IDEA - Design Process
IDEA - Design Process
IDEA - Design Process
1. GENERAL
" A good engineer can design bridges, calculates stress and strain and draw up specifications
for machines. But a great engineer is that one, who can tell whether a bridge or machine
should be built at all, where it should be built and when" ( Eugene G. Grace )
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points at the actual operation conditions. The collected data is necessary for further
improvement and development of new product. The philosophy here is : physical problem
solving.
Logistic department, which main objective is to purchase and to store necessary goods for
manufacturing process. The design engineer has to build an intensive communication with
logistic department in order to be able to provide optimum solution using the existing
product range. It is impossible to have any kind of product, which are not used for long
time, since it will disturb the cash flow and the storage system.
TECHNICAL SYSTEM
INPUT OUTPUT
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The consequence of the interconnection between a technical system and its environment is
the conclusion that a technical system is also a dynamic system. It undergoes steady
changes, which occur within the system as well as in its environment. The change may be
invisible at the first moment, but it happens continuously and slowly beyond our control or
consciousness. It may lead to a dangerous conclusion as if nothing happens, but in fact, we
do not know exactly the actual progress of the change. However, being conscious that
every system undergoes steady changes, we could anticipate approximately when the
change become visible and then, we should be able to draw up analysis upon the symptoms
in order to identify the real reason of the changes. A typical example of above hypothesis is
the aging of a technical component. It undergoes changes due to operation conditions, but
nobody can precisely determine the exact moment when it breaks down. We can only
approximately anticipate but cannot exactly predict.
Invisible change n
A technical system contains positive and negative aspects, which exist simultaneously in
equilibrium, although they are contradictory to each other. According to dynamic law of
nature, the equilibrium is temporarily stable, since there are invisible, continuous process of
changes within the system and the setting up new equilibriums. However, the changes
within the system affect the properties of the system. In the moment the quantitative
changes reach a certain level, a breakdown in the old properties occurs suddenly and the
system enter a new visible stage, which is different qualitatively and quantitatively.
Let T is the acceptable tolerance limit of A, then if E < T, the normal condition exists;
however if E > T , the problem occurs.
The problem solving activity is spiritual engineering activity, which applies the knowledge in
the physics, engineering science, special knowledge and adequate field experience. It should
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realize the solution considering the existing limitation of material, technology, facilities and
economy. It requires personal strong mental attitude from the designated design engineer,
determination, the ability to take decision, on going optimism and endurance during the hard
time, willingness to cooperate in teamwork, clear and open mind to absorb the maximum
possible informative data.
It is to remember that the real reason of a problem should be found inside the system itself,
considering the steady change inside the system. The conducive environment facilitates and
accelerates the change. The surrounding environment is never a decisive factor although its
influence may play very important role. The successful problem solving activity depends
largely on the quantity ( = completeness ) and the quality ( = accurate characteristics ) of the
informative data around the problem.
Hence, it is obligatory for a design engineer to investigate an existing technical problem on the
job site, where the problem occurs. He / she should gather sufficiently informative data at the
first hand; in order to win a proper impression and correct perception of the operation
conditions of technical system, the expected function and performance and its surrounding
boundaries. It is almost impossible to identify the real problem and to conduct a successful
problem solving without such a fresh data.
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The exact language in which the modules of information are encoded in the brain is not known.
They could be textual information, graphical information or analytical information.
Psychologists believe that most of design processes use the three-dimensional graphical
information system.
Information processing takes place through interaction of two environments :
Internal environment, which describes the information storage and processing inside
human brain. Generally the human mind are considered to have two types of memories :
short-term memory and long-term memory. The information from external information is
brought into the internal system by the sensors such as eyes, ears and hands. Additionally,
as part of internal processing system, there is a controller that manages the information
flow from the sensors to the short-term memory, between the short term memory and long
term memory and between short term memory and the output abilities.
External environment, which comprises hardware and whatever else, which is used
outside the human body to aid in the solution of the problem.
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The long-term memory is slow in recording information. It takes about two to five minutes
to memorize a single information module. It is why to study a new material takes so long.
The information modules can be retrieved very quickly from long-term memory. Retrieval
is much quicker than storage. Depending on the complexity of information and the
frequency of its use, it can be retrieved within 0,1 second per module. The information
stored in the long-term memory can be retrieved at different levels of abstraction, in
different languages and with different features. Human memory is very powerful in
matching the form of data retrieved to that, which is needed for processing in short-term
memory.
1.3.2. CREATIVITY
Engineering creativity is more akin to inventiveness rather than to research. The popular myth
is that creative ideas arrive like a flash of lightning and clap under thunder routine. However,
most of creative ideas occur by a slow, deliberate process that can be cultivated and enhanced
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with study and practice. Human being are born with inherent measure of creativity, but the
process of maturation forms our native capacity. A technical education, with its emphasis on
precision of thought and correct solutions of mathematical problems, is especially deadly to
creativity.
A characteristic of a creative process is that initially the idea is only imperfectly understood.
Usually the creative individual senses the total structure of idea but initially perceives only a
limited number of the details. There ensues a slow process of clarification and grouping the
entire idea takes shape. The creative process can be seen as moving from amorphous idea to a
well-structured idea, from chaotic into organized, from implicit to the explicit. Engineer by
nature and training, generally set a high value on order, explicit detail and hate chaos and
unclear generality. Design engineers should develop and train themselves to be sensitive and
sympathetic to those aspects of the creative process. A creative idea cannot be turned on upon
command. It is necessary to recognize the conditions and situations that are most conducive to
creative thought. Creative ideas are elusive, we must be alert to capture and record our creative
thoughts.
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part of problem definition. The boundary does not limit the creativity; it focuses the
creativity.
A creative idea often come, when the person is not expecting it and after a period when they
have been thinking about something else. The secret of creativity is to fill the mind and
imagination with the context of the problem and then relax and think something else. As we
relax, there is a release of mental energy, which our subconscious can use to work on the
problem. Frequently the subconscious mind will deliver to the conscious mind a picture of
what the solution might be. Since subconscious mind has no vocabulary, it use picture to
communicate with conscious mind. This is way it is very important for engineers to be able to
communicate effectively through three-dimensional sketches.
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Knowledgeable. It is the deep knowledge in the domain, where the designer is active. The
model of information processing system implies, that all designer start with what they
know and modify this knowledge to meet actual specific problem. At every step on the
way, the process involves small movements away from the known things, but even these
small movements are based on the past experience. Since creative people build their new
ideas based on old design, they must retain a storehouse of images of existing solution in
their long-term memory. Additionally, part of being creative is the ability to evaluate the
viability of ideas. Therefore, without a deep knowledge in his/her specific domain, a
designer cannot evaluate a design. Knowledge about this specific domain can only be
gained through consistent and hard work.
Analytical ability. It is the ability to decompose and to manipulate knowledge, since new
ideas are born from the combination of existing knowledge. A creative designer should
prepare more than one approach to solve a problem. If the initial process does not obtain
solution, the other alternative approaches should be used. This ability can only be learned
and improved by sufficient exercises.
Courage to decide. It is the ability and the courage to take an intellectual chance. Fear of
making mistake and fear to spend time on a design, that may not work at the end, are
characteristics of a non-creative individual.
Non-conformist. There are two types of non-conformist :
Constructive nonconformist are they, who take stand because they think they are right,
but generally they might generate good ideas.
Obstructive nonconformist are they, who take stand just to have opposing view. They
generally will only slow down the progress.
A creative designer are normally constructive nonconformist, however, he / she should never
be hard to manage, just because he / she wants to do thing his / her own way. One thing is sure,
creativity is just one of so many attributes that a designer should have.
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The unconscious mind acts on other two elements. It may distort the relation of the
conscious mind and subconscious mind through its control of symbols and generation of
bias.
The exact detail of how human mind processes information are still researched, but it is known
that the mind is inferior to the modern computers in its data processing capacity and velocity.
However, despite of its low speed processing capacity, the mind is a device with a rigorous
capacity to store information. This characteristic of mind is dominant in the development of
problem solving methods.
The attempts at problem solving are often stymied by the mind's low speed capacity, so that it
is difficult to connect with the information stored in the subconscious mind. Thus, the
important step in problem solving process is to study the problem from all angles and in as
many ways as possible to understand it completely. Most problems studied in that way contain
more than seven elements that the mind can visualize at once. Thus, problem must be divided
into so many problem modules, that the mind can visualize and conceptualize them
simultaneously. Obviously, each module must be easily decomposed into its relevant parts.
It is important to know that there is no guarantee that the initial approach taken in problem
solving process will be successful at once. If the process sticks, the direction should be
changed. Persisting in unfruitful line will only lead to frustration. It is a good idea to keep
initial problem solving effort approximately and exploratory to avoid making premature
commitment.
Another step in problem solving process is to generate divergent ideas and relations. The
objective is to stir up the facts in subconscious mind so that unusual and creative relationship
will be revealed. The objectives are:
To identify the core of the problem and its structures. It must be avoided to make
conclusion before the problem is thoroughly digested and understood.
To find multiple solutions to the problem, so it will be easier to optimize the result. Always
try to find principles underlying the solution so, that they can be generalized and
increasingly understood. The solution should be documented in form of writing, drawing
and models.
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Monitoring
Quality
Progress
Analysis :
JOB Process planning : Environmental
Identification or work sequences Economical analysis
Identification of sequential goals Technological analysis
Network planning Financial variable
Planning of human resources Socio-cultural variable
Planning of technical resources Political variable
Planning of financial resources Legal variable
Planning of time schedule Market competition
Planning of QC checkpoint Stakeholder policy
Documentation system
Resources
Comparative advantages
Competitive advantages
S W O T analysis
Coordination :
Interaction between departments
Information flow
Document control
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2.1.1. PLANNING
The objective of planning activity is to arrange in advance all resources and necessary activities,
which are needed to execute successful design process. It should anticipate the all-possible work
sequences, their interrelationships and the respective period to achieve effective and efficient
design process.
The work plan is necessary for a design team in the following points :
The team should know the direction of its activities, to recognize where and when the
possible distortions from the specified path may occur, so that an effective control
mechanism can be established. The planning arises the self-confidence to lead actions and
greater chance to achieve the expected goals.
The team should have clear idea what resources to be organized and how.
The actual scope of planning activity differs from one job to another, depending on the job size.
However, all plans have more or less similar characteristics.
2.1.2. COORDINATION
An effective coordination is essential to ensure an effective flow of informative data between all
related departments. Unfortunately, it is often forgotten, that there is a high degree of
interdependence between various units performing tasks.
The coordination is necessary to integrate the objectives and activities of various task units
working in a project. Without coordination, people and department will lose sight of their roles
within the organization and they are tempted to pursue their own specific interests at the expense
of organizational goals.
A work plan will help to ensure an effective integration, where and when various department
should cooperate and their activities should be integrated to contribute the accomplishment of the
task, without reducing the effectiveness of the departments in executing their specific tasks.
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No No
Yes
Requirement Concept still
Fulfilled ? valid ?
Yes
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Yes
Yes
Conception
3.1. CLARIFICATION
The quality of a product is not produced accidentally; it must be built into the product from the
very beginning of the product realization process. Therefore, the clarification and verification of
requirements are obligatory steps to achieve a quality solution.
The objective of clarification and verification steps is to collect necessary informative data, to
complete them and to arrange them so, that the core of the problem and its boundary can be
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identified. The real need of the customer should be reflected completely in the conclusion of the
verification step.
The clarification is a preventive action to avoid error in the subsequent process, which are caused
by misunderstanding and misinterpretation of data, ambiguous description of requirements and
its specifications, missing information, alternative proposals etc. The error is likely to occur in
the interface zone, where information is handed over to the next process.
The verification step should recheck the previous informative data and its completeness. The
obligatory requirements should be collected and separated in a specific group and arranged
according to the classification of the data. The optional data is to be collected in another group.
The obligatory requirements are the baseline for the required quality level. Therefore, the
specifications of the obligatory requirements should be thoroughly discussed and clarified, until
a realistic solution could be seen in general form. The supplier should be sure, that it could fulfill
satisfactorily the customer's need, technically as well as economically. The supplier image and
reputation are put on risk.
The clarification and verification steps are closed with a documented list, - Advanced
Requirement List -, which contains the agreed specifications of requirements. It is recommended,
that the customer and the supplier sign the list as a binding document for both side.
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and customer opinion may be consulted. each customer requirement must be rated on a scale.
The rating will give an indication of how competition is perceived by the customer.
3.2.1.2. CONCLUSION
The QFD method ensures that the problem is well understood. It is useful to have a clear set of
customer's requirements and associated engineering measures. It slows the design process, but
the time spent in developing information is returned the next design process.
The QFD method forces such in-depth thinking about the problem that many good design
solutions develop from it. We may try to stay focused on what needs to be designed; but ideas
for the problem solutions are invariably generated. Ideas recorded as brief notes of sketches
during the problem understanding phase may be useful later; however it is important not to lose
sight of goals of the technique and drift of to one favorite design idea.
The QFD method can be applied during the latter phase of design process as well. We may use it
to develop a better measure for functions, assemblies or components in term of cost, failure
modes or other characteristics. The customer requirements or the engineering requirements could
be replaced with what needs to be measured and with any other measuring criteria.
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Technical requirements
Function
Performance
Durability
Material
Manufacturability
Assembly
Maintenance
Quality requirements
Fitness for use
Standard & codes
Measuring & test
Acceptance criterion
Commercial requirements
Delivery conditions
Estimated cost
Warranty
The requirement matrix is useful help to classify the requirements according to their
characteristics and the importance level of the information. The design specification can be
described in terms of word, measurable values and units. It should ease the designer to evaluate,
what kind of necessary information is still needed for design process. During the writing down of
information, a designer can use his/ her own word to describe the specification of requirements,
so the designer can prove himself / herself, whether they understand clearly the requirements of
the customer.
The core of the problem can be found using the following steps :
Concentrate on the obligatory requirements, which directly affect the function and the
performance, while temporarily ignoring supplementary requirements, desires and optional.
Transform the quantitative statements into qualitative one.
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4. CONCEPTION
4.1. CONCEPTION PROCESS
MORPHOLOGICAL
FINDING OF SOLUTION
MATRIX
Conventional method
Intuitive method
Discursive method
Usage of catalogue
FINAL CONCEPT
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The Design Notebook gives complete description of the state of the design. With this
information, a professional designer can review the presentation and the management can decide
whether to continue the project or to stop it before more funds are expended.
Since the breadth of necessary knowledge for the most project is too large to handle alone,
design project are normally handled by a team of individuals with knowledge from different
areas.
It will be difficult to have a clear overview on a complex problem at glance, especially when
handling new problem, which sometimes come from other domain. Such a complex problems
can be decomposed into smaller sub-problems to give a better overview. The degree of
complexity of decomposition will depend on the type of problem. The most complex one is
when solving a new problem; lesser complex is when solving an adaptation problem or
modification of existing system, because the boundary conditions remain almost the same. Each
identified sub-problem may require its own design team, because it should be understood and
planned independently in parallel with other sub-problems. Decomposition must be done
carefully, since it restricts the design options.
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Necessary Evaluation
corrective action of concepts
Transformation Performance
process
The function tells what the product must do to accomplish design requirements; whereas its form
or structure conveys how the product will do the design requirements.
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A function can be described in terms of logical flow of energy, material and information. The
human involvement is defined as function, because very view design can totally exclude the
human involvement. The flow of energy, material and information are rarely distinguishable.
The function, which is associated with flow of energy, is classified by :
The type of energy ( mechanical, electrical, fluid, thermal ) and
The action of energy in the system ( transformed, stored, conducted, transferred,
dissipated, etc. Thus all terms used to describe the flow of energy are action word.
The function, which is associated with flow of material, can be divided into three main
categories :
Through flow, where the process conserves the material. The material is manipulated to
change its position or shape, such as : positioning, lifting, holding, supporting, moving,
translating, rotating, guiding, etc.
Diverging flow, where the material is divided into several bodies, such as : dismantling,
separating, cutting, etc.
Converging flow, where several bodies are jointed together, such as : assembling,
joining, retrofitting, etc.
The function, which is associated with flow of information, can be classified as signal
processor. The signals can be mechanical, electrical signal and software. Generally,
information flow is used for measuring activities, automatic control system or to interface
with human operator.
The objectives of the function modeling technique are :
To decompose the problem in terms of the flow of material, energy or information. It forces
the designer to understand the detail function of the future product, already at the very
beginning stage.
To understand and to analyze existing designs.
To set benchmark for existing design as well as for future design.
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4.2.1.2. GUIDELINES
Document "what", not "how". It imperative that only "what" needs are to be considered.
Detailed and structure oriented "how" considerations should be suppressed in this stage.
Although the functions are remembered by their physical embodiments, it is important that
the natural tendency is override here. If, in case a specific problem solution cannot be
proceeded without some assumptions, the document the assumptions.
Use standard notations as much as possible. For some type of systems, there are well-
established methods for building functional block diagrams. Standard logic symbols or words
can be used to note the flows.
Break the function down as fine as possible and consider the logical flow. It is necessary to
consider the logical relationship between the functions and to arrange them according to the
sequential work in the flow of function.
The Logical Analysis helps to discover the relationship between the input and output. The
logical circuitry is derived using "What-If Analysis". The Boolean algebra is an effective
mean to describe the combination of basic logical functions ( AND; OR; NO ).
When the main flow is clearly identified, it is useful to draw up the main flow in a single
structure. The adjacent flows are normally executed by sub-functions, which are found by
systematically and meaningfully extension of the main flow. It is to ensure that every
transformation of specific physical effect is executed by specific structure. The consecutive
sequences of the physical effects should be arranged so, that a functioning system can be
identified.
The complexity of structure depends on the identified functions. It is often more simpler and
effective to solve a specific sub-problem without logical and physical relationship to the
other sub-problems. The relationship will be searched and found later, if all of the elements
and work principles are completely known. If some principles do not match to each other,
then it must be modified; however, the reference points are known already, so the
modification and adaptation of functions are easier.
Match the inputs and outputs in the functional decomposition. Inputs to each function must
match with the outputs of the preceding function. The flow of material energy and
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information between one function to another can be viewed as conveying process without
change or transformation.
Recheck the concept to eliminate the critical points. Every system has critical points due to
logical mistakes; inaccurate and incomplete informative data; changing the operation
conditions.
4.2.1.3. RESUME
It must be realized, that the functional decomposition cannot be done in one pass and that is a
hard work to develop the block diagram. However, it is factual, that a design is only as good
as the degree of understanding of the functions, which are required to solve the problem.
Therefore, the functional decomposition diagrams should be updated and refined parallel
with the progress of design process.
During the composition of a problem, every partial problem that is firstly recognized could
be solved roughly using known principles, so that the design time can be shortened
considerably. However, after all partial problems are solved, there must be another iterative
process for finding better conceptions in order to avoid fixation of mind only on particular
principles.
The form and complexity of function diagram depend fully on the completeness, accuracy
and weight of the informative data. It is useful to follow firstly the main flow, since it
determines the form of solution. The function diagram should be designed as simple as
possible to obtain economical solution. In the most cases, using modular system is the most
economical solution despite on increasing requirements.
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The function is directed to "how", not to "what". If one idea is built into a function, the
true function of the design must be reconsidered.
The knowledge in the domain is limited. Help is needed.
A1 A1.1
A1.2
A1.3 A1.3.1
A1.3.2
A2 A2.1
A2.2
B1 B1.1 B1.1.1
B1.1.2
B1.2 B1.2.1
B1.2.2
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It is erroneously assumed that each function of the design is independent and that each
concept satisfies only one function.
The result may not make sense. Although the method is a technique for generating ideas, it
also encourages a coarse ongoing evaluation of the ideas. Still care must be taken not to
eliminate concepts too readily; a good concept could conceivably be prematurely lost in a
cursory evaluation. The objective here is to do only a coarse evaluation and to generate all
the reasonably possible ideas.
ELECTRICAL
Heating Magnetizing Electrolyze Switching
Damping Amplifying Reducing Multiplying
Limiting Sensing Indicating Linking
Disconnecting Transferring Transmitting Conducting
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The well-known representative of the intuitive method is the brain storming method, which is
widely used in the design process. The brain storming session is only effective, if each member
of the group contribute ideas from his / her standpoint. The rules of brain storming are quite
simple :
Record all the generated ideas.
Generate as many ideas as possible, and then verbalize the ideas.
Think wildly.
Resist evaluating the ideas; just generate them.
Do not allow criticism of other's idea in the group.
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Can the technology be manufactured with the known process? If reliable manufacturing
process is not refined for the technology, then either the technology should not be used or
there must be a separate program for developing the manufacturing capability. The risk of
separate program is : it may fail and jeopardize the entire project.
Are the critical parameters, that control the function, already identified?. It is important to
identify the critical parameters that affect the product, such as : dimensions, material
properties, etc.
Are the safe operation latitude and sensitivity of the parameters known?. In refining a
concept for a product, the actual values of the parameters may have to be varied in order to
achieve the desired performance or to improve the manufacturability. It is essential to know
the limits on these parameters and the sensitivity of the product's operation to them. This can
be known in only a rough way during early design phase, but during the evaluation, it will
become extremely important.
Have the failure modes been identified?. Every type of system has characteristics failure
modes. Generally, it is useful to evaluate continuously the different ways a product may fail.
The possible critical points is analyzed using Critical Point Analysis, which is comprising of :
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis, Fault Tree Analysis, Risk Assessment and Value
Analysis. The identification of the potential failure mode on suspected critical components,
its causes and effects on these components and on the system as a whole.
The recommendation of necessary corrective actions to eliminate the identified potential
failure. If necessary, the recommendation of alternative solution.
Possible corrective actions :
Change Replacement Elimination
Supplement Reinforcement Improvement
Adding Adjusting Aligning
Does hardware exist that demonstrates positive answers to the above four question?. The
most crucial measure of a technology readiness is its laboratory models or another product. If
the technology has not been demonstrated as mature enough for use, then the designer should
be very sure that it would be ready in time for production.
Is the technology controllable throughout the product's lifetime?. This question addresses
the later stages of the product life cycle : its manufacture, service and retirement. The
answers to these questions are the responsibility of the design engineer.
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functional decomposition and morphology should be referenced and possibly updated as more is
learned through evaluation.
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scores and the sum of minus scores. The weighted total is the sum of each score multiplied by
importance weighting.
If a concept has a good overall score or a high + scores, it is important to notice what
strength they exhibit; in which criteria they meet better than the datum. Likewise, grouping
of – scores will show, which requirements are especially hard to meet.
If most concepts get the same score on a certain criterion, examine the criterion closely. It
may be necessary to develop more knowledge in the area of the criterion in order to generate
better concepts. Or, the criterion might be too ambiguous, is interpreted differently by
different members of the team or is unevenly interpreted from concept to concept. If the
criterion has low importance weighting, do not spend much time on clarifying it. However, if
it is an important criterion, take the more effort either to generate better concepts or to clarify
the criterion.
To learn even more, redo the comparisons, with the highest scoring concept used as the new
datum. This iteration should be redone until a clearly best concept emerges.
After team members have completed the procedure, the entire team should compare their
individual results. The results can vary widely, since neither the concepts nor the requirements
are yet refined. Discussion among the group member should result in a few concepts to refine. If
it does not, the group needs to clarify the criteria and generate new concepts.
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5. PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
No
Are suitable form found to executed
the intended function?
Yes
DOCUMENTATION
No All requirements Yes
General assembly drawing
fulfilled ?
Sub-assembly drawing
Manufacturing drawing
Component list
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Specific The structures must be arranged so, that a specific function is executed by an
identifiable specific modules or component.
The selected physical principles and their interrelationship should be clearly
identifiable. The transparent arrangement of correct physical principles will
ease the detection of disturbances and deviations.
The systematic flow of material, energy and information must be secured by
the design.
The design principle should be selected that any working load at any
condition can be described and calculated clearly.
The design should ensure the correct sequence of assembly and maintenance
process.
Simple The design should be directed to use minimum quantity of components and
to use only the necessary processes.
The simple geometrical forms and shapes lead to an effective application of
mathematical formulae for design calculation.
The usage of symmetrical forms should be preferred to ease the anticipation
of the magnitude and direction of possible deformations due to
manufacturing process, applicable working load and temperature effect.
Simple and symmetrical forms will ease the processes of design, calculation,
standardization, manufacturing, quality control, assembly, material handling,
service, repair and maintenance activities. The time consumption of these
processes will be reduced considerably.
The usage of special tools and complicated work instructions can be avoided.
Safe The following design points affect directly to the reliability of a design :
Strength of material ; Wear and corrosion characteristics; Elastic and plastic
deformation under load; Stability under load; Resonance behavior;
Temperature effects; Sealing; Excessive cost restriction; Too short delivery
time.
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process, because based on the international survey, more than 60% of all manufactured parts
were not made exactly as represented in the drawing. The reasons varied :
The drawings were not complete or ambiguous
The parts could not be made as specified in the manufacturing documents.
The parts could not be assembled if manufactured as drawn.
Many of these problems have been overcome by the introduction of design team and the
philosophy of design for manufacturability. A designer alone cannot perfectly accomplish the
whole processes from refining of concepts to manufacturing of product. There are too many
factors to be considered by a designer in order to make good decisions without help of other
specialists. The refining from concept to product requires the consideration of four basic
elements surrounding the function :
FUNCTION
The following eight steps accomplish the design for manufacturability. The technique is based
on using the functional knowledge of the concept to generate shapes. This generation is tempered
by the knowledge of spatial constraints, material properties and availability, production
capabilities and limitations.
Develop and
refine interface
Establish new modules
and components
Connect functional
interface
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Use standard shapes when possible, since it is the most popular policy to keep the minimum
number of different components in inventory. Each component should be coded with a
number that gives basic information about its shape and size. This coding schemes allows a
designer to check to see if components already exist for use in a new product.
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Rearranging. Reconfiguring the components or their features often leads to new ideas, since
the reconfigured shapes will force rethinking of how the component fulfills the functions. It
may be helpful to rearrange the order of the functions in the functional flow.
Reversing. It is a subset of rearranging by transposing or changing the view of the
components and its features.
Substituting. Identifying other concepts, components or features that will work alternatively
to the current idea. Be aware that new ideas sometimes carry new functions. Sometimes the
best approach here is to revert to conceptual design techniques to aid developing new ideas.
The excessive patching is troublesome. If design progress is stuck on one function or component
and the patching cannot resolve the difficulty, then the time can be wasted in continuing the
effort. Application of the following suggestion may relieve the problem :
Return to the techniques in conceptual design; try to develop new concepts based on the
functional decomposition and the resources for ideas.
Be aware that certain design decisions have altered or added without considering the
functions of the component. as the product evolves, many design decisions are made and
unintentionally changes of the function of a component are likely to occur in the process.
When stuck on finding a quality solution, it is always worthwhile to investigate what
function the component is fulfilling.
If investigating the changes in functionality does not resolve the problem, then consider,
whether the requirements on the design might be too tight. The targets based on the
engineering requirements might be unrealistic and the rationale behind them should be
reviewed.
The result of refinement or patching any aspect of the product can lead in two directions :
First, and most often, the refinement or patching is part of the generating or evaluating loop
in the product design. After each patch or refinement, it is good practice to thing through the
first six steps for the product development before re-evaluating.
Sometimes the result of the refining or patching effort requires a return to earlier stages of
the design process.
It must be noted that sometimes during the design of a new product, the requirements cannot be
met with existing materials or production techniques, no matter how much patching and shape
modification occurs. This situation gives rise to the development of new materials and
manufacturing processes. Until recently, the thought of designing materials and processes to
meet the product design needs meant postponing the design project so that material and
production technology could reach design maturity. However, recent advancement in the
knowledge of metal and plastic material have allowed for material and process design on
demand.
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5.3.1. GUIDELINES
OVERALL QUANTITY OF COMPONENT SHOULD BE MINIMIZED.
The theoretical minimum number of each component should be found. each pair of adjacent
components should be checked to see if they really need to be separate components. Assuming
no production or material limitation, components must be separated if :
The components are moveable relative to each other.
The components are made from different materials.
The assembly or dismantling would be impossible.
The improvement potential is calculated as follow :
Actual nos. of components - theoretical nos. of component
IP =
Actual nos. of component
IP < 10% : current design is outstanding
11% < IP < 20% : current design is very good
21% < IP < 40% : current design is good
41% < IP < 60% : current design is fair
61% < IP < : current design is poor
Typical improvement in the number of components of the range of 30% to 60% is realized by
redesigning the product to reduce the component count.
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Determine for each interface, the interfaces that must be left to be accomplished after it is
accomplished.
Generate sequences of the interfaces subject to constraining relations.
Prune the sequence diagrams by eliminating awkward sequences that result in separate sub-
assemblies.
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If both corollaries are met, the assembly should fall together from above. Thus, the assembly
process would never require reorientation of the base or any assembly motion other than straight
down.
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The reliability can be increased either by decreasing the failure rate or to build redundancy, often
called parallel reliability.
5.4.1. TESTABILITY
Testability refers to the ease with which the performance of critical functions is measured.
Measurements might be made during the manufacturing to ensure that no errors are built into the
product. There are no firm guidelines to an acceptable level of testability. However, the designer
should ensure that the critical parameters that affect the critical functions could be tested. In this
way, the ability - to diagnose manufacturing problems and failures when they occur – can be
increased.
5.4.2. MAINTAINABILITY
Maintainability is related to the easy of diagnosis, dismantling and repair at any level of function.
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6. EVALUATION
EVALUATION
DESIGN DRAWING Function
General assembly Performance
Sub-assembly Cost
Detail drawing Safety
Reliability
Test ability
Failure Mode & Effect Analysis
Yes
FINAL DRAWING
Drawing OPTIMIZATION OF
Component List DESIGN
Manufacturing documents
As the design is processed, there is a continuous need to evaluate them. The objectives of the
design evaluation are :
To manage the functional development of the product.
To develop enough information to be able to compare the product with the target of
engineering requirements. It is to ensure that the features of a design are still being able to
meet the changing requirements. The changing requirements may conclude the functional
and performance requirements, the applicable statutory and regulatory requirements, other
requirements essential for design development and economic necessity of the company. The
design review program should include the identification of any problems and proposal of
necessary corrective actions.
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that is contradictory to the desired functions. Besides tracking the functional evolution of the
product, the refinement of the functional decomposition also helps in the evaluation of potential
failure modes.
Nowadays, the ideal evaluation tool is represented by computer programs that would take
concepts straight from engineer's mind and instantly produce a sample of the product. With this
tool, the engineer can operate and simulate the sample model with least expenditure of time,
money and other resources.
In the mechanical design process, there are some type of models, such as :
The above types are represented by the language and the level of refinement of the product.
During the conceptualization, the modeling techniques are rough, but require few resources
regardless of language. As the product becomes more refined, modeling methods become better
predictors of the final product's performance. The most common final representations in the
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design process are pre-production prototypes and detail drawings, which represent closely the
final product.
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+ Tolerance
Mean value
- Tolerance
The effect of "noise" on the design performance. The "noise" affecting the design
parameters are among others :
Manufacturing variations, which include the dimensional variations, variations in
material properties and surface finishes, differences in assembly alignment, etc.
Aging or deterioration effects, which include etching, corrosion, wear or other surface
effects, creeping ( = changes of material properties and shape over the time ).
Environmental conditions, which include all effects of the operation environment on the
product. Some environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity affect the
material properties; the amount of load affect the operating stress, strains and position;
etc.
All these "noises" will be inherent in the physical models and hence, will affect the variation of
any result. A quality product is one that is insensitive to the "noises" and has a small variation in
performance. These noise factors must be considered also in analytical modeling.
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Can the analysis be performed within the limitations of money, time, knowledge and
equipment? Time and money are two of the measures of the design process. They are
usually in limited supply and greatly influence the choice of modelling technique. Limitation
in time and money can often overwhelm the availability of knowledge and equipment.
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experimental evaluation is important and depending on the type of the product, may be regulated
by standard.
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The problems of two or three dimensions are similarly solved, but the equation relating variables
become complex for multidimensional system. If the variables are not related in a linear fashion,
the equation should be modified.
Robust design can be summarized as three-steps method :
STEP 1 : Establish the relationship between the critical dependent dimension or other
parameter and the independent parameters. Also define the target for
dependent parameter, making it as large as possible, as small as possible or a
specific value.
STEP 2 : Based on the known tolerances ( standard deviations ) on the independent
variables, generate the equation for the standard deviation of the dependent
variables.
STEP 3 : Solve the minimum standard deviation of the dependent variable subject to
this variable while keeping the target. There are usually other constraints on
this optimization problem that limit the values of the parameters to feasible
level.
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The Lagrange optimization method is only useful for relative simple design problems. More
sophisticated methods may be necessary for more complex situation. The Lagrange method
does not allow the inclusion of constraints.
The table below is typical schematic diagram for cost estimation. The definition and terminology
of "cost" differs for each company, since they have their own bookkeeping system. The
terminology used here refers to the schematic diagram below.
LIST PRICE
Material Purchased Labor Tooling Overhead Selling Profit Discount
parts expenses
Manufacturing cost
Total cost
Selling price
The direct costs are those costs that can be traced directly to a specific component or
product. All other costs are called indirect cost.
The material cost is the major part of direct cost. This includes the expenses of all materials
that are purchased for a product, including the expense of the waste caused by the scrap and
spoilage. Scrap is often an important consideration. If the scrap can be reclaimed, the return
from the reclamation can be deducted from the material cost.
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The purchased part cost is the cost, which arises when components are purchased from
vendors. The cost includes the packaging and shipping of the product. At maximum, all
components may be made outside the company and only the assembly is performed in-
house. In this case, there are no material costs.
The labor cost is the cost of wages and benefits to the work force needed to manufacture and
to assemble the product. This value must include all fringe benefits such as medical
insurance, retirement funds and vacation time.
The tooling cost includes all jigs, fixtures, molds and other parts specially manufactured or
purchased for the production process.
The manufacturing cost is the direct cost plus the overhead costs, which include the
administration, engineering, secretarial, cleaning, rental of building and facilities, and other
costs that occur daily, even if the production process is idle. The manufacturing cost can be
divided into :
The variable cost, which is directly proportional to the number of produced units (
material, labor, purchased parts ). For most high-volume processes, the variation is
nearly linear, however, for low-volume process, the costs may change drastically with
the volume.
The fixed cost includes the tooling and overhead. They remain the same regardless of the
number of units made. Even if the production fell to zero, funds spent on tooling, the
expenses associated with the facilities, and non-production labor would remain the same.
The total cost of the product is the manufacturing cost plus the selling expenses. It
accounts for all expenses needed to get the product to the sale point. The actual selling
price is the total cost plus the profit. If the product is sold through distributor or anything
else other than direct sales, then the actual price to the customer is the list price, which is
the selling price plus the discount.
The salaries for designers, drafters and engineers and the costs for their equipments and facilities
are all part of overhead cost. Designer has little control over these fixed expenses but to use their
time and equipment very efficiently. The designer's big impact is on direct costs : type of
material used, the specification of purchased parts, the production methods, labor hours needed
to accomplish the manufacturing process and the cost of tooling. The appropriate cost estimation
can only be made, if the estimator has the sufficient and detailed information. The designer has
to refine the design up to such a level, where rough cost can be estimated for making major
decision. In many companies, the designer does all cost estimations.
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labor needed, the time and the type of machine that will be tied up to manufacture the
component.
What type of machine will be used to manufacture the component? The type of machine
will affect the cost of the component. For each type of machine, there is the cost of the
machine time itself plus the cost of the specific tolls and fixtures needed.
What are the major dimensions of the component? This factor helps determine what size of
the machines of each type will be required to manufacture the component. Each machine has
a different cost for use, depending on the initial cost of the machine and its age.
How many machined surfaces are there and how much material is to be removed? Just
knowing the number of surfaces and material removal ratio can give the good estimate for
required time consumption to machine the component. More accurate estimation requires the
exact knowing about the machining sequences.
How many components will be made? The quantity of the same component to be made has a
great influence on the cost. For one piece, the fixturing is minimum, though long setup and
alignment times will be required. For a high volume, the manufacturing process will be
automated, with extensive fixturing and numerical controlled machine.
What tolerance and surface finishes are required? The tighter is the tolerance and surface
finish requirement, the more time and equipment will be needed in the manufacturing
process.
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7. QUALITY ASPECT
The quality of a product is consciously built into the product from the first step until the end of
the product development process. It is not the incidental result of manufacturing process.
Specification The detail and precise description of characteristics, which a product should
possess during executing the intended function and performance under
operating condition.
Quality The measure how closely a product conforms to a specified standard within
the tolerance limit.
Management The processes of planning, organizing, leading and controlling the effort of
organization to achieve the stated goal using organizational resources. It
includes the establishment of organizational structure, responsibilities,
procedures, processes and resources for implementing the applied system
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The implementation of the quality keys bring consequences to the company, since it should :
Monitor and anticipate the environmental changes and their effects on the progress of the
organization. A faster, responsive process should be created to meet the customer demands.
A quick response time and delivery time is one of the ways to gain competitive advantages.
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Add value to its product so, that the customer will buy in preference to a competitor's
offering. The company should be able to create comparative and competitive advantages on
its own way in order to be considered as competent player in its field. Trying to match every
move of competitor is expensive and counter productive, because the company reacts only
upon competitor's actions. Moreover it shows that the company is incompetent.
Facilitate and emphasize on the establishment of teamwork so, that the problem solving
process can be delegated more to the ground floor. Although the ultimate responsibility is
still in manager's hand, the manager can monitor the progress of work without hampering the
creativity of the participants involving in the work. The management should focus on the
efforts of the people regardless of the educational or cultural background. The clear trend is
toward participative and consultative approach to management functions to enable the
employee to share the responsibility for control.
Device constructive ways to bring performances up to standard after identifying past failures.
Instead of arguing "who" made the mistake, it should concentrate now on "how" to eliminate
the mistake in the future.
Improvement
Correction action
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schedule will help the managers to identify tasks and to estimate the time needed to
accomplish the task, allowing extra time for unforeseen events.
Steering control. It detects the deviations from specified standards or goals and it insists to
necessary corrections to be made before a particular sequence of action is complete. Steering
control is effective only if the manager obtains timely and accurate information about the
actual progress toward the desired goal and the eventual environmental changes around the
project.
Screening control. It provides a screening process, in which specific aspects of a procedure
must be approved or specific conditions must be met before the operation may continue.
Post-action control. It measures the results of a completed action. The deviations from the
plan are identified, recorded and analysed. The data are applied as reference to similar
activities in the future.
INPUT Steering
Pre-action control
control
Screening
PROCESS control
Post-action
control OUTPUT
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The information system and feedback system should be able to collect necessary information
on predictors and to use the information to compare the predictor with the standards. An
effective control system enables the top-down responses as well as bottom-up responses.
Once the control system is put into operation, it will need necessary, continuous adjustment
to the predictors and to the standards in order to produce satisfactorily improvement in the
control system.
The essential performance areas, strategic control points and the operation areas must be
identified clearly.
Essential performance area : are those aspects of the organization that must function
effectively for the entire organization to succeed. The type of these essential performance
areas determines the applicable standards and respective control system.
Strategic control points : are critical points in the system at which monitoring and
collection of information should be carried out. If such strategic control points can be
located, the amount of collected information can be reduced considerably and the
evaluation will be more effective. The strategic control points are selected by focusing on
most significant elements in a given process.
Operation areas : are the areas, where a change should occur. Since errors are most
likely to be made when such a change occurs, monitoring such an interface is usually a
highly effective way to control a process.
7.2. STANDARDIZATION
Standardization is the time limited result of the technical and economical compromises between
the repeating market demand and economic necessity. The standardization is a powerful tool to
produce effective products with maximum economy. It is the discipline to use the minimum
number of different materials and parts for the maximum number of purposes, produced by the
most economical manufacturing processes, of the appropriate quality to give reliable and
acceptable performance at minimum cost. The effective standardization helps the saving of
material consumption, energy consumption and the overall operation cost.
The standardisation simplifies the product variety and the control of their variants of
components. It affects directly to the following aspects :
The function of product.
The design and design calculation process.
The value engineering system
The production, assembly process and maintenance activities.
The material ordering process and storage management.
The quality control system.
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A document is evidence that a process is made according to the specified requirements. A design
document describes the history of a product creation and contains at least the following points :
What kind of processes are made ?
Why this type of process is selected ?
Who execute the process ?
How is the process executed ?
When the process is executed ?
Where the process is executed ?
What kind of “noises” occurs in the process and why ?
How are these noises eliminated ?
The open questions on every subject will force the designer to document his/her activities, the
history of activities and the backgrounds of his/her decisions.
A document has legal consequences; therefore the content of a document must be true. The
process itself might be right or wrong, but the documentation must always be correct and true.
Form of Written form The written form describes the complete history of a
document process and the background of the decisions made.
A complete history can be traced back from the
content of written document.
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General assembly drawing : describes the general layout and arrangement of the product relative
to its surrounding environment. It is a working document, whose purpose is to support the
development of the major components and their relationships. The characteristics of assembly
drawing are among others :
A general assembly drawing is a working drawing and as a such is frequently changed during
the design process. These changes are seldom documented; information can be lost. Good
records in the design notebook can compensate the potential loss.
A general assembly drawing should be made in scale, whenever it is possible.
Only important dimensions are shown on a general assembly drawing. Starting with the
spatial constraints, it sets the stage for developing individual components in the product
generation process. These constraints are best shown on a general assembly drawing.
Tolerances are usually not shown, unless they are critical.
Notes on the general assembly drawing are used to explain a specific design feature or the
function of the product.
A general assembly drawing is often allowed to become obsolete. Since detail drawings are
developed, the general assembly drawing could become less useful. However, if the product
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ENGINEER ASSOSCIATION DESIGN PROCESS
is being developed on a CAD system, the general assembly drawing’s data files become the
important basis for the sub-assembly drawings and detail drawings.
Installation drawing : is a work drawing, which shows how the components fit together. The
most common type of installation drawing uses orthographic views. Installation drawings are
similar to general assembly drawing, except the purpose is different. The characteristics of
installation drawings are :
Each component is identified with specific code and keyed to the bill of material. The bill of
material can be put on the drawing or use separate forms.
References can be made to other drawing and specific assembly instructions for additional
needed information.
Necessary detail views are included to convey information, which are not clear in the major
views.
If the checklist is used for monitoring the process flow of product, it should shows specific
checkpoints, where the status of the process must be checked, what to be checked, how to check,
and which special attention should be given.
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IDEA MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEM Page : 7 . 11
INDUSTRIAL DESIGNER &
Date : 24-Jun-13
ENGINEER ASSOSCIATION DESIGN PROCESS
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IDEA MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEM Page : 7 . 12
INDUSTRIAL DESIGNER &
Date : 24-Jun-13
ENGINEER ASSOSCIATION DESIGN PROCESS
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INDUSTRIAL DESIGNER &
Date : 24-Jun-13
ENGINEER ASSOSCIATION DESIGN PROCESS
The RPN comprises an assessment of occurrence, detection, severity of ranking and the sum of
these three rankings.
The occurrence ( O ) is the likelihood of a specific cause will result in the identified failure
mode and based on perceived or estimated probability. It has the scale 1 to 10.
The detection ( D ) is the likelihood of design verification program pinpointing a potential
failure mode before it reaches the customer. Scale 1 to 10.
The severity of effect ( S ) is the likelihood of the customer noticing any difference to the
functionality of the product. Scale 1 to 10.
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INDUSTRIAL DESIGNER &
Date : 24-Jun-13
ENGINEER ASSOSCIATION DESIGN PROCESS
The resulting RPN = O x D x S, should always be checked against past experience of similar
product and situations.
Following the determination of RPN, it is usual to perform a Pareto analysis and address the
potential failure modes in order of decreasing RPN. Determining the acceptable RPN figure is
really a matter of applying some common sense. If Z = 100 is assumed to be acceptable
maximum, it is to be checked with past experience. The rule to be applied is to adopt a consistent
approach for each ranking and high RPN values will generally be expected.
For design FMEA, the potential failure causes must be studied before drawings are released to
production status. If this is not done properly, the problem related to the identified failure mode
will occur during manufacturing. Following the completion action, the RPN can be calculated
until satisfactory result is achieved.
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