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Barriers to Critical Thinking

Barriers to Critical Thinking

In the previous module, you were introduced to Critical Thinking. You also
learned about concepts or tools that can help you create your own critical
thinking method and finally, we discussed several benefits of critical
thinking.
For this module, you will learn about the hindrances or barriers to critical
thinking. These barriers are habits, practices, and personality traits that
prevent us from seeing things in a fair and rational way, thus preventing us
from thinking critically.

Bias
First, you need to know about bias. Bias is a tendency to favour one thing
over another. Most of the barriers that we will discuss in this module create
bias or influence us to have irrational opinions about certain things.

Personal Barriers
Egocentrism
As the name implies, egocentrism is the mindset in which one considers
himself or herself to be the center of everything. An egocentric mentality
gives utmost importance to one’s personal beliefs, emotions, and welfare.
Moreover, egocentrism can cause an individual to see and judge the world
around him from a biased personal point of view. The following are some of
the traits and actions that have links to egocentrism.
a. Self-righteousness is the belief of having higher or better moral
standards than other people. It provides a false sense of superiority
over others. Self righteous people tend to take the moral high ground
or morally correct position in issues in order to maintain a sense of
moral superiority.

Self-righteousness can prevent us from being open-minded and

considerate towards others’ beliefs and ideas because those beliefs
and ideas are considered inferior.

b. Hypocrisy is the act of claiming to have certain moral standards and

beliefs while displaying behaviours and actions that prove otherwise.
Basically, hypocrisy is doing something while claiming to believe in
the opposite. For example, a person claims to care a lot about the
environment but is known to throw garbage in the streets.

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 c. Saving face can be defined as trying to save one’s reputation after
making a mistake or trying to prevent others from noticing that a
mistake has been made. An example of saving face is denying to have
said something after being proven wrong.

It is a bad habit to save face instead of admitting a mistake. First of all,

if you save face, you are being dishonest to others but more
importantly, you are being dishonest to yourself, which can prevent
you from recognizing your mistakes and correcting them.

Resistance to Change
Resistance to change is the tendency to react negatively to new ideas without
giving fair consideration. For example, a technophobe is someone who
dislikes and avoids new technologies like computers, smartphones, and the
Internet.
Resistance to change can be caused by different factors including intellectual
laziness or the unwillingness to engage in intellectually challenging tasks
such as analyzing new concepts.
Another probable reason is cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is the
discomfort that is felt when faced with a new beliefs or ideas that contradict
pre-existing ones. For example, if a person has always disliked pop music but
hears a new pop song that appeals to him, he feels stress or discomfort
because a long-held belief is being challenged. Cognitive dissonance can be a
good thing because it can force us to re-evaluate our beliefs or values that
may be flawed and come up with better ones.
However, cognitive dissonance can also be a barrier to critical thinking if we
just go back to our comfort zone because we can’t handle the stress or
discomfort. The comfort zone is the mental state where we feel secure and in
control. Some call it their “happy place” or the state of mind without any
negativity.

Prejudice and Stereotype

Prejudice is an opinion about a person, thing, or subject that is not based on
critical thinking. Prejudices are usually negative opinions that cause us to
discriminate against people with different nationalities, races, religions,
genders, etc. For example, some people have negative opinions against
homosexuals because of their gender preference.
It’s easy to see why prejudice is a barrier to critical thinking. Prejudices are
almost always unfair and irrational. Making decisions based on prejudices is
always a bad idea because it keeps us from seeing the reality of the situation.
A stereotype is a generalized description given to members of a particular
group. Stereotypes disregard people’s individual traits and picture them
based on the group that they belong in. Some stereotypes can be positive. For
example, in western cultures, there’s a stereotype that Asians are all good at
math. Some stereotypes are negative like the unfair assumption that people
with tattoos are criminals.
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Barriers to Critical Thinking

Emotion
Emotions are a part of being human. They are a big factor in our decision
making. It’s normal to favour things that make us happy and avoid things that
make us sad or scared. However, if we look at things at a critical thinking
point of view, emotions are not always a good thing.
Strong emotions can cloud our judgement. Emotions, especially strong ones
create biases which can make us jump to conclusions or make brash
decisions before we have the chance to look at matters rationally.
Of course, it is impossible to just turn off emotions. However, it is possible to
keep emotions in check. More importantly, it is possible to be honest with
ourselves and admit that we are being emotional at a particular moment.
This will enable us to postpone important decisions or conclusions and to
revisit them at a time when our emotions have subsided.

Social Barriers
Social Conditioning
The following is a modern fable:
Scientists conducted an experiment involving monkeys. Five monkeys were kept
in a cage with a step ladder in the middle. On the ceiling above the ladder
hangs a banana. Whenever a monkey climbs the ladder to get the banana,
sprinklers were turned on, soaking the other monkeys with cold water. Because
of this, any monkey who tries to climb the stairs gets beaten up by the other
monkeys. This went on until none of the monkeys ever attempt to climb the
stairs. The scientists then replaced one of the monkeys. Upon seeing the banana,
the new monkey tried to climb the ladder and was subsequently beaten up by
the other monkeys. This went on until the new monkey learned that climbing
the ladder will result to a beating. The scientists then replaced another monkey
and when it tried to climb the ladder, it was also beaten up by the rest of the
monkeys including the replacement monkey that came before it. This went on
until all of the original five monkeys have been replaced, leaving five new
monkeys who never experienced being soaked with cold water but still beat up
anyone who tries to climb the ladder. If you can ask the monkeys why they do it,
they would probably answer:
“I dunno. That’s just how things are done here.”
That story is a perfect example of social conditioning. Social conditioning is a
process in which individuals are trained to act in a manner that is deemed
proper by society that they belong in. Keep in mind that “training” does not
mean formal training. It is a collection of acts or experiences that enables
individuals to learn cultural norms such as values, traditions and
superstitions.

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For example, in the Filipino culture, men are expected to have short hair and
women are expected to have long hair. It is not mandatory but the majority of
the population follows this norm because they were conditioned to do so.
While social conditioning may be essential in the survival of culture and
maintaining social order, in some cases, it can become a barrier to critical
thinking. This is mostly because people tend to follow norms without
question and without subjecting them to critical thought. Individuals who act
out of social conditioning can become blind to flaws that these norms may
have.
For example, slavery is a cruel and inhumane practice that is outlawed in
modern culture but used to be the norm in many civilizations. In the past,
people were socially conditioned to believe that it’s ok to buy, sell, and keep
people as slaves. It may be obvious now that slavery is cruel and inhumane
but in the past, social conditioning prevented people from realizing it.

Social Conformity
While social conditioning is something that we are subjected to by others,
conformity is something that we do willingly. Watch this Youtube video to
get a better idea:

https://youtu.be/MDD4IkVZWTM

While the video was made for entertainment purposes, it clearly

demonstrates the effect of peer pressure or social pressure to individuals.
Social conformity is the act of following the standards that we observe in
groups that we belong to. Social conformity is more commonly known as
“going with the flow” or “following the crowd.”
Conformity can be helpful. If you just moved in to a new school, one of the
first things that you would do is to observe the actions of the other students,
particularly those who have been around longer than you have in order to
know which things are ok and which are not. In this case, social conformity
helps us adapt to a new environment and helps us establish a healthy social
life.
However, just like social conditioning, conformity can sometimes cloud our
judgement and prevent us from thinking critically. Conforming to social
standards and following fads without carefully considering its possible
outcomes can lead to bad decisions.
Here’s an example: If a new smartphone comes out and all of your friends has
one, you would want to have one for yourself. If you let social conformity
guide your decision making, you would get the phone no matter what. But if
you stop to think about it in a rational and critical manner, you may realize
that the new phone’s features are not that much different than the one that
you have right now and the new features aren’t really worth the cost of a new
phone.
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Barriers to Critical Thinking

Sociocentrism and Ethnocentrism

Sociocentrism is a mindset or a point of view in which an individual judges
the rest of the world based on the rules and values of his or her own social
group. Ethnocentrism is pretty much the same thing except it is focused on
one’s ethnic group.
In many cases, sociocentric and ethnocentric thought does not conform to
critical thinking or logic. A sociocentric or ethnocentric person may readily
dismiss foreign ideas and practices as wrong or inferior because he or she is
judging it from the perspective of his or her own group.
For example, in some cultures, it is normal to cook and eat certain types of
insects. A person from a western or westernized culture may see this as
disgusting because it is not a normal practice in his or her own cultural or
ethnic group. However, when critical thinking is applied to the matter, an
outsider may realize that when prepared properly, insects can be as safe to
eat as beef or pork or poultry.

Authority
Authority figures have a huge influence in an individual’s values and beliefs.
As children we look to our parents as role models for morality. As adults,
sometimes, we seek expert advice when making important decisions. It is
normal for a person to see someone with more knowledge and experience as
a role model.
Most of the time, this is a good practice. We learn many important skills and
ideas from authority figures like our parents, teachers, and elders in our
community. Society relies on authority figures for leadership and guidance.
For this reason, most groups have a leader or a central figure.
On the other hand, blind loyalty and excessive admiration for a person of
authority can become a personality cult. In a personality cult, people obey
and believe their leaders without question. A leader’s words are considered
as the absolute truth and his or her actions become the moral standard.
Personality cults in government often lead to dictatorships in which the
common people lose the right and the privilege of independent thought; with
all beliefs and ideas contradicting those of the authorities’ are abandoned.
The halo effect is a type of bias in which our general impression of a person,
especially a celebrity, irrationally affects our opinion of that person’s specific
qualities. If a person is well known for a particular trait or talent, like beauty
or singing, people tend to assume that that he or she is also good in other
fields.
Here’s an example, a well known celebrity like an actor or an athlete runs for
public office and wins because the people’s admiration for him or her as an
athlete or an actor was carried over to this new endeavour, which is politics.
If we think about it critically, we may question this person’s qualifications
but halo effect prevented that. Admiration got in the way of critical thinking.
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 Halo effect is evident in advertising where celebrities use their popularity to
convince people to buy products. Because people admire them, they assume
that these celebrities are right about the products that they are endorsing.

Superstition
A superstition is a belief or a practice that is based on the supernatural. Every
culture in the world has superstitions and most of they can be traced to a
time when people did not have proper understanding of science and the
natural world. Our ancestors filled these gaps in their knowledge with
supernatural explanations. For example, ancient people used to think that
lightning and thunder are created by gods such as Zeus and Thor. People also
used to believe that diseases, especially epidemics were created by gods to
punish them.
Eventually, through science, people were able to prove that lightning forms
when atmospheric temperature causes the creation of electrical charges in
clouds and that diseases have different causes such as bacteria, viruses,
genetics, etc. However, many cultures still retain these supernatural beliefs
even though they no longer match the most credible information available to
us.
For example, luck is superstitious belief that people use to make sense of
random occurrences. Luck has no basis in science unlike gravity or friction
but a lot of people still take it in consideration when making decisions. It can
be dangerous because it can make people take risks that would otherwise be
deemed irrational.
There are superstitious beliefs that directly cause harm. For example, certain
animals such as different species of rhinoceros are being hunted down to
extinction because their horns are believed to have healing abilities; a belief
which has no basis in actual medical science.

Logical Fallacies
In Logic and Philosophy, an argument is a statement or series of statements
in which reasons or premises are given to support a claim or a conclusion. An
argument does not mean a heated vocal confrontation between two or more
people.
A logical fallacy is an error in an argument. It is faulty reasoning that is used
to prove a point. Familiarity with logical fallacies is a good critical thinking
tool obviously because it can help us determine if an argument or line of
reasoning is right or wrong. There are many types of logical fallacies and we
can’t discuss them all in just one chapter so here are 10 common logical
fallacies that you may encounter in real life:

a. Ad hominem is a fallacy that is used to counter an argument by

questioning the person who made the argument instead of the
argument itself.

Example: You’re against the new Sin Tax laws because you’re an
alcoholic.
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Barriers to Critical Thinking

b. Gambler’s Fallacy is the incorrect assumption that because

something is happening frequently in the past, it will happen again in
the future. It is important to note that the gambler’s fallacy is different
from analysing trends. Trends can be examined and proven while the
gambler’s fallacy assumes that random things are parts of a trend
without subjecting them to analysis or critical thinking.

Example: You should bet on an even number because the last three
winning numbers were all even.

c. False Dilemma or False Dichotomy is a fallacy in which only a

limited number of choices are presented without considering others
that may exist. It is also known as “black and white” mentality or
“You’re either with me or against me”.

Example: If you don’t support [Politician A] then you obviously work for
[Politician B]

d. Hasty Generalization – As the name implies, it happens when a

conclusion or generalization is made without considering all the
variables.

Example: Japanese people are all kind because I’ve met three Japanese
people and they were so nice to me.

e. Straw Man is a fallacy in which one distorts or exaggerates an

opposing argument.

Example:

Person A: I think we should stop watching and sharing ISIS videos

because we’re just making them more popular.

Person B: So the cops should arrest anyone who watches these videos
because they are aiding and abetting terrorists.

f. Circular Argument is a fallacy in which the conclusion of the

argument is also used as the premise. Basically, a circular argument
goes like this “A is true because A is true”

Examples:
Person A is right because he always says that he is right.

UFO sightings are real because many people have seen UFO’s.

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g. False Analogy is a fallacy in which one tries to prove a point by
comparing it to something that may look similar but is not really
logically connected.

Examples:
If you’re a meat-eater then you might as well eat people because they
are also made of meat.

People who need to drink coffee before they start their day are just like
alcoholics.

h. Non Sequitur is a fallacy in which the conclusion does not follow the
premise. The reasons given to support a claim may look like they
make sense but close examination would reveal that they do not.

Examples:

People love the smell of garlic in their food so we should make garlic-
scented perfumes.

Formaldehyde is used to embalm dead people so it should not be used as

an ingredient in shampoo. (Note: Formaldehyde may really be bad for
the health but using the fact that it is used for embalming is not a
concrete argument against it.)

i. Post Hoc fallacy falsely assumes that something that happened before
an event is the cause of that event.

Example:
Our team always wins when I wear my pink socks. My pink socks are the
reason why we win.

j. Slippery slope fallacy is the assumption that if an event occurs, other

events, which are not logically connected, will inevitably follow.

Example:
If the government legalizes marijuana, soon they will also legalize
heroin and cocaine.