CHAPTER ONE

CLASSICAL MUSIC OF NORTH INDIA

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Hindustani classical music is the Hindustani or North Indian style of Indian classical
music found throughout North India. This style is also known as North Indian classical
music or Shāstriya Sangīt. It is a tradition that originated in Vedic ritual chants and has been
evolving since the 12th century AD, in North India and nearby places. There are 2 subgenres of
Indian Classical music today, The first being Hindustani Music of Northern India and the other
being Carnatic music of the Southern Indian.

Indian music is a result of interactions between different cultures and races that came here and
dwelled over the ages, spanned over several centuries. The three thousand year old Vedic
chants1, the folk traditions of different regions and Persian tradition of Musiqi-e assil together
form the present day Hindustani Classical music. This is a tradition where improvisation pre
dominates written notation; therefore music of the past generation is irrevocably lost. The only
medium for preservation and continuity is being through the oral tradition or Guru-Shishya
parampara. For example, the musical scales or ragas as we know them today had their origins in
the Samveda. Majority of this knowledge had been passed down orally through generations.

Around the 12th century AD, and the onset of the Persian influence, Hindustani classical music
diverged from what eventually came to be identified as Carnatic classical music 2. Both the
traditions use a melodic mode and raga, but the treatment and the style of performance gets
differentiated. The tradition of Hindustani classical music dates back to the ancient Samveda
(Sama means song), where the hymns were sung apart from chanting. With time, these principles
were refined in the musical treatise Natya Shastra by Bharata (2nd century AD), Brihaddeshi of
Matang (9-10 Century AD), Dattilam (around 3-4 century AD). Etc.

In the medieval period, North Indian music was greatly influenced by Persian musicians and Sufi
composers like Amir Khusaro, and later in the Mogul courts, it gained form and popularity.

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After the 16th century, the Moghuls patronized different singing styles in their princely courts,
which subsequently diversified into different Gharanas. The main centers for music were the
cities of Kolkata, Delhi, Varanasi and Mumbai. Smaller cities with princely courts, such as the
Jaipur, Agra and Gwalior also played a major role. The music got systemized by Pandit Vishnu
Narayana Bhatkhande who further organized various ragas into Thaats and gave a strong
structure to the system 3. Vocal, Instrumental and Dance are the three elements of Hindustani
Music. Vocal music was being considered as the primary form and the others as supporting
elements. But now, all three forms have gained a solo status and an equal popularity among the
masses.

1.2 MUSIC IN THE VEDAS (1500 BC- 500 BC)

The Vedic era is the first reference and formalization that we have regarding history of Indian
music. During the first half of the 2nd century BC, the Indus valley civilization declined giving
way to the Vedic civilization. The bard priest who composed hymns in praise of god, to be sung
or chanted was an important aspect of the Vedic religious life, which continued until a sizable
body of oral religious poetry had been composed 4. The best poems were compiled as an
anthology in the form of Rigveda, which slowly grew into massive proportions. The hymns of
the Rigveda, the oldest Veda, are addressed to the elements of nature personified as deities, and
are prayers for protection from calamities and for attainment of prosperity - material as well as
spiritual. The Rigveda came into being between 1500 BC and 500 BC. It was not committed to
writing, but the text and the chanting formula were carefully handed down by word of
mouth from one generation to the next, up to the present period. The priestly families living in
the Rigveda era; chanted, composed and arranged the poems in a very systematic way and laid
the foundation for coming generations.5

The Yajurveda and the Samaveda were composed after the Rigveda. The Yajurveda, with
portions in prose, is a manual, describing the procedures to be followed in the sacrifice. The
Samaveda contains hymns to be sung by those who did the chanting. It is this Veda which is

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specifically connected with music in India. A fourth Veda, the Atharvaveda, replete with magical
chants and incantations, was accepted as a Veda considerably later and is quite unrelated to the
other three.

The Vedas are considered to be revealed literature; which means that the Sages and seers (Rishis)
with extraordinary powers had the ability to see and power to receive them - hence their unique
authority and influence. In order to ensure the purity of the Vedas, the slightest change was
forbidden, and there has been virtually no change in these texts for about 3,000 years. Each Veda
has two parts: texts of the mantras and Brahmanas, which consist of rituals and related examples.
Moreover, to each Brahmana is attached an Upanishad as well as an Aranyaka, both having a
philosophical content.

The Rishis, to whom the hymns of the Vedas appeared as revelations, are the authors of those
hymns. The seven Rishis (Saptarshis) are referred to in the Shatapatha Brahmana as Goutama,
Bharadwaja, Vishwamitra, Jamadagni, Vashistha, Kashyapa and Atri. The seven Rishis are
represented in the sky by the seven stars of the Great Bear. The Richas or the hymns were often
composed on the spur of the moment or extempore, such was the power and ability of Vedic
rishis.6

The Vedic music had fixed tones and scales. It developed mainly as an accompaniment to
religious procedures and rituals. Music was used mainly for two purposes; to propitiate deities
and to accompany sacrificial offerings. Music formed as an important part of the rituals which
structured the various sacrifices which formed the essence of the Vedic religion7. The
instrumental music and dance were considered to be divine as they too propitiated the deities.

When stanzas of the Rig Veda were set to tones and tunes, they were called the Vedic Sama
Gana. In fact, the word Sama itself is a compound expression and includes two entities; the first
component ‘Sa’ refers to hymns, i.e Richa, and the second component, ‘Ma’ refers to the musical
notes. The Vedas were musically recited. It was generally confined to three to five notes and
used only three pitches; Udatta, Anudatta and Swarita. With time, the musical chanting of the
Samaveda finally settled down to seven notes, it is these seven notes that became the source of
later secular and classical music. The sacred chanting always began with the syllable “Om”. The
style of singing was also very peculiar which connected body movements, gestures and correct
intonation in singing. Seated cross-legged and body upright, the singer was to touch the middle

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phalanx of the fingers of the right palm with the right thumb according to the pitch of the note
intended. A disciple learned this procedure through imitating his preceptor or Guru8. This
process of imitation of Guru by the Shishya was a very important learning procedure, which led
to the process of Guru-Shishya parampara prevalent till date. The singing was accompanied by
the Veena, which had to be played in accordance with the singer. The seven notes, which were
named in decending order were, Krusht, Pratham, Dwitiya, Tritiya, Chaturth, Mandra and
Atiswar.

As the early Indian music was based on ritual and mantra, correct pronunciation was of great
significance. Often, even a slight mispronunciation signified 'death' instead of 'life' and yet,
music makers in the Sama gayan did not hesitate to bring about changes in the words of the
mantras they sang. Freedom was so liberally enjoyed that rules were made to regularize these
deviations because they added to the quality of music produced. This process of systemization
was innate even in the Vedic people, which laid the foundation of music later on.

The first branch of Vedic learning was Shiksha. It dealt with the science of correct pronunciation
of vowels, consonants and syllables. Basically six aspects are dealt with: Varna (syllable), Swara
(notes), Matra (duration), Bala (articulation), Sama (a kind of balance in the total utterance) and
Santana (the spacing of the words). Some of the well-known Shikshas are Paniniya,
Yagnyvalkya Vashisthi, Katyayani, Manduki and Naradiya, the last being associated with the
sage, Narada9.

The performances of those days consisted of vocal as well as a number of instrumental

performers. These facts clearly show that in those days, music was of a very advanced level.
Instrumental music of that period comprised of various instruments, both solo as well as choral
music. Four major forms of music were prevalent in Sama gayan, taken as a whole. Each kind of
music affected different changes in vedic mantras as was felt to be necessary by the concerned
musician. The Veena, Tunav, Dundubhi, Bhoomi-Dundubhi and Talav were the prominent
instruments- representing the four major instrumental categories, autophones, embranophones,
aerophones and chordophones.

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1.3 THE AGE OF RAMAYANA AND MAHABHARAT

The two great epics in Indian history; The Ramayana and Mahabharata shed considerable light
on music and bring out the importance given to music in human life. The Gandharvas, or the
professional musicians catered to various musical and cultural needs.

The first epic, Ramayana was composed by the sage Valmiki. It was written in shloka form. The
word shloka refers to a particular kind of metrical composition known for its brevity, easy tempo
and lilting rhyme. Ramayana is more closely associated with music than other epics. That might
be because Ramayana is rendered in verse; and, its poetry of abiding beauty and flow seems apt
for the usage of ornaments like grace and sensitivity. The Ramayana also has a certain shine or
luster in the lyrics. The epic itself mentions that the Rama tale was rendered in song by Kush and
Lava. The great use of musical idioms and a highly developed concept of music, which was well
developed was established and appreciated and was quite evident. For example, when Rama
describes Kishkindha, Sugreeva's kingdom, to Laxmana, he refers to the lute-like resonance of
the bees, the rhythmic croaking of frogs, and the Mridanga like sounds of clouds. Rama was an
expert in gandharva, the 'classical' music of the time. The term Marga Sangeet is also used in the
epic to denote the accepted and prestigious mode of music. There were three important features
of Marga Sangeet. It was created and propagated by Brahma and other deities. It was not meant
for entertainment. It was presented before the Gods to please them, or in other words it was not
meant for the masses.10

The epic Ramayana can be traced or its origins to folk lore and for a considerable time was
preserved and spread orally. By about 7th century BC, the great poet Valmiki formalized into a
very beautiful epic poem which was highly sensitive and lyrical. Thereafter, in age after age the
Suthas narrated and sang the glory of Rama and Sita in divine fervor and spread the epic to all
corners of the land and even beyond. Even to this day , the tradition of devote groups of listeners
gathering around a Sutha to listen to the ancient story of chaste love between Rama and his
beloved and their unwavering adherence to Dharma amidst their trials and tribulations; is still
very alive. Its purity, innocence and nobility were the essence and characterized the Dharma in
Ramayana. It is so chaste and pure that it gives joy and peace after listening.

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There were many instruments that were used in that age, which were collectively known as
Atodya. There were mainly four major types of instruments . A wide variety of instruments were
used such as the Vansha, Shankha ,Veena, Venu, Mridang, Panav , Dundubhi, Bheri, and
Pataha. Among the string instruments, Ramayana mentions two kinds of Veena: Vipanchi
(fingerboard plucked ones like the veena as we know) and Vallaki (a sort of harp). Veena, till
about 19thcentury, was a generic term that applied to all string instruments –either plucked or
struck or played by bow The percussion instruments mentioned in the epic are quite a number:
Mrudanga, Panava, Pataha, Madduka (a bifacial drum), Dindima (a nagaara), Muraja (a large
damaru), Bheri (a drum in a conical shape) and Dundubhi (drums). All these were leather or
leather bound instruments. They were played with metal or wooden drum-sticks with their ends
wrapped in leather. The other instruments to keep rhythm (tala) were: Ghatam and Cymbals. As
regards the wind instruments, Ramayana mentions Flute, Conch, Kahale (long curved trumpets),
Adambara and Swastika. The flute was also used for maintaining adhara- sruthi or (fundamental
note).11

The Ramayana music knowledge was quite widespread. Ravana the demon-leader was proficient
in music. So was Sugreeva, the monkey-leader. Occasions of festival music were known as
Samaj. There were professional classes of musicians such as Bandi, Soota, Magadha and others,
whose repertoire included songs in praise of heroes, their deeds, their clans or dynasties.

Ramayana, as an oral epic, was also propagated according to the musical norms perfected in
the oral tradition. This was the pathya mode of music making, ideal for narration. This was the
form employed by Rama's sons Kush and Lava, when they sang a narrative song in Rama's
praise at his court accompanied by only a lute. Even today, the story of Rama, when traditionally
narrated in India in different languages and regions, follows the norms laid down by the ancient
Sage.

Another great epic during this age was the Mahabharata, which was composed in 24000 shlokas
by Maharishi Vyas. There is less about music in the Mahabharata than in the Ramayana.
Possibly human life had become more complex and problem-ridden during the time of the
Mahabharata, leaving less time for music. The epic referred to a more specific kind of music.
The term Gandharva was used instead of sangeet. The Gandharva, the Apsaras and their consorts
were superhuman beings and were experts in singing and dancing, playing instruments etc. The

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names of the seven musical notes have been mentioned in the Mahabharata which was composed
around 400 BC.

One of the greatest heroes of Mahabharata, Arjun had learnt the musical arts from Chitrasen
gandharva. There were many music schools maintained by the kings to train princesses and their
maids in the performing arts too.12

1.4 INDIAN MUSIC AND NATYASHASTRA

The Natyashastra, a treatise on dramaturgy, is one of the most authentic treatise written by
Bharata sometime between 200BC and 200AD. He was the first to draw up rules of theatre, for
which music was a major and integral part. The Natyashastra is mainly devoted to theatre, dance
and music. It is composed in prose and verse, though verse predominates. There are 36 chapters
on music, which throws light on various classes of instruments, gandharva music, techniques of
playing instruments and the rules of talas explained.

The Natyashastra is written in Sanskrit containing 6000 sutras and incorporated in 36 chapters. It
is set in a discourse form or a dialogue between Bharata Muni and his disciples. The result is an
entire Shastra. Bharata gives credit to Brahma for all the knowledge that he had.

It also emphasizes several theoretical aspects that remained fundamental to Indian music, while
much of the discussion of music in the Natyashastra focuses on musical instruments. With well
knit chapters it covers every aspect of Indian art and drama, the structure of stage or mandapa,
from a detailed analysis of musical scales and movements (murchhanas), to the analysis of the
dance forms and their impact on the viewers; it covers all aspects in detail. In the first chapter,
Bharata talks about the response and involvement of the spectator in drama and considers them
as an intergral part of a stage performance. The second chapter lays down the norms for theatre
architecture or the prekshagriha i.e auditorium. The sixth and seventh chapters deal with the
fundamental emotional notions and aesthetics of rasa and bhava. Chapters eighth to twelve
receive and elaborate treatment on bhavas, which include the vibhavas communicated to

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spectators through abhinaya, especially angika. Chapter 18 discusses the ten major rupakas, or
forms of drama and natika, a variety of uparupaka. The next chapter analyses the structure of
drama as well as the inclusion of lasyangas or components of feminine dance derived from
popular dance and recitative forms in theatre. Chapter twenty gives an elaborate account of the
vrittis. Chapter twenty one, deals with aharya abhinaya, which covers make-up, costume,
properties, masks, and minimal stage decor. Chapter twenty two begins with samanya or
`common` abhinaya, which compounds the four elements of abhinaya harmoniously. It discusses
other aspects of production too, which may be viewed as `inner`, adhering to prescribed norms
and systematic training, and `outer` or done freely outside such a regimen. Chapter 28 deals with
Jati or melodic types, sruti or micro-intervals, swara or notes, grama or scales, and murcchana
or modes, now ragas. Chapter twenty nine describes stringed instruments like the Veena and
distinguishes between vocal and instrumental music, further dividing vocal into two types, varna
or `colour`, only syllabics and giti or `song`, with lyrics. Chapter thirty describes wind
instruments like the flute and ways of playing it. Chapter thirty one, deals with cymbals, and tala,
rhythm, and metrical cycles. Chapter 32 defines dhniva songs, their specific employment, forms,
and illustrations. Chapter 33 lists the qualities and defects of vocalists and instrumentalists.
Chapter thirty four relates the origin and nature of drums. The concluding two chapters lay down
the principles for distributing roles and the qualifications for members of the troupe; such is the
vast expanse of Natyashastra.13

The Rasa theory, which is the foundation of Indian music has also been defined by Natyashastra.
The rasa arises from a proper combination of the Vibhavas, the Anubhavaas and the
Vyabhicharibhavas. Natya rasa is the primary emotion generated by the interaction of the various
bhavas. It is presented by the appropriate modulation of the voice, the movements of the body
and the involuntary reactions that favorably impact the aesthetic sensibility of the spectator. This
rasa theory has impacted thousands of scholars and performers for the past 2000 years. It has
provided an invaluable aesthetic framework for the literary arts, performing arts and the fine arts
and is the essence of Indian music, which gives it authority and life.

The Natyashastra had such a major influence on treatises like Brihhadeshi and Sangeet Ratnakar
and paved the way for future scholars and performers for centuries to come.

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1.5 600AD TO 1200AD, PERIOD BEFORE MUSLIM INVASION

After Bharata, Brihaddeshi, by Matanga was the first influential work after Bharata and before
the advent of Islamic influence in India. One of the major contributions of Matang was the
understanding of the term Deshi in contrast to Margi music. It clarifies many issues related
to shruti that were presented before by Bharata. The definition and meaning of the term Grama is
also elaborated well by Matanga. Grama he says is a compound term comprising of swaras and
shrutis and compares grama to a village. Just as families in a village stay together and according
to their position and order, swaras and srutis reside in the same way in a grama. Matanga
mentions three gramas (including gandhara). But he cites that gandhara grama is mentioned by
Narada which is not used by human beings.14 Matanga recognized Sadja grama and Madhyama
grama as two basic gramas. From these gramas he derives sruti (as intervals between the notes),
swara, murcchana, tana, jati and raga. Arohana (ascending) and Avarohana (descending) pattern
of svaras, according to Matanga, formed murchana of a raga. Murcchana, in effect, describes the
string of notes that, with further embellishments, constitutes the core of a raga. He declares that
murchana is ascent, and tana is descent. He also defines the term "grama ragas" (like janaka
ragas today) and their derivatives (like janya ragas today).

Matang Muni belonged to southern India. The word “Raga” for the first time appears in
“Brihaddeshi” which has been the central concept in Indian art music for centuries. Sargam or
notation in the names of notes appeared for the first time. According to Matang, Deshi is that
which is sung voluntarily and with delight and pleasure by women, children, cowherds
and kings in their respective regions". Deshi music captured the flavor of a range of human
emotions from different regions. Through notes it was formalized into ascending and descending
scales.

The concept of Talas and tala-music also developed during this period. Raga and tala are the two
most important concepts of Indian music. Raga is a melodic form while Tala is the rhythm
underlying music. Together, they distinguish many other forms of world music. The rhythm
patterns or tala became the framework on which the development of a raga was based upon. The
idea of a tala is embedded in the concept of time and in Hindustani music it is the artist who
bestows quality on time. The talas were cyclic and repetitive time patterns of long or short

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duration. Ancient treatises enumerate 108 talas. However, contemporary performances are
normally restricted to about 15 talas. 15

Around the 11th century AD, Sufis introduced sufi music and Hindi and Farsi songs began to gain
popularity. The sufis with their great love for music were beginning to secure a strong foothold
in India. Indian music underwent many transformations and many Indian and non- Indian
cultures took an active part in this transformation. The advent of Islam at the end of the 12th
century brought Persian music and culture with it. Their contribution to the cause of Indian
music was a focal point in the development and understanding of Classical music in India today,
which ultimately became an inseparable part of the Indian culture.

1.6 MUSLIMS IN INDIA AND MEDEIVAL ERA

The period between 1200 and 1700 AD is generally known as the medieval period. This era
underwent many changes in Indian music. New thoughts from different cultures and societies
came into being. The Muslims had gained a strong hold in most parts of north India, though
southern India being relatively unaffected.

During the period of the Delhi Sultanate, Amir Khusro’s poetry became popular. He was a bridge
between Islamic musical tradition and the Hindu tradition and blended Islamic music into the
latter. He composed around half a million verses in Persian, Turkish, Arabic, Braj Bhasha,
Hindawi and Khadi Boli. The zeelaph and sarparda ragas are also associated with Amir Khusro.
During his lifetime he spent in as many as ten different courts, each being culturally active and
different from each other and exposed him to music of different traditions. He is supposed to
have enriched or invented Qawali, Qasida, Qalbana, Naqsh and many others forms of music.
Varying degrees of secularity permeated these musical forms. He was instrumental in
introducing diverse musical elements in Delhi. He is accredited to bringing and creating a new
system called Indraprastha Mata or Chaturdandi Sampradaya and propagation of two specific
musical genres of Tarana and Kaul.16

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Sharangdeva (1210 – 1247 AD), the author of the famous musical treatise Sangeet Ratnakar was
one of the most important authors of the medieval era. He explains the construction and
techniques of playing 14 kinds of drums. This musicological treatise is so highly regarded that
the two important systems of art music in India, Hindustani and Carnatic, try to trace their basic
concepts to it. The mention of names of ragas like the Turushka Todi and the Turushka Gaud in
this text show the percolation of the Islamic influence into Indian music. Sharangdeva describes
only two gramas and quotes Narada while describing gandhara grama, its notes and the names of
murchanas. The discussion of svara includes nada, svara, grama, murchana, tana, svara
prastara, varna alamkara, and jati 17. Details are given about shuddha svara, sadja and
madhyama grama, murchanas, shuddha tana, gamaka, and so forth. The terminology of twenty-
two shrutis, grama, murchana, tana and alankara has all been preserved, but it takes a more
advanced form than similar terminology found in earlier manuscripts. While the framework of
raga, as we know it today, was not understood at the time of Sharangdeva, both Brihaddesi and
Sangeet Ratnakara laid down the foundations for raga creation based on grama, murchana.
Ratnakara emphasized the ever changing nature of music, the increasing role of regional
influences on it, and the increasing complexity of musical material that needed to be systemized
time and again.

During the end of 15th century AD, Raja Mansingh Tomar of Gwalior introduced a new genre of
music known as Dhruvapada or popularly Dhrupad which enjoys esteem and popularity even
today. Apart from Dhrupad he is credited with composing Vishnupadas (songs in praise of lord
Vishnu) and Hori and Dhamar (songs associated with Holi). His treatise Mankutuhal systemized
the prevalent music and popularized classical music among the masses.

During this period a movement known as the Bhakti movement, became increasingly popular.
The word “Bhakti” was first used around 800 BC in the Pali literature. In due course of time
“Bhakti” became a widespread Hindu movement and a way of life, inspiring thousands of superb
religious poetry and art. There were two main cults in the 15th century, Rama and Krishna. Saints
poets like Kabir and Tulsidas belonged to the Rama tradition and Vallabhacharya and his
contemporary Sri Chaitanya represented the Krishna cult. Out of these, the Vallabha cult was
significant as it directly contributed to the theory and practice of music. Ashtachap, Haveli and
Pushti sangeet style of singing emerged out of this18.

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Regional languages like the “Braj”, “Avadhi” etc were widely used by composers of the Bhakti
movement. This gave an idea that the Hindustani art music was well ahead in linguistic and
literary development and was able to reach all strata of the society. The ‘Pushti Margi
sampradaya’ practiced ‘Haveli sangeet’. It was the music practiced in the temple. Here the
temple was treated as the living palace of the deity being worshipped. Nathadwara in Rajasthan
was the main seat of this Vaishnava devotional cult19.

There were many other developments in Hindustani art music during this period. The advent of
the Dhrupad, Khayal and Tappa forms, the disassociation of dance from music, the bifurcation of
Indian music to Hindustani (North Indian form) and Carnatic (South Indian form), the shift of
Pakhawaj to Tabla, all happened during the Medieval period.

In the 16th century, Mian Tansen (Ramtanu Pandey) was a prominent Hindustani classical music
composer and vocalist. He was among the Navratnas (nine jewels) in the court of Akbar. The
latter gave him the title of ‘Mian’ meaning a learned man. During his time a number of Persian
and central Asian cultures were fusing with Hindustani music and his influence was considered
central in creating the Hindustani classical music we know today. A number of descendants and
disciples have also considerably enriched the tradition. Almost all Gharanas of Hindustani
classical music claim some connection with the Tansen lineage even today.

Besides he is the creator of major ragas like Darbari Kanada, Rageshwari and Darbari Todi.
Several of his compositions and ragas have become inseparable to Hindustani music and these
are often prefaced with ‘Mian ki’ e.g. Mian ki Todi, Mian ki Mallhar, Mian ki Mand, Mian ki
Sarang. He is also accredited with playing and popularizing the plucked Rabab (of central Asia
origin). After Tansen, some of the ideas from the rabab were fused with the traditional Indian
stringed instrument, Veena; one of the results of this fusion is the instrument Sarod, which does
not have frets and is popular today because of its perceived closeness to the vocal style. Among
the many works attributed to him are a treatise named the 'Ragamala', many 'Dohas' describing
the 'lakshanas' or the attributes of ragas, 'Sangeet Saar', and 'Shri Ganesh Stotra'. According to
some scholars, Tansen reduced the 4000 ragas and raginis of his time into a system of 400. He
also reduced 92 talas to 1220. Sangeeta Sara and Rajmala are some of his important documents
that he authored. The Dagar family of dhrupad singers believe themselves to be the direct

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descendants of not Tansen but his guru, Haridas Swami. As for the Dhrupad style of singing, this
was formalized essentially through the practice by composers like Tansen and Haridas, as well as
others like Baiju Bawra who may have been a contemporary. Almost every gharana (school)
tries to trace its origin to him, though some try to go further back to Amir Khusro.

The music was rich and varied and used a number of instruments like sarmandal, bin, nay, karna
and tanpura21. The musicians came from far and wide and the courts witnessed a perfect fusion
of Persian and Indian music systems. India in the sixteenth century was politically and
geographically fragmented. There were also multiple cultural forces at work. More than nine
rulers vied with each other to promote their own respective court cultures. The patronage that
Hindustani music received from the kings and courts men gave a huge impetus to classical
music. During the Mughal period, the temple music took a back seat and court music or ‘Darbar
sangeet’ came into being. Commoners were allowed freedom in matters like religion. In various
courts a sophisticated court culture evolved and crystallized. This enabled the emergence of a
chunk of art or classical music distinct from devotional or folk music. This court music exhibited
a great deal of Muslim influence. ‘Kitab-e-Nauras’ written by Ibrahim Adil Shah-11 in the 17th
century describes the court music of this period. The work reflects the confrontation between the
prevalent and flourishing musical traditions in the South and the one taking shape under Muslim
influence. Ibrahim Adil Shah was the moving spirit behind the famous Ragamala painting,
pictorially representing the musical modes22. The seventeenth century saw the reigns of the
emperors Shah Jahan and his son Aurangzeb. The former was himself a musician and a patron of
the arts. The latter was a fanatic, who hated music so much that he ordered all the musical
instruments to be buried! Though music received no royal patronage during his reign, music still
flourished and developed due to the great musicians of the time. The music continued to develop
along the same lines and came to be known as Carnatic music. The music in the North came to
be known as Hindustani music. It is interesting to note, however, that the Muslim rulers
established rule only in the Northern part of India. They never did come to the South. Hence the
socio-political and cultural changes that were taking place were restricted to the North. The
South remained unaffected by these changes.

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Figure I: A famous Ragamala Painting of the 17th century, depicting Raga Dipaka

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1.7 THE MODERN PERIOD

An increasing number of musicological works also took shape in Persian, Urdu, Hindi and other
regional languages, instead of Sanskrit. Many Indian scholars began to publish material on
Hindustani music in English as well as in regional languages. The modern period starts from the
end of the 18th century. This marked the beginning of modern music in India. In this period the
British had come to India and the Muslim rulers were gradually overthrown who were indifferent
to Indian culture and particularly classical music. This led to the decline of the court sponsored
Musicians. Consequently, the musicians kept their knowledge and practice to themselves
confining it within their own family members.

Music became a vehicle of entertainment and was looked down upon in society. This was a
welcome addition to the works of the early British ideologists. All these developments tell us
how Hindustani art music, as we know today, evolved and took shape.

After the death of Aurangzeb, the central power in Delhi started to weaken and there was a quick
succession of emperors. One of them was the legendary Muhammad Shah Rangile (1716-1748
AD). He was a loving and generous patron to many musicians and ruled as the last ruler of the
Mughal dynasty. He was a great lover of music and in his court lived two very famous singers,
Sadarang and Adarang. They are credited with thousands of compositions and also with
popularizing the "Khyal" style of singing. Both of them wrote thousands of compositons in
different ragas in praise of their king Muhammad Shah Rangile. Their style of singing and
presentation became hugely popular as it was different from the existing Dhrupad style of
singing. This new genre popularly came to be known as the Khyal. Many musical forms like the
Khayal, Thumri and Tappa became dominant during this period.

These earlier styles were more somber and generally associated with the royal court. The early
development of Khyal reflected a system of sexual segregation; this is known as ‘pardah’. In this
system men’s activities were commonly held in the royal courts known as ‘Darbar’, while the
women were relegated to their quarters which were known as ‘Zanaana’. The khyal was sung in
much smaller women's quarters so there was not the necessity to sing so loudly; consequently,
the khyal was able to develop much more delicacy. Men singing in the royal courts had to deal

25
with very reverberant environments, so any attempt to sing very fast material would simply be
washed out in the echoes of the darbar. In contrast, women singing in the smaller
zanaanas could explore the full range from slow to fast material23. Khyal is an Urdu word
meaning ‘imagination’ and is thought to have developed out of the Qawali singing style. This
term is indicative of its highly improvisational nature. It is generally an abstract and complete
presentation of the raga; it is probably the most improvised of the Indian styles. Previously, the
common styles were the dhrupad, and dhamar. The courts or Darbars were big and had no sound
system; therefore the masculine forms such as ‘Drupad’ and ‘Dhamar’ became more famous.

Khyal bandishes are typically composed in a variant of Urdu/Hindi, and sometimes

Persian, Marathi or Punjabi, and these compositions cover diverse topics, such as romantic or
divine love, praise of kings or gods, the seasons, dawn and dusk, and the pranks of Krishna, and
they can have symbolism and imagery. Khyal bases itself on a repertoire of short songs (two to
eight lines); a khyal song is called a bandish. Every singer generally renders the
same bandish differently, with only the text and the raga remaining the same. The bandish is
divided into two parts — the Sthayi (or asthayi) and the Antara, with the former considered
more important as it shows the melodic contours of the raga. The sthayi often uses notes from the
lower octave and the lower half of the middle octave, while the antara ascends to the tonic of the
upper octave and beyond before descending and linking back to the sthayi. The singer uses the
composition as raw material for improvisation, accompanied by a harmonium or bowed string
instrument such as Sarangi or Violin playing off the singer's melody line, a set of two hand
drums (the tabla), and a drone in the background. While there is a wide variety of rhythmic
patterns that could be used by the percussionist, khyal performances typically use Ektaal,
Jhoomra, Jhaptaal, Tilwada, Tintal, Rupak, and Ada chautaal. The role of the accompanist
playing the melody-producing instrument is to provide continuity when the singer pauses for
breath, using small variations of the singer's phrases or parts thereof.

The songs are sometimes preceded by improvised alap to sketch the basic raga structure without
drum accompaniment; Alap is given much less room in khyal than in dhrupad. A typical khyal
performance uses two songs — the Bada khyal or great khyal, in slow tempo (vilambit laya),
comprises most of the performance, while the Chota khyal (small khyal), in fast tempo
(drut laya), is used as a finale and is usually in the same raga but a different taal. As the songs

26
are short, and performances long (half an hour or more), the lyrics lose some of their importance.
Improvisation is added to the songs in a number of ways: for example improvising new melodies
to the words, using the syllables of the songs to improvise material (bol-baant, bol-taans),
singing the names of the scale degrees — sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha and ni (sargam) — or simply
interspersing phrases sung on vowels, usually the vowel A, Akaar taans. Taans are one of the
major distinguishing features of the khyal. Now and then, the singer returns to the song,
especially its first line, as a point of reference. Besides the vilambit (slow) and drut (fast) tempos,
a performance may include ati-vilambit (ultra-slow), madhya (medium speed) and ati-drut
(super-fast) tempos. Song forms such as Taranas, Thumris or Tappas are sometimes used to
round off a khyal performance. During the 19th century, when the royal patronage enjoyed by the
performers started to weaken, the concept of gharana gained momentum. With time there arose
stylistic differences in singing and presentation of Khyal from different places and therefore
different khyal Gharanas came into existence.

Gharana means ‘Ghar’ in Hindi or ‘Griha’ in Sanskrit which means a family or house.
Performers when travelled to different places or urban centers felt the need to retain their
respective identities and fall back on the names of the region they belonged. Therefore, even
today the names of the gharanas refer to places. The gharana system in khyal was rooted in
the Guru-Shishya tradition and was similar to the Dhrupad Bani system. The gharana system was
greatly influenced by the gradual fall of the Mughal Empire, which forced musicians to move
from Delhi to princely states such as Gwalior, Lucknow, Hyderabad, Patiala and Rampur 24.
Some of the well known gharanas for singing khyals are; Gwalior, Agra, Jaipur, Patiala, Kirana,
Indore, Mewat, Sahaswan and Bhendibazar.

The Gharanas have distinct styles of presenting the khyal — how much to emphasize and how to
enunciate the words of the composition, when to sing the sthayi and antara, whether to sing an
unmetered alap in the beginning, what kinds of improvisations to use, how much importance to
give to the rhythmic aspect, and so on. However, an individual performer from a gharana may
choose to borrow appealing stylistic aspects of another gharana in his or her gayaki. The identity
of a gharana is its musicological ideology and stylistic tradition of performance. It directly
affects the thinking, teaching, performance and appreciation of music. There are gharanas for

27
other forms of music as well like Sitar, Tabla , Dance. There are gharanas for Thumris as well,
for e.g. Lucknow and Benaras.

The Thumri form of music also got very popular in the 19th century. The prototype of the thumri
is traced to the 'Chhalikya' presentation in the Harivamsha (400 AD). The Chhalikya genre
combined song and dance with dramatic gestures. It is semi- classical Indian music, and has a
romantic or devotional text. It usually revolves around a girl’s love for Krishna. The Lyrics are in
Uttar Pradesh dialects of Hindi called Awadhi and Brij Bhasha. It is characterized by its
sensuality and a greater flexibility with the Raga. Some of the most commonly used ragas
are Pilu, Kafi, Khamaj, Gara, Tilak Kamod and Bhairavi. The compositions are usually set
to Kaherava taal of 8 beats, Addha tal of 16 beats, Deepchandi of 14 beats or Jat of 16 beats and
in ‘Dadra' of 6 beats. During this period, the most notable music lover amongst the weakened
Muslim state rulers was Wajid Ali Shah, Nawab of Ayodhya. He was dethroned by the British
and sent to jail in Calcutta (Metiaburz) 25. Wajid brought along with him a large number of poets
and musicians. He penned many khyal and thumri songs.

The Hindi word 'Thumri' is said to be derived from - 'Thumakna' meaning an attractive gait. So,
literary meaning is 'the song having attractive - rather sensuous, gait of melody and rhythm'. The
content of sensuousness is the main emotive basis in Thumri, though there are many
compositions of Thumri depicting the devotional aspect. In Thumri, the lyrics i.e. 'Bol-ang', is
very important. So, the musical elaboration of the words with different shades is focused in the
rendering, which is called as 'Bol Banaao'. This involves Alap, sometimes with mixtures of
Ragas for highlighting the sentiments. After singing the Sthayi and Antara in slow tempo,
usually there is rendition of words in fast progression on Tabla called 'Laggi' when the singer
twists the words with melodic variations called as 'Bol-Baant '26. Thumri stands as an important
and dominant genre in Indian music along with Dhrupad, Khayal and Tappa; as a well-accepted
genre by all performers, musicologists and audience. With keeping its unique character intact as
a musical form, Thumri has its own idiom, scholastic tradition, aesthetics and mannerisms,
which are in many ways different than Khayal and Tappa, but still there are many
commonalities.

28
Thumri is also used as a generic name for some other, even lighter, forms such as Dadra, Hori,
Kajari, Saavan, Jhoola, and Chaiti, even though each of them has its own structure and content
— either lyrical or musical or both — and so the exposition of these forms vary. Like Indian
classical music itself, some of these forms have their origin in folk literature and music.

Mian Ghulam Nabi Shori or Shori Mian is accredited to the refinement and popularization of this
vocal art form Tappa, which was a very popular semi-classical vocal form of music. It’s fast
pace, usage of intricate tanas in a fast tempo and complex constructions of notes were the
specialties. The emotional outburst of a lover was its main content which was melodious and
sweet. The ‘Baigees’ in the royal courts usually sang the tappas.

Originally originated from the folk songs of the camel riders of Punjab, it got refined at the
imperial court of the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah. Shori Mian was a court singer of Asaf-
Ud-Dowlah, Nawab of Awadh. Basically the lyrical content depicts the love and sorrow of
separation of Heer and Ranjha or any lovers. Ragas expressing romance, light mood or pathos
such as Khamaj, Kafi, Bhairavi, Jhinjhoti, Tilang, Sindhura, Des, and Taals such as Punjabi,
Pashto, Sitarkhani are popularly practiced for Tappa. The special feature of Tappa is the
energetic Taan and uneven rhythmic accent. The lyrics are in the Punjabi Language. The style of
singing is depicted by the intricate patterns of typical taans of Tappa. The Theka or the cycle of
beat is taal Punjabi set to 16 beats. The tension and release principle in the taal is a special
stylistic feature of the Punjabi theka. The improvisation of Tappa is characterized by the Alap in
“Thumri ang’ and then proceed toward the ‘Tanayyat’, using words woven in speedy and uneven
rhythmic accent 27. The appropriate pronunciation of the lyrics provides the emotional content to
the Tappa. It includes ornamentations such as Jamjama, Gitakari, Khatka, Murki, Harkat. The
‘Choot taan’ in Tappa has a special Arabic character, starting with a jerk; it slows down and
again gets accelerated towards the end. Tappa is a specialty of the Gwalior gharana, though there
is another style of the Benaras gharana. There are a few structural differences such as the use of
tala and the style of improvisation, but the fundamental principles are the same. The influence of
Tappa on the other genres culminated into the development of dual natured compositions such as
Tap-Khyal, Tap-Tarana, Tap-Thumri, etc.

29
Ramnidhi Gupta or Nidhubabu (1741- 1839 AD) was accredited to the popularity of a new form
of tappa genre called the ‘Bengali Tappa’. The rhythm of Bengali music was used along with the
features of Tappa in Hindustani music. The lyrics were in Bengali and secular in content,
through mythological pairs of Radha and Krishna 28.

Among the prominent living performers of this style is Pt. Laxmanrao Pandit of
Gwalior, Shanno Khurana, Pt. Manvalkar of Gwalior, Girija Devi of Benaras, Dr.
Ishwarchandra R. Karkare of Gwalior, Smt. Malini Rajurkar, Shri. Sharad Sathe,Manjiri Asnare
Kelkar of Jaipur-Atrauli Gharana and Pandit Yashpaul of the Agra Gharana.

In the 20th century, musical stalwarts like Sourendramohan Tagore, Pandit Vishnu Narayana
Bhatkhande and Pandit Vishnu Digamber Paluskar revolutionized the concept of Indian music.
They deserve a special mention due to their immense contribution to the art of music. Pandit V.D
Paluskar was a disciple of Balakrishnabuwa Ichalkaranjikar, a learned musician at Miraj.
Paluskar trained under him for 12 years. He toured the country and studied the musical traditions
in each part of north India. He went from place to place and visited many royal families in cities
like Baroda and Gwalior, well known for their patronage of musicians. But he broke a long
standing tradition of Indian music by giving a public concert in Saurashtra and charging a
nominal fee. Till then, concerts were given only in palaces or temples. He studied Brijbhasha, a
dialect of Hindi, spoken at Mathura. Vishnu Digambar met Pandit Chandan Chaube and
learnt Dhrupad music from him. In 1901, he reached Lahore, where he decided to establish a
music school.

In 1901, he founded the famous ‘Gandharva Mahavidyalaya’, a music school, institute for
imparting formal training in Hindustani Classical music at Lahore. It was the first school, which
was open to all and ran on public support and donations, rather than royal patronage. Many
students who passed out in the initial batches went on to become respectable musicians and
teachers in North India. Due to the increase in work load, he shifted the school from Lahore to
Bombay. He was the first to bring Hindustani classical music to the masses and brought respect
to musicians, who were treated with disdain earlier. He has written a book on music
called Sangeet Bal Prakash in three volumes, and 18 volumes on ragas as well. His disciples—
famously Vinayakrao Patwardhan, Omkarnath Thakur, Narayanrao Vyas, Shankarrao Vyas,

30
and B. R. Deodhar—became renowned classical singers and teachers. His son Dattatreya Vishnu
Paluskar was also trained in classical music and carried on his father's mission. In 2000, the
India Today magazine named Pandit Paluskar to be one of the 100 people who shaped India 29.

Pandit Vishnu Narayana Bhatkhande was another scholar in the 20th century who recognized the
many rifts and shaped the structure of current Hindustani Music. Born on 10th August 1860, he
was an Indian musicologist who wrote the first modern treatise on Hindustani Classical music.
He reclassified the Ragas, Raginis into the currently used Thaat system. He noted that several
ragas did not conform to their description in ancient Sanskrit texts. He explained the ragas in an
easy-to-understand language and composed several bandishes and Lakshan geet which explained
the grammar of the ragas. He graduated with a degree in law in1885 and joined the legal
profession in 1887 and served a short stint as a lawyer at a High court in Karachi. During his
college days, Bhatkhande began learning sitar playing from Vallabhdas. He later learned vocal
music from Raojiba, a Dhrupad singer. He also trained in other aspects of classical music under
Belbagkar, Ali Hussain Khan, and Vilayat Hussain Khan.

Bhatkhande's first published work, Swar Malika, was a booklet containing detailed descriptions
of all prevalent ragas. In 1909, he published Shri Mallakshaya Sangeetam, in Sanskrit, under the
pseudonym 'Chatur-pandit'. To make this cultural heritage accessible to the common man, he
published commentary on his own Sanskrit grantha in Marathi over a span of several years; it
was published over four volumes bearing the title: Hindustani Sangeet Paddhati. These volumes
form today the standard text on Hindustani music, an indispensable starting point for any student
of Hindustani Classical Music. His disciple; S N Ratanjankar, famous musician Shri. Dilip
Kumar Roy, Ratanjankar's disciple K. G. Ginde, S.C.R.Bhatt, Ram Ashrey Jha 'Ramrang', Sumati
Mutatkar and Krishna Kumar Kapoor are among the notable scholars who followed in the
footsteps of Bhatkhande. His notation system became standard and though later scholars like Pt.
V. D. Paluskar, Vinayak Narayan Patwardhan and Pt. Omkarnath Thakur introduced their
improved versions, it remained a publisher's favorite. It suffered a setback with onset of desktop
publishing, which found inserting marks above and below Devanagari text cumbersome; as a
result, books carrying compositions yielded to theoretical texts 30. After travelling widely and
having discussions with practitioners of various schools, Bhatkhande arranged all the ragas of
Hindustani Classical music across 10 musical scales, called Thaats. Though the thaats do not

31
encompass all possible ragas, they do cover the vast majority, and are a key contribution to
Indian musical theory. It corresponds to the Melakarta system of Carnatic music 31.

He started various schools and colleges focused on imparting training in Classical music and
with the help of the Maharaja of Gwalior, established the Madhav Music College in Gwalior.
The Bhatkhande college of Hindustani Music, now known as Bhatkhande Music Institute
(Deemed University) was a landmark achievement by Bhatkhande as he prepared a systematic
course material. He prepared the Hindustani Sangeet Kramik Pustak Malika as a series of
textbooks traversing an array of Ragas and Bandishes, this textbook is a must have for any
aspiring Hindustani Classical musician.

1.8 GHARANAS

The Gharana concept gained currency only in the nineteenth century when the royal patronage
enjoyed by performers weakened. Performers were then compelled to move to urban centers. To
retain their respective identities, they fell back on the names of the regions they hailed from. The
term Gharana is derived from the Hindi word 'ghar'. This in turn can be traced to the Sanskrit
word 'griha', which means 'family' or 'house'. Therefore, even today, the names of many gharanas
refer to places. Some of the gharanas well known for singing khyals are: Agra, Gwalior, Patiala,
Kirana, Indore, Mewat, Sahaswan, Bhendibazar and Jaipur.

A Gharana also indicates a comprehensive musicological ideology. This ideology sometimes

changes substantially from one gharana to another. It directly affects the thinking, teaching,
performance and appreciation of music.

For instance, the leisurely development of ragas as well as the premium placed on emotional
content of music narrows the choice of ragas available to the Kirana gharana founded by Ustad
Abdul Karim Khan (1872-1937 AD). The Agra gharana, founded by Ghagge Khudabux (born in
1800 AD) has a rich repertoire of varied types of musical compositions. The followers of the

32
Gharana sang many rare ragas. The treatment of each new raga is always as detailed as that of
any known raga 32.

The Jaipur gharana founded by Ustad Alladiya Khan (1855-1945 AD), is well known for its
penchant for rare ragas. They are its staple fare. The music made by the Gharana is replete with
intricate patterns. The Gharana seems to concentrate solely on khayal.

There are also Gharanas for thumris. In the Benaras thumri, the words in the text of a song are
musically embellished to bring out their meaning. The Lucknow Gharana presents intricately
embellished and delicate thumris that are explicit in their eroticism. The principal feature of the
thumri of the Patiala Gharana is its incorporation of the tappa from the Punjab region. It is with
this tappa element that the gharana makes its impact, departing from the khayal-dominated
Benaras thumris and the dance-oriented Lucknow thumris 33.

The concept of hereditary musicians was not confined to vocal music alone. Hence there are also
gharanas in instrumental music. The Gharanas of the Tabla are Lucknow, Delhi, Ajrada, Punjab,
Benaras and Farukkabad, among others. The Gharanas of the Pakhawaj, an instrument
established earlier than the tabla, are not named after places but after their main protagonists like
Kudau Singh and Panse.

The Gharanas have distinct styles of presenting the khyal — how much to emphasize and how to
enunciate the words of the composition, when to sing the sthayi and antara, whether to sing an
unmetered alap in the beginning, what kinds of improvisations to use, how much importance to
give to the rhythmic aspect, and so on. However, an individual performer from a gharana may
choose to borrow appealing stylistic aspects of another gharana in his or her gayaki.

CONCLUSION

Hindustani Classical music is probably the oldest living art form that we have today. From Vedic
era to the modern period it has evolved, and stood tall to the test of time. From the Vedic era
itself, ‘singing’ was given maximum importance and therefore voice was regarded as the highest
and purest instrument. Beyond doubt the voice culture also evolved in a scientific but reserved

33
form between a Guru and a Shishya. In the next chapter we shall look into the History of music
in the West and the development and importance of Voice in their culture.

1
B.C. Deva, The Music of India: A Scientific Study, Munshiram Manoharlal 3Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi (1981).
2
http://www.itcsra.org/
3
B.C. Deva, The Music of India: A Scientific Study, Munshiram Manoharlal 3Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi (1981).
4
http://www.itcsra.org/sra_hcm/sra_hcm_chrono/sra_hcm_chrono_vedic.html
5
A. Parpola. The literature and study of the Jaiminīya Sāmaveda. In retrospect and prospect. Studia
Orientalia XLIII:6. Helsinki 1973
6
George E. Ruckert, Music in North India: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture, Oxford University
Press.
7, 8
http://www.itcsra.org/sra_hcm/sra_hcm_chrono/sra_hcm_chrono_vedic.html
9
A Study of Dattilam: A Treatise on the Sacred Music of Ancient India, 1978, p 283, Mukunda Lāṭha,
Dattila
10 , 11
http://www.itcsra.org/sra_hcm/sra_hcm_chrono/sra_hcm_chrono_500bc.html
12
Vaidya, R.V. A Study of Mahabharat; A Research, Poona, A.V.G. Prakashan, 1967
13
Ghosh, Manomohan (2002). Natyasastra. p. 2. ISBN 81-7080-076-5.
14 15
Moutal, Patrick (1991). Hindustāni Rāga-s Index. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt
Ltd.
16
Hindustani Sangeetha Padhathi (4 volumes, Marathi) (1909–1932). Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande. Sangeet
Karyalaya
17, 18, 19
B.C. Deva, Indian Music, Indian Council for Cultural Relations, New Delhi
20
Moutal, Patrick (1991). Hindustāni Rāga-s Index. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt Ltd.
21, 22
B.C. Deva, The Music of India: A Scientific Study, Munshiram Manoharlal 3Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi (1981)

23
The Journal of the Music Academy, Madras - Volume 62 -1991 - Page 157
24
Gharana Tradition, by Prof. R.C. Mehta
25
B.C. Deva, Indian Music, Indian Council for Cultural Relations, New Delhi
26
Thumri, Tradition & Trends, by Ramanlal Chhotalal Mehta, Published by Indian Musicological Society,

34
1990.
27, 28
"Tapping tappas". The Hindu. Jan 16, 2006.
29
Athavale, V.R. (1967). Pandit Vishnu Digambar Paluskar. National Book Trust.
30, 31
Moutal, Patrick (1991). Hindustāni Rāga-s Index. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt
Ltd.
32
Gharana Tradition, by Prof. R.C. Mehta
33
Thumri, Tradition & Trends, by Ramanlal Chhotalal Mehta, Published by Indian Musicological Society,
1990.

35