 200 gpm at_ 32 fl of hel).d. The o~y motor availabl e
operali ng speed. . .. develop s 3 hp at 1750 rpm. Is this motor stJilable · for the laj,orato .ry
A . trifugal water pt.imp operates at 1750 rpm; the 1mpelle r flume? How mighl the pump/m otor match be improve d?
1 o.32 cen . . . 600 d b - I ?- ·
has backwa rd-curv ed vanes wuh /h =
'
an . 2 .- _,_:,cm: 1,l 11
10.41 A 1/3 sc;t.le model. of a centrifu gal water pump c:ui;i.ning .at
· ·.. · f o· 0?5 m3/s the radial outlet velocny 1s Vn, =3.::> m/s.
flow race o ., - · · • -o
, : . h h ad llus p·ump could deliver at 11:> rpm.· Nm = 5-100 rpm prod1,1ces a flQw tnte of Q,,, =l .m ~/ s witll .I!- jl~d.
Es1:1mnle I e e_ . . . . of H,n = 5.4 m. Assumi, ng .1be model and prototy pe efficien cies, ~
· · . sel of ei ht 3O-kW moJor-p ump umts 1s use!J to .debv_e r
1 compar able, esti.q111~e the. flow ra_te, -head, and p9wer reql,li,e me_n,L.i f
o , l3 A · 1 'e~~vation of 30 m. The effici.e ncy of lhe pumps
wa,~r throug , an . · the design speed is 125 rpm. ·
10.42 Someti mes the v,irinti'on of·wate r viscosit y with tempera ture Under steady~flow operating conditions. the frictiona l head loss is
can be used to n,;:hieve dynami c similari ty. A model pump delivers 290 ft of water in addition to the static lift. Estimat e the diam·e ter of
0.10 m3 /s of water at l5°C against a head of 27 m, when operatin g the commeccial steel pipe in the sys1em. Comput e the pumpm g power
~t ~600 tpm. D.etenru·n e the water tempera ture that must be used requirement ifthe·pu mp efficiency is 61 percenL
to obtnin dynami cnlly similar operatio n nl 1800 rpm, Estimn1e 10.49 A pump tiansfers water from one reservo ir to anothe r throug h
the · volume fiow rate .and head prodm;:ed by the pump at the two cast-iron pipes in series. The first is 3000 ft of9.-in; -diame ter pipe
h;,:wer~speed test conditio n. Comme nt .o n the NPSH requirem ents and I.he second is !000 ft of 6-in.-diamecer pipe. A constan t flow rate
for the two tests. of75 gpm is lapped off at thejuncl ion betweer i the two pipes . Obtain
10.43 A l.arge deep fryer at a snack-f ood plant contain s hot oil that is and plot the system head versus flow rate curve. Find the deliver y if
circulat ed through a heat exchan ger by pumps. Solid particles and the system is supplied by the pump of Exampl e 10.6 operat ing at
\vater droplet s coming .from the food product are observe d in the 1750 rpm,
flowing oil. What special factor.; must be conside red iri specifyi ng 10.50 Ped'orm ance data for a pump are
th~ opcmtin g ·conditi ons for the pumps?
Q 1 p.44 Data from tests of a pump, with a 12.3-in. -dian,et er impeller
Ii{ft) 179 165. .145 ft9. 84 43
operate d at 1450 .rpm ;ire O·
Q (gP,!11) t® 1500 2000 2500 3000
FJow:rali:.. ~20 40 60 80 100 r2p 14.0
.Q'JcfutJ · . .. Estimm e the delivery when the pump is used to move water betwee n
N~r:positive. 7.i 8 '.0 8,9. 10.3 p .s ti,:?! Ut9 two open reservoirs through 1200 ft of 12~in.-.d iameter comme rcial
!i~i::ii9n heii.ci steel pipe containi ng two 90° elbows and :mopen gate valve if the
.tegili~ ; elevatio n increase is 50 fl. Determi ne the gate valve loss coeffic ient
f./fl.$$ (~) 11eeded Lo reduce tlte volume flow rate by half.
10.51 .conside r I.he pump and piping system of Proble m 10.50. Q
Develo p and pl~t.a curve-f itequati on for NPSHR versus volume now Detemu ne the volume now rate and gate valve loss coeffic ient for
rote·in the form NPSHR "" a +.bQ2 • where a anc;l bare constan ts. If I.he tlte case of two identical pumps installed in paralfe l.
NPSHA.== 20 It... estimat e the maximu m allowab le now rate of
10.52 Conside r·Lhe pump and piping system of Problem I 0 .51. Esti- r ,
~spum p. mate tl1e percema ge reductions in volume flow rate that occur after ~
•1 0.45 A four-sta ge boiler feed pump has suction and discharg e lines (a}20 year;s and (b)40 years of use. if the pump charact eristics remain
of 1O cm and 7.5 cm inside diamete r. Al 3500 rpm,.the pump is rated constant . Repeat I.he calculation if the pump head Ts reduce d 1O per-
~t.0.025 m3 /s ~gainst a hend of 125 m while handling , waterat l 15°C. cent after20 years ofuse and 25 percent after4Q·years. Use the data m
Tbeinl e.t pressur e gage. located 50 cm below the impell.e r·centerl ine. the 1able below for the effect of age on I.he multipl ier of the frictio n
re;ds i 5.0 kPa. Toe pt1Illp is LO be foc;tory certified by tests al the same factor.
Oow rate .head'ri se. and.spe ed, but using wa1er at 27°C. Calcula te I.he
NPSHA :ririli¢p iJmp iQl~t~ the field installil tion. Evaluat e the suction
.head tlil)l mu~i:i, e used in .. the factory test to duplicat e· field suction Pipe Small Pip,es; Large Vipcs,
.cortdi tions, Age ~ears) ~l~iµ. I H_O in •
New 1.00· 1.QO
1 (>.46 A c_entrifug _al puinp operatir ig at N = 226~ rp~ lifts water
i:iehveeli two reservoi r.; !=onn~ ted by 300 ft. of 6-m.-d1ameter and 10 2.i o 1.60
20 .5:0~} ·2J)O
100 :ft 6{3-in. -di~tne ter cnst~iron pipe in serjes. Th.e gravity lift is
25·fL Estiftm te. the hea!l requir:e menl, I.lower needed. and h!>udy cost
30 1:1:5 ·2 .20
·4 0· 8:75 iA.b
of el~µ-ict {i.~~~r gyto p'u:g.-ip water nt ioo gpm to the higher reservoi r.
5.0 9'.'66 2:,sij
~slime tba, ·eI~dric~ty costs 12¢/kW • hr and that the elecnic motor
·effi.c;foncy js;ss percent.
60. 10.•0 ·~~to.
7.Q JO.I 4~70
g 1c;\4.t_Aj,':~tjaj:i\J~al p\lD'iP i_s iils~ed in a piping system • v,,i~
· L==.3O0:m of D=.4O,cril ca,st-uo n pipe. The d.o wnstrea m i:eservcnr
~ttl-fabeis ts m Ipwer lb~ the i.fpstreain res~rvo ir. Determi ne and plot 10.53 Conside r the flqw system shown in Problem 8.9.4. Assum e the g
the system 'head cµtve. Find the voluµ:ie flow rate (rilagnirud¢ :µid µ:iinimum NPSHR at the pump inlet is 15 ft of water. Select a pump
direclio l)}ihrou gh ·the system when the pump is not ope~tin g. Esti.- apprqpri at~ for I.his applic;a1~on. Use the data for increas e in friction
.ifulte the fric~on.' loss, paw~_r requirem ent; and hourly energy cost to fact9r w.ith pipe age given in Problem 10.52 to determ ine and com-
p.ump water at 1 m3 / s thrt>.~ gh I.his system. pare I.he system flow rate after JO years of operatio n.
d to.48. P<!,(!:,ofi he Wa).er supply fot the So.u.t h Rim of Grand CaI1yqn 10.5-4 A fire nozzle issuppljed .tlu-ough300 flof3-in .-diame tcrcan vas
~ :}fa.ti.on.al Park is uiken f.rqm tQe Colorad o River [54]. A flow rate of Hosew.ilh e = 0.00 I fl Wated'rt>m a hydrartt is•s upplied at 50 psig LO a
~00:gpm,uµ(enjiprti•tb~ riv.er al elevatio n 3734. ft is pumped to ;a st~r- booster pump on boaril I.he p.ui:npertrucic. At design operati ng con-
age tank a,top th~.$ oilth,$n ;i .at 7.022 ft elevatio n, P~ of the p1pehne ditions, the pressure at the nozzle· inlet is 100· psig and the pressu re
isab.9v,::cgrourti:I and part is .in ii. hol~ djre.ctio nally d.riUed at angles up drop,alorig the.hose is 33 p~j·pe'r 100 ftoflerig tl'i. Calcula te the design
w 70" noin the v~cal; theJpta lpipe length is approxi mately 13,200 ft. fiow rate arid Lhe maxirtfoi.ti nozzle exit speed. Select a pump
Prob lem·s 503
nppr opri_alc for lhis. nppli cnlio n, deter mine its etfic iency nl lhis oper- Calc ulate and plot lbe syste m chara cteri stic curv e of press ure .loss:
. aling. cond ,iti.o n, and ·c nJcul ate. tbe po.wet required 10 drive the pump . versu s ~olu me flow race; Estir nnte·the maxi mum-air flow speed 'ayoi l~
p to.5 5 Mari ufut: turer 's dntn for Ii subm ersib le utility pump nre able in-lh is wind tunne l test secti on.
6 -........-.- --r -.- ~- -.- .-~ '--. --i= -7
Jl;3 ·o.7 .f.~: :to 4.5 °6:0, · SiO' -
N= 1835 ,pm
fi!'l& '75_:, '7,l . .~1- § 1., -2i . ik _§ 4
"-
-q
ai 3 .·6
;; · ,s. ~
Th~'.OW!loer;s ...m:nnual -nlso sta~~ . ''.Note: Thes e ratin gs_~ -.b~e.d. on-
dasc h·a rge into 25~n;im;d inme tet pifiJ:. wfo~ friction ·1oss negle cted. illi5. 2 -.::::::::::::::;::;::::;:=::::;:;,-.....,::::::::::""'"------.,....::J: -~
t.Jsin g 20-m m,di nme ter gnrde il hose ad~ptor, perfo rtnnn c.e · will ~!} ~
. 2 i
red1,1ced appr oxim niely 15 peccenL" J'lot a performlihc·e .- cutv e for" ~ " 1, -i!:
the pum p: D.evc;_IQp II curve ~fit ~qunti.i:lQ for iii¢ perfo rtnnn ce clirv~; 0 ·1.,.-- ~-~---,2 !--3~ -4~-=--:s~-- -6}.-=---:1~.-:-.-a,: ;---.•,;;g--;1;,a,·----tn°-
sltow .the,Cl).rve-fi( on the plot: Ca.lcullite and pl9t.t he pufll e diliv ery 0 1
vorume riow rate,. Q (IOOo· elm)
vers us ·disc harg_e heigh l ll'lrt>ugh· ·;i. 15.-m. lenglll of stno.61,h. ,20-m m- P10. scj
dirur t_c ter gnrc!cn h.Qse. C:ompare widi th·e. curve for d1eliyery into
zo- mm- <iiam e.t er ·pipe. 1 Q •.60 Expe rime ntal test clata .for an ~ Cl!~~ ~: ~ ~IJJ~Il!P: ~
prese nted below: 11:iis gear pl!m p is requ ited tos,l: 'ppl). 'J~t J'¥1 ~~-
..Q 1 ~-5 6 Wat er is pump ed from :i fake a.t ~=~ 10 ~ larg_e stora ge tan!( 450 poun ds-pe r hour and 150 psig to t.li·e engi ne fuel coil~ ller. Tes~
loca ted on .n bluff abov e the lake. The pipe 1s· 3-m. -dinm eter ga.lvo- were cond ucted an O. 9o; and f O()p en:en t of the:t are dp~ :~~·Qf
tjiz~ d iron. The inlet secti on bc;lween the lake aQd the pump inclu des 4536 rpm. Ac each cons tant spee d. the'ba;c1' p~t e91 1 tll!f puin pwas .
one -roun ded inlet , one stand nro· 90° elbow . nnd 50 fl·.o f pipe. The set, _and the flow rate was meas ured . On-o ne ~ph; plor- c~~ -~ f
disc harg e -secti on betw een the pump outle t .and the _discharge; 10 press ure versu s deliv ery at the t.liree· crirts taiit spee ds. Estjm :ate the
lhe op~m·. t;mk inclu d.e s two. s.t andar d 90° elbow s, _one gate valve, pum p displ acem enl volu me:p er revol uti_9n. Calc ulate the volu metr ic
·ahd .150 ft cif . pipe. The pipe discharge intci .the side.or' th!! ll!,!ll-, is effic iency at each test poin t and skecc h·coo tours of cons tant, ,.,. Eval -
at·. it
z.= 70 C:li,lculate the syste m flo~~ curv~. l;sµm ate the syste m· u:ite the eqerg y loss caus ed by valv e throt tling at 100 per cen ts~
.q~c ntin g poin L Dete rmin e the powe r input t<;> the pump'•.ifi~ er,,i-
and Ji,tll deliv ery .to the engin e.
·cien cy al lhe oper ating poin t is 80 pei:cc!lL Sketc h the syste m c.unr e
whe n lhe wate r ievel -in lh.e. uppe r tank reach es_z=9 0 fl. If the wate r
J~v~ l :in the tippe r tan.k is at z. = 75 ft and the v.alve is paqi_ally clQ~!!d
to redu ce lhe flow ra\e.J o Q.J ft' /s, ske1~b thi sys~cm.cu rve f9r th.i.s
'; 'J -~ -i:; ·/= ~·i= n, t: ·:-:: P
:(ip!i>)°
=re ~~~~-
;(psig)', , (pp(i •) { rpm) (~ g) (p ph) ( rpm ) (~ g) ( pgli~.
~pe~ li~g con<H_tion. Wou ld yoµ expe cphe pump .effic iency 10 Qe · j gr · ·111.10
hjgl) er fqr. the first or sec_Q!ld ,pper ating conditjc;in? Why ?
100 17,30 ,~ s.~
4"iiJ~ , ,aOQ. 1s_:i o 43.55 300 11?0 4 53, ·:iso .1 ~'
g -jo. 57.J:>erforinance .<,lnta for- a:centrifugal fan of 3-ft diam eter 1este.d tiofi%) -4:W- .,_ !l l0 (96% ) 400 l 7~.§_ (l (w.;) _ -~ ' j :~$
·ac 750 rpm o,re $.Qti . . U7~0 500, lil-?,Q 350 45,
.cJ9'Q 1/fy,o 909; ! ~~
'"' f .:.oo
f' ' :.:,:'::' ::: :;:~::: :::'.

30
~ -··1 .:,_, ~oi>w -rot 116 2:i,Ji .:- 1,.,Hr .2s2
• Fuel flow rate mc;;1$i!Rd in poun ds per hour (pph).
Hydr-auli~ T1,1rbines,
H>-61 P~liminary calcu l.atici!)S fora by~l ec;:t :iiq-p 9.w~,geilera90~.
s~te ~h<;>w a: net
head,qf. ;235.0 ft.bi .iv:ajJ,atile ~~ a, ~fu t {f6\,;, ~ -~f
-Piot ¢e· perf.ormiiric_e ~.alll versu s vc'>ll\J1\e 'fl?~ rote: Ca.lculii1¢ ~ta~<;
75 w/~.
(;;<J!]lpare the g~Ol1!Clcy ~d ~¢ie r.icy ot Pel.toii. wh..~
fiff.i cienc y, and sho\Y the·c urv~ ~ntJ~e i:,loL Fmd . I.lie l:\t;Sl efficiency.
9.i:signed to run~ (o) 450.qjm anp (b) -WO q,m.. · ·
10.6 2 Cond iti9n s at the inlet t9 the n<;>zzj_e of a , Pelto n ~h~ J,!lre
p.01.n , an
:. ·· ··'t... .·. d·. spe ·· cify the fan r.;itjng =at tliis point.
. .· .. . . . . = =
p 7(JQ psig and V 15 mph . The je~. ciiartJ.etet is. d 7.5 in:; lllid =
, io ..58 Th_e .ped" oqmu u;e onta' Q.f P-!oblei:n L0:5.7 aie• :oc !l ;36-in.- lbe nozz le· loss c~ff icien t is l(nozJr. =0.0 4. The Whee l dimneteI> is
_Q .clifu iieter ,fiµi whee t 1']te f;in ,nlso 1~ manu fai;~_i:ed with 42-. ~8-. = At ;,;.;,;_o::s6:
4';; -~ d....('i_Q-i(l,-~iaJ'l'!eter whee ls: :1c~. :1, stan~ :® fan ,to ~eliv er
D 8fL this • oper;itirtg. co~di.ti<;>n; ·C:l!Jqda:i
powe r outp ut. (b};:th e nQrm al ,9pet nting s~ed , (c-) the ~P.P.~~jrp~r~
.the: : c; i
5
6 00·. f-2 /s ,?gnivst -~ 1_-.in.. w~te r stouc p~u n; .rise.- D¢te mune tJ:i_e ru_n away spee d, (d} ~ e torqu e at no:tiliiil o ~ g . ~ - ·.~!1-
~qoiri;::cJ fnQ spe~ d and input ,pp \Ye[ ,(!:.q111red. . . (e} the appr oxim ate toiq_~ t ~.z ~ s~~-
10 59 Perf orma nce c;;h!)JU~teristi¢s of Ii H9w d¢n Bu~fuldo.o."tml fl~thw
.r--9 _ 10.6 3 A Frort cis turbi ne. is "to oper ate utidet a head of. 46 m on<i-
l=:::;L . ' are r:esented below . The fan is use~ to powe r n wm, nm_n e._1 w1 d.elivei: 18.6, M.W ~rul e ru~ni: ~ ~io.
q,µ1. The ~~ diamd~i
fap .P · · ··s···e·'c·n·on· Thet unnel:cons1sts·o fosm ooi1: !mle tconn acis 4 m. A 1-ni:.Wam.eter mode l ·is,.o peta ~d iii a: lnJxir atoi:y ·$ ~'
l fl· squa re tesL .. · ·· · · · ·
;-.. - . · ·. . . e· och with loss coeff icien t K = :0,12 ,,thM esfs~tion, the same h~ad. Find. the m9_qel spee d, po~e r, on(i fJ~w r.ite.
uon;- two s~rel:nS. • . d ? ,, .. · d' ·
. ." . . . · · · • · · h. re the.c ross s.~i:uon -1s.ei tpnnd e_ to.-~-.,,m.- 1ame1er
and a d1ffu ser ..w e · ·.. ···· · .b·n""
· •- •· tp th 10.6 4 A Knpllll) (prop ellet with vc!rillbie;pitl<h:,blac:fes} tur-birie with
.· .· . · . - F.1
. • ·
at,~ e•fllf l inlet-. ..• ow uv .. . .. ,.,i.,..m ~-d fo: fun is.discho.rg ecl . e room .
a i.ited cnpa ciLy of 83 MW at a head of 14..m,an d:_8 6-q>Dl ~ -oiie
504 Cha pter -1·0 Flui d Mac .hin ery
of l4 units instn lled.ut the McN ary proje ct on the Colu mbia Rive r. 10.6 9 An -impu lse \Urbine is to deve lop 15 MW rrom a sing le whe el
The cbsrn c;:ter istic runn er diam eter is 7 m. If n 6-m head is avail able at a locat ion where the net head is 350 m. Dete m1in e the appr opri ate
in the labo rator y. wha t shou ld be the mod el scale , flow role, speed . whee l diameter, and jet diam eter for singl e- and mult iple-jct
and rpm? opera tion. Com pare with a doub le-ov erhun g whee l insla llal.i on. Esti -
10.6 5 Fran cis rurbi ne Unit s 19. 20. and 21. insta lh:d al the Gran d mate the required wale r consun1ption.
·Cou lee ];>am on the Colu mbia Rive r. are ·v~ry• large [55]. Each runn er 1 o . 70 An impu lse turbi ne unde r a net head of 3·3 fl was teste d _a t a c:::J
1~·32: 6 ffin .diai' n¢ter and conu µhs 550 ions of cnsl steel . At rated con- varie ty of speeds. The flow r;1te and the bro.kc force need ed to set the -
ditio ns. each turbi ne deve lops 820. 000 hp at 72 rpm unde r 285 ft of impe ller speed were recorded:
head . Effic iency is nearl y 95 perce nt nt rated cond ition s. TI1e tw-bines
oper ate at head s from 2.20 to 355 ft. Calc ulate the speci fic speed at
rated oper utini cond ition s. Estim ate the maxi mum wate r flow rate W\1.~ci $p!!ed Flo,v Rate · D~k e tfo-r ce ().bf)
thro1.1JW e11i;h -turb ine. (tpm )
. 0
(cfm ) · <8 = cfsrt>
_ 10.. 66 ?,;,fcasured data for perfo rman ce or the react ion turbi nes at 7.74 2:63
~ Sb~ ~ Daro neip- R~d ing. Calif ornia . are show n in Fig. 10.38 . Each 10()0 7.74 2Ao
turbi ne -is ruted .nt 103.0 00 hp when oper ating :u 138.6 rpm unde r a 150Q 7!74 1 .22
}900 7 .44· L.91
net bead of 380T t. Eval uate the spec ific spee d and comp ute the shari
2200· 7.02 L45
.-que deve lope d by each turbi ne nt rated _opera 1i~g cond itions .
10
Calc ulate ruid plot the wate r flow -rate per tutbm e requi red to prod uce
'2350 $.~ 0:87
2t.,Q9 4.62 0;34
riit¢c! outp µt pow er as. a funct ion of head.
2700 4.08 0:09.
1 o.6.i For~ flow rate of 12 L/s and tur_ b ine spee d of 65 rpm, csti-
m_n tc ·!,he po_w er truns fom: d from jet to turbi ~e whee l.
Calcu late and plot the mach ine powe r outp ut and effic ienc y as a func -
_ (D 50 mm Pipe
tion of wate r turbi ne speed .
10.7 1 The absol ute velocities nnd direc tions of lhe jets ente ring
ILI
I and leavi ng the bl_nde syste m nre ils show n. Calc ulate the pow er
trans ferre d from the jet 10 the blade syste m and the blad e angl es
\, Wate r requi red.
1.2 m cl
22/E
"-v
30°
P10 .67
1:0 ;68 The velo1;ilY. of _the.·w ater. jet drivi Qg this_impu is~ !Urbine .is P10.71
4.5,rp/s. Tiie:jet 'U8S''.#, 75-(!lJ]l dial1 'ete,. Afte r· lea,•~h¥" tfi~ bil~kets 10.7 2 A smnH hydi:aulic impu lse turbi ne is supp lied wit.h . wat er g
ilie'iibsolu~ vefoc.iJ.Y'O fthe·v.•lifo ris obse rved to be l:,m /s m n d1rec- throu gh a pe·n stock ivitl1 diam eter D-nnd lengt h L; the jet diam eter
:ti()n~0~-itdmnt ofi]j e qrigi nal jeL Cnlc ~late the mean iangenl.inl force; is d . TI1e elevation difference betw een the rese_rvojr sµrfa ce an~ noz -
, · ~ ,by-.:tlJCc ·Jit. oo·· the turbi ne whee l w:id the spee d (rpm ) of
.~~ -- ' . . ··· .. . zle cente rline isZ: Tile no~l e h·e nd loss .coef ficie nt is Knorz Jc and the
tlie w.necl. loss coeff icien t from the reser voino tl1e pens t9,:_kent c;m~ e is K= •= -
Dete mune [J1e wate r jetsp eeQ, the volum e fiow rate, arid the hyd rau-
w
lic powe r of the jet; for the case wher e Z = 300 "rt. L = I 000 ft
D'·= _6in., Kcntr.llla:=0 ..5, Knozzic=0.04 and d=2 in .• if the pipe is
mad¢'from comm erci:i l steel: ·riot the jet pow er as a fun·c ti:on of jet
diarne~er lo deter mine the opliitium jet dil!-ffieter and the resu lting
I
hydra ulic·p ower of1he je1. Com ment on ihe effec ts of vary ing the loss
_Q .9·m d e> coefficien!-S-nnd pipe tough ness.
Pro pell ers and Wind,- Pow er Ma clii nes

.t : ·, . . 10.7 3';;\f nnbo at in the Fioti d_a I::vc;rglades is.po were d.by a prop elle r
~ ~-" = .:.-~ ~.- - . with -D-= 1.5 m drive n :it .max imum . spee d, N = 1800 q.,m , by -n
l;tS kW-.engin e . .Es1ima1~ llje !1]aximum thrus t prod uced by the ·pro~
L1~ mrn4 - · pellerar.(o,) standstill and {b) V = ·12.5 mjs·.
PlQ. 68.
Proble ms 505
g 1°.-_?'4 Ajet-·p ropcUed aircraft lniveling at 225 m/s takes in 50 kg/s 10.81 .A model of an .Ameri.c an multibla de farm windmi ll :is· to be·
of air. If Qie propuls ive efficieilcy.(defined 05 the ratio of the useful built for.disp lay. The model, wi~ D= Im, 1s to.develcip,full power
~vork-o utputto.lhe mechan ical .energy input 10 the fluid) ofthe:oircraft at V= JO m/s wind speed. Calcula lc lhe angular speed of!he model
is 45_percent , .determi ne the speed a'i which the·exha ust is discharg ed for optimum power. generation.. Estinw.tc lhe pPwer outpuL
~li}µve ~o .lh!! am;:rafL · 10.82 A large Oarrieu s vertical axis wind turbine was ·built by the g
1_0 ., 7S-.Wh en nn•air jet.of 1-iri;-dia meter·slr ikes a series of blades on a U.S. Departm ent of Energy near Sandia, New Mexico [48]. This
tuttiine •.rotor, lhe · absolute veiticities are•·as shown. If the air is machin e is 18.m. t,ul and has a 5-m.~~l ius; .the; areasw.e_pt by lhi:-to~t-
aj,s1i'nied to l1ave tr constan t specific weight of0.0S- lbf/fr1. what is is over J IO m 2 • inhe rotor is consti'a:iiieq to rotateat 70. rpm. piqt.~e
the.forc e on -ihe turbine rotor? How much.ho rsepowe r is transferred power this wind turbine c;an Pr.oc!I!~ ii) kilow ~ .fqr wiild speeds
to, tJ1e,ro1or? Whal must be the velocity of the blade system? between 5 and 50 kn:Ots..
1 o,83:Sh ow that•this duc1ed.propeUe.r,sysleq i w.J-ien.m oviog•for-ward
al velocity V1 will have·an efficien cy given by2Vi/( V.a + Vj). Iffora
t II 4QQ.fl/s
specific design and point ofopera tion, V~/V. =9/4 .µic:J V,./Vi =5/4,
wbnl fraction of lhe· j:Jropols1ve force· will be· corttribuiecl: (a)·by I.he
: !',<$, • propell_~r. and, (Q) by the duct?
.
~
':,G
_.
@ @
P10.75
,-
1
I
19s76 l11e voh1me flow rate ~rQugh the .propell er of an ~rboat
(11 bo11t. driven by ·tr. propelle r moving air} is 50m3is. · W11eit' the boot
is docked . the speed of the slipstrea m behind the prtipclle rnt alocatio o
--
v, I
whe~ the flow has .returne d atmosph eric pressure i;;;.40 mis. ·uetel'.-
i;nin~ (a) the propelle r diamete r, (b) the lhru.s1 produce d when tli!? boat
P10.83
is docked., (c) I.he.thrust produce d at lhes~e flow rate ,vh~n. the airpoat
!~ •movin g ahead nt 15 mis, and (d.) the mli."<ll!lun1 speed of die bo:iL
10 ..84 This duc1ed•p ropellei "unir(n.o w operatin g as amrbi!_l~) is ~w~.
1.0 ,77 The propelle r for the Gossam er Condor Jluman-powei:ec! aif- through still water at a speed of 7.5.m/s. Calcull i~ \hi:: inaximwn.
cran- has D = 12 ft and rotates at N = l 07 rpm; Th¢ wing lpading is
power that the propell~ r can develop. Negl~t all fr.ictit>ri e.fl'cc~.
0.4 lbf/ft2 of wing area, the drag is approx.ima1el_)' 6 lbr" at
12 ri\ph, the total weight is· 200 l!>f, and the effectjv e•nsp~ct i:ncio
.- is 17. Estimat e the dimensi onless perform.µ1~e· d1atac::ter:iscicis niJ~
efficien cy of this P.n::ipeller·.ut.cru.is·e cpmUtions. ·Ass1,1111.e the pilot
e,tpend s 70 perc.e rtt of ti)ilJCim.u.m p.ower tit Cll!ise. (See Referen ce
[5(5] for more irifom:iation,on niiman-pq,vered. flig.h t.)
TOW•rop_e r
0.9rd
10.78 A typicnl Ameiicliri muhi_!>lncJe farm.,viridm_ill l)as· D =1 ft
and is designe d to ··pcgdµ<;:e: 111axitnu m p.q wcr in winds \vi!Ji.
P.10 •.84
•
·v""' 1.5 mph. Esrimn! e .~re:=rate, of .W~tC.I'· c!eiiyecy. a:s a fun~µp~ of
the height IQ which tlie ,vn~~r-.-is:p.1.m:iped. ·
10.79 Ari airplane f:ljes •!!t ioo,krn /h llvc>11gh stiU air of speciflc 1 ~~85 ~uin.in um.extrusi<ins, pa~.m ed·nfiei fN{\.CA sy.mme ttic air"' gJ
f01l s~t\OllS, frequen tiy .~ used to fonn: Dan:ieu s wind wrbine 0
~eight l;l N/m3 • Thepi:ij pel!9;ri~ 2.4tnin:diiunete r;wdits sljpstrenm.

"'.blades." BelQW ;iii;·section· lift nr;id'dra g,t:oef.Q!;i~n( ~[a [S'h f6r-·!).
bas a velocity of29() iqn/h .reJaciye,t o.thefys el.nge; ~nkultitc; (a) the
NA,CA 0012 section reste,d at Re ;;;::6 x I;Q~ vi~th.,sWidafd rol!gbnCS$.
propeller efficiel!CY. (~),tl1e·vf li>!:i~y iprQ!lgh. the pl!IJ1e gf 'l.1e·propel- 1'h¢. Section stalled for-·ct.> 12": ·
ler, · (c) the power io_put,,(9 ) ~e p_pwer .outpuS, (e} the thrust .of'the
p~pell er, an!i (f) tl)e pt¢ssure.differc!lce :ic;:CQssJhe propeller. disk.
1 o.'so This ducted prc>~ll~r;.u.;.itdrives a ship t~ughs lill ,vater a.t n
.o 2 4 6
sp.e ~ of 4.5 m/s. -Willtirt,tlieduct tlle ~ean vel9C!t yofthe ,vate,r rel~
ative to the unit is. 15.inf!i. p als !!1'1!e the pr.opuls'.v~fon;e p~uce d 0 ·0 .23 0 .45 0.68 '0.81 0.94 1.02
by tpe uniL Calculi:_i.1~ itte (o~:e eXei:ted on lhct O!!tQ by llie pt9pel!e r. ,cp:effici[Qt;
A~cou nt f()r the·.diffe rert~e,'be~w.~en. th~.e forces.
: ..e
_:l; >
·~
c
o·p
.·~·-~
.:. ··-
,a&U/
·.·~~'·.>·-•·:.~.· -~
.·:-.g
·...
(
._
·o··•..•o-··o·98 .o, •,01
, ·.~ ..•. .
00 o.• 0119
. . • .-,. , . .
oo
·., . , • .J:'!:7 ·. •0:1 94
-o•·..
!t
11 m·d .
¢~. (se-)
!~ -'._-.
i-- -=- --=- - Analyze I.he air flow relative to n bl.a!:le clement of a I)anicu s wind•
turbi!le rouuing ab9ut its trcipqski~n n."tis. ~velop a nurneric a\ q1od~l
.P,0.80
fQr lhe blade element . Calcula te lhe pqwer coeffici ent develop ed by
506 chapter10 Fluid M'achinery
the blade .elc:ment .as n function cif ,up-speed ratio. Compare your prototype is builr to help detennine operability for the prototype.
result with .the -genernJ trend of power output for Dnrrieus rotors If the model takes in air at ideriticnl conditions to the prototype design
sn0 wo in Fig. 1 OA9. point. what will the mass flow and power requirement be for opera-
1 o.86 What is ·the mn.~im1fm power that can be expected from a tion at 80 percent efficiency?
windmill 30 -ri:I iri diitifletetin a wind of S:O km/h'? Assume air density 10.89 A compressor has been designed for entrance conditions of
1.225kg/in3 • 14.7 psia and 70°F. To economize oil the power required. it is being.
10.87 -ff an id~hvindrriill'is operating at best efficiency in a wind or Lested with a throttle in the entry duct Lo reduce the entry pressure.
48km/h, what is the velocity through the disk and at some distance The characteristic curve for its nonnal design speed of 3200 rpm
behind (h·e ,vindniill? Wl1at is the thrust on this windmill, assuming a is to be obLUined on a day when the ambient' temperature is 58°F.
diameter of60 m and an air density of 1.23 kg/m3 '? What are the At what speed should the compressor be run? At the point on the
mi:;ari pc:e.ssure.s'just ahead of and directly behind the windmill disk? characteristic curve al which the mass flow would normally be
125 lbm/s, the entry pressure is 8.0 psia, Calculate the actual mass
flow rate during the te,st.
compre~s1ble_-Fl_ow Turbomachine!? 10.90 We haves·een many examples in Chilpter7 of replacing work-
1o . 88 A prototype air compressor with a cpmpression ratio of 7 is ing fluids iri order lo more easily ac_h ieve similit\Jge between models
designed to tnlce 8.9 kg/s ?,ir at 1 atmosphere and 20°C. The·d~ign and protolyp~ . Describe theeffec1s oflesling an air compres sor using
point speed, power fl}quirement, and efficiency are 600 rpm, helium ns the working fluid Qn the dime.nsionle.ss and dimensional
5.6 MW. wtd 80 percent; resp~ctjvely. A l:5,scnle model of the parnmeters we have discussed for compressible flow machines.
C HAPTER 1 1
Flow in Open Channels
'fhi Bc1si<;: <;:oncepts and -Defiiiitic;>ns 1 1.5 Steady Uniform Flow
f.1.2 ' Energy Equa~ton fqrOpenc.,,rhaiihelFICiW.s 11.6. Flow with (;raduallyvaryin,g Depth
11.3 Localized Effect oJ Area CharJge (Frictic;i!"ile~s Flqw) 11.7 Pischar~e Meas1,1 rernent Usl ng Wei rs
'11.·4 T,he r!ydrc1Ulic.Jump · - 11.s. S1,1mmacyan{I Useful Eq1,1J3tiqns
Case St udy
Many flows of liquid_s .in engineering arid in nature occur With a single tesc,urce of renewable water supplies in the state of
free surface. A_n example of a human:..made channel that Arizona.
carries water is shown in t_he photograph. This is a view of the The design· of the CAP involved many of the engineerfn•g prin~
19 o-. mile-long H~yden-Rhodes Aqueduct, which is part. of the ciples we wHI study in this chapter. Be-cause of the large flow rate
Central Arizon;a Project (CAP): The CAP is a 336~mile (541 km) of water, the aqueduct was designed c!S an open ·c hannel with a
diversion canal used to redirect water from tlie Colorado.Ftiver trapezoidal cross section that provided the srnall!:St channel for
into central arid s01Jth~m Afi~Qna. The CAP origiM~te~ in 1.ake the desired flow rate, Gravity is the driving force for the flow,
Havasu on the western boi:c:ll)!r .of Arizona, tray~is: thr9ugl:i .t he and the l;:ind was graded to give the correct slope to the channel
Phoenix area, and terminates indi'e SanXavierindi'an Reservation fQr th1,dlow; As lake Havasu is nearly 3000 feet below the terrrii-=
sqtithwest ofT1,1cs9n. It. is (!esigned- to ~~rty ~bout 1-5 milfiqn nus; the finai aqu~clud: design included 15 purnj>ing, stat~qns;.
acre-feet of Colorado Ri_\igr:water per year, mc1king iqheJat11:est eigtft.in..,ettecl sJphons; and three tunnels.
508 Chap ter 11 Flow in Open Chan nels
Free surfa ce flows differ in sever al impor tant respe cts from the flows in closed condu its that we stud ied
in Chap ter 8. Fami liar exam ples where the free surfac e of a water flow is at atmos pheri c press ure inclu de
flows in rivers , aqued ucts, irriga tion canal s, roofto p or street gutter s, and drain age ditch es . Hum an-m ade
chann els, terme d aqued ucts, encom pass many differ ent types, such as canal s, flume s, and culv erts.
A canal usual ly is below groun d level and may be unline d or lined. Canal s gener ally are long and
of very mild slope ; they are used to carry irriga tion or storm water or for navig_a tion. A flum e usua lly
is built abov e groun d level to carry water acros s a depre ssion. A culve rt, which usual ly is desig ned
to flow only part-f ull, is a short cover ed chann el used to drain waler under a highw ay or railr oad
emba nkme nt.
Figur e l 1. 1 illusu -ates a typica l exam ple of water flowing in an open chann el. The chan nel, often
called an aqued uct, carrie s water from a sourc e, such as a lake, across the Earth 's surfa ce to wher e the
Fig. 11 •1 A typica l examp le of an open-c hanne l flow of water; located in California's Central Valley with suppl y pipes visil;>le
In b.ackg round.
11.1 Basic Concepts and Definitions 509
water is needed. oflen for crop irrigation or as a water supply for a city. As you can see in this
photograph, the channel is relatively wide with sloped sides and has a gradual slope that allows the
water _to proce~d downhill. Water enters this aqueduct through large corrugated pipes from a higher
elevat;Ion; the pipes are used because the slope of the hillside is too sceep for an open channel. The struc-
ture at the entrance to the aqueduct could be a low head curbine that extracts power from the flow-
ing water.
In this chapter we will introduce some of the basic concepts in open-channel flows. These flows are
covered in much more detail in a number of specialized texts r1 -8]. We will use the control volume
concepts from Chapter 4 to develop the basic theory that describes the behavior and classification of
flows in natural and human-made channels. We shalJ consider.
• Flows for which the local effects of area change predominate and frictional forces may be
neglected. An example is flow over a bump or depression, over the short length of which friction
is negligible.
• Flow wit/z a11 abrupr clwi1ge in depth. This occurs during a hydraulic jump in which the water flow
goes from fast and shallow to slow and deep in a very short distance (see Fig 11.12).
.• Flow at whar is called 110n11al deprh. For this, the flow cross section does nOl vary in the flow direc-
tion; the liquid surface is parallel to the channel bed. This is analogous to fully developed flow in
a pipe.
• Gradually varied flow. An example is flow in a channel in which the bed slope varies. The major
.o bjective in the analysis of gradually varied flow is to predict the shape of the free surface.
lt is quite common to observe surface waves in flows with a free surface, the simplest example being
when an object such as a pebble is thrown into the water. The propagation speed of a surface wave is
analogous in many respects to the propagation of a sound wave in a compressible fluid medium ( which
we discuss in Chapter 12). We shall deteml.ine the f!lctors that affect the speed of ~uch surface waves. We
will see that this is an important dete[Jllin,int in whether an open-channel flow is able to gradually adjust
to changing conditions downstream or a hydraulic jump occurs.
lQIS chapter also includes a brief discussion of flow measurement techniques for use in open
channels.
11 .1 Basic Concepts and Definitions

Before analyzing the different types of flows that may occur in an open channel. we will discuss some
~ommoo concepts and state some simplifying assumptions. We are doing so expljcitJy, because there
are some important differences between our ·previous studies of pipes and ducts· in Chapter 8 and lbe
study of open-channel flows.
One significant difference betwe_e n flows in pipes and ducts is
• The driving force for open-channel flows is gravity.
(Note that some flows in pipes and ducts are also gravity driven (for example. flow down a full drain-
pipe), bu.t typically flow is driven by a pressure difference generated by a device such as a pumps)
The gravity force in open-chanl)el flow is opposed by friction force on the solid boundaries of the
ct1annel.
Simplifying Assumptions
The flow in an open channel, especially in a natural one such as a river. is often very complex, three-
dimensi.~~al, and unsteady. However, in mos t cases. we can obtain useful results by approximating such
flb~s as being:
• Onesdimensional.
• Ste ady.
51'0 chap ter 11 FloW ·in-O pen Chan nels
A third simpl ifying assum ption is:
• The-f low at each sectio n in an open- chann el flow is approximated as a 1111iform veloc ity.
Altho ugh !:)le actua l veloc ity in a chann el is really ncit uniform, we will justif y this assu mpti on.
Figur e 11.2 indica tes the region s of the maxim um velocity in some open- chann el flow geom etrie s.
The minim um veloc ity is zero along the waUs becau se of viscosity. Meas ureme nts shc;>w that the regio n
of maxi mum veloc ity occur s below the free surface. There is a negligible shear stress due to air drag
on the free surfa ce, so one would expec t the maxim um veloc ity to occur at the free surfa ce.
How ever, secon dary flows occur and produ ce a nonun iform velocity profile with the maxi mum usua lly
occur ring below the surfac e. Secon dary flows also occur ,vhen a chann el has a bend· or curv e or has an
obstr uctio n, such as a bridg e pier. These ol;>structions can produ ce vortices that eroC,e the botto m of a
natur al chan]1el.
Most open- chann el flc;,ws of water are large in physical sc·~e. so the Reyn olds numb er is gene rally
quite high. Cons equen tly, qpen- charin el flow is seldo m laminar, and so we will assum e that the flow in
open chann e1s is alway s turbu lent. As we saw in earlie r chapters, turbulence tends to smoo th out the
veloc ity profi le (see Fig. 8.11 for turbu lent pipe flO\v and fig. 9.7 for turbu lent boun dary layer s). Hen ce.
altho ugh there· is a veloc ity profil e in an open chann el flcl\v, as indicated in Fig. l l.2, we will assu me a
unifo rm veloc ity at eacll S~tfo n, as illustr ated in Fig. 11.3a.
The next simpl ifying assiJniption we make is:
• The press ure distri butio n is ~ppro ximat ed as hydro static .
This is illust rated in Fig. 11.3b an_c;l is a signif icant difference from the analy sis of flows in pipe s and
ducts of Ch~p ter 8; for these we found tbal the pressu re was uniform at each a.xil:ll loc;at ion and varie d
in the streamwise direct ion. In open-chann el flows , the fre_e surface will be at atmos pheri c .pres sure (zero
gage) , so cl1e press ure at the s1,1rface do·es not vary in µie direction of flow. Th.e majo r p~es!>ure varia ti~n
<;>ccurs acros s each sectio n; this will l:>e exact ly true if stream line ~µrvarure effect s are negH gible , whic h is
often the case.
As in the case of turbu lent flow in pipes , we. must rely on empir itai correl ations to relate fricti onal
effec ts to the avera ge veloc ity of flow. The empiric;al correb1tion is included throu gh .a head loss term in
the energ y equat ion (Secti on 11.2). Addit ional compli¢atio.os in many practi cal cases inclu de the
Region qf
' - -- -- '
,7
maxim um velocity
Triang ular Trapezoidal
chann el channel
, .... __ .,.,I
•
Shallo w chann el Narrow rectangular chann el

Fig. 11 • 2 Region of m,!xim um velocity in some typical Qpen-channel geometries. (Based on Chow [1].)
•
•
-- V
--
-•
Cal Approximate velocity profile (b) Approximate pressure
distribution (gage)
Fig. 11.3 Approximations for velt;,city profile and pressure distribution.
presence of sediment or other particulate matter in the flow, as well as the erosion of earthen channels or
StrUc:tures by water action.
Channel Geometry
Channels may be constructed in a variety of cross-sectional shapes; in many c;ases regular geomenic
·sfl~pes _.µ:e used. A channel with a constant slope and cross section is termed prismatic. Lined canals
often are built with rectangular or trapezoidal sections; smaller troughs or ditches sometimes are nian-
gular. Culverts and tunneis generally are·circular or elliptical in section. N'arural channels are highly
h·reguJar and nonprismatic, but often they are approximated using trapezoid or paraboloid sections. Geo-
metric properties of common open-channel shapes are summarized in Table 11.1.
The depth offlow, y, is the perpendicular distance measured from the channel bed to the free surface.
The flow area, A, is the cross section of the flow perpendicular to the flow direction. The wetted perim~
-eter, P. is the length of the solid channel cross-section surface in contact with the liquid. The hydraulic
radii,s, R1,, is defined as ·
A
8,, =;.p (ILL}
For flow in noncircuhtr close_d conduits (Section 8.7), the hydraulic diameter was defined as
4A
D1,=- (8.50)
p
Thu.s , for a . circular pipe, the hydra.u lic diameter, from Eq. 8.50, is. equal to the pipe· diameter. Froni
Eq: lLl , the hydraulic radius for a circularp\pe would then be half the actual pipe radius, whicli. is
a bit conf\lsing! The hydraulic radius, as defined by Eq. l 1. 1, is comrno~y used i~ tlie analysis of
qpen-channel flows, so_it will be used thro~ghout this ch~pter. One reason foi: this usage is that the
hyl;lro_u ljc radius of a w19e channel, as seen m_Table 1 ~-1, 1s equal to the 11,ctual depth,
:fi;>r r:u;>nrectangulat chann~ls, the hydraulic depth 1s defined a,s
A
,)fh = /,~ (t t.2)
I .ere b is the width at the surface. He.nee the hydraulic depth ~presents the average depth of tb_e cban-
W l s
nel at any- •
cross section. It gives th d h if . l .
e ept o a11 .equ1w1 enr rectangular channel,
512 Chapter 1-1 Flow in Open Chann els
Table 11.1
G_e ometri c Proper ties of Comm on Open-C hannel Shap·e s
Aow Wetted Hydrau lic
Shape Section Ar:ea.A Perimet er, P Radius, R 1,
Trapezo idal 2\· y(b +y Col a)

y (b + y col a) b +-.-·-
sma
b + ?>"
Sin!)
2y
Trinngu l_a r y 2 COi f,1·
sin a
Rectang ular by b+2y _l!L_

b+2y
Wid~A nt by b )'
Circula r (a-sin a ) s
oi aD
2
D
4 ( sin
J - -a-
a)
Spee d of Surfa ce Wave s and the Froud e Numb er

·we v.•ill learn later in this chapter that the behavio r of ari open-channel flow as it encoun ters downs tremi1
changes (for exampl e, a t;,ump of the bed surface, a narrowing of the channel, or·a change in slope) is
strongl y depend ent on whethe r the flow is "slow" or "fast." A slow flow will have time to gradu ally
adjust to change s downsu'el)Jl'l, wherea s. a fast flow will also sometimes graduc!-lly adjust but in some
situatio ns will do so "violen tly" (Le., there will be a hydraulic jun'tp; see Fig. 11.12 for an examp le).
~e questio n is what constitu tes a slow· or fast flow? These vague descriptions will be made rn:ore precis e
now. It turns out that the speed at which surface waves travel along the surface is key to defini ng more
precise ly the notions of slow and fast.
To de~enn ine tbe-spe.e d (or celerity) of surface waves, conside r an open channe l with movab le end
wall, contain ing a liquid.initiµ.lly at rest. If the end wall is given a sudden motion , as in Flg. 11.4a. a wave
forms and cravels dqwn the channe l at some speed, c (we assume a rectangular channe l of width, b, for
simplic ity).
If we shift coordii lat_e s so that we are traveling with the wave speed, c, we obtain a steady contro l
volume , as shown in Fig. 11.4b (where for now we assume c >A\/). To obtain !}n expres sion for c, we
11.1 Basic Concepts and Definitions 513'
Wave moving Control

.o.v
-
~
at speed c
~~
,!.
=.O.y
volu~e-~ -- -.v~y~_~t.i:.~! ______ -;
'' Flui d moving:

Fluid : Flu id moving
moving at Fluid at at speed at speed '
speed 6 1' y+6y (c - L'> VJ C y
rest y
E----
- • ' <::- '
I
L ________________________J
+ \' I
.O.::r
la) Absolute coordinates (bl Coordinates at rest relative to wave
Fig. 11.4 Motion of a surface wave.
Will use the continuity and momentum equations for this control volume. We also have the following
assumptions:
1 Steady flow.
3 lJnif9nn velocity at each section.
4 Hydrostatic pressure distribution al each section.
5 Frictionless fiow.
Ass_u mption 1 is valid for the control volume in shifted coordinates. Assumption 2 is obviously valid for
our liquid flow. Assumptions 3 and 4 are used for the entire chapter. Assumption 5 is valid in this case
because ,ve assume the area on which it acts, bl!..x, is relatively small (the sketch is not to scale), sq the
tot~ friction force is negligible.
For an i11compressible flow with 1111ifom1 velocity at each section, we can use the appropriate form of
continuity from Chapter 4, ·
(4.13b)
Applying Eq. 4.13b to the control volume, we obtain
(c-.t:i,. V){(y+ 6.y)b }-cyb = 0 (IL3)
or
cy-6. Vy+c6.y-A \16.y-cy = 0
Solving for 6.\1,
. fly
.0.V= c - -
· - (11.4)
y+!ly
For the moD1entum equation, again with the assumption of uniform velocity at each section. we can use
the following form of the x component of momentum
Fr=Fs
• •
afc
+Fu-• = -aI CV 11pd¥-+ L csll(.1V- · dA_- (4.184)
The unste~dy teml a/at disapp~ars as the flow .i s steady, and the body fon:e Fu, is .zero for horizomal
flow. ·. so we obtain
( I l.5)
514 Cha pter 11 Flow in.O pen Cha nne ls
The surfa ce forc e cons ists of press ure force s on the two ends , and friction force on the bott om surr ace
(the air at the free surfa ce contrib1,1tes negl igibl e friction in open -cha nnel flows). By assu mpt ion 5 we
negl ect frict ion. The gage pres sure at the two ends is hydrostatic, as illus trate d in Fig. 11 .4b. We reca ll
from our stud y of hyclrostatics that the hydr ostat ic force FR on a subm erge d verti cal surf ace of area A is
give n by the simp le resu lt
(3.1 0b)
wher e-pc is the pres sure at the cent roid of the vertical su·iface. For the two verti cal surf aces of the con trol
v'_olume, then , we have
F's,= FR,,,, -FRn,.. = (pcA),.r,-(pcA)righl

= { (pgy \t:,. y) (y+t:,.y)b }-{ (pg~ )yb}
pgb (y ., pgb .,
=2 + 6.y) ~- 2), -
Usin g this resu lt in Eq. 11.5 and eval uatin g the term s on the right:,
Fs,=
pgb
2
2
(y+t :,.y) -
pgb
2
., "°' - -
y- = L,cs upV ·A
= -(c - D.V )p{( c-t:, .V)( y+t: ,.y)b }-cp {-cy b}
The two term s in brac es are equa l, from cont inuit y as show n in Eq. 11.3, so the rrio"rnenrum equ atio n
simp lifie s to
g(t:,.y)2
gyt: ,.y+ -- =yct:,.V
2
or
g( l + ~;)t ..y= cA,V
Com bini ng this with ~q. 11.4 , we obta in
g(l + 6.y) D.y= c2 _~

2y y+t. .y
and solv ing for c.
c?= gy( i+ t:,.y)

2y
(1 + t:,.y)
)'
For wav es of relat ively smal l amp litud e (6.y< <y), we can simplify this expr essio n to
.(U .6)
Hen ce the spee d of a surfa ce distu rban ce depe nds on the loca l fluid depth. For exam ple; it expl aihS why
wav es "cra sh" as they appr oach the.b each. Out to sea, the wate r dept hs belo w wav e cres ts and trou ghs are
appr oxim ately the same , and henc e so are their spee ds. As the wate r dept h decrease s on the app roac h to
the beac h, the dept h of cres ts start to beco me signi fican tly large r than troug h dept hs, caus ing cres ts to
spee d up and over take the troug hs.
Note that fluid prop ertie s do not ente r into the spee d: Visc osity is usually a min or facto r, and it turn s
out that the distu rban ce or wav e we have desc ribed is due to the inter action of grav itati onal and iner tia
forc es, both of whic h are linea r with dens ity. Equa tion 11.6 was deriv ed on the basi s ofo ne, di.m ensi ona l
m~t ion (x direc tion) ; a more reali stic mod el allow ing two-dime nsion al fluid moti on (x and j• dire ctio ns)
show s that Eq. 11 ."6 appl ies for the limit ing case of large wave leng th wave s (Pro blem l"l.3 exp lore s this ).
Also ,.the re are othe r type s ofsl, llfac e wave s, such as capil lary waves drive n by surf ace tens ion, for whi ch
Eq. 11.6 does no.t appl y (P~obll!m 11.6 expl ores surfa ce tension effects). Exam ple 11.1 iJlu stra tes the
calc ulati on for the spee d of a surfa ce wav e that depe nds only on t!1e dept h.
Exampie 11.1 SPEED OF FREE SURFACE WAVES
'f0ti ate enjoying a summer' s afternoon relaxing in a rowboat on a pond. You decide to find out how deep the water is by splash~
mg_your oar and timing how Jong it tru<es the wave you produce to reach the edge of the pond. (The pond is artificial; so it nas
approximately the same depth ev~n to the shore.) From floats installed in the porid, you know you're 20 ft from shore, and you
measure the time for the wave to reach the-edge to be J .5 s. Estimate the pond depth. Does it matter if it's a freshwater popd or if
it' s filled with se;;iwater?
Given: Time for a wave to.•reach the edge. of a· pond.

Find: Depth of the pond.
Solution: Use the wave speed equation, Eq. I 1.6.
Governing equation: c = ../CY
'.:fhe ti.me for a wave, spee<i c, to travel a distance L, is .At=~. so c = J;.
1
_. Using this and Eq. 11.6.
L
../iiY= , 6_t
where y is the depth, or
L2
y= gt.t2
Using th:e given da:ta
., 2 l s2 ,1 1 .
y=20-ft: x-.- ~ x .·.- 2 -=5.52ft y
· 32,2 ft 1;.5 s2 +---------.., ....--
The pond depth is about 5½ ft.
The speed of surface disturbances given in Eq. l 1.6 provides us with a more useful ..litmus test" for
categorizing the speed of a flow than the terms ..slow" and "fast." To illustrate this, consider a flow mov-
ing at speed V. which experiences a disturbance at some point downstream. (The disturbance co_u ld be
caused by a bump in the channel floor or by a barrier, for example.) The disturbance will travel upstream
at speed c relative to the.fluid. If the fluid speed is slow, V < c, and the disturbance will travel upstream at
absolute speed (c- V). However, if the fluid speed is fast, V > c, and the disrurbaoce cannot travel
upstream and instead is washed downstream at absolute speed (V-c). This leads to radically different
responses of slow and fast flows to a downstream disturbance. Hence. recalling Eq. 11.6 for the speed c,
open-channel flows may be classified on the basis of Froude number first introduced in Chapter 7 :
V
Fr=;--..
. ..m (11.7)
Instead of the rather loose terms "slow" and "fast," we now have the following criteria:
Fr< I Flow is subcriticaf. 1ra11q11if, or strea111i11g. Disrurbances can travel upstream; downstream conditions can
affect the flow upstream. The flow can gradually adjust to the cliscurbance.
Fr= 1 Flow is critical.
Fr.> 1 Flow is supercritical. rapid. or shooti11g. No disturbance can travel upstream: down.stream conditions cannot
be felt upstream. The now may "'violently" respond 10 the disturbance because the flow has no chance to
ndjust to the disturbance before encountering ii.
Note that for nonrectangular channels we use the hydraulic depth y,.,
V
Fr= .,jgy;; {lL8)
516 -Ch apt er 11 Flo w in Op en Cha nne ls
The se regi mes of flow beh avio r are qua litat ivel y analogo us to the subs onic , son ic. and sup
ers oni c
reai mes of gas flow thaL we will disc uss in Cha pter 12. (In that case we are also com pari ng a flow
spe ed.
V ~to the spe ed of a wav e, c, exc ept that the ,vav e is a soun d wav e raLher than a surf ace
wav e.)
We will disc uss the ram ifica tion s of thes e various Frou de num ber regi mes late r in this cha pte r.
11 .2 En erg y Eq ua tio n for Op en -C ha nn el Flo ws

In ana lyzi ng ope n-ch ann el flow s, we will use the continuity, mom entu m, and ene rgy equ atio ns . He
re we
deri ve the app rop riat e form of the ene rgy equ atio n, and con tinu ity and mom entu m whe n nee ded
. As in
the cas e of pipe flow , friction in ope n-ch ann el flows results in.a loss of mechan ical ene rgy ; this
can be
cha ract eriz ed by a hea d loss . TI1e tem ptat ion is to just use one of the forms of the ene rgy ~qu atio n for
pip e
flow we deri ved in Sec tion 8.6, such as
(8 .30 )
The pro blem with thjs is that it was deri ved on the assu mpt ion of uniform pres sure at eac h sec tion
, wh ich
is not the cas e in ope n-ch ann el flow (we hav e a hyd rostatic pres sure variation at eac h loca tion ): we
do not
hav e a unif orm p 1 at sect ion CD artd unif orm p 2 at sect ion (2)!
Inst ead we nee d to deri ve an ene rgy equ atio n for ope n-ch ann el flows from firs t.pr incj .ple s. W e wil
l
clos ely foll ow the step s ouli ined in Sec tion 8.6 for pipe flow s but use diff eren t assu mpt ion s. Yo
u are
urg ed to revi ew Sec tion 8.6 in ord er to be awa re of the similarities and diff eren ces betw een pip
e flo ws
and ope n-ch ann el flow s.
We will use the gen eric conu-ol volu me sho wn in Fig. l 1.5, with the foll owi ng ass um ptio ns:
Ste ady flow .

2 inco mpr essi bl~ flow.
3 U{l ifor m velo city at a sect ion.
4 Gra clua lly vary ing dep th so that p~s sure disu-ibution is hydrostatic.
5 Smii.ll bed slop e.
6 W'., =Wshcar=Woihcr=O.
We mak e a few com ni~n ts here. We hav e seen assu mpt i9ns 1-4 already ; they will alw ays app ly
in this
cha pter . Ass ump tion 5 sim plif ies the anal ysis so that dep th, y, is taken to be vert ical and spe ed,
V. is
take n to be hori zon tal, rath er than norm al and parallel to the bed, respec.tivel y. Ass ump tion 6 stat
es tha t
ilier e is no sha ft wor k, no wor k due to fll.lid shea ring at the boundaries, and no oLher wor k. Th ere
is no
she ar wor k at L11e bou nda ries bec ause on each part o.f the control surface the tang enti al velo city is zer
o ( on
the cha nne l wal ls) or the she ar su-ess is zero (the ope n surfai;e) , so no w.or k can _be.d one. No. te tha
t the re
can still be mec han ic~ ene rgy diss ipat ion with in Lhe flui d _d ue to frictic;m.
CD Control
- - --,-~--=- ---- r volume
---------._
YI
--- --
y
)'2
- .. J .. ..... __ __ _ -~ -- --- :
z ,21'-- ~
FiJ· u.s Control volu me and coordinates for energy ·analysis of open-c:hannel.flow.
11.2 Energy Equation for Open-Channel Flows 517
We have chosen a generic control volume so that we can derive a generic energy equation for open-
chann~l flows, that is, an equation that can be applied to a variety of flows such as ones with a varia_tion in
~le':'allon, <:'r a hydraulic Jump. or a sluice gate, and so on, between sections (D and ~ - Coordinate z
md1 cntes distances measured in the vertical direction; distances measured vertically from the channel
bed are denoted by y. Note that y 1 and v~ are the flow depths at sections CD and~. respectively, and
z1 aild z2 are the corresponding channel· ;levations.
The energy equation for a control volume is
=0(6) =0(6) =0(6) =0(1)
Q-f.- w/=- ~\Je,= I fcvepd-V-+ fcs(e+pv)pV- dA (4.56)

v2
e=u+ +gz
2
=
Recall that u is the thermal specific energy and v l/p is· the specific volume. After using assumptions 1
and 6, and rearranging, with ,h Jp = v.
dA, and dA = bdy where b(y) is the channel width, we obtain
Q=- j G+ : 2
+gz)pVbdy- lupVbdy+ 1~+ : 2
+gz)pvbdy+ lupVbdy
or
2
f (f!.+ V +g:z)pVbdy-l(f!.+ yi +gz)pVbdy=ri1(u2-u1)-Q=mh1-, (I 1.9)
}, V 2 2 V 2
This states that the loss in mechanical energies ("pressure," kinetic and potential) through the control
volume leads to a gain in the thermal energy and/or a loss of heat from the control volume. As in
Section 8.6, these thermal effects are collected into the head Joss term h1r•
ThesurfaceintegralsinEq.J I .9canbesimplified. Thespeed; V, is constant at each section by assump-
tion 3. The pressure, p, does vary across.sections CD and~. as does the potential, z. However, by assump-
tion 4, the pressure variation is hydrostatic. ·Hence, for section CD, using the notation of Fig. 11..5
p=pg(y1 ....:.y)
(:S<;> p =pgy 1 at the bed and p=O (gage) at the free surface] and
z=(zi+Y)
Conveniently, we see that the pressure decreases linearly with y while z increases linearly with y, so the
.two tenns rogeth·e r are constant,
~+gz) =g6•1-y)+g(z1 +y)=g(y, +z1)

1
Using these results in the first integral in Eq. l L9,
2
1\p + 2 +gz pVbdy= J. 2 +g(y1 +z1) pVbdy= 2 +gy1 +gz1 )m
rI!.. v2 ) r (v ) (v2
1
We find ·a simiiar result for section (2), so Eq. l 1.9 becomes
y2 .
( ; + gy2 + ) (y2
d+
g:::.2 - 8Y1
)
+ gz1 = h1.,
Finally, clividing by g (with H1 = h1rlg) leads Lo .an energy equation for open-channel flow
{l:It".JQ)
51 8 Ch ap ter 11 Flo w in Op!,!n Ch ann els
Th is _c an be com par ed to the cor res pon din g equaticm for pip e fl<;>w, Eq. 8.3 0; pre
sen ted at the beg inr un g
of this sec tion . No te tha t we H 1 use rath er tha n H r; in pip e flow we can hav e ma jor
1 and mi no r los ses ,
jus tify ing 7' for tota l, but in ope n-c han nel flow we do not ma ke this dist inc tion . Eq
uat ion l L 1 O wi ll
pro ve use ful to us for the rem ain der of the cha pte r and indicates tha t ene rgy com put
atio ns can be do ne
sim ply fro m geo me try (y and z) and vel oci ty, V.
Th e tota l hea d or ene rgy hea d, H, at any location in an ope n-c han nel flow can be
def ine d fro m
Eq . lLl O as
v2, -
H= ~+ y+ z
- . 2~ (11 .11 )
--
wh ere y and z are the loc al flow dep th and cha nne l bed .ele vat ion , resp ecti vel y (the y
no lon ger rep res ent
the coo rdi nat es sho wn in Fig . 1 1.5 ). Thi s is a me asu re of the mechanical ene rgy (ki
net ic and pre ssu re/
pot ent ial) of the flow . Usi ng this in the ene rgy equ atio n, we obtain an alte rna tive for
m
H1 -H2 =H 1 (11 .12 )

Fro m this we see tha t the ios s (>f tota l hea d dep end s on hea d loss due to friction.
Sp ec ifi c En erg y
We can als o def ine the spe cifi c rme rgy (or spe cifi c hea d), denoted by the sym bol E,
(i 1. 13 )
nu s is a me asu re of the me cha nic al ene rgy (kin etic and pressure/potential) of the flow
abo ve and be yo nd
tha t cjue to cha nne l bed ele vat ion ; it ess ent iall y ind icat es the ene rgy due to the flo w's
spe ed an d de pth .
Us ing ER_. 11. 13 in Eq. 11. 10, we obt ain ano the r form of the ene rgy equ atio n,
(11 .14 )
Fro m _this we see tha t the cha nge in spe cifi c,en erz y depends. on friction and on ch~ nne l ele
vat ion cha ng e.
Wh ile the tota l _hea d mu st dec rea se in the dire ctio n of flow (Eq. 11.12), the spe cifi c
hea d ma y dec rea se,
inc rea se, or rem ain ·con stan t, dep end ing on the bed elev atio n, z.
-
Fro m con tinu ity, V= .Q/ A, so the spe cifi c ene rgy can be wrinen
Q2
E= 2gA2 +y (11 .15 )
Fo r all cha nne ls A is a mo not oni cal ly inc rea sin g fun ctio n of flow dep th (as Tab
le 11 .1 ind ica tes );
inc rea sin g the dep th mu sl lea d to a larg er flow are a. Hen ce, Eq. I 1.15 ind ica tes
tha t the spe cif ic
ene rgy -is a com bin atio n of a hyp erb olic sty pe dec rea se wit h dep th and _a line ar inc
rea se wi th de pth .
Th is is illu stra ted in Fig . 11.6 We see tha t for a giv en flow rate , Q, the re is a -ran
ge of po ssi ble flo w
dep ths and ene rgi es, but one dep th at wh ich the-spe cifi c ene rgy is at a min imu m. Ins
tea d of E ver sus y
we typ ica lly plo t y ver sus E so tha t the plo t cor resp ond s to the exa mp le flow sec
tion , as sho wn in
Fig . 11. 7.
Rec alli ng tha t the spe cifi c ene rgy , E, ind icat es actual ene rgy (kinetic plu s pot ent iaj/ pre
ssu re pe r un it
ma ss flow rate ) bei ng car ried by the flow, we see tha t a giv en flow,. Q, can hav e a ra11
ge of ene rgi es. E,
and cor res pon din g flow dep ths , y. Fig ure 11.7 also reveals som e interesting flow
phe nom ena . Fo r a
giv en flow , Q, and spe cifi c ene rgy , E, the re are two pos sibl e flow dep ths, y; the se
are cal led alt en1 are
dep ths . For exa mp le, we can hav e a flow at dep th YI or dep th Y2- The first flow has
lar ge dep th and is
n;ioying slo wly , and the secOnQ flow is sha llow but f~t mo vin g, The plo t gra phi cal ly
ind ica tes thi s: Fo r
the fuse Oo w, E, is ma de up ofa Jar gey , and small V1/2g ; for th«e sec<;md flow , E is
2 ma de up of a sm all
y2 anµ larg e vJ/2g. We wil l se¢ late r that wecai:iswitch from one flow to ano the r. We can als o see (as we
Q2
2gA2
- -- -
)'
Fig. 11.6 Dependence of specific energy on flow depth for a given flow rate.
Fig. 11. 7 Specific energy curve for a given flow rate.
will demonstrate in Example 11 .2 for a rectangular channel) that for a given Q, there is always one flow
for which the specific energy is minimum, E= Em;n; we will investigate this further after Example 11.2
=
and show that Emm Ee,;., where E"cr,1 is the specific energy at critical conditions.
Example 1 l.2 SPECIFIC ENERGYCURVES FQRA RECTANGULAR CHANNEL
Fqr a rectangµlar charinel of widthb= IO m, construct a fanµly of specific energy curves for Q=0,2,.$, and i0m3 /s. Whii.tm
the .minimum specific energies for these curves?
Given: Rectllµgular channel and range of flow mtesc
Find: Curves of specifii::: energy. For each ffow rate, find the minimum specific energy.
Solution: Use the flow rate form of the specific energy equation (Eq. l 1.15) for generating the curves.
Governing equations;
Q2
E= 2gA2 +y (11 ;1$)
Fprrbe specific ertergY ¢.lir:v.e.s,.express E: as a function ofdepth,.y,.
E'=2;!2 +y= 1g;y)2 +y= (2~2)~ +y (I}

520 Chapt er 11 Flow in Open Chann els
The table and corresp onding graph were generaLed from

3
this equatio n using Excel.
Specific Energy, E (m) ---Q = O

- -- Q=2 m3ts
y (m) Q=0 Q=2 Q =5 Q= 10 • Q= 5 m 3 /s
2
().100 O. IO 0 .92 5.20 20.49 - - - -- Q= 10 m 3 /s
0 , 125 0.13 0 .65 3.39 13. 17 § --Emm
0 . 150 0, 15 Q.51 2.42 9.21
0.175 0.18 0.44 1.84 6.83 '"'
0:200 0.20 0.40 1.47 5.30
0.225 0.23 0.39 1.23 4.25 1
/
o.zso 0.25 0.38 1.07 3.51
0.275 0.28 038 0 .95 2 .97
0.30 0.30 0.39 0 .87 2.57
0.35 0.35 0.42 0.77 2.01 ----
0.40 0.40 0.45 0 .72 1.67 0
0.45 0.45 0.49 0.70 1.46 0 1 2 3
0.50 0.50 0.53 0.70 1.32
E(m)
0 .55 0.55 0.58 0 ,72 1.22
0.60 0.60 0 .62 0 .74 1.17
0.70 0.70 0.72 0.80 1.12
0 :8.0 0.80 0.81 0.88 1.12
0.90 0.90 0 .91 0 .96 1.15
PlO 1.00 1.01 1.05 1.20
1.25 l.45 L26 1.28 1.38
l.50 1.50 1.50 J.52 1.59
2.00 2.00 2.00 2.01 2.05
4.50 2.50 2.50 2.5.1 2 .53
Ta find the minim um energy for a given -Q, we differen tiate Eq. 1,
dE ( Q )
dy = 2gb2
2
(
-
2) +
),3 1= 0
Hence, the depth Y£..i. for minim um specifi c energy is
YEm.. =(
Q)t
~ gb2
Using this. in Eq. I l.15:
Q2 Q2 . [Q2]! I [Q2] [gbi]i [Q2]¼ 3 f_92]½

Emm = 2gA2 +YE..,. = 2gb2y}ruln + gb2 = 2.,gb2 Q2 + lcb2 = 2 [.gb2
2
.
Errun .- ·-b·2 ]½ = -ye.
= ~3.2 ~Q 3
2 = (2)
'~ ence for ~ .(!!ctan gular channe l, we obtain a simple result for the minimu m
~~i;gy . Usjp~ Eq. 2 with the given dat_ a:
Q (rri3/s) 2 5 10
Em1~ (in) 0 .302 0.755 I.SI
Th~ depths correspe if!ding_cq µi_~ i:: flows are 0.201 m, 0.503 m, and 1.01 m, l:e!lpectively.
Critical Depth: Minimum Specific Energy

I::x~ple 11.2 treated the case of a rectangular channel. We now consider channels of general cross
secuon. For flow in such a channel we have the specific energy in cerrns of flow rate Q,
Q2
(11.15}
E= 2gA2 +y
For a given flow rate Q. to find the depth for minimum specific energy. we differentiate:
dE Q2 dA ( 1 l.16)
-=0=--3 -+l
dy gA dy
To proceed further, it would seem we need A(y); some examples of A(y) ~ shown in Table 11.1.
·However, it turns out that for any given cross section we cart write
dA=bsdY ( 11.17)
Where, ·as we saw earlier, bs is the width at the surface. This is indicated in Fig. 11.8; the
incremental increase in area dA due 10 incremental depth change dy occurs at the free surface,
where b=b.s.
Using Eq. 11.17 in Eq. 11.16 we find
Q2 dA Q2
- - 3 - +I= - - b3
s + I =0
gA dy gA
so
Q2= gA3 (11.18}

b,
for minjmum specific energy. From continuity V = Q/A, so Eq. 11.18 leads to
V= Q =~[gA. 3] 1/2 = J8A.

A A bs v,;; (11.19)
We have previously defined the hydraulic depth,

A
yi,=- ( l l.2}
bs
Hence, using Eq. 11.2 in Eq. 11.19, we obtain
V= ..;gyi. (Ll.20)
But the Froude number is given by
V
Fr=--. (lL~)
y'N;
Hence we see that, for minimum specific energy, Fr= l, which corresponds to critical flow. We ob~
.d l~· importimt result that, for flow in any open channel, the specific energy is at its minimum ac criti(:al
cpnditions.
Fig. :l1 .8 DeP,endenc~ of flow area change dA on d_epth change dy.

-.,,,
!) __
Ch apt er 11 Flo w in Op en Ch ann els
We col lec t Eqs . I I. I 8 and I 1.2 0; for crit ical flow
(11 .21 )
(I 1.2 2)
for £= £m in· In the se equ atio ns, Ac, Ve, bs, and }'1,, are the crit ical flow are a, vel oci
ty, cha nne l sur fac e
wid th, and hyd rau lic dep th, resp ecti vel y. Equ atio n 11.21 can be use d to find the crit
ica l dep th, Ye, for a
giv en cha nne l cro ss-s ect ion sha pe, at a giv en flow rate. The equ atio n is dec ept ive ly
dif ficu lt: Ac an d bs,
eac h dep end on flow dep th y, ofte n in a non line ar fashion; so it mu st usu ally be iter
ativ ely sol ved for y.
On ce Ye is obt ain ed, area., Ac, and sur fac e wid th, b.,, can be com put ed, lea din g to
)'1,, (us ing Eq . l I .2) .
Th is in tum is use d in Eq. 11. 22 to find I.he flow spe ed Ve (or Ve = Q/A c can be use
d). Fin ally . the mi n-
imu m ene rgy can be com put ed fro m Eq. 11. 15. Exa mp le I I .3 sho ws how the crit ical
dep th is det erm ine d
for a tria ngu lar sec tion cha nne l.
=
For the par ticu lar cas e of a rectang11/ar cha nne l, we hav e bs b = con stan t and A=
by, so Eq . I I .21
bec om es
so
Q2 ] 1/3
Ye= [ -gb2 (11 .23 )
wit h
_ [gQ
Vc =h Yc = b
] 1/3
(11 .24 )
Fo r the rec tan gul ar cha nne l, a par ticu larl y sim ple resu lt For the min imu m ene rgy
is obt ain ed wh en
Eq. 11. 24 is use d in Eq. 11. 15,
VJ 8Yc
£ = E.,,;11 = - +Y e= - + Ye
2g 2g
or
( 11 .25 )
Th is is the sam e res ult we fou nd in Exa mp le 11. 2. The crit ical stat e is an imp orta nt
ben chm ark . It wi ll be
use d in the nex t sec tion to hel p det erm ine wh at hap pen s whe n a flow enc oun ters
an obs tac le suc h as a
bum p. Als o, nea r the min imu m£ , as Fig . I l .7 sho ws, the rate of cha nge of y wit
h E is nea rly inf ini te.
Th is me ans tha t for crit ica l flow con diti ons , eve n sma ll cha nge s in £, due to cha
nne l irre gul ari tie s or
dis tur ban ces , can cau se pro nou nce d cha nge s in fluid dep th. Thu s, sur fac e wav es, usu
ally in an un sta ble
ma nne r, for m wh en a flow is nea r crit ical con diti ons . Lon g run s of nea r-cr itic al flow
con seq uen tly are
avo ide d in pra ctic e.
bca,np.le 11 .3 (;:RIJICAL DE PT H FOR TR IAN GU LA R SE,CTION

A sJe ep~sid ed tria ngl ilar sec .do n cha .no el (a= 60 °) has a flow rate of3 0O m 3 /s. Fin d the
critical dep th for this. flo w rat e. V~ rif y
tha t. the F.r oud e num ~er is. uni ty.
(ijv ~n: Flo w in a tria,ngul!IC sec ti9n cha nne l.

Find: Critical depth; verify that f'r= 1.

Solution: Use the critical flo w equauon.
· E q. 11 .21
V
Fr=--
.,/iYi:
The given data is;
Q=300 m 3/s a=60°

-F rom Table 11.1 we have the following:
A=ycota
and from basic geometry
tan a= ..2'.__ so bs=2ycota

bs/2
l,Jsing these in Eq. 11.21
Hence
1Q2 tan2 a]· t/s
Ye= [ · -
. g .
Using the given data
_ "•., ("m 3.) 2 ., (60 x:ir

-- ") s-., ]·1/5 4 1 -
· [
Yc= _2x300~ -
_ · · s
X -tan- -- - - -- X-
- - ----
1'80 ·_ --- 9.81 m
' "'- [.55lxl0 mti] f::,
- · · ·
finally
Ye =8.88 m +---~------ ------------ ~Y:..:.c
To verify
that Fr= l , we need v · and y1,.
From continuit)'.
Q Q m3 l l
Ve= Ac =yJc~la= 3 007x8.882 m2x (60x7t) = 6 -6 0m/s
cot - - -
180
nnd frqm the definition of hydraulic depth
_ Ac _ Tc
cot a Ye
Y1,, - bSr - '.iyC co·t .a =?_ == 4.44 Ill
.Hence
m
6.60- F
Fr =~
V. = s- l .,. · ..:.r.:.'".=-~l
. - - - -~ - - - - - - . :
c: ~ J9..sl s-~ x4.44in
We, haye verified tnat _at <;ritical depth the Frou~e number is unity.
524 Ch ap ter 11 Flo w in Op en Ch ann els
11 .3 Lo ca liz ed Ef fec t of Ar ea Ch an ge (F ric tio nle ss Fl ow )

We wil l nex t con sid er a sim ple flow cas e in whi ch the cha nne l bed is hor izo nta
l and for wh ich the
eff ect s of cha nne l cro ss sec tion (are a cha nge ) pre dom ina te: flow ove r a bum p. Sin
ce this ph eno me no n
is Io~ ize d (it rak es pin ce ove r a sho rt dist anc e). the effects of friction (on eith er mo
me ntu m or en erg y)
ma y be neg lec ted .
Th e ene rgy equ atio n, Eq. 11. 10. wit h the ass um ptio n of no loss es due to fric tion
the n bec om es
Vf V} vi
-::,+Y1 +z1 =? +y2 +z i= - +y +z =c on st (I 1.2 6)
_g _g 2g
(No te tha t Eq. 11. 26 cou ld aiso hav e bee n obt ain ed from by app lyin g the Ber nou lli equ
atio n bet we en tw o
poi nts (D and (2) on the sur fac e, bec aus e all of the req uire men ts of the Ber nou lli equ
atio n are sat isf ied
her e.) Alt ern ativ ely , usi ng the def init ion of spe cifi c ene rgy
We see tha t the spe cifi c ene rgy of a fric tion less flow wil l cha nge onl y if the re is a cha
nge in the ele vat ion
of the cha nne l bed .
Flo w ov er a Bu mp
Co nsi der fric tion less flow in a hor izo nta l rec tan gul ar cha nne l of con stan t wid th, b,
wit h a bu mp in the
cha nne l bed , as illu stra ted in Fig . I l.9. We cho ose a rec tan gul ar cha nne l for sim plic ity.
but the res u Its we
obt ain wil l app ly gen era lly. Th e bum p hei ght abo ve the hor izo nta l bed of the cha
nne l is z= h(x ); the
wa ter dep th, y(x ), is me asu red fTom the loc al cha nne l bot tom sur fac e.
No te tha t we hav e ind ica ted two pos sibi litie s for the free sur fac e beh avi or: Per hap
s the flo w gra d-
ual ly rise s ove r the bum p; per hap s it gra dua lly dip s ove r the bum p. On e thin g we
can be sur e of. ho w-
eve r, is tha t if it rise s. it wil l not hav e the sam e con tou r as the bum p. (Ca n you exp
lain wh y?) Ap ply ing
the ene rgy equ atio n (Eq . 11. 26) for fric tion less flow bet wee n an upstream poi nt (D
and any po int alo ng
the reg ion of the bum p.
vi v2
--1. +y 1 =£ 1 =- +y +h =E +h (x) =c on st (11 -27 )
2g 2g
Equ atio n I 1.2 7 ind ica tes tha t the spe cifi c ene rgy mu st dec rea se through the bum p, the
n inc rea se ba ck Lo
its ori gin al val ue (of E1 = E2).
E(x) = £1 -h( x) ( 11 .28 )
Free
surf ace ... ------ ---- .. ____ _____ __ __
;c
fig_...U, ~- Aow,.o.ve r-a bum p in a horizontal channel.

11.3 Localized Effect of Area Change {Frictionless Flow) 525
From cominuiLy
Q=bViy, =bVy
Using this in Eq 11.27
Q2 Q2
--?-?
2gb-Yi
+ YI = ----,,--,2
2gb-)
+ y + h = const ( 11.29)
We can obtain an expression for Lhe variation of the free surface depth by differentiating Eq. 11..29:
_ ___Q:__ dy + dy + dh =O
gb2y3 cb: dx dx
Solving for the slope of the free surface, we obtain

dy dh/dx dh/dx
dT= y2 ]
Q2 ]
[ gb2y3 -1 [ gy-1
Finally,
dy d/z
(11.30)
dx = Fr2 -I dx
Equation 11.30 leads to the interesting conclusion that the response to a bump very much depends on the
local Froude number, Fr.
Fr< 1 Flow is subcritical, tranquil, or streaming. When Fr< I, (Fr- I)< I and lheslope dy/dx-oflhe freesurfru:e
has the opposite sign to the slope dh/ dx of the bump: When the bump elevation increases, the flow dips; when
the bump elevation decreases, the flow depth increases. This is the solid free surface shown in Fig. 11 .9.
Fr= 1 Flow is critical. When Fr= I. (Fr - I)= 0 . Eq. 11.30 predicts an infinite water surface slope, unless dh/ dx
equals zero at this instant. Since the free surface slope cannot be infinite, !hen dh/dx must be zero when
Fr= l; put another way, if we have Fr= I it can 011ly be at a location where dh/cLr:=O (at the crest Qf
the bump, or where the chunnel is flat). If critical flow is actained, then downstream of the critical flow
location the flow may be subcritical or supercritical, dependiog on downsq-eam conditions. If critical flow
does not occur where dh/cLr:=0, then flow downstream from this location will be the same cype ns the
flow upstrenm from the location.
Fr> I Flow is supercritical. rapid, or shooting. When Fr> I, (Fr- I)> I and the slope dy/d:r: of the free surface
has the same sign as the slope dh / dT of ~he bump: when the bump elevation increases. so does the-flow depth;
when the bump elevation dec~ases, so does the flow depth. This is the dashed free surf~e sbown in
fig, 11.9.
The general trends for Fr I, for either an increasing or decreasing bed elevation, are illus-
trated in Fig. 1 1.10. The important point about critical flow (Fr= I) is that, if it does occur, it can do so
only where the bed elevation is constant.
An additional visual aid is provided by the specific energy graph of Fig. 1 L. l L. This shows the spe-
cific energy curve for a given flow rate, Q. For a subcritical flow that is at state a before it encounters a
bump, as the flow moves up Lhe bump toward the bump peak, the specific energy must decrease
?
(Eq. 11.28). Hence we move along the curve t_o p~in_t b. If point corres~onds to the bwnp peak, then
we move back along the curve to a (note that thts frictionless flow 1s reversible!) as the fl<:>w descends the
bump. Alternatively, if the bum~ conti_nues to increase beyond point b, we continue to move along the
curve to ~1e minimum: energy pomt, poml e where E=Emin =Ecnt• As we-have discussed, for frictionless
=
flow to ex.ist, point e can only be where dh/ dx 0 (the bump peak). For this case, something interesting
happens as the flow d_escends ~own the bump: We can return alo~~ the curve to point a, or we C3.fl move
along the curve to pomt d . ~ s ~e:uis that the s~rface of a s~bc~1t1cal flow that encounters a bump will
dip and dlen either re~um to its ongmal depth or if the bump 1s high ~n~ugh for the flow to reach critical
. ditions may continue to accelerate and become shallower until 1t reaches the supercritical state
co~espondino to the original specific energy (point d). Which trend occurs depends 00 downstream
example, ·rc1 . rn . .
co C, th
conditions; for 1 1ere 1s some type,o ow restnctmn, ·e flow downstrea,m of the bump will
return to itS original subcritical state. Note that as we mentioned earlier, when a flow is at the critical
526 Chapter 11 Flow in Open Channels
di, > 0 ~<0 ~<0 !2:>0

Flow regime d.r dx
~I ~
Subcritlcal Flo w - y Flow -
Fr< l
---- t,;
di, >0 d,,

=>0
d.r d.r
Supercritica l
~
Fr> l Flow -
Fig. 11.1 o Effects of bed elevation changes.
E
Fig. 11.11 Specific-ener gy curve for flow over .a bump.
state the surface pehavior tends to display dramatic variati()ns in behavior. Finally, Fig. l 1.1 I indicates
that a supercritic al flow (poim d) that encounters a bump would increase in depth over the bump (to point
c at the bump peak), and then return to its supercritic al flow at point¢. We also see that if the bump is
pigh enough a supercritic al flow could slow down to critical (point e) and then either return to super-
critical (point d) or become subcritical (point a). Which of these possibilities actually occurs obviousl y
depends on the bump shape, but also on upstream and downstream conditions (the last possibilit y is
somewhat unlikely to occur in practice). In Example 11.4, the flow in a rectangula r channel with a
change i,n the bed or side wall. surface is analyzed.
The alert reader may ru.k, "What happens if the bump is so big that the specific energy wan is to
c!ecrease below the mirµmum shown at point e?" The answer is that the flow will no longer conform
to Eq. U.26; the flow will no longer be frictionless, because a hydraulic jump will occur, consurr).i ng
a significan t amount of mechanica l energy (see Section 11.4).
~8x1;1m,p)e:1h4; .Fsli~W,JN ~JtECTANGVLAR -Cl:tAN.NE.l WITH .A B,UMP OR AJ'iARRQWJNG
i5!ii~l:i£§¥S~~~;:;.~~~i::!i£r~;:~
11.3 Localized Effect of Area Change (Frictionless Flow) 527
Given: Rectangular channel with a bump, a s ide wall constriction, or both.

Find: Whether critical flow occurs.
S~l_ution: Compare the specific energy to the minimum specific energy for the given flow rate in each case to establish whether
cnucal depth occurs.
(11.15)
f_Q] 1/ 3 ( 11.23)
Ye= l_gb2
( 11.25) ( 1 l.28)
(a) Bump of height h = 0.20 m:

The initial specific energy, £ 1, is
Q2 Q2
£1=)'1+?
_gA2 =Y1+?
_g b2.,
Yi
= 1.0-m + 2.4- ., (m -
s
3
)
2
1
X -? X -
_
s
9 81.
2
m
1 1
X-:;---:, X---:;--:-:;
2- m- 1- m-
£1 =l.073 m
Then the specific energy at the peak of the bump, £bump, is obtainec,I from Eq. J l.28
Ei;ump = E1 -h = 1.073 m-0.20,n
Ebump =0.873 m 0)
We mtJSt compare this to the minimu111 specific energy for the flow rate Q. Firs_t, the critical depth is
Ye= ~~:]'/3 = [2.42 (~3r xg_;; ~ X2/~2] L/3

Yc=0.528 in
(Note c11at we have )'1 > Yc,.so we have a subtriti.caJ flow.)
Then the minimum specific energy is
3
Emin= yc=0.79l m (2,)
2
Comparing Eqs. 1 ap.d 2 we see th.it wi~ the bump we
do not attain critical conditions. ·+-
· - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - ~ - - -
(b) A side wall constriction (with no bump) redu¢ing the channel width to 1.7 m::
In this case the specific energy remains constant throughout (h = 0), even at the constriction; so
Econstriction =£1 -h = £1 = 1.073 m (3)
However, at the constriction, we h~ve a new value for b, (bconslrictian = 1.7 m), and so. a new ctitical depth
~
Q_2 ] 1/3 [ ., ( m3) 1 s--, 1 ] 1/3
Ye-= 1 = 2 .4- - x---x _
bconslriction s 9.81 m · 1.72 m2
J'C'....-..., =0.588 -m
Then the minim um specifi c energy at· the constri ction is

3
Emi.....,_.,_ = 5?c.....-.. = 0.882 m (4)
(:ompa ring Eqs. 3 and 4 we see that with the constri ction
we do nor attain critical conditi ons . ...,__ _ _ __ ___ ___ ___ __ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __
We mi$ht ,enquir e as ~o what constri ction would cause critical flow. To find lhis, solve
. m --
E -- 1.073 Emin
3 = 3[Q2]1
= -y - - /3
2 e 2 gb~
the critical channe l width be.
j'pj-
·m;n~
?7)
= (8
· -
2
.i/ X24
:.
(m:1)·.
s
s l
X 9.811/2 ml /2 X 1.0733/2 m3ti.
be= 1.27 m
To make the·given fl.Qw il.t:trun critical conditi ons, th.e constri ction should be l..~-7 "in; any~n g wider, and critical condit ions are
not reache d.
(c) For a btµnp of h =0.-2 .0m a~1d·th~ constri ction to b= 1.7 m:

We ha:ve -~ d y Seen in case (a) that th¢ bump (h = -0.20 m) was insuffic ient by itself to-ere.at e critical conditi ons. From case
(b)-we .saw th!it at the: constri ction the minimu m ·specifi c energy is Emin =0.882 m rather lhan Emin = 0.791 m in the main flow.
w,b:en we have b"oth factors present , we can compar e the specific energy at lhe bi.Imp and consl;riction,
Eburitp+ conslriclion =Ebump = E, -h == o ._873 m (5)
:and tlJe m,i.nirnum specifi c.energ y for the flow at the !>ump and constric_tion,
3
Em,.....,"')C'lon .= Y..-......-,. = 0.882 m (6)
2
Fi-eJD.,E qs_: 5a,np p we s~tha t with both factors the specific energy is actually less lhan the mmilfi\l!'fl. The fact tliatwe must have a
,~cifi c energy thlcitis less tlia11 the minim um allowa ble mea,ns sQme~ nghllS to give! What happen s is"tliat-the -flow assum ptions
·6_~gtil!;- m,v._ alid; the. fl.ow IID!Y n-o loQger be uniform or one-dimensional, or there. may be a significant energy lass, for ex~m ple
4,if~' t9-;,:a,,hy&awicj_ump o¢c_i.J.nillg. (We will discµss , hydrau lic jumps in the next
. ~ ,i:t_op,), -·
ltence ,tjie bliIIlp· aµ(l .c9nstri ¢tion togethe r ate sufficie nt to makl'i the flow reach
qiti~ s.t ate'. -- - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - , - - - - - -- ~ - -
11.4 The Hydr aulic Jump

We. have shown that open-ch annel flow may be subcri1ical (Fr< 1) or supercr itical (Fr> I). For sub-
cr.itlcal flow, disturb ances caused by a change in bed slope or flow cross section may move upstre am and
downst ream; the result is a smooth adjustm ent of the flow, as we have seen in the previo us sectio n. When
flow ata section is supercr itical, and downst ream conditi ons wiU require a change to subcrit ical flow, the
11.4 The Hydraulic Jump 529
(a) The Burdek,n dam in Australia (bl The Kitchen Sink

(James Kilfiger)
Fig. 11.12 Examples of a hydraulic Jump.
Spec;ific energy curve Hydraulic jump

Fig. 11 .13 Specific energy curve for flow through a hydraulicjump.
need for this change cannot be communicated upstream; the fJQw speed exceeds the speed of surface
waves, which are the mechanism for transmitting changes. Thus a gradual change with a smooth tran-
sition ·through the critical point is not possible. Tue transition from supercritical to subcritical flow occurs
ab,wptly 1..hrough a_ltydrau{ic jump. Hydraulic jumps can occur in canals dQwnstream of regulating
sluices, at the Foot of spillways (see Fig. 11.12a), where a steep channel slope suddenly becomes
f!at--e-and even in the home kitchen (see Fig. l l.12b)! The specific energy curve and general shape
of a jump are shown in Fig. 11.J 3. We will see in this s~ction that the jump always goes from a super-
critical depth (J,1 <ye) to a subcritical depth (y2 <ye) and that there will be a drop 1).£ in the specific
eneroy. Unlike the changes due to phenomena such as a bump, the abrupt change in depth involves
a ·si;nificant
0
loss of mechanical energy through turbulent mixing.
We shall analyze the hydraulic jump phenomenon by applying the basic equations to the control
volume shown in Fig. 11.14. Experiments show that the jump occurs over a relatively short distanc~
Control ,----- _.----;.~- -.-,,..,_-...,

volume ---....: :
I I
I I
I I
I I .."2
)'1 :I :I I y
!-~.~~w
~ ~ ~=: -: j t-~- : \: _: -= - -=-=:-;=---= - -=:
lj;-=-o.:-=--= - -=-'-':~~: =----=-'I- - L x
Fig. 11•14 Schematic of hydraull!= jump, showing control
volum_e used for analysis.
530 Cha pter 11 Flow in Ope n Cha nne ls
at mos t, appr oxim ately six time s I.he large r depl h (>'2 ) [9]. In view of this shor t leng lh, it is reas ona ble to
Vid~o : A Lami-
assu me that frict ion force Fi actin g on I.he cont rol volu me is negl igibl e com pare d to pres sure forc es .
nor Hy tlrou lk
Jump
Note that we are lhere fore igno ring visco us effec ts for mom entu m cons idera tions , but 1101 for ene rgy
cons idera tions (as we just men tione d, there is cons idera ble turbu lence in the jump ). Alth ough hyd raul ic
jum ps can occu r on incli ned ·s urfac es, for simp licity we assu me a horiz onta l bed, and rect angu lar cha nne l
of widt h b; the resu lts we obta in will appl y gene rally to hydr aulic jump s.
Hen ce we have the follo wing assu mpti ons:
l Stea dy flow .
2 Inco mpr essib le flow .
3 Unif orm velo city at each secti on.
4 Hyd rosta tic pres sure distr ibuti on at each secti on.
5 Fric tionl ess flow (for the mom entu m equa tion).
The se assu mpti ons are fami liar from prev ious discu ssion s in this chap ter. For an inco mpr essi ble flow
with unifo m1 velo city at each secti on, we can use the appr opria te fonn of cont inuit y from Cha pter 4,
'°'
L..-cs V•A =O (4. 13b )
App lyin g Eq. 4.13 b to I.he cont rol volu me we obta in
-Vib y, + V2bY2 =0
or
( 11 .31)
This is the cont inuit y equa tion for the hydr aulic jump . For the mom entu m equa tion , agai n with the
assu mpti on of unif orm velo city al each secti on, we can use the follo wing form for the x com pon ent
of mom entu m
F.~=Fs.+Fs, =-
0{
aJ " --
11pd ¥+ L..,1 1pV• A
cs
(4. 18d )
CV
The unst eady term o/ot disap pear s as the flow is steady, and the body force F 8 , is zero for lwri z.on ral
flow . So we obta in
Fs. = Lcs "PV · A ( I 1.32 )

The surf ace forc e cons ists of pres sure force s on the two ends and friction force on I.he wett ed surf ace. By
assu mpti on 5 we negl ect fricti on. The gage pres sure at I.he two ends is hydr ostat ic, as illus trate d in
Fig. l l.3b . We reca ll from our stud y of hydr ostat ics that the hydr ostat ic force, FR, on a sub mer ged ver-
ti~al surf ace of area . A, is give n by the simp le resul t
(3.1 0b)
whe re p,. is the p~s ure at the cent roid of I.he verti cal surfa ce. For the two verti cal surf aces of the con trol
volu me, then , we have
Fs, = FR, -FR, = (pc,A) 1-(pc ,A)i = {(pgy1 )y1b} - {(pgyz)Y2b}
= pgb
2
(/i-) ~)
I -
l,Jsin g this resu lt in Eq. 11.3 2, and eval uatin g the term s on the right,
Fs. = p;b 6{ - /i) = Lcs upV ·A = Vip{ - V,y,b} + V2p{V2Y2b}

Rearrangi ng and simplifyin g

2vz .,
V1Y1 +Yi= 2Y2 +Yi
.,
( 11.33}
g 2 g 2
This is the momentum equation for the hydraulic jump. We have already derived the energy equation for
open-chan nel flows,
vi vi {I 1.10)
-1..+-..•1 +z1 = _ i +Y2+Z2 +H1
2g - 2g
For our horizontal hydraulic jump, ;;1 =zz, so
vz
~I= 2; +)'1 = 2;
yz
+Yz+H,= Ei+H, {11.34}
This is the energy equation for the hydraulic jump; 1he Joss of me_chanical energy is
6.E=E1-/; -i=H1
The continuity , momentum , and energy equations (Eqs. 11.31, 11.33, and 11.34, respectivel y) constitute
a complete se t for analyzing a hydraulic jump.
Depth Increas e Across a Hydraul ic Jump

To find the downstrea m or, as it is called, the sequent depth in terms of conditions upstream from !he
hych:aulic jump, we begin by eliminating V2 from the momentum equation. From continuity ,
V 2 = V1yify2 (Eq. 11.31 ), so Eq. 11.33 can be written
Rearrang ing
2 ., 2VfJ'1(
y.,-ri=
-
-- 1-- Y•) =---
2Vfr1(Y2
---Y1)
-
g Y2 . g Y2
Dividing both sides by the common factor 6'1-Yt }, we obtain
2Vfy
)'2 + )'1 = ---
1
gyi
Next. multiplyin g by J'2 and dividing by Yi gives
G c•2 )
-•2) + -
1
1
2
'I
2 vt
= --=2F1
8Y1
.,t ( 11.35)
Solving for yi/Yt using the quadratic formula (ignoring the physically meaningle ss negative root), we
obtain
y-,
y~ =2 1 [✓ -
- .
l + SF,i-1
] (ll.3;6;)
Hence, the ratio of downsiream t_o ups~am depths across _a hydraulic jump is only a function of !he
~_pstream Froude number. Equation 11 ..,5 has b~en expenmen tally well verified., as can be seen in
Fig. l l . lSa. Depths y 1 ~d y 2 are referred to as co11J11gate depths. From Eq. 11 .35, we see that an increase
in depth (yi.>Yi) requires an upstream ~roude nu_mber greater than ~ne (Fr, :"" 1). We have. not yet
blis bed that we must have Fr 1 > l, JUSt that 1t must be for an mcrease m depth (theoretica lly
~m
we could have Fri < l and Y2 <y, ; we w ) ill .
now consider the head loss to demonstra te that we
must have Fri > 1.
532 Chapter 1t Flow in Ope n Cha nne ls
14
0 .70
12 0.60
::z:71,j"
10
::f a.so
""I-
> . ::;.., E.
g
~
8
.."'
-0
.c
0 .40
:::.,
..
.r:::
ci.
6
C: 0 .30
..
0 0
-;;;
4 C:
0 .20
E
2 i5
0 .10
OO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0
9 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Upstr eam Froude numb er, Fr 1 Upstream Froude numb e_r, Fr1
(a) Depth ratio Cb) Head loss
Fig. 11.1 5 Dept h ratio and head loss for a hydra ulic jump . (Data from Peterka [9].}
Hea d Loss Acr oss a Hyd rau lic Jum p

Hyd raul ic jum ps often are used to dissi pate ener gy below spill ways as a mea ns of prev enti ng eros ion of
artif icial or natu ral chan nel botto m or sides . It is lherefore of interest to be able to dete rmin e the hea d loss
due to a hydr aulic jum p. · ··
From the ener gy equa tion for the jump , Eq. 11.34, we can solv e for the head Jo·s s
H1= E1 -£2 = ~ +y1 -

v2
2
(v2 )
2
; +y2
From cont inuit y, V2 = V.y1 /Y2, so
or 2
H, = Fri [ 1 _ (l_1) ] + ( 1_Y2] ( 11.3 7)
)'1 2 \) 1
2 YI
Solv ing Eq. 1 l.35 for Fr1 in term s ofy2 /y1 and subs tituti ng into Eq.1 1.37 , we obta in (afte r quit e a bit of
alge braic man ipula tion)
(I 1.38 a)
Equ ation 11.3 8a is our proo f that yifYi > 1; the left side is always positive (turb ulen ce mus t lead to a Joss
of mec hani cal ener gy); so I.he cube d term mus t lead to a positive res1,1lt. Then , from eith er Eq. 11 .35 or
Eq. l 1.36 , we see that we mus t have Fri > I. An alternative form of this resu lt is obta ined afte r som e
nuno r rearranging.
(l l.38 b)
whic h. agai n show s I.hat .Y2 > YI for real flow s (H, > 0). Nex t, the specific ener gy, £ 1, can be writ ten as
y2 [ y21
Ei = _L + YI = YI ~ -
]
+ I = YI -'---',._____,_(Fr.1 +2)
2g 2gy1 2
Nonclime nsionalizi ng H 1 using £,.

r{2 -1]3
H, .,.,.:,;[j..c•1_-='-_
E, = 2 y,Y2 fFl"T + 2]
The depth raLio in terms of Fr, is given by Eq. 11.36. Hence Hi/ Ei, can be written purely as a function of
the upstream Froude number. The result. after some manipulati on, is
Hi_ [✓1+8Frf-3r (1 l.39)

E1 - s[✓1+SF,f-i] [F,i+2]
We see that the head loss, as a fraction of the original specific energy across a hydraulic jump, is only a
function of the upstream Froude number. Equation 11.39 is experimen tally well verified, as can be seen
in Fig. 11.15b; the figure also shows that more than 70 percent of the mechanica l energy of the entering
=
stream is dissipated in jumps with F,-1 > 9. lnspeclion ofEq. 11.39 also shows that if Fr, 1, then H, = 0,
and that negative values are predicted for Fr1 < 1. Since H 1 must be positive in any real flow, this recon~
finns that a hydraulic jump can occur only i11 supercritic al flow. Flow downs1rca mfrom ajump·alw ays
is subcritica /. The charactecisLics of a hydraulic jump are determined in Example l 1.5.
Exampl e 11.5 HYDRAULIC JUMP IN A Rl;CTANGULAR CHANNEL FLOW

A hydraulic jump,occu rs in a rectangula r channel3 m wide. The water depth before the jump is b.6 m, and :i.fter the jump is L6 tn.
Compute· (a) the flow rate in the channel (b) the critical depth (c) the head loss in the jump. · ·
Given: Rectangul ar channel with hydrin.1lic jump in which fiow dep_th changes from 0.6 1_I1 to 1.6 m,
Find: Flow rµ~e. critical depth, iµlc\ head. loss in the jump.
SQh..ition : Use the equation-tl mt relates depths Y• .and Y2 in tem:i.s pf th~.F,::oude numb{:r. (I;q. l l.36); then use the; f'I;_Oud~ number
(Eq. 11,7) to obtain tlie flow ratei use Eq. 11.2;3°10 ci~tain the critical d~pth; and ~ally coinput:e the head ioss from Eq. l L38b,
G{,vernin g eqi.Jatibhs :
~~ =½ [-1 + /1 +sFPi] (11.30)

V
Fr=-
.- (11.7)
'1gy
,=
)c
L~f.
Lew
] ,,3 (11.23)
Hi=
D'2-Y1J3.
4y1)'2 (l 1.38b)
(a) From Eq. 11.36

1 +2Y2)2 - l
( )'1
8
(
m)
. 1.6
1 +2x o':6m -1
2
8
As expect ed. Fr 1 > I (superc ritical flow). We can now use the definiti on of Froude number for open-c hannel flow to find v1
Vi
Fr1= --
../8Yi
Hence
/9.81 m
Vi =Fr1y' gYJ=2 .21 X y~x0 .6m= 5.36 m/s
From this we ca.Ii obtain the flow rate, Q.

. 5.36m
Q = by1 V. = 3.0 m X 0.6 m X - - -
s
Q=9.6 5 m3 /s+ ---- --- - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - = - Q
(b) The !,ritical depth can be obtaine d from Eq. 11.23.
Ye= (fi,:r/3
mil s2 l )1/3
= ( 9 .652 s2 x 9 .81 m x 3 ,02 mi
.
)'c= 1.02 m ...- ~ - - - - - - - - - -- ---- ---- ---- ---.. ....: .:.::~.
Note that a:s illustra ted in Fjg . 11.13.) '1 <Yc<.Y2-
(c) Th~ head loss can be found from pq. 11.38b.
3
H1=
b'2-yi).
4)'1)'2
= :!_ (1.6 m - 0.6 m}J =0.260 m """:_ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __H_,

4 1.6 m x 0.6 m ·
As a .v t;rifica tion of this result. we use the ~nergy equatio n directly ,
H,=£1 - E2= ()'1 + ~D-G ~D

+
wjth V 2 = -Q/(by~ ) =2.01 m/s.
.,m2 I s2 )
H,= ( Q.6m+ 5.36- s2 x x _ m
2 9 81
--(1.6 m+2.o i27: x ½x 9 _:: m)

H1=0. 458m
11 . 5 Stea dy Unifo rm Flow

Aft er studyin g local effects su<;h as bumps and hydraul ic jumps, and definin g some fundam ental quan-
tities such as the specifi c energy and critical velocity , we are ready to analyze flows in long stretches.
Steady uniform flow is someth ing that is to be expecte d to occur for channe ls of consta nt slope and cross
section ; Figs. 1 I.I and 11.2 show examples of this kind of flow. Such flows are ve ry comm on and impor -
tant, and have been extensi vely studied .
The sµnples t such flow is fully develop ed flow; it is analogo us to fully develo ped flow in pipes.
A fully develo ped flow is one for which the channe l is prisma tic, that is, a channe l with c onstan t s lope
and cross section that flows at constan t depth. This depth, Yn , is termed the normal depth and the flow is
11.5 Steady Uniform Flow 535
(i) Control
-------- C volume
-- - - - --
Y1 := Yn
>'2 = Yn
Fig. 11.16 Control volume for uniform channel flow.
tenned ·aw1ifom1flow. Hence lhe expression ,mijom,.flow in this chapter has a different meaning than in
earlier chapters. In earlier chapters it meant lhat the velocity was uniform at a section of the flow; in this
chi,ipter we use it to mean that, but in addition specifically that lhejlow is the same ar all sections. Hence
for the flow shown in Fig. 11.16, we have A 1 =A2 =A (cross-section areas), Q 1 = Q2 = Q (flow rates),
Vi = V2 = V (average velocity, V = Q/A), and y 1 = y2 = Yn (flow depth).
As before (Section 11.2), we use the following assumptions:
Steady flow.
3 Uniform velocity at a section.
4 Gradually varying depth so that pressure distribution is hydrostatic.
5 Bed slope is small.
6 Ws=Wshenr=Wo111c r=0.
Note that assumption 5 means that we can approximate the flow depth y to be vertical and flow sp(:ed
horizontal. (Strictly speaking they should be nortnal arid parallel to the channel bottom, respectively.)
The contin·u ity equation ·is obvious·foi- IJiis case.
For the momenti.nn equation, again with the assumption-of uniform velocity at each section, we can. use
the following form for the x component of momerirum
aJ 11pd¥-+ "'
Fx=Fs, +Fs, =-a
t CV
~csup V- · A- (4.18d)
The unsteady term a/at disappears as the flow is steady, and the control surface summation is zero
=
because Yr V2 ; hence the right hand side is zero as there is no change of momentum for the. control
volume. The body force FB., = W sin 0 where Wis the weight of fluid in the control volume; 0 is the bed
slope, a,s shown in Fig. 11.16. The surface force consists of the hydrostatic force on the.two end sucfaces
µt CD and (2) and the friction force F1 on the wetted surface of the control volume; however, because we
have the same pressure distributions at (D and (2), the netx component 9f pressure force is zero. Using all
the,se results in Eq. 4.18d we obtain
-F1+Wsin0=O
or
F1=Wsin0 (11.40)
We see that for flow at normal depth, the corpponent ~f_th~ gravity force driving the flow is just balanced
by the friction force acting on t~e ch8:11"el walJs. Ttus 1s m contrast to flow in a pipe or duct, for which
(with the exception 0 ~ pu~ grav~ty_dnven flow.) we usually have a balance between an 1;1ppUed pressure
gradient and the frictton. The fricnon force may be expressed as the product of an average wall shear
536 Cha pter 11 Flow in Ope n Cha nnel s
sa-es s. -r,.., and the chan nel weu ed surfa ce area . PL (whe re L is the chan nel leng th), on whi ch the
sa-es s acts
F1 =-r..,PL ( 11.4 I)
The com pone nt of grav ity force can be writte n as
W sin 0 = pgA L sin 0 ::::: pgAL 0 ~ pgAL Sb ( 11.4 2)
whe re Sb is the chan nel bed slop e. Usin g Eqs . 11.41 and l L.42 in Eq. 11.4 0,
-r,..P L=pg ALSb

or
pgAS b .
-r.., = - p - = pgR1iSb (11 .43)
whe re we have used the hydr aulic radiu s, R,, =A/ P as defin ed in Eq. l L. L. In Cha pter 9 we hav e pre-
viou sly intro duce d a skin fricti on coef ficie nt,
c
J-- ~
½PV2 (9.2 2)
Usin g this in Eq. 11.4 3
so, solv ing for \/
( 11.4 4)
The Ma nni ng Equ atio n for Uni form Flo w

Equ ation 11.4 4 give s Lhe flow velo city Vas a func tion of chan nel geom etry, spec ifica lly the hyd raul ic
radiu s, R,. and slop e, Sb, but also the skin fricti on coef ficie nl, CJ- This latter term is diff icul t to obta in
expe rime ntall y or lheo retic ally; it depe nds on a num ber of factors such as bed roug hnes s and flui d pro p-
ertie s, but also on I.be velo city itsel f (via the flow Reyn olds num ber). Inste ad of this we defi ne a new
quan tity,
so that Eq. I I .44 beco mes
(11 .45)
Equ ation 11.4 5 is the well -kno wn CheZ)1 equa tion, and C is referred to as the Che zy coej fic ie llt. Exp er-
imen tal values o f C were obta ined by Man ning [10]. He sugg ested that
(11 .4~)
whe re n is a roug hness coef ficie nt havi ng diffe rent valu es for diffe rent Lypes of bou ndar y roug hne ss .
Som e repre senta tive valu es of ,z are liste d in Tabl e 11.2. The rang e of values give n in the tabl e refl ects
the impo rtan ce of surfa ce char acter istic s. For the same mate rial, the valu e of n can vary 20 to 30 perc ent
depe ndin g on the finis h of the chan nel surface. Subs tituti ng C from Eq. J 1.46 into Eq. 11 .45 resu lts in the
Man ning equarion for the velo city for flow at norm al dept h
. ~ ! R2/?>s•/2
V - . · h
n b {11 .47a )
11 .5 Steady Uniform Flow 537
Table 11 . 2
Represen tative Manning's Roughness Coefficien ts
Channel Type Condition Manning's 11
ConsLructc d, unlined Smooth eanh 0.016-0.02 0

Bare eru-th 0.0]8-0.02 2
Gmvel 0.022 - 0 .030
Rocky 0.025-0.03 5
Constructe d, lined Plastic 0 .009 - 0.0 I I
Asphalt 0.013 - 0.016
Concre1e 0.013-0.01 5
Brick 0.014-0.01 7
Wood 0.011-0.01 5
Masonry 0.025-0.03 0
Corruga1ed metal 0.022-0.02 4
Natural Stream, clean 0.025-0.03 5
Major river. clean 0.030 - 0 .040
Major river. sluggish 0 .040- 0 .080
Source: Da ta taken from References (I]. [3], [7J. [I I]. [l2J
which is valid for SI units. Manning's equation in SI units can aJso be expressed as
Q = !_AR213s112 ( 11.48a)
. it. I, b
For V in ft/s and R1, in feet (English Engineerin g units), Eg. I J .47a can be rewritten as
(11.47b)
and Eq. 11.48a cao be written as
Q= J.49AR2/Js1/2
II Ii b (l l.48b)
where A is in square feet. Note that a number of these equations, as well as many that follow, are
"engineer ing" equations; that is, the user needs to be aivare of rhe required units of each renn in the
equation .
The relationsh ip among variables in Eqs. 11.48a can be viewed in a number of ways. For example, it
shows chat the volume flow rate through a prismatic channel of given slope and roughness is a function
of both channel size and channel shape. This is illustrated in Examples L1.6 and l 1.7.
Exampl e 11.6 FLOW RATE IN A RECTANG ULAR CHANNE L
An S-ft-wide rectangula r channel with a bed slope_of 0.0004 ft/ft has a depth of flow of 2 ft. Assuming steady _g"nifoon flow,
qetermin e the cJischarge in the channel. The Mannmg roughness coefficien t is n =0,015.
Given: Geometry of rectangular channel and flow depth.
Find: Flow rate Q.

S<>!i,ition: l;Jse the appropriat e form of.Mru:min_g 's equation. For a pi:oblem in English Engin¢eti ng units, $is.is Eq. 11.48b,
538 Cha pter 11 Flow in Ope n Cha nne ls
Gov erni ng equa tion s:

- 1.49 R2/3S1/2 by
Q --n -A J, b R1 ,=- - (Tab le 11.1 )
b+2 y
Usin g this equa tion with the give n data
1.49A R2/ 3st/2

Q= -- /1 b
" 'I 3 1
1.49 ( 8 ft X 2 ft ) - fl)
= - -
. -
: X (8 ft X 2 ft) X S ft ? ? f X
(
0 .004 -
/l
0.01 5 + - X- t ft
Q=3 8.5f t:3/s _ Q
Exa mp le 11. 7 FLO W VER SUS ARE A THR OUG H TWO CHA NNE L SHAPES
Ope n chan nels, of squa re and sem icirc ular s hape s, are bein g cons idere d for carry ing flow on a slop e of Sb = 0.00
l ; the cha nne l
wall s are to be pour ed conc rete with n=0 .015 . Eval uate the flow rate deliv ered by the chan nels for max imu
m dim ens ions
be.tw een 0.5 and 2.0 m. Com pare the chan nels on the basis of volu me flow rate for give n cross -sect iona l area
.
Give n: Squ are and sem icirc ular chan nels ; Sb= 0.00 1 and 11=0 .015 . Size s betw een 0.5 and 2.0 m acro ss.
Find: Flow rate as a fl,Jnction of s ize. Com pare chan nels on the basi s of volu me flow rate, Q,
vers us cros s-sec tion al area , A.
;1,
Solu tion : Use the appr opri ate form of Man ning 's equa tion. For a prob lem in SI units , this is t'
Eq. 1 L68 a. i;
,.
Governing equa tion s: ~ ' 1'
L~_.,:_: _
(11.4 8a) >I
b
Assu mpt ion: Flow at norm al dept h.

For the squa re chan nel,
p = 3b and A =b 2
so
b
R1,= -
3
I· ·I
Usin g this in Eq. 11.4 8a
..,/3
.. 1 2/3s l/2 - 1 b2 (~) - s•/ 2 = _ 1_51/ 2bS/ 3
Q= ;AR1 r b - ; 3 b 32/3, , b
·F or· b ;:;::: l m,
Q= 1 (0.00 1)1/2 (1)8 /3 =1.0 1 m3/s _ _ _ __ _ __ _Q
_
3 213 (0.0 15)
'tabu latin_g for a rang e of size s yie lds
b(m ) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

A (m2 ) 0.25 1.00 2 .25 4.00
Q(~ 3/s) 0. 160 1.01 2 .99 6.44
For the semicircular channel,
P- JCD and rrD2

10.0
: : ==,==~=~=±J J ,:j
_ _ _ - 1- _ _. - -1 - + _. -' -'
-1 1.. -
~
-
• - - - -
- - L __ : _
~ -
_ ,_
-1- _ ,_
; _J _J ~~ -f -14
- 2 A=g __ - - 1- - -t - -1 - ~ -t -I ~ -L '-- - - - - .._ - _ ,_ -
j. - '
4 --f-1 --f •
2 _ __ _ L_.J _.J _ l. J .J J .l.L - - - - L - - _L .J. .J .J J J
JCD 2 D
so R,,=-- - - =-
8 aD 4
- - -
1
- 1-
I
- -, - 7 - T I 1 1
I I I I I I I
"T r - - - - r
I
-vi- - 1- I I I
I 7 - 11 ,
I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
t,J_s_ing this, in J;:q, 11.48a - - - -,- - -,- -,- , 7-,7 ,- r - - - -f'/- -,- -,- , 7-,-,, I 1 I
. . - ~ - - - ~~ ....,, I I I ( I I I I I I I
- Semicirc ular _J .L L _ _ _ L __1__ ,_ .L J J J .J.
Q = !..AR2;3s112 = !._1rl)2 (!!.)
·4
2/ 3s 112 - - Square : : ; : 1/
1 1
: : : : : :
. II lt - b 718 b
: : ! : ~ l 1/ !
: : : : !
= 1l' st/2D8/3 .2i
I? 1.0 --l----r----,-.----t---t---r----t---,,.17"-----r--
- - - - ,- - - , - - , : I J L __ __ L __ I __ 1_ .! J _ I _ I .J.
_J
,----,-,-.,-,..,.....,
45/3(2)11 b
I., - - _ _ 1_ _ .J _ _l_l. J './'.L L _ - - - ' - - _1 _ _ 1_ .J.J.J J.!
__ __ L _.J _ .J_l. ~J.J.L ____ L - - L ~_ .J..J .JJ.J.
ForD.;::: 1 m,
l;
0
-t~ • ~----}----:--:-+~-!-: • ·
----:- - :- :-1-V .,1---1.,
> - - - - 1- - , - - 1 -r t- - - - - i- - - 1- -1- -;- -1 -1 --,..,
- - - -!- - ---! - ~ ~ -!-! ~ ~ ~ - - - -~ - -!- -:- ~ ---! -!~~

.m.- "fr_ - (0 00·1·) 112 (1)813 0 329 3/ Q
~ _ , 45 / 3 (2){0.015) · : = ·· · m s +--------'--'-
- - -
I
-1- -1/1- - , -
'1/ ! : : : : : :
I I I I I I
: ! : : : : ::
- I l 1· I I I I I
I I I I I I I II I I I I I I II
Tabulating for a raJige of sizes yields
,1/ : : : : : : :: : : : : : : ::
0.1 -1--~~'----'----'--'-- -'--'--'--''-i-----'-----'----- ---''---'---'--'--'--'-i
t> (rn) o:s LO l._5- 2.0 0.1 1.0
Cross-sectional area, A (m2 )
10:0
-A -(m~) (};09~2 0;393 ();~~4 1.57
.,~ (r!i3/_s ) - 0.0517 0;:329 0:9§.~ 2.09
F.6r both c;batmels, v.olume fiow rate v~es as

(2_,,,.,JJ,,8/3 (;>r g "'A4/3
sinceA ~L'2. The plot of flow rate versus cros.s-sectional area shows that th~ sem-
icir¢ qlat c!:ti;i.nnel is more "efficient."
· ·p~rformartce of the two <:hannets 1n_a y l:!e compared at any specified ·are~. A._t
A:;:= 1 m 2 , . Q/A = 1.0 L m/s .fot the sqil$ channel. For the seill:icircuiar channel
with A = l m2 , µten D = 1:60 m, antcl Q =; U .5 m~/s; so_ Q/A = l. 15 mfs. Thus
the.semic;:u:cular cliariMl cll.aj~_;ipptoxirrl?t~ly 14 p~rcent moi:e fiow per unit area
llihli tff~:-square chartnei. ·
W e have demonstrated that Eqs. 11.48 mean that, for normal flow, the flow rate depends on the
channel size and shape. For a specified flow rate through a prismatic channel of given slope and rough-
ness, Eqs. 11.48 also show that the depth ofunifonn flow is a function ofbotb channel size and shape, as
well as the slope. There is only one depth for uniform flow at a given flow rate; it may be greater than,
less than, or equal to the critical depth, This is illustrated in Examples 11.8 and 11.9.
£-x_qmpl~ 11.8 NORIV\ALOEPTH IN A RECTANGULA~ <:HANNEI,.
:Oeten:rune the normal depth (for uniform flow) if the channel described in Example 11.6 has. a flow rate of lQl:h~fs-.
G_iv:en: Geometric clata on rectanguW·chaIµJ,el of Example l l.6.

Fin•·d : ..·o_rroald_ep·th_ f~ra flow rate Q,=100ft3/s.
N
54 0 Chapt er 11 Flow in Open Chann els
Soluti on: Use the approp riate form of Mannin g's equatio n. For a problem in English Engine ering units, this is Eq. 11.48 b.
Govern ing equatio ns:
byn
R1, = - - Table( l l.l)
b+2y,,
Combi ning ¢ese equatio ns
Q= J.49 AR2/Js1 12= 1.49(b >(~) 2'3s •12

II
1
' b II y,, b + 2y,, b
Hence , after rearran ging
~
3
Qn ) 5
( l .49b5/3 s!/2 (b + 2yn)~ =>'n
Substit uting (f = l 00 ft3/s, n ~ 0.015, ~ = 8 ft, and Si,= 0.0004 and simplif ying (remem bering this is an "engin eering " equati on,
in which we msert values w1tllou t umts),
3.89(8 + 2y,,)2 = .Yn
This nonlin ear equatio n can be solved fory,, using a numericil.l method such as the
Newto n-Raph son method-(or better yet using your calcula tor's solving feature or
Excel's Gop/ Seek or Solver! ). We finc;I
)'n = 3.97 ft _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___:_
y,,
Note that there are five ropts, but four of them are comple x-math ematic ally
correct but physic ally meanin gless.
&am ple 11.9 DETE RMINA TION OF FLUM E SIZE
An above,- ground flume, built from timber, is to convey water from a mounta in lake to a small hydroel ectric plant. The flume is to
3
deliver water at Q=2 m /s; the slope is Sb=0.0 02 and n=0.0 13. Evalua te the required flume size for (a) a rectan gular
section w\th y/b = 0 .5 .and (b) an equilat eral triangu lar section .
Q = 2 .00 m 3 /s.
Given: Flume to be built from timber, with Sb= 0.002, 11=0.0 13, and
Find: Requir ed flume size for:

(a) Rectan gular section with y/b=0 .5.
(b) Equila teral triangu lar se.c tion.
~olutiq n: Assum e flume is long, so flow is uniform ; it is at normal depth. Then Eq. 11.48a applies.
G:overni ng equati ons:
( 11.48 a)
The 9hqice of channe l shape fixes the relation ship betwee n R1, and A; so Eq. 1 L48a may be solved for nom1a l depth, Yn, thus
det¢¢ri 1:iing '-l:te.cha nne1 size require d.
(a) Rectan gul~ -section
P=2)'n +b; y,,/b= 0.5 so b=2yn
P=2)'n +2Yn =4)'11 A.=y,.b =y,.(2y ,.) =2rn
_ A 2.rn O
soRi ,=-= - = .Sy,,
P 4Yn
11.5 Ste ady Uniform Flow 541
Usiil~_this .in Eq. 11 .48a,

.
~ [7-::J
2
Q= .!_AR2/3 sl/2 = .!_(? -,){OS )2J3sl/2 = 2(0.5) /3 8/Jsl/2
·
11
y,,= [-
It
nQ
b
2(0.5) 213
n -Y,';
]J/s = [
s!12
· Y11 b n
0.013(2.00)
Yn b
2(0.s)2l3 (0.002) 112

]3/8 =0.748m I• h
I
I
l·
The required dimensions for lhe rectangulat·channel are
y,, =0.748-m A:: l.12m2
b · Flume size
= 1.50 m p= 3.00 m +---- ------------------------
·(6) Equilateral i:iiangle section
Usin~ this in Eq. 1 l:48a,

P==2s=
·
2
Y" .
cos30°
, · _A_)'.n
soRh-·p-
4
A-= Jl,,s-=
.
Tn__--
2 ·· 2cos30°
.,
i1·
Solving for y;,
_ -=
Yn
[2 cos ~0°(4)
s_!/2
713
nQ] J/$...;;
. - (0.002) 1/2
3
[2c'os 30°(4}U (0.013)(2.00)]
318
_
- 1.4- m
?
'Ili_e requi,re_d dimensiJ)rts ft>r the. triangular chll.Ilnel are

Yn = 1.42 m A =J-.16-m2
bs = 1.64 m p = 3;28 m + - - - - - , - - - - - - - - - - - - -- ------.a......::Fl..:um:::=;'.::e:..:SIZ'..'.:·:::::.
·e
Note that for the triantular cbjulnel
and V V
Fr=--·-:a;:_ ·· ·-
~ JgA/bs
m 1
Fr=l.72""""i"X [ : . ~ ~ _ l ] 112 0.653
·_9;8\? x l.l(i_m- x 1.64-~
HeIJCe tfiis normal flow is suJ>cntical (as is th~ flow in the re<:taj}~ular .c hannel).
. . Comparing results, we s~e that the rectangular flume would be- cheaper to
build; its perimeter is about 8.5 perc¢nt less than that of the trlang_l,tlai; flume,
Energy Equation for Uniform Flow

To complete our discussion of normal flows, we consider the energy equation. The energy equation was
already derived in Section 11.2.
· v? v~
28
+Y1 +z1 = 2; +)'2+z2+H1 (ll.lO)
542 Ch apt er 11 Flo w in Ope n Cha nne ls
In this case we obta in. with V 1 = V2 = V, and )'1 = )'2 =)'n,
Z1 =z2 +H1
or
( 11. 49)
whe re Sb is the slop e of the bed and Lis the dist anc e between points (D and ~- Hen ce we see tha t for
flo w
at nor mal dep th, the hea d loss due to .fric tion is equ al to the cha nge in elev atio n of the bed . Th e spe
cifi c
ene rgy , E, is the sam e at all sect ions ,
V2
E= Ei = -1.. +y1 =£2 =-- = +y= con st
V;
2g 2g
For com plet ene ss we also com pute the ene rgy grad e line EGL and hyd raul ic gra de line HG L.
Fro m
Sec tion 6.4
P v1
EG L= -+? +z, o,a 1 (6. 16b )
pg -8
and
p
HG L= - +z,01u1 (6. 16c )
pg '
Not e that we hav e use d Z1o1u1 = z+y in Eqs . 6.16 b and 6.16 c (in Cha pter 6, z is the tota l elev atio
n of the
free surf ace) . Hen ce at any poin t on the free surf ace (recall that we are usin g gag e pre ssu res) ,
v2
'EG L= -+' "+
. 2g ~
)• (I 1.5 0)
and
HQ L=z ,+y (11 .51 )
Hen ce, usin g Eqs . 11.5 0 and I 1.51 in Eqs . 11.1 0, betw een points (D and ~ we obt ain
EGL1 -EG Li= H,= z1 -z2

and (bec aus e V1 = V2)
HG L 1-HG ui =H1 =z1 - z2
For nom zalj low , the ene rgy gra de line, the hyd rau lic gra de lin e, and the cha nne l b ed are all par
alle l .
The tren ds for the ene rgy grad e line , hyd raul ic grad e line, and specific ener gy, are sho wn in Fig
. 1 1.1 7.
-J
- -
Ji -I.if
.), --- --··
v, ----
EGL1 2
- ---- -- EGL line
.
" VI - - - - ---- - ---- - --- - EGL
I' - • --- - - 2
"cc~ -. )J-!~~! - ~~---- --.. . _!-l_qL line

- - - ---- ---- I HGL 2g
- -- : ,; . - - - .• - _ _ <2)
Fig. 11 . 1 7 Energy grad e line, hydraulic grad e line, and specific energy for uniform flow.
Optimu m Channe l Cross Section

For given slope and roughness, the optimum channel cross section is that for which we need the smallest
channel for a given flow rate; this is when Q/A is maximized . From Eq. 11.48a (using the SI version.
although the results we obtain will apply generally)
( 11.52)
Thus the optimum cross section has maximum hydraulic radius, Rh- Since Rh =A/P, Rh is maximum
when the wetced peri111eter is minimum. Solving Eq. U .52 for A (with R 1, =A/P) then yields
3/5
A= [11~
s•l- ]
p2/S (I 1.53)
b .
From Eq. 11 :s3, the flow area will be a minimum wh.en the. wetted perimeter is a minimum.
Wetted perimeter; P, is a -function of channel shape. For any given prism;itic channel shape
(rectangul ar, trapezoida l,.triangular, circular, etc.), the channel cross section can be optimized. Optimwn
cross sections for common channel shapes are given without proof in Table 11 .3.
Once the optimum cross section for a given channel shape has been determined , expression s for
normal depth, Yn, and area, A, as functions of flow rate can be obtained from Eq. 11.48a. These expres-
sions are included in Table 11..3.
Table 11.3
Propertie s of Optimum Open-Cha nnel Sections (SI Units)
Optimum Normal Cross-Secti onal
Shape Section Geometry Depth,yn Area,A
T -r npezoidal
""'\t;::;_:Jl·f a=60°
b=
.,
g/n
- 0.%8 [ ~r/8
s~12
16?? [
· -
~
s,,112
r4
Rectangul ar
l ~
'SZ
b__j
j,. r b ::2yn 0.917 [ Qn ]
s,,112
318
1.682 r~;~ r4
Triangular
~ 'SZ
~
'
a
a::45° 1.297 [ Qn ]
Sbl/2
3111
~
1.682 [ S1,112 r4
Wide Flat f - }J•n

...,._
None 1.00 [ (Qlb),i ]3111
S1,112
~ b >>y ~
4
~ ~r
D=2yn 1.00 [ Qn ]~
Circ::µlar , Yn s,,112 1.583 [
s~12
/
D
54 4 ch ap ter 11 Flo w in Op en Ch ann els
11 . 6 Fl ow wi th Gr ad ua lly Va ryi ng De pth

Mo sr hum iµi- ma de cha nne ls are des ign ed to hav e uniform flow (fo r exa mp le, see
Fig . 11. 1 ). Ho we ver ,
this is not tru e in som e situ atio ns. A cha nne l can hav e non uni form flow , tha t is,
a flo w for wh ich the
dep th and hen ce spe ed, and so on var y alo ng the cha nne l for a num ber of rea son
s. Ex am ple s inc lud e
wh en an ope n-c han nel flow enc oun ters a cha nge in bed slop e, geo met ry, or rou ghn
ess , or is adj ust ing
itse lf bac k to nom1al dep th afte r exp erie nci ng an ups trea m cha nge (su ch as a slu
ice gat e). We ha ve
alre ady stu die d rap id, loc aliz ed cha nge s, suc h as tha t occ urri ng in a hyd rau lic jum p,
but her e we ass um e
flo w dep th cha nge s gra dua lly. Flo w wit h gra dua lly var yin g dep th is ana lyz ed by
app lyi ng the en erg y
equ atio n to a diff ere ntia l con trol vol um e; the resu lt is a diff ere ntia l equ atio n tha t rela
tes cha nge s in de pth
to dis tan ce alo ng the flow . Th e resu ltin g equ atio n ma y be sol ved ana lyti call y or, mo
re typ ica lly nu me r-
ica lly, if we app roJ .im are the hea d los s at eac h section as bei ng tire sam e as tha tfo rflo
w at no rm al dep th.
11sin g the vel oci ty and hyd rau lic rad ius of the sec tion . Wa ter dep th and cha nne l bed hei ght are ass um ed
to cha nge slo wly . As in the cas e of flow at nor mal dep th, vel oci ty is ass um ed uni for
m, and the pre ssu re
dis oib utio n is ass um ed hyd ros tati c at eac h sec tion .
Th e ene rgy equ atio n (Eq . l l. 10) for ope n-c han nel flow was app lied to a fini te con
tro l vo lum e in
Sec tion 11 .2.
y2
~+
vi2
)'1 + z, == ? + )'2 + z2 + H, {1 1.1 0)
_g -c
we app ly this equ atio n to the diff ere ntia l con trol vol um e, of len gth dx, sho wn in Fig
. 11. 18. No te tha t the
ene rgy gra de line, hydra111ic gra de line, and cha nne l bot tom all hav e diff ere nt slo
pes , unl ike for the
urii for m flow of the pre vio us sec tion !
Th e ene rgy equ atio n bec om es
y2 y2 (y
-+ y+ z= -+ d -
2
) +y +d y+ z.+ dz +d H 1
2g 2g 2g
or afte r sim plif yin g and rea rran gin g
-d ("2)
2
g -dy -dz =d H1 {1 1.5 4)
Th is is not s 11rpr isin g. Th e diff ere ntia l los s of mec han ical ene rgy equ als the diff ere
ntia l hea d los s. Fro m
cha nne l geo me try
( 11 .55 )
, r·· ·::r :cc c,, ••• ••• •·· ····~Gll"'_•.

~ : . Slo ~S . _ ------------------ -1 y2 +d(y2)
: . ___ HGLhne 2g 2g
''
)' ' ' @
y+d y
·Fig . 11. 18 (:on tr.o.l volume ·ror ene rgy. analy~is of grad uall y varying flow.
11.6 Flow with Gradually Varying Depth 545
We also have the approximation that the head loss in this differential nonuniform flow can be approxi-
mated by the head loss that uniform flow would have at the same flow rate, Q, at the section. Hence the
differential head loss is approximated by
dH1=Sd.:c ( I 1.56)
where S is the slope of the EGL (see Fig. 1 J . 18). Using Eqs. 11.55 and I 1.56 in Eq. 11 .54, dividing by
dx, and rearranging, we obtain
!!_
dl: 2g
(V2) + dy =Sb-S
dx
(I 1.57)
To eliminate the velocity derivative, we differentiate the continuity equation, Q =VA= const.. to obtain
dQ dV dA
-=0=A-+V-
dx dx dx
or
dV V d.A Vbs dy
( I 1.58)
dx- A d,l:- A dx
where we have used dA = b.dy (Eq. l l. 17), where bs is the channel width at the free surface. Using
Eq. 11.58 in Eq. 11.57, after rearranging
!!_ (V
2
d'I': 2g
) + cly = ~
dl: g
dV
cl-I:
+ dy = _ V
ell:
2
b. dy + dy =Sb-S
gA dx dx
( 11.59)
Next, we recognize that

vzbs vi vi .,
- -· = - = - = F r
gA A gy1,
. g-
bs
where )'1, is the hydraulic depth (Eq. 11.2). Using this in Eq. l 1.59, we finally obtain our desired form of
the energy equation for gradually val)•ing flow
{1L60)
This equation indicates how the depth y of the flow varies. Whether the flow becomes deeper dy/ dx > 0)
or shallower (dy / dx < 0) depends on the sign of the right-hand side. For example, consider a channel that
has a horiz<>ntal section (Sb= 0):
dy S
dx =- l-Fr2
Bec;ause of friction the EGL always decreases, so S > 0 . If the incoming flow is subcritical (Fr< 1), the
flow depth will gradually decrease (dy/dx < 0); if the incoming flow is super~riti~al (Fr> 1), the flow
depth will gradually increase (d~/ dx > 0). Note ~so that for critic:11 flow (Fr= l ), the equation leads to a
singularity, and gradually flow 1s no longersustamable-s omething dramatic will happen (guess wh~t).
Calculation of Surface Profiles

Equation ll.60 can be used to solve f~r the free sur_face shape y(x); the equation loo~ simple enough,
but it is usually difficult to solve analyocally and so 1s solved numerically. It is difficult-to solve because
the bed i;Jope, Sb, the local Froude number, Fr, and S, the EGL slope equivalent to uniform flow at rate Q,
will in ·general all vary with location, x . For S, we use the res.u lts obtained in Section l 1.5, specifi!::ally
Q= !AEt3s112
11 1, (I l.48a}
or for English Engineerin g units
Q -- -1.49
-
/1
A
R2/Js1 /2
I
I (11.48b)
Note that we have used S ratl1er tllan S,, in Eq. 11.48 as we are using the equation to obtain an equivale nt
value of S for a uniform flow at rate Q! Solving for S,
2Q2
11
S = -- (1 l.6la)
A ,,
2n4/3
112Q2
S=---= --- (ll.6lb)
l.492A2Rt/ 3
We can also express the Froude number as a function of Q,
V Q
Fr=--=--- (11 .62)
,,fgy,; A,,fgy,;
Using Eqs. ll.6la (or ll.6lb) and ll.62 in Eq. 11.60
Q2 (11.63a)
1---
A2gy,.
dy
tb,= Q2 ( 11 .63b)
1---
A2g)'h
For a given channel (slope, Sb , and roughness coefficient , n, both of which may vary with x) and flow rate
Q, the area A, hydraulic radius R,,,and hydraulic depth y,. are all functions of depth y (see Section l I . I).
Hence Eqs. 11 .63 are usually best solved using a suitable numerical integration scheme. Example I I . IO
shows such a calc ulation for the simplest case, tllat of a rectangular channel.
Exampl e 11.1 O CALCUL ATION OF FREE SURFACE PROFILE

Water flows in a 5-'m-wide rectangula r channel made from unfinished concrete with n =0.015. The channel contains a long reach
an which Sb is constant at Sb= 0.020. At.one section,Jlo w is atdepth)'1 = 1.5 m, with speed v, =4.0 m/s. Calculate and plot-the
Ire¢·surr~¢e profile for th.e first 100 m of the channel, and find the final depth.
Given: Water flow in a rectangula r channel.

Find: Plot of-free sµrface profile; depth at 100 m.
Solution: Use th~ appropriat e form of the equation for flow depth, Eq. 11.63a.
(1 L63a)
11.6 Fl ow with Gradually Varying Depth 547
"'!e use ~uler's m~thod (see Section·5.5) to convert the 1-6

d~fferentuil equation to a d ifference equation. In this
approach, the differential is convened to a d ifference, l.4
dy Ay
dx ~ 11.x
(!) 1.2
°E
w.hei:e Ax an9 Ay are small but finite changes irt x -;,1.0
and- y , respectively. Combining_.Eqs. 11.63a and L -=
'E.
and rearranging, -8 0 .8
.!?
3: 0.6
0.4
0.2
20 40 60 80 100
f'inally, we let Ay=yi+ 1 - y;, wherey1 andy1+ 1 are the
Distance alone; channel, r Cm}
d e pths a t point i and a poir1t (t + 1) distance 4-, ftinller
downs~.
)';+1 =y;+.i:ix . . .Q 2 (1 )
1--.,--
Argy,,,
Equation 2 computes the depth, Y,+ 1 , gj.ve!l data.i:it point i. In the current application, Sb and n are constant, but A, Rh,.ahd) 'h WW.,
of course, vary with x because they are functio~s of y . For a rectangular ch~el we have the following:
t\1=by;
R - by;
,,,- b+2y;
_A, -'-A;_ by;_
y,,; - ~-- ~ - - - y ,
bs b bs
Toe calculations are conveniently pi,rformed and results plotted using Excel. Note that partial results are shown-in the table, ang
that for the first meter, over which there is a rapid change in d~pth, the step size is .6.:c=0.05.
X (rh) y (m) A(~~) Rh (m) Yh (m)
l 0.00 1.:SOO 7 ."500 0.938 l.500

2 0.05 1.491 7.454 0 ;934 l.491
3 0.10 J.483 7.417 0.931 L483
4 0 . 15 1.477 7 .3&~ 0.928 l.477
5 0.20 l.47i 7.356 0';926 1.471
: : ..
Jl8 98 0.916 4 .580 0.670 0.916
U9 99 0.915 4.576 0.670 0.915
120 100 0.914 4 .571 0.669 0.914
Toe.depth al lpcation x= 100,m is seen to be 0 .914 m.

y(lOOm)
y(l00 tri) =0.9i4 lli .
.
N ote
(foJJowing the solution procedure of Example 11.8) that the norm.al depth. for !his
.flow is y,, = Q.8S8 m; the flq~_d:p th. 1s
· asy~ptO\IC
· ally approac
· hing this
. . ~alue. In general,
·this is on~ of several possiQ1liJJ.es, dependmg on ·the-v!lll!.CS of the 1runal depth and the.
c!ts;m n~l properties (slope and roughness). A Qqw m(ly approac_h normal depth~ ~come
deep~r .?fld ·d eeper, or evenrually.l;,c;:come shallow.er-and expenence a hydx:aulic )Ump.
54 8 Ch apt er 11 Flo w in Op en Ch ann els
11 . 7 Di sc ha rg e M ea su re me nt Using Weirs
A we ir is a dev ice (or ove rflo w s1n1cture) tha t is placed normal to the dire ctio n of flo
w. Th e we ir ess en -
tial ly bac ks up wa ter so thal, in flowing ove r the weir, the wat er goe s thro ugh crit ica
l dep th. We irs ha ve
bee n use d for the me asu rem ent of wat er flow in ope n cha nne ls for ma ny yea rs. We irs
can gen era lly be
cla ssif ied as sha rp- cre s1e d wei rs and bro ad- cre s1e d weirs. We irs are dis cus sed in
det ail in Bo s [ 14 ),
Bra ter [15 ], and Rep log le [16 ].
A sha rp- cre s1e d wei r is bas ical ly a thin pla te mounted pe'l )en dic ula r to the flow
wit h the top of the
pla te hav ing a bev ele d, sha ll) edg e, wh ich ma kes the nap pe spr ing cle ar from the pla
te (se e Fig . l l .19 ).
Th e rate of flow is det erm ine d by me asu ring the head, typically in a stil ling we ll (se e
Fig . 11 .20 ) at a
dis tan ce ups trea m from the cre st. The hea d H is measured usi ng a gag e.
Su pp res se d Re cta ng ula r We ir

Th ese sha rp- cre sted wei rs are as wid e as the cha nne l and the wid th of the nap pe is the
sam e len gth as the
cre st. Ref erri ng to Fig . 11. 20, con sid er an elem ent al are a dA_= bdh and ass um e the vel
oci ty is V = ..,/2 jjfi ;
the n the ele me nta l flow is
dQ = bdh ~ = b.J igh112 dh
Th e dis cha rge is exp res sed by inte gra ting this ove r the are a abo ve the top of the we
ir cre st:
H H
Q= J
0
dQ = '1i cb J 1 2
Ji l dh =~ '1i cbH3 l 2 (I 1.6 4)
0
Fri ctio n effe cts hav e be.e n neg lect ed in the der iva tion of Eq. 11. 64. Th e dra wd ow
n eff ect sho wn in
Fig . 11. 19 and the cre st conn-action ind icat e tha t the stre aml ine s are not par alle l or
nor ma l to the are a
in the pla ne. To acc oun t for the se effe cts, a coe ffic ien t of disc har ge Cd is use d, so
tha t
Q = Cd~ ,/2 gbH312

wh ere Cd is app rox ima tely 0.62. Thi s is the bas ic equ atio n for a sup pre sse d rec tan gul
ar we ir, wh ich can
be exp res sed mo re gen era lly as
Q = C.,,bH3l 2 ( I 1. 65 )
VG
I
T 2g Drpwdown
- -- -· ~-_'!!!!!:'
Fig. 11. 19 Flow ove r sha rp-c rest ed weir.
I
~ -- · -- - -- ,
- - --..---···-t,-r-
:,sti_llfri"g,i · ·· ·· - ~ I
· ~.we11. tdh TH
l- -- -- -- -- ~ -- -- -- -- 1 -+ -
<::rest . I
p
~~~~_J_
ia .-- -- -- -- -- -b ~- -- -- -= -- -- -- t
~~~,itj .J~o:_6t¢ .i_r:ig!,11.ir shar !)-c rest ed weir with out en!! contri!ctlon.
11.7 Discharge Measurement Using Weirs 549
w~ere the C.,. is the weir coefficient, c,.. = jC,l\/2g; For English Engineering units, C,.. ~3.33, and for SI
umts, C,.::::: 1 .84.
If the_ velocity of approach, Va, where H is measured is appreciable, then the integration limits are
Q=,/iib J
H+V;/2g
1 2
1 dh=C,..b
[( 2
H+~;)
3/2 -
(V")J/2] ( I 1.66)
1, 2;
VJ/2g
312
When ( V; /2g ) :,::Q Eq. 11.66 can be simplified to
312
Q= C.,.b(H + ~;) (11.67)
Contracted Rectangular Weirs

A contracted horizontal weir is another sharp-crested weir with a crest that is shorter than the width of
the channel and one or two beveled end sections so that water contracts both horizonlally and vertically.
This forces the nappe width to be less than b. Ttie effective crest iength is
b'=b-0.1 nH
=
where n 1 if the weir is placed against one side wali of the channel so that the contraction on one side is
=
suppressed and n 2 if the weir is· positioned so that it is not placed against a side wall.
Triangular Weir
Triangular or V-notch weirs are sharp-crested weirs that are used for relatively small flows but that have
the advantage that they can also function for reasonably large flows as well. Referring to Fig. l 1.21, the
~te of discharge through an elemental area, dA, is
dQ = Cd ,JiihdA
where dfl ='2;.-.::dh, andx= (H-h)tan(0/2); so dA=.2(H-h)tan(0/2)dh. Then
dQ == C,,~ [2(H ~h)tan (;)dh]

and
tan(;) J
H
Q == Cd2.../2i (H-h)h 1l 2 dh
0
= Cd ( l~) -/2g tan (;)H

5 2
l
Q=C,..Hs/2
The value of C.,. for a value of 0 = 90°; (the most common) is Cw= 1.38 for SI units and c,.. = 2.50 for
English Engineering units.
Fig. 11.21 Trian~ular shaq,.~crested weir.

Br:oad-Crested Weir
B~o_ad-crested weirs (Fig. 11.2~) are essen~ally criti~'.11-depth weirs ~ that if the weirs are high enough,
cnncal depth occurs on I.he crest of the weir. For cnucal flow cond1uons Ye = (Qi/ gb2) 1/ 3 (Eq. 1 l.23)
and £ = 3ycf2 (Eq. 11.25) for rectangular channels:
Q=b~=bJgG EY =bGY'\1g£3/l
or, assuming the approach velocity is negligible:
2)3/2
Q=b ( 3 .jgHJ/2
Q=C...bH3 l 2
Figure 11.23 illustrates a broad-crested weir installation in a trapezoidal canal.
_F ig. 11,22 Broad-crested weir.
Measuring stafion
Flc;>w - - --l~~.- ~ - - - -_----- - br_o_a-d--c-res-te_d_ _ _.-?--- ~ ~,-----~- -Ir--"-~--'-r

Fig. 11. 23 Broa.cJ- p-~sted weir in trapezoidal canal.
Example 11.11 shows the process for calculating .the flow over a shaq,-crested weir. The procedure for
other weir geometries is basically the same as for this specific geometry.
Gii tn} <~ ,~QQ).e.~ arid b{:tiP 9f~ r.¢ct~~ar-sharp .Gr«;st¢d, suppi.'¢ss¢:d w¢i.r.
0
:.F'i~ift _·-.p ~~-h~~ei(flow :rat¢),. Q,

·Sol ~ti_Qjl;. 'Wse .tJit !.lPPio.Pri.?.te w~_ir..discli~g¢ ~qµatfon.
Gov.tr,n1hg e{l.~ i!t i.Qn':
(11.65)
Jn .Eq. H -;6~-:Y{~,µ$~ :C;..;,f lJ~it.,ancl the g~v..en da~·. lj.::;:3:m ..irni:I -H==i50Iniil-=="0. lS:m, sq
~== l ,$)1?~( ~ m;X.(QkJ5'-in.)~1~
-,~=Jt3i} ¢..3 /s +---...,,,..=.=-=-=-=~~~,--'- -'-~__,_,_~!J~: _ _ _....,
_
11.8 Summa ry and Useful Equations 551

In this chapter, we:
✓ Derived an expression for the speed of surface waves and developed the notion o: the sp_e~ific
el'!e_rgy of a flow, and derived the Froude number for determining whether a flow rs subcntrcal,
cnt1cal, or supercritical.
✓ lnvest!gated rapidly varied flows, especially the hydraulic ju mp.
✓ Investigated steady uniform flow in a channel and used energy and momentum concepts to
.
d enve_Ch ezy' s and Manning's equations. I
✓ Investigated some basic concepts of gradually varied flows.
We also learned how to use many of the important concepts mentioned above in analyzing a range
of real-world open-channel flow problems.
Note: Most of the equations in the table below have a number of constraints or limitations-be sure to
ref e r (o their page 11umbersfor details!
Useful Equations
Hydraulic radius: A 11.1 Page511
R,.=p
Hydraulic depth: A 11.2 Page511
y1,=-
bs
Spee.Q of surface wave: c= .Jgy l 1.6 Page 514
Froude n umber: V 11.7 Page515
Fr=--
ffi
Energy equation for open-channel flow: y2 V} 11.10 Page 517
~ + Yr + z, = ?-8 + Y2 + z:2 + H1
-C
'(01al head: v2 1 1. 11 Page518
F.f=-=,+y+ z
-c
Specific energy: v2 11.13 Page 518
E=-+ y
2g
Critical flow: Q2=gA~ 11.21 Page.522
bsc
Critical velocity: Ve= ,/ijy;;: Ll.22 Page 522
Critical depth (rectangular channel): _ [Q2] 1/3 11.23 Page522
Ye:- g b.,-
Critical velocity (rectangular channel): l l.24 Page522

[gQ] 1/3
Vc =,/jjy;= b
Minimum specific energy (rectangular 3 11.25 Pa~e522
Em;n=2y "
channel):
Hydraulic jump conjugate depths:
y
2
Yt
=¼
-
[✓ 1 + 8Frr- I]
11.36 Page:531
(Continued)
55 2 Ch ap ter 11 Flo w in Op en Ch ann els
Ta ble (Co ntin ued )

Hy dra ulic jum p hea d loss : [Y2 - yt]3 11. 38b Pa ge 53 2
H,=
4)'1)'2
Hy dra ulic jum p hea d loss 11 .39
[ JI +8 F,{ -3 r Pa ge 53 3
(in term s of Fri ): H,
-=
E1 s[ JI +8 F1 7-l ) [F,i +2]
Ch ezy equ atio n: V=C ✓R,,Sb 11. 45 Pa ge 53 6
Ch ezy coe ffic ien t: 11. 46
C= ~R l/6 Pa ge 53 6
II Ii
Ma nni ng equ atio n For vel oci ty (SI uni ts)

v=:...R213s1 i2 11. 47a Pa ge 53 6
II It. b
Ma nni ng equ atio n for flow (SI uni ts)
Q = '};_AR2/J s ' /2 11. 48a Pa ge 53 7
11
h b
Ma nni ng equ atio n For vel oci ty (En glis h
Eng ine erin g uni ts)
V = 1.49 R2/3sl/2 11. 47b Pa ge 53 7
II I, b
Ma nni ng equ atio n For flow (En glis h

Q = 1.4 9AR2/ J s'/2 11. 48b Pa ge 53 7
Eng ine erin g uni ts) 11 1
' b
Ene rgy Gra de Lin e vi 11. 50
EG L= - + z +y Pa ge 54 2
2g
Hy dra ulic Gra de Lin e HG L= z+ y 11. 51 Pa ge 54 2
Ene rgy equ atio n (gr adu ally var yin g flow): dy sb -s 11. 60 Pag e 54 5
- = - - -2
dx l-Fr
1. Cho w, V . T ., Ope11aCha11nel Hyd raulics . New Yor k: Mc Gra w-

Hm , 195 9.
2 . Hen der son • .F. M.., Ope11-Channel Flo w. New Yor k: Ma cmi l-
1~. i966.
3·. ..MBJllU!lg's Rou ghn ess Coe ffic ient ." The Eng iiw er' s Too lbo x, 11. Lin sley_, R. K ., J.B. Franzini, Q. L . F rey ber g, and G. Tc hob a-
bi.t p:// ww w.e ngin eeri ngto olbo x.co m/m lll1 I1in gs-r oug hne ss-d _79 9. noglous . Waler Resources Eng inee ring . New Yoc k: Mc Gr aw -
Hill , 1991.
~~ (ac~ ~se cl Sep tem bc;r 22, 201 4).
12. Che n, Y. H., and G. K Cotton, De~ig,z pfR oa< !sid e Ch mm els
,.4. Tow ii_so:n, J_ M., Fre e-Su rface Hydra11lics. Lon don : Un.w in
with Flexible Li11i11gs, Hydra1,1lic Eng inee ring Cir cul ar 15.
ttyman, 1991 . FHW A-I P-8 7-7. Federal Hig hwa y AdrnirtisLrat.ion. Mc Cle an,
. 5. Cha udl ity, M. H .• Op~ n-C ham ,el Flo w. Eng lew ood Cliffs, NJ: VA , 1988. .
Prcnti¢,e H.ul. 199 3. 13. Barnes, H . H .. Jr•• Roughness Cha rac te ris tics of Na wr al
6. Jain , S. C., Ope11 .Cham1el Flo w. New Yor k: Wil ey, 200 1. Cha1111els. U.S . Geologicaj Survey, Wa ter Sup ply Pape r 184 9.
7 . "De sign <;:harts for Ope n Cha nne l Ao w," HD S 3,_Fed~raJ Wa shin gton , DC: U.S. Gov ernment Prin ting Off ice. 196 2.
~ way Ass ocia tion , 1961, http ://w ww .fhw a.do Lgo v/en gine enn g/ 14. Bos , M . G., J. A. Replogle, and A. J. Cle mm ens . Flo w Me a-
hy~ ~cs /pu bs/ hds3.p df. suri ng Flumes forOpe11 Cha,111e/Systei11. New Yo rk: Joh n Wi ley &
8 ·, Jv{ays, L. W., Wa ter Res our ces Eng ine eri11g, 2005 e<). New Son s, 1984.
Yo rk Wil ey, 2005. 15. Bra ter, E. F., H. W. King, J. E. Lin dell . and C. Y . We i, Ha nd-
9- Pe¢ dca , A. J., "Hydraulic Des ign of Stil ling ~as ins and boo k of Hydraulics , 7th ed. New York: Mc Gra w-H ill, 199 6.
Ene~gy piss ipa tors," t.tS . Dep aru nen t of µie Inte nor , B~reau 16. Replogle, J. A., A. J. Clemmens. and C. A . Pug h, ..Hy dra uli c
of Rec lmn atio n, Eng inee ring Mo nog rap h No. 25 (Revised); Design of Aow Measuring S.tructures ." Hyd rau lic De sig n Ha nd-
J_uly 196 3, boo~. I.,. W. Ma ys, ed. New Y9rk: M~ Gra w-H ill, 199 9.
Problems 553
Basic Concepts and Definitions Energy Equation for Open-Channel Flows

r,
~ . 1 Verify
11. . the equaro ·
• n given •m T able I I.I for the hytlrouhc
. radms
. 11.11 A partially open sloice gate in a 5-m-wide rectangular channel
·of n ct.reulnr channel. Evaluate and plot the ratio R/D. for liquid depths carries water at 10 m 3 / s. The upstream depth is 2.5 m.. Find the·down-
between O and D. stream depth af!d Froude. number.
l 1.2 A pebble is dropped into a stream of water that nows in a rcc- 11.12 Find the critical depth for flow at 3 m 3 /sin a rectangular c;h.µi-
uingul'.11" ch~nel nt 2 m depth. In one second, n ripple caused by the nel of width 25 m.
s~on_e is earned 7 m do,vnstrenm. What is the speed of the flow- 11.13 Flow occurs in a rectangular channel of 6 m width-~q ~ -ii
ing; wau;r? · specific energy o(3 m . Pio~ accurately the relati<;>n be.t w~n depth
1·1_ -3 Solution of the complete differential equations for wove motion and specific energy. Determine from the curve (n) the critical,depth,
wnhout _s urface tension shows that wave speed is ~ven by {b)-the maximum flow rate, (c) the flow rate at a dep(Jl of 2.4 m, and
(d) the depths at which a flow rate of 28.3 m 3 /s may exist, and (e) the
flow condition at these depths.
c= g,l
2ir
tanh (
2
ny)
,t
11.14 What is the mrutimum flow rate chat may 9(:(!Ud~ ·a rec?ta:l!guI!i,r
channel 2.4 m wide for a specific energy of l.5 m?
11.15 A rectangular channei carries a di;cbarge 900~ /s.~ foot·of
where A. is the wave wavelength and y is the liquid depth. Show
width. Determine the minimum specific energy possible· for- tliis flows
that when A-jy «: i, wave speed becomes propot:tional to ../i. In Compute the corresponding flow ·depth and s~.
the limit as J./y-+ oo, c= ,llfy. Determine the value of A-/y for which
c>0.99-.,lgy. !
11.1 6 Flow in the chililnel of Prpblem I I , ~5 pas specific energy of Q
4.5 ft. Compute the alternate depths for this specific energy.
11.4 A water now rate of 250 cfs .flows.at a.depth of 5 fl in a rectan-
gular channel that is 9 ft wide. Determine·wbether the flow is sub- or
supercri_ticaj, For this flow rate, d~_termine the depth for.critical flow. Localized Effects of Area Change
11 •.5 Detennine and plot the relation between water velocity and
(Frictionless fl()w)
11.17 Consider the Venruri flume shown. The bed is horizoriw ancl
i i.a·~d
d~pth .over the range of V =0. l m/s to 10 m/s for Froude numbers
of 0.5 (slibcritical), LO (critical), and 2 (supercritical). Explain how flow may be considered frictionless. Th~ upsa-eam clepth
.the flow ca:n be subcritical, critical. or supercritical for (a) the same the downstream depth is 0.75 fL The upsi:n;am ,breiidth is 2 q, ruidtlie
velocity and (b) the snme depth. breadth of the throat _is I ft. Estimate the flow rare ~i:ougll lh~-fi~~-
11._9 ·C:;ipill;µy waves (ripples) are small amplituc)e ancl wavefol)gth
wnves. commonly seen, -for example; when an insec::t or.s_mall particle : ·r . ·-. --- ~
hits the wnter surface. They are waves generated due to the interaction ~ b:t=·?;ft' 62= l , if
of the inertia force of the fluid p and th~ fl~-id ~urface· tensi~n ;;_ Th~
w ·avelength is . . .. . . .·
·- ,1. .- I --·-
Plan view
l=2irf-tc + 'S7
-z~Yf ~-~ !l' ~ . _ji._=: '075~'ff -
Find the speed of capillary waves .in wuter and mercury. I T -J
r 7 11.7 The Froude.number chnrucrerizes flow witl1 a free surface. -Plot Elevatic;>n view
..l:::=i, ·on a Jog-Jog scale tl1e speed versus depth for0. l m/s < V < 3 m/s and
Pn ..1.7
0.001 <y <Im; plot tl1e line Fr= l, and indicate regioas that corre-
11.18 _Elevetl cubic me.t ers per s.ecol)d of water are cliv~ned .through
sp<;md. 10 tranquil and rapid flow ..
poi: ~ the .b onom pf lhe ch~el be~een .sections (j) aQd (2).
11: g ,·consider wnves on the surface of a tank of water that· travel at
Ne,,lecttn~ be1,1d losses and nssummg.a bonzontal. c.b-i!Jm.el, what dep_tb.·
5 ftjs. How· fast would the waves travel if the tnnk were (a) on the of ,~ater 1s to be expected at seclion (2)? What channel width ·at
-mo·o n, (b) on Jupiter, or (c) on an orbiting space station? E.xplain your sectmn (2) wowcl be required to produce -a depth ·of'2 S m? · -
results.
~
. . 11. 9 A submerged body· traveling horiz9ntaIJy ben_ e ath a liquid sur-
Q face at a Froude number (based 9n body length) ilbo1.1t 9:5 produces a
l
l l
scrong surface wave pattern ifsubmerged less than half its length. (The
2.4 m Ix 4 , 5 ml y 2 m {x 4 . 5 m )
wave pattern-of a surface ship also is pronounced at this Froude num- 3
33__11} !s 22 m3/s
• 1•
ber.) On a log-log plot of speed versus body (or ship) length for
1 ·rn/s< v <30m/s and I m<x<300m, plot the line Fr=0.5.
•
11 1 0
Water flows in a rec1nnguh1r chunnel a~ a depth of 750 mm. If
c --- ·1101 1ou - ---- -1
the flow speed is (a) I m/s and (b} 4 m/s, compute the corresponding (,D ®
Froude numbers. Pll.18
55 4 Ch ap ter 11 Flo w in Op en Ch ann els
- _ 1 1.19· A rec ~gu Jarc h!IJ U)e l 10 ft-wide cnm es IQC) cfs ~n n h?rizo11llil · 11. 29 The hyw -aul icju mp may be use d-as a cru de flow me ter. Su p-
Q . t;ed.at 1.0'·ft <!~pth. A smo oth bum p acro ss U1e cha nne l nse s 4 m ..abo ve pos e that in a horizontal rect nng ular cha nne l 5 ft wid e the obs erv ed
·the ch~ nel tiof unn. Fi_ild the elev atio n oft he·l iqu id free surf ace abo ve dep ths befo re and afte r a hyd raul ic jum p are 0 .66 ft and 3.0 fL Fin d
the bum p. !he rate of flow and tlle hea d loss.
v
rin. 11.3 0 A hydraulic Jum p occ urs on a hori,zont.al apr on dow nst rea m
from a wid e spillwny al a local.ion whe re dep tll is 0.9 m and spe ed
is 25 m/s. Estimate tlle dep th and speed dow nstr eam fro m the jum p.
Com par e 1.he specific ene rgy dow nstr eam of the jum p to tha_t
P11 ,19 ups trea m.
11. 20 At whn l d¢p tlls can

11.3 1 A hyd raul ic jum p occ urs in :i. rec tan gul a, cha nne l. Th e
80() cfs flow in a trap ezo idal cha nne l of
bas e wid_th 12 ft and side slop es I (ve rt.) on 3 (ho riz.) if the spe cifi c flow rale is 50 rn3 /s and tlle deptll bef ore t;he jum p is 2 m.
De1ennine tlu; dep th afte r tl1e jum p and tlle hea d los s if lhe cha nne l
.ene rgy is 7 ft? is Im wid e.
__ . - .2-~ At a seq tion of a 10- ft,.,w ide rccmng11lnr chn nne l, Ute deptl1
11 is
.Q. 0.3.f i-fo ra dischlii:ge of2 0 ft' /s. A smootl1 bum p 0.1 ft hig h is placed 11. 32 A pos itiv e surg e wav e, or mov ing hyd rau lic jum p, can be pro -
duc ed in tlle lnbora1ory by sud den ly ope nin g a slui ce gat e. Co nsi der il
on the floo r of che chn nne l. Det erm ine !he loca l chn nge in flow deptll
surg e of dep th )'? adv anc ing inlo a qui esc ent chn nne l of dep th y •
cau sed by the bur rip. Obt ain an exp ress ion for surg e spe ed in 1errris of y and y
1
_ 11. 22 Wa ter, a1 3· ft/s and 2 ft dep th, app roa che s a smo oth rise in 1 2
a
Q wid e ch!Ulllel. Est ima te the stre am dep tll afte r !he 0.5 ft rise;
ft
V ;= 3 s =----:-J>-~~ ~Jt-
. : -- -- -~ i
Lo.5 tt - - Vsuf iC Qui esce nt flui d
/
P11 .22
11. 2-3 A hocizont.al rect ang ular cha nne l 3 ft wid e con uiin s a slui ce
gate . Ups trea m of !he gat_e the dep th is 6 ~t and t!ie d_eptl l dow nstr eam
-- P11 .32
\ /.
. -,; ~g;
i's 0.9 ft. Est ima te the.-vol um e flow rate 10 .the cha nne l.
Th ¢ Hy dra uli c Ju mp Un ifo rm Flo w
h.2 4 A hyd rau lic jum p occ urs in a rect ang ular cha nne l 4.0 m wid e. 11.33 A 2-m -wi de recu mgu lar cha nne l \vit h a b¢d slo pe of O .00 05 has
Th~ wat er dep th bef ore the jum p is 0.4 m and afte r th_e jµm p is I.7 m. a dc;pth of flow of 1.5 m. Man ning' s rou ghn ess coe ffic ien t is 0 .01 5.
Com put e tl]e. flow rate iri the cha rnie l. tlle crit ical dep tll, and tlle hea d Dei erm ine· lhe steady unif omi disc harg e in ilie cha nne l.
Joss itl _Q}e jQJnP- 11. 34 Determ ine the uniform flow dep th_ in a rec tan gul ar cha nne l
·t, .2.5 __A hyd rau lic Jum p <><;curs in a wid e hor izon tal cha nne l. The-dis - 2.5 rii wid e witll a disc harg e of 3 m3 /s. The slo pe is 0.0 004 and
·chn rge is im3 /s per met er of wid th. The ups trea m dep tll is 500 mm . Ma nni ng's roug hne ss fact or is 0.015.
Det erm ine the dep th of the jum p. 11. 35 Det enn ine the uniform flow dep th in a trape zoi dal cha nne l wit h
11. 26 A h.yc;lraulic j11mp occ urs in a rect ang ular cha nne l. The a bou om widtll of8 ft and sid_e slop es of l ve rtic al to 2 hor izo nta l. Th e
flow rate is 200 fc3 /s, aµd tlle.dep tll bef ore the jum p is 1.2 ft. Det er- disc harg e is 100 ft3 /s. Man ~in g's rou ghn ess fac tor is 0.0 15 and the
mi.ne the dep th beh ind the jum p and the hea d Joss. The cha nne l is cha nne l bott om slop e is 0.0004.
10, ft wid e. 11. 36 Wa ter flow s_uni(onill.y at a dep th of 1-.2 !Il in a rec tan gul w-
11., 2.7 The cl.e pth s of wat er ups trea m ·and dow nsir e.am ~m a hyd rau- can al 3 m wid e laid on_a slop e .o f I m per :100 0 m. Wh at is the me nn
1icj in:Q p,oh th,e; ijoriz?nµAl ..apron,. dow nstr eam from a spil lwa y strm~- she:i.r sire ss on Jhe side s and bou om-of the crini;u?
'.~ ;im: 9j>~erved ro be 11p pro xim atel y ~ ft _a nd 8 ft. If the stru ctur e 1s 11 .37 Thi s larg e uniform ope n cha nne l Oow is to be Ii1o del ed wit hou t
t001UC!tj°g ~~: c1J cul1 c1r -to the dire cno n of flow ), abo ut how muc h geo met rjc distortion in the hydraulic; lab9 r;ito ry at n sca le of I :9.
h9f!>~w,er isJ> eili $-di ss_ip~t ed in this jum p? Wh at flow rate, bou om slope, and Ma nni ng 11 wil l be req uir ed in
·; ,.2 8-Gals.ul~te.)'2, 'h,. and y 3 for this two-dim ens ion al flow picture. tl1e mod el?
Sta te a,iy- ai.~ u~p iior is ~!ea rly.
Hyd~ulic.
~I - j!i .
Jump
.,.: ·- --: '":' 6' ;;,;,;,,0lb30:
I
1.5 m
L t ) ; ;.;}°,' 1 ·
I . -· . -
' '·•
- . '·.. ,, ~~;~~,~~~/
10'
P11'.3.7
Problems 555
11 ·!~ Arectangular flume built of timber is 3 ft wide. The flume is to

han . ea flow of90 ft3/s nt a normal depth of 6 fL Determine the slope
11.47 Find the normal depth for the channel of Problem I I .4'5 after a
new plastic liner is ins talled.
req41red.
=
11 .48 For a trapezoidal shaped channel wilh n 0.014 and slope
1 1 . 39 A channel with square cross section is to carry 20 m3/sofwater Sb= 0 .0002 with a 2 0°ft bottom width and side slopes of I vertical to
at normal depth on a slope of 0.003. Compare the dimens ions of the 1.5 horizontal, detennine the normal depth for a discharge of J 000 cfs.
channel required for (a) concrete and (b) musonry. 11.49 Compute the critical depth for the channel in Problem 11.33.
11.40 A triangular channel wjth side angles of 45~ is 10 carry 10 m 3/s 11. 5 o A trapezoidal canal lined with brick has side slopes of 2 : I and
at a s lope of 0 .001. The channel is concrete. Find the required bouom w idth o f 10 fL It carries 600 ft3 /sat critical spec4. Determine
dimensions.
the critical slope (the slope at which the depth is critical).
11.41 A flume bf timber has as ·its cross section an isosceles triangle 11.51 An optimum rectangular storm sewerchartilel milde.<;>funfin-
(apex down) of 2.4 m base and l.8 m altitud.e . At what depth will ished concrete is to be designed to carry a maximum flow rat£ of
3
-~ .m /s flow unifonnly in this flume if il is laid on n slope of 0.0 I? Joo ft3/s at the critical now rate (the rate at· which the depth is the
11.42 At what depth will 4.25 ml/s flow uniformly in a rec1nngular critical depth .) Determine the channel width and slope.
chatjnel 3.6 m wide lined wilh rubble masonry and laid on o slope
·of t :4000? Discharge Measurement
11 . 43 A semicircular Lrough of corrug.i1ed steel, with diameter 11.52 For a sharp-crested suppressed weir of lengµi B=.8.0ft.
D= Im, carries water at depth y==0.25 m. The s lope is 0.01. Find p = 2 .0 ft, and H = 1.0 ft. detenrun·e the discharge oyer the weir.-
the dischnrge. Neglec1 the velocity of approach head.
11.44 A rec tangular flume built ofconcn;te with I ft per l000 ft slope 11. 53 A rectangular sharp-cres ted weirwith end contractions is 1.5 m
is 6 ff wide. Water flows al o normal <;lepth of 3 fL The flume is fiued long. How high should the weir crest be placed in a channel t!) main-
with a new plastic film liner. Find the new depth of flow if the d is- tain an upstream depth of 2.5 m fot 0.5 m3 /s· flow ra~?
charge remains constanL 11.54 What is the depth of water behind a rectangular sharp-crested
'11 . 4!, Water flows in a trapezoidal channel at a flow rate of 10 ml/s. weir 1.5 m wide and 1.2 m high when a flowof0.28 ml /s passes over
'ntc _bonom width is 2.4 m, the sides slope at _I: l , and.the bed s iope is it? What is the velocity of approach?
0.00193. The channel is excavated from bnre soil. Find the depth of 11.55 A broad-crested weir 0.9 m high has a flat crest and a coeffi-
the "flow. cient of 1.6 . If this weir is 6 ni long arid the head on it is 0.46 m , what
11._4 (5 Whal slope is nec.e ssary to carry 11 ml /s uniformly at a depth is the fi.ow rate?
of J.5 m in a rectangular channel 3.6 m wide having n =0.0]7? 11.56 Theheadona 90°V-notch weiris 1.5 ft. Detetmine~ediscbarge.
CH AP TE R 1 2
In tro du ct io n to Compressible Flow
12.1 Revie w o.f Ther mody nami cs 1 2.8 Super sonic Chan nel Flow with Shoc ks
12.2 Ptopi i"ga~ ion of Soun d Wave s 12.8 Super sonic Chan nel FIQw with Shoc ks (con tinue d
12.3 Refe rence State : 1,.qcal lsent ropic Stagn ation on the Web) ·'
Prop erties 12.9 Flow in a Cons tant-A rea Duct with Frict ion
12.4 Critic al C:on~ itions (on the Web)
12.5 B'./~sk Equa tions for one-D imen siona l 12.10 Fricti onles s Flow in a Cons tant~ Area Duct with Hea t
Com press ible Flow Exeh ange (on the Web)
12.6 ls¢iit ropic Flqw of an Ideal ~as: Arei;l Varji; ltion 12.11 Obliq ue Shock s and Expa nsion Wav es (on the Web )
12.7 Norm al Shc>c;:ks i2.12 Summ ary and Usefu l Equa tio(ls
~~~~~~~- ~
-- -- --- "'"- ·-
~ ~ ..--.....___,,. .....____.- .....__
· ~--~~~~
-___.... ---- -----... .-- ·....·- ----c
.- --------
Cas e Stu dy
The X-43 A/H ype r-X Airp lane conv~ntional mean s (by a jet engin e or rocke t, o r by pigg y-
super man is faste r than a speed ing bullet . So how fast is that? It backing an~th ~r aircr~ft), and then the scram jet fuel can be
turns QUt that the highe st spe·e d of a bullet is about 1500 m/s, or starte d and ignited. This sound s simpl e enoug h, but the ignit ion
abou t Mach 4.5 at sea level. <:an huma ns keep up with Super man? proce ss h~s been compared to "light ing a matc h in a hurri cane "!
If we're in Qrbit we can (Wha t is the Mach numb er of the Space The_solut1on ':"'a~ to ignite using a mixtu re of pyrop horic silan e
Shutt le iri orbit?.-it's a trick quest ion!), becau se there' s ~o (w~1ch auto- ignites when exposed to air) and hydro gen then
swatch to pure hydrogen. ' ·
Qri'!g -once we get up to speed , we can stay there -but flying at
hyper $o.nic s peeds (i.e., above abou t M = 5) in the atmos phere The X- 43A/Hyper~X is ~xpe~i~ental, but in the futur e we may
requir es treme ndou s engin e thrus t and an engin e that can func- ex_pe~t to see scramJets m military applic ations (airc raft and
tion at all c!t such speed s. In 2004 , an air- breath ing X-43A man- m1ss1les), ~he~ possibly in commercial aircra ft. Conc eivab ly,
aged .t o fly a.t almo st Mach 1 o, or abou t 7000 mph. The hypersonic you could hve in New York, go to a meeti ng in Los Ange les and
be back in New York for dinner! '
scram jet en gin~ in this airpla ne is actua lly integ rated into the air-
In this chapt er yo1,1 will learn some of the basic ideas behi nd
frame , and the entire lower surfa ce of the vehic le is shape d to
sub- and supers onic flow and why the desig ns of aircr aft diffe r
make the engin e work. The bulge on the under side in the figure
betwe en the two regimes. You'll also learn abou t how shoc k
is the engin e. Unlik e the turbo jet.en gines used in many jet aircra ft,
waves form and why a supersonic nozzl e looks so diffe rent fr~m
which havl:! fans and comp resso rs as major comp onent s, the a subso nic one.
scram jet, amaz ingly , h;:is no movin g parts, so if you were to look
inside it there would n't be much to see! Instea d it uses geom etry
to devel op a.shoc k t;rain that reduc es the speed of the airflow from
hyper sonic to super sonic veloc ities. The scramjet, which is essen -
ti~Uy a ~mje t with super sonic comb ustion , doesn 't need to slow
the flow down to subs_onic speed s. The comp ressio n ram on the
1,1nd~ts,urfa.c e of the aircra ft slows the flow down from hypersonic
to super:s onic speed befor e it rea.c hes the engin e. It does this by
ca1,1sing a s_e quenc e of obliq ue shock s (whic h we discus.s ed in this
chapt er) that succe ssivel y slow the flow down and also increa se
the air densi ty. As the super sonic, relativ ely high- densit y air
pa_sses· throu gh the engin e, hydro gen fuel is inject ed and com-
b1,1s.t s, c.rea ting treme ndous thrus t at the exhau st. Once at hyper -
sonic speed , the comb ustion process is self- sust.ii ning.
One of the-pr oblems the engin eers faced was how to start the
engin e. First, the airpla ne h!!S. to be i3Ccele rated above Mach 4 by
556
12.1 Review of Therm odynam i"cs 557
In Chapte r 2 we briefly discuss ed the two most importa nt questio ns we must ask before analyzi ng a fluid
flow: whethe r or not lhe flow is viscous. and whethe r or not the flow is compre ssible. We subsequ ently
consid ered incomp ressible . inviscid flows (Chapte r 6) and incomp ressible, viscous flows (Chapte rs 8
and 9). We are now ready to study flows that experie nce compre ssibility effects. Becaus e this is an intro-
ductor y ~ext, our focus will be mainly on one-dim ensiona l compre ssible, inviscid flows, althoug h we will
also review some importa nt compressible, viscous flow phenom ena.
. _We first need lo establis h what we mean by a "compr essible" flow. This is a flow in which there are
s1gmfi cant or noticea ble change s in fluid density . Just as inviscid fluids do not actually exist, so incom-
pressib le fluids do not actually exist. For exampl e. in this text we have treated water as an incomp ressible
fluid, althoug '1 in fact lhe density of seawate r increas es by I percent for each mile or so of depth. Hence,
wheth er or not a given flow can be treated as incomp ressible is a judgme nt call: Liquid flows will almost
olways be conside red inco_m pressib le (except ions include phenom ena such as the ..water hamme r" effect
in pipes), but gas flows couid easily be either incomp ressible or compre ssible. We will learn in
Examp le 12.5 that for Mach number s M less than about 0.3, the change in gas density due to the flow
Wµl be less than 3 percent ; this change is small enough in _mos~ enginee ring applica tions for the followi ng
rule: r1 gas flow can be co11sidered.i11compressible when M <0.3 .
.The conseq uences of .c ompres sibility i,u-e nqt limited simply to density change s. Density change s
mean that we qm have.si gnifica nt compre ssion or exp11nsion work on a gas, so the thermo dynami.c state
of the fluid. will ch.mge , meanin g that.in general all proper ties-tem peratur e, internal energy , entropy ,
and so on---:ea n change . _In particul ar, density change s create a mechan j_s m (just as viscosi ty did) for
exchan ge of energy betwee·n " mechan ical" energie s (ki_netic,.potenti al, and "pres~u re") and the therma i
interna l energy . For thjs reason, we begin with a review of the thermo dynami cs needed to study com-
pressib le flow,
After we cover the basic concep ts of compre ssible· flow, we will discuss oneadim ensiona l
compr essible flow in more detaiL We will look at what causes the fluid propert ies to vary in a one-
dimen sional compre ssible flow . Change s in the fluid propert ies can be caused by various phenom ena,
such as a varying flow are!!, a _normal shock (wbjch is a "violen t" adiabat ic process that causes the
entrop y to increas e), friction on the walls of lhe flow passage , and heating or cooling . A real flow is
likely to experie nce several of these phenom ena simulta neously . Further , there may be two-dim ensiona l
flow effects , such as oblique shock and expans ion waves. Althou gh we will only introdu ce ·t hese
sµbjec ts in this text, we hope it will provide you with_._a foundat ion for further study of !his importa nt
topic.
12.1 Revi ew of Thermodynamics

TI1 e pressu re, density , tempera ture and other propert ies of a substan ce may be rel_ateQ. by an equatio n of
state. Althou gh many substan ces are complex. in behavio r, experie nce shows that most gases of engi.-
11eerin g interes t, at modera te pressur e and tempera ture, are well represe nted by the ideal gas equati.o n
of state, (see Referen ces [l] or [2] for a review of the propert y relation s for an ideal gas)
p=pRT (12.1)
where R is a unique constan t for each gas; 1 R is give:n by
R=~
Mm
where: R;, is the 4'livers al ~as const~_t, ~.. =8~14 N: m/(kgr nole- K) = 1544 ft - lbf/(ll> mole -0 R) and
Mm js )he molecu lar mass of the gas. Althou gh the ideal gas equatio n is derived using a model that
hru; the unreali stic assump tions t~at the gas molecu les (a) take up zero voh.1IQe (i.e., th!}y are point
masse s) and (b) do not interact with one µnother, m:my real gases confor m to Eq. 12.1, espec[a i.ly if
the pressu re is "low" ~nough i~d/or tempera ture "h1;h" enough . Fo~ exam~l e, at room temper ature,
as long a:s the pressur e 1s less th~ about 30 arm, ~q. l _, I models the arr density to better than l percen t
accura cy; similar ly, Eq. 12_.l 1s accurat e for ,I.JI at l atm for tempera tJJres that are &reater tha,n
,ibout - 13O~C (I40.K) .
For wr, R -
- ?87N · m/(kg - K) = 53.3 fl -lbf/(lbm - R).
1 •
- •
558 .cha pter 12 lntr qdu ctio n to Com pres sibl e Flow
T}le ide.a,l gas has othe r featu res that are usefu l. Iri general, their ttem al ener[zy of a sim ple sub stan ce
may be ~xp ~se d as a func tion of any two inde pend ent properties, e.g., I I = u( v, T), whe re V =l / p is the
spec ific w,lit me. The n
du= (:;t dT+ (!:) /v

Toe spec ific heac a! cons tant volu me is defin ed as Cu= (ilu/i JT)u , so that
du= cud T+ (!:) .. T

dp
"irtp aqic ular, fora n idea lgast heirt teril alen ergy ,1,, is a function of temp eratu re only , so (iJit/ iJiJ)r = O, and
du= c.,d T (12 .2)
This mea ns ·that inter nal ener gy and temp eratu re chan ges inay be related if c,, 1s kno wn. Fur ther mor e.
sinc e 11=t~(T), then from Eq. 12.2 , c.,= cu(T ). ·
The e1fchalpy of any subs tanc e is defim ;d as h=u +p/ p. For an idea l gas, p=p RT, and so
h = u + RT. Sinc e· 11 = u(T) for an idea l gas, h also· mi.ist be a func tion of temp eratu re alon e.
We can obta in a relat ion bet;ween h and T by recalling ortce agai n that for a simp le sub stan ce any
prop erty can be expr esse d as a func;tion ofany two othe r inde pend ent prop ertie s, e.g'., h = h(v; T) as we
did for 11, or h = h(p, T). We choo se the latte r in orde r to deve lop a usefu l relat ion,
dh= (ah)i;JT p
dT+ (i)h)
. iJp T
dp
$ipc e the spec ific heac at cons_tant pres sure is defin ed a,s <;p = (iJh/iJT)P,
dh~ cpd T+ (!Z) 7

dp
We -have show n tha~ for an idea l.gas h is a func tion ofT O)lly. Cons eque ntly, (iJh _/qT )r=O and
dh= cpd T (12 .3)
Sinc e his a func tion of T alom ;, Eq. 12.3 requ ires that cp be a function of T only for an idea l gas .
Alth ough spec ific heat s for an idea l gas are fl,mctions of temperaturi;, lll~ir djffe re.n c~ is a con stan t
for ¢ach g~. To ~ee this, from
h=u +RT
we can writ e
·dh:.=du +,Rd T
Com binin & this with Eq. 12.2 and Eq. 12,3 , we can write
dh :;= cp dT = du-+ R dT =c., dT-+ /JdT
Th¢ n
(l2 A)
it may seei:n a bit odd that we hav_e func tions of te!'nperature on the ieft ofEq ; i2A but ::i. con st_a nt on the
righ t; it tµms .out that the spec ific beat s of an id~!ll ~a,& chan $e with temp eratu re at the ~Wn e rate, so thei r
aijfere_n,ce is cons tanL
· Toe ratio of spec ific heat s is defin-e d as
( 12.5 )
Usin g the defiru!;ion of k, we cc!,11 solv e Eq. 12.4 for eithe r Cp or Cu in term s of k and R. Thu s,
kR
Cp:;::. k-l (12 ,6a}
12.1 Revie w of Ther mody nami cs 559·
and.
R
(12.6 b)
c.,=k-1
Altho ugh the speci fic heats ofari ideal gas may vary with temperature, for mode rate tempe rature range s
they v.µ-y only slight ly, and can be m;ated as const ant, so
(12.7 a)
h2 .,.../t 1 = 1,,?
h,
dlt
lr,
7
= { ' Cp dT=c p(T2 -Ti) (12.7 b)
Data for M,,. , Cp, Cu, R, and k for comm on gases are given in Table A.6 of Appe ndix A.
_ W e will find the prope rty _entro py to be extrem ely usefu l in analy zing comp ressib le flows . State
diagr ams, partic ularly the temper;u;ure-entropy (ts) diagr am, are valua ble aids in the physiccll interp re-
tation of analy tical result s. Since we shall make exten sive use of Ts diagr ams in solvin g comp ressib le
flow probl ems, let us review briefly some usefu l relati onshi ps invol ving the prope rty entro py.
EntrQ py is defin ed by the equat ion · ·
6.S= 18Q
n,v T
or dS= (
0
· T
Q).
rev
(12.8 )
wher e .t he subsc ript signif ies revers ible.

Tbe ineqrial,ity of ciaus ius, deduc ed from the secon.d law, states that
f8f ~o
A~ a conse quen ce of the secon d law, we can write
oQ
d.S?._T or TdS? .oQ (12.9 a)
For rever sible proce sses, ·the ·equal ity ·holds; and
T ds=.oQ {reve rsible proce ss) (U.9 b)

Ill
The ineq1,1alitr bolds for irreve rsible processes,. and
T d~> oQ (irrnversible·.proc ess) (lV~ c)

ni
For an qdia. batic proce ss, ~Q/m =O. Thus
ds =0 (rever sible adiab atic proce ss} (12,9 d)
~d
ds> 0 (irreve,;sible adiab atic p[9ce ss) (12.9 e)
Thus a prQGess.¢a tis;re1•ersib le and adiab atic is·also is entro pic;.the:~ntt:opy temai ns,con stanrd urii:ig the
proce ss. Inequ ~lity -l2,.9e·show s that entr9 py m_us~ i11cr:ease fo~ an ·l!-!ii_~b atic proce ss that is ii:rev e~ipl~ .
Eqila ti9 ns 12.9 sho.w :that. any two_ o~ the res~c pons- re~ers1ble, adiab atic, or isenti opie-,-;imp ly [Jie
third:. For ·exam ple, a pt<)c¢ss thl)t 1s 1sentrop1c and revers ible must also-b e adiab atic.
A usefu l relati onshi p amon g prope rties (p,v, T;s, u) can be obtai ned by consi derin g the first and
seco nd i~~s te>geth,er, The result is t}ie Gibbs , or T ds, equ~tio.n ·
T d.s.=d it•+ p.dv
U,2.f Oa)
This is a di.fferential relatjonship IJ.!.T!Ong properties; valid for any proce ss ber,ye erulil y t.w<;> equilibn\.Uit
stat~'..:.Al,_¢ .oug! l it is .deriv ed fr9m lhe firs~ and.se.c_onc,l laws. it~• -~ irself, ~ statem ent of neithe r. ·
· Ail µl~ema~iyeform of Eq. 12.l0 a .cag Qe obtamed. by subsm µnng
du = d(h ~ pv)';::::d/-i-p d11-11 dp
560 Cha·pt et 1-2 - Introd uction to Compr essible Flow
to obtain
Tds=d h-vdp (12. lOb)
for nn ideal gas, entropy c_h ange can be evaluat ed from .the T ds equations as
du p dT dv
ds=- +-dv =c~- +R-
T T T II
dh V dT dp
ds=T -Tdp= cp
7 -Rp
·For consuu n sp<:cific heats, these equatio ns can be ilit~grated"to yield
T? v,
S2 --,s, =c., ln-=- + R ln-=- (12. 11 a)
Ti 111
T2 - P2
s2- -s -1-=cp ln- -R ln- (12. llb)
. ·-r, Pl
artci also
(12.1 lc)
:gguati on 12. llc can be obtaine d fromei therEq . 12. lla or 12.llb using Eq. 12,4 i;md thei cieal gas equa-
tion, Eq. p..1, written in the form pv = RT, to elimina te T. Examp le "12.1 sl_lo\Ys iise of the above gov-
erning equatjo ns.(the T ds equatio ns) to evaluat e propei:ty change s during a prcic¢ss.
For an ideal gas with constan t specific beats, we c~ use Eqs. 12.11 to obtain reiatio ns valid for an
isentro pic process . From Eq. 12. 11 a ·
Then, using Eqs. 12.4 an!] 12:5,
(
TT21) (111121) R/c. -- 0 or T2'4- 1 = T1 ,;.- 1 =Tv.k- I = •!;:Ol)S.t ~m
where states l and 2 are arbitrar y sta~es of the isentmp ic process. Using v = I/p,
k-1 T
T 11 = pli- l = constant c12.12 a)
We can a_pply a similar process to Eqs. 1-2.illb artd -12;1 }c, respectively, and obtain· the follow ing usefu l
relation s:
Tpl-k/k =cons ~t (12.1 2b)
. j'i
p,/ = 11 = constant (12.1 2c)
p
~tjatio ns 12.12 are for an ideal gas underg oing ~n isentropic process.
· Quall~ tive -i nfom1a tion.that is useful in drawµ1g :st11,te dia~m $ ;tlso can be -.o btained from the T ds
l3tjqatio,p.s. To comple te our review of.the theanod ynamic fundamenlills, we ev.aluate. the slopes of lines-
of,con s~t p,re.$sµr:e and qf :c;:o.iis_tanl .v olume on the Ts diagran:i in Examp le .1~:.2,·
£ ~,fip l'e, 1-i~;1 '.e,ii(:),,RitRTY:CHA:NJiES:lN ~QMPR~S.$,l_a~,EJ?~,¢.r .fLP:W
5~11~E?if.fii~ii!5ti!S~;!:wrta:
:.. .•_.
12.1 Review of Thermodynamics 561
Given:
Air flows steadily through a short section of constant-area duct that is cooled by liquid rulrogen.
Ti =440 K
Pi= 188 kPa (abs)
Vi =210m/s
I CV
Flow
2
Q<O
T2=351 K
p2=213kPa (abs)
Find: (a) Duct ~a.

(b} Ah.
(c) li.1_1 .
(d) As.
Solution: The duct area may be found from. the continuity equation.
=0(1)
;!c A - ·
-
. pd¥+ _ _ pV-dA=O (4.'12)
CV CV
Assumptigns:
L Steady flow.
2 Uniform flow at each section,
3 Ideal. g;,.s with constant specific heats.
Then
or
ri1.=p 1V1A =p2,V2A
~Ince A =Ai = :A2 =constant. Using th~ ideal gas relation,_p=pRT, we find
. Pi s N lcg • l<c l -.
Pi= R.T = 1.88 X 10 ~X . -- ·-. == L49kg/m3
· -. - X -
1 m~ 287N-m 440K
:prom contihµity,
ri1 _ . . kg m3 _ s _ , __ 4 2
A=e: Pi Vi = .0.15 5 x l.49 kg x 210 m-4.79x lO m+-.- - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - ~ A
For an icieal gas, the change in enthalpy is

562 Chapter 12 Introduct ion to Compress ible Flow
kJ .. .
t:./r=l.00 kg ~Kx(351 -440)K= -89.0kJ/ kg,-
· _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _=:_A::..:.h
Also, the change in internal e"fiergy is
t.11=112-11 1 = {T• c.,dT=c.,( T2-T1) (12.7a)

Jr,
.
t.u=Q.71 kJ X (351-440
7kg·K )K= -63.8 kJ/kg<-
· _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __:A:::_t~'--
The :~ ntropy change may \Je obtained frQtn Eq. 12.11 b,
T2 P2
l!.s=s-,-
. -
-s.1. = Cp lnT·I -R In.--a.
Pl
5
kJ _ ln (351)
=1 .00--x -. - -, - -
-0.-87- kJ-. xlri. (2. 13 X 10 )
lq~ - K 440 . ~g-K · l.88xl05
4s= -0.2{i2 kJ/(kg · K).< - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - = - t.s
We·see tbat entropy may decrease for a nonadiaba tic process in which the gas
is cooled.
Exampl e 12.2 CONSTA NT-PROP ERTY LINES ON A Ts DIAGRAM

For an ideal gas, find the equations for lines of (a) constant volume alld (b) constant pressure in the Ts plane;
Fina: Equations for lines of (a) consiant volume and (b) constant pressure in the Ts plane for an ideal gas.
Solution:
(~) We are interested in the relation between T ands with tQe volume v held constant. This suggests use 9fEq. 12. 11 a,
t~
s2-s1=cu ln-=-+Rl n
T1
t=0
·
I
(12.8)
·we re1ao:el thi·s equation so that state 1 is now refere.n ce state 0, and state 2 is an arbit:tµry stat.e ,
T
s-s0 = c,, !nj-Q ._c;>r T = roe<s-so)/c" (.1)
H¢ne;:¢, we co-nclude_that c.o nstant volume liiles in the Ts plan~ a.re. exponential.
(b). We~ ifit¢test~d fu the relation betw.een T and swith the pressw:ep h~ld constant. This suggests use ofEq. 12.llb, and using
a similar ,appn:>a~h to case (a), we fin!i
T = Toe<s-so)/cp (2)
Herict, we c~µclQge that constant pressure lines i.tJ th~ Ts plane are also exponential.
12.2 Prop agati on of Soun d Wave s 563
Wha t abou t the slope of these curve s? Becau se c,, > c;. for all gases , we can see that the expon ential , and theref ore the sl_cipe, of
the const ant press ure curve , Eq. 2, i~ small er than that for the const ant volum e curve , Eq. 1.
This is show n in the sketch below :
Consta nt volume
Consta nt pressure
Increa sing,,
~
I
--1- ---
==-~==-
Entrop y
1 2. 2 Pro pag atio n of Sound Waves

Spe ed of Sou nd
A begin ner to comp ressib le flow studie s might wond er what on earth sound has to do with the speed s
prese nt in a flow. We will see in this chapt er and the next that the speed of sound, c, is an impo rtant
mark er in fluid mech anics: Flows with speed s less than the speed of sound are called subso nic; flows
with speed s great er than the speed of sound are called super sonic ; and we will learn that the behav iors of
subso nic and super sonic flows are comp letely differ ent. We have previ ously (in Chapt er- 2, and in
Chap ter 7) defin ed the Mach numb er M of a flow, and it is so impor tant for our studie s that we
redef ine it here,
M'-"- V
.. C ( 12.13 )
wher e V is the speed of the fluid, or in some cases of the aircra ft. so that M I corre spond to
subso nic and super sonic flow, respec tively . In additi on, we menti oned in Secti on 12.1 that we' ll dem-
onstr ate in Exam ple 12.5 that for M < 0 .3, we can gener ally assum e incom press ible flow. Henc e, know l-
edge of the Mach numb er value is impo nant in fluid mech anics .
An answ er to the quest ion posed at the begin ning of this sectio n is that the speec l of sound is impo r-
tant in fluid mech anics becau se this is the speed at which "sign als" can travel throu gh the mediu m. Con-
sider , for exam ple, an objec t such as an aircra ft in motio n- the air ultim ately has to move out of its way.
In New ton' s day, it was thoug ht that this happe n_e d when the (invis ible) air partic les literal ly boun ced off
the front of the objec t, like so many balls bounc ing off a wall; now we know that in most instan ces the air
~tarts movi ng out of the way well befor e encou nterin g the objec t; this will not be true whe n we have
~upe rsoni c flow ! Ho~ does the ~ "k~O\~" to move out of the w~y? It know s becau se as the objec t
move s, it gener ates distur bance s ~~nfimtes,mal pressu re wav~ s, which are sound wave s) that eman ate
from the objec t in all direct ions. IL 1s these waves that cumu lati.ve ly " signa l" the air and redirec t it aroun d
th~ body as it appro aches . These wave s travel out at the_ speed of sound .
Soun d is a press ure wave of- very low pressu re magru tude, for huma n hearin g typically. in the range
ut arm (the thresh 3
f b 10 - 9 old of hearin g) to about 10- atm (pain ). Super impo sed on the ambi ent
o a o
· h ric press ure, sound waves consi. st o f extrem eIy sm all press ure fluctu ations . Beca use the ranoe
aLmo sp e fi • rd f · · • ·
of hu.m an heari ng cover s about 1ve_ or six o ers ~ ~agm tude m _Pres s~, typica lly we use a dime n-
C,
sionl ess logar ithmi c scale, the decibel level. to indica te sound mtens ny; o dB corre spond s to the
564 Chap ter 12 Intro duct ion to Com press ible Flow
thresh old of hearin g, and if you listen to your MP3 player at full blast the sound will be at abou t 100 dB -
about 1010 the intens ity of the thresh old of hearin g!
Let us deriv e a metho d for comp uting the speed of sound in any mediu m (solid , liquid , or gas). As
we do so, bear in mind that we are obtain ing the speed of a "sign al"-a press ure wav e-an d that the
speed of the medi um in which the wave travel s is a completely differ ent thing. For exam ple, if you watc h
a socce r playe r kick the ball, a fraction of a secon d later you will bear the thud of conta ct as the soun d~
which is a press ure wave , travels from the field up to you in the stand s, but no air parti cles Lrav eled
betw een you and the playe r. All of the air particles simpl y vibrat ed a bit.
Cons id_e r propa gatio n of a sound wave of infini tesimal strengll1 into an undis turbe d med ium, as
show n in Fig. 12. la. We are intere sted in relatin g the speed of wave propa gation, c, to fluid prop erty
chang es acros s the wave . If press ure and densi ty in the undis turbed mediu m al1ead of the wav e are
denot ed by p and p, passa ge of the wave will cause them to under go infini tesim al chan ges to beco me
p + dp and p + dp. Since the wave propa gates into a stationary fluid, the veloc ity ahead Qf the wave , Vx, is
zero..The magn itude ofll1e veloc ity behin d the wave , V,+d Vx, then will be simpl y dV.T; in Fig. 12. la, the
direc tion of the motio n behin d the wave has been assum ed to th~ left.2
The flow of Fig. 12.la appea rs unste ady to a statio nary observer, viewi ng the wave moti on from a
fi:x;ed point on the groun d. Howe ver, the flow appea rs steady to an obser ver locate d on an inert ial cont rol
volum e movi ng with a segm ent of the wave , as show n in Fig. 12. lb. The veioc ity appro achin g the con-
trol volum e is then c, and the veloc ity leavin g is c-dV x.
TI1e basic equat ions m;iy be applie d to the differential contro l volum e show n. in Fig. 12.1 b (we use
V.r for the x comp onent of veloc ity to avoid confu sion with internal energ y, 1,),
a. Cont inuity EqtJation

Gove rning equi,itions:
=0(1 )
of r pd¥+ r pV·dA =O (4_} 2)
fa Jcv Jes
Assu mptio ns:
Stead y flow.
2 Unifo rm flow at each sectio n.
Then
(-pcA ) + {(p+ dp)(c -dV.,.) A} =0 (12. 14a)
p . _ p+df'
_ dV, .
L
V., =O
p p + clp y
c- -- 0
Station ary
obs.erver ·
_ . - - - J -~ X
(al Propag ating wave
P
c~
p
:
I
j:
1- - - - ~ - . T
: : 1----
:------'-+-
I
p+df'
c -dVx
O p+cfp
O_b server
1_ _ J · on CV
(bl Inertial contra.I volume nioliing, witli wave, velocity c
Fig. 12.1 Propa gating sound w;ive showing con~rol volum e chosen for analysi s.
2Thi:.-s ame final result is obuµne d ,:i:gnrdless of th·c directjon initially assume d for mo1ion .behin<I 1he -wnve.
or
~o
-P,.f1\+ P,/A- p dV:,A + dpcA -dp d /.A = 0
or
C
dVx= -dp (J2. 14b)
p
Mom entu m Equa tion

I:).
Gov·e ming equat ion:
=0(3 ) =0(1 )
Fs, +F~ = a/
'/1•
rv_,pd ¥+
fit lcv
r
Jes
v_,pV•dA
(4.18 a)
Assu mptio n:
3 Fn., =0
The only surfa ce forces acting in the x direct ion on the contro l volum e of Fig. 12.1 bare due to pres-
sure. The uppe r and lower surfaces have zero friction becau se the areas are infini tesim al.
Fs, =pA - (p+d p)A = -A dp
Subs tituti ng into the gover ning equat ion gives
-A dp =c(- pci\) + (c-dV :,){(p +dp) (c-dV :,)A}
Usin g the conti nuity equat ion, (Eq. 12. 14a), this reduc es to
-A dp= c( -pcA ) + (c-dV ,)(pc A) = ( -c+ c-dV :,)(pc A)
-Adp = -pe1\ dv_,
or
l
dV:, =-dp {12.1 4c)
pc
Com binin g Eqs. 12.14 b and 12.14c, we obtain
C 1
dVx= ·'--dp= - dp
p pc
from whic h
dp= cdp
or
., dp
c-= ~ ( 12.15 )
dp
We have deriv ed an expre ssion for the speed of sound in any medi um in terms ·of therm odyna mic
quan tities ! Equa tion 12. 15 indic~tes that the spee~ of s~und dep_e nds on how the press ure and densi ty of
the medi um are related. To ·obtam the speed of sound ma medrn m we could:meas ure the time a sound
wave .calces co ttavel a presc ribed distan ce, or instea d ,ve could apply a small press ure chang e dp to a
samp le, meas ure the corres pondi ng densi ty chang e dp, and evalu ate c from Eq. 12.15 . For exam ple,
an incom press ible mediu m would have dp=0 for any dp, soc --> oo. We can antici pate that solids
and liqui ds whos e densi ties ai:e·diffic ult t~ change wiU have relativ~Ly high c value s, and gases whos e
dens ities are easy co chang e w1Jlhave relatively low c value s. There-is only one problem- withE q. 12. 15.
F'.or a simp le subst ance: eac!1 p~operty depen ds on any_ two_ i~depende_nc prope ~es. For a sound wave, by
defin ition we have an mfirutes1mal pressu re ch~g e ('..e:, 1t 1s rever sible) , ano 1t occur s very qmck ly, so
tl1ere. I•s 110 time for any heat transf er to occur
fu
(1.e., 1t 1s adiabatic). Thus the sound wave p.ropag ates
. . ·r d
isent ropic af/y. Henc e, if we expre ss pas a . nction o ensity and entro py. p=p( p,s), thep ·
· dp= - (ap) . (ap)
. _dp+ _,... (ap)
ds= .;_ dp
ap sas (1 ap s
566 Chapt er 12 Introd uction to Compr essible Flow
so Eq. 12.15 become s
and
C= (a;\)
ya;;; s
(12.16 )
. We can now apply Eq. 12.16 to_sol(ds, liquids, and gases. For solids and liquids data are usuall y
availab le on the bulk modulu s E •• which 1s a measur e of how a pressur e change affects a relativ e densit y
change ,
E _ dp _ dp
.,- dp/p- pdp
For these media
(12. 17)
For an ideal gas, the pressur e and density in isentrop ic flow are related by
.!!....
pk
=const ant ( 12. 12c)
Taking logarit hms and differen tiating, we obtain

dp dp
--k- =O
p p
Theref ore,
But p/p=R T, so finally
C= '1kRT (12.1 8)
for an ideal gas. The speed of sound in air has been measur ed precisely by numero us invest igator s [3].
Toe result.$ agree closely with the theore.tical predi~tion of Eq. 12.18.
Toe impona nt feature of sound propag ation in an ideal gas, as shown by Eq. 12. 18, is that the speed
of sound is a fimcrion of remperawre only. The variatio n in atmosp heric tempe~ tJ.Jre with altitud e on a
standar d day was discuss ed in Chapte r 3; the propert ies are summa rized in Table A.3. Exam ple 12.3
shows the use of Eqs. 12.17 and 12.18 in determi ning the speed of sound in c;lifferent mc;dia .
·bcqmple 12.3 SPEED OF S.OUND IN STEEL, WAliER, SEAWATER, AND AIR

Find Ul¢ .s~~qQ f·SQl!I ld To (a)stee l (E.,~2 O0GN /m2), (I:>) water (at20'!C ), (c).seaw ater (at 20 C), and (d~ air at sea level on a
9
s~d~. d,.lly.
2
Find: Sp~eg of s9µn!i 4J (a) steel (E":::l200 GN/m ), (b,) water (1it.'.?,0°C); (c).seaw ater (at t0°C), and (i;I) air at sea level on a
standa rd day,
12.2 Prop agat ion of Sou nd Wav es 567
Sc;,lut1c:>n:
(a) For s.teel, a s91id, we \lSe Eq. 12.17, wjth p obta ined from Tabl e A.l( b);
c= vEJp == ..JE;,/SGp_H,_6
?0Q 109 N . l . ... l ~3 kg•m 5050 . /
c.= - .. x . 1112 ·~ ·1:s3 X IOOO'kg x N~s2··,;:: . m s
~). :Fbr wate r w.e. also us~ Eq, fi.17, with data obta ined .qoit r T4J,le.A/1.,
.· · . N· - -i - ( m3 ku • til . Cwai,i
c;= 2.24 x . x .: .. x :
109 ·· .- x
.. - m ... 0.99 8 lQ() 0kg
2 . N,s2
•
O
= 1500
.. .
m/s ~- - - - - - - - -- --~ --- "--
(~) For seaw ater.w¢ agai n\USe Ecj.-12il7 ; wim d~ta obta ined .from T~bi e A.2;
q ,= ~-= ✓~,,/SGpe,9
? 9~ . l 1 _ .i:t:i3
kg_• .IQ. ·
c:-:· 2.4_ x 10 - ,, . ),< ~ x - . ---. x . ---
- - = 1540
,
m/s Cse1,ynu:t
.- - ~ -~- '-'-'--
. · m" 1-.02 5 l!)OQk~. · N,s l .
ci;II For·.au.: W:¢:i.(se:,E q. 12.i s, wJth,t:l:!e sea le:v~Lte~petfitµ_~ .qbJ~e<:l fu>m
17ao1e A.~. ·
Ty pes of Flo w-T llE! Ma ch Con e

Flow s for whic h M < l are subs onic, while thos e with M > 1 are supe rson ic. Flow field s that have both
sul;>soriic and-supe rson ic regio ns are termed.(ra11soi1ic. The trans onic regim e occu rs for Mac h .num bers
be~ een abou t 0.9 and 1 .2. Alth ough mos t flaw s with in our expe rienc e are.s ubso nk:, the~ are impo rtan t
prac tica l case{> whe re M ~ I occu rs· in a.flo w field . P~rbaps the mas t obvi 9us are supe n;on ic aircr aft and
tran soni c flow s in aircr aftco mpre ssors and fans. Yeta noth erflo w regim e, hyperso11ic flow (M 5), is of>
inte rest in miss ile·a nd reen try-v ehicl e desig n, Som e impo rtant qu~ tativ e diffe renc es betw een subs onic
an~L su.pe rson ic .flow s c3..!l be dedu ced from the ptop ertie s ofa simp le mov ing soun d soµr ce,
Con side r·~ poin t sour ce of soun d that emit s a puls e ever y At seco nds, Each puls e expa nds outw ards
.from its orig inati on poin t at the spee d of SO\lnd c, so at any insta nt t the.p ulse will .b e a sphei:¢,o f radiu s ct
~en tere d at the puls e's.originntioo poinL We wan tto inve stiga te wha t happ ens if the poin t sour ce itsel f is.
mov ing. The re are four possibilities, as show n.in Fig. 12.2:
_(a) . v::::; o. The poin t sour ce is sthatio11afiy.. di~igµre( 1;.2)a thshows codnditions ;ifter 3At secq nds. Toe first
puls e has. expa nded 10 a s~ ere o ra _1,1s c 3 u.t , . e sec;on to a sphe re .o f radiu s c(2A ,;), and
the third tQ a sphe re of radrns c(t..t ); a new pul_ s e 1s abou t to be emit ted, The puls es constit;ute a
set ~f ~v.e r, expa ndin_g conc entri c sphe res. . · ··
(I;>) 0 < V< c. The poin t sour ce mov es to the leJt.at s11bso11ic spee d. Figu re 12.2 b show s cond ition s after
3 At seco nds. The s94.ri:;e is.sh own at time s t=O , At,2 Ar, ;µicl 3At. The first puls e has e~pa nded to a
$pb. ere.. of radiu s c(3.At) .c~mer:ed wher e ih~ so(irce was on·g_inally; the se,coocl to. a sphe re of radiu s
c(ZA t) c.e rifer edw here th~ s()u,:-ce was awm e ~t, anc;I the third t~ a sph e~ of radiu s .c( At) centered
whe re the sour ce was at t1111e 2At; a new puls e 1s abou t to be enut ted. The puls es agai n cons titut e a
set of e.._;er-expanding sphe res, e~ce pt now they ~ not conc entri c. The puls es are all expam;ling at
tant sp·eed c. We ,nak e two impo rtant note s: FIT.St, we can see th~t an.o bser ver who .is ahea d of
con S
the sour ce (or who m tl~e soµi::e 1s. approach.mg_ . ) ·u h
"'.1 ear the puls es a.t a high er frequ ency rate th<1n
will an obse rver who· 1s bebm d th~ sour ce (this 1s the Dop pl~r effec t that: Qccurs wh~n a vehi cle
568 Chapter 1·2 . Introduct ion to Compress ible Flow
V(3At}
-V{2At}
r: At
-V(lu}
(al v = 0: stationary source
I
I
I
I
: - - Locus of wave fronts
(CJ V =c (dl V > r:: supersonic motion
/
Outside cone:
:7'/ /
1
unaware of sound • Inside cone:
'. .... -::::: -
~ aware of sound
I
(e} M > 1: the Mach cone

\I> C
Fig. 12.2 Propagation of sound waves from a moving source: The Mach cone.
apprQache s and passes); second, an observer ahead of Lhe source hears the source before the source
itself reaches the observer.
(c) V = c. The point source. moves to the left at so11ic speed. Figure l.2.2c shows condition s after 3 At
seconds. The source.is shown at times t = 0 (point 1), At (point 2), 26.t (point 3), and 3D.t (point 4 )-
The first pulse bas expanded to sphere 1 of radius t:(36.t) centered at poi11t J, the second to sphere 2
of radius c(26.t) ce11tered at poii1.t 2, and Lhe third to sphere 3 of radius c(fi·t) centered around the
source at point 3·. We can see ·once more that the pulses constitute a set .of ever~expa nding spheres.
except now they are tangent to.one another on the left! The pulses are all expanding at constant speed
c, but the source is also moving at speed c,.with the i:esult.that the source and all its pulses are trav-
eling toget.l:ier to the left. We again make·two important notes.:· First, we can see·thatan observer who
is ahead of the source will not hear the pulses before theso.urce reaches the·observer second •.in the-
ory, over time an unlimited number of pulses will accumulate ·at[he front ofd1e source, leading. to a
sound wave of unlµnited arriplitude. This was a source of concern to engineers trying to break the
"sound barrier," which many people thought could not be broken-C huck Ye~ger in a Bell X-1 was
the first to do so in 1947.
(d) v > c. Toe point source moves to the left at supersonic speed. Figure 12.2d shows condition s after
3Ar se<:onds. By now it is clear how the spherical waves develop. We can see ·once more that the
pulse.s constitute a set of ever-expan ding sphei:es, except now the source is moving so fast it moves
ahead of ~ch sphere that it generates! For supersonic inotion, lhe spheres generate what is called a
Mach cone tangent to each sphere. The region inside the cone is called the zone of action-anq that
·outside tb.e coqe t,he zone ofsilence, for obvious reasons, as shown in Fig. l 2.2e. From geometry , we
see iro°m Fig. I 2.~d that
. C I
-s1na=-
. y =-
M
or
Vidt!o : Slw r.k
\rcH·c\ due to u
P rop:c:rt le
• - I (-] )
a=sm (12. 19)
.. M
Figur e 12.3 show s an image of an F/A-1 8 Horn el jusl as il accele rates to supersonic speed . The
visib le vapo r patle m is due lo the sudde n i.ncre.ase in pressu re as a shock wave washe s over the aircra ft
(a shoc k wave leads to a sudde n and large pressu re incre;:ase). The (invis ible) Mach cone eman ates from
the nose of the aircra ft and passe s throug h the perip hery of the vapor disk. In Exam ple 12.4, lhe prope r-
ties of llle Mac h cone are used in analy zing a bullet trajec tory.
Exa mpl ~ 12.4 MAC H CON E OF A BULL ET
Io tesrs of a prote ctive mater ial, we wish to photo graph a b11ll~t as iL Bullet trajec tory
impa cts ajack etm;u :le of'lbe.material. A c;~ei :n is se;:t up.a .perpe ndicu lar
I
dista nc.e h =5 m from the bullet qajec tory. We ,vish to 9eten nine the I
petpe ndicu ia{distanc e d from the target_plane at i.vhich the ciltriera mus"t \ h= 5 m
pe pHi~e d such that lhe sound of tii-~bullet Will trigge r the c:ime ta ill the I
impa ct ti.Jue. Note: The bullet speed is measu red to be 550 rn/s; 'the delay . d I
-+-- - --- --- ---- ..t
time ofth e camera is 0 :005 s.
Fi rid': Lo¢a tion of came ra for captu ring impac t irnage:

Sq•~ ~ii;, n: The c.o ~~t vi:uue of d is th<!,t f~r which the bull~t hits ti.re targe t 0.005 s "!:>t;fo,:e theM ai.h wave reai;h es the camera.. We
IilllSt fµ,st fi~d the Mach_r;wn:iqer pf. lhe.bu llet;,.t.bert we can find lhe M_a~~ ap~le ; finail.y,, w_e can µse .pasic trigon ometr y to find d •
. Assu ming. sea leveLcon9,itio11~. Q'O!Il Table A.:3>Wfr nay~ T 288 .K. H~DC¢ Eq_. 12.18 .yie]q s
= .
.c = ififif f·
· -. ·
✓
.
N ; m .. kg~ In
. c=. l _.4 X287 ii:"~. k ><288 K x N::s~= 340 m/s
. . ,0
. M. - · ·_'v -- j_::i_:9_ m_ {:_s .

U52
~ 340m /s
Frp,::n Eq. 12.19 we can next find-t he Madi angle,
- -1 ( 1 ) . -··1 (._ :l ) · =38.

. 2°
a~sm - ivI s=sm
1 62
The dista nce x :t ravele d by the bullet while the Mach wav.e reach ~ the came ra is th~n
ii 5m
x= tan(p ) = tan(3 8,2°) = 6035 m
Final ly, we must add-.m@$ th~ time traveled by the bullet while the came ra is opemtu:i,g, which is 0~005 s x550 mfs,
550m .
d = 0.005 s ~-,- -.-. - + 6.35 m = 2. 7 5 m + 6.35 tn
s .
4=9. 10 m ·- ---- -- -- -~ -- --=d
570 Chapter 1.2 lntr:odud ion ·to Compress ible Flow
Fig. 12.3 An F/A-18 Hornet as it breaks the sound·barrler.
12.3 Referen ce State: Local lsentropic Stagna tion Proper ties

In our smdy of compressi ble flow, we will discover that, in general, all properties (p, T, p, ~. s, V) may
be changing as .t he flow proceeds. We need to obtain reference cqnditions that we can µse to relate con-
ditions in a flow from point to point. For imy flow, a reference ~ondition _is obtained when the fluid
js.brougbt to rest either in reality or conceptual ly. We will call this the stagnation condition , and the
property values (po, To, p 0 , 110, ho, so) at this state the stagnation properties. This process- of bringing
t,be fluid to rest-is not as straightfor ward as it seems. For example, do we do so wiijle there is friction, or
while the fluid is being heated or cooled, or "violently," or in some other way?. The simplest prnces s to
use is an isenlropic process, in wliich there is no friction, no heal transfer, and no "violent" events. Hence,
the properties we obtain "''ill be the local isemropic stagnation properties. Wby' ''local''? Because the
actual flow can be any kind of flow, e.g., with friction, so it may or may not itself oe isentropic . Hence,-
each point in the flow will have its own, or local, isentropic stagnation properties. This is illustrate d in
Fig. 12.4 , showing a ilow from some state CD to some new st;ne (2). The local isentropic stagnatio n prop-
erties for .e ach state, obtained.b y isentropica lly bringing the fluid to rest, are also shmvn. Hence, so, = s _1
~d s0, =s2 . Tb_e actual flow may or may not be iseritropic, lf it is isentropic, s1 =s2 =so, =so,. so the
stagnation states are identical; if it is not isentropic, then so, :/:-so,. We will see that changes in local
isentropic stagnation properties will provide -useful information about the :flow.
We can obtain informatio n OJJ. the referenc;e isentropic stagnation state-for incompres sible flows by
recalling the Bernoulli equation ftom ~hapter 6
p v2
- +~+gz=c onstant (6.8)
p 2
valid for a steady, incompres s_ible, frictionless flow along a streamline. Equation 6.8 is valid for an
incompres sible isentropic ptotes!i b<:i:ause it is reversible (frictionless and steady) arid adiabatic (we
I 112, Tz, fl2, 2, hz, s2, Vz

11 I
Actual flow
® ,------ (isenlropic or not)
(D\ ''
''' '
lsentropic processes ' ' , ,,._
' ' ,,._
f"':"" _ _ _ _ _ • - - -
,----- . ----- - ------- -,
: Po,, To,, Po,, "o,, ho,• so,= S2, V = 0 I
- -·- ··. - -- - - . - ..,
,1_Po , T , Po , u , 11 , s = s , v =0 1
_ 1_ __:.0 l · , I _0 J _ 0-1_ 0· :~ __1 __ __ I ------ . - ------- ------'
Fig,-12.4 .Lo.cal isentroplc stagnation pro1i"erties.
12.3 Reference State: Local lsentropic Stagnatio n Propertie s 571
did n~t include heat transfer considerati ons in its derivation) . As we saw in Section 6.2, the Bernoulli
equation leads to ·
(6.11)
The gravity term drops out because we·assume the reference state is at the same elevation as the actual
state, and in any event in external flows it is usually much smaller than the other terms. In Example 12.6
we compare isentropic stagnation conditions obtained assuming incompress ibility (Eq. 6.11 ), and allow-
ing for compressi bility.
Local lsentrop ic Stagnat ion Properti es for the Flow of an Ideal Gas
For a compressi ble flow we can derive the isentropic stagnation relations by applying the mass conser~
vation and momentum equations to a differential conttol volume, and then integrating. For the process
shown schematic ally in Fig. 12.4, we can depict the process from state(D to the correspond ing stagnation
state by imagining the control volume shown in Fig. 12.5 . Consider first the continuity equation.
a. Continui ty Equation
. Governin g equation:
=0(1)
a/ f pd¥-+ ( pV•dA =0 (4.12)
ifi lcv Jes
Assumpti ons:
Steady flow.
Then
(-p\l,A) + {(p+dp)( Vx +dV.,)(A+dA) } =0

or
pl,:~A = (p+dp)(V: . +dV-~)(A + dA) (12.2(:)a)
b. Momentu m Eqµatioh
Governin g eqµation:
- 3)=Cl(i)
=:;, .
Fss +F. ,= ~ r l,:..pd¥+ r V..-pV-dA {4.18a)
,Iii ltv Jes
dRS (CV~
Flow ~ -- - - - - - - - ( , - \ YL
----- ·-z---·-\_)_ ____ X -----.._/
-®'~-;-------- ------- ------- - @J

p
\-'., - - cl• ~
I p +dp
V + dV
V=O
p.=po
" A+,1,t T=To
P p+dp
T T+dT
Fig. 12 _5 Compressib le fiow In an infinlcesii:n.al scream. cube.
572 ·Chapt er 12 lntrod_u ~tion to Compr essible Flow
Assum ptions:
3 Fo.=0
4 Frictio nless flow.
The surface forces acting on the infinite simal conrrol volume are
Fs, =dR_, +pA-( p +dp)(A +dA)
The f'.orce dRx is applied along the stream tube bounda ry, as shown in Fig. 12.5, where the averag e pres-
sure 1s. p + dp /2, and the area c_o mpone nt in the x direction is dA . There is no friction . Thus,
Fs, = (p+ d;)dA+ pA-(p+ dp)(A+ dA.)
or
~o ~o
Fs, =pcf- i j!/! rf-1 -dpA - pfl-d pr = -dpA
Supstit uting this result into the momen tum equatio n gives
-dpA = V:,{-pV :,A} + (\~,+d ~,){(p+ dp)(V: ,+dV:, )(A+dA )}
which may be simplif ied usin~ Eq. 12.20a to obtain
-dp A= ( - V.., + V.,. + dv':,)(p\lxA)
Fina,lly ,
.
dp= -pV.xdV.x= -pd ("l)
'2.
or
(12.20 b)
Equati on 12.20b is a relation among propert ies during the deceleration process . (Note that for incom-
p.ressib le flow, it immed iately leads to. Eq. 6.11.) In developi!1g this relation, we have specif ied a fric-
i:ioniess-decel eration process . Before we can integrat e betwee n the initial state and final stagna tion state.
we must specify the relation that exiscs betwee n pressure, p, and density, p, along_the proces s path.
Since the deceler ation process is isentrop ic, then p and p foe an ideal gas- are related by Lhe
express ion
.!!..I: = constan
. .t (12. 12c)
p
Our task now is to integra te Eq. 12.20b S!Jbject to this relation . Along the stagnat ion stream line there is
only a single compo nent of velocity ; Vx is the magnit ude of the veloci~- Hence we can drop the subsc ript
in Eq. 12.20b.
From p / p" =const ant= C, we can write
p=Cp" and p=p'l" c-i/k
Then, from Eq. 12.20b,
-d(~) = ~ =p- 1/kclfk dp
We c;an integra te this equatio n betwee n the initial state and the corresp onding stagna tion state
-Jo d(~2)=cl/k i'"' p-1/kdp

12.3 Refe renc e Stat e: Loca l lsen trop ic Stag nati on Prop ertie s 573
to obta in
2
Y = Clfk _k_ [p(k-1)/k]PD = Clfk _k_ fp~k -l)fk _p(k - 1)/k]
i2 k- I
- --=c •tk~ p<k -1)/ k (Po
[ ,,
)(k-l )Jk- I ]~
_ 1
2 k-1 p
V =
_:?
k _p 1/k (k-1) /k [(
_ Po )(k-1 )/k _ 1]
2 k-1 p P P
y2
2
=~-_I!_ [(Po )(k-1 )/k
k-l p p
-J]
Sinc e we seek an expr essio n for stagn ation press ure, we can rewr ite this equa tion as
Po)(k-1)/k =I+ k-Ie V2

( p k p 2
artd
k-1 y2]" /(k-l )
Po= I+ P
p [ k 2p
f'or an idea l gas, p=p RT, and henc e
k-1 y2]k /(k- l)

Po= [ l + - - - -
p -2 kRT
Also ; for an idea l gas the soni c spee d is c; = \lldf t', and thus
_ [ k-l y2]k /(k-l )

po= l + - - -
p . 2 c2
Po [ k-1 ?] _k /(t-1 )
- = l+- -M -, (12. 21a)
p 2
Equ atio n 12.2 1a enab les us to calcu late the loca l isent ropic stµgn ation pres sure at any poin t ih a flow
field of an idea l gas, prov ided that we know the i;t~tic pres sure and Mac h num ber at tha~ poin t.
We c_a n read ily obta in exp¢ sslo ns for othe r isentropic stagn ation prop ertie s by appl ying .the relat ion
pk = consta)1t
p
betw een end-- state s of tl)e process. Thus
~=(~)" and ~=t:)''"

f-ot an idea l gas, then ;
To =Po f!__= Po
1
(Po)- '" = (Po)(k-t)/k
T P Po P ·P p
Usin g Eq. 12;2 la, we can sunu nariz e tiie equa tions for dete rmin ing loca l isent ropic stag natio n pro~ rties
of an idea l gas as
574 ch·c1 pter·1 2 -lntro.~ udio n to Com press ible.Flow.
(lZ.2 IJ;)-
(IZ.2 1~)
From Eqs. 12.21 , the ratio of each local isentr opic stagna tion prope rty to the corre spond ing static prop -
erly at aiiy point in a flow field for an ideal gas can be fo_u nd if the local Mach numb i:ris know n. We ·will
usual ly use Eqs, 12.21 in lieu of the continuiLy and mome ntµm equat ions for relati ng the prop ertie s at a
·state to that state' s stagn ation prope rties, but it is impor tant to remem ber that we deriv ed Eqs. 12.21 usin g
these equat ions and the isentr opic relati on for an ideal gas. Appe ndix D.l lists flow funct ions for prop -
erty ratios T0 /T,po / p, and p 0 / p, in terms of M for isentt opic flow of an ideal ga;,. A table of valu es, as
well as a plot of these prope rty ratios is prese nted fqr ;ii.r {k = 1.4) for a limite d range of Mach num bers..
The assoc iated Excel work book, Isentr opic Relations, availa ble on the websi te, can be used to prin t
a large r table of value s for ;ur. and other ideal g:i.ses. The calcu lation proce dure is illus trate d in
Exam ple 12.5. The Mach numb ~r range for validi ty of the assum ption of incom press ible flow is inve s-
tigate d in Exam ple 12.6.
Examp.Li?. t·i ~s :liQ'.¢.A~.i~.E;~JR"QPI~ ;STAG~AiitoN·¢ON.Pf'flQNS IN-.CH~NNt"- fLOW-
i fii t f~f~l~~i?!i$ l'nlet Outle t
p1 = 350 kPa (abs) . Po,_ = .385 kPa (abs)

i 1 = 60"C Flow ----+- T0, = 350 K
.,,
,,.._ _"-- M2 = 1.3
Y1 = 183m /s
12.3 Refer ence State : Local lsent ropic Stag natio n Prop ertie s 575
Loca l isentr opic stagn ation properties can be evalu ated from Eqs. 12.21 . Thus
k l ]k(k-1 ) Po,
Po,= p1 [ l+ ; Mf =350 kPa[ l+0.2 (0.5) 2 ] 35 =415 kPa( abs)
To, = T, [l + k; l Mr] = 333 K[l + 0.2(0.5) 2) = 350 K ,___ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _T._o,
I •
At sectio n (2). Eqs. 12.21 can be applied again . Thus from Eq. 12.21 a,
P2= P_o,
I k-1 2] 1:/(k-
= 3 s5 kP~ . =13 9k.P a(ab s)-- -- -- - - - - - - - p ~
2
l} . [l + 0.2(1. 3)2)3 .5
[ + 2 M2
Frnm Eq. 12.21 b,
T-,= . To, 350K ,, =Z ZK+-•_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _T_2

k-1 2 6
l+-
· -2 M 1 +0.2 (1.3)-
2
To locat e states <D and (2) in relation to one iµiothet:, arid sketc h the stagn ation proce sses on the Ts diagr am, we need to find the
chan g_e in entro py s2 -s 1. At each stat_e we have p and· T, so it is conve nient to use Eq. 12.11 b,
. ln~-
s1-s1 =cp' T2 -R
. l n~
P2
Ti Pl
262 139
= l .OO__ !s!_ X 10( ). - 0.287_~ X ln( )
· kg · K ~33 · · kg · K 350
s 2 -s1 = 0 .0251 kJ/(kg • K)
fleuc.e ip this flow We have an increase in entrop y. Perha ps there is irreve rsibil ity (e;g., frictio n), or heat is bein~ added, or both.
(We will see in Chap ter 13 that the fact that To, = To; for this partic ular.fl ow me<111s th~t actua lly w¢ have an.a•q iabati c flow.)We.
~so foun d that T2 < T 1 and thatp2 nstant press ure) in Ts space are expon ential ), ·
T
/P o 1 _/Po,
/"' 7 :i. To, = To,
t-- lsentropic processes ----..J
T1___!.L... i
P =~
Pt
l a t e (D ~ •P =p~~
1
I
Tz
State @
Example 12.6 MA~ H-NU MBE R LIMI T FOR INCO MPR ESSI BbE FLOW
WeJ lave deriv ed equat ions_for po/I:. for _both comp ressib le and ''inco rn~re ssible " flows . By writin g both eqµ_ation s in' tertns of
Mach numb er, comp are their behav ior. Fmd the Mach-numbel" below which the two equ;,.tions agr~ withi n engfu eerin~ _a ccura cy.
Give m The incom press ible and comp ressib le forms of the· equat ions for stagn ation e~su re, po.
Incom press ible Po =p+ ½pv2 (6.11 )

576 Chapter 12 Introduction to Compressible Flow
Po [
k-1 "']k/(k-1)
Compressible - = !+--M- (12.21a)
P 2
Find: (n) Bebavior of both equations as a function of Mach number.

(b) Mach number below which calculated values of Po/P agree within engineering accuracy.
Solution: First, let us write Eq. 6.11 in terms of Mach number. Using the ideal gas equation of slate and c?- = kRT,
Po P vi vi kvi kV2
-p = l + -2p =I+--= I+-.--= I + -
2RT · 2kRT 2c2
'TilUS, Po k -,
-=l+-M- (1)
p 2
for «incompressible" flow.
Equation l 2.2la may be expanded using the binomial theorem,
·)" - _ 11(11-l) 2
(l+."I: -l+n."I:.+ ! .x +···,lxl<I
2
2
FqrEq. 12.2la,x= [(k-1 )/2]M , and n=k/(k- 1). Thus the series converges for [(k- l)/2]/M2 < I, and for compressible flow.
Po= l
-
p
k _ )
+ ( - - - -l
k- l
[k-
2
M2] + (-k -.) (- k
k-1 k-1
- - 1 ) -1 [k
2! 2
-
--M-l_ "']
2
3
+ (~) - ( ~ - 1 ) (~-2)~[k-l M2] +···
k-l k-1 k-1 3! 2
(2)
= I +-M-+-M
k -, k _ k(2-k)
4 6
+--'----'--M +···
2 8 48
Po _k ., [ 1 -, . (2-k) ,4 ]
-=l+-M- 1+-M-+---NJ +·· ·
fJ 2 4- 24
In the limit, .as M _. O, the term in brackets in Eq. 2 approaches 1.0. Thus, for flow at low Mach number, the incompressible
and co~p~sible equatjons give the same result. The variation of po/p with Mach number is shown below. As Mach number is
increased, the compressible equation gives a larger ratio, po/p.
2.0
~· -
.,.
::> a,
1.8
l .6
I
~
"'::>
a, .,,
~"'
0.. OJ
6 ci. l.4
~g
C: "'
"'in
en i.2
Incompressible
Eq, 6,11
Mach number, M
Equations 1 and 2 may b~ compat<!d quantitatively mos.t simply by writing

Po _ 1 = ~M2 ("incqrnpressible")
p 2
·0 k 2[ I 2- (2- k) 4 ] _ .
P_ -1 = -M 1 + -M + - •.-M + · ·· (compressible)
p 2 4 M
12.5 Basic Equa tions for One- Dime nsion al Com press ible Flow 577
12. 4 Crit ical Conditions

Stagn ation condi tions are extrem ely usefu l as refere nce condi tions for therm odyna mic prope nies; this is
not true for veloc ity, since by defini tion v = 0 at stagna tion. A usefu l refere nce value for veloc ity is the
critic al spee d--th e speed v we attain when a flow is either accele rated or decel erated (actua lly or con-
ceptu ally) isentr opica lly until we reach M = l. Evert if there is no point in a given flow field where the
Mach numb er is equal to unity. such a hypot hetica l condi tion st.ill is usefu l as a refere nce condi tion.
l)sin g asteri sks to denot e condi tions at M = I, then by defini tion
v· ;;c·
At critic al condi tions, Eqs. 12.21 for isenlr opic stagn ation prope rties becom e
Po = [k + l] .t/(.t-1 )
{12.2 2~)
P* 2
To k+l
(12.2 2b)
7~ =2
Po= [k_+ l] 1/(t-1 )
(i2.2 2c)
p• 2
The critic al speed may be writte n in terms of either critica l tempe rature , r. or isentr opic stagn ation
temp eratu re. To.
For an ideal gas, c· = ✓kRr-, and thus v· = ✓kRT". Since , from Eq. 12.22 b,
?
T"= -.---To
k-+l
we have_
✓ 2k R.;:
V ~=c• =k + i -''O
We shall use both stagn ation condi tions and critica l conditj_ons as refere nce condi tions in lhe next
chap ter when we consi der a variet y of comp ressib le flews .
12. 5 Bas ic Equ atio ns for One -Dim ens iona l Com pres sibl e Flow
Our first task is co clevel op gener al equ(ltions for a one-c!im~nsional flow th1,1,t expre ss lhe basic laws from
Chap ter 4: mass conse n1arion (conti nuity) . momerrtmn, the first law of them1 odyna mics, lhe secon d law
of rhenn ody11 amics , and an equat ion of stare. To do so, we will use lhe fixed contr ol volum e show n in
Fi<>. 12.6. We initia lly assum e that l,he flow is affect ed by all of the pheno mena menti oned above (i.e.,
ar:a chan ge, frictio n. and heat trans fer-e ven the norm al shock will be descr ibed by lhis appro acb).
Then , for each indivi dual pheno meno n we will simpl ify the equat ions to obtai n usefu l result s.
As show n in Fig. 12.6, the prope nies at sectio ns (I) and (2) are labele d with corre spond ing subsc ripts.
R is the x comp onent of surfac e force from friction and press ure on the sides of the chann el. There will
ai~o be surfa ce forces from pressu res at surfac es CD and (2). Note lhat the x comp qnent of body force is
zero, so it is not show n. Q is the heat transfer. ·
Con tinu ity Equ atio n

Basi c equat ion:
=0(1 )
f { pd¥+ { pV•dA=O (4.12 )
P' lcv lcs
578 Chapt er 12 lntrodu <:tion to Compr essible Flow
R,
Flow ~
1'1 Q T2
P1 1'2
A1 P2
V1 rlz
Vz
Fig. 12.6 Control volume for analysis of a general one-dim ensional flow.
AssumpLioris:
Steady flow.
2 One-di mensio nal flow.
Then
or
(12.24 a)
Mom entum Equa tion

Basic equatio n:
(4.18a )
Assum ption:
3 Fa, =0
The surface force is causec,i by pressur e forces at surfaces CD and (2), and by the friction and dislrib uted
pressur e force, Rx, along the chaq.n el walls. Substitl!ting gives
R.r+Pi A1 -p2A2 = V1(-P1 V1Ai)+V2(p2V2A2)
Using continu ity, we obtain
{12.2 4b)
First Law of Ther mody namic s

Basic equatio n:
(4.56)
where
12.5 Basic Equati ons for One-D imensi onal Compr essible Flow 579
Assum ptions:
4 Ws=O.
5 Wsh<= = Wothcr=O.
6 Effects of gravity are negligible.
Note that even if we have friction, lhere is no friction work at the waJls becaus e with friction lhe velocity
at the wans must be zero from lhe no-slip conditi on. Under these assump tions, the first law reduces to
Q=(tt t+Piv ,+ V})('- p 1 V1A .. )+(112 +p2v2 + 1)(p2V 2A2)

(Reme mber that v here represents lhe specific volume .) This can be simplif ied by using h = 11 + pv, and
contin uity (Eq. l2.24a) ,
. [(h2+ v?)
Q=1i1 i - ( + vi)]
d h,
We can write the heat transfer on a per unit mass ralher than per unit time basis:
oQ 1 .
-=-Q
dm ni
SQ
oQ Vr 'Ii;-
- . +lz,+ -=h~+ -=- (l2.24c )
dm 2 - 2
Equati<;>n 12.24c express es the fact that heat trall$fer change s the total energy (the sum of therma l energy
h, and kinetic energy \/2 /2) of the flowing fluid. This combin ation, h + V 2 /2, occurs often in compre ss-
ible flow, a,id is. called the stagnat ion enthalp y, '10 • This is the enthalp y obtaine d if a flow is brough t
adiaba tically to rest.
Hence , Eq. I 2.24c can also be written
oQ
-=ho ,.-ho
dni '
We se.e that heat transfe r causes lhe stagnaµ on enthalp y, and henc~. stagnat ion temper ature, To, to
change .
Seco nd Law of Therm odyna mics

Basic equatio n:
=0{1}
az r
_ spd¥+ r spV•dA"2::. r ~(fI)dA (4.58}
ldcv )cs Jes T A
or
and, again using continu ity,
(12.24d )
Equa tion of State

Eqµat) ons of state are relation s among irtten:ive ~ ermod? 'namic propert ies. These relation s may be
.1 b. Ie as· tabulat ed data or charts, or as nloebraic equatJo ns. In general , regardl ess of the format of
avru a . li . th. h t " . l
. t as we discuss ed m ear er m 1s c ap er, ,or a sunp e substan ce any propert y can
the d a a, . . . be express ed
580 chapt er 12 lntrnd uction to Compr essible Flow
as a functio n of any two olher indepen dent properties. For exampl e, we could write h = h(s,p ), or
p=p(s .p), and so on.
We will primari ly be concern ed with ideal gases with constan t specific heats, and for these we can
write Eqs. 12.l and 12.7b (renum bered for conven ient use in this chapter ),
p=pRT (12.24 e)
and
(12.24 f)
For ideal gases with constan t specific heats, the change in entropy , 6.s = si -s 1, for any proces s can be
compu ted from any of Eqs. 12.11. For exampl e, Eq. 12. l lb (renum bered here for conven ience) is
Ti
6.s=s'l -si =cp In - P'l
-R ln - (12.24 g)
T, Pl
We now have a basic set of equatio ns for analyzi ng one-dim ensiona l compre ssible flows of an ideal gas
with constan t specifi c heats:
p 1 V1A1 =p2V2112 =pVA= 1ii=co nstant (12.24 a)

R:x+P1A1 -p2A2 =1itV2-ritV1 (12.24 b)
oQ Vf V}
- +h1 +~= h, +--=- ( 12.24 c)
dm 2 - 2
1i1(s2 - s,)~ Jc; ~(i)dA (12.24 d)
p=pR,_T (12.24 e)
6.h=h2 -h1 =cpt:u '=cp(T 2-Ti} (l2.24 f)
. i2
6.s=s2 --s1 =cp ln --8ln P.2
- (12.24 -g)
Ti Pl
Note that Eq. l2.24e applies only if we have an ideal gas; Equatio ns 12.24f and 12.24g apply only if we
have an ideal gas with constan t specific heats. Our task is now to simplify this set of equatio ns for e ach of
the phenom ena that can affect the flow:
• Flow with varying area.

• Norma l shock.
• Flow in a channe l with friction .
• Flow in a channe l with heating or cooling .
12.6 tsent ropic Flow of an Ideal Gas: Area Varia tion

The first phenom enon is one in which the flow is changed_ o~ly by area variatio n- there is no_ heal
transfe r, friction , or shocks. The absenc e of heat transfer , fnct10n , and shocks means the flow w1Jl be
reversi ble and adiabat ic, so Eq. 12.24d become s
111(s2- s1)= { ~(Q)d

lcs T A=O
J\
or
6.s=s2 - s1 =0
so such a flow is isentropic. This means that Eq. 12.24g leads LO the result we saw previo usly,
Tip~l - k)/k =T2 p~1- k)/k = Tp<• -kJ/k = constant ( 12.12 b)
12.6 lsentro pic Flow of an Ideal Gas: Area Variat ion 581
or its equiva lent, which can be obtained by using the ideal gas equatio n of state in Eq. 12.12b to elimina te
temper ature,
Pl = P:!. = .f!.... = constan t (12.12c )

p} p~ pk
Hence , the basic set of equatio ns (Eqs. 12.24) become s:
p 1V1A 1=p2 V2A 2 =pVA =1n=co nstant (12.25a )
R.c+ p1A1 -p2A2 =1;1V2 -1nV. (12.25b )

y2 V;
ho, =h 1 + d =h2 + 2 =ho, =ho (1 2.25c)
(12.25d )
p=pRT (12.25e )
f:.h=h2 - h 1=cpf:.T =cp(T2 -T1) (12.25f )
P• =P2 =.!!....= constan t (12.25g )

p} p~ pk
Note that Eqs. 12.25c, 12.25d, and 12.25f provide insight into how thls process appears on an hs diagram
and on a Ts diagram . From Eq. 12.25c, the total energy, or stagnat ion enthalp y ho, of the fluid is constan t;
the enthaip y and kinetic energy may vary along the flow, but their sum is constan t. This means that if the
fluid acceler ates, its tempera ture must decreas e, and vice versa. Equatio n 12.25d indicat es that the
entrop y remain s constan t. These resuhs are shown for a typical process in Fig. 12.7.
Equati on 12.25f indicate s that the tempera ture and enthalp y are linearly related; hence, process es
plotted on a Ts diagram will look very similar to that shown in Fig. 12.7 except for the vertical scale.
Equati ons 12.25 co11.ld l:>e used to analyze isentrop ic flow in a channe l of varying area. For exampl e,
if we know conditi ons at section CD (i.e., p,, p 1, T 1, s1, /z 1, V.. andA 1) we could use these equatio ns to
find conditi ons at some new section (2) where the area is A 2 : We would bave s_e ven equatio ns ands.e ven
unkno wns (p2. p 2, T2, s2. h2, V2, and R.c)- We ;;tress cp11/d, becaus e in practic e this proced ure is
unwie ldy-w e have a set of seven no11/ineqr cot,pled algebra ic equatio ns to solve. Instead we can take
advant age of the results we obtaine d for isentrop ic flows and develop propert y relation s in terms of the
local Mach numbe r, the stagnat ion conditio ns, and .critical conditi(;ms.
Before proceec;ling with this approac h, we can gain insight into the isentro pic process by reviewi ng
the results we obtaine d previou sly when we analyze d a differe_n tial control volwne (Fig. 12.5). The
~~men tum equatio n for this was
dp
p+d (V
2
2
)
=0 (1;2.20 b.)
Then
dp=~p VdV
I,
''o i - - -- ---,r
Kinetic
energy of
Kinetic
state Q)
energy of Total
state@ energy
Thermal h 0 of all
energy of states
state Q) Thermal
energy of
state@
r
Fi~~ 1 2 • 7- !~entrop ic flow In the hs plane.
582 Chapter 12 lnfrc,duc:tion to Compressil>le Flow
2
Dividing by, p·v , we .obtain
dp dV
p\12 = -v (12.26)
A convenient differential form of the contmu1ty · can b e o btamed
· · equation · from E q. 12 ....,5 · the fiorm
.L a, m
pA V = constant
Differeritiating and dividing by pA V yields
dp dV dA
-+~+-=0 (12.27)
P A \I
Solving Eq. 12.27 for dA/A gives
Substituting from Eq. 12.'.?6 gives
or
dA
A
= dp
pV2
[i- _Vdp/dp
J 2
Now recall that for an isentropic process, dp/dp=iJpfiJp),=c2, so
~
2
dA dp [ V ] dp
A= pV2 1- c2 = p\/2[1-M-J
or
dp dA I
pV2 =A[l-M2] (12.28)
Substituting from Eq. 12.26 into Eq. 12;28, we obtain

dV dA 1
v=-A (1-M2J ( 12.29)
Note that for an isenlTopic flow there can be no friction. Equations 12;28 and 12.29 confirm that for this
case, from a momentum point of view we expect an increase in pressure to cause a decrease in speed, and
vice versa. Although we cannot use them for computations because we have not so far determined
how M varies with A, Eqs. 12.28 and 12.29 give us very interesting insights into how the pressure
and velocity change as we change the area of the flow. Three possibilities are discussed below.
Subsonic Flow, M < 1

For M < 1, the facmr 1/(1 -M2 ] in Eqs. 12.28 and 12.29 is positive, so that a positive dA leads to a
positive dp and a negative dV. These mathematical results mean1hat in a divergent section (dA > 0)
the flow must experience an increase in pressure (dp> 0) and the velocity must decrease(dV < 0).
Hence a divergent channel is a subsonic diffuser that decelerates a flow.
On the other hand, a negative dA leads to a negative dp and a positive dV. These mathematical
results mean that in a converge11t section (dA < 0) the flow must experience a decrease in pressure
(dp < 0) and the velocity must increase(dV > 0). Hence a convergenr channel is a subsonic nozzle that
accelerates a flow.
These results are consistent with our everyday experience and are not surprisil}g-for example,
~~:al
all the venturi meter in Chapter 8, in which a reduction in area iu the throat of the v·enturi led to a
increase in velocity, and because of the Bernoulli principle, to apressure drop; and the divergent
12.6 tsen trop ic Flow of an Idea l Gas: Area Vari atio n 583
~~-
Flow regime Diffuser
Nozzle
Jp < 0 dp> O
Subso nic
M< 1
Flo w- --
~ - -- flqw
~
Super sonic
~ -
Flo".'· · - · --~ .
~
M> l - -- ~- Flc;,w
~
~ -
~
Fig. 1:z.8 Nozz le and diffu ser shape s as a function of initial Mach numb er.
sect ion led to pres sure reco very and flow dece lerat ion. (The Bern oulli princ iple assu mes inco mpre ssibl e
flow , whi ch is the limit ing case of subs onic flow.) The subs onic diffu ser and nozz le are also show n
in Fig. 12.8 .
Sup ers oni c Flo w, /VI> 1

For M > 1, the facto r 1/ ( 1 -M2] in Eqs. 12.2 8 and 12.2 9 is nega tive, so that a posi tive dA lead s to a
neg ativ e dp and a posi tive dV. Thes e math emat ical resul ts mean that in a dive rgen t secti on (dA > 0)
[be flow mus t expe rienc e a decr ease in press ure (dp < 0) and the velo city must 'incr ease (dV > O). Hen ce
a dive rgen t chan nel is a supe rson ic nozz le.
On the othe r hand , a nega tive dA leads to a posi tive dp and a nega tive dV. Thes e math ema tical
res.u lts mea n that in a conv erge nt secti on (dA < 0) the flow mus t expe rienc e an incr ease in pres sure
(dp > 0) and the velo city must decr ease (dV< O). Hen ce a conv erge111 chan nel i.sa supe rson ic diffu ser.
The se resu lts are inco nsist ent with our ever yday expe rienc e and are at first a bit surp risin g-th ey are
the opp osit e of wha t we saw in the venturi meter! The resul ts are cons isten t with the laws of phys ics; for
exam ple, an incre ase in press ure must leac! to a flow dece lerat ion beca use pres sure force s are the only
forc es actin g. The supe rson ic nozz le and diffu ser are also show n in Fig. 12.8.
The se som ewh at coun terin tuitiv e results can be unde rstoo d whe n we reali ze that we are used to
=
assu min g that p cons tant, but we _ are now in a flow regim e whe re the fluid dens ity is a func tion of
flow cond ition s. From I;:q. 12.27,
dV dA dp
\l =- A - p
For exam ple, in a sµpe rson ic dive rging flow (dA posit ive) the flow actu ally aq:e lerat es (dV also posi tive)
beca use the dens ity drop s shar ply (dp is nega tive and large , with the net resu lt that the righ t side of the
eq~ ~tio n is posi tive) . We can see exam ples of supe rso~ c dive rging ~o~ les in the spac e shut tle main
a·ne s , each of whic h has a nozz le abou t ID.ft long with an 8 ft exit dmm eter. The max imum thrus t
en.,.1 . .
is obta ined from the engi nes when the com busu on gase s extt at the high est poss ible spee d, whic h
!'.he· nozz les achi eve .
Son ic Flo w, /VI= 1

As we appr oach M = l, from eith~ r a subs onic or supe rson ic sta~e, the facto r l/[l- M2 ] in Eqs. 12.2 8 and
_29 appr oach es infin ity, impl ying that the press ure and velocity chan ~es also appr oach infin ity. This is
12
· . nrea listic , so we mus t look for some othe r way for the equa uons to mak e phys ical sens e. The
obv ious 1Y u
· · an avoi d these sino ulan•ues- -m press
ure and veIocny
· 1s· if we
requ ire that dA -,. o as M _. l
only way wee "' · ·
584 Cha·p ter" 12· Intr odu ctio n to Com pre ssib le Flo w
Hen ce, for an isen trop ic flow , son ic con ditio ns can only occu r where the area is con stan t! We can be
eve n
mor e spe cifi c: We can ima gine app roac hing M = 1 froin either a subs onic or a sup erso nic
sta le.
A sub son ic flow (M < l) wou ld nee d to be accelerated using a subs onic noz zle, whi ch we
hav e
le~ ed- is a con verg ing sect ion; a supe rson ic flow (M > 1) would need to be dec eler ated usin g a
sup er-
son ic diff use r, whi ch is also a con verg ing sect ion. Hence, sonic con ditio ns are limi ted not jus t Lo a
loc a-
tion of con stan t area , but one that is a min imu m area. The imp ona nt result is tha t/or ise1 1tro pic flow
the
son ic con diti on M = 1 can only be aua ined ar a thro at, or sectio11 of111i11i11111m area . Thi s doe
s not me an
that a thro at mus t hav e M = 1. Afte r all, we may have a low spee d flow or eve n no flow at all
in the
dev ice!
We can see that to isen trop ical ly acce lera te a fluid from rest to supersonic spe ed we wou ld nee d
co
hav e a sub son ic noz zle (con verg ing sect ion) followed by a supersonic noz zle (div ergi ng sec tion ).
wit h
N{= l at the thro at. Thi s dev ice is c;;alled a convergi11g-divergi11g nozzle (C-D noz zle) . Of cou rse,
to cre -
ate a sup erso nic flow we nee d mor e than just a C-P nozzle: We mus t also gen erat e and mai ntai n a
pre s-
sure diff eren ce betw een· the-inle t and el(it. We will di~cuss shortly C-D nozzles in som e deta il. and
the
pres sure s requ ired to acco mpl ish a c;;hange from subsonic to supersonic flow.
We mu st be care ful in out disc ussi on of isenttopic flow, especially dec eler atio n, bec aus e rea
l
flui ds can exp erie nce non isen trop ic phe nom ena such as boundary-layer sepa ratio n and sho ck wa
ves .
In prac tice , sup erso nic flow can not be decelerated to exactly M = l at a throat bec aus e son ic flow
nea r
a thro at is uns tabl e in a risin g (a~v erse ) pres sure gradient. It turns o.u t that disturbance::; that are alw
ays
pre sen t in a real sub son ic flow prop aga te ups ~am ,' cli~turbibg the soni c flow at the tlu-oat, cau sing
sho ck
wav es to form and tn1vel ups trea m, whe re they may be disgorged from the inle t of the sup ers
oni c
diff use r.
The thro at area of a real sup erso nic diff user must be slightly larger than that requ ired to red uce the
flow to M = 1. Und er tl1e pro per dow nstr eam conditions, a weak normal sho ck form s irt the div erg
ing
cha nne l just dow nstr eam from the throat. Flow leaving the shoc k is subsorµc and dec;;elerates in the
div er-
gin g cha nne l. Thu s dec eler atio n from supersonic to subsonic fiow cnnnot OC<;!lr ~se ntro pica lly in
pra c-
tice , sinc e the wea k non l)al sho ck cau ses an entropy increase. Nor mal sho cks wil l be ana lyz
ed in
Sec tion 12.7 .
For acc eler atin g fiow s (fav orab le pres sure gradients), tl1e idealization .o fise ntro pic.flow is_gen era lly
a real istic mod el of the actu al flow beh avio r. For decelerating flows, the idea jiza tion of isen trop ic
flo w
may not be real istic bec aus e of the adv erse pressure gradients and the atteQd:µtt pos sibi lity of flow
sep -
a.n).tion, a,; disc usse d for inco mpr essi ble bou nda ry-l ayer flow in Chapter 9.
Re fer en ce Sta gn ati on and Cri tic_

a l Ccmditions
for lse ntr op ic FIQW of an Ide al Gas
As we men tion ed at the beg inni ng of this section, in principle we-could 'Use Eqs . 12. 25 to ana lyz e
·on e-
dim ens iona l isen trop ic flow of an ideal gas, but the computations would be som ewh at tedi ous . Ins
tea d,
bec aus e the flow is isen trop ic, we can use the results of Sections J2.3 (ref eren ce stag nati on con diti
ons )
and 12.4 (ref eren ce criti cal con ditio ns). The idea is illustrated in Fig. 12.9: Instead of usin g Eqs . I 2.2
5 to
com put e, for exa mpl e, pro ~rti es at stat e (2) m.'~ thos e at state (j), we can u5:e sta te~ to de te~ ne two
refe renc e stat es (the stag nau on stat e and the cntJcal state), and then use these to,o btam pro per ties at
sta te
(2). we nee d two refe renc e st~tes peca~s~ the_reference stagrn,1tion state·does not ptov ide area info rma tion
(ma them atic ally the stag nau on area IS tnfintte). . . _
We will use Eqs . 12.21 (ren umb ered for convemence),
k - J_ ] k/(k -1)
Po= l+- -M 2 (12 .30 a)
p [ 2
To= l+ k-1 M2
T 2 ( 12. 30b )
k-1 ] 1/(k -l)

Po= l + -
. -M2 (12 .30 c)
p [. 2
12.6 fsen trop ic Flow of an Idea l Gas: Area Vari atio n 585
State CD to
stagnation slate
T To t---- -..:R _.efe renc e stagn ation state to state @
I I
I
71 1--- --'~ Stat e CD ,,
1 I
I
T2 ...---- +=S tate @

I
r __ ____. 1-'-'Reference I I
critical state I I
I
State CD to
critical state
to state @ Fig. 12.9 Example of stagn ation and critical
s refere nce state s in the Ts plane .
We note that t/ze stag natio n cond ition s are cons tant r/zrougho11t the isen trop icflo w. The critic;al cond i-
tion s .(/.Ill = l) were relat ed to stagn ation cond ition s in Sect ion 12.4,
Po= [k+ l]k/( k-1)

(12.2 2a)
P* 2
To k+ I
T* = - 2- (12. 22b)
Po = [k+
p· 2
l] l/(k-1 )
( 12.2 2c}
v• =c. = Vk+
/2k RT.
T. o ( 12.2 3)
Alth ough a parti cula r flow may neve r attain soni c cond i\ion s, as in the exam ple in Fig. 12.9 , we will
still find the criti cal cond ition s useful as refer ence cond ition s. Equa tions 12.3 0a, 12.3 0b, and 12.3 0c
rela te loca l prop ertie s (p, p, T, and V) to stagn ation prop ertie s (p , p , and To) via the Mac h num ber
0 0
lvf, an~ Eqs. 12.2 2 and 12.23 relate. critical properties (p·, p". T", and v·) to Stagllation prop ertie s
(po, p 0 , and To) resp ectiv ely, but we have yet to obta in.a relat ion betw een area s A and A·. To do this
we star t with cont inuit y (Eq. 12.25a) in the fonn
pA V =constant== p•A· v•
The n
~: -~~ -~:;c -~~,:
A l p• Po ✓T" /To
A'= MPo P T/To
A l (1 +~M2] 1/(k- l) [l +~N/2] 1/2
A•= M [k; l] l/(1:- I) . k.;1

k-1 ~] (1:+ t)/2(1 :- 1)
A l l+- ,,-M -
A' =M [ k+ l (12. 30d)
2
Equ atio ns 12.3 0 fo~ a set that is conv~mient for analy ~ing ise~t ropic flow of an idea l gas with
con stan t spec ific heat s, whic h we usua lly use mste ad of the basic equa tions , Eqs. 12.2 5. For conv enie nc.e
we list Eqs. l2.3 0 toge ther:
·. k~l . " ]k/(k ~ l)

Po== . l + ~ ·M -
p [.. ·. 2 (12,.30a)
.
586 Ctiaj:> ter 1:i Introd uction to Compr essible Flow
To k-1 .,
- = I +-.- M- (12.30 b)
T 2
. ( k-1 ')i/(k-i )
Po
p
= I + - . -: M -
2
( 12.30 c)
A l
k- l
l +-?-M -
?] (k+ i)/2(k.- i)
A• = M [ k+J. - (12.30 d)
2
Equati ons l'?.30 provide propert y relation s in terms of the local Mach number , the stagna tion con-
ditions , and critical conditi ons. These equatio ns are readily program med and there are. also interac tive
websit es that make them availab le (see, for example, (4]). These equatio ns are also availab le in the
Excel Spread sheets on the website , with add-in functions available for comput ing pressur e. tempe rature .
density and area ratios from M, or compµt ing M from the ratios. While tJ:iey are somew hat compl icated
algebra ically, they have the advanta ge over the basic equations, Eq. 12.25, that they are not couple d.
Each propert y can be found directly from its stagnat ion value and the Mach numl;>er.
Equati on 12.30d shows the relation betwee n Mach number Mand area A. The critical ai:eaA • is used
to normal ize area A. For each Mach number M we obtain a unique area ratio, l;>ut as shown in Fig 12. l 0
each A/A· ratio (excep t l) has two possibl e Mach numbe rs-one subsoni c, the other supers onic. The
shape shown in Fig. 12.10 looks like a converg ing-div erging section for acceler ating from a subson ic to
a superso nic flow (with, as necessa ry, M == l only at the throat), but in practice this is not the shape
to which such a passag e would be built. For exampl e, the divergin g section usually will have a much
less ·s evere angle of diverge nce to reduce the chance of flow separation.
Appen dix ·o . l lists flow functio ns for property ratios To/T, po/p, p 0 / p, and A/A" in terms of M for
isentro pic flow of an ideal gas. A table of values, as well as a plot of these propert y ratios, is prese nted for
air (k = 1 .4) for a limited range of Mach number s. The associated Excel workbo ok, lseiitrQ pic Relati ons,
can be used to print a larger table of values for air and other ideal gases.
Examp le 12.7 demons trates use of some of the above equations. As shown ih .F ig. 12.9, we can use
the equatio ns to relate a propert y at one state to the stagna~ion value and then from the stagna tion value to
a second state, but note that we can accomp lish this in one step-fo r exampl e, P2 can be obtain ed fron1 p 1
by writing p 2 = (p2 / po) (p0 / Pi )pi, where the pressur e ratios come from Eq. 12.30a evalua ted at the two
Mach numbe rs.
3.0 ~ - ~ - ~- - ....------- ,---,-- --,
2 .5
_,. 2.0
·--1-:.:
.2
"§ 1.5
"'
::!
<(
1.0
0.5
0 0~
. --o
~.~ s--1~_-0--1~.-s-~2~.o~-
2 .~s- -3~_0
Macl:t number, M
•
F ig. 12. 10
varr·ation of A/A" with Mach number for iseritropi~ flow of an Ideal gas with k = 1.4.
12.6 lsentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas: Area Variation 587
Example 12. 7 ISENTROPIC FLOW IN A CONVERGING CHANNEL
Air flows isentropically in a channeL At section CD, the Mach number is 0.3, the area is 0.00 I m2 , and the.absolute pressu~ an,d
tl~e temperature are 650 kP~ imd 62°C, respectively. At section cr>, the Mach number is 0.8. Sketch the channel shape; plot Ts a
diagram for the process, and evalua11:; properties at section@. Verify that the results agree with the basic equations, Eqs. IZ.25:,
. .
Given: Isentropic flow of aj.r in a channel. At sections CD and (2), the following data are giv<:;n: M1 = 0,3, Tt = (?2°€,
Pi =650 kPa (abs), A1 =0.001 m2, and M2 =0.8.
Find: (a) The charin¢1 shape.
(b) A Ts diagram fQr the process.
(c) Properties at section cr>.
(d) Show that th<:; results satisfy the basic equations.
Solution: To. accelerat~ a subsonic flo;.v ·requires a converging nozzle. The channel shape must be
;as sho:wn. · ·
On the Ts plane, th~ process follows an s = constant line. Stagnation conditions remain fixe4 fot is<:;nll'Qpic fl()w.
Cpnsequently, the stagnation tempetatil~ at section (2) can .be calculated (for air, k = 1.4) from
Eq. 12.30b.
1
To, =To, =Ti [1-t k; Ml]
T
/Po, =po,
--"7(--To,'=To,
I
= (62+273) K[i -:t-0.2(0.3)2] I
1 Pt
To.,To, T1
Toi =To,= 341 I < - - - - - - - - ~ . . c . , - ~ - - - - -
P2
For po,_, from Ecj. 12.30a, 72 @
1 .r
Pg, =po, =Pr [1 + k; M;r/(k-l) = 65.0 kPa(l +0.2(0,3)2] 35
Po, =692 !<ea fobs}. Po,
n.=..To,/ [ 1+ k-1. "]' .. . .

2
Mt .
= 341 K/[1+0.2(0.s)-1 . .,
:for p 2 , from E,_tj. 12.30a,
Pi=po2 /[1+k;l Mfr/k-t=692kPa/[1 +0.2(0.8)2.]3'5
p2 =454 k.Pa+-·-----'-----,-----~,__~..:P-'--'!i:
Note tfi'at w~·cpuld have directly computed T2 l:rom Ti because To=eonstari~:
~~- = io:/i~ = [1 + k;/ Mf]/ [1 k; +

1
M}] : ;: [1+o.J(0.3)2] / [ 1+ o.2(<ts)2]
T:1 =0·8865 = 0;9()25

71 Q.9823
T2 = 0.9025 Ti = 0.9025(273 + 62)K = 304 K
P:i-, ==
Pi
2
·/
P __
Po
po =o..
Pi
88653 ..s/·0.98233 -5 = o.6982
·
58 8 Ch apt er 12 Int rod uct ion to Co mp res sib le Flo w
He nce .
P2 = 0.6 982 Pt = 0.6 982 (650 kPa) = 454 kPa
Toe den sity p 2 at sec tio n~ clµ1 be fou nd fro m Eq. 12.3 0c usi ng the sam e procei;lute
we use d for T2 and p 2 , or we can .us e the ide al
gas. equ atio n of sta te, Eq. 12. 25e ,
~ .·. sN ~ -K l
P2 = RT 2 = 4 .54 X 10 tn2 X -28 · - - - - - - - - - - - - - -~
__ =5.2 4 kg/ m3 .;-
- 7=N--m- X -30_2_K -
and the vel oci ty at sec tion (2) is
N- m . kg- m v-.
1.4 x 287 -kg--K-. X 302 K x -s2-. --N- = 279 m/ s ...
- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- = -
Th e -are a A 2 can be com put ed fro m Eq. 12. 30d , not ing tha t A" is constant for this
flow ,
A2 _A 2A " - 1 J +- ?-M 2
A I - A· A I - M 2 [ _k + 1
k.- .1 2](k +2} /i(k -l}
I .
M1
l
[ k-.1 ?](k +l) /2(k -l)
l + - ?-M -j
k +l
2 2
3
2 3
=-1 _. f1 +0 .2(0 .8)2 1 _ _l f1 +0.i(0 .3) 1
0.8 l L2
/
0 .3 l 1.2
_ I.03 8 _ _ .
- 2.0 35 -0.:> 101
He n¢e ,
A = 0.5 l01 A =Q .51 01( 0.0 0 I m 2 ) = 5 .10 x 10 -4 m 2 ,._
. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _A....::
2 1 2.
No te th~ t.A2 <A 1 as exp ect ed.
Le t us v~r ify tha t the se res ults sati sfy the bas ic equ atio ns.
We .fir st ri'eed to obt ain p 1 and V1:
pi 5 N kg- K . 1 . _ . 3
p1 =- =6 .5 xl 0- ?x .. . -x - . - . =6.76 ka/ m
RT1 m- 287 N · m 335 l< · 0
and
N -m .. ka -m
l.4 x2 87 k K. x3 35 Kx +- =I l0m /s
·g- s- -N · ·
Th e iµa ss con se.rv.atiort equ atio n is

p I l/iA 1 =P2 Y2A2 == pVA =1n = con stan t (12 .25 a)
ka m
nz= 6.7 6 ~ x 110- x 0.0 01 rn2 =5 .24 kg x27 9-m x0.000
•.· -. 7
51 m- =0. 744 kg/ s (C hec k!)
m3 s 3
m s
We can not:ch eck the ]Jio me ntu m equ atio n (Eq . 12.25b } bec aus e we do not kno w the foi:ci} Rx pro duc e_
d by tl;ie wa lls of the de vic e
(w~ '.c,e_µ ld use Eq . 12. 25b t.o com put e this if we wishe4). The energy equation is
V2 V}
hoI =hi + -1..
2 = h?- + -,::..
2 = ho, =ho (12 .25 c)
We. '#.i llch eck tbi s by replaci.Iig ent hal py wit h tejn per atu re usin g Eq. 13. 2f;
ti.. h= h2- h1 =o pll T= cp( T2- T1) (12 .25 f)
sot h¢ en~1%Wequation :bec.Qmes
12.6 lsen trop ic Flo w of an Idea l Gas : Are a Var iati on 589
Vsi .rig cp for ak from Tab le A.6,

vi
cpT i + -f 1
kg· K 2
2 2
= l00 4--x3 35 K+ (IJ0 )2 (m) x N •s x -1-=3 42k J/k g
s kg · m N · m
. Vf J (2 78)2 2 N. 2 J
cpT 2+ --:: j'-= l00 4-k
K X3 02 K+ --( ~) x-- s-x --= 34 2k J/k g
- .g· 2 s kg· m N • m
cp'.I'o = 100 4-J_ x 341 K = 342 kJ/k g (Ch eck !)
kg- K
T _h e fina l equ atio n we can che ck is the rela tion betw een pres sure and density
for ail isen tTop ic proc ess (Eq . 12.2 5g),
Pl Pi P
--;z = k =--- ;;=c ons tant (Ch eck !)
Pi P2 P
P• . 650 kPa P2 = 454 kPa = 44 7
4
Pl = ( 6.76 :~y 4
pt 4
(
5.24
kg)L4
m3
kPa
. (kg)l.4
m3
(Ch eck !)
Th e bas ic equ atio ns are satis fied by our solu tii;>n.
lse ntr op ic Flo w in a Co nve rgi ng No zzl e

No w that we hav e our com puti ng equ atio ns (Eq s. J 2.30 ) for ana lyzi ng isen trop ic flow s, we are
read y to
see how we cou ld obta in flow in a nozz le, star ting from rest . We firs t look at the con verg ing noz
zle, and
the n the C -D noz zle. In eith er case , to prod uce a flow we mus t prov ide a pres sure diff eren ce.
For exa m-
ple . as illu stra ted in the con verg ing noz zle sho wn in Fig. I 2.1 la, we can do this by prov idin
g the gas
from a rese rvo ir (or "ple num cham ber" ) at p 0 and To, and usin g a vac uum pum p/va lve com bina
tion to
cre afe a low pres sure , the "ba ck pres sure ," Pb· We are inte rest ed in wha t hap pen s to the gas prop
erti es as
the gas flows thro ugh the noz zle, and also in kno win g how the mas s flow rate incr ease s as we
prog res-
sive ly low er the bac k pres sure .
Let us call the pres sure at the exit plan e Pc- We,. will see that this will ofte n be equ al to the app
lied
bac k pre ssu re. Pb, but not alw ays! The resu lts we obta in as we prog ress ivel y ope n the valv e from
a clos ed
pos itio n are sho wn in Figs . 12.1 lb and 12.1 lc. We con side r eac h of the case s sho wn.
Wh en the valv e is clos ed, ther e is no flow thro ugh the noz zle. The pres sure is p thro ugh out,
0 as
sho wn by con diti on (i) in Fig. 12.1 la.
- -- - - .-· -·· - . -· .. - - ..]!L• . - Valve
- - --- --- --- -- --- ---g:l }Regime I

!!.<.
-----Cui) Po
r- -- --
t},,m,., p•tpo
I
I
I
I
(a) 0 I - - - - - - - - - , ~ : ; ; - - ~- ., kl 00: ---- --'l '--- -- Ph
6 Thro ;it
p'lpo 1.0 Po
• nozz le oper ating at vario us l;>_a ck pres sure s.
Fig . 1 2.11 Con v_e rgin g ·
590 Ch apt er 12 Intr odu ctio n to Com pre ssib le Flo w
If the bac k pres sure , Pb, is now redu ced to slig htly less than po. ther e will be flow thro ugh the noz
zle
with a dec reas e in pres sure in the direction of flow , as show n by con ditio n (ii). Flo w at the exi t pla ne
wil l
be sub son ic with tl1e exit-pla ne pres sure equ al to the bac k pres sure .
Wh at hap pen s as we con tinu e to dec reas e tl1e bac k pressure? As exp ecte d, the flow rate wil l con
-
tinu e to incr ease , and the exit -pla ne pres sure will continue to decr ease , as sho wn by con diti on
(iii ) in
Fig . 12.1 la.
As we pmg ress ivel y low er the bac k pres sure t11e flow rate increases, and hen ce, so do the vel oci
ty
and Ma ch num ber at the ex.it plan e. The que stio n arises: "ls mer e a limi t to me mas s flow rate thro ugh
the
noz zle? " or, to put it ano ther way , "Is mer e an upp er limit on tbe exit Mac h num ber? " The ans wer to
the se
que stio ns is "Ye s!" To see tl1is, reca ll that for isentropic flow Eq. 12.2 9 applies:
dV dA 1
v= - A (l-M 1] ( 12. 29)
Fro m this we lear ned that the only plac e we can hav e son ic con ditio ns (M = 1) is whe re tl1e cha
nge in
area dA is zero . We can not hav e son ic con ditio ns any whe re in the con verg ing sect ion. Log ical ly we
can
see that the max imu m exit Mac h 1111111ber is one. Bec ause the flow started from rest (M = 0), if we
had
M > 1 at the ex.it, we wou ld hav e had to pass through M = I som ewh ere in the con verg ing sec tion , wh
ich
wou ld be a viol atio n of Eq. 12.2 9.
Hen ce, the max imu m flow rate occ urs whe n we hav e sonic conditions at the exi t pla ne, wh
en
Mc = I, and Pc= Pb= p•. the criti cal pres sure . Thi s is show n as condition (iv) in Fig. 12. l la,
and is cal led
a "ch oke d flow ," bey ond whi ch me flow rate cann ot be increased. From Eq. 12.3 0a with M = l (or
fro m
Eq. 12.2 1a),
• (k+
I
2 )k/( k-1 )
(12 .31 )
: : chok ed ::;, :0 = l
For air, k = 1.4, so Pc/Po]c hokc tl = 0.52 8. For exam ple, if we wish Lo hav e sonic flow at the exi t of a
noz zle
from a plen um cha mbe r that is at atm osph eric pressure, we would need to mai ntai n a bac k pre ssu
re of
abo ut 7. 76 psia , or abo ut 6.94 psig vacu um. Thi s doe s not soun d difficult for a vac uum pum p to gen
era te,
but actu ally take s a lot of pow er to mai ntai n beca use we will hav e a large mas s flow rate thro ugh
the
pum p. For the max imu m, or cho ked , mas s flow rate we hav e
1nchok<d = p • V" A•
Usi ng the idea l gas equ atio n of stat e, Eq. 12.2 5e, and the stagnation to critical pres sure and tem per
atu re
rati os, Eqs . 12.3 0a and 12.3 0b resp ecti vely , with M= I (orE qs. 12.21a and 12.2 1b, resp ecti vely
), wit h
A· =A c, it can be sho wn that this bec ome s
fT "(
=AePO vRTo--
2 )(k+ l)/2( k-1)
(12 .:n, ;i.)
Iii chok ed . k+I
Not e that for a give n gas (k and R), the max imu m flow rate i~ the converging noz zle dep end s 011/ y
on the
· e of the ex.it area (Ac) and the con ditio ns in the reservoir (po, To)-
siz For air, for con ven ienc
e we writ e an " eng·mee nng
· " fi·o rm o f Eq. I?-·32a,
. A.po
mcho kcd =.0.04 Po (12 .32 b)
·m mcho
W.l
· kcd ·1n kg/s• A • in m 2 ' po in Pa, and To in K, and
. . 76 6 A.po
m .chokcd = · ,/To (12 .32 c)
·th · ·,n lbm /s A in ft2

Po in •
ps1a, d T, . OR
WI 111chokc<I • e •
an om .
12.6 lsen trop ic Flo w of an Idea l Gas : Are a Var iati on 591
Po
., = cons tant
p"
r ~N oz zle exit plan e
7 ',, Pb< p•
s;"consta~
~ -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -s
Fig . 12. 12 Sche mati c Ts diag ram for choked flow throu gh a conv ergin g nozz le.
Sup pos e we now insi st on low erin g the bac k pres sure belo w lhis "be nch mar k" leve l of p•. Our nex
t
que stio n is "W hat will hap pen to the flow in lhe noz zle? " 1l1e answ er is ..Nol hing !" The flow
rem ains
cho ked : The mas s flow rate doe s not incr ease , as sho wn in Fig. 12.1 lb, and lhe pres sure dist ribu
tion in
the noz zle rem ains unc han ged, wit hp, =p• >pb , as sho wn in con ditio n (v) in Figs . 12.l la and
12.l lc.
Aft er exit ing , the flow adju sts dow n to the app lied bac k pres sure , but doe s so in a non isen trop
ic, lhre e-
dim ens ion al man ner in a seri es of exp ansi on wav es and shoc ks, and for this part of the flow
our one -
dim ens ion al, isen u-op ic flow con cept s no long er app ly. We will retu rn to lhis disc ussi on in Sec tion
12.8 .
Thi s idea of cho ked flow seem s a bit stra nge , but can be exp lain ed in at leas t two way s. Firs t,
we
hav e alre ady disc usse d that lo incr ease the mas s flow rate bey ond cho ked wou ld requ ire /\If~> 1,
whi ch is
not pos sibl e. Sec ond , onc e the flow reac hes son ic con ditio ns, it bec ome s "de af" to dow nstr eam
con di-
tion s: Any cha nge (i.e. , a redu ctio n) m the app lied bac k pres sure prop aga tes in the flui d at the
spe ed of
sou nd in all dire ctio ns, so it gets "wa shed " dow nstr eam by the flui d whi ch is mov ing at the
spe ed of
sou nd at the noz zle exit .
Ao w thro ugh a con verg ing noz zle may be divi ded into two regi mes :
In Reg ime I, I '?:.Pb/po '?;.p· /po. Flow to the thro at is isen trop ic and p, = Pb·
2 In Reg ime IL Pb/Po Pb (enu-opy incr ease s bec ause this is adia bati
c but
irre vers ible ).
Alt hou gh isen trop ic flow is an idea liza tion , it ofte n is a very goo d app roxi mat ion for the ac
~
beh avi or of noz zles . Sinc e a noz zle is a dev ice tJ1at acce lera tes a flow , the inte rnal pres sure
grad ient
is fav ora ble. Thi s tend s co keep the wall bou nda ry laye rs thin and co min imiz e the effe cts of
frict ion.
The flow pro cess es corr espo ndin g to Reg ime II are sho wn on a Ts diag ram in Fig. 12.1 2. Tw o
prob lem s
inv olv ing con verg ing noz zles are solv ed in Exa mpl es 12.8 and 12.9 .
Ex am ple 12 .8 ISl; NT RO Plt FLOW IN A CONVERGING NO ZZL E
A con ver gin g noz zle, witll a thro at area.of0 .001 m2 '. is o~r ated with air at a bac k pres sure of5
9J k}>a (abs ); Thc ;noz zle) s f~
from a !urg e plen um cha mbe r whe re tlle abs? lute stag nati on pres sure and tem pera ture are 1.0
MPii. and 60°e. The exit Mi!:ch
nw rtbe r and mas s flow rate ll.re to be dete mun ed.
Given:· Ai,r flow thro ugh 11. con verg ing noz zle at the c.o ndit ions sho wn:
Flow·is isE;ntrop~c.
p 6,=e..!;i91 kPa (abs)
Fin d; (a) M~-
(b) rii. . -- --~- - ·A ...~ .
59 2 C ha pt er 12 In tr od uc ti on to C om pr es si bl e Fl ow
st st ep is to ch ec k fo r ch ok in g. Th e pr es su re ra tio is
So lu ti on : T he fir T
Pb 5. 9l x1 05
Po = l.O X l0 6 = 0. 59 1 > 0. 52 8
so th.e flo w is no r ch ok ed . Th us Pb = Pc , an d th e flo w is ise nt ro pi ·c k h ·d · th T. d.1agram.

, as s etc . e on e s
----r- s
. . d fr om th e pr es su re ra tio ,
Sm ee po = co ns ta nt , M c m ay be fo un
Po [ k- l ]. k/(k-1)
~
Pc
= I+ -- M 2
2 c
So lv in g fo r M c, si rjc e Pc = Pb, w e ob ta in
k- 1 M2 =
· ---
l+- ? C
G
...£
b
)(.1:-1)/k
-
an d
4 }1/2== . . M c
)( k- 1) /k -1 ]_ 2_ }1 /2 = {[ (l ·
.0 X ·l0 6 )0 2 8 6 -1 ]-
M ., = {[ ({ )_ _o 1. 4- 1 0 . 9 0 - - - - - - -----
\pt, k- 1 . 5 .91 X 1()5
The m as s fl ow ra te is
to nn d Pc an d cc . Siric;:e T o= co ns ta nt ,
W e ne ed T
To k- 1 .,
~ = I + -.- M -c
Tc 2
or
To (2 73 + 60 )K
Tc = I + _:
k l = . 2(-·0.9).,.- = 28 7 K
:__ M 2 1 + 0.
2 C
N -m . kg • m] 1 ==340m/s
1 2
C c~ ✓kR Tc = [ l. 4x 28 7 kg •K x2 87 K x N _ 82
an d
kg . K l 3
Pc - s N
p" = RT., = .:>.91 X IO m 2 X 28 7 N . m X 28 7 K = 7 .18 kg /m
Fi na lly ,
kg m . . .,
m =p ,,M ,,c .,A ., =7 .1 8 x0 .9 x 3 4 0 - x0 .0 00 1 m-
3
m s
ril
·
..- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
= 2. 20 kg /s
A C O N VE R G IN G N O ZZ LE
E xa m p le 12. 9 CHOKE D FL O W IN
le ar ea is 0 . Ol 3 ft \ th e lo ca l pr es su re , te nh
ro ug h a co nv er gi ng no zz le . A t a se ct i? n w he re the nozz
A ir flo w s is en tra pi ca lly th y. Th e ba ck pres su re is 30 ps ia . Th e Mac ;h nu m be r at th e
be r ar e 60 ps ia , 40 °F , an d 0. 52 , re sp e~ uv el
:p e ~ . an(! M ac h nu m ar e to be de te m un ~d .
.tfu:oat, th e m as s flo w rate, an d th e th ro at ar ea
12.6 lsentro pic Flow o f an Ideal Gas: Area Variat ion 593
Given :
Air flow through a converg ing nozzle at the conditio ns shown:
M1 =0.52
T1 =40°F Po
Pl =60ps ia --- ··+- ---
A1 = 0.013 ft2 CD 0
Find: (a) M,. {b) 111. (c) A,.
Sbluti on:
First we check for choking , to determine if flow is isentrop ic down to Pb· To check, we evaluat e the stagnap on conditi ons.
k- 1 '] k/(k- I) · • 2 3.5 •

Po=p1 [ I+ Mj ::;:60psia [l+0.2( 0.5'.?) ] =72.0p sia
2
The back pressur e t:itio is.
3
= 72.,0
Pb 0.0 = 0.417 < 0.528
Po .. .
so the flow is choked ! For choked flow,
M,
M,= 1.0 ...
· - - - ~- - - - - - - - - - - - -
The Ts diagra m is
The mass flow rate may be foifnd from conditi ons at section (j), using p ViA 1.
I
V, =M1c1 =M1 ✓k.RT1
ft • !bf _ . _ 112
_ ? [. . _ !bin slug• ft] . T
~
0
-0.5_ l.4x::,3 .3 b . 0. x(460+ 40) R x 3 2 2 - x-~ f
1 m- R slug lb · s-
V. =570f t/s
Pt lbf lbm •0 R. l in. 2 .
P1 = RT1 =60in. 2 x 53.3 n-Ibf x 500oRX 144 fr = 0.3241 bm/ft3
. ft -~-
,iz = p 1 V.A 1 = 0324f t3 x 570 x 0.013 fr== 2.40 lbm/s ....- -- - - - - - - -m.
lbm
5 -
s
:fr:om-Eg. l2.i9,
AI l
-· - -
A• - Mi [
l
k+I
-
k
+ . ; Mf
j ] (k+ 1)/7(1.--1)
=-
I
0.52
[I .. .
1.2
.
+ 0.2(Q. 52f] J.oo
.
=I.303 ·
2
For choked fiow, A, =A•. Thus,
• 0 .0i3 ft2 A,1
A, =A ::;: I.303 = i.303
A,=9.9 8X I0- 3 fL2 <--·- - - - - - - - --A_,
lsent ropic Flow in a Conv ergin g-Div ergin g Nozzl e

. a onsi'de red isentrop ic flow in a converg ing nozzle, we tum now to isentrop ic flow in a
Havm c 0 • th · fl
•
conver gm 00 - divergi no (C-D) nozzle. As m e previou d s case, ow through the conver gino-di vergino
,, . o .,
O f F 0O 12 13 is induced by a vacuum pump ownstre am. and 1s control led by the valve shown·
passag e
u1_Jstream s agt ' n· au·o· n conditi ons are constant. Pressur e in the exit plane of the nozzle is .p • th~ nozzl~
~, -
594 Cha pter 12 Intr odu ctio n to Com pres sibl e Flow
disc harg es to back pres sure Pb- As for the conv ergin g nozzle, we wish to see, amo ng othe r thin gs. how
the flow rate varie s with the drivi ng force, the applied pressure diffe renc e <Po- Pb)- Con side r the effe ct
of grad ually redu cing the back press ure. The results are illustrated graphically in Fig. 12. 13. Let us con -
side r each of the case s show n.
With the valv e initia lly close d, there is no flow tluough the nozzle; the pres sure is cons tant at po .
Ope ning the valv e sligh tly (pb sligh tly less tlmn Po) produces pressure distr ibuti on curv e (i). If the flow
rate is low e~ou gh, the flow will be subs onic and essentially inco mpre ssibl e at all poin ts on this curv e.
Under thes e cond ition s, the C-D nozz le will beha ve as a venturi, with flow acce lerat ing in the con verg ing
port ion until a poin t of max imum velo city and minimum pressure is reach ed at the thro at, then dec el-
erati ng in the dive rgin g poni on to the nozz le exit. This beha vior is desc ribed accu ratel y by the Ber nou lli
equa tion , Eq. 6.8.
As the valv e is open ed farth er and the flow rate is incre ased , a more shar ply defi ned pre ssu re
min imu m occu rs, as show n by curv e (ii). Although com pressibility effec ts beco me imp orta nt, the
flow is still subs onic ever ywh ere, and flow decelerates in the diverging secti on. Fina lly, as the valv e
is open ed farth er, curv e (iii) resul ts. At the section of mini mum area the flow final ly reac hes M = 1,
and the nozz le is chok ed-t l1e flow rate is the max imum poss ible for tl1e give n nozz le and stag nati on
cond ition s.
All flow s with pres sure distr ibuti ons (i), (ii), and (iii) are isentropic; as we prog ress from (i) to (ii)
to (iii) we are gene ratin g incre asing mass flow rates. Finally, when curv e (iii) is reac hed, criti cal con-
ditio ns are pres ent at tl1e throa t. For this flow rate, the flow is chok ed, and
111 =p• v· A.
whe re A =A, , just as it was for tl1e conv ergin g nozzle, and for this max imum poss ible flow rate
0
Eq. 12.3 2a appl ies (wit h Ac repla ced with the throa t area A,),
~ ( 2 )(k+ l)/~( k- 1)
/1lchokc:d = A,p9 VRTo k + l . (12 .33a )
Note that for a give n gas (k and R}, tl1e max imum flow rate in the c~o nozz le depe nds only on the size of
the thro at area (A,) and the cond ition s in the reservoir <Po, To)-
As with the conv ergin g nozz le, for air we write an "eng ineer ing" form of Eq. 12.3 3a,
·· ·
nlchok ed = · -. Jrri.
0 04A ,po
(12. 33b }
with mcho kcd in kg/s . A, in m 2 , Po in Pa, and To in K, and
1 .0
ii
M,< l
plpo iii
p"
Po
---.- -- ..,...;..i1_
• - M~ > l
I'
Throat Exit plane JC
Fig. 12 _1 Pressure distributions for isencroplc flow in a converging-diverging ri~izle.

3
12.6 Jsentro pic Flow of an Ideal Gas: Area Variat ion 595
. · 76 6 A,po (12.33c )
mchokcd = · · vTo
~
wi_th riichokcd in lbm/s, A, in fL2 , Po in psia, and To in "R. We again have Eqs. I 2.32b and I 2.32c. with the
ex.it area A,, now replace d by Lhe throat area A,.
Any atte?1p t to increas e the flow rate by further lowerin g the back pressur e will fail, for the two
~¥on s we discuss ed earlier: once we attain sonic conditio ns, downst ream change s can no longer be
t;ra,i:ism itted. upstrea m; and we cannot exceed sonic conditi ons at the throat, becaus e this would
requir e passing through the sonic state somew here in the converg ing section , which is not possibl e
in isentro pic flow.
WiU1 sonic conditi ons at the throat, ,ve conside r what can happen to the flow in the divergi ng sec-
tion. We have previou sly discuss ed (see Fig. 12.8) that a divergi ng section will deceler ate a subson ic
flow (M < I) but will acceler ate a superso nic fiow (M > I )-very differen t behavio rs! The questio n
arises: "Does a sonic flow behave as a subsoni c or as a superso nic flow as it enters a divergi ng section ?"
The answe r to this questio n is that it can behave like either one, depend ing on the downst ream
pressu re! We have already seen subsoni c flow behavio r [curve (iii)]: the applied back pressur e leads
to a gradua l downst ream pressur e increase, deceler ating the flow. We now conside r acceler ating the
cboke d flow.
To acceler ate Jlow in the divergin g section requires a pressur e decreas e. This conditi on is illustra ted
by curve (iv) in Fig. l 2. 13. The flow will accelera te isentrop ically in the nozzle provide d the exit pres~
sure is set at p;,,. Thus, we see I.hat with a throat Mach number of unity, there are two possibl e isentrop ic
Jiow conditi ons in the converg ing-div erging nozzle. This is consiste_n t with the results of Fig. 12. l 0,
where we found two Mach number s for each .4./A' in isentrop ic flow.
Lower ing the back pressur e below conditio n (iv}, say to conditi on (v), has no effect on flow in the
nozzle . The flow is isentrop ic from the plenum chambe r to the nozzle.exit [as in conditi op (iv}] aµd tl;ien
it ur1derg oes a three-d imensio nal irrevers ible expansi on LO the lower ba9k pressur e. A nozzle operati ng
under Ulese conditi ons is said to be 1111derexpa11ded, since additio nal expans ion talces place outside the
nozzle .
A conver ging-di verging. nozzle general ly is intende d to produc e superso nic flow at the exit plane.
If the back pressur e is set at p;.,, flow will be isentrop ic through the nozzle, and superso nic at the
nozzle exit. Nozzle s operati ng atpb =p;,, [corresp onding to curve (iv) in Fig. 12.13] l).re said to op·e rate
at design conditi ons.
Flow leavjng a C-D nozzle is superso nic when the back pressur e is at or below nozzle design pres-
sure. The·ex it Mach number is fixed 9nce the area ratio, A,/A ·, is specifie d. All other exit plane proper-
ties are unique ly relate(:! to stagnat ion propert ies by the fixed exit plane Mach number . The assump tiqn of
isenrro pic flow for a real pozzle at design conditio ns is a reasona ble one. Howev er, .the one-dim ensiona l
flow model is inadequ ate for the design of relative ly short nozzles .
Rocket ~prope lled vehicle s use C-D nozzles to acceler ate the exhaus t gases to the maxi.mum possibl e
speed to produc e high thrust. A propuls ion nozzle is subject to varying ambien t conditi ons during flight
throug h me aanosp here; so it is impossi ble to attain the maxim um theoret ical thrust over the comple te
operat ing J11I1ge. B~caus e only ~-single_su~ersoriic Mach numbe r _can ?e _obtained for each .~-i:atio,
noizle s-for develo ping superso nic flow m wmd tunnels often are built with 1i:iterchangeable test sectJon s,
or with variabl e geomet ry.
You probab ly have noticed that nothing has been said aboµt me operatj. on of conver ging-
.di vergin g nozzle s with back pressur e~~ the.rang e Piii > P_b > Piu• For such cases the flow cannot expand
isenrro picaJly to Pb· Under t11ese cond1uons a shock (~h1~h may be treated as an irrevers ible discont i-
··cy involv ing entropy increas e) occurs somewh ere within me flow. Follow ing a discuss ion of normal_
nu1 · d'
shock s in Section 12.7, we shall comple te .... ·
u,e 1Scuss1on of conver ging-di verging nozzle flows in
S~ctio n 12.8. .
Nozzle s operati ng with p,;; >Pb> p;,, are s~d to be over~p anded becaus e the pressµr e at some;·_p.qinc
in the ~ozzle is less than the back pr~ssure. O~v10usly, ~ -ove~x pan~ed nozzle coul9 be made .t o·oper:ate
.. . design conditi on by removi ng a portion of the d1vergm g sect1on. ln Examp le 12.10, we conside r
at a new . . . . E · 1 I? 11 . . ..
.1sentro
. .
p1c flow in a· c~D
· nozzle and m xarnp e - · , we conside r choked flow 10 a C-D nozzle
·
Exa mp le 12. 10 ISE NTR QPI C FLO W IN A CON VER GIN G-D IVER GIN G NOZZLE
Air- flow s is~_n trop icall y in a conv ergin g-di verg ing nozz le, with exit area of 0.001 m2 • The nozz le is fed from a larg
e plen um
;wb e~ the sUJ.gna:lion cond ij:ion s are 350 K and I.(_) MPa (abs), The exit p~s ure .is Q54 k.f'a (abs) and the Mac h
num ber at
th¢ thro! !.l is Oii8 . ~ui q prop ertie s and area at the nozz le throa t and the exit Mac h m.1mber are to be dete
nnin e(L
Give n: Iseilt;:topic flow of air in C--0 nozz le as show n:

To.:; :350 .K
po= l.OM Pa (ab~)
f)b = 9S4 kPa (abs )
M, =Q. 68 A~ = .0,00 1 m2
Find : (a) Prop ertie s and ai:¢a at nozz le throa t.

(b) Me.
Solu tion : SUJ.gnation temp eratu re is coI:istan,t for isen trop lt flow. Thus , since
To . k-1 ,,
-'-= ""= l+-- M-
T 2 ·
3,50 K -J?O K+ --- --- --- --- --- --r ,_ ,

l + 0,2( 0.68 )2 - -
Also , sinc e p 0 is cons tant- for is~n tropi c flow , then
Pt =po ( .T_. ')k/( k-1) ° =po(. k~ I . "] k/(k- 1)
To I +-.- Mi
. 2 •·· . -
r _
- 3.S
.
P' = 1.0 x 1.06 Fl>. l ,,_1 · =73 4 kPa (abs) .....-~ -- -- -- -- -- -P _,
. . l1 + 0.2( 0.68 t
so
= p, = 7 34 X 105 -N
RT, kg·_K X --,---
. _l K_·'-- • 9 k-o/ · - --
3 ... ~ ---- - - --'--- -- -p~·-'
Pl · m2 X .. - . .
287 N · ni 320 - 7-
.9 0 m .
Vi= M ,c, = M I y,u:,

·'kifi
,_~':( "i p V
. N-m .. . kg·m .,.
V.= 0.68 14i d87 -·-- -·-·. x3 20 Kx ~] .. .
= ·m
244 1 s- -- ~_ ....,...._ _ ___ .....;._~ - -
, . [ kg · K l'if •S
FremF.t_t; }23Q d ..y.e can ob.w.n a valu e of A,/A·
k-1 ] (k+l) /2(k- l)
Ac= =~ _
A- · M,
[l + z_
k+
Mt
1 .
= __!_
0.68.
[l . ..· . .
+0.2 (0._68)2]:3,oo = Lil
1.2
. 2 .
blit at.th is poin t A· is not Im.own. _ . . .. _ . . . . . ... _ . .·.. .
·· ·Sint.¢ M, < l , .f iow ad.h e ~,µt mµs t be sµb,sonic. Therefore, .Pc =.pb . Stagnanop. propertie$ .are cqns.tant,
_. . .
. so
.. . . . - . . ] k/(k- ·1}
po= [·]+k-lM
- --. 2 ·
p-,, - 2 c.
,2. 6 lse ntr op ic Flo w of an Ide al Ga s: Ar ea Va ria tio n 59 7
$o lvi ng . for Mc giv es
M~ = { [ ~ : ) (k- l)/ k- 1] k= l }1/2={ [(9\04:\o;s)0.286-l](s)}li2=0.2 6 -- -- -- -- -- -- -M _ e

Th e Ts dia gra m for this flo w is
L- --- - - - - .r
Sin ce· A., and Me are kno wn , we can cori1pute A* · Fro m Eq . 12.30d
A~ == _1_ l +
A• M~ [
k- 1
k+ 1
-,,-M;]
(k+ l:)/2(k- l)
. 0.2 6
= _l_[l
+ Q.2(0.26)2] J.09 2 _317
1.2
=
2 .
t"h us,
Ac = . Ae .. == O,OOI ?12 4.32X 10- 4 m2

2 a;ll 7 . 2.317
.1,t ;= l . llO tl• == (l. lJ0 )(4 .32 x l0- 4 ~ 2

)
~.4 :ti ox 1.0- 4 -~ -~~ - - ~ -- -- ~- -A ~,

IJ;l~ ""
.
·& am pl e 12 .l l JSENTRQPJC fLO W IN A CO NV ~R GI NG -D IVE RG IN G NO ZZ

LE : CH OK ED FL OW
Tn:eii<;>µie .o f Ex-amp}~ 12. 10 has a design bac.k p~ sw :e of 87 .5 kP a (abs) bu t is op e~
ted at a bai :k pre ssu re of 50, 0 kP a_(ab s).
Assum~: flow wichin ihe nc;,zzle is is.en.tropic. Dete!"lcine the exi t Ma ch nur nbe r and ma
ss -flo w rate .
Gi ve n: Ai r flo w thr oug h C-D noz zle as shown:

To =3 .50 K
p0 _=, 1.0 M.Pa (ab$)
--- : : :_-_ · - ~ b- -
p .;(d esi gn )=8 7.5 kPi!. (ab s)
p,; =50:b kPa (ab s) 0 0
Ae =0 .0011112
A, =A .S x 10 -4 m2 (E.tarnple•12~10)
Fin d: (a) M~ -
(b) rh.
598 Chapt er 12 Introd uction to Compr essible Flow
Soluti on: The operati ng back pressur e is below the design pressur e. Consequently, the nozzle is undere xpande d, and the Ts
d i a ~ and .p~sur e distribu tion ,vill be as shown:
plpo
~--- ---- s
Flow within the nozzle will be isencro pic, but the irrevers ible expansi on from p, to Pb will cause an entrop y
increas e; p,, =Pe(design ) = 87 .5 kPa (~bs).
· Since stag]l·~tioi;i proper ties are constan t for isentro pic flow, the eidtMa di number can be computec,I frc;>m the pressu re
ratio. Thus
k- 1 .,]k/(k-1)
Po _= 1 + --- M~
.p, [
. ? •
-
.lvl. ~-
{
' r(p_r,)•(k-,-1--)/1.: - l] ~}l/" J. = { [( LOx l06 )02s6 -l] ~}1/2
- L\p., k-1 8.75 x 104 0.4
M,
=2.g4.,_--- - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - -
a.eqau se -the flow is <.li•ki;~ we can use Eq. 12.33b for the mass flow rate,
. · · A,po
mchokcd = 0.04 PF · (12.33b )
vTo
(with mch~kcd in kg/s, A, in ni2 , po in Pa, and To in K); so

4 6
mchoked ::::::0.04 x4.8 x 10- X 1 x 10 /~
rii
1h = nichoked = 1.04 kg/s~
-- - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- -
12. 7 Norm al Shocl<s

We mentio ned normal shocks in the previou s section in the context of flow through a nozzle . In practi ce,
these irrevers ible discont inuities can occur in any superso nic flow field, in either interna l flow or extern al
flow. Knowl edge of propert y change s across shocks and of shock behavio r is import ant in under standi ng
tlle design of superso nic diffusers, e.g., for inlets on high performance aircraft, and supers onic wind
tunnels. Accord ingly, the purpose of this section is to analyze the normal shock proces s.
Befo~ applyin g the basic equatio ns to normal shocks, it is important lo form a clear physic al pictur e
of the shock itself. Althou gh it is physica lly impossible to have discontinuities in fluid proper ties, the
oo~al shock _is nearly discont inuous. The thickness of a shock is about 0.2 µm( 10-5 in.), or rough ly 4
times the mean free path of the gas molecu les [5]. Large change s in pressur e, temper ature, and other
propert ies occur across this small distanc e. Fluid particle decelerations through the shock reach tens
12.7 Norm al Shoc ks 599
~ r,
I
I
-,,---cv ___,
I
I Tz
1
Flow - ,, 1 : : /12
V1 I I Vz
•
_F_1_g:
. .
12, 14
~ <D
Contro l volum e ·u sed fQr analrsl s of norma l s·hoc:~.
@ I
of milli ons ofgs! Thes e·cons iderat ions justif y a-eating the norma l shock -as an .abrup t disco ntinu ity; we
are ·int~r ested in -chan ges o'ccµn ing acros s the shock rather than in the detail s of its souct ure. ·
Cons ider the short conn:ol volµme surrou nding a .norm al sllock stand ing in· a passa ge of ai:bitrary
sJlap esho wn in Fig, 12.i4.Asfo r-is~n tropic flow with area variat ion (Se¢ti pn 12.6), .o ur starti ng point in
an_~ yzing ~s norm al shock is the set of basic equa_tions (Eqs. 12.24 ), descr ibing one-d imens ional
moti on that may be affect ed·by severa l ·pheno mena : an;a chang e, :friction. and heat transf er. These-are
Pt V1A.1 =p2V2A2 =pVA =ih= cons ~t (12.2 4a)
R., +P1A 1 ,"2A2;,,,m.V2-1h V1 (12.2 4b)
5Q Vf Vl
-+h i +-= h2 +-=-
dm 2 2
1h(s1~s1) ?_fc sf (i)dA (12.2 4d)
p=pR T (12.2 4e)

6.h=h 2·~h, =cp6 .T=cp (T2-1 '1J" (12:2 4f)
=Cp lnT2.
A
- - RIn
uS=S :z-St P2- (l2.2~g)
Tt Pt
we ·recal l that Equa tion !2.24a is contimiity, ·Eq. 1'.f24 b is- a 1ffomeiir111iz equat ion, Eq: 1224 c .is an
ener gy equat ion, ~q. Ii.24 d is the secon d law of then;, odyna mics, arid Eqs. 12·. 24c, 12:24 f•. ancl
]2.24 g are usefu l prope rty relatio ns for ait id.ea! -gas with t onsta nt speci fic beats .
Bas k Equ atio ns fot·a Nofm al S~oc k

We can now simpl ify Eqs. 12.24 for flow of an ideal gas with const ant specif ic heats tbro1,1gb a norm al
shoc k. Toe most impor t.int simpl ifying featur e is that the width of the contr ol volum e is infini tesim al (in
re~ic y abou t 0.2p m as we indica ted), s6A1 ::=:::A2::::::A. the force dµe to the walls Rx~O becau se the contr ol
volu me wan surfa ce area is infini t~ima l, and the l;!eat excha nge wit)l-t he walls 8Q/dm :>:O, for the saml!
reaso n. Henc e. for this flow our equat ions becom e
,h
Pl v, =p,- V2 = ~A = const ant
.. ( 12.34:a)
P1A-p2A=1i1V2-111V1
or. usin~ Eq. 12.34 a,

Pl +p1Y f=p2+ P2V: I (12.3 4b)
v2 v2
ho1 =h1 +-f= li2+ ; =ho, (12.3 4c)
s2 >s1 (12.3 4d)
p=pR T
(12.3 4e)
Ah = h~- h1 =cp6 .T=c r(T2 -T1 ) (12.34f)
T2 .
6.s=s 2 ~ s, ~<;p ln T -R ln ~
. I Pl .OZ'-3.4g)
Equ ation s 12.3 4 can be used to analy ze flow throu gh a normal shoc k. For exam ple, if we kno w con di-
tion s befo re the shoc k, at secti on CD (i.e., p 1, p , T 1 , s 1 , h1, and V1), we can use thes e equa tion s to find
1
conc litio ns after the shoc k, at secti on (2;). We have six equa tions (not inclu ding the con stra int of
Eq. 12.3 4d) and six unkn own s (p2 , p 2 • T2 , s 2 , '1 2 , and V2 ). Henc e, for give n upst ream cond ition s ther e
is a sing le uniq ue downstrean1 state. To anal yze a shock, we need to solve this set of non line ar cou pled
alge brai c equa tions .
We can certa inly use thes e equa tions for analyzing normal shoc ks, but we will usua lly find it mor e
usef ul to deve lop nom1al shoc k func tions base d on M 1, the upstream Mac h num ber. Befo re doin g th.is , let
us cons ider the set of equa tions . We have state d in this chap ter that chan ges in a one- dim ensi onal flow
can be caus ed by area varia tion, friction, or heat transfer, but in deriv ing Eqs. 12.3 4 we have elim inat ed
all three caus es! In this case , then , wha t is caus ing the flow to chan ge? Perh aps there are no cha nge s
thro ugh a nonTial shoc k! Inde ed, if we exam ine each of these equa tions we see that each one is
sati sfie d-ha s a poss ible "sol utio n"-i f all properties at location (2) are equa l to the ·corr espo nclin g pro p-
erti~ s at loca tion (D (e.g. , P2 =pi , T2 =Ti ) except for Eq. I 2.34 d, whic h expr esse s the seco nd law of
therm odyn amic s. Natu re is tellin g us that in the absence of area chan ge, friction, and heat tran sfer , flow
prop ertie s will not chan ge exce pt in a very abrupt, irreversible manner, for whic h the entr opy incr ease s.
In fact, all prop ertie s exce pt To chan ge throu gh the shoe!.<.. We mus t find a sQlu tion in whi ch all of
Eqs. 12.3 4 are satis fied.
Beca use they are a set of nonl inea r coup led equa tions , it is difficult to use Eqs. 12.3 4 to see exa ctly
wha t happ ens thro ugh a norm al shoc k. We will postp one formal proo f of the resu lts we are abo ut
to pres ent until a subs eque nt subs ectio n, wher e we recast the equa tions in term s of the inco min g
Mac h num ber. This reca sting is rathe r mathematical, so we present results of the anal ysis here for clar ity.
It turn s out that a nom ml shoc k can occu r only when. the inco ming flow is supe rson ic. Flu id
flow s will gene rally grad ually adju st to dow nstre am cond ition s (e,g., an obst acle in the flow ) as the
pres sure field redir ects the flow (e.g., arou nd. the object). How ever , if the flow is mov fog at suc h a
spee d that the pres sure field cann ot prop agat e upstr eam (when the flow speec!, V, is grea ter than the
loca l spee d of soun d, c, or in othe r word s M >· I), then the fluid has to "vio lentl y" adju st to the
dow nstre am cond ition s. The shoc k that a supe rson ic flow may enco unte r is like a ham mer blow
that each fluid parti cle expe rienc es; the press ure sudd enly increases throu gh the shoc k, so that , at the
insta nt a parti cle is pass ing throµ gh t,he shoc k, there is a very large negative pre:,sure ~di ent . Thi s pres -
sure ~di ent call s~ a dram atic redu ctjon in spee d, V, and henc e a rapid rise in temp era,t ure. T, as kine tic
ener gy is conv erte.c.! to inter nal therm al ener gy.
We may won der: wpa t happ ens to the dens ity becaus~.both the temp eratu re and pfel1sure rise thro t.1gh
the shoc k, lead ing to oppo sing chan ges in dens ity, it turns om that the dens ity, p, incr ease s thro ugh the
shoc k. Beca use the shoc k is adia batic but high ly irreversible, ~lltropy, ~. incre ases th.co ugh the sho ck.
Fina lly, we see tlmt as spee d, V. dec;reases and the spee d of soun d, c, increases (bec;ause tem pera ture , T.
Flo w.-
\VII
11'\
I
I
I
I'
10
I?'\ .
I
I
I
Pl
L- -- -- - - --, -;~ --- --- s

Fig. 12 ,1~ schem atlr; of nonn al,-sh_~ k p_roces.s on th~Ts pl;me.
12.7 Norma l Shocks 601
Table 12.1
Summ ary of Proper ty Change s Across a Norma l Shock
Propert y
Effect Obtaine d from:
$uigmu ion tempera ture Energy equation
Entrop y · To= Constan t
sit Second law
!:>tngnntion pressure
poJJ. Ts diagram
Temper ature
Tit Ts diagram
Velocit y Energy equation , and effect on T
Density VJJ.
p-fr Continu ity equation , and effect on V
Pressure. Momen tum equatiqn,..and effect on V
pit
· Mach number MJj. M= V/c. and effeclS on V and T
increas es) through the nonnal shock. the Mach number , M , decreas es; in fact, we will see later that it
always becom es subson ic. These res~lts are shown graphic ally in Fig. 12.15 and in tabular fc;>rm in
Table 12.1.
f'Jprm,<1(-S ho.ck Fl.ow. Funct ions. for One-D imens ional Flow
of an Ideal Gas · · ·· · ·
The basic equatio ns, Eqs. 12.34, can:be used to analyze fiows that experie nce a normal shock. Howev er,
it is often mc;>re conven\eri~ to use Mach numbei:-7based equatio ns, in this case based on the incomi ng
'M ach m.1mbe r,. M1. This involv¢s three steps: Fkst, we obt~in propert y ratios (e.g., Ti/Ti and P2/p 1)
.in ~erms of Mt and M2, then·we develop a relation betwee n M 1 and M2 , llJld finally, we use this relation
to·obta iil express ions for propert y ratios in tenns of upstreaq1 Mach number , M 1 •
The temper ature ratio can be express ed as
T2 T2 To,To,
T1 To:,.To, Ti
Since stagnat ion tempera ture is constan t across tile shock, we have
k-1
I+ -·--- M~
2
(12.35)
.-~ -.:~~-=~.f);
A velocit y ratio may be obtaine d by using
-:~~~
[::;::]'"
or
~;- ::
A :@tio of densiti es may be obtaine d frol)l lhe GontimHty equatio n
(12.34a )
so ·that
k-·IM;
1+-- ~] 1/2
P2 V1 ~ -M I ? -
Pi = V2 - M2 [ I + k- l M2 (12.36)
. .· 2 I,
602 Ch;ipt er 12 Introd uction to Compr essible Flow
Finally . we have the momen tum equatio n,
Pi +Pi vf =pz +p2Vi (12.34 b)

Substir uting p =p / RT, and factoring out pressures, gives
P• l
v2]
[+ = +[ v2]
R~1 P2 l R:2
Since
y2 y2 ,
- =k-
- -=kM -
RT kRT --
then
Pl [I +kMn =p2 (l +kMi]

Finally ,
P2 1 +kMi
Pl= l+kMi
(12.37 )
To solve for M2 in -terms of M 1, we must obtain another express ion for one of the proper ty ratios
given by Eqs. 12.35 through 12.37. -
From ti.le ideal gas equatio n of stale, the tempera ture ratio may be written as
T2 . P2/ P2R P2P1

Ti= P1/P1R = P1P2
Substit uting from Eqs. 12.36 and 1'.?,.37 yields
+~MJ]
112
T2 = [l +kM!] M2 [' (12. 38)

T1 l +kM2 Mi l + k-1 M2
2 2_
Equati ons 12.35 and 12.38 are two equatio ns for T2/T1. We can combin e them and solve for M 2 in terms
of M 1 • Combi ning and canceli ilg giveli
Squa,in g, we obtain
k-1 .,
l+2 M, _Mf [1 +2kMf +k M1] 2
k -=- 1M2 - Mr 1 + 2kM? +k2 M~

1 +-2- -- 2
which may be solved explici tly for Mi--1\ vo solution s are obtaine9:
Mi :.a M~ (12.39 a)
and
., 2
M,+ k - 1
2
M2 = 2k (12.39 b)
k- lMf-1
Obviou sly, the firs~ of -these is trivial. The liecond expresses the umgl.i_e d epende nce of M 2 on M 1•
12.7 Normal Shocks 603
N _o w, having a relationship between M 2 and Mi, we can solve for property ratios across a shock.
Knowing M 1, we obtain M 2 from Eq. 12.39b; the property ratios.can be determined subsequently from
Eqs. 12.35 through 12.37.
. ·~ince the stagnation temperature re.mains constant, the stagnation temperature ratio across the shock
1s umty. The ratio of stagnation pressures is evah,ia,ted as
k-J 2 ] k/(k-1)
. . l+--M7
Po, PChP2 Pl P2 2 - ( 12.40)
Pq,= P2P1Po, =Pl [ l+k;lMr
Combining Eqs. 12.37 and 12.39b, we obtain (after considerable algebra)
P2 l+kMr 2k 7 k-1 (12.41)

· - - -~ - - MI - - - -
PJ- l+kM'f. k+l k+I
Using Eqs. 12.39b and 12.41, we fiqd that Eq. i2.40 becomes
k+l 2 ] k/(t-1)
~Ml
[l k-1 M2
Po, +~ I
- = ......;;;___-=----- =--
Po, 2k 2
[k+JM1 -k+l
k-1] 1/(k-l)
(12.42)
After substituting for M? from Eq.12.39b into Eqs. 12.35 and 12.36, we summarize the set of Mach
numbc;r•l?~ed equations (.renµrnbered for convenience) for use with an ideal gas passing through a n<:>r-
mal shock:
Equations 12.43 areusefi.tl for analyz!ng flo_w through a no·rma1 shock. Note that aU cbanges·throµgh
.. .. orm
· al shock deperid only on M1, the mcommg Mach number and the fluid property, k, the ratio of
a n · l ti. bl th . . .
~p¢tific·heats. The equations are us~al y pre era e .to e on~mal equations, Eq. l~.34, bec_a use they
provide explicit, uncoupl~d expressions for property_ changes, ~s. 12.34 ~ occ~tonnl!y useful too.
Note that ~q. 12.43d_requires lv/1 > l f9r P2:> p1, :,Vhich ag~es w~th pur prev,01.1s discussio.1;1. The ratio
/i 2
/Pi is iQ:iown as the strength of the shqc~. the higher the mcommg Mach numb~r, the strongC::r (more .
vioient) die shock.
Equ ation s 12.4 3, whil e quite com plex algeb raica lly. prov ide expl icit prop erty rela lion s in term s
of the inco ming Mac h num ber, M 1• TI1ey are easil y prog ramm ed and there are also inter activ e web site s
that mak e them avai lable (see, e.g.. [4]). The equa tions can also be prog ramm ed in Exc el and s prea d-
shee ts are avai lable from the webs ite; with the add- ins, functions are avail able for com puti ng M2, and the
stag natio n pres sure , temp eratu re, press ure, and dens ity/v eloci ty ratio s, from M 1, and MI from thes e
ratio s. App endi x D.2 lists flow func tions for M 2 and prop eny ratios p , /p ,, T2/T i. pifpi, and
0 0
p 2 / p 1(V. /V2) in term s of M1 for norm al-sh ock flow of an ideal gas. A table of valu es, as well as a plot
of thes e prop erty ratio s, is prese nted for air (k= l.4) for a limit ed rang e of Mac h num bers . The asso -
ciate d £-f:ce/ work book , Non1 1a/-S hock Rela tions , can be used to print a large r table of valu es for air and
othe r idea l gase s. A prob lem invo lving a norm al shoc k is solv ed in Exam ple 12. 12.
Exa mp le 12. 1 2 NOR MA L SHO CK IN A DUC T

A oonn a1 shoc k stan ds in a dt1ct. "fbe fluid is air, whic h may be cons idere d an ideal gas. Prop ertie s upst ream from the
sho ck are
Ti = ~oc , pi = 65.0 kPa (abs ), and v, = 668 m/s . Dete rmin e prop ertie s dow nstre am and s 2 -s • Sket ch the proc ess
1 on a Ts
diagr;un.
Give n: Nor mal shoc k in a d_u ct as show n: CV

T 1 =5° C
Pi = 65.0 kPa (abs )
v, =6l5 8 m/s
Find : (a) Prop ertie s at s'~i;tion (2). CD@

(b) s2-S 1.
(c) Ts diag ram.
so_luti on: Firs t com pute the rema inin g prop erti¢ s i;t"t se~tion Ci). For an i~e·a1 gai;,
Pl - . 4 N kg-K . i . .
= -
P·1 RT ·-: =6. :,x 10 - --- x . . . x-. : --: =0.8 15 kg/m
.3
1 · m 2 287 N ·m 278.K; ·
.
c, = ✓kRTi= [ N-m . kg.
· m]'
1.4x 287 kg_-K x27 8~Kx N · s
.' =33 4m/ s 2
2
.
1Jie n V1 _ 6p8 _ 2· 00
· · and (usino_ isen trop ic stag natio n relations , Eqs. 12._2 lb 1µ1d 12.21a)
M, =- ~--- - . , . o . .
CJ 334
. ·1'ii, + =T, (1
1
k; M"f) :; :
278 KP + 0.2( 2.0)2) = 500 K
.P01
·=pi (1 + k- l M°f
2 ).
k/(k' -lj
=65 .0kP a[l +0.2(2.0)2)3.,~ =509k.l?a{abs)
FajIQ t:ne n.ormal-sh ock flow .func tions ; e<}s. 12.43, at M1 = 2,0,
M~ Po,/Po; 'J;~/T , P2IP1

Mi
.0 :577 4 0.7209 l.687 4.50 0 0.37 50
2 ,00
From thes e c;lat_a

T2
y., = l.68 7Ti, =(l. 687 )278 K =469 i{- .- - - - -- - - ' - - - - - . , , . -- -,- ---- ,--p
P: =4:,500pi ={4.500)65;0.kPa=Z.93 kPa ,(~ b~) <-- -='- -~- ---- ~ ~ -- - --'--v:--.
2
2
V2 = 0.375cHr, = (Q;3 750) Ji(i8 m/s.=is.1 m/S.·+--~- -,a --= - - --- ~- --, --. ,.--
12.8 Supersonic Channel Flow with Shocks 605
For an ideal gas,
p -,
- = RT2
P2 -- --93 X l OS m2
? N X 287
kg.•
N. Km X 46.9I K = 2.18 kg/m3 ,.__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _P2
_
Stagnation temperature is constant in adiabatic flow. Thus

To, =To, =500K,___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _To,_
l,.Jsing the property ratios for a normal shock, we obtain
Po, =po,;:~ =;509.kPa(0.7209)=: 367 JcPa (abs)..__ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _P_.o.

__
FQr the c!1ange in eritropy (Eq. 12.34g).
P2
_ .· T2
s-,~s1=c ln--Rln-
- . p T, Pl
=0
so; - so; .= si ~s, =c;, Iii Tcl_...,Rfu Po,= -0.287~·xln(0.7 -409)
7o.
po, kg,l(
S2- S1 ,= ·0.0939 k.l/~kg• i<) - - - - ' - - - - ~ ~ ~ ~ - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - s 2 _ - _
-._s1
Th¢ Ts di!!~ is
T
c;o2-so1 k
-7,-"'1"-----7-7',"---- 7
I
0 2 "' ·7 01
Pl
'-------- ---- ---s
12. 8 Supersonic Channel Flow with Shocks

Supersonic flow is a necessary condition fo r a normal shock to occur and the possibility of a normal
shock must be considered in any supersonic flow. Sometimes a shock must occur to match a downstream
pressure condition: it is desirable lo detem1ine if a shock will occur and the shock location when it
does occur.
Io this sect.ion isencropic flow in a converging-diverging nozzle (Section t2.6) is exte nded to include
shoc;:ks and complete our discus~io~ of_flow in a converging-diver~ing nozzle operating under varying
back pressures. The pressure d1stnbuuon mrough a nozzle for different back pressures is shown in
Fig. 12.lp. . . . . .
Four flow regimes are possible. In Regime I the flow is subsonic thcoug hout. The flow raie increases
with d~creasing back pressure. At condition (iii). which forms the dividing line between Regimes 1 and
II, flow at the throat is sonic, and M,;::: 1.
To
Pa
v0 ::::::0
- -- · ~ - - - _,---,_. - - Valv~
.J!_
Po
1.0 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----· M
(ii) Regime I
(iii) -111,< 1
e:....
-- -- (,,,)
Regime II
Po
(1•;;)
(l'i1i)
Regime Ill
(w) -111 > 1 R .

(I') • eg,me IV
Throat Exit x--
plane
Fig. 12.16 Pressu re distrlbuth;,ns for flow In a converging-diverging nozzle for different back pressu res.
As the bac;:k press ure is lower ed below condi tion (iii), a norma l shock appea rs down strea m from the
throa t, as show n by condi tion (vi) . There is a pressu re rise across the shock. Since the flow is subs onic
(M < I) after the shock , lhe flow decel erates , with an accom panyi ng increa se in press ure, throu gh the
diver ging chann el. As the back pressu re is lower ed funhe r, the shock move s downsq-eai:n until it appe ars
at che exit plane (cond ition vii). In Regin:te II, as in Regin:te I, the exit flow is subso nic, and conse qi:ien tly
=
p~ Pb· Since_flow prope nies at the thro·ac are const ant for all condi tions in Regim e II, the flow rate in
·Regi me II does not vary with back pressu re.
In Regim e ID, as exem plifie d by condi tion ( viii), the back pressu re is highe r than the exit press ure,
but not high enoug h to sustai n a norm al shock in the exit plane. The flow adjus ts to the back press ure
throu gh a s_e ries of obliq ue comp ressio n shock s outsid e the nozzle; these obliq ue shock s cann ot be trea-
teQ by one~c Jimen sional theory .
A'$ previ ously noted in Sectio n 12.6, condi tion (iv) repres ents the desig n condi tion. In Regi me IV
-the flow a<;ljusts to the lower back pressu re throu gh a series of obliqu e expan sion wave s outsi de the noz-
,zle; thes~ obliq ue: expan sion wave s canno t be treate d by one-d imens ional theor y.
Toe Ts diagn un for conve rging -dive rging nozzl e flow with a nom1al shock is show n in Fig. 12.1 7;
stat~ (j) is locate d imme diatel y upstre am from the shock and state (2) is immediatel):' down strea m. The
entro py incre ase acros s the shock move s the subso nic downstreah1 flow to a new isent ropic li ne. The
critic/µ tempe rature is const ant, so p 2 is lower than pj . Since pf = p• /RT•, the critic al deps ity dow n-
~treat n also is reduc ed. To carry the same fnass flow rate, the down stream flow must have a large r critic al
~~- -From conti nuity (and the equat ion of state) , the critica l area ratio is the inver se of the critic al pres -
=
sure ratio, i.e., ac:::ross a shock , p• A• const ant
t
T 0 = t:i:,rista nt
T" = consta nt
Poi
To1
V0 = ·0.
L-- --- - - - - --- s-

Fi~- 12.17 Schem atic Ts diagra m for flQw in a convergln~- dlverging nozzle witli·,rnorrrial shock,
12.12 Summ ary and Usefu l Equa tions 607
If lhe Mach numb er (or position) of lhe norma l shock in the nozzl e is know n, the exit-p lane pressu re
can. ~e calcu lated direcl ly. In the more realis tic situation, the exit-p lane pressu re is specif ied, and the
posiu on and streng th of the shock are unkno wn. The subso nic flow down stream must leave the nozzl e
at the back press ure, so Pl,= Pc• Then
Pb Pc Pc PO:z Pc Aj Pc A, A,. (12.4 4)

Po, - Po, - Po, po, - Po, Ai - /Jo, A, Ai
Beca use we have isentr opic flow from state ~ (after the shock ) to the exit plane. A =A; and Po; =P O, ·
Then from Eq. 12.44 we can write
2
Pe Pc A, Ac Pc A, A,.
Po, Po, A,. Ai Po, Ac A;
Rear rangi ng,
(12.4 5)
In Eq. 12-45 the left side conta ins know n quant ities, and the right side is a functi on of the exit Mach
numb er Me only. The pressu re ratio is obtain ed from the stagn ation press ure relati on (Eq. 12.21 a);
the area ratio is obtai ned from the isentropic area relatio n (Eq. 12.30 d). Findi ng Mc from Eq, 12.45
usual ly requi res iterati on. The magn itude and locati on of the norm al shock can be found once M,. is
know n by rearra nging Eq. 12.45 (reme mberi ng that p 0, =po,) ,
po, A, A .,
{12.4 6)
Po, =A,. A;
In Eq. 12.46 the right side is know n (the first area ratio is given and the secon d is a funct ion of M~ only),
and the left side is a functi on of the Mach numb er before the shock , M 1, only. Henc e, M 1 can be found .
The area at which this shoc.k occurs can then be found from the is¢ntr opic area relation (J:;q. 12.30 d, with
A• =A,) for isentr opic flow between the throat and state (j).
In this introd uctor y chapt er on comp ressib le flow, we have cover ed some of the basic flow pheno m-
ena and prese nted the eq1,1ations that allow us to evalu ate the fl6,v prope rties in some of the simpl er flow
situa tions . There are many more comp lex comp ressib le flow situat ions , and we provi de an introd uction
to. some of these advan ced topics on the website. Shock forma tion in a CD nozzl e, one-d imens ional
flow s with frictio n apd/o r heat transfer, and two-d imens ional shock and expap sion wave s ~ q1ve red
in these sectio ns.
12. 8 Sup erso nic Channel Flow with Shocl<s (con tinu ed, on the Web )
12. 9 Flo w in a Con stan t-Ar ea Duct with Friction (on the Web )
12. 1 o Fric tion less Flow in a Con stan t-Ar ea Duc t with Hea t Exc han ge
(on the Web )
12.1 1 Obl ique Shocks and Expansion Wav es (on the Web )
12 .12 Sum mar y and Useful Equ atio ns

In this chap ter, we:
✓ Revi ewed the basic equat i~ns used in th~rm odyn amics , incl~d!~g isentr opic relati ons.
✓ Intro duce d some compressrbl~ flowt ermm olo~, such as defm1t1ons of the Mach numb er and
subs onic, _supers onic, transo nic, and.h¥.personrc f~ows . _
✓ Lear ned abou t sever al p~en omen a having to do with sound , inclu ding that the speed of soun d
in
an ideal gas is a funct ion of temp erat~re ~nly (c = ✓kRT), and that the Mach con~ and Mach
angl e deter mine when a super sonic vehicle 1s heard on the groun d.
✓ Learn ed that there are two usefu l refereneae state s for.a comp_ressib le flow: the isent ropic stag -
n~tio n cond ition, and the isentr opic critical condition.
✓ Deve loped a set of gove rning equat ions (cont inuity , the mom entum equa tion, the first and
secon d laws of therm odyn amic s, and equat ions of -s tate) for one-d imen siona l flow of a com -
press ible fluid (in partk ular an ideal gas) as it may be affec ted by area chan ge, fricti on, heat
exch ange , and norm al shock s.
✓ Simp lified these equa tions for isentr opic flow affec ted only by area chan ge, and deve lope d
isent ropic relati ons for analy zing such flows.
✓ Simp lified the equa tions for flow throu gh a norm al shock , and devel oped norm al-sh ock rela -
tions for analy zing such flows.
Whil e inves tigati ng the abov e flows we devel oped insig ht into some inter estin g com pres sible
flow phen omen a, inclu ding:
✓ Use of Ts plots in visua lizing flow behav ior.
✓ Flow throu gh, and neces sary shap e of, subso nic and super sonic nozzl es and diffu sers.
✓ The phen omen on of chok ed flow in conve rging nozzl es and C-D nozzl es, and the circ um-
stanc es u_n der whic h shock wave s devel op in C- D nozzles.
Note : Most of the equat ions in the table below have a numb er of constraints or limita tions . Be sure to
refer 'to their page n11111bers for details! In panic ular, most of them assum e an ideal _gas, with cons tant
speci fic heats .
Use t/E
u .QUOf_ions
Defin ition of Mach numb er M: _v (12.1 3) Page 563
M: -
C
-
Spe·ed of sound c: (12.1 6) Page 566
c=
-- ms
ap
Spee dofso undc (solid s and liquids): c= -. jE;/p (12.1 7) Page 566
Spee d of soun d c (icleal gas): c=,/ fiff' (12.1 8) Page 566
Mach cone angle a: (12.1 9) Page 569
r
. -1(1
a=sm M)
lsent ropic p~ssu n; ra_tio (id~al gas, I (14.2 1a) Page 573
const ant speci fic heats) : Po= [ l + -k--M2- /(k-1)
p 2
Isent ropic tempe rature ratio (ideal To I k-1 M? (l2.2 i b) Page 574
gas, c9nst anl soeci fic heats ):
-=
T
+-- -
?
Isentr opic densi ty ralio (ideal gas,

const ant speci fic heats) :
[k-1
Po= l + ---·M-
1/(k-l ) ·?] (12.2 1c) Page 574
p 2
Critic al press ure ratio (ideal gas, Po= [k+~ r/(k- 1) (i2.2 2a) Page 577
.c onsta nt spe_c ific beats): P* 2
Critic al Lemperature ratio (ideal gas, To k+l (12.2 2b) Page 577
-= - -
constru:it speci fi~ h~ts) :· T* 2
Cdtic al densi i:y ratio (ideal gas, Po= [k+l ) 1/(k-lJ (12.2 2c) Page 577
constant_ speci fic heats) : p• 2
~
Critic al v.elocicy v• (idea l gas, (12.2 3) Page 577
V" =C>!< =
cons t~t specifi,c heats) :
Qne-:dimensio11~ ITow equations: P, v,A; "=P.2 \/2A2 =pVA 7 lll,-COnslant (12.2 4a) Page 580
Rx+p.1A1 -p2A2 =1i1V2~1iiV1 (12-. 24b)
aQ vt _ vf
;1J, + h1 + 2 - 1!2 + 2 (l2.2 4c)
12. 12 Summ ary and Usefu l Equa tions 609
Tab le (Con tinue d)
~
(12.2 4d)
1i1(s2-s1) ~ks} (i)dA (12.2 4e)
p=pR T (I 2.24f )
6.h=h 2-h1 =c,,6 .T=c ,,(T2 -T1)
T, p, (12.2 4g)
6.s =s, -si = c In -=- -R In -=-
- " Ti Pl
Isent ropic relati ons: (12.3 0a) Page 585
Po =J(M )
[Note : Thes e equat ions are a little p
cumb ersom e for pr~ctical .use by (12.3 0b) Page 586
hand . They are listed (and tabulated 1;=f (M)
and plotte d for air) in Appe ndix D. Po =f(M ) c12::mc)
The Exce l add-i ns from the website p
are usefu l for c·o mputi ng with these A
-=f( M) (12.3 0d)
equa tions .] A•
Press ure ratio for choke d ? )k/(k-1) (12.3 1) Page 590
conv ergin g nozzl e, p.,/polchokcd:
Pc P*
Po lchokcd = Po = (k + I
-
Mass flm.v ra\e for choke d . ~( 2 ) (k+l)/2 (1.-1 ) (12.3 2a) Page 590
conv ergin g nozzl e: lllchokcd =A.,po RTo k + 1
Mass flow rate for choke d .. . A,po (12.3 2b) Page 590
conv ergin g nozzl e (SI units): 11lchokcd = 0.04 .,/To
To
.M ass flow rate for choke d .. 76 6AcPo (12.3 2c) Page 590
conv ergin g nozzl e (Engl ish IIZchokcd = · .,/To
To
Engi neeri ng units) :
Mass flow rate for choke d . ~( l ) (k+l)/ 2(k-1) (12.3 3a) Page 594
conve rging -dive rging nozzle: lllchokcd =A,P o RTo k + I
Mass flow rate for choke d . A,po (12.3 3b) Page 594
conv ergin g-di vergi ng nozzl e lllchokcd=0.04 Po
To
(SI units ):
Mass flow rate for chokecl . A,po (12.3 3c) Page 594
conv ergin g-div ergin g nozzle mcbokcd =76 .6 .,/To
(E1n~lish Engiq eerin g units):
Norm al sfroc k relatio ns: [Note: M2= f(Mi) (12.4 3a) Page 603
Thes e equat ions are too Po, =f(M i) (12.4 3b)
cumb ersom e for practi cal use by Po,
hand . They are listed (and tabulated T-,
T~ =f(M 1) (12.4 3c)
and plotte d for air) in Appe ndix D.
The E""l:ce l add-i ns from the websi te P2
-=f( Mi) (12.4 3d)
are usefu l for comp uting with th~e Pl
p-, Vi
equat ions. ] -=-= - =J(M i) (l2.43 e)
P1 V2
Usef ul relati ons for determ ining lhe P, A, P, A, (12.4; i) Page 606
--=--
norm al shock locati on in Po, A, Po, A;
conve ,:ging -dive rging nozzl e: PO:= A, A,
(12.46 ) Page 607
Po, Ae A;
610 (:hapte r- 12 Introd uction to Compr -¢ssibl e Flow
1. Borgna kc.. C~ and R. E. Sonntag , Fundam entcifs afT/1em 1ody- 4. lsenrropic Ca/c11/a1or (http://w ww.aoe. vLedu/a oe3 l 14/calc .
,µ,mics . 7th ed. New York; Wiley. 2008. html), William Devenpo rt, Aerospa ce and Ocean Enginee ring.
2. Moran, M . J., and·H . N. Shapiro , F11ndan_1entals of Engi11eerii1g Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univers ity.
77,enno d_vnam ics, 6th ed. New York: Wiley. 2007. 5- Hermann, R., S1tperso11ic Inlet Diffuser s. Minne apolis,
3. Wong, G. S. K., Speed o_f Sound_in Scandar d Air, J. Aco11st/"ca/ MN: Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulat or Co., Aerona utical Divi-
Society of Americ a, 79, 5 , May I 9a6, pp. 1359-13 66. sion, 1956.
Revie w of therm odyn amics air in the tank. Now assuming lbnt the tank is filled isomen nally,
12.1 Air is expand ed in a steady flow process through a t_u rbine. Ini- how much heat is lost by the ;ur in me tank during filling? Which
tial conditio ns are 1300°C ilnd 2 .0 MPa absolute . Final conditio ns are process (adiabatic: or isothermal) results in a greater mass of air in
500°c and aunosph eric pressur e. $how this process on a Ts diagram . the tank?
E~aluat e tlw c:hange s in internal energy, enlhalp y, and specific 12.7 Air enters a turbine in steady flow at 0.5 kg/s with negligi ble
~auopy for this process . velocity . Inlet conditio ns are 1300°C and 2 .0 MPa absolut e. The
12.2 Five )diagra ms of air is coole9 in a ~losed lank from 250 to air is expande d through_ the turbine to aimcisp heric pressur e. If the
50°c. Toe initial absolut e pressur e is 3 MPa. Comput e the changes actual temperature and velocity at the turbine exit are 500°C and
in enq-qpy , \otefllal energy, and enthalp y. $how the process state 200 m/s. detennin e the power produce d by me; turbine . Label s tace
ppints on a T'S .di~grn:m. points on a Ts diagram for this process.
Q 12..3 Airis contnin ed irt a piston-cylirider<!evic:e. The tempera ture of 12. 8 Narura.J gas, with the lbermod ynamic propert ies of meman e.
· the air is J00°C. Using the fact Iliac for a reversib le process the heat ll_o ws in an undergro und pipeline of 0,6 m diamete r; The-ga ge pres-
transfer q~ fTds. compar e the amount of h_eat ()/kg) required to sure at me inle_t to a compres sor station is 0 .5 MPa; outlet pressu re is
raise me temp~£'1).ture of lhe air 10 l200°C at (a) cons.t an\ pressure 8.0 MPa gage. The gas temperature and speed, at inlet are J 3 !'C and
iµ1_d (b) constlll lt volume . V~rify your resl!lts using the first.law of 32 m/s, respectively. The compres sor efficienc y is 11 = 0 . 85. Calcu-
~eanod ynam.ic s. Plot the process es on a Ts dio:gram . lat~ the mass flow rate of natural gas through the pipe line. Label state
points on a Ts diagram for compres sor inlet and outlet. Evalua te the
17.4 Calcula te the power qelivere d by me turbine per uilit mass of
gas temperature and speed al tlie compres sor outlet and the power
,airflow whe!l l,}le beat transfer in me heat exchang er is zero. Then,
required 10 drive .the compressor.
"how does me power d<;pen4 011 the heal transfer through the
exchan ger if all oilier conditio ns remain the same? Assume air is a 12. 9 Carbon dioxide flo,vs at a speed of Iil°m/s in a pipe and then
mrough a nozzle where the velocity is 50 m/s , What is the change in
perfeci gas.
gas tempera_ture· between pipe and nozzle? A,ssume this is an adia-
batic flow of a pe_rfect gas.
Large 1:i,10 In an isothermal process, 0.1 cubic: feet of standar d air per
reservoir minute (SCFM) is p_umpe<! into a-balloo n. Teils_ion in the rubber skin
V = 100. mis
,-- Heat qftl,e bailoon is given by a=kA, where k=2QQ !1Jf/l't3. _a nd A is the
= 1013 kPll-:_- exchange< T= -1 00°C
T = 200°C ~
p = 101.3 kPa surface area of the balloon in ft2 • Comput e_. th~ time ~quire d to_
increase th·e bal_loon radius fro.m 5 to 7 in.
P12-. 4
Propa gation of Sound Wav.es
1 -2 ,S~Ifhy.c,,toge'ij, flQws l!.S a ~rfect.i as without friction beC\veen s_ta- 12.11 Calculat e the speed of ~oµnd at 20?C for (a) hydrog en,
tip~ U_) l!,llcl ~ while i:/H = 7 ,5 X 16SJ/~g•.1?-_n<! Vi. (b) heijum. (c) methane, (d) nitrogen , and (e) carbon dioxid e.
12. 12 An airplane flies a~ 550.km/ hr at 1500 .m altitude: on a s tand-
ard !Jay. The plane climbs 1015,0.0 0 m ~d· Hie!; at 1200 km/h. Cal-
culate· the Mach number of flight in both cases.
12.13 Actual performance ch;µ-acteristics 9f the Lockhe ed SR--7 l
''Blac_kbird" reconnaissance aircraft never were release d. Howev er,
it- was thought 10 cruise at M:;:: 3.3 ;;it 85,000 ft altitude . Evalua te
ll,e speed of sound and flight speed for mese co11_ditions. Compa n:
to lhe muZAle speed of a 30-06 rifle bullet (100 m/s).
12.6 A 1-m3 tank ccmtairis air at p.1 MP.a absoluce and .20°C. The
wik is p~ssµri zed ~ 2 .MPli. Assuming- that the l1lf11{ is fille~ acijas 12.14 For a.speed of sound i"n steel of 4300 m/s, determ ine the bullc
_ t,:!ll,ic.ally ,and reversib ly, caji;ulp.ce me fin;il tempera ture of the modulus_Qf elasticity. Compar e me modulu s of elastici ty of ste~I to
Problems 611
tbn~ "i:>f ;at~r. Determine the .s peed of sound in steel willer nnd air al airplane had been flying.at 3Q,QO(Ht.. how many se:c:onds would have
·aunosp enc•conditions. .Comrnent on the differen;es. • passed before you.heard it?
1 1
fu~· .~ Detfetmine and plot the Mach number of an automobile as a 12.22 The temperature ·varies linearly from ~ -level to approxi- Q
ncuon o · speed froin .25 - -· h mately J I 1cm altitude in lhe standard atmosphere, Evaluate;tlie. /qpse
. · · mp IQ 10.0 mph for winter (T=0°P)
=
and summer (T I OO•F) conditions. tare-the rate of decreasc·of tcmpera~re.with·nltitud 1>-in the stand,
-~ . .1 6 Investigate
. r:-7 1. 2. _ . the
. e.,,;,
u ect o f ouUtude
_, . .
on Mach number by plotting ard aunosphere. Derive an expn;:ssicm for !he-rate of change of s6nf¢
lhe Moch number of a 500 mph ain?lane as it flies•at altirudes ranging speed with altirude in an ideal-~ under standard atmospheric con-
from sea level to 10 km. · ditions. Evalun1e·-a,ncl pfot the sonic speed .from sea-level to -lff km
12•17 The grandstan9u1 the Kerin~dy Splice Center is located 3.5 nu altitude.
a,way frq~ lheoSpaceshut~!e l.auncl) Pnd. On a clay w!ieil.the_air.t~m- 12.2°3 A projectile is fired in10 a gas (ratio of ~ifk heats
pemture 1s 80 F, how 1011g does. it take the sound from a blastoff to k= 1.625) in ,vhich ·the pressure is 450 kPaabsolutcaitd ilieidensity
rencn the spectators? If the hionch was early ~n a win1~r-momiiig; ·the is 4.5 kg/m3 • Ir is observed,exp·e nmenuilly that a M;u:h cone e·m a-
temperature may be as low as 50°F. How long woulctthe sqµnd ,t;ike n·a1es from the projectile with· 25° · total angle. What is ,(he··sptttl: of
to reach the spect~tors under those condiuons? · · the projectile-with respect to !he gas?
_Q 12·. 1 g ::us.e.data for specific volllllle.10 c!J]~ulate nnd·plot Lt:ie sp~_ed qf 12.24 A photograph ofa bulletsli\:iws .i:Mach an~Je·of32.0 .Detti'.-.
SQ\l.~4. .!11 satur:ated liquid \V11ter over lhe temperature ran-g e. from 0 mine the speed· of the bullet fonµmdard air.
Jo.2009 C. · · · ·· ... - ·
12.25 An F-4 aircraft makes a high-speed pilss overa,uiifieic:kon a•
1·:;t. 1·9 . .An_object traveling in au:nospberic nir enulS two · pressure dily whcri·T = 35°C: The aircraft flies at M = I A llild•200·nt ~tirii4~
W!l~CS at d1ffereM .limes. At,.an instant in time, the waves _appear Calcufa1e the· speed of the aircraft. How long.-efter itpllSSCS'direcUy
as m . th·e . figure. De1ennine·. the veli;>city .l!Jld Mach number of the o.ver point A on th·e ground does..its Mach,cone pass over poiri:~ ~?
object :nnd i!-S current location. ·- -- 12.2·6 An:nircraft passes overhead ;it3ki:n aJtirud~ TJie'~ e s
a_l M = 1.5: Assume the air ten'lperaitite is coilstimtJlr20"C.i.-ilil:tihe
arr speed-ofthe aircrafLA headwind.blows au30-tn/s, How long•.~
lhe ilirtjufr. passes· directly overhead·does its sound ~ b a point on
the ground?
12.27 A supersanic ain:raft mes. at 3 kni«altitiJde·. ace.a sp~ rof
0 .1 m 1000 m/s onastandard dil.y. How long afreupassing direct_ly,1$9"ve;
~O.Oi.m
\3? ~ a ground observer is lhe sound of the ain:t;lft heatt\·oy 'th~· gtounii
observer?· ·
12;28 Fc:>nhe c:oiiditions of']?roblem 1227, firid' me location ar
l . 5.m
which the so.u nd' wave that: fir.it reaches the gro11ni:i '~ b~~er was
emitted.
1~.29 The Ccinc9t9~ su);!Crsonic iransp<;in 1=ruised ;it M~i.2 a!
17 km altitude;_ on a st;indard' day. l:Jqw long after t h e ~ P.~~if
d~tly aJ;,.ove a ground.observer
. . was the sound- ofthe aircraft heard?··
. -··-· - . •:.-
12-. 2 o
.An objec_t ~veliiig in atmospli'eric air emits l\Vo· jnessure
waves rit different times. Ar _im in•sl,?Jlt in time, t,lie waves appear Rpefe~ertn~~ State: local lsentropic Stagl'latforf
ns' in the· figure. Detei:miite: the velocity..nnd Mach 11umber: of the · ro1_>e 1es ·
tibj~cl and itS current lociition. ·· ~3t> /'lot '!'e ~eiiqige .discrepancy between ihe density at \b~ Q,
i 2_
slll:~anon ppmt and the densicy at a location whet:e thi: ~f~h.m iiiloer ·
is .n;t, ofaw111;pressil'J.le _flow, foe-Math n~bers ningi.iig from OJ>t (~
9~95_- f;in.d 'the fyfach numbers at which the disc:repajicy'is_I J'le~en(,
5 percent, and: 10 ·pcrcen!'., ·
J.2~31 Co~p11.tc;, !,li.e aiqlensicy 4).µi¢ U-Odisrurbeo ajt .µicl at the.slilg, .
na~onpq1.o.t of ; i n ~ ~ying at 250 rnls in. air at:28 :kPii and
3'5Q <:. ".VlJlit is·~e peR?enta:$e in(:~~~ in d¢osity? ,Q~
0
mmte thjs as ap mc.ompress1ble flow? _

w~-i~p~it:
· .
1:2-3_2 Cai:bon dio1de flows iri.ac;i~c:t aca velocitY, 9.f!fQ.m,/s,,a~qe·
l9_1e pressiµe 140 l(Pa; nnd.tempc;rature 9.0°~. ¢aii;ulate.P~.1 ¢ ~c;I
re01~mrure oii lbe. nos_~ ,o f a small. obj!:Ct. placed iri this.flow;
12.33 If nitrog~n.at-tS!>C js (!owj,ng_ang t.ltt s_9.1g~~li:n~~mpe~
P.12.20. on lb~ no~e o_f a s ~ .o .l;>j~~t iri th~ (19_w. i~ ,m~tliaj ~:~&",C.,\v.ha,t:~
the vel.oc11y m the pipe?· ·
. ~2.1
12
Whiie a_!Ut¢~_~ 1ic;,~, ye;,µ observe ill\ nj_q>l@~ th!lt is flyirig _a.t 1 2.34 A,i;i,aiccmf\q9is~:at M .: ;;:0,65 .it LO km ntiitl,!de on,a standard
1();000 ft. Ypu ·hear the· airplime 8 s~~c;,ncls !)ft~~ it pas~~s directly clay. The aircr;ll!. spee_d is, d!;_Q.~~ed-frorn me~ure~~~-L~f tile dil!cr~
pV~r!leiitl. Estifuiit~ the lllff)lam; speed and .Mg.ph num9er. If the ence betwee,ri-the stagnation
•• -. .
arid
.
suitic
. ...
-· s,;
pres
.
...~ ""'-· lS·
--,,.,_. " ·~
· ..,t h.e'. v~µe
--;;_,:.
61 2 ·chapt er 12 Introd uction t o Compr essible Flow
of this diffi::ren ce? Compu te the •air speed from this actual differen ce LO.O kPa absolute. Downstr eam conditio ns ~ M"?- = 0.6165 , T 2 =
assumin g (rt) corilpre ssibili1y and (b) incompr essibilit y. Is the dis- 413.6 K. and p2·= 36.13 kPa absolute. (Four signific ant figui:es are
crepanc y in air-"speed comput atitins signific ant in 1his case? .~ iven to minimize roun4of f errors.) Evaluate local isentro pic s1agn.;_-
g 12~35 ·High-s peed aircraft use "UU: data comput ers" to compule _air uon conditio ns (a) upslream from. and (b) downst ream from. the
·speed from• measur ement of che differen ce between the stngnau on nom,al shock. Calcula1e lhe change in specific entropy across the
and. stntic·.p ressure s. Plot, as a function of actual Mach number M, shock. Plot static and stagnation state points on a Ts diagram .
(or M :=O;.J to· A1·=0.9 , the percent. age error in comput ing the Mach 12.43 A Boeing 747 cruises a1 M =0 .87 al an alti1ude of 13 km on a
nwnber assumin g incomp ressibil ity (i.e.• using the Bernoul li equa- standard day. A window in lhe cockpit is located where the externa l
tion), from this pressli~ differen ce. Plot the percenm ge error in flow Mach number is 0.2 relative to the plane surface . TI1e cab.i n is
speed, as.a function of speed, of an nirc~ cruising at 12 km altitude, pressurized 10 an equivale nt aititude of2~00 min a standa:r d atmos-
for.a range of speeds con:csp ollding to _the acLual .M ach number ran- phere. Estimate the pressure difference across the windo_,,,. Be sure to
ging from M=O. I to M=0.9 . . . specify the direction of lhe net pressure fcm:e.
1~.3(; A superso nic wind tunnel tesl section is designe d to have
M ,;=2.5 at 15°C and 35 kPa absolute . The fluid is air. Detenniu•e Critical Condi tions
the i;equi@ inlet st~gnati on conditio ns, To and p 0 • Calcuhu e the 12.44 Space_del:!ris impact is a real concern for spacecr aft. If a piece
~µire·d mass flow rate for a l~l section ~a of 0 .175 ml. <>f space debns were 10 creaie n hole of 0:001 in.2 area in the hull of
12.37 Oxygen flows in a: passage at a preS~l!re of25 psia. The pres- lhe ln1ema.1ional Space S1ation (lSS). at what rate would air leak from
sure ·and J~inpe~ ture on the .n ose of a smaU object in the flow are ~1e ISS'? A_ssu_me !hat the atmosph ere in the Intern·a uonal Space Sia-
ispsia; md 150":F, respe•ctive!y. What is the velocity in 1.he passage ? uon OSS) 1s wr Ula pressure of 14.7 psia and a tempera ture of 65°F.
12.38 Wbtit.is -!Jlc press11re on the nose of a bullel moving through 12.45 A CO2 cartridge is ilscd 10 propel a: tOy rockeL Gas in-ilie car-
sUU1dard s~ ievel air at 30o··m/ s assumin g 1liat (a) the flow is ilicom- nidge is pressuri zed to 45 MPa gage and is at ·25°e; Calcul ate the
critical conditio ns (tempera1ure, pressure, and flow speed) that cor-
pre~i_b l_e llllQ (b) !ht:.flow lS compre ssible? Compar e results.
respond lo lh_ e se stagnation condilions.
t -2 ,39 Air :flows steadily thro11gh an ·insµIQted constan t area duct,
12.46 Nitrogen flows from a large lank. through a conver gent noz-
· whete( Ddet19 J~-thei. nl~t and-(2) the ou!let. Properti es change along
zle of2-in. tip diameter, in10 the atmosph ere. The temper ature in the
tj,e duct as a result of friction.
tnnk is 200"F. .Calculat e pressure, veiocity . tert1per ature. and sonic
(a) Beginn ing with the conu-ol volume form of the firs1 law of ther- velocity in th~je1. and calculqle lhe flow rate when the tank pressu re
mp<lyn amics. show that the equatio n can b.e reduced 10 !s (a) 30psia and (b) 25 psia. Baromc;uic pressure is 15.0 psi a. What
tS.lhe lowes1 tank pressure that will produce sonic velocity in the jet?
v2 v~
h1 + d =h2+ -£ =const ant What is this velocity, and what is 1.he flowrate ?
12.47 Air flows from the atmosph er.dnto:a n evacuat ed lank throug h
°(b) Denotin g.the constan I by ho (the stagnati on enthalpy ); show that a converg ent nozzle· of 38-mm tip dinme1er. Ii' atmosp heric pressu re
for .aµiabati c; -flow of an ideal gas with friction and temperature are 10L3 kPa and i:s•c; respecti vely. what vacuut ii
must 1:Je mruntnined in the lank lo proqut:e sonic velocity in the jet?
Tg ·=l+k -lM2 Whal is the flow rate? What is the flo,v ra1e ·when the vacuum is
T 2 254 mm of men:ury?·
(c) Fpr-lhis flow does To, =To,?-.P o, =po,? Ex.plain these results; 1·2 .480xy gen discharges from a -tank l11rough a conver gent nozzle .
The te111perature and velocity in the jet are -20°C and 270 m/s.
12.40 AA flQWS in an i.l;lsulate d duel. At point (D th~ conditio ns
respectively, What •.is the 1empe1µ1ure in the 1a1ik? What is the tem-
-~M, ,a:.O.l.T1 = -io"~ _anc:i p 1 = 1.0 MPaabs olu1e. DownslielllT!,
perature on-lhe nose of a small object in ,the jet?
;t point (2). l:>.ecaLise of friction the col)<litlons are. M-2=0.7 ,
if2 ,, ; ~S.,62."q; ~clp2 = ,1.3.6.5 kPli absolute . (Foursignifo;nnt.figures 12.49 The hot gas stream at the turbine inlet of a JT9-D jet engine is
~ -gi:Y!?l1 tQ:~im ize roundo ff ~rrors.) CO!TIP.11,re the stagnati on leina at 1500°C. 140 kPa absolute, and M =0:32. Cakul.1 .te the cntica l
pera.tµ $ n(:poµit s.'(D ~ti (2), and explain the, i:esult. Compu1e the conditio ns (1empera1µ~. pressl!re, and flow sp~~d) that c~n:es pond
smgnal ion pressu ~ al poini.s (D and CZ). Can you explnin how it 10 these conditions. Assum~ 1he fluid properJ. i~ ..of pure air.
-caii'.be1thlit the ve°i~cicy u1ct.easesfor thi.sf.ric tional flow? Should Ibis 12.50 Carbon dioxide'discharg es from -ii 1ank through a conver gent
)'5tdce~i ~ -i s~~twp ic· or nQ~? justify your onswer by cOri}°p,uti1i°g the n.o zzle into 1he.atmospf:!ere ..lf.lhc l;mklem perau.ir e and gage pressu re
~&iµig duienlrt !py behveer i poirits (j): and (2). Plot static and statmi- a,re 38~C and 140 kPa, respectively. ,vhatjet tempera ture. pressu re.
tion stnte po/nts on a T~ diagram . and velocity can.be e~peiteq ? BarQmeuic; p.ressur e is IOl.3 k:Pa.
·
12.-41 ,C ooiidet steacI,y. l!W~batic flow of n:ir through a long _straight 12.51 Air at l00°F and 100 psia in ~large tarik flows into a 6-in.-
'pipe With ,A·=0'. 05 m2 • Anhe inlet s¢cliOn.(D the air is al 200 kPa dinme1¢t pipe, from which it dischiu-ges to the atmosp here at 15..0
absolilt ~ 60°C, :mcJ· 146.m /s. Downst ream at section (2). the air is psia: through a converg ent nqzzle of 4-in. Lip-~iam eter. Calcul ate
at ,9'.5 ,6: -kPa -absolut e ari<J 2so:m/s. D.etc;rmine Po,. Po,. To, •. To,. pressure. temperarure, and velocity in lhe pipe.
and ih~ -eQtrQPY chllllge· for the..-filow. Show s~tic and stagnati<>n stnte 12.52 Calculat e lhe required diamele r of a c;<;mvergeot nozzle to dis-
p9ints on.a -Ts diagram. charge 5.0 lb/s of air froiTLa iarge tank in which lite temper atures is
; ~-42 _ Air passes. thtough a iiominJ:· shoc!c, in ·;) superso ni~ wind l00°F_tci Ilic atmosph ere a\ 14'.7 pSia if .l11e pressur e in the tank · is
tililtieL UP.S. ~ i;ooqitiqns •ana: M, = h8,Ti= 270K. ant,) Pi= (a) 25..0 psia and (b) 30,0 psi~
Problem's 613
12~53:Sicam flows st · "ilil
.un u ·
· _d. P.
stre . . ···. ·. ti·1 .
ea - Y an ~entmp1cally through a nozzle. At
llin secuon where the speed is negligible, the temperature
1-2,§4 Air flows isei1tropically_through a.converging.nozzle intoc"a-
receiver where ·"the •pressure. i~ 250 kPa•absolute, H the pn:ssare: is
th~•:ri'ozzt d' ·
·,
<·
an pressure-arc 450°C d 6 -
_an
·
:MPa absolute. At a section where
• e uurteter -1s. 2 cm;_-the·steant pressure is 2 .MPa absolute.
350 kPil absolute and the speed is I ~O,m/s -at Uie nozzle lo¢atioii'
where the Mach number is ():5, <!etenninc the. pressure. s ~ aj'i"cl
Petennme llie speed and Mach number at this sccti~n and the mass Mach.,number at the no~le throaL .
flow rate ,o f steam. Sketch .the P."5s~ge ~hape. 1,2._65 Air flows isentropically·tluougb a c.<mv,erging_·nozzle_.ifrto a
12
_ ·,5·4' ~i~gen -flows . llii:ough, a divergi~g .section. of du.c t with receiver· in which the_.absolu_t.e pressateJ s 35 p$ia.. The air-~ ~
AJ'=_O. l-.:;,. m;- .and:A2=0,45 mt If;i\ifi.=0.7 and.p.,·=450 kPa, find the nozzle ~itlt ~egligib~e speed at a pressu~.o f'® psi1umd,a tern,
·M2-and•pi, pe111t11re of 2()0"F. .Deiennine ihe mass flow nitc,_thiough iJi~..nQ#I~
12f 5? Ai _ll section in a passage, ihe pressure is 30 psia, the"temper 0
for a thrum. dinmeter of 4 in.
at\ire:1s 100°-F , aild ·the.spcetl":ts 1750 ft/s: At-a-section dowrtstieam 12-.66Aimos~heric•nihit9,8.6:kPall!ld20~C is drawn•into,a vacnffen .
the ~achnu_n:ibc;ris .2 ,5. Detemunelhcpressurenf-this dowrisn'i:iim tnh~ through a .cqnvergcrtt-djvergent· ricii.ile of 501 mm ,t!u'p;it cl_i;µu_::.
.locaµon·for.- 1senttppic flow.:o f:niT•.Sketch the.passage·shape: · eter.-and 75.+mm:eitit.dinn:i¢ter.,- Giµ~~!~Jh~ largest rilass•-flqw mt¢
fh;i_t can,be,g~;,,,,11 through:,tl!ii; noµle__uildei\thcse condii.i_ot15..
ls:entropic Flow-Area Variation 1-2.67 The exit section of•a coh'vetgent-divergent 116zzle-i9..to -~
122. 56 fa a :given duct m)\v
M=i:o; the ·velocity iind_etgoes: a rn
used for the·lest-s~tion of.~ SJ!peI"SQl)i!;.Wjncl .tunrtet t,be::a~~9~\!',e
20 perce_nt decreilse~ Wqiil Per:cefit• chnngtf-'iii •i)rea. was· needed ;I() p~ure.in lhe-~tsec~o!tis.to ~i40.kP~ ~9.~tl!.i:c§~Jn~j~,.~ ~
accomplish tfiis? What w(lufd· be the answ~r if M•= o.s? ' in. ti1ereservoir.10 produce;i M!lc;;!i..!1\lll:tber-9rn:10th~teststttion/?Ji"i>.t
12.57 Carbon dio~ide flo,vs througb_a4 iri. constnction iii.n'6 in. the niqempenu:µre 10 be -20~Cin the t.eSl~ti()~ \ill!,lit[c;ri:l~
pipe. Tl1e pressures in the pipe•!fild' consfficiion are 40 ·psia: ·iiic1 35 i,s, req11irecl in the reservoir?. Vfh11.t !.lltiO, Qf: ~ t, ~ -•~ .• ¥.sJ·
. p·sia:. respeciively. The ·temperature :in• the· pipe is- JCio p; CalcuJate section area is reqt,tire<l to meet _thes_e conditions?- .
(n-), to~.flow rate, (b).1he1eriip¢rntu~in'the coiisirfotjon, (c) the veio,- 12;68 Air .f19wu,g jsen~pically tlu:o~tfu-~:l:Q!l-'(~rgjggnqµie'~
pjti~ in .the. pipe,a(lg .I.Qe,c;_oll~tric.tion,.l,lilg._(d).theMach •numbcts:in ch-!.l'g!;.S-to .t he·aurtosphe~.-A~ !!Je.s~stic;,11.wbere. the aj:,~luf#_;p~~
thee-pip~ ritid-t(!c; r;qn_s\ri_ction. · · · is 2.;>Q lcPl!. ·ili.e ~mperature is, 20~C and th_~ ~ sp~,ls -200Il"!/s.
12.5ij Five pounds ofairper-s¢conddischargefrom. a tan~ illl'Dugh a I?i::tcqajn.e.the no.zzle.lhroat pre,ss~ ·
.~9J1Vt;ment7di:verge~t.11oµlei11to nnoth~r taJJI- wl,lere. a vactiuin -.of 12.69 Air flows from a large tank at p=65,0:ld?1_1,:~sol1,1_re.
J. 0 :"in~ of merc_ucy --is, mnirtuµned ..lf,tlJeip~sure,aitd ~eniperaJ:llre..in
the-rips~.!lt:n tank ate loo· i11. :o f 111ercucy abs9lut1;,and .J 0O~F. •!'¢spec~
tiyely. what noztle-~i(!l diameter must be p!'.{)_vided fot full ¢xp@-
!o• -~:;ful~~!:~~~::~;~c!o:;~ ;::~~'::::::Jt
offlo~y..f9r )sen_tI'Qp{c flow. tlm>l!glt.tbe J,1C1?;Zle.
s.ion? Wh!lt thro.111 diam~(er is: ~qµi~p? Calculate prAAS\lfl:,.
g
i.emperaiure. "'¢16:City,-and sonfo·ve1odty in throat and nozile• exits.
atirt>iti6~c-pres$~~ iii"3pj~ ~'i rn~rs:µcy. _·. " .,..-. - .
,1,~ -5.Q ajr (19ws _isenlfupir;~y; tlt1'9:!lgh a convergipg,-qiver~ing
- . ~:l:1:~::~!f:fEi!:r:~;~Ii~E
shadow photograph of the flow pattern leaving the rtoi1z1e exit; ·1ne
nozzle fro:m-a-,large: ~ ,r;9q_yµ1:1111g wr. at i-sQ?<:;, At two locauons pressure-in th~ eitir pliihe must~: grenter- thrui 325 kPa gag~ Wb~t
ifB.~:]~E~o~~~?~~.:::.. i6t~::s ::\:.~to~a:~t~:t

pressure is required in me _tank? What mass:flt,w.-rate of°ak·musf·b e
supplied if the system is to ru1i' continuo(!sly? Sh•w ~-~PF. @9•'.li~~-
naµon state poinlS on a Ts diagram. -.-•-·
12.60•.Air;:at·,llJ'! apspl\1te,press1u~, ofC$JtO ,kl?a·nhd-27°C, enters ii
p
pis.s:ig~:pt 486 mis-, whe:re A-==•!>,Q2-nl.Avs~ction(D,downstieam,
= 18;8 kPa abs.ohm~-- Assuming illentropic flow; .. calcµl_ill~ _the
M#9t,. 11,UD1b?~r ;it. section ®, ~Jsetch Jhc. flo,v pas:S11gc. . .
,12.•.-6il . Gamon d.ic;:ixid_e _flows.•Jrolri, a -.1ank .Ll}ro.~gli a, C:onverge11t-
of
(liv.~~gent, nqz:zte- 25.c.mm J.lu:oat• aml.-.SO"mril exit dillllletcr. The
i~lli=i¥.Ba]1t~i:;§
a~s!)l~He: presstire,J41~ . te_mperatµre · iil the tank •.~ 2!1:.1.-5_,kPli an~
3g;s~C;:resp_~c_tiv.ely,-C:1l¢ulate.the•milssJlow .rate,;,vhen the.a.bso)ute
-~~ it',p~s_µr.e;isC:( a),,172.;i kPaaµcl (b) 221 kPa.
1 ;2,612. A •co"pvefgent0 d,iye,rg!inH:U:izile of 50~mm tip. difurieter·dis-'
chili:g"5 tQ the· litmosphere (J03·;i kP;i) from ii· tiliik- i_p -w hich air is
i5]~S~~~ti€;S
-;:a:ti!~!1fl?~!:_; ; ¥ - ~ ~ : ; ; r r ~ r , : : ~ ~ ; ;~
mnimliined a:i: an abs_olu~e pressure an_d tem~@ture of 690 ls.Pa
~d 37:8°C, r:especlively. Wlfaf"is ilte .rq"""imimfmass flow rate that l:t.73 Air flows isentropicnlly thn:,l!gh aconvcr-giiigno~¢:attacb~
can oc~i.ir through L11is nqz?Je? Whal throat di$teter- must be pro- 10 a large 1 ~ where the, i;iJ>soiute presslli:'e is i 71 ki>a arid the te1Ds-
vided tp prodl!ce ti1is mass flow rate? pera[J.lre is 27°C. Al t.he i.rtlet sec::t;ic;,(! the Mach ilumbei:- is O ? To€--
12.63 Air flows adi111>atic:)lly tl1fQugh a duct, _At the e11tranc~, the npzzle discharges Lo. thp atmosphc;re; the discfutii!.e .aiei-:f~
0:015 m • Determille the 'ltl~gnirude and d.4'ection ..of-tli-;·r~thei
2
•staiic teinpen.i.ture and presstire _are 31 O.K and,200. ~~• respecu.vely.
• •t1e
·. •e·.XJ·t•-•t1 must be applied to hold the nozz.l~.i.i} p!.rce. · · · ---- -- · ··· ·
·A l.t . ,. 1·e .stritic
. and
· -·stagnall.O!l_
· tcmperntm:es.l!IC-94
. . .. - . .K.· and316 K,
¢;pectively,.nnd thestatlc presstireis I~- kPa. Fm:d(a),theM~ch nµm 0
12·7 4 Air ent~i:s l.l•convergi,ng-diverging Qoµle at 2 MPrC:nosolute·
biers, of tlie flow at t.1.1g 1en~ce llllcl .e xn and (b).llie ~ .wt.to A2/A1• and 313 K. At.t he exi(of the lioiZl.e, !ti~ pressure ii. 20() 1¢S:abSoiu~e.
614 chapt er 12 Introd uction to Compr essible Flow
Assum e adi11batic, friction less flow through the nozzle. The throat 12.82 Air flows steadily through a long, insulate d constan t-area
•area is20 cm2 • What is die area·at the nozzle exit? What is the mass =
pipe, At section (D. M, = 2.0, 7'1 = 140°F, and p 1 35 .9 psia.. At
.flow rate of the air? =
section ~. downstream from a normal shock, V2 I 080 ft/ s. Deter-
12. 75 A converg ing nozzle is bolted to the side of a large 1.ru1k. Air mine the density and Mach number at section( !>. Make a qualita tive
inside the tank is mainlai ned .al a conslllll t 50 psia and I 00°F. The sketch of the pressure distribution along the pipe.
inlet area of the nozzle is 10 in.2 and the exit ntea is I in.2 The nozzle 12.83 Air discharges tlirough a converg ent-dive rgent nozzle which
dischar ges to the atmosph ere. For isentrrip ic flow in the nozzle, deter- is attached to a large reservoir. At a point iri the nozzle a normal ·shock
mine the torn! force oit the bolLS, and indicate whe.t her the bolts are in wave is detected across which tlte absolute pressure jumps from·69 to
tension or compre ssion. 207 kPa. Calculate the pressures in the lhroat of the nozzle and in the
g 12.76 A jet transpo rt aircraft, with pressuri zed cabin, cniises at ri:servoir.
'I J km altitude . TI1e cabin tempera ture and pressure initially are at 12.84 A normal shock wave exisLS in an airflow. The absolu te
25~c and equiyal ent to 25 km alt,itude. The interior volume of the pressure, velocity, and 1emperature just upstreil m from the wave
cabin is 25 m 3 • Air escapes throu&h o small hole with effectiv e flow are 207 kPa, 610 m/s, and -17.8°C , respecti vely. Calcula te the pres~
oreitcif 0.002 m2 • Calcula te the time required for the cabin pressure to sure, velocity, temperature, and sonic velocity just downst ream from
decreas e by 40 percenL Plot che·cabi n pressure as a function of time. t11e shock wave.
1 ~-77 A ·converg irig-div erging nozzle, with a 1hro0:1 area of2 in.2, is 12. 85 Air approaches a nom1als hock a\ V1 =900 in/s, p 1 = 50 kPa
connec ted to a large tank in ,vhich air is kept at a pressure of 80 psia absolute, and Ti = 220 K. Whul qre the velocity and pressur e nfter lhe
nnd a tempera ture of 60°F. If the nozzle is to operate at des\gn con- shock? What would the velocity and pressutc;: be if the flow were
diticiris and the ambien t pressur e outside the nozzle is 12.9 psia, cal- deceler;ued isemropically 10 t11e same Mach nurrib~r'?
·c;ulate •lhe·exi t are.a of the nozzle a,nd the moss flow·rate. As·s ume the 12.86 Air approaches a normal shoc_k !It /v/1 =2 .5. with
flow ·is isentrop.ic. To, = 1250°R and Pl = 20 psia. Determine.the speed a.n d temper ature
12.7~ Air, at a stagnati o_n pressur e cif 7 .20 MPa absolute and a stag- of the air leaving the shock and the entropy change across the shock.
riatiOn •temp~rl lnire of 1100. K. flo\VS isentrop ically lhrough a conver- 12.87 Air undergo es a normal shock. Upstrea m. Tt =35° C.
·ID!Jg-d iverging nozzle having a throat area ~f 0.0 l m 2 • ~e1enni ne t11~ Pl= 229 kPa absolute, and Vi= 704 m/s. Determ iqe tl1e temper ature
~pi~d arid th~ mass flow rate lit the downstr eam secuon where lhe 1111d _slllgnation pressure of the ajr stream leaving the shock.
·Ml!Qh number is 4 .0. 12.88 If, througli a n9nnal ·shock wave in air, the_.abs olute pressu re
12.79 A sm.;tll rpcket motor, fueled with hydroge n and oxygen, is rises from 275 to 410 kPa anc! tlie v~locity diminis hes from 460 to
cested on a thrust stand al a simulat ed altitude of 10 km. The motor 346 m/s, what te.mpemtures are to be expecte d upstrea m and down-
1 operate d at c:hambe r StaJ!iOati~n conditio ns of 15?0 K ancJ 8,0 MPa stream from the \Yave?
~
g~g~ The combus tion product 1s water vapor, which ~ay b~·trea~ed. 12.89 The stagnation temp~rature in art airflo,v is l49° C upstrea m
~ -~ i~.e ~ g~. Expans ion. occurs thro~gh a c~nverg mg-d1ve rgm.f anc! downsir eam from ·a norriiul shoi;lcwave. ·T he absolut e stagna tion
oozzie with design Ma~h n.l !mber of 3.::,· and exit are11 of 70.0 rnnr. pressure downstream from thi: shock wave is 229.5 kPa. Throug h the
Evalua te the pr~ssu~ at the nozzle exit plQJle. C~c;uh11e. lhe. mass wave tlte absolute pressure rises· from 103.4 to 138.kPa . Determ ine
fl.~w taie t>f exhal!S t gas. De.t emtine the force exerted by the rocke.l the velocities ups1.ream and c!ownstream from the wave.
mo,tcir on 1,1:ie uu:ust stand. 12.90 A supersonic aircraft cruises at /If =2.2 at 12 km n.llitud e.
A pilot tube is used to sense preSsure for calcula ting ;ur speed.
Norm al Sho_cks A nonnal shock stands in front of lhe tube. Evaluat e the local isen-
r
1 :_i.So T~_ting 9 a demolit ion explcisiori i~ to_ be evaluate d. Se_n sors
tropic·stagna1ion ·c;onditions in .front of t11e.shoc k. Estima te tl1e stag-
indicate that the shock. wave generat ed .al lhe instant of explos100
30 MPa absoiut e. If the explosi on oc<,:_urs in air at 20°C ;md 10 I kPa,
,s nation. pressure sensed b)' the pit9~ tube. Show static and s .t agnatio n
state points _and the process pat11 on a Ts·diag t,un.
find ·th~ $peep r:;,f ~e sho<,:k wave, and the tempe ra~ 3?9 speed of
the air jus.l after the shock passes. A$ ~ approx1 mauon assume 12.91 The Coiitotd e supersonic transpon flew at M = 2 .2 at 20 km
a,lti1u.di;. Airis dec~Jerated isentropicaHy by the ~ogine inlet system lo
k,;;,.1.4. Why is this an approximation'? a local Mach number of 1.3. The air passed through a normal shock
1t.$i. A.touila pressure probe is placJ;d in a sµpersorii~ wind tunnel and was deceJer.)ted funheno -M = 0.4 al lhe en°ii~ine compre ssor sec-
whe~:T =~3-0 "Rand M=2.0 . A norin!ll shock samds_10 f1:°m ofthe tibo. Assume , as· a first approximation, that this subson ic diffus~ on
p~be. Behinc! clje sb~k. M2 .= 0.577 and P2 = ~-16 ps1a. Fm.d -(a) the proce_ss was. isentrop it ruid use-stan dard ·attnosp here datn for free-
downst ic.aqi 1,tagnat ion j,ressur e and s~g,i:1.uon -tempe_rarure and stream conditions. Detenaj ne. lhe tempera ture, pressur e, and stagna -
(b) aii flui~ pro.~irties l!psire11.J11 f-rpm the shock. Sh~w sta.u c and stag- tion pressure of tl,e air entering .the ·engine compre ssor.
·bation· state poin.t5 and the process path on a Ts diagram .
AP PEN DIX A
Flu id Proper ty Da ta
A.1 Specific Grav ity

Specif ic gravity data for several commo n liquids and solids are present ed in Figs. A . la and A .1b and
in Tal;>)es A. l and A.2. For liquids specific gravity is a function of tempera ture. (Densit y data for water
aQd air are given as function s of temperature in Tables A.7 through A. I 0.) For most liquids specific
gravity decreii ses. as tempera ture increase s. Water is unique: It display s a maxim um density of
I 000 kg/m3 (1.94 s!ug/rt3 ) at 4°C (39°F) . The maximu m c)ensity of water is used as a referen ce value
to calcula te specific gravity . Thus
SO-~ P a
PH,O (at4 C)
Conseq uently the maxim um SO Qf water is exactly unity.
·specif ic gravitie s for solids are relatively inse~sitive to tempera ture; values given in Table A . I were
me_a sured at 20°C::.
The specifi c gravity of seawate r depends on both its tempera ture and salinity . A represe ntative value
for ocean water is SG = 1.025. as given in Table A.2.
615
616 App·e ndix:·A Flµid P"r'9perty Data
0 .990
0.960
For-wate r. at"4"C, pa,·iooo kg/m3
0 .950 ' - - - - ' - - - - - - L - - - L - - _ _ _ J i _ _ ~ _ _ j_ __j_~.. ...J

--:20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 .
Tempera ture, •.c
(al water
13;6_Cl
13.50
13.40
t er iit 4"C, j,-= l OOQ kg/m3

For wa_
13.30 .___ _.,___ __.__ __J__ _....1.._ _-1..._ _ -.1..._ __::::::.i
-20 0 20 40 60 so 10_0 . 120
Te_mperatur e, •c
(b) Mercury
Fig. A,.1 ~pl!clfic gravity _o fwater. and mercury asJuncti<>ris oftemperat ure. {Oata frrirtrRe ferenceJ, );) {The specific gravity
of mercury -varies !in.e arly with te·rnpera ture, Thi! variation is givenbt SG = 1:f 60 ~ p.c1024i:> T when i Is measur ed in
degrees C.)
Table A.1
Spedfi~ G~viti ~~ ofcSefe~ted Engineering, Materials
(~) Cciinau;>Q.. Manom¢ t!lr Liqui~s at 20°c
. : L,jqllid Specifi c Gravity

E.V7,1 Ii.llhlu~ oil 0.797
Meriam rec:I oil 0 ;827
Benzene 0 .879
Pi!>utyl phtha.late l ."04
Mi:>1t~h1Q/:QD_aphth.tle11e 1.20
c~oil tetmcliloride 1.595
Brom~ thyi\,en~ ne (Meri.am blue) 1.75
Tetrabrorno~µi,ao~ 2.95
Mercµry 13.55
Sp_11rce: .J)11U1.fro m Refcrenc.es _[J.- 3:).
A.1 Speci fic Grav ity 617
Tab le A.1
Spec ific Grav ities of Selec ted Engin eering Mate rials (Cont inued )
(b) Comm on Mnten als
Mater ial
·- - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - ---
Specif ic Gravi ty (-)
Alum in_u m
2.64
Balsa wood
0. 14
Brass 8.55
Cast lr!'m 7 .08
Conc rete (cured ) 2.4°
Co_ncret_e (ljquid ) 2.5°
Copp er: g.91
Jee(Q0 C) 0 .9 17
Lend 11.4
Onk 0.77
Steel 7.83
Styro foam ( I pcf") 0.01~ 0
Styro foam (3 pcf) · 0.0481
Urani um (deple ted) 18.7
White pine Q.43
Sourc e: Data· from Refere nce (4).
a depen ding on aggn:gn1c.
b pound s .per-cu bic fooL
Tab le A.2
.Phy skal Prop erties of Comm on Liquids at 20°c
Liqui d ~ ~nirop ic Bulk Modu lus0 (GN/m2 ). Specific Gravi ty (-)
B¢nz ene 1.48 0.879
Carbo n tetrac hlorid e 1.36 1.:5-95
Casio r oil 2. 11 0 .969 ·
Crud e oil 0.82-0 .92
Ethan ol. 0.789
Gaso line 0.72
Glyce rin 4.59 1.26
H,ept; µie 0 .886 0.684
Kerosene 1.43 0.82
Lubri c;atin g oil 1.44 0.88
Meth anol · 0.796
Merc ury 28.5 13..55
'Ocra ne 0,963 0.702
Se~wm er1' 2.42 1.025
SAE JOW oil 0.92
Water . 2.24 0.998
Sourc e: Dn1n from Refere nces [I. 5. 6}.
"Calc ulated from speed of sound; I GN/ni2 = to• N/m2 (I N/m 2 = 1.45 x 10-• lbf/in. 2 ).
r 3 N · s/m2, (Thus. the kinematic viscosity of seawuu;.r is .about-5. ()l)n:enl
" ·.Oy.~n rnic viscos ity. o( seawat er al .2 0°C isµ = I .08.X I<
hi~l\er than-_tlm_t of.freshwater. )
(, 18 A pp en di l(·!J.\ Fl gi ~ Property Da ta
Ta bl e A .3
Pr op er tie s of th e U;S. St an da rd At m os ph er e
Ge om tlr ic Al tit ud e (m ) Te m~ ra tu re (IC} PIPs L (- )
-5 00 29 1.4 1.061 1. 04 9
0 28 8.2 1.000" 1
l.. 00 0 '
50 0 28 4.9 0.9421 0. 95 29
1,0 00 28 1.7 0.8 87 0 0: 90 75
1;500 27 8.4 0.8345 0 .8 63 8
2J>OO 27 5.2 0.7 84 6 0 .8 21 7
2,5 00 27 1.9 0.7 37 2 (>:78 12
3,0 00 26 8.7 0.6 92 0 0' 74 23
3,5 00 26 5.4 0.6492 Ci.70 48
4.0 00 26 2.2 0.6085 0 .6 68 9
4,5 00 25 8.9 0.5 70 0 0 .6 34 3
5 ;00 0 2·~5_7 0.5 33 4 0 .6 01 2
6,0 00 24 9.2 0.4660 0. 53 89
7~000 24 2.7 0.40S7 0. 48 17
8,0 00 23 6.2 0.3S19 OA 29 2
9,0 00 22 9.7 0.3 04 0 ·0 .3 8) 3
10 .00 0 22 3.3 0. 2615 0. 33 76
J 1,0 00 21 6.8 0.2 24 0 o :.2 91 s
12 ,00 0 21 6.7 0.1915 .0,25 46
13,000 21 6:7 0. 1636 0 .2 17 6
14 ,00 0 21 6.7 0. 1399 0. 18 60
15 ,00 0 21.6,7 0.1195 0. 15 90
16 ,00 0 21 6.7 0:1022 0 .1 35 9
17 ,00 0 2.16.7 0.0 87 34 0 . 11 62
18 ,00 0 21 6.7 0.0 74 66 0 .0 99 30
19 ,00 0 21 6.7 0.06383 0 ,08 48 9
20 .00 0 21 6.7 0.05457 -0 .0 72 $8
22;00 0 2I M 0:03995 0 :0 52 66
24 .0 00 22 0,6 0,02933 .0. 03 83 2
26 ,00 0 22 2.5 0,0 21 60 0. 02 79 7
28,0QO 22 4;5 0.0 15 95 O. Q2 04 7
30 ,0 00 226.S 0:011 ~1 0 ,01 50 3
40.000 25 0.4 0.002834 0. 00 32 62
so;ooo 270.7 0.0007874 0 .00 08 38 3·
60 .00 0 25 5.8 0.0002217 0 .00 02 4. 97
10 ;0 00 21 9.7 0.00005448 0. 00 00 71 46
80 .00 0 180.7 0.00001023 0 .0 00 01 63 2
90.00 0 180,7 0.000001622 0 .0 00 00 ?5 88
So.11rce: Da ia. from Re fer en ce [7] .
;,'Ps1o. ?.= l,,O J3 2S x tOS N/ m2
(abs)(=-14;696psio).
·t, p~ ~ 12 25 0 kg /.m
3
(= 0.0 02 37 ? slu g/f t') .
A.-2 Surface Tension

nii ;,c om po un ds ·ar e re ma rk ab ly $q nil ar- ~t: ro om te m pe C" -
Th& v,alue_s .o fs ur fa ce ten sio n, u; :fo r m os t orga N/ m 2~ ~C . qu "i d m et al s
th er , at ab ou t 73 rn a:t H
.~ ~;-tb~ typical ra ng e is 2S co 40 m N /m . WaLei; is hi S.a va lu eo fa bo ut 48 0 m :N /m at 2O °C.
N/ m; me rc ur y hl)
·bav.e-v.alues·'in th er an ge:betweeil 300 an d6 ()0 riJ ab so lu te te m pe ra tu re .
nel l)."ly lin ea r wi th
Stiffaci"t~iisiim 9e q: ea se s. with temperature; the <!ecrease is
silifat i ien s
. 1o n at th e cn tic a.r tem pe ra tu re is ze ro .
e ui d be in g
..·••.··v~~~ Jiri- a.re us1,1ally reported fo r sti:rfases in co l_t the S31Jle;
bo th va lu es ar e ab
nt
o_l
ac t wi th the pu re va po r of th liq
srudie cf or \\'.i.th·ajr. A~ lo w p~ su re s
A.3 The Phys ical Natu re of Visco sity 619
Tab leA. 4,
Surf ace Tens ion of Comm on Liquids at 2o•c
Liqui d
. Surfac e Tensio n, q (mN/m )" ConUICl Angl~ . 8 (degre es}
(a) In CClnt;ict Willi air Air ~
Henz ene
28.9.
l:.fq4jd
'¼ l/
(;acbo n tetrac hlorid e
21:0
Ethl).Ilcil
22.3
-Glyc erin
63'.0
Ijexl).Il~
18.4
.Kero.s emi·
26.8
J,..ube oil 25'-35
¥c;rcl,U)' 484 . 140
·Mel.l ianol 2"'.2.6
Octan e 21.8.
Wate r 72.8 ~O·
c ~ [I, 5, 8., -9i.
Soi1fr: c: D0111 from Rcfcn:n_
- ..-· ...
Water-
{b),.-ln .¢orili jct \Yith-watec,
Uqu1d·
.
'y;;
-0.· ./
-
-Benz ene· 35.0
Carbo n te~ch londe 45.0
H~xa ne 51-1
Merc ury 375 140
Meth anol 22.7
' ({cw; ;~ . stj.8
.. . . . -.
.-Soi,r ce: rintnJ mm Rcfcrences.[I , 5, s:9].
. - .- - .-
" I mN/111=° 10-3 ~/in_ .
A.3 The Physical Nature of Viscosity

Visc osity is a m¢as ure of hitem al flujd fricdo n, i.e., resis_tance to det'otm !iti9n_ ·T he me~hariism of gas
-v:is_q ~sity is reas9 nably well understood, but the dieocy. is pogl'ly devel oped for liquid s. We can g~ soµ:ie
insigl :)t i11to the physi cal natµ~ -of viscous flo'Y by discus sing tbese mechanism:; briefl y.
'Uie vj5!;:9$i~y ofa Newt oni~ flµid is fixed tly .the s~ce._o f ttic;.i:i;iateria).. Thils ,µ=µ (ir, ,p). Tem~ i;-~
atw::e•;is;.tM -mc;i~•ilJlpo ~ant variaple; s_(>let·!lS•c~nsider it qi:sc.:SJ.cce_
U¢rif e~ip4iqitequai:j:90$ !Qr visco sity
~ ;:a ·fppct ion .of t~rq~ rature are avail~bl¢,
~ffe.c t of·T :ernp ~rat ure,o n Visc osity

a. ~:as,e s ·
All·~ ~-: CJloJ¢cq~es :are in cQri~tiuoµs ran~o ~•motio;!l· Wbe~ th~!-"!! ~s bulk m0tiQn. dµe ·co:fl9w,. _thi. bulk
-moti orids:-'.syp~f.\rpp,ose~Lon-.the.ran9Q!)l mpuo ns.-It,1s th~n·d ismbu ted µtro.ugh0ut th~-fluid, by: rri!)le,c:ml.ir
~qUisi;;ns, .Analyses b~e~ =.o n .kinetic theQcy•pre4ic t .
·-,,~..ff
Toe lcilieti,c-'th¢6fy pr¢diciion"is ~ - fru_r·ii g~_rlient with :ex¢: im.en ~-~n ~, but-th¢ constant- of propor- _
tlori4 !,lity• and p\)e pr. inpre..corre cnon factoi;s mus~ be detemuned; .t his limits practi cal applic ati6ti of ~s
l.utjp l~-C(:!µation.
620 Appen dbf·A Fluid Proper ty Data
If two or more experim ental points are available, the data ntay be correla ted us ing the empir ical
Sutherl and correla tion [7]
(A.l)
Consta nts b and S may be determi ned most simply by writing
bT3l'2.
µ=S+ T
or
T3/2 = (~)T+~
JI b b
(Comp are this with y=m.1: +c.) From a plQt ofT312 /11 versus T, one obtains the slope, 1/b. and the
interce pt, S/b. For air.
b = 1.458 x 10-6 kg
m -s-K 112
S= 110.4K
Thesec_o nstants were use~ with Eq. A. l to comput e viscosities for the standard atmosp here in [7]. the air
yisc;osity values at various temper atures shown in Table A. 10, and using approp riate conver sion factor s.
the· values shown in Table A.9.
b. Liquid s
Viscos ities for liquids canriot be estimat ed well theoretically. The ptienomenon of tnomen tllm trans-f er
by molecu lar collisio ns is oversha dowed in liquids by the effects of interacting force fields among th~
closely packed liquid molecu les.
Liquid viscosi ties are affected drastically by temperature. This depend ence on absolu te tempe rature
may be represe nted PY the empiric al equatio n
Jt=AeB f(T- C) (A.2)

or th~ equiva lent form
µ ==A1001cr.... ci (A.3)
where Tis-ab solute .temperat\!re.

· .Equa!,io~ A.}> i;e,qu~ s ii..t least three points to fit constants A. 8 , -an_d,.C. In theory it is possib le to
detentll llC the constan ts from·m eas~m ents of viscosity at just thre~ t\!mperatures, It is bett~r p.racti ce
t~ use more data and to optain the. constants from a statistical fit to the data.
· · Howev er a curve-f it is develop ed, always compar e·the resultingJine or curve with the availa ble datu.
'Pie l>.est way js to critica.Qy inspect a plot of lb~ curve~fjtcompared ,v.ith the data:.,In-gerier al. curve -fit
results will be _satisfact ory only wtien th~ quality of the available data and that of the empiri cal re lation
~ kn6w~ to be excelle nL
· · Data. {or the _d,ynamic viscosi ty of Wat~r are fi(ted well usil)g. c.0 nstant. values. A:;::: 2-.414 -x 1 o-5
N-.s/Ii l~• .0,.:::;;:247 .8,K. and C:=140 K. Ref~rence (10) states that using. these constan tS irr,Eq. A .3 pre~
.die~. watir visi,:osity within ±2.5 percent over the temperature range from Q<lC .to_;370 °C. Equat ion A.3
.aiJ.d Excelw.er¢ use.!i. to comput e the water viscosicy values at vario1,1_s temperatures-sh own in Table A.8.
~d ~~iJJg c1pprppriate con.version factors , theyaJue.s shown in Table A.7.
~ot~ ,~ ~t¢.evi scosi..t y_of.a liquid decreases w:Ith t~mpe ra~; v.rhile- .that of.a ~as increa ses with
tei;p.p~rat\$.-
A.3 Ttre Physic al Nature of Visczosify 621
1 N-s/m2 ~ 0.0209 itif-s/fl2
..
2
lx10-1 r---+ -"?"" "'51: ;--~-- -'k--" '"Q:~ --t--- -t---,

e.
6-
·2
lxl0~8 r----- 1--~- -t·-· -----t-- ---t- ----+ ---i- ----,

.·
lxio-5
B
Hy_d ~11
~2-~o-___.__ _~o""-~ ~ -_2~0- -~4~-•,-... ~--=--J..,.;o,,,......,-L--s~:o-. __,__~1.~®-__ _ _.120
1"ernperat11(e; T c•c,-
·fig. A.:z, Oyn~mii: labsolute),viS!=OSJty_o fc~mnior i OuJdns:a·fµtlctfon of t~!J1perat1,1r:¢: (Data f~'!_1;8gferen<;l!s Ct-, 6, ~lid 19]:) -
i;q. 'Ille gi::npbs,foraira nd water \V,ere c9.mpuied from:tl\¢ ~eel work.b_o ok,!\bs olute Vis¢os(ties,-us ing
Eq. A.( and Eq. A3, ~~ctiv :ely. The wprkbook can be u!{ed te;rcotnput¢ v~cosit i_e s ofothei; fluids
if .c onstan ts b and S (for a g~) or A, B, and C (for a liquid) ax:e '9lown.
Eff¢c;t: of.Press ure Qh Visco sity.

d .. Gases . . ·· ·- ·
The viscosi ty of_gase§. is. ~s.enti;t!Jy i}ipeR!;!:l.c!elit of p~gu;e betwee n.~ few huli~! i~~-Qf an atmo.~ppere
arid a ,fe~ au~osp he~. However, viscosii;y ~J h~gh pressures increlises wi~ pressure (or cien~ll'y).
b:l;.:iquids ·- · . . . . · . . .
The ,v:js~osities c,f most hqmds are not _affe<:;te!i _b_y .~10de~ te pressures, b.u t larg~ mc;rep.seg,.Jiav¢'·,been
J°du11d at very high p~s1,1res. For example,. tb~ vm:0s1ty of water p.t 10,0.00i ii!ii'i( is twice tqat .at
62 2 ~p pe n- .il ix-A Fl tii d. P.ri)p!i!'rfy Da ta
-- .- -, -- -- -. -- -- -, -- -- -. -- -= -- -,
1 x io -2 r- r- r- ,- ,- r- -. -- r- -- .-
8
6
iZ -= -- ir -- -' -l = -c -- -- l- -- -- h -- -~
lx l0 -3 1 -- -~ -+ -- ~ < :! :: :.
8
6
2 He liu m
Hydrogen
lx l0 -4
'8
!5
4
M et ha ne
t- __ _; ,:: ::: :.. -. ... ::: ¾ ::: -- -- -~ -- -- -, .l' -- -- __ __ _j

lx l0 _. k: ::- -'~ -a :! ::: :- -- -- '-' ~: :t- -- --
6
8
6
2
M er cu ry
lxlQ" laC~~--r-..,.....~1--;a..--i------+---~----!--'---_j
-- -" L. .._ .:a ... ..L _- -'- ',. J.; ... :.. .-' -'- L; ;-- .:: ..J
-- -'- -- -1 -- ~- ... L- -~ -- '-- -- '-- -- -'- --
6 .- 1.,-
.. ~- -- 'L
-2 0 :o 40 60 80 10 0 12 0
Tempernture, T (°C)
pres~I.Jr~) as, a function of terilpefal'ur~. (Qata 'frc,m Ri!{e're11c~:; [i ,;c;:, an ~ 10 ),l
Fi g! -A ,i Ki.Q~Ola~(C;·YJSj:'Qsity,of:ctomr:noif nti ~
i~_J~t. a'[J:1:!qspn~ric:
ea se of se ve nu or de rs of m ag ru tu cie ov er th ~ sa m e
I a¢ i.-l\1:9i::e,co ~.P le x c,ompo_u nd s,s ho w a v~co~ity in cr
:P~tl.1¢. @ ng e.
M9m i.q f
fq_.IJ)apon .
•IU~:Y. ~ fo un d in Rei<;t. ant;! Sti~r:wopcl [11].
A.4 Lub rica ting Offs 623
A. 4 Lub rica ting Oils
~ -n,gin ~.an d trarisrriissiQn lu.bricaling oils are classified by viscosity a¢cording to sta11dards estabJished. by
tbe ~oc::iety of Auto moti ve Engineers [12). The allow able viscosity rang es for several" gtade:s are give 1:1 in
Tab le A-.5 . .
• __Visc o~ity OUil)Qers with W (e.g .• 20W ) are class ified by viscosity at 0°F. Tho se with out W ~ c)as:.
sifie d by v1sc:osity at_ i10° p_ ·
. . Mul tigra de oils '(e._g.,
IOW-4Q) are foa milated ·io minimize visc_ osify variation- w i"th temperatri"f¢.
Hig h ;pol yme r "visc psity index:improv¢rs;' are.u sed in blei'jdiiig _these mult igrad e oils. Such addi tives
:~ h 1 ~:111_Y, non'-NeW tpnj~ ; lhey:-.aiay suf(er., perrnanen~ visco sity ioss caus ed by sn¢ariil~. ___ , _ : _
. S\)~c:ial ch~ are available to ,estimate t,J-ie visco sity ;of pet,roleum prod ucts as a func uon of tepp e~-
~~~- 1be char ts w ere used to ~ev¢1op the data for typicalJ ubricating oils plott ed in Fi~s . A.2 anc! A3.
For deta il_s ,. see [i:S]. . .. . .
0
Tap le A.5
:Allo wab le Vi_s cosi fy' Rang e·s fqr-·l ubri cant s
Visco sity (cSt l at I_OO°C
f3,AE. Max. V;!sqo,~i_cy (cP)°
En~ n~ Oil Visc9~ity Grade. nt TeiiJp. (°C) Min Max.
-ow 3250 nt--30. 3.8'
5W -:fsoo ;, -25 3.8
lOW 350Q-n( , ip 4-.l
I~ 3500 :~t--':- I 5 5.6
20W 4500 .:it -10 5.6 ·
2:jW 6000 .nt -5 9.3
20 5.6 <93
30 9.~ < 12.5
40· 12.5 <16.3°-
.so . . 16;3 <21. 9
. Ax.le nnd Man ~nl SAE -Miuc. Tem p. .(0 C) for:- Visc;osicy, (.~St) 1!-tl0 0°p
T ~sq tlssJQ[I L11b ric~t Visi;oslty Gµde Vis_~gsicy of i-50,000 cl;' _ Nfin _ Max
1QW ·=55 4 .1
75W ,-40;_ 4•.!:
sow ~?-"6 7.0
SSW ,,.- ) 2 11.Q
90 13'5· <24;():.
140 24,0 .<4 1.0
:fao 41.0.
Auto inni-Jc 'I)-am;miss ioli Milx,im11m Viscosity. (c:S.t) nt I.OO"C
FJµicl (t~t cal) Vis.<;!)Sity (cP).
'joooo ""--40 8.5
4p{)p ---:2'.l.3/ 8.5
17 QO . ~JS 8.5
---s 0··u-
_ e ·_ Dntn "from Refcrenccs-["12~ 1AJ• . _ _ . .
• -~ • • - ·• · - ·-3 ·s r / ')
a centi pois~.=;c _l cP= I mPa -~=.H,l.- , _P11-•.,s ( =2:09,_~ .).0,-c ._I!> :•s rr .
"c~n tis,o~ e-= 10~6 mi / s ( = IJ ll\ ~ rn~s ni /s).
624 Appendix A Fluig Property Data
A. 5 Properties of Common Gases, Air and Wa ter
Table A.6
Thermodynamic: Properties of Common Gases at STP0
1
R''
1 Cp c., k== Cp
c.,
Rb
(lbm;ru ) ~~u
Gas
Chemical
Syip.b9I
Mol~cular
Mass.Mm (kg -K) (kg ,K) (k1/K) (-)
( ft•lbf)
lbm R.
0
0
R ·
(
lbm 0 R
)
·
Air Z8.98 286.9 1004 7L7.4 1.40 53.33 0.2399 0.1713
¢arbpn COi 44.01 188.9 840.4 651.4 1.29 35.11 0.2007 0.1556
dioxide
'.{;nl'QOn co 28.01 296.8 1039 742.1 1.40 55.17 0.2481 0 . 1772
.monoxide
Helium He 4.003 2077 5225 3147 1.66 386.l 1.248 0.7517
Hydrogen H2 2.016 4124 14.180 10,060 1.41 766.5 3.388 2.402
fv.Wbane CFli 16.04 518:3 2190 1672 1.31 96.32 o·.s231 0 .3993
Nitrogen Nz 28.01 296.8 1039 742.0 1.40 55.16 0.2481 0.1772
Oxygen 02 32.00 2S9.8. 909.4 649.6. 1.40 48.29 0.2172 0.1551
Steam'" H20 18.02 461.4 ~2000 ,..., 1540 ~1.30 85.78 ~0.478 ~0.368
S(l11rce: Data frpm References [7. 16, 17].
"STP.= ·stnndilrd temperature nnd pressu~. T= 15"C=59"F and p= 1()1:325 kPa (abs)= l4.696psio.
0
b RER./Mm,R• =8314.3i/(kgmol · K) = 1545.3 fl-lbf/(lbmol - R); I Btu=778.2 ft•lbf.
'"W111c.r vapoibchav~ BS nn.-i deal gas ,vhen.superheoted by 55°C {I00°F) or more.
TablE! A,7
Properties
... of Water (U.S. Customary Units)
Tempe~!UJ'e. t>ensity, p Dynamic Viscosity,,, Kimimmic Surface Tension, Vapor Pressure, Bulle Modulus.
f(C?F) (sluw,i"t3) (lbf-s/ft2 ) Viscosi!)'. 11 (ft2/s) u (lbf/ft) . p., (psia) E., (psi)
~2 1.94 3;68E-05 I.90E-05 0.00519 0.0886 2.9?E + 05

40 1.94 3.20E-0? l.65E-05 0.00514 0.122
.so l .94 ?.73E-05 1.4IE-05
1.23E-05
0.00509
0.00504
0.178
0.?47
59 1.94 2.388-05
1.94 2.35E-05 1.2lE-05 0.00503 0.256
60
1.94 2.lOE~Os J.08E 05
0
0.00499 0.339
68
70 l.93 2.0SE-05 1.06&-05 0.00498 0.363 3.20E + 05
l.93 J.S'OE-05 9.32E~06· Q.00492 O.S07
80
1.93 J.59E-O,'.'! 8.26E,06 0.00486 0.699
9.0
1 ;93 l.43E-05 7.38E-06 0.'00480 0.950
100 6.68E-06 0.00474 1.28'·
no L92 1.28E-OS
l.92. 1.16E-05 6.QSE-06 0.00467 1:70 3.32E + 05
120.
1.91 L06E-05 5.54E-06 0.0046] 223
J.30 0.00454
l.91 9.70E-06 5.08E-06 2.89
.140 0.00448
1.90 8.93E-06 4.70E~06 3.72
150 0;00441
1.89 8.26E-06 4.37E-06 4.75
16.0 4.06E-06 0.00434 6.00
170 L89. 7 .67£.06
7.15E-06 3.80E-06 0,00427 7.52
180 l.88
1;87 6.69E-06 3.58E-06 0.00420 9.34
190 3.36E-06 0.00413 11.5 3.08E + 05
200 1-87 fi?SE-06
5.84E-06 3.14E-06 0.00404 14.7
212 1.86
A.5 Pro per ties of Com mo n Gas es, Air and Wa ter 625
Ta ble A.8
Pro per ties of Wa ter (SI Units)
Tem pera ture , Den sity, p Dynamic Visc osity .,, !Gnc mati c Surf ace Ten sion , Vap or Pres sure . Bolk Mod ulus ,
T ("C ) (kg/ m3 ) (N -s/m2 ) Visc;osity, v (m2/s) c; (Nim ) Po (kPa ) £ 0 (0P a)
0 IOOO l.76E -03 l .76E -06 0 .075 7 0 .661 2 .01
5 1()()( )
I.SIE -03 1.5I E-06 0.07 49 0 .872
10 IOOO l.30E -03 l.30 E-06 0.07 42 1.23
15 999 1.14E-03 1.14 E-06 0.07 35 1.71
20 99_8 I.OIE-03 I.OI E-06 0.07 27 2.34 2.21
25 997 8.93 E-04 8.96 E-07 0.07 20 3. 17
30 996 8.00 E-04 8.03 E-07 0.07 12 4.25
35 994 7.2LE-04 7.25 E-07 0.07 04 5.63
40 992 6.53 E-04 6.59 E-01 0.06 96 7.38
45 990 5.95 E-04 6.02 E-07 0.06 88 9.59
50 988 5.46 E-04 5.52 E-07 0.06 79 12.4 2.29
55 986 5.02 E-04 15.8
5.0% -07 0.06 71
60 983 4.64 E-04 4.72 8-07 0.06 62 19.9
65 980 4.31 E-04 4.40 E-07 0.06 54 25.0
70 978 4.0I E-04 4. 108- 07 0.(,)645 31.2
75 975 3.75 8-04 3 .858 -07 0.06 36 38.6
80 972 3.52 8-04 3.62 E-07 0.06 27 47.4
85 969 3.31 E-04 J.41 E-07 0.06 18 57.8
90 965 3. 12E-04 3.23 E-07 0.06 08 70.1 2.1z
95 962 2,95 E-04 3.06 E-07 0.05 99 84.6
100 958 2.79 8-04 2.92 E-07 0 :055 9 IOI
Ta ble A,9
Pro per ties of Air at Atmospheric: Pi'essur.e (U.S. Cus tom ary Units)
3
-
Tem pera ture , T ( F)
0
Deo sity, p (slug/fl ) Dyn amic Visc osity ,µ (1bf•s/ft2 ) Kine mati c Visc osity , v (ff/s )
40 0,00 247 '.!.63 8..07 1.47 E-04
50 0.00 242 3.69 E-07 l.52 E-04
59 0.00 238 3.74 E-07 l.57 E-04
60 0.00 237 3.74 E-07 l.58 8-04
68 0 .002 34 3.79 E-07 1.62 8:04
70 0 .002 33 .3.so E-01 1.63E--04
80 0.00 229 3.85 E-07 l.68 E-04
90 0,00 225 .3.91 £-07 l.74 E-04
IQQ 0.00221 3.96 8-07 l.79 8-04
110 0 .002 17 4.02 &07 l.86 E-04
120 0.00 213 _4 .07E -07 l.9l E-0 4
130 0.00 209 4.12 £-07 L97 E-04
t40 0.00 206 4.IS E-07 2.03 &.0 4
150 0.00 202 4.23 E-07 2 .098 -04
f60 O.Q0199 4.2S E-07 2.lS E-04
110 O.OOi96 4.33 E-07 2,i1 E~0 4
180 0.00 193 4 .38E -07 2.27 E-04
190 0.00 190 4.43 E-07 2.33 E-04
200 0.00 187 4.48 E-07 2.40 E-04
626 Appen iihc A Fluid Pr:ope rty Data
Table A.10
Proper ties of Air at Atmos pheric Pressur e (SI Units)
Temperai:ure, T (°C) Density, p (k¥1m3 ) Dynnmic Viscosity. µ (N ·s/m2 ) Kinema tic Viscosi ty. v (m2 /s)
0 1.29 l.72E-05 l.33E-0 5
5 1.27 J.74E-05 l .37E-05
10 1.25 J.76E-05 l.41E-0 5
15 1.23 I.79E-05 l.45E-0 5
20 1.21 l.81&05 l.SOE-0 5
25 1.19 l.84E-05 i..54E-0 5
30 1.17 l.86E-05 J .59E-05
35 1.15 l.88E-05 l.64E-0 5
40 1.13 l.91E-05 L69E-0 5
45 1.11 1.93E-05 J.74E-0 5
50 1.09 1.95E-0 5 l.79E-0 5
55 1.08 l.98E-05 l .83E-05
60 1.06 2.00E-0 5 1.89E-0 5
65 i.04 2.02E-0 5 l,94E-0 5
70 1.03 2.04E-05 1.98E-0 5
75 1.01 2.06E-05 2.04E-0 5
80 1.00 2.09E-0 5 2 .09E-05
85 0.987 2.1 IE-05 2.14E- 05
90 0.973 2.13E-0 5 2.l9E-0 5
95 0.960 2. I 5E 05
0
2.24E-0 5
I 00 0.947 2. J?E-05 2 .29E-05
10. Toµloukian, Y. S., S. C. S~ena, and P. Hestetm ans, Then11 0-

1. Handbo ok of Clzen.!istry a11d Phys(cs , 62,'1d·ed . Clevela nd,-OH: pltysical Properties of Matter, ri,e TPRC Data Series. Vol. I J -
CheIJ'l}C.U Rubber Publish ing Co., t.9.8 1-1 982. Viscosily. New York: P!e'1um Publishi ng Corp., 1975.
2. "Meii ~S~dn rd Indicati ng Fluids," Pnmphl et ~o. 92CiOEN: -11. Reid, R. C .• and T. K. Sherwoo~•-Tire Propen ies of Gases and
430-1'.··.The Meciam Insttum ent Co.. 1~920 Mathson Avenµe, Uquids, 2nd ed. New York: Mc;Graw J-lill, 1966.
0
Clevela nd, OH 44102. 12. "Engine Oil. Viscosity ·Clnssif ication- --SAE Standa rd J300
3 . E. Vernon Hill, Inc., _P .O.·Box 7053, Cone Madera , CA949 25. Jun86," SAE Handbook, 1987 ed, Warren dale; PA: Soc_iecy of
Automo tive Engineers, 19!!,7. ·
4• Avalloi t~:. E. A., an.d ~- Baume! ster, .ill, eds., Marks' Standar~
Handbc_,ok Jqr Mechari1caJ Enginee rs, 11th ed. New York: 13. "Axle an_!i Manual Transmission Lubrica nt Viscos ity
Crassifi cation-- 'SAE Standard 1306 Mlir85," SAE Handb ook.
McOraw-HiII, 2007. 19 87 ed. Warrendale, PA: Society e1f Automo tive Engine ers, 1987.
5. il_a_;;,dbook of Tables/ or Appli~d ~ngin~eri11g Science. Cleve- 14. ''Fluid for Pns_si,nger Car Type Automa tic Trans missio ns-
.Jarid• .OH: Chernic !il R~bber Publistu ng_Co., 1970. SAE Informatiop Repon 13:i 1 "Apr86, " SAE Hat1{ib ook. 1987
6. Vatg ~ _f\l. B_., 7:aMes on tfie _Tl,ei mophys ical i::ropertie_s o! ed. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automo tive Engine ers, 1987.
Ljqi~i~ o.n,d::c;_as~. 2nd ed. Washin gton, DC: Hr:llllsphere P~b- 1_5. ASTiy1 Stand:,.rcl D 341; 77, "Viscos ity~Tempe rature Chans
ljsl:jing Corp·.• f97.S. foi Liquid Petroleum Products," America n Society (or. Tesun g-
and Matena ls, 1916 Race S,_tre.et, Pnili,,d~lphia., PA 19103.
7. Th~ tJ.s: .Srcind_?l,fd Almo_spfiere ()9.76). Washington, DC: U.S.
Go:vern ¢!iilt Print4iw O(.Gce. 1976. 16., NASA.Compressed Gas Handbo ok (Revise d). Washi ngton;
D¢: National Aeronau tics and. Space Adlliin istrnlio n, SP-
8. Tn;(~the!l,- L., "Surfac; e T~nsion in 1'.'luid Mc;c~;inics'', i~ 3"045, 1970.
ll/usrra ted J;:xperimenrs- in Flmd .fflecl1qm_cs. C;unbnd ge, MA.
The M.l.T. Press. 19.7 2>
17. ASME, Them1ody11amit a1id Tri.i,ispdrt Pr6per iies of Steani .
New York: American Society of M~ !mnicnl Engine ers, 1967.
9. s~cer, V. 1'.'.' ed.,_f/{J.11.dbook of Flltid[) ynamics . New York:
¥~Qi:a,w -,H ill. 1961.
APPENDIX 1B
Videos for Fluid Mechanics
D Referenced in the text are the following videos available at www.wiley.com/college/fox.

Chapter 2
Streamlines Pipe Flow: Transitional
The Glen Canyon Darn: A Turbulent
Streaklines
Pipe Flow
Capillary Rise
Boundary Layer Flow
Streamlined Flow over an Airfoil Chapter 9
Internal Laminar Flow in a Tube Flow around an Airfoil
Streamlines around a Car Flow Separation on an Airfoil
Laminar and Turbulent F1ow Effect Qf Viscosity on Bound<!ry
Layer Growth
Examples of Boundary Layer Growth
Chapter 4
Flow Separation: Airfoil
Mass Conservation: Filling a Tank
Flow about a Sports Car
Momenrum Effect: A Jet Impacting a
Plate Nom1al ~o the Flow
Surface
An Object with a Higll Drag Coefficient
Examples of Flow around a Sphere
Chapter 5 Vonex Trail behind a Cylinder
An Example of Streamlines/Streaklines Flow Past an Airfoil (a = 0°)
Particie Molion in a Channel Flow Past an Airfoil (a = 10°)
Linear Deformation Flow Pa.st an Airfoil (a = 20°)
Flow Past a ,Cylinder Wing Tip Vortices
Leadin& Edge Slats
Chapter 6
An Example of.lrrotational Flow Chapter 10
Flow in an Axi<!l Flow Compressor
(Animation)
Chapter 7
Geometric, Not Dynamic, Similarity:
Flow Past a Blocl< 1 Chapter 11
Oeomeaic, Not Dynamic, Similarity: A Laminar Hydraulic Jump
Flow Past a Block 2
Chapter12
Cha[)ter 8 Shock Waves due to a Projectile
The Reynolds Transition Experiment Shock Waves over a Supersonic Airplane
Pipe Flow: Laminar
62,7
628 Appendix B Videos for Fluid Mechanics
The following videos were developed by the National Committee for Auid M echanics Films (NCFMF)
and may be viewed at hup://web.mit.edu/hm Vncfmf.hurtl. Each of these videos goes into the subject in
more depth than may be appropriate for an undergraduate class. However. selected segments of the
videos are useful in bringing out important fluids phenomena. ·
These videos are supplied by:
Encyclopaedia Britannica Educational Corporation
331 North La Salle Street
Chicago, IL 60654
Aerodynamic Generation of Sound (44 min, principals: M. J. Lighthill, J.E. Ffowcs-Williams)

Cavitation (31 min, prineipal: P . Eisenberg)
Channel Flow of a Compressible Fluid (29 min, principal: D. E. Coles)
Defom1alion of Continuous Media (38 min, principal; J. L. Lumley)
Eulerian and Lagrangian Descriptions in Fluid Mechanics (27 min, principal: J . L. Lumley)
Flow Instabilities (27 min, principal: E. L. Mollo-Christensen)
Flow Visualization (31 min, principal: S . J. Kline)
The Fluid Dynamics of Drag (4 parts, 120 min, principal: A.H. Shapiro)
Fundamentals of Boundary Layers (24 min, principal: F. H. Abernathy)
Low-Reynolds-N11mber F/ows (33 min, principal: Sir G. I. Taylor)
Magnetohy</rodynam ics (27 min, principal: J. A. Shercliff)
Pressure Fields and Fluid A cceleration (30 min, principal: A. H. Shapiro)
Rarefied Gas Dynamics (33 min, principals: F. C. Hurlbut, F. S. Shem1an)
Rheological Behavior of Fluids (22 min, principal: H . Markovitz.)
Rotating Flows (29 min, principal: D. Fultz)
Seco,u/Jn)' Flow (30 min, principal: E. S. Taylor)
Stratified Flow (26 min, principal: R. R. Long)
S ~trface Tei1sion in Fluid Mecha1iics (29 min, principal: L. M. Trefethen)
Tw:bulence (29: min, principal: R. W. Stewart)
Voniciry (2 parts, 44 min, principal: A. H. Shapiro)
Waves in Fluids {33 mitl, princiral: A. E. Bryson)
Another source of fluid mechanics vid~os is a CD enticled "Multimedia Fluid ·Mechanics'' by Honisy
ec al. it is available from Cambridge Un1versity Press, 32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY
10013-2473, ISBN 9780521721691. This CD contains a very large number of videos that iJlustrate
different phenomena in fluid flow.
AP PE ND IX C
S el ecte d Performan ce Curv es
fo r Pumps and Fans
C.1 Int rod uct ion

Man y firm s, worl dwid e; manu factu re fluid machines in n1,1merous stand ard type s and sizes . Ea¢h man -
µfac ture r publ ishe s com plete perfo rman ce data to allow appl icati on of its mach ines in syste ms. This
App endi x cont ains selec ted perrormance data for use in solvi ng pum p 1111d fail syste m prob lems .
Two pum p type s and one fan type nre included.
Cho ice of a manu faqtu rer may be b~e d on-.estab lishe d _prac tice, locat ion, or cost, Onc e a manu fac~
Lure r i_s chos en, mach ine selection is a th~e~step pr9cess:
I. Sele ct a mac hine type , suite d to the application, from a man ufac turer 's full- line catal og, whic h give s
the rang es of pres sure rise (head) and l'low rate for each mach ine type.
2 . Cha os¢ an appr opria te mach ine mod el and drive r spee d from a mast er selec tor char t. whic h supe r-
pose s the he.a d and .flow rate !llilges of a series of ma.ch ines on one grap h.
3. Veri fy that .the cam,lidate mach ine is satisfactory for the intencled 1,1pplication, •usin g a deta iled per~
fonn ance curv e for the spec ific machine.
It is wise to _<iopsult with experiepcecl -syst em engi neer s. eithe r emp loye d by the !l)ac hine manufac;-
ttire i 9r in your own <;irganiz1,1tion; before maki ng a final. purc hase decis ion.
Man ;yma nu:fa crure rs.cli trend y 1,1se computerized proc edur es to selec t a mach ine thatj s mos t suita ble
:(or each give n appl icati on. Such p'rocedu.r es are simp ly ;iutomated versi ons of the tradi tiona l selectio11
tnet hod . l}se of the mas~er selec tor chart and the detai led p.e rform ance curv es is illus trate d belo w fo,r
pum ps Q.D.d fons , usin g data from one manufacturer of each type of mach ine. Liter ature of othe r man -
ufac ture rs diffe rs in detai l butc oilia ins the necessary infor mati on for macb µie selec tion.
C.2 Pu mp Selection
Rep rese ntat ive data are show n in Figs. C.1 through C.10 for Peer less 1 horiz onta l split case sing le-st age
(seri t;S AE) pwn ps and .in Fig:;. C . 11 and C.12 for Peer less mult i-sta ge (seri es TlJ and TUI ) pum ps.
Figu res C. l and C.2 are maste1: pum p selec tor chan s for serie s AE pum ps at 3500 a,nd 1750 nom inal
rpm . O~ thes e char ts, the model num ber (e.g. , 6AE 14) indicates the _dischar:ge line size (6in . nom inal
pip_e ), the pum p serie s (AE) , and the maxi mum impe ller .diam eter (iipp roxim ately 14 in.).
figu] 1!s C.3 throu gh C.10 are detailed perfo rman ce char ts fol? indiv idua l pum p model,s iQ the AE
serie s.
Figu res C. l I an!! C.12 are master pum p selector ch.µ,s for serie s TU and TUT p1,1mps at 1750 nom -
ina,1 rpm . Data for tw.o~s1age pum ps are presented in Fi_g : C.11 , whil e-Fig. C.12 contaiII$ data for pum ps
with three., four, and five !itages.
Eac h pum p perfo rman ce char t contains curv es of total heai;t vers us volu me flow .rate; c.utVes for
seve ral impe ller diam eters -test ed in the same casi pg-a re pres ente d on a singl e grap h. Each perfo r-
ma~ ce char t also cont ains curv es show ing pµmp. effic iency and driv er pow er; the net posi tive sucti on
head (NP SH) requ irem ent, as it varies wi~ flow rate, is sho\.vn by th~ curv e at the botto m of each char t.
The best effic ienc y poin t (BEP ) for each impeller_may be foun d usmg the effic iency curv es.
Use of the mast erpu rrtp selec tor char t and detai led perfo rman ce curv es is illust rated in Exai:nple C. l.
1 p· Conipuny p O. Box 7026. lndiunupolis, IN 46207-7026.

Peerl ess ump · ·
629
630 Appendix t Selectffc:I: Performance Curves for Pumps and Fans
Examp le c., PUMP SELECTION PROCEDURE
Se lecl a pump to deliver I 750 ~ m _o f watt!r ~U 2OJ1-!.0.\J&l1.e..J.£l,. C:l12,q~~tli_e~pp,roppJ!.te.p~p,J:P.~4~1-ll!!!iAA¥e~ ~~e~'.ipe¢i,cy:th._¢

pump efficie ncy, dri ver po,v-er,-·and 7Yl?$ff.,,jeq_qn,:ment. __ __ . . - · ·. ___ _ ···
Given: S elect a pump to deliver qpQrggm ..9.f.cW~~P.@t ffCrt\: tot~J;he~,

Find:
(a) Pump mode l and driver speed:
(b) P ump e ffic iency.
(c) Driver power.
(d) N PS H require menL
Solution: Use the Rump selection procedure ,described in SeGti0n'sQ';.l:.;(mhe•,n umbe§ ,~~; #Q~~-o nd•to•the' n.r iii!,~~~jj{~~.P~'
!riven in the procedure.) '· . , •.
7- ~~;~~;c;J~~~:~ ~e;;W!e~sjri~~; i ; :i@~~~~ t: ~.~ 8!4if~id i1!:::~::.i~t t t J : : f t ~ ~ ~ ~~; :··
AE · Therefore the requ ifecl perf6rn'iance can·lJe,,.ooffilnei:ha:ssume~ib:e'setectf ·~ •'-.y,.15 · ' ~~i:i' ~ -- , tl:ilir=--·· • -;j
2 . Con: ~1~~:~ ~ ~ l ; _r__P-~~_p, ~fJi{?!;;?!.1~ 1 r f•1~-~~~_o ~a~j~-~ ~~~-~~i~ ;~;;~~:: Q~: :i21 ,t i l ~ ~::r~i:~¢~~r.
chart (Fig. C. .t). F r6._m th e 17SJ!~1N)9.!!artl@4g. C.2), selecta' motle}i(>;.\E·1'4'pump,.Emmi~ eipeff'effe.liMe,cuf.Ve.,t:g:c,t:b~p~I-~ ,
pump (Fig . C:-6), choose a 13~iii~·i ffip'eller. .. . _., ·
3. Verify the pe rf~iyi_a nce ~ f the m~j~.t:i~~~ tli~ :~~~E~~~-~ ?~"~ 'i ff~~,P~. yi°,$!~ f(?p;J1:~c,!;19b_a rt~?,~itl!~,.Q ~\4>J>limp;·
project up from q1e ~b:,c1ssa at Q ::;e_175(j)j.iPm- ProJect across from' fr-=.Wl0\fr.:oµJtl}".e!loroifi'nte~.'.'.Ffie" ifiterse:cti0n,-~ SJ :J:i~)pµmp~
performance at the clesfred operatih-g poih l; · .
,, ~ 85 .8 percent \iJI ~64hp

From the operatin~ p oint. project down to the NPSH requirement curve. At lhe
intersection, read· NPSH ~ 17 ft.
C.3._Fqn Se/¢.c:ti..Qr.t
Fan sele.cl;ion is similar to pump '$'el~cti'oo.· A ~preseji_fa!ive master tan selection cnart is· shown in
2
Fig. C .13 {Qr a serles of Howden ·Buffa.lo ax,ial~.floYJ fans, The.~hart·shows the·effii::iency of the entire .
series of fruis-rutif:fiirietio1n>f to:tal preSsure rise and.flow rnte: Tlie seri_es,of nui-Qbers fo1>each fan in~li'--
cat~ the fan diiu:netef irfincl\c;s, 'the hubdiametetin inches, arii;I the fa:i( s~ed·4t r~volutions per minµte.
!for iilstiince·; a54-26-8'.70 ~ '. ti~ afan diameterof54 in., a hub-diameter t;if26 ii1.;~Iilid. should be oper-
ated at 870xpm. .
Nbnnally~ faial eval~ii.~iqii ·9fstiifliqilii:y oOhe :r$1
·modeLfor the applicatioir would be done usin~
d¢~ed'.pei:forman:ce.chartsJ' 9tili~ specific mode1: Iristead, we us¢·theefficie'ncies;fr om'Fig C . 13. which
-~ .mc:Uc~J!!d.by the shading,0f the different zones on the map. Tc;:, ~ii.tcu late'ihe po-Wet teqµirement for ~e
f~ m.oiPi,.·':Y.~ ,us~, tite following eqµa:tion: · ·.
. .. _ Q(tfm) X,Llp(in: H20)

.\lP(b.P) =- . 6350x,,
C.3 Fan Selection 631
Example C.2 FAN SELECTION PROCEDURE
S'.~i.!WIAA.,~ .i!l_.flgw f;gi.J..9.g eliver 3.0 000 cfrn..ofstandard air at L25 in. H2 O total pressure. Choose the appropriate fan mode l and
d:iiver'spe;ed,,':Specify,,Qie·f'an·ernai:ii:6y anc1\friver power.
Given :
Select an ax.ial flow fan to deliver 30,000 c fm of standard air at 1.25 in. H20 total head .
Find:
(~.\ [:~a§~~e anq_ driver s peed.

Cl>)> F.i'@.\"
,.,, <··· ·· ··· ~ -e-fficl~nc
~,.•·~- -- .•,- y .
cc) -nnvet t>'o\~'i~r.
S9-JJ,1J;!-Q£1: Lise th~ fan selection procedure described in Section C- J. (The numbe rs be low correspond to the numbered steps
givei:i· in the procedure.)
I · S ~l~~J -~ m~fh}ne ty pe SUf ted .to _th_e awJication. (Thjs step actually requires a manu facture r' s full-line catalog, w hich is not
repi'cfauced "bere. Assu'me lbe fan sel~ffioii 'is lo be made from the axial fan data presented in Fig. C . 13.)
2 . C Qn_s·u1t th.e lE~~ter fan se_le_ctor chart. The d~jced operating point is within the conto,ur for the 48-2 1-860 fan on the se lec tor
cli'Hn1Fig. C r3). To aclueve the desired perfo~Mce reqtllies driving 'ihe fan at 860 rpm.
3 . V ~tj_.fy J!!.~~IfO!JlJ:Wce of the rna,ch\ne usJJ!g a_detWJtc;! ~~rf<;>rmance cl).?rt, To
d~_~J.]j:ii__ti~ ~§ffi§i~Q:~y, we co'.ns'uif 'Fig'.t :~i3 ag:iin: Witesumate an efficiency
ot;i~~f~ient. T 6 'clete-ffi:iine 'the ~ 610~p ower ~ liiir~ment, we use the equation
g1vecf abbve: fThis·d>rit-pl~t~:i:h~~nln-se1ectibrt:prai~.
; Again, one should consult with experienced
g, _ Gx-..t¾P _ 30, 000 Salm...~ .L ~ .in. H20 _ h :·system engiheers. to verify that the system
- 63sb"x,, - 6350'x 'D'.'ss - 6 ·95 P · operatfng condition hi!S been predicted
'. c1~wrately an_d the fan hc1s been selected
:~cqrreqiy:
632 1A p·peridix <: Selected Performance Curves for Pumps and Fans
700 ,...,...----~-- .,- - _ _ ,. - -.-

\-
1 1
3570 rlmI____,.\-,-\- - - , - - - - - . . . - - - - -
1
.: ~==========4======1====t--t_J
650
-+-+I-++--F::::,,. _~ +, - ' r· - , --
---+- ----+---+-~-
1
.~OD 1- - - - - - - t - - - - - - - i - - - tr
- - --t--==;~ =+--1-+---- ~
l-~ - l------l-----l--_J_ _I
I ~i-.._;--.... '
!f ~O ,___4=A=E=l=2- - - r - - - - t - - - - t -- +--t--+i___jl
'lP-,_-!-+-l~_ .:::,,.,_,-6~A
..::ib:;1.:.
..:2_----l-"
~ '-__;~ -----l----l.-l
,1 ~ \
$bP -------t--- ---t---t--+ --+--+-+- +
l'\~ ---+-i"-.~--1---lr\' --l----l-1
i4t$P S-~==--=-=~=L===t==t==\==¼:,==W-J_J_~~ - -cl5A0c~l.~~Li\ __L;\J. __LJ

1:::
Ii:
~
1---=2='A
-=E-=-
l 1=--- - r-
----
--r --------
- 71"-._ ~ t---+;--..
'
--1-----
~
-+'--
,~
~ , -f- 5-A_E_l l_"--+-
: ~,
"- '\.--.\,.>
' {__--"r_
..,
/ ----1-_---1-_1
'\Ji' I
-~~~ 1- ---- r----1-----t---t-f/+~~"-;:,+i'--~+--l---\-\--l---/-j1
:j. .:'_
,':~~:~===
?Q~l- - - -
-- -- -+j--',,,_~ ~--~f-----i+/-i~~,a~E9~1'\
-~~,~-Q
~DH -4-AE_1_o _ k;+-+/
--l--+---l--+ --I
1:5.'b l=======tI===---
==t=~=~
~:js~
-1
. ~ k ~~~Kl-/----t-----t----+---1
--.. .____ 4AE10 '-:.,) --......__ 5AE8 N
• \~ I ~~ -~ - - - -
50 4-
. ___,.......,......,
___ __,___ ____,c._ 1. ----'----+11--'-+1-'--
_ -...!....-----'-,--f,-- ' '----'-" .:-=---+1-~..l,_~I-~
·.i:oo
..!aa..
' •• ._I ! . . . ; ,
200 300 400 500 100 goo 1500· 2500 3500

600 800 1000 2000 3000 4000
VoJum~ilow rate, Q (gpm)
Fig. c.1 Sel~~~or c:har!-. fQr Peerless hQrizon.tal split-case (s¢rles A~) p1,1mps at 3590 nominal rpm.
C.3 Fan Selection 633
500
c=----'--'--,..,.._~~-'----.-----;----,---.. .,. 1750 rpm ~------,,----,------.----,---;----;----.----,
--- .1
400
300
250
200
3AE14
15Q
E
::t; 120
'ti"
m
,!==
100
90
.B.
~ 80
70
60
50
40
30
20
100 200 300 40Q -1~()() 2soo ,- 4000 - e;ooo: I 80QO
- 500 _2000 30Cio 5000 7000
Volume flow r~t~. Q (gpm)
-Fig~ C.2 _Selectc:ir chl!rt for: PeerlE?ss horlzc:irital spilt:c~se (serles·AE}'pumps ;i~ 1750 i16mlnal·rp_m ,
,_
634 App end ix· C Sele cted Perf orm ance Curv es for Pum ps and Fans
DI ~ 11.25 1n,; 02 = 10,25 \n.; 03 = 9 .25 in.; 04 - 762 in.

90
----
-- -- ---- 80
150 ~
70
/
/
--- r--....._
-- -=:::
"Jil 100 I
~----- -01
cu
:c
/
50 7
--- ~
30
I
'- 20
04
10
20 .
-;;7
-
t
15
10
5 - -- _,,,..,;,,-
c: ~o
:S
ci>
~
Q_
20
10 .
~
......
--
---- - -
-
0
-· 500 1000
Flow (US gpm}
Fig. C.3 Perfo rman ce curve for Peerless 4AE11 pump at 1750 rpm.
Dl = 12. 12 In.; 02·= l l.!)O 1n.; D3 = 10.00 \n.; D4 =9 .SQ In.; D5 =8.50 In.
90
80
150
70
60 ~
-
-0 100 50 ~
C:
"'
cu
:c u"'
:E
Ul
50
20
10
20
0.
=-a, 15
~ IO
0
Q_
5
200 400 600 800

Flow (US. gpm)
Fig. C:.4 Perfo rman ce curve for Peerless 4AE12 p.urnp at 1.7 50 rpm.
C.3 Fan Sel ecti on 635
DJ • 12. 12 In.; D2 - 11.00 10.; DJ D 1000 In.; 04 . 9.50 In.; 05 ~ 8.50 In.
90
600 80
r- -- _ ~~
~ 70
$ / 60 l
-:;: 400 i'.i'
x / 50 .,
~~
C
200
I ~ r-----= ~ 01
30
40 ;g
w
25
I ~ D5 20
10
g 20
__,,,.,,
----
:x: 15 1_..--
~
<: 10
5
ci. 150
=:;; 100
3::
0
u. ~ ----
--
::=:--:::::= . ..
50
-
500 1000 1500 200 0
Flow (US gpm )
Fig , C.5 Perf orm ance curve for Peerless 4AE12 pum p-at 3550 rpm.
QI = U.00 in.; D2 =.J3.0 0 In., DJ = 12.00 In., 04 • .Jl.00 in.; D5 = 10.38 in.; D6 = J0.00 in.
----~----
90
200 ~
80
/ i----__ 70
/
g 150
V
60 ~
-g
"'
::i::: 100
/
~
-~ r----..._ 01 - 50
40 ~
u>-
C:
"'
.I -:::::::::s ~ I'
30
w
50 20
I 06
10
30 /
/
20 /
10 ~
/
-
80
60
40
20
~
-
~ - --
500 1000 1500 2000 250( )
Flow (µS gpm )
Fig . c.6 perf onna nce cu rve for Peer

·
less 6AE14 pu.mp a_t 175o·rpm .
636 Appendix C Selected Performanc-e Curves for Pumps and Fans
DI= 20.00 In.: D2 • 19.00.ln.: 03 ~ 18.00 In.; 04 = 17.00 In_: os·= 16.00 ,n.• 07 = 14.00 in .
90
-"'
-0
"' 200
:c
400
300
/
I/
./
./ -- --
--
------ ~
-- r--=:::::~~
~
- t::--=:::::
...__
80
70
60
50
40 ~"'
~
>-
u
C:
~""
.;:;
100
/ 30
20
V 10
40
- 30
7
i 20
10
.7
-
ci. 300
~
!
- 200
~ ---=
L.--- --- - -
100
-
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Flciw (US gpm)
Fig. C.7 Performance curve for Peerless 8AE2oG pump at 1770 rpm.
. DI ~ 12.00 In.; D2'= .ll 00 ln.,D3'= 10.00 In., 04 = 9 .00 In

.90
80
150
70
~
s 100
-0
60
so ....
·>-
u
C
"'"'
:c
·u
...,
40 !i::
30
50
20
10
30
-
:::c
~
20
:c: 10
~ 100
,....
_s;:
"'~ 50
II..
·1000 200.Q 3000 40.00 50.0 0

fl~w {US, gpm)
Fig. c.s Perfomfance .curve for Pee~les~ 1DAE12 pump at rnso rpm.
C.3 Fan Selec tion 637
DI D 18.00 in,; 02 ~ 17.00 In., 03 - 16,00 in ., 04 • 15.00 in.
90
.............._
60 1.........-- 80
----..:.
-..."' ~~ t-- ---
r- -- 70
60 l
-0 40
.."
>,
r----:: F::: '50 C:

:I:
20 / ~
~ 01
·.:;
40 .::
30
w
I ~04 20
10
20 J
-
::r:::
15
___.,/'
/
~ 10
~
5
80
a.
=:;; 60 -
40
-
3:
0
0..
20
2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000

Flow (US gpm)
Fig. C.9 Perfor mance curve•f or P1mless 16A188 pµmp ;it 705 rpm.
QI =18 .00 in,; D2 ~ 17.00 in.; D3 = 16.00 on.; D4 • ~ 5.00 in.
90
80
lCJO 70
·z-. 60 ~ >,
~ - u
.,"' 50
u"'
,::
:I:
40 ""
50 w
01 30
20
10
25
g 20
::c
"Cl)
15
Q,.
.?: 10
5
150
a.
:5
.; 100
3'
0
0.. 50
Q 50.00 10,000 1.5 ,000

Flow (US gpm)
curve for Peerless 16A18B pump at 880 rpm.
Fig. c.
10 Perfor mance ·
638 Appendix C Selected Performance Curves for Pumps and Fans
1000 175_0 rpm I

900 I
800
700
600
500
400
300
g 200
::i:::
-ci"
"'
"'
.c
-.;;
0
t-
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
30 40 60 80100 200 300 400 600 8001000 2000 3000 5000
Volume flow rate, Q {gpm)
Fig. C.11 Selector chart for Peerless two- stage (series TU and TUT) pumps at 1750 nominal 'l)m.
1000 I I
1750 rpm I
900 '
800
700 ,~
·:..:-J.':; C..: ~~
5T<lili 1,i:<: ~;c- . '
§'t ~: ,
........
I
,~
600
500
!"<
I .
.:......
.....,
I
I
"4'1il;/,i.f;1l;~
"I ~
400
300
fr!
Il
1-
2T j]3 I - I'---..
- 3TUU3
::::::,,..} "$lg. i'--..
~
"'-J
,
4f\JJ~
1
J"gl tg
rt ~ .···.J .V
/
§ I 3;J;UJ.9
200
---,
~ r
sl ' 4 s1
'g.
I\~·ff
100
~ tt•'
1
1
~4 f lg.l
1~ c4-p\~ ~ ~ I\ I ~ I
I -i '<:- .). t 1/ I /
90 1
I t ::z.. r I "Jg/
80 -;... I
,~ I
I
70 '
'- I/
60
'\. I
50
40
30
20
15 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 200 300 .4 00 600 800 1000 2000
Fig. c.12 Selector c.~,ui for Peerl~ multi-stage (series TU and TUT) pumps at 1750 nominal rpm.
Refe rences 6 39
15
+
1
9
8
7
6
:s
·.;;
5
C:
QJ
,:, 4
1:
:!:! 3
,._
I.C>
0
d
@
2
~
.~
f! 1.5
.,,
:::,
e!
a.
<O LO
j§
0 .8
Tot.ll Efficiency Bands

0 .6 1111!1 Bo-88%
0.!5 iiail75 -80%
1:.:.:-.-::il 10-75%
0 .4 C=:J 60-70%
I I
0 .3 I
i
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 40. 50 60 80 l OQ 150 200 250 300
Capac ity (c fm x 1000)
Fig. -C. 13 Ma ster-fan selection chan: for Howden Buffalo axial fans.
1. P eerless Pump. literature: 2 . Bu.ff!llo Forge literarure:

· · Horizon tal Split C!]Se ~Siflgle Stage Dou~le Suction Pumps, - Axivane Axial Fan Optimu m Efficiem;y Selectio n Chart,.
S eries AE. l3roc hure 1H200, 2003. n.d.
H orizontal Split Case, Multista ge Single Suction Pumps,
T y~ 1'.U. TUT, 60· Heitz. Perfonnance Cuives, B~hur e
B- 1440, 2003.
RAPID v8.~.6. March 2007.
APPENDIX D
Flow Functions for Computation
of Compressible Flow
0.1 Isentropic Flow

IsentrQpic flow functions are computed using the following equations:
P.o· ( . k-1 ']k/(k-l)

- = 1+--M- (12.2la/ 12.30a)
p 2 .
To= I+ k-1M2 (12.21b/ 12.30b)

T 2
Po . . I "] l/(k-1)
k-[
- = l+--M- (l2.21c/12.30c)
p 2
k-1 .,]
· (k+l)/2(k-1)
A 1 l+'JM-
(12.30d)
A1< = M [ k+l
2 .
Representative values of the isentropic flow functions fork= 1.4 are presented in TableD. l and plotted
in Fig. D.l.
Table D.1
lsentropic Flow Functions (one-dimensional flow, ideal gas, I<= 1.4)
M TITo plpa plpa A/A-
0.00 I.ODDO 1.0000 1.0000 00
0 .50 0.9524 0.8430 0.8852 1.340

1.00 0.8333 0.5283 0.6339 I .ODO
l.~D 0.6891 0,2724· 03950 Ll76
2.00 0.;55.$6 0.1278 0:2301 l.688
2..50 0.4444 0:05853 0.1317 2.637
3.00 0.3571 0.02722 0.07623 4.235
3.50 0.2899 0.01311 0.04523 6.790
4.00 0.2381 Q.006586 0.0i766 10.72
4.50 0. 1980 0.003455 0.01745 16.56
5.00 0.1667 0.001890 0.01134 25.00
This table was computed from the Excel workbook lsemropic Relations. The Workbook contains a -
Q more detailed, printable version of the table and can be easily modified to generate data for a ctif-
ferent Mach number range, or for a different gas.
640
0.2 Nor ma l Sho ck 641
20
g"'
~
~ 1.5
&
~
1..0
Mach num ber

Fig . D.1 lsen trop fc flow functions.
g Thi s grap h was gen~rated from the £1:ce/ wor kbo ok. The wor kbo ok can be mod ified easi ly to
gen erat e curv es for a different gas.
D. 2 No rm al Shocl<
Non nal- stio ck flow functions ore computed using lhe following equations:
? 2
2_ Mj+ i.:=T
M2 - 2k ? (12 .43a )
--iY l"j- l
k-1
(12. 43b )
( 12.4 3c)
(12. 43_<;1)
(12.43~)
642 Appendix D Flow Functions for Computation of Compressible Flow
Representative values of the normal-shock flow functions for k = 1.4 are presented in Table D .2 and
planed in Fig. D.2.
Table D.2
Normal-Shock Flow Functions (one-dimensional flow, ideal gas, k = 1.4)
M1 M2 p02'p01 T2IT1 P2IP1 P2IP1
1.00 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
1.50 0.701 I 0 .9298 1.320 2 .458 1.862
2.00 0.5774 0.7209 1.687 4.500 2 .667
2.50 0.5130 0.4990 2.137 7. 125 3.333
3.00 0.4752 0.3283 2.679 10.33 3 .857
3.50 0.4512 0.2130 3.315 14.13 4 .261
4.00 0.4350 0.1388 4.047 18.50 4.571
4.50 0.4236 0.09170 4.875 23.46 4.812
5.00 0.4152 0.06172 5.800 29.00 5.000
Q This table was computed from the Excel workbook Nonnal-Shock Relations. The workbook con-
tains a more detailed, printable version of the table and can be modified easily to generate data for a
different Mach number range, or for a different gas.
5 .0 ..---.---.---,----,..-- -,---,--.----.-"T""° ~-~~-~.....-~- ~~-.....--.....----,
3.0
"'
.2
~
~
a,
a.
e
D..
2.0
6.o L_-L--L-L-....J...__J1.L5--'-...L..--'--.J.....-:2.L.o-,..__.____,...___......__2=-'.-5=-_._ __.__L---'--3--'_o

10
Upslrea_
m Mach number
Fig. D .2 Normal-shock (low fun~_tions.
g This graph was generated from the Ex.eel workbook. The workbook can be modified easily to gen-
erate curves for a different gas.
APPEND I X E
A n a ly s is o f Experim ental
Un ce rtainty
E.1 In tr od uc tio n
Ex pe rim en tal da ta oft en are use d to sup ple me nt eng ine eri ng ana
lys is as a bas is for des ign . No t all da ta
ar e .e qu all y go od ; the val idi ty of dat a sho uld be do cum ent
ed bef ore tes t res ult s are use d for de sig n.
Un ce rta int y an aly sis is the pro ced ure use d to qu ant ify dat a val
idity an d acc ura cy.
An aly sis of un cer tai nty als o is useful du rin g exp eri me nt des ign .
Ca ref ul stu dy ma y ind ica te po ten -
tia l so ur ce s of un acc ep tab le err or and sug ges t im pro ved me asu rem
ent me tho ds.
E. 2 Ty pe s of Er ro r
Er ro rs alw ay s are pre sen t wh en exp eri me nta l me asu rem ent s are
ma de. As ide fro m gro ss blu nd ers by the
ex pe rim en ter , ex pe rim en tal err or m;:iy be of two typc;s. Fix ed (or
sys tem ati c) eJTQr cau ses rep eat ed me a-
su rem en ts to be in err or by the sam e am ou nt for eac h trial. Fix ed
err or is the sam e for eac h rea din g an d
ca n be rem ov ed by pro pe r cal ibr ati on or correction. Ra nd om
err or (no nre pea tab ilit y) is dif fer en t for
ev ery rea din g an d he nc e can no t be rem ov ed. Th e factors tha
t int rod uce ran do m err or are un cer tai n
by the ir na tur e. Th e ob jec tiv e of uncertainty analysis is to est im
ate the pro ba ble ran do m err or in ex pe r-
im en tal res ult s.
W e ass um e tha t eq uip me nt has bee n constructed cor rec tly an d cal
ibr ate d pro per ly to eli mi na te fix ed
err or s. W e ass um e tha t ins tru me nta tio n has ade qu ate res olu tio n
an d tha t flu ctu ati on s in rea din gs are no t
ex ce ssi ve . W e ass um e als o tha t car e is used in ma kin g an d rec ord
ing ob ser vat ion s so tha t on ly ran do m
err or s rem ain .
E. 3 E st im at io n of Uncertainty
Ou r go al is to est im ate the un cer tai nty of experimental me asu rem
ent s an d cal cul ate d res11-lts du e to ran -
do m err ors. Th e pro ced ure ha s three steps:
J. Es tim ate the un cer tai nty interval for eac h me asu red qu ant ity .
2. St ate the co nfj de nc e lim it on eac h measurement.
I 3. .A na lyz e the pro pa ga tio n of uncertainty into res ult s cal cul ate
d fro m ex pe rim en tal da ta.
f Be low we ou tlin e tl1e piQcedure for eac h ste p an d illu str ate app
lic ati on s wi th ex am ple s.
Ste p I Es iim ale 1he meas11remen1 unc erw imy i11terval. Designau: the me
asured vnrilibles in an experiment as
.:c,, x2 , • •. , x •. On e possible way to find the uncertainty interval for
eac
h variable would be to-repeat eac;h
me asu rem ent many times. The result would be a distribution of datn for
each variable. Ra nd om errors in
me asu rem ent usually produce a normal (Gaussian) frequency !listributio
ri of measured values, Th e datl!,
sca ue r for a normal distribution is characterized by the standard deviati
on, a. Th e uncertainty if!(erval
for eac h measured variable, x;, moy be stated os ±n u;, where 11= l , 2, or
3.
However, the most typical situation in engineering work is a "single-sam
ple" experiment, where on ly
on e measurement is made for each point ~ I]. A reosona~le estimate ~f
the measurement uncertainty du e
ran do m error in a single-sample expenmenl usually IS plus or mrnus hal
f the smallest scale division
~~e lea st cou nt) of the instrumenL However, this npprooch also must be used wi th cautio
n, ns Uiustratcd
in the following example.
643
644 Appendix E Analysis of Experimental Uncertainty
Example E.1 UNCERTAINTY IN BAROMETER READING
Toe observed height of the mercury barometer column is h= 752.6 mm. The least
count on the vemii;:r scale is 0.1 mm, so one might estimate the probable mea-
surement error as ±0:05 mm.
A measurement probably could not be made this precisely. The barometer sli-
ders abd meniscus must be aligned by eye. The slider has a least count of I mm.
As a con:setvatiVe estimate, a measurement could be made to the nearest millime-
ter. Toe probable value of a single measurement then would be expressed as
7;,2.6 ±0-~ mm. The relative uncertainty in barometric height would be stated as
o,s mm = ±0.000664
u,, = ± 752.6mm or ±o;o664percent
When repeated measurements ofn variable are available, 1.hey are usually normally dislribuled data_ for
which over 99 percent of measured values of Xi lie within ±3ai of the mean value, 95 percent lie within
±2u,, and 68 percent lie within ±u, of the mean value of the data set [2]. Thus it would be possible to
quantify expec1.ed errors within any desired co11[ide11ce limit if a statistically significant set of data were
available.
The method of repeated measurements usually is impractical. In most applications it is impossible to
ob1.ain enough darn for a statistically significant sample owing to the excessive time and cost involved.
However, lite normal distribution suggests several important concepts:
1. Small errors are more li!;.ely than large ones.
2. Plus and minus errors are about equally likely.
3. No finite maximum error can be specified.
Step 2Swre the confidence limit 011 each meas11reme111. The uncertainty interval of a measurement should be
stated al specified odds. For example, one may write Ir= 752.6 ± 0.5 mm (20 to l ). This means that one
is willing Lo bet 20 Lo 1 that lite height of lite mercury column actually is witl1in ±0.5 mm of the stated
value. IL should be obvious [3] Lhal " ... Lhe specification of such odds can only be made by lhe experimenter
based on ... total laboratory experience, There is no substitute for sound engineering judgment in estimat-
ing the uncertainty of a measured variable."
The confidence interval smtement is based on tl1e concept of standard deviation for a nom1al distribu-
tion. Odds of about 370 10 I correspond to ±3u; 99.7 percent of all future readings are expected to fall
within t11e interval. Odds of about 20 to l correspond to ±2u and odds of 3 Lo 1 correspond Lo ±a con-
fidence limits. Odds of 20 Lo I typically are used for engineering work.
Step3 Analyze the propaga1io11 of1111cer1ai111y in calc11/atio11s. Suppose tlrnl measurements of independent vari-
ables, x 1, x 2 , •• . , x,., are made in the laboratory. The relative uncertainty of each independently measured
quantity is estimated as llj. TI1e measurements are used to calculate some result, R, for the experimenL We
wish to analyze how errors in Lhe x;s propagate into the calculation of R from measured v~ues.
In general, R may be expressed mathematically as R=R(x1,x2, - .. ,x,.). The effect on R of an error in
measuring an individual xi may be estimated by analogy to Lhe derivative of a function. [4]. A variation.
6x., in xi would cause variation 6R; in R,
i.lR
6R1=~6x;
u.l;
The relative variation in R is
(E. l)
E.3 Estimation of Uncertainty 645
Equmion E. I may be u . LI 1 . . . _, . 1h
no
tali Ii : se °
Csl!matc lhe relative uncenrumy m the result due to unccn:unty m x,. lntrouucmg e
on or relative unccnainty, we obtain
oR
= R ox, 11.f,
x;
IIR,
(E.2)
How do we estimate 1h I · · · · JI
_ ere alive unccn:umy in R caused by the combined effects of the relative uncenrunues ma
lhe .,,s? ~he random error in each variable has a ranne of values within the uncertainty interval. It is unlikely that all
errors will
. have ad verse vaIues al lhe same lime.
. It"' can be shown (I] that !he best representalton
· ,or, 1he re Jauve
•
uncertainty of the result is
oR 2 oR -,- oR 2] li2
[(--111) + (....::-112) (--lln)
X1 x-, xt)
11
«= ± R ox1 R ax
+ · · · + R ox,. (E.3)
2
i
t. Example E.2 UNCERTAINTY IN VOLUME OF CYLINDER
lI Obtain an expression for the Ul)Certainly in cjetermining the volume of a cylinder from measurements of i(S radiµs ~cl heighL
The volurt1e of a cylinder in terms of radius and height is
Differentiating, we obtain
~ince
and
From Eq. E.2, the relative uncertain~y cjue to radius fa
6¥.r r a¥ r ( ..
11¥,r = ¥ -= ¥ a·r· 11, = TEi!h 2:n;rh)!lr = 2u,,
tr and the relative unce11ainty due to height is
6¥1t h 0¥ h .,
11¥,J, .= _¥ =¥ c)I, 111, = TEr2h (nr }u1, = 1111
The reiative uncertainty in volume is then
11¥ = ± [(211,) 2 + (.11,,.)211/2 (E.4)

646 -~ppendix E Analysis of ~p_er:imental Uncertainty
E. 4 AfJ.plitations tq DatJ1 ·
Application~ Jq d,i.ta obfainid -from 'iaboratory measurements are illustrated in the following
~x-~ples.
Example E.3 UNCERTAINTY IN LIQUID MASS FLOW RATE
The mass flow rate of water through a tube is lo be determined by collecting waler in a beaker. The mass flow race is calculated
from the ne t mass of water colleded divided by the lime i'nt etval,
. flm
Ill=-=- (E .5)
flt
w here !lm = m1 -m, . Error estimates for the measured quantities are
Mass of full beaker, mf =
Mass of empty bei&er, Ille =
Collectio~ t1ml f~terval, flt
T he relative uncertainties in measured quantities are
'Jo
11,,'J = ± 4~""b g = ±0.005
2g
11m, = ± 200 = ±0.01 0
0
0.2s
Llt:,r = ±-- = tl:0.02
I0 s
The .relative uncertainty in the measured value of net mass is calculated from Eq. E.3 as
2 2 2
llfim
= ± [( Inf aflm llm1 ) + ( Ill"_ tJflm II,,, ) ] l/
!lm amf flm am, '
2 112
= ±{[(2)(1)(±0.005)] + [( 1)(- 1)(±0.01)]2}
Ut,m = ±0.0141
Because m= ,n(.6.m,..6.t), we may write Eq. E.3 as

(E.6 )
111h..e regu.iq!d partial dercivat:ive tenns are
.6.m an1 =l and fl(fn =_l

111 a.6.m /11. aflt
S.Ubstimting into Eq. E:6 gi.v es

? 1/ 2
u ,;,= ± {[(l )(±0.0;141))2 + [( - I )(±0.02)J-}
u,;, = ±0.0245 or ±2.45 percent (20 co I)
E.4 App licat ions to Data 647
ba mp le E.4 UNC ERT AIN TY IN THE REYNOLDS NUM BER FOR WAT ER FLO W
The Rey nold s num ber is to be calculated for flow of wate r in a tube. The com putin g equa tion for the Reyn olds num
ber is
4
Re= nt =Re (m, D, µ) (E.7 )
nµD
!: h;:e .cons i_de ~d the unc;:enainty intervii,l in calculating the mass flow rate. Wha t abou_t uncc:rt.ainties in µ and D?
. e iame ter IS ~1ven as D=t i.35 mm. Do we assu me that it is exac t? The diam eter m1ght be meas ured to the
lbe
1 near est
0- mm. If so, the relat ive uncertainty in diameter would ~ estimated as
o,o:S
uv = ± .
rn:rn
·. = ± 0.00 787 or ±0.787 perc ent
6.35 mm ·
The visc osity ·o f wate r depe nds on temperature. The t¢mperature is estim ated as T =24 ± 0.5° C. How will the. uncertainty in
.tem pera ture affec t ~e uncertainty in Jd One way lei estimate this is to write ·
6µ I dµ
llµ(T) = ±-.µ = µdT(± 6T) (E:8 )
l'he deri vativ e can tie estim;ited from tabul~!ed viscosity data ne;it the noi)'lin~ temp eratu re of 24°C . Thus
clµ ,_, l!./l

µ(25 °C) ~ JL(23°C) . . .. · N-s 1
dT ~ !!.T = {25 ~13)° C (0.Q 0089 0-0.0 0093 3} in2- X zoc
~; = -,,2.15.X 10-5 N ·s/(m2 J' C)

it f6ll9V'S frQr n Eq, E.8. tl\at lh.e relative ui::tc~nai~ty in vjscosify (Jue to temp eratu re is
.. l m2 . . · .-'5 N · S . ·a ·
''ii(n ,;;
. I ·S x-'.2.15x 10 ~
N.
. . 0000
·.•. 91 m2-- c. x(± 0.5 C) 0
or ±1. is peIT;ent
1:a,b ulate d visco sity data them selv ~ als.o ·have some uncertainty. If this is ±LO perc ent, an estim ate for the resultii:lg
- relat ive
t.iilc¢ rtain t:y -in vjsco sity is
111!';;:. ±[(.l;Q,01 ),2 + (±O.OU8}2) 117 = :i;: 0.0J ?5 or .±1.5 ,5.pei:cent

Toe unc: ert~ ties ih mass flow rat~; tube dia:rtu~t¢r; am:! viscosity ne_ecled to com pute the unce rtain ty inter val for the .calcliljiteg
R~y nold s num t,fr now are known, Th¢ required paif,ial. derivatives,._d~te tjnin ed from J;q.. E.7, ~
m .~Re = ,ii ..±_ =Re = i

Re ~ri, Re nµD Re
. ,. ._-. ,._ - -.. . -·. ~- r ••:·:-:·:.
Comment:~ . . .:. ,; ,,.;;, •~•.,: -:.... .... , . ,:.
J R. o/Jf! = H ( l) 4.111" = . Rr ~ .. 1.
flt gµ ~ Ji}···. . . tf_µ21!J ~~· . .
R .., -,"pt ~ E.3-~nlE:4'iliustrate.two·points\
. _mporti!fit'torexperirrient:design. Fi~·the"
{i"n.~~:-~-:Yit~f ~'Le~d , ~• is c:alculated;::
b diie iJ 4n1 Re fr,?~ ~~.c?}J;!;f~.Hf~dJ 1uantit1es, _mr:~nd ~•;;:~
Re oD:... Rt:( l)nµ D 2 - Re -· · l For;a nyJ-~-~
• __-_, ... '. i,:
state c!Jm i:erta inty:,_l-r.
, : ' l _·-.;:r -~•'.f• ~
inter-,valiin,the ,, •.
._.•·._ ~ ~-..JI:;- _ •
~..e, s_yr.tmia~ "'of_~{ an~,m.;, ~e relat,vt?_;·
1
~-i,(t,~tiruting ~tQ Eq, E.3- give s· unce rtain ty inil.m ' ciin be cfecr eased
Jt:._-;----::-~ _;_.z ·-, _, .. ..:~-.,_1.':.•C..·-- •'.~ .· •. • . • _- . by,·. ·,
_;
mak ing am larger; ,This migh t be acco m': .,
2 2 . . -;-} 1/2: :pfisliecl iit~shlg,l~rger cont ainer s oi-"a:. ..
--11µ·] ·.+ •
[--.,;
P. 'i)-R,~-110-]-
.~Rt! '_ ±· · m:aRe
'-'-- --. u.· ] •+. [µ- --oRe. lciifg~r rnets urinf ihier va!, .it, whic h also ;.
. ..{ ·' [:ke:a,;i m .· Re aµ . Re oD . WOUid reciu'ci the relati~e unce rtain ty in.the.
112 ii'TI!!it~ur~'d £¥:;_s.tiond, the uncertainty,in
0
Ci.Re = ;I;:: {f{l )(± 0,0245)]2 +r(~ 1)(± 0,0155)]2 +(( ~ i)(± O,p07Ji7)]2} ttlltiµl~!ecf propercycl~ta may be sign ifica nt ··
or ±3.0 ~":Thi{datauri~ertainfy also is increased by.
··u
__·._Re. · ·-·_..0300
±··o · 9 perc ent
. _
- , iffif un~!!!~i~ty i.~.·m~asuj~~ent§(flwd .·
f.tem ~era ~l!~: ~:-' ·. ..... ,. . . ·. , .
648 Appendix E Analysis of Experime ntal Uncertain ty
&(lmpl e E.5 UNCtRT AINTY IN AIR SPEED
Air speed is cal~ulated from pitot tube measureme nts in a wind tunnel. From the Bernoulli equation,
2 I/'
V= ghpwa1cr - (E.9)
( p.,, )
where· h is the obser-ved lfeight of the manomete r column.

Th~-only new elem·ent ·in this ex!lIDple i$ the square root. l11e variation in V du~ to the uncertainty int¢rval in /,. is
12
~ av = ~ .!_ (2ghpwa11,,.)- ' 2gPwa1cr
V a11 V 2 P~ir p.,,.
h av_ h l 1 2i:Pwuicr l V2
v dli - v 2 v P:ur - 2 V2 - 2
Using Eq. E.3, we calcuiate the relative uncertainty in V as
2 12
1iv = ± [(2l u,, + 2up.,_
) (1 )i + (- 2 l lip_,,.
)2] /
If ,uh == ±0.<)1 and the other ulic:ertainties are negligible,
uv= ± { [½ (±0:Dl)r } 1/2
uv::;; ±0.00500 or ±0.500 percent
E.5 Summa ry
A statement of the probable uncertainty of data is an important part of reporting experime ntal results
completely and clearly. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers requires that all manuscr ipts
submitted for journal publication include an adequate statement of uncertainty of experime ntal data
[5). Estimating uncertainty in experimen tal results requires care, experience, and Judgment , in common
with many endeavors in engineerin g. We have emphasized, tJ1e need to quantify the uncertain ty of mea-
surements , but space allows including only a few examples. Much more informatio n is available in the
references that follow (e.g., [4, 6, 7)). We urge you to consult them when designing experime nts or ana-
lyzing data.
1. ·K line. S, J.• and·F. A. McClintock, ..Describing Uncertainties in 5. Rood, E. P.• and D. P. Telionis, "JFE Policy on Reportin g
Single'Sam ple Experiment s," Meclza11ica l Engineering, 75, l , Uncertainties in Experimental Measureme nts and· Results,"
J~\1·1,11)' 195;3, pp. 3-9.
Transaction s of ASME, Jo11mal of Fluids 611gineeri11g. 113. 3.
September 1991, pp. 313- 314.
2 ...Pugh,E. M .• and G. H. Winsl<,>w, Tire Analysis ofPhysical Mi!a-
sureme11ts. R!!llWII~, MA: Adp.ison-Wesley, 1966. 6. Coleman, H. W .. and W. G. Steele. Experimen racion and
Uncertainty Analysis for Engineers. New York: Wiley, 1989.
3. Doebelin, E. 0 ., Me_as11reme111 Systems, 4th ed. New York;
McGraw-flill, 1990.
7. Holman, J. P., Experimental Methods for Engineers . 5th ed.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989.
4. Yo)lllg, H. D .. Statistical Tream1ent ofExperimental Data. New
Yooc McGraw-Hill, 1962.
·- ~ · -- ,. --·· -- _._. ,. ---
1.5 d = 4.30 10- 3 in 2.4 1 66.9 N

l.7
m = 907 kg= 62. 1 slug, Wmoon = 1483 N = 333 lbf 2.43 0.002N m
1.9 Ns
v=ll.9 1 ft3 ,p=0.0 084slu g y-027 llbf 2.45 µ= 1.30-2
slug fll • - . flJ • m
2,47 0.2 N s/m2
Vs=72 .6 ft.3 • p =0.0l38 s1ug y=044 41bf 2.49 9.73 rpm
slug s ft3 • . fll
1.J I V, = 52.4 mis, V(IOO- m) = 37.4 mis 2.5 1 -. =Oat r = 13.7 mm, F0 = -172 N, F;::;::: 63.4N
1.15 P = 50 hp= 37.3 kW= 127,200 Btu/hr 2.53 1308W
1.17 E=4.7 3x 10 16J=3.49 x 10 16 ftlbf 2.55 50.3 kW
1.19 I psi= 6.89 kPa. l liter=0 .264 gal, l lb~s =47.9N : 2.57 77.4 ft-lbf
ft3 3 · fr m- 2.59 µ 0.0208 N s/m2
=
l.21 lOO - ·-. =0.047 2 ~ 5 0oal =O 0189 m3 T = .tµw R4
min s " · • .,
2.61
m 2h
65 mph =29. l-, 5.4acr es=2.l9x l04 m2 2.63 k = 0.0162, n = 0.793
s
1.23 D =l 12 in. H = 8 in, mpropanc = 17 lbm. 2.65 T = 0.278 N for H = 200 mm, R = 75 min,
V propunc/Vtank = 0.53 a= 0.02 mm, w = 100 rpm
kof 2.67 ~p = 2.91 kPa
1.25 32 psi= 2.25 °.;
cm- 2.69 A = 0.403, b = 4.53
K1f2s
1.27 c=0.0 4 - - 2.7 1 0.0149 mm
m
2.15 Turbule nt at D = 29.4 mm
1.2 9 W = 77.0 lbf, V = 1.24 ft 3
- -1 lbm 2,77 X1ra11 =

0.327 m
1.31 up= ±2.66 x IO. ~
2.79 XIJUJl = 0 .295 ft; X u:m = ·0.552 ft
ko
1.33 p=930 ±27.2 ~ 3. 1 At 1000 m T = 96.7 C, At 2000 m T = .93~3 C,
m AtOm T= lOOC
_ 3 Ns
1.37 µ = l.OOSx lO - ., , u11 =l.11 %
m-
3,3 z = 9303 ft, f!.z = 5338 ft
4. I 2:0 unstead y, 2 D steady, ID steady, ID steady, 3.5 F= 271 N , T = 0.282 N
1D Unstea dy, 2D Steady, 2D l)nsteady, 3D steady 3.7 p == 20. l kPa gage= 12 1.1 Icra abs;
2.3 2D p = 20.1 kPa gage = 150.1 ~a ~b~
2 .5 y = x ~c 2 3.9 Ap = 972 kPa, p = 991 kg/m3
kN
2 .7 At (0, 0) v, = oo and v,=0 3. 11 y= l0.1 3 , p=20.. l MPa
m
y = C X- J
2 .9 3.1 3 h = 13,600 ft
2.11 6t= 0.75 s 3.15 Strong. h = 20.7 Jt
2 . 13 At (2,2) xy =4 3. 17 f!.p = 5 1.9 kPa
2. 17 y = C/x 3. 19 4.41 kPa i age
2. 19 y = · ~ at t = 0, y =at l = l, y =. X 1. at I = 1.5
X 1.-1
6
3.2 1 6.p = 0.758 psi
2 .21 At(l,l )x=c att = 0 ,y = x -JO all= 1, y = x - 5 att=- ?
3.23 llp = l.638 psi
2 .2 3 At(l , l)y=x att = O, y=x213 att== l , y=x 112-atl=- ?
3.25 I = 1.600 m
Pathlin es Streakl ines S~li nes
2.29 3.27 Readin g = 15.2 in.
2.35 At IOC ~ = 0 .013, "wr = L0.3 3.29 .. . 5
sens1llv1ty = - .
. µwater Vw.o.1cr
· SG
2 .37 µ2 =2 µ = 1.934 Pa s
1 3.3 1 Pnun = 14.41 psi, -leng th would decrease
2.39 u = 0.196 ru/s for F == 0; U =0.496 mis for F upward 3.33 llh = 0.360 in
649.
650 Answ.ers to Selected Problems
3.37 9.62 kPa, 41.0 kPa, 35.7 kPa 4 .29 l= 2.39 S, Q = 2.0 m3
3 .39 FR= 35.7 N, y' = 1.9 m, FR =71.3 N, y' = I.Sm 4.31 V = lO mis
4
3.41 FR= 7.96 X 10 lbf 4.33
][
Vm= V1
3.43 F = 936 lbf 4
W =68 kN
4.35 V min = 5.0 mis
3.45
db mm
3.47 FR= 8.63 MN, Fn = 16.7 MN, R,. = 8.34 MN, 4.37 -d =-0.289-
Ry= 14.4 MN, R = 16.7 MN t s
y' = 2.78 m, F = 130 kN 4.39 op =2.50x 10-3 slug

3.49 at ft3 s
Fo = 32.9 N -sm3 dy m
3.51
FR = 33.3 kN, dh = 7 .28 mm
4.41 =.
Q 361 X 10 8 , dt=-0.532
8
3.53
3.55 FA=1llkN
4.45 Momx =-
2406 lbf, Momy = 2113 lbf
4 4 .47 Mom,.= 841 N, Momy = -2075 N
3.57 FT = -'-2.70 X 10 lbf
4.49 Ry= 10,600 N (downward)
3.59 Fv = -17.12 X 103 ft, x' = 2.14 ft
4.51 Rx= -7050N
3.61 R = 43,250 lbf, 8 = 40.9 deg wn horizontal,
R passes through 0 4.53 For 8 = 40, M = 238 kg
3.63 FH = 8.56 kN, Fv = 7.76 kN 4 .55 F,. = 888 lbf, Fy = -296 !bf, ex= -18.74 deg from
horizontal
3.65 FR= 370 kN, ex= 57.5 deg.
3 .67 C~oe;, floats higher
4.57 Fx = 2602 lbf, Fy 0 =
h = 177 mm
4.59 V =28.9mlsforh= 1 m, V= 10.2 mis forh = 0.5 m,
3.69 =
V 3.61 mis for h = 0.25 m
3.71 W = 12,980 lbf 4.61 Fx = 1488 N, ex = -82.4 deg
3.73 h = 0.292 m 4.63 F = 441 lbf
3 .75 V disp = 2.52 L, n == 5.33 (6 weights)
4 .65 Rx = -86.9 !bf
3.77 d = 3.1 ft 4.67 F = 25.5 N (to left)
3.81 W = 0, Fv = 1568 lbf 4.69 Fx = 5350 !bf, Fy = 3080 !bf
3.83 D = 82.7 Iii, M = 638. kg 4.71 Rx= -1970 !bf
3.87 Pinix = 1.52 slug/ft:3 4.73 Fx = 22,080 Nim
As= -0.0753 kl.lkg-K, AU= -20.9 kJ
4.1 4.75 Fx = 1765 N
4 .3 X = 747 m, l = 23.9 S 4.79 =
R,. 138 N, Ry = 554 N
4.5 tr= 0.85 s, x = 2.12 m, tr= 0.80 s 4 .81 1124 N
4.7 . = 102
work - kJ/kg
- ATa K 4.83 Rx= -4.77 lbf (to the right)
4.9 AU,.;,= 259 MJ, AU= 0 MJ, M=6.l hr 4.85 Rx = -37 .9 N (to the right)
3
4.11 Q = -24 m /s, 4.87 Ap = 9.08 kPa
4.13 Vm = 8 mis 4.89 F= 0.163 Nim
4.15 V1. -= 4 4.91 h=H/2
V1
4 ~17 V ·= 1.56 ft/s, Q = 3:82 gpm 4.93 h == 4.28 in
6 Pam 4.95 p = 103 kPa
4 .19 -2 V?- == }.5 X 1.0 -s-
_
· p
4.101 Q = 0.0663 m3/s, ex= 10 mis, V = 16.7 mis

V 2n 2n
4.21 Ve-= n+ I - 2n+ 1 4.103 l = 0.222 in, Rx= - 1780 lbf
4.23 n == 4.52; 5 pipes 4. 105 a,. = 13.5 m/s 2
4.107 U = 15.8 mis

. ft3
4.25 Q=54.4- 4.1 I J V(O) = 12.9 mis, V(2.5s) = 19.2 mis,
s
ft ft ft V(5s) = 25.4 mis
4.:?7 VA=40.7:_, Va=30.5-, Vc=20.4-, 2
u
s s s 4.113 ax=5.99m/s , -=0.667
ft
u,
Vo=I0.2...:. 4 . 117 ~max = 1.93 m, l = 2.51 s
s
Answers to Sele«!ted Problems 651
4 . 119 U(oo)=227 !!! - rad ft2 2
s 5.61 w= - yk - , r= - 1.00-, \j/=Ax y
s s
4.121 m = 82.7 kg K q9
4 . 123
V(20s) = 3860 ft/s, Y = 33,500 ft 5.63 In-otational
•
ljf = --ln(r)--
21t 21t
4 . 125 0 = 19.0 deg 2
4 . 12 7 h dp ( l_.2) Ch dp -~ ~
V mW< = 138 mis, Ynuu = 1085 m 5.73 u= - µ dx y-2? + µ y, dx-2 h
4 . 129
R,a = -22.8 kN, T -468 kN-m = 5.75 y = 0.489 m , uy = I%
4 . 131 T=488 Nm
4 . 133 5 .77 Ymnx = 11.93 mis, t = 3.8 s
T= 316 Q2 N-m
4.135 T = 2,28 Nm, N = 387 rpm 6. 1 ap = - 20.0 kPa_ ap = -29.8 kPa
4 . 137 T = -0.0161 N-m ax m oy m
m map Paclp Pa
4 . 141 dTa C 6.3 ax =8 ? ' ay=4z, -=,-=-12 ~. "y = -6 m,
dt=-1.91s s- s ux m u
4 . 1.43 clp =-14.7 Pa
W=-96.0kW oz _m
4.145 W = -96kW 6.7 p(x,y) = 80 kPa
4 . 147 W= -3.41 kW 6.9 p(L) = 206 kPa
5 .1 (a)
6. 1 I
op Paop(~ . Pa
i3r(l ,0)=127m,or 1, =I27m ,
5.3 w = -(a+c)x + const 21
5 .5 A+E+J=0 0
P (2,0} = 15.8 Pa
5.9 Ve =6r2sin(0)-6 r0+f(r) 0r m
V Exit: clp = - 10.0 MPa, L= 1.0 m
5.11 6 . 15
U =0.00167 ax m
5 . 15 (a), (b), and (c) 4pV2 L 3 W
6.17 Fy= ~
- z 3 b-
5.17 V =ror-ee
h q2x clp pq2x
6.21 ap. = h2 ' clx = - h 2 .
5.23 Q == 16 m 3
/s perm of depth
5 .27 k =0.465 and 0.671 6.27 r = 0.5 mat y = 1 m, r = 1 in at y = 2 m, r = 1.5 m
y=3m
at.
5.29 h1ui1r = ] .06 m
6.33 Pdyn = 1.64 kPa, Ps = - l.738 kPa
5 .31 3 D , not incompressible, ap = 48 f + 4 j + 54 k n_: 6.35 V 1 = 27.5 mis
- 30- s-
5.33 a= lOi+-j 6.39 p 1 = 10.0 psi, P2 = 1.35 psi
t4 1 m m
5.35 V =41t(l -e- ) - , a, =4n:e-• -:;-, 6.41 h=5.81 m
s s-
an = -8n2{1-e-•}2 11_! 6.43 m m3
s- V=7.29-, Q = 0.0143-
s s
5 .39 Xnwt= 8.32 ft, lnu,x = O.ll9s,. 6.45 V = 16.3 mis
Dcmax = -4.38 X 10-S ppm 6.49 p 2 = 15.6 psi, .6.p = 0.917 psi
Dt . . s 3
ft y . ft 6.51 Q=2.55x 10- 3 ~
5.45 apx = - 16.72 at- =0.667, apx= -0.01782 s
y s. 6 s 6.57 P 1 = 1.35 psig, Po= 1.79 psig, F =4.76k !bf
at.6=0.839
6.59 .6.h = 6.60 in, Rx = - 0.105 lbf, F == I 8.5 !bf
5 .51 not iITotjitiqnal, not irrotational, irrotational, not 6.61 Fv =2.28 X 104 !bf
irrocational
m2 6.69 ljl(x,y) = axy + ½b.(y2 - x2 ),
5 .53 r=O-
5 .55 Incomiressible, irrotational <l>(x,y) = -bxy-½b(x2 -y2)
1 . m2
5 .57 ro,.= -0.5 s' r=-1 5 6.71 <l>(x) = -x2 +y2 +c.
_ -rad
5 .59 y= {Ay+ f(x))i, iii = -0.05k7, 6.73 2
<l>(x,y)=Axy - -
A:i..3·
. -.
. ~
\fl= ½A:f+c1y +c2 6.77 <j>(x,y) =6~5 y-20x-2y 3 +6xy5
65 2 An sw er s to Selee;ted Pr ob le m s
6 .81 cf>(x,y)
V
= 3A xy -A x 3
2
7.5 5 fdV -f(pVµ d) V1 _
'V 2
I2' f 4l
1 _
f2 -
6 .85 U 5 I% fo rr2 ::, IO a
ft
- k 7t 7.5 7 Ym =3 04 - fo rV p= 12 kn ots to
6. 89 V = O at r= -- ' r= 2- s
2, rU
y2 ft
_Q _ Ym =6 08 - fo rV p= 24 kn ot s
7.1 s
gL m
.6.p .Q. L 7.5 9 V m =5 50 -, Dp = 1857 N
7.3 s F
p v 2 •v 7.61 Vm = 19.41 kn ot s= 9.9 9m ph , Fo p= 1. 29 x 10 5
Om
7. 5 v , wh ich is rec ipr oc al of Re yn old s nu mb er
V oL (o n surface), Fop =0 .8 35 (su bm ero0 ed )
No dim en sio nJ es s gr ou ps Fom .
7. 7
F 7.6 3 Ym = 25 0 mi s
7. 9 - - = co ns tan t m3
µV D J
7.6 7 hm =1 3.8 -k , Dm =0. 12 0m, Q m = 0. 16 6-
s
7.1 3 V w =k fo °g g
6 µ 7.71 Co m= 0.4 43, Fo p= 1.6 36 kN
7 . 15 Il1 = -, Il 2=pX -u • Il1 =f (I I2 )
X 4m
8.1 R e = -, Re =3 00 0
1tDµ
7. 17 V w = ./ W kg
8.3 . air -- 0 •03-??- D -kg
m ·
- , ffiw ntc r = 2. 06 D - -
m -s m -s
7. 19 _D _= f( V pt ')
pV 2t '2 µ Q 2 V 2
8.5 b = -3 Umo., h, - - =-
7.2 1
2
Q =h y'g fi r(*) 8.7 -r= -1 .8 8 kPa,
Umnx 3
~= -5 .6 3 x 10 -6 ~
2
7. 23 _ E _ = f (V pd y2 p)
p y2 d2 . µ • E rt.2
8.9 Q =3 4. 6- , a= 1.08
7 .')..5 ~ ,; :: r(d.2 • t'1 , t'2 • ro df p) s
3
2
pr o d 1 d1 d1 d1 µ 8.11 Q = 1.01 X 10 -6 ~
7.2 7 4 Q.imensionless grol!ps, Il1 _
= pd3i-g l/2 m3 dV
s
1
-r0 =5 1. 8P a
·i:1 =. f .(ddi2 ' ~• µ ro dy)
8.1 3 Q =0 .4 9- , -= 3 6 s- '
s dy '
7. 29 d1 ' F
Fd A p= l0.4k Pa
= L4 8
7 .31 P= p pS Cl) 3 f(D~ID) 8.1 7
8.1 9
Di lat an t fluid; n
111?- 1
0. 32 4- , ± 21 .6 -
d µ2 cr s s
Re = 0.3 84 , -r = I .60 kP a, P = 0. 89 0W
7.3 3
:t>' p !\p D 2 ' D .6.p 8.21
m =p AS /4 gl /2 r ( ~ . ~ )
8.2 3 -rw = 0.0281 Pa s or 0.0 35 0 Pa s
7. 35 VA pgVA
- Th e flmv is pro ba bly transitionaJ.
ft3
7. 37 P= ro.p P
3
r(~. ~. µPw) 8.2 5 Q =0.0 20 8 -
d
, -r = 1.5 8 X 10,
s ft
.
.
...6 ps i •
dT Lc11 r( c k µ ) _R =1 .5 8 X 10 -~P SI
7 .39 dx ft
cit V 3 = ·,c. ,' pL3 cp ' pL V
8.2 7 =
6 0.2 16 riu n
7.4 1 Pm::;:: 5 .3 9x 105 Pa , Fp::;:: 1.3 33 kN u = p g y2 - p g h y + Uo
8.31
7. 43 t'..:. 3.64 m, Di >= 3 .65 N 2µ µ
P µ V H
Il- 1 = -· - - 5, fI-, = - - , Il3 = - --,· Ili.= ~
3
7.4 5
pro 3D - pro D2 wD D 8.3 5 Qmnx(Ti) =5 .07 X 10 -5 ~ .
s
3
7. 47 Pm = 1.9 34 M Pa , Fp .= 43 .4. lcN ) = 3.1 2 X i0 -6~
Qmnx(T2
7. 49 (a ) F;, = 11 25 kN , (b ) Fp = 45 0 N, (c) F" 9 N = s
ft3 . . 8.3 7 Fl ow is tur bu len t
7.51 Om= 0. 75 0- , WP== 25 90 hp
s 8.3 9 D = 3.4 m, D = 11 ft
km _
R = l mm: Ap = 0.QQ424/Pa , Rhyd = 2. 55 x I o-7 Pa
Ns 6 ·
_ _6 .,s
7.5 3 µm =l .0 5x JO -. ,, Ym =3 .2 -h r-, Fp - 9 X l0 N 8.41
. m-
m-
Ans wer s to Sele cted Pro blem s 653
8.4 3 µ=0 .28 4 Ns ftl

m2 8.129 Q= 5.9 7-
s
3
8.4 5 Q= 2.1 9x 10-1 0 ~ 8.131 Min dim ensi ons = 198 mm by 395 mm
8.4 7
s
8.13 5 Kv( 0) = 137 0
83.3 1/s
8.137 p 3 =34 '1 psi, W = 170 hp
8.51 -r:w 1 = 33.8 Pa, -r:w 2 = 82.5 Pa 8.139 L=7 2.8 km, W= 7,7 30k W
3
8.5 3 Qs 4.5 2x 10..,. 7
~. -.,.. =29 4Pn . Ap= 235 kPa ft3 •
s 8. 141 Rou gh pipe : Q= 26. l - , Ap= 76. 8 psi,
8.5 7 (X =2 s . ft3
8.5 9 e=8 .90 Pa, t'= 0.06 2m, K=0 .41 W = 750 hp; Smo oth pipe : Q = 27 .8
5 ,
8.61 Col d wat er has grea ter pres sure-dro p 6.p = 67 .4 psi, W = 702 hp
8.6 3 P2 = l.68 MP a 8.14 3 t,..6.ppu_mp = (5 •4 + 16.S )psi = 22.6 psi,
Q= 5.2 and 24. 8gp m
8.6 5 h1os s =O.og.!!.ftl\ W= 0.01
. .
5 hp
rt . -6 kg
8. 145 6.p =26 5 kPa . m = 17. ~
8 .67 h1os s = 8.68 ri1
8.6 9 hpum p = 30.6 m, h1oss = 10.9 m
ft3
8.149 Q = 1.4 9-
8.71 s
Con ven tion al: h1oss =0. 258 m; Exact: hioss =0. 213 m
- m3
8.7.5
rt3 8.151 Q= 0.0 49 2-
Q= 2.4 4-=
s 18.2 gpm s
.
ft3
8.7 7 Q= 4.3 2-
ft3 8.15 3 Q..:,u:il = 0.02 97 -
s
s Xw =0.1 81 ft, Xai r=2.62f t
9.3
m ml
8.7 9 v. =2 0.6 -, Q= 0.0 910 - 9.7 Len gth ratio increases with. altit ude
s s·
e 9.9 Satisfies bm,mdary con diti ons
8.8 3 I) =0. 017
9. 13 Fe= 6.25 lbf
8.8 5 a) "t'= 275 mm. b) t'= 150 nµn
9.15 0 2 = 13·.s mis , Ap = 20.6 Pa
8.8 7 p 1 = 15. l kPn gag e, Rx =2. 65 N (tension)
9.19 Ap = - 1.1(> psi
8.8 9 n.µ-bulent flow has larg er pressure dro'p
9.21 -r:= 6.77 x 10- 5 psi
38,2 00- 632 6 -
8 .93 Inc ~~e in loss =
632
Q = 505 % 9.25 Fo, 1nm =0; 157 N;, Fo. =
=0. 424 N,
8.9 5 Cas e (a) is b~t and Cas e (c} is wor st Fo. rurb = 0.52 7 N
8 .97 Zt -Z2 = 8,13 m 9.31 Fo= 1.11 xl0 -3 lbfp er face
8.10.1 Q = 165 gpm 9.33 Lp\v er drag on com pos ite
mJ 9.35 F 0 = 0.55 7 N
8.1 03 Q= l.0 1-
- s 9.37 2.15 X 10-6 !bf
8 . 105 .b = 2.5 ft . kgm . - .
.. m3 9.39 Mbc. = 136.3 -., -, Fe = 17.04 N, x-. . = 0.15 0 m
8.1 07 Q= 0.0 05 3- s-
s 9.41 Fo = 131 3 !bf, Xait =0. 45_ft, 6crit =0. 003 3 ft,
8 . 109 V = 27
.
.3 m,
s
Rx= 365 N (to right) 6= l.47 6 ft
9.43 Fo= ll80 lbf , W= 944 hp
8 ..1 11 p = 104.Cl kPa
8 .11 7 h1oss = 0.4 m, K= 0.l
9.45 ~X = 0.35 3 Re; 02, Cr= 0.06 05 Re; 02
9 .47 x = 16 m, Di:a ~ rati o= l.62
8.1 19 p 3 :;= .a...20 kP.a
L - L . L 9.49 Lam inar . 6 = 0.26.1 in, -r:w = 7 .J 7 X l0~ 6 psL
8. 121 . -1 -26 -at
Q-- · - s . lOm, 0.8 90-sat5 m,0 .39 3 - atlm, s Turbulent:- 6= 0.9 70i n, -r:w =3. 12x i0:"" 5 psi.
t=9 .64 hr 9.51 H6 = 1.006 ft, L 1 = 1.72 5 ft, L =;: 0,66 9 ft
2
8.l i3 F = 832 N 0.01 73 m BTU BTU
8 . 125 p2 = 35.9 psi gage, Q = 11.5 gpm 9.53 =
eship 17 .8 . rtiil -, epipc lioe = ·120
ton e
. -.
ton mil e
8.127 -n-m,n
. - - -0 ·-4g·:g in· (0.5 ID tubing)· 9.57 Lam inar bou nda ry l~ye r thiii ner
·654 Answers to Selected Problems
9 .63 Fo. m = 36.7 N. Fo. P = 54.5 N I0.3 For 60 deg: H = 102 ft, W = 3 .87 hp
9.65 x, = 0.0745 m. 6 = 0.0810 m, F 0 = 278 N 10.5 H=320 ft, W = 121 hp
9 .67 Fo = 0.00242 lbf 10.7 F= -3983 N, W =59.7 kW
9 .69 (a) V = 15.8 ft/s, (b) V = 17.l fi/s I0. 9 9crr = 30.4 deg
9.71 Fo = 2.06 X 104 lbf 10. 13 (3=61.3de g
9.73 D = 0.002 m 10. 15 H = 167 ft, Hk = 203 ft
9.75 T = 86.2 Nm. W = 0.726 hp 10. 19 W=26.9k W, (3 1 = 105 deg. 132 = 141.8 deg
9.77 Max. g = -3.66 10.21 Q= 133 ft3 /s, W = 7.93 hp, a 2 = 68.8 deg
9.79 a)Fo=I.8 2N, b)Fo=l.6 1N, V=8.94 m 10.23 Ns = 0.432, W = 8.97 kW
s
6.s = 447 ft 10.25 T = 33.1 kN m
9.81
V;n,o = 24.7 k:mihr, Vwilh = 35.8 km/hr, Improved 10.27 Ho= 25.8 m, TJr = 78.9 %; For N = 900 rpm :
9 .83
tires: V cnlm = 32.6 km/hr, V into = 26.8 km/hr, Q= 1.07 m3 /s, H=21.9 m,
Vw;lh = 39. 1 km/hr, Fairing: Ymu = 42.1 km/hr Ho= 56.6m,W =292kW
a= 50.7 deg 10.29 W=l403k W
9.87
10.31 6 pumps, N = 473 rpm
9.89 Fo=525, 400lbfan dT=3.70 x 1011 ftlbf
at28 mph; 10.33 Q = 1051 gpm, N = 2410 rpm
12
F 0 =3,760, 000 lbf and T=2.65 x 10 fl lbf 10.41 Q=33.8 m 3 /s, H=63.3 m,W= 20.9 MW
at75mph 10.45 NPSHA = 82.2 kPa, p = -20.3 kPa gage
9 .91 Fo = 2 .6 X 106 lbf to 1.8 x 107 lbf 10.47 Q=0.58m3/s;Atl m 3/s:W= 706kW,
9 .93 Vstill == 333 mph, vh=d =319 mph Cost=$53 at$0.15/k Wh
mile . gal 10.49 Q = 627 gpm
9.95 mpg= 6.13 - · .- , Fuel savmgs = 1720-
gal yr 10.51 Q = 2280 gpm, K = 150
k = 0.0561 mph 10.53 Q =423 gpm
9.97 . . rpm
10.57 TJ = 86.6%, Q = 162 f~/s, .6.p = 0 .0668 psi
9 . lOl T= 11.0Nm 10.59 V = 123 ft/s
9 . l03 =
V 23.3 ,mis, Re = 48,200, Fo = 0. 111 N 10.61 N = 450 rptn: D = 7.77 ft, TJ = 88 %; N = 600 rpm:
kg m D = 5.83 ft, TJ = 89 %
9 .105 Co= 61.9, Psphcrc=3
.·. 720 3m , V=0.731s- . m3
10.63 Nm=600rp m, Wm=l.16 kW, Qm=2.8 6 - ,
s
9.107 T = 519 kN m TJp=0.924
9 . 109 Co= l.11 10.65 N5 = 55.7, ~ = 34,600 ft3 /s
9.111 (a) Ft.== 20,300 N, Fo = 1545 N , W = 103 kW;
10.67 W=280W
(b) FL= 17,950N, Fo= 1366N, W=91 kW
10.69 Single jet: N = 236 rpm, D =
3. 16 m,
9 . 115 CL=0.648 , Co=0.04 3 Djc, = 0.275 m
9.117 Fp = 645 Ibf, h = 33.9 ft I 0.71 W=3374 W, P1 = 36.4 deg, P2 = 144 deg
N 10.73 At V = 0 FT= 893 N; At V = 12.5 mis
9 . 119 Ft.=e::692 -
m FT= 809 N
9 . 121 A=278ft2 , W=0.34h p 10.75 Fx =0.315 lbf, Fy=2.39 lbf, W =0.554 hp,
9 . 125 4-W=16. 3kW, Savings= 94% ft
u= 128-
. km s
9.127 7mmax = 260 kg, Vnun = 162 hr 10.77 J = 0.748, CF::; 0.0415, 77 %; CT= 0.00642,
. acceleratio n Cp= 0.0036
9.129 a=3deg, W=lOkW , . g_. .. .3.28 2
10.79 A2=5.77m
9.131 Thrust = 7300 lbf I0.81 N = 153 rpm, W = 144 W
. km
9. 135 .6.p = -190 Pa gage, V = 118hr 10.83 Fp=80.4k N, Fr=l23.7 kN
9.137 FL= 1.08 x l04 lbf, F 0 =3.96X HYlbf, W=8.. 13 hp I Q.87 s Vdisk
Vdown = 4.6 ~, s Fthrus,. = 272 kN
- == 8 .95 "\ . ,
I_O. J Q = Q.243 m 3 /s, W = 126 kW, H = 52.8 m Pup =59.7 Pa. Pdown = -36.5Pa
Answers to Selected Problems 655
10.89
~ = 3 l60 rpm, ril = 68.8 lbm/s I '.DI Ap = 48.5 % , Not incompressible flow
11.3 p
-=5.16
y 12.33 V = 2 18 mis
I I. I I Y=0.302, Fr=3.85
- m3 m3
12.37 V = 460 ft/s
I 1.13 Yc-2.0m, Q......=53.2 - , Q = 49.4-at2.4m,
s s 12.4 1 T 01 = 3441<. p 01 =223 kPa, T02=344 K.
kJ
2 m3 poz= 145kPa, 5z -s1 =0. 124 kgK
Y= .87mand0.71 matQ=28.3 -
s
11.15 12.43 P in - Pout = 48.2 kPa
Y = 1.46 ft. V = 6.85 !!, E,,,;;n = 2. I 9 ft
s 12.45 T"=260K, p•=24.7MPaabs, v•=252-:
1 I. L7 Q = 3.24 fr/s
I 1.19 Y2=2.71 m, width=3.22m . kg . . kg
12.47 PYOC =359 mm Hg m =0.27 -S , m =0.26 - S
9
J 1.21 Y2=0.334ft, Yz-y, =11.3% m

Y1 12.49 T' = 1478 K. p' = 74.0 kPa abs, v· = 7705
1 I .~3 Q = 49.5 fills
ft
1 I .25 Y2 = 1.05 m 12.5 1 p=95. l psia, T=91.4F, V=309
5
1 1.27 W1pss = 1924 hp
12.53 . . -,
V=781 m m=
· 2 .00 -
kg, M = I .35
..
11.2 9 Q = 54.0 fills, H 1 = 1.62 ft s s
11 .3 1 Y2 = 4.45 m, H 1 = 9.31 m 12.55 p = 6.52 psi
11 .3 3 Q = 3.18 m 3/s =
12.57 Dlh 2.4 in., De = 2.78 in.
11.35 y = 2.61 ft 12.59 M1 =0.512, M2 = 1.68, N =0.759 cm2,
fil
1 1.3 7 Qm = 1.56 -s., S0 . m = 0.0009, Om= 0.208 m=0.0321 kg
. s
11 .39 concrete: b = 2.36ft; cement: b = 2.77 ft
12.61 kg
a) m.=0325-, . ) . 0 25 kg
11 .4 1 Yo= 1.32 m . . s b m= .3 -s
11 .4 3
I 1.45
Q = 0.194 m 3/s
y = 1.37 m
12.63 M 1 = 0.311, M2 =;:0.612, A: =0.792
A-,
11.47 y = 0.775 m ? 65
L. m•· = 17.0
..
lbm
s
11 .49 Ye= 0.637 m A-, ..
12.67 p 2 =38,870kPaabs, Tt=l246C, A;=().040
J 1.51 b = 4.78.ft, Sc= 0,00462
I 1.53 H = 0.331 m, P = 2.17 m 12.69 ril =0.548 kg
s
11 .55 8.84 m3 /s . . .m
J J J 12.71 p 0 =8P kPa, Pc = .432.kPa, Ti,=2281<. Vc,;;,302
12. 1 Llu= -574- Ah= -803 - As= 143-- 8
kg' · kf kg!{ 12.73 .F = 1560 N to the left
12.3 a) q == 1104 kJ/kg, b) q = 789 kJ/kg
12.75 F = 304 lbf in tension
m •lbm ?
12.5 V2=247- 12.77 A=2.99m-, m=3.7 4 -
s s
12.7 W=392kW
12.79 Pc =88.3 kPa, m=0.499 kg , F= 1026 Nto th~ l~ft
12.9 t:..T = -2.I F s .
m m m . lbm . ft
i2. 11 CH2 = 1305 -,CHc = 1005 - , CCH4 =446 - , 12.81 p 1 =L28psia,p 1 =0.00653 rt3' V=2260 :;:,
. s s s
m . m
cN2 =349-,ccoz=267 - Tot = 954 R, Pot = lO.Opsia, p 02 = 7.22 psia
s · s V
12.83 p1 =314kPaabs, p2 = l66kPa.abs
12. 13 c=299 m/s, V=987 m/s, - - = 1.41
·· Vbuuct m . .. m
12.85 V2 =232 - , P2 =526 kPa, V2s =232 -:-,
12 . 17 .6:t = 16.233 s, At= 16.7 s s s
P2s = 1642 kPa.
12.23 V =
1862 mis
12.87 Ti =520I<, p02 =1.29·MPaabs
I 2 .25 V = 493 mis, At = 0.39'8 s
m Iil .
12.89 Yt-=416-, V2=399:~
12.27 t:..t = 8.55 s s s
12.29 t:..t = 48.5 s 12.91 Po=57.9 kPa.abs,.T=414K;, p=5l.9 kPaabs
- - ----::- .---- ~ - - ' ---•F• - --""---~ - ---•- - ----- ••F---- -/ -"'--- -••_:_::~. . _~ -•F__:_=:.: -:-- - -- 9:- - - -- -- - ~ -
Ind ex
Absolut e metric (system ··of uriits), I0 for control volume wilh rectilinear Choking, 590,595 , Wl2-3, Wl2-22
Ab.s olute pressure, SO nccclerntion, 111 Chonl, 385. 387. 391
Absolui c viseosity; 29 for difrercntinl control volume, 105 Circulation, 162, 225, 387. 391
Accclcra ricin: for nonaccelcrating control volume, 94 Compressible now, 37, 490, 495. 575
convect iv~ l;iS second low of lhermodynnmics, 128 basic cqunlions for, 577
gravitarion!i), I J Basic lnws for system, 84 idcnl gns, 580
local. 158 nngulnr-momenmm principle, 84 Compressor, 413,433 , 491
of particle in l(elocity field, 156, 158 conservation of mass, 84 Computntionnl fluid dynamic s, 170, 176
cylmdric nl ·c oordinat es, l S9 first law of lhcrmodymmucs, 85 and Nnvier-Stokes cquatjon s, 170
-r cctliiigu lnr ,;:oordin_a1es, J S8 Newto·n•s second lnw (linear momentum). 84 opplicntions of, i77
Adiabati c flow; ·s et; Fanp~li ne f!ow differcntinl fi;,rm, 168 dcnling wilh nonlinco rity, 187
Adiabatic; process, 559 . second low of lhermodynam1cs, 85
Basic pres~urc,height relation, 5 I
direct and iterative solution s, I 87
finite difference method, I 77
Adverse pressure gradient . 35,213, 355,371 ,
. _380, 38S, 388, 41S, 4~4, 583 Bearing, joumnl, 283 grid convergcn·c e, 187
Aging of pipes, 303 Bem·oulli equation, 12, l07. 203 iterative converge nce, 188
Aitemat e deplhs, .518 npj>licntions, 208 Conccnuic-cylincler viscome ter, 41, 43
,Anemom eter. cautions on use of, 213 Conical diffuser, 306, 331
Lnscr Poppier , 332 interprctnlion as an energy equation, 213 Conjugate deptli, 53 I
lhermal, 336 irrotnlipnnl now, 219 Conservauon:
A:nglc:o fanack, 371. 385,386 ,477, 487 restrictions on use of. I 07, 203. 213 of energy, see First law of thermod ymunic s of"
Angulor dcformn rion, 1S6, 160, 164 unsteady now. W6-I mass, 85, 121, 12$
AJ\gular-moi:fierit_u m principle , 85,415, 417 Bingham plastic, 31 of mass. 89
•fixed cono-ol volu!f\C. 1.17 Blasius' solution, W9-J cylindrical coordinn tes; I 49
~~ting d~~uol voliime. W4-6 Blower, 308,413 ,428,45 5 rectangular coordini lles, 148
Ap~o l viscosity , 31 · Body force, 25. 51 Consistency iilde;,;, .31
Apparen t shear streSS, '.t94 Boundnr y lnycr, 35, 229, 276 Contact nnglc. 31
displacement lhickness, 356 Continuity, see Conserv ation of mass
Aqueduc t. 5l0
~hintC9~• prin!=ipl~;-70 effect or prcss1.1re gradient on, 371 Continuity equation , diffe¢nt ioJ form, 148
Are,i. ~~tt,oici of, .6() nat plate, 356 cylindricql coonlinn tes, 149
· ~econd.'.momeot of, ·61 integral lhicknesses. 357 rectnngular coordina tes, I 48
lnminar: Continuum, I 8
·product of inC:rtia c;>f, 6i
appro.~imntc solution, 362 Conu'ol -surfoce, 6
Aiea ratio, 3Qg
exact solutio_n, W9- I Control volume, 6. 83
~~iropi e flow, 586
momentu m integral equation for, ·359. rote of work done by, 122·
)t,J;pcct ratio:
362, 363 Convective accelerat ion, 158
airfoil, 391, 489.
niomcntu m-nux profiles. 373 Converging-diverging noµle , see Nozz.le
flat plate, 3·7 g
momentu m lhickncss, 357 Converging nozzle, .sf!'.e_Nozzle ·
~!llpgu blr Jiui;.1, 309
separation, 371 Couette flow, 284
f\tmoi;p he~: 9riti~ni'conditions, compres sible no,v, 577
s181ldnrd, 51, 5 8 shnpe factor, 373
thickness, 356 C:rilical depth, 521.
Avetnge v~l~_ity, 9i, 177
transition , 356 Critical flow in ~pen 'clinrinel . 516, 5 I 9,
plllitllel pill~, 28 I, 2.8 5
turbulent, 369 521. 512. 525.
:pipe. 2!H, ·326, 336.
velocity profiles, 373 Critical pressure ratii;,, 577; 590
open channel; SJ I Criticl!,I Reynolds number, see Trnnsiti.o n
Boundnry~lnyer:
control, 387, 393, 396 Critical speed:
:::;J !J]/
-sime1s; u;s.
7 '
peutileu m 1!1d-!1s.16'., _:}13
ihlcicncss~. 356
~uckiogh nm Pi theorem. 248, -491
compressible now, ~77
open-channel flow • .522
Bulk (comprcssibiH1y) modulus, 37. 566 Curl, 1.61 . .
Basic ·equ:ol;i9n•otf!~d s)4llC$,•4 7 .
Cylinder.
Basi~·C(Jllll_tiops for cpntrof volume, 89 B\nnp, now ovt:r, 524
Buoynncy force, 69 drag, coef[icicnt, 38·1
a,ngular•mo.m,entlllll''J?MCl)il~ -~or inertial
inviscid now arou~d; 225, ·230, 231
ci>illlol volu!ll<;, fj 7 .
_for t9Ultipg con~l:-v oiuroe.. W4-6 .Camber, 387
9!_pU1.ary ~ffec1, 31. 253 D' Alemlicit pnrnclo;,;, 33, 35, 229
-for E,ulc;r ~tb91Dl1Chine, 417 ·ocforma tion:
cooser.vntion of- lllll5s, 89 (i;a.pilliu::y.-vjS!:•meter, .29 I
cavitatio n: 37:, 255, 441 ~g~i~. 156. 160; 164
_firs~hiw of lhermi><lyni_lllljcs, !;ii
Caviii\tic;in· lium~r. 255, 482. 1,ii·car. 156, 166
Newton 's secondla .w (linear monieotu m), .for
C~nier,o _f.p~ure :, 6J, .62 rnic 9f, 4, 27, iq5
-·- · ~on~I ~olume moving wi!)i:J:onstiµit
Centrifugal .puniJ>, 41"4, 428 Del operatOi:;
v.ctoci1y. 1Q9.
CFD, see-·Ci,lo i~Liilio~ '})uid ~yl)liJnics cylindricnl coordina tes, 150; 220, \V3- 2
fqr cono-ol _;olUJl!e·with l!fhitrary
-.,_4". Cbezy ~umiqn,.537 · nictajJgular-C:oort!.in_a1es, 14~'
:ac~Jera tion,_·W4-:l
656
In de x 65 7
De ns ity , 4, 18
De ns ity fie ld, 18 English Engineering (system of units). I 0 po sit ive di~placcment. 41 3. 461
De nv nti ve , sub suu uia l. 157 Enthalpy, 125, 490. 55 8 pro pel ler , 45 8, 47 0, 47 4
De sig n co nd ttio ns, see No zzl e En1.rance length, 27 6 pu mp . 41 3. 461
Dt ffe ren tia l eq un tio n, no nd im ens ion ali zin g "4 5 En tro py ,55 9 tur bin e, 41 3,4 15
Di ffu ser , 30 5, 32 0,3 96 ,41 6 Equation of s1n1e. 4, 57 9 Flu id pa nic le. 8. 20
•-
op um um ge om cm cs, 30 6 ideal gns, 4. 55 7 Flu id sta tic s:
pre ssu re rec ov ery in, 30 5, 30 7 Equations of mouon. see Novier-Stokcs equ_ations bas ic equ ati on of, 47 . SQ
su pe rso nic , 58 2, W 12-1 Eu ler equations, 170. 199 pre ssu re- hei gh t rcl auo n. 50
Di lnm nt, 31 along streamline, 20 I Flu id sys tem. 30 8. 44 4
Di lnt ion , vo lum e, 16 6 cylindrical coordinates. 199 Force:
Di me ns ion , 9 normal 10 streamline. 20 I body. 25 .49
Di me ns ion al ho mo gc ne ily , 12 rcc1.angular coonlinates, 199 bu oy anc y. 69
Di me ns ion al m? lri x. 25 3 streamline coonlinatcs, 20 0 com pre ssi bil ity . 255
Di me !)s ion s of flo w field , 22 Eulerian method of dcscrip1ion. 8, 159 dra g. 37 4
Di sc ha rg e co eff ici en t. 32 8 Eu ler method, 178 gra vit y. 25 4
Oo w no zz le, 32 9 Eu ler number, 255 hydros1.atic, 59
ori fic e pla te, 32 9 Eu ler turbomochine equ ati on , 41 7 on cu rve d sub mc_rge d sur fac e. 66
ve ntu n me ter . 33 1 E.,;pcrimentnl unccnainty, 14 on pla ne sub me rge d surface. 59
we ir, 54 9 E."ttensive propcny. 85 inertia, 25 3. 25 4
Di sp lac em en t llu ck nc ss, 35 6 fal em al no w. 37 lift, 37 4. 38 6
Di stu rbn nc e thi ck ne ss. see Bo un dar y lnycr pre ssu re. 34 , 48 , 25 4; 37 4
Do pp ler eff ec t. 33 6, 56 7 Fnn. 30 8,4 13 , 42 8, .45 5 shc.ir, 37 4
Do ub let , 22 3 "lows." 26 4, 45 9 sur fac e. 25 . 49
·
specific speed, 45 9 sur fac e ten sio n. 31 . 25 5
str en gth of, 22 5
Fa nn o.l ine no w. ·600. W t2- l I viscous.- -2 54
Do wm va sh , 39 1
no w functions for computation of. W1 2-1 5 Fo rce d vo rte x. 16 3
Dr aft tub e. 41 6. 46 4,4 70
Dr ng . 33 , 35 5, 37 4 Ts diagram, W1 2-2 2 Fra nci s tur bin e. 41(>. 42 7. 47 0
Field repn:senauion, I9 Fre e vo ne x. 163, 30 7
for m, 35 , 39 3
First low of1hermodynnmics, 84. 121, 12 5 Fri cti on dra g, see. Dr ag
fri cti on . 37 5. 37 8
Fittings, losses ·in, see He ad loss. in vµ.lves Fri cti on faclOr, 29 9, 30 0, 30 1
ind uc ed , 39 2
and finiilgs Darcy. 30 0
pllf'l!SIIC, 39 6
Flap. 39 3 da ta cor rel ati on for. 30 0'. 30 1
pre ssu re, 35 , 37 5, 37 8
Fia l plate, no w over. 35 5 Fa nn ing . 30 0
pro fil e, 39 3
Float-type no w meter, ·33 6 l:uniiior flo w, 30 2
Dr ng co eff ici en t, 24 7. 37 5
Flow behavior index. 31 sm oo th pip e correfariori, 3"03
air foi l, 38 6. 38 8
Flow cocflicicn1. 26 4, 32 8 Fri cti on les s flow:
co mp let e nir ern ft. 39 2
no_w -nozzle, 32 9 com pre ssi ble adia.b111ic. see.
cy lin de r. 38 1 orifice plate, 32 9
rom un g. 39 9 Isentro"pic-flo w
1urbomnchiile. 42 3 ci;,mpressiblc wi th lie .u tra nsf er. see
Oa t pla te no rm al lo flo w. 37 8 Flow field, dimensions of, 20
Oa t pln te par n!l cl to 06 w. 37 6 Ra yle ig! Hi ne flo w·
Flow mcnsuremenl, 32 6
go lf bn ils . 39 7 inc om pre ssi ble ; 19 9
intcmo.1 no w; 32 6 Friction vel oci ty. 29 4
ind uc ed , 39 1 direct methods, 32 6
sel ec ted ob jec ts, 37 9 Fro ud e nu mb er, 25 6. 25 8. 51 2. 51 6
linear no w inclcrs. 33 5 Fu lly de ve lop ed flo w. 27 6
-sp he re, 3 79 electroinngnetic, 33 6-
sp inn ing . 39 7 larninor; 27 7
noot-type, 33 5 rurbul~lit, 29 3
s_u -cn ml ine d S!I UI, 38 5 rolllineter. j35
su pe rso nic air foi l . W.12-43 Fu lly rou gh flo ,v reg im e. 30 2
turbine, 33 5
sup ert ru1 kc r. 37 8- ultrasomc. 33 6 g.,. 9. II
ve hic ;le , 36 2 vonc.'t shedding. 33 6
Dy na mi c pre ssu re. 20 5. 20 6 Ga ge pr es s_ ~ 51
restriction no w meters. 32 6 Gos co ost an c
Dy nip nic sim ila rit y. 15 7 ti.ow nozzle. 32 9 idenl ga s eq ua tio n of sta le. 4, 55 7:·.
Dy.na mi_c vis c< isi iy, 29 laminar no w element, 33 2 un ive rsa l. 55 7
Dy ne , 10 orifice pl:11e. 32 9
Ge om etr ic sim iiw ity . 25 7
venturi, 331
Gi bb s equatio11s. 21 5, 56 0
1;: (fi de nc y 29 3 trnver..ing methods. 33 6 Gr ad e lin e. 21 7
hy din uh e tur bin e, 42 3 laser Doppler anemometer, 33 6 en erg y. 217. 29 8,3 20 ; J? ?
·pr op ell er, 47 7 1hcnnni-nneinome1er. 33 6
hydraulic, 21 7,3 20 ; 322
prq pu lsi ve , 47 6 opcn-chnnnel no w. 54 8
Gradi_e ot. 50
pu mp , 26 4, ~6 5. 30 8. 42 1 Flow mc1er, see Flo w me asu rem ent
Gr adu all y var ied flow, 54;1
wi nd iur bin e, 48 5, 49 0 Flow no ztl c, 32 8; 32 9
Gr avi ty., ncceleralii>n of. 9
1
~-1, El eir ien tnr y- pla ne no ,vs . see Potential no w theol)' Flow visunlizntion, 21 , 261
Gu ide van;:s, 41 6
En d- pla te, 39 3 Flu id, 3
En·c rg y eq ua tio n. for pip e no w, 29 9. 309_- Se e Fluid mnchinery
Head, 21 8. 30 0, 4i s:
als o Fir st lnw <if 1h cnn od yn nm ics fan, 4j3
gro ss. 46 6. 47 0
En erg y gr; ide lm c, 26 5, 29 7, 54 3 performance chnrnc1eristics. 43 3
pw np. 30 8, 42 2. 44 5. 44 9
658 Inde x
Head {cont inued ) m conve rging nozzle. 589 Mcridionnl velocily. 423
net. 466, 470 cffccl of an:a variation on. 580, 585 Meridional plane , 424
shuto ff. 428 flow functions for compu1:11.ion of. 585 Meter, flow. see Flow meas urem ent
Hend ~ocfficicn1. 263, 424, 492 in hs plane . 581 Meth ods of descr iption :
Head loss. 298 reference condi tions for, 570, 584 Eulerian, 8, 159
in diffus er.;, 305 lscmr op,c proce ss, 560 L:igranginn, 7. I 59
in crilor gcme nts nod conun ction s, 305 lscnLrOpic: slllgnation properties, 560 Mino r loss, see Head loss
in exits. 304 lsothe nnal flow, W12- 18 lvfinor loss cocff icieni . sec Head loss
in gr.Idu n! con1r action s, 305 coeff icient
in inlets , 304 Journ al bc.nring. 283 Model s1udics, 256
mnjo r. 294. 299 Model tCSI focili1ics, 266
mino r, 29_, 299. 303 Kapla n 1urbine. 416, 470 Modulus of elasticity. 37
in miter bend s. 307 Kinem atic similnrity, 256 Molcculnr mass. 557
in nozzl es. 305 Kinem atics of fluid motion, I55 Mom enlum:
in oj:,cn-cl)anncl flow, 512, 518 Kinem atic viscosity, 29 angulnr, sec Angu lar-m omcn l\lm prin ciple
hydra ulic jump . 532 Kinet ic energ y coefficient. 299 linear, see Ncw1 on's secon d .law
perm ancnt .(in flow metec s), 332 of motio n
•in pipe bend s, 307 L:igmngian· me1hod of description. 158 Mom cmum equat ion: 167
in pipe entra nces, 304 Lruninnr bound ary lnycr, 355,3 64, W9-I differential fonn, 168
in pipes . 307 flat pln1e appro xinuu e soluti on, 364 for con1rol volum e movi ng wilh cons ianL
in sudde n area ch;µig cs , 305 001 pln1c, cxnc1 soluti on, W9-1 veloc ity, 109
total, 299 Lruninnr flow. 36, 276 for conlro l volum e wilh nrb_iirary accc lcral ion·.
~ valve s and fiuing s, 307 bc1wecn pnrallcl plnlCS, 277 W4-I
Head -loss coeff icien t. 304 in pipe, 288 for conLrOI volum e wilh recti linea r
Heal uansf er, sign conve ntion for. 85, 122 Lruninnr flow eleme m (LFE), 332 accclcra1ion. 11 I
ffydm ulic dcplh. 512, 5 .16 Lapla ce's equat ion , 180, 221 for difTercn1ioJ con1rol volum e. 105
Hy ~ic di:u:ne1er. 294. 309, 512 Lift. 355, 374, 386 for inertinl contr ol volum e, 94
lfydn u!lic grade line. 218, 298•. 541 Lif1 cocff iciem . 386 for inviscid Oow, 199
Hydr aulic jlirtip , 512, 528 airfoi l, 387 Momen1um flux, 106
basic eqWl tion for. 531, 532 Oarri cus rolor blndc, 489 Momentum in1cgral cqua1 ion, 359, 362
depth i n ~ ~ . 531 rotating cylin\ler. 399 for zero press ure gradi cm flow . 363
head loss ll!=n:ISS, 532 spi,m ing golf ball, 397 Mom entum thickn ess, 357
Hy~ µlic powe r. 422, 461 spinn ing spher e, 397 Moody dingrnm, 30 I
itydr aulic sys1e ins, 59 super sonic airfoil. W 12-43
Hydr aulic 1urbi ne. 41:S. 4§4 Lifl/d rag ratio, 389 Noppc, 458
Linea r defon nation , 156, 166 Navicr-Slokcs cqunt ions, I 68 ·
Hydi:osmµc f!>~ :S9
on .i;W'Ved subm erged surfa ces, 66 Lin!W,I' mome ntum, se_e Ncw1on's secon d law numerical soluti on of, 170, 176
o:n plabe s ubme rged sutfn ces, 59 of motion Ne1 positive suctio n head, 437, 441
Local acceleration, 391 Ne1work. pipe, 322
Hy~ siati c press ure ·dislii butio n, 60
Loss, majo r and minor . see Head loss Newlon, 10
Hype rsoni c flow, 567, "6 S9
Loss coefficient, see Head loss Ncwtoniwi fluid, 28, l68
Newt on's secon d law of motio n, 7 . 84
I ~ fluid, 220, 229
Mach angle , 536 Noncirculnr duel, 309
id.c al gns. 4, 19, 557
Mach cone, 567 Nonineninl rcforence frame, W4-- I, W4- 9
ln!i>e\ler. 41-3, 456 Non-Ncw1onian fluid, 28, 30
Mach numb er. 37. 245,2 56. 563
Incom ple_1e simil nrity, i58
Magn us effect , 399 apparenl viscosity, 31
lnc.~0 1pres sible flow. 37. 90, 148. 151
Majo r loss, see Head loss cons(s \ency index , 31
Incom press ible fluid, 33
Mann ing: flow behav ior index , 3 -1
Induc ed drag, 39 I power-law mode l, 31.
equation, 536
Incni nl contr ol volum e, 94, 109
rough ness cocfficicnl, 537 pscudoplaslic, 3 I
inc ~ i;ool'.Qinau: syste m. 95, 109 rhcopcc;tic, 31
Mano meter , 33. 52
Inteo siv_e proj,eny, 8S, 579 thixo1ropic, 31
.copillnry cffccl in, 31
liuem al en~ . 442,. 557 Lime-dcpcndeni, 31
multi ple liquid, 56
Iniern al flow. 3.8. i76 viscoelastic, 31
reserv ok, 54
fu~i~ld riow, 33. 34, 162 Nol'!llnl depth, 512, 534
sensitivity. 33, 53
Irreve rsible proce ss, 442, 559 Nonn w shQCk, 597
U-1ubc, 53
ltrola liOila l flow, 162, 21.8 basic equal.ions for, 598
~ta-tlona,Ii~y-c ondit ion..2 19 Ma1crial derivative, 157
irrota tiona l voi'tex., 163. 224
M!lllfl line, 386 now function~ ·ror corpp umtio n o'r. 601, 603
Measuri:menl, flow , sec Flow supersonic chll11nel flow with , 605. WI 2-1
~nttr ipic expan sion w~v:~. Wl2~38 _Ts dingrnm. 599
measu remen t
basic c;<j\UlUOQS for. W12- 4J
Mecbanicni energ y, 215, 293, 297, 309 Normw s~s . 25, 48, 122. 169
Pran!.!LI-M~yer expil nsion funct ion, No-slip condi tiqn, 3, 21. 35, 229, 278
M~bi mica l flow me1er. see Flow
WJ2- 41 Nozzle, 208. 212. 582 ·
mensurem_e nt
Isenu opic {low, 58() choke d flow in, 59.1, 595
basic equl! lions for, idcal· gas, 572, 585
Mecharuca) .powcr, 418
_Meniscl!S, ·3 1, 25"3 converging, 582, 589
in conve rging -:dive rging nozzl e, ,594
Ind ex 65 9
con verg ing- dive rgin g, S84 . 60S
desi gn cond ition s. S96 , 606 gage . SI RoUJtion, 155. 160
sUJgnntion. 205 ,206 Rou ghne ss coef ficie nt, Man ning . 537
inco mpr essi ble now thro ugh. 212, 446 , 582
siatic, 205 Rou ghne ss. pipe , 299 , 301
norm al sho ck 1n, 60S
thermodynamic, 124. 169 .20S
ove rexp nnd ed, 696
Pressure coefficient, 255. 385 Seco ndar y dim ensi on, 9
und crcx pnn ded . 69S
Pres.sure dislribution: 374 Seco ndar y flow, 307
airfoil. 37S, 388 Seco nd law of thcrrnodynnmics. 85, 128
Obl ique sho ck. Wl2 -30
automobile, 397 Scp arnt ion, 35,3 03.3 55
flow func11ons for compum11on or. Wl2 -33
converging-diverging nozzle. S65, 606 Seq uent dept h. S31
Occ Wl pow er. 47. 96
conv ergi ng nozzle. 590 Sha ft worlc. 89
One -dim ensi ona l flow , 20
cylin der. 399 Sha pe fncLOr, velo cily prof ile, 373
Opc n-ch nnn cl flow , 39, S12
cylinder, inviscid now. 225. 229 She ar rate, 28
criti cal now , S16, S21 . S25
diffuser. 30S , 371 She ar streSS. 3, 25
ene rgy equo tion for, SI 6
sphe re. 35, 396 distr ibut ion in pipe , 290
gco mc1 nc prop cnic s, S 12
supe rson ic airfoil, W 12-43 She ar wor k, 123
grad uall y vari ed dept h. S 12. S44 wing, 7 Sho ck. norm al. see Normi!l shoc k
hyd raul ic jum p. S 12, 528 Pressure drag, see Drag Sho ck, obli que, see Obl ique sho ck
men sure men ts in. S48 Pressure field, 48 Sho ckle ss entr y flow. 419 , 456
norm al dep th, S12 . S34 Pressure force, 49 Shu toff head , 429
rapi dly vari ed now , 516 , S25 Pressure gr:,dielit. 50. 355 Significan1 figu res, 2
stea dy unif orm flow . S34 effe ct on boun dary layer. 378 Similaricy:
tota l hcad , S l 8 Pressure recovery coefficient. 30S dyn ami c. 257
Orif ice plnt e. 329 ideol, 306 geom etric , 257
Pres surc iap. 205 . 218 ,328 inco mpl ete, 258
Po.r ticlc dcri vnti vc. 1S7 Primary dime nsio n. 9. 250 kinc mol ic. 257
Polh linc . 21 , 23 Profile, vclocily. see Velo ciiy prof ile rule s. 437
Pelt on whe el, 41.6, 466 Propeller, 41S , 458 . 474 Sim ilnr velo city prof iles, 363 . W9- 1
Pcn non cnt hea d loss , see Hea d loss actu ator disk, 474 Sim iliru de, 294
Pipe : efficiency. 476, 480
agin g. 304 , 4S0 Sink. 223
pitch, 479 Siph on. 209
com pres sibl e flow in, see Fllllno-line now pow er cocfficicnl, 480 Skin frict ion coef ficic ni. 365 , 536; W9- 3
hea d loss . see Hea d loss propulsive efficiency, 476 Slop e. bed. 512
lnm innr now in, 25S , 277 , 288 solidity, 477 Slug , 10
non.c ircu lnr. 309 spee d of ndvnncc coef ficie nt, 47.9 Slui ce gale . 102 ,210 ,517
roug hne ss, 299. 301 thrust cocfficieni. 480 Soli diiy , 415 , 477 ,.48 2, 484
stan dnrd size s, 311 lorq uc coefficient. 480 Sou rce. 223
turb ulen t flow in. 276 , 294 Propulsive efficiency. 476 stren gth of, 224
Pip e syst ems. 308 , 322 Pseudoplastic, 31 Spn n,w ing. 385 ,390
netw orks , 322 Pum p, 413 Spe cific ener gy. 518
pum ps in. 308 , 444 in 0uid system, 308, 4Q Spe cific ener gy diag ram ; 519
Pi theo rem . 248 "law s," 26S Spe cific grav ity, 19
Pitc h. 477 . 479 opi;rating poin t. 420 , 445 Spe cific heat :
Piro t-sta tic tube . 207 parallel operation, 438 , 4S2 cons tanl pres sure . 557
Pito t tube . 207 positive displncement. 461. cons tant volu me. 558
Plnn form area. 378 , 38S serie s operation, 437 , 452 Spec ific heat ratio . 557
Pois e, 29 specific speed. 417 , 423 Spe cific spee d; 265 . 417, 423 ,424
Poln r plot . lift- drag , 389 vnrioble-specd oper ation , 438 , 453 Spc!=ific volu me; U4. 518 . 557
Pote ntia l. velo city , 220
Spe cific weig ht, 19
Pote ntia l flow theo ry, 220 Rankine prop eller theo ry, 475 Spe ed of adv: mi;e coef ficic nL 479
elem enta ry plnn e flow s, 223 Rllle of deforin:ltion. 4. 28, .165 Spe ed of sound. 563
dou ble~ 225 Rayleigh-line flow, W 12-20 basi c idcq.l gos, 565
sink , 225 equations for. W 12•21 solid and liqu id. 564
sou rce, 225 flow functions . for W 12-2 6 Sph ere:
unif orm riow , 225 Ts diagram. W 12-2 2
vort ex, 225
drag· cocf ficie ni. 380
Recn trllll tentr ancc, 301 flow arou nd, 35
supe rpos ition of elem enta ry plan e flows, 227 Reference fmme. noninertilll. l.12~ W4 -t pres sure distr ibut ion. 381
Pote ntia l func tion , 220 Repeating parameter, 25 I Spin ratio . 397
Pow er coef ficie nt. 263 . 416 ,424 ; 437 ,480 Reversible process, 491 , 5S9 Sl;lbility, 69
Pow er-l ow mod el, non -Ncw toni nn fluid, 31 Reynolds expe rime nt. 276 Smg e,.4 13
Pow er-l aw velo city prof ile, 295 Rey nold s num ber, 34, 245 . 255 St:1gnation enth alpy , 490. 579
Pru ndll bou ndn ry laye r cqun tion s. 276 . W-1 9 critical, St:t! Tran sitio n S1:1gnntion poin t, 35, ??9 , 231 , 355
Pres sure . 49 Rey nold s stres s. 294 SUJgnation pres swc . 2~
nbso lute , 51 Rey nold s trllllspon lheorem, 88 iseo uopi c, see Isen uop ic stagnaxion
ce~L er of, 59, 61 Rheopcctic. 31 prop c:¢c s
dyn nmi c. 295 , 206 Rigid-body, motion of fluid. W3- 1 Slllgnlllion prcs swc prob e, 205
660 Index
Stngnntion properties. su lsemropic stagnation Thennodynnm ic pressure. sec Pressure Velocity field. 19 n,easurerT 1.ees->'
properties Thennodynnm ics, review of. 557 Velocity measuremen t. see Aow
Stngnation sum,. 570 Thixotropic. 31 Velocity poteotial. 220
Stagnation tempe·mture. 577 Titree-dimensionnl now, 20 Velocity profile. 29. 290. 294
Sutll. wing. 3·g 7 Titroat. nozzle. 583. 597 Vena contr,1c1a.. 304. 320. 327
Stnndan:I atmosphere, 5 I Thrust coefficient. 480 Venturi nowmetcr. 329. 33 l
Smndorti pipe sizes. 3 LO Timelinc, 21 Viscoelastic. 4, 27. 31
Stntic fluid. pressure variation in, 52 Torque coefficient. 417. 424. 480 Viscometer:
Static pressure, 205 Total head tube, 206 capillary. 29 I
Stntic pressure probe, 205 T"!iling vonex. 391 Viscosity, 4, 31
Stntic pressure tap. 205 Tr:msition. 255. 277. 295, 302. 355. 380 absolute (or-clynamic ), 29
Steady flow, 20. 91. 148. 534 Transonic now. 567 apparent. 31
Stpke. 29 Ts diagram, 559. 581. 592 kincmolic, 29
Stokes' dmg low. 379 Turbine, 415 Viscous now, 4, 27. 33
Stokes· theorem. 163 hydraulic, 415, 427. 464 Viscous subl!).yer, 295
STP (standard temperature :md pressure), impulse. 416,466.472 Visualizlllion. flow•. 21 • 26 I
18. 246 reaction. 416. 464. 469 Volume dilation. 166
Streakline, 21 specific speed, 417. 423. 451,459 Volume now rnte. 90
Sueam furiction. 151, 152 wind, 416,474. 482 Voneit: 163. 231
Streamline, 21 Turbine now meter. 335 irrotntional. 162, 225
;,..uation of. 22.. ! 52 Turbomachin e. 413 strength of, 224
Streamline coorQinntcs, 200, 202 nxial now. 41'3, 429. 458 trailing. 390, 393
Streamline Cl!fVDIUre, 20 I • 397 ~entrifugnl. 413 Voriex shedding, 336. 38 l
Sm,.nmliniitg , 36. 384 fan,413,428 Vorticity, 162
SlrCIU11 tube, I 05, 213 now cocflic,cnt, 264, 417, 423.
SlreSS, 25 427. 459 Wake. 35. 355, 371, 374
components, 26, 169 head coefficient. 26S. 424 WaU ~hear stress, 294. 302, 363, 37 1 •
compressive . 49 mixed now, 413 W9-2. w12~1 r
nonnnl. 25, 123. 169 pump. 413 Water hammer, 37
noi.ation, 26 power coefficient. 263. 417, 423, 437. 480, \Va\'cs. copillnry. 31
sheai, 25, 177 485,492 Wave power, 47, 82. 144
sign convention. 27 radial now. 413,419.429 Weber number. 256
yield. 30, 31 scaling laws for, 26S Weight. 13
Stress field, 25 specific speed. 165; 417, 423 Weir. 548
Stri,:sses. Newtonian fluid. 169 stage. 413 broad creste9, 548, 550
SU'ouhnl number. 326. 381 torque coefficient. 4 I7, 423. 480 ~oefficicnt. 549
-Substnntial derivative. 157 Ttirbulcru boundlll)' layer, am plate. 369 contracted rectnngtilnc. 549
Suction surface, 387 Turbulent now, 35, 276 suppressed rectDJ)gulnr. 548
Sudden expansion, 305 Turbulent pipe now, 293 triangulnr, 550
Superppsitio n, of elementru)' plane fluctuating velocity. 294 Welled an;a. 376
flows. Z!5 mean velocity. 300 Wetted perim~ter. 309. 512. 543
direct method of, 225 shear stress distribulion. 293 Windmill. 412,474.48 2
inverse method of. 229 \'elocity profile. 294 Wind power, I, 412, 416.474. 482
Surface fon:e. 25 Two-dimensional now. 22 Wmd tunnel, 257. 261. 264
Surface tension, 31 supersonic, W 12-2
Surface waves. speed of, 512 Unc¢nainiy. experimcnlDI. 14 Wind turbine. 4 I 6. 474
System. 6. JOI Undereitpanded pozz.le, 595 Winglet, 393
System head curves. 445 Uniform now al a section. 22. 91 Wing loading. 391
System derivative, 85 Unifonn now field, 11 Wing span. 390
relation 10 control volume. 88 Unifom1 now in open channel, 534 Work. rate of. 1_22
Systems: Units, 9 shaft, 122
of dimensions, 9 Universal gas consuint. 557 shear. 123
·o f units. 9 Unsteady Bc_moulli equation, W6-·I sign convention for, 85. 122
Unsteady now. 23, 94
Taylor series expansion. 49. 146. 149. 161. 168, Yield stress. 28
176. 182. 279. 360 Vapor pressui::e. 37 ·
-Tels .equations. 559 Vector. differentiation of. 148, 1-50. l S8 Zone of :iclioil; S68
T~nnl speed, 7 Velocity diagram. 419 of silence. 568

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FO X AN D M CD O N A LD 'S

Ph ili p J. Pr itc ha rd Ma nlw rwn Col lege

John C. Leylegian 1\tla1 1ha mm Col lege

1SBN- 978-l- 118-9i 265-2

ISBN- BRV 978-1, 118-92 187-6

Printey in I.he !Jnne4 Stales of Ameri c4

C:ffP.PTER:1 'INTRODUCfldf{j 1 -~HAPT~Jl j i :IH)JJJ~hS:XAT.i(:~ 47

t:~ T,!fil( f~~ L FO RM FQ'R A Of)NITRcJL

?-~-v~ipcliW-W:i~j~ J§' Newso[t·s $ ~so_n~ :f.~w ~4

. :€0.ntrol Vol ume Form ulat ion S:5' ·

[l5:,;F'-;!~~~•••otFiui4 . rs•-' ---,·--· l:'Crifes 90.

Fluid'Translation: Acceleration 9.f a _F).~id Particle Li;Il.¢ 2};7

•section· ITI!lY·,b_!l QIJf.it.ti:~ ~vithout .lg~i;_,pf ~!l.n!inuity _in, ~-e-\~~~ 1"::_itcrint

7 .5 Flow Similarity and Model Studie s 256

Vefocity Diagrams 419 Head Loss Across a Hydraulic Jump 532

i.$~!!it!;~1;t!·W~~~i. ·and· the Frgude· ~:::.:r!::~.:'~~;~ i$tf3

lL~ ~i~=~:!~~f!!c En~ 521

LL4 ~~~:~~:::;:ui~!~ $;~8

APPEND IX B VIDEOS FOR FLUID Answers to Selected Prol;?lems 649

J State oriefi),'. a:ndcondsely (iii y9ur own words)·tll~ µtfoqriation gi:V¢n.

6 Complete the analysis algebraically before substituting numerical values.

Scope of Fluid Mechanics

1.2 Ba sic Eq ua tio ns

The cqnsei:-vation df mas s

Example 1.1 FIRST LAW APPLICATION TO CLOSED SYSTEM

Giy~n: Piston~_c yliqder q:mtairµng 02, m:;:: 0.95 ~g.

We~ de~l.4ig .wi,tb., a syst1cm, ni=0.95 kg.

<.jb_verhing equation: F~t_law for th¢ ~y~tem, .Q, 2 ~W,2 .= E2~E,

. . . -- j .• ' ' . . . -~ii_-

1.3 Methods of Analysis

Fig. 1.2 Piston-cylinder assembly.

System and Control Volume

E xample 1.2 MASS CONSERVATION APPLIED TO CONTROL VOLUME

Given: Pipe, inlet D; = 50 mm, exil D., = 30 mm. Inlet~, Exit

v., =2.7: G~) ·=1.s; - - - ---~---~v"

Differential versus Integral Approach

.f;cample 1.3 FRtE FALL O'F BALL IN AIR

·Give n: Ball, m :;= 0.:2 kg, re1eii.se4 from ~~~ at Yo =SO() m .

(~) Speecr at whlc h the ba1l hits the ~rpu nd.

.0>) :E,atip of§p e.ep!-~Q t~r:$.inal sp~t ;l. L.,

•sinc e V=- V(y) we -

Substituting. numerical values with y = O yields

V=78.7 m/s ,__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ V

At terminal speed, a,-==0 and X.F,-=D-=kV/--.1i1g.

Then, = Q.2kgx9.81-;;X -·- ... _ 4 x-

The ratio ·of actual speed to terminai speed is

1.4 Dimensions and Units

a.MLtT Sys1eme International (N) kg m s K

I slug= l lbf · s 2 /ft

Preferre d Systems of Units

Dimens ional Cc;>n!;is1;el'Iczy and "Engine ering" Equatlo.ns

&ample 1.4 USE OF UNITS

Given: Peanut butter •,,,eight,'' m = 510 g.

ms,= 0.~10 kg ..._____ _____ _"...:'S~1

Using lhe co11vei:sions given inside the book cover;

UsiIJg the fact that i slug= 32.2 lbm,

To find the_weight, we µse

1.5 Analysis of Experimental Error

1.15 A pump is rate.d at 50 hp. What is the rating in kW and Btu/hr?

LL4 ~::::;:ui~!~ $;~8

ms,= 0.~10 kg ..._ _ _"...:'S~1