Grammar

There are five basic patterns around which most English sentences are built.* They are as follows:

S-V Subject-Verb John sleeps.

Jill is eating.
Jack will arrive next week.

S-V-O Subject-Verb-Object I like rice.

She loves her job.
He's eating an orange.

S-V-Adj Subject-Verb-Adjective He is funny.

The workers are lazy.
Kiran seems angry.

S-V-Adv Subject-Verb-Adverb Jim is here.

Flowers are everywhere.
No one was there.

S-V-N Subject-Verb-Noun She is my mom.

The men are doctors.
Mr. Rajesh is the teacher.

At the heart of every English sentence is the Subject-Verb relationship. Other elements can be added to
make a sentence more interesting, but they are not essential to its formation.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V pattern.

She sleeps. Core sentence

She sleeps soundly. An adverb is added to describe how she sleeps.

She sleeps on the sofa. A prepositional phrase is added to tell where she sleeps.

She sleeps every afternoon. A time expression (an adverb phrase) is added to tell when she
sleeps.
She is sleeping right now. Verb tense is changed, but S-V relationship remains the same.

Mary will sleep later. Subject is named and another tense is used.

The dogs are sleeping in the garage. New subject may require a different form of the verb.
Note: Any action verb can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-O pattern.

They like rice. Core sentence

The people like rice. Specific subject

The friendly people like rice. Subject modified with an adjective

The people in the restaurant like rice. Subject modified with an adjective phrase.

The people like boiled rice. Object modified with an adjective

The people like hot, white rice. Object modified with more than one adjective

Note: Only transitive action verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adj pattern.

He is fine. Basic sentence with "be" verb

He seems happy. Basic sentence with another linking verb

Jordan is tall, dark and handsome. Series of adjectives

He appears very comfortable. Adverb or intensifier added

George became sick last night. Different tense and linking verb

Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adv pattern.

The teacher is here. Basic sentence

The teacher is over there. Using an adverb phrase

Teachers are everywhere. Plural noun and verb used, adverb.

The teachers are in the lobby. Prepositional phrase functioning as adverb

Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-N pattern.

The man is a doctor. Basic sentence

The women are doctors. Using plural noun and verb

My father is a nice guy. Modified subject and complement

My grandparents are senior citizens. Modified plural subject and complement

Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

*Other, less common structures are dealt with in another unit.

Remember, the S - V relationship is at the "heart" of every sentence. All sentences are built around this
core.

To give a sentence more substance, you may enhance the subject or verb:

(VERB enhancements)

1. Change the verb in tense or aspect or a combination of the two.

He eats. (simple present)

He will eat. (future/modal)
He is eating. (continuous)
He has eaten. (perfect)
He has been eating. (combination)
He should have been eating. (combination)

2. Add an adverb or adverb phrase, or prepositional phrase.

He should have eaten already/ by now. He was eating in the kitchen.

3. Add an adverbial clause.

He was eating when the bus arrived.

4. Add a participial phrase.

Having finished his homework, he ate.

(SUBJECT enhancements)

5. Change the noun to a pronoun or vice versa.

He eats.
John eats.

6. Add an article, demonstrative, or possessive.

The man eats.

This man eats.
His father eats.
Note: Subjects and Objects may be enhanced in similar ways.

7. Add an object.

Subject Object
John eats rice.
The man eats an apple.
8. Add an adjective or adjectives.
The handsome man eats. The man eats the big, red apple.
9. Add a prepositional phrase.
The man in the kitchen eats. The man eats an apple from the bowl.
10. Add a relative (adjective) clause.
The man who lives next door eats. The man ate the apple that I bought.
11. Use quantifiers.
Some of the men eat. They eat some of the apples.
12. Use a noun clause.
Whoever gets here first can eat. He eats whichever apple he chooses.

Enhance both the subject and the verb to make sentences more interesting.

The man who lives on the corner is eating his lunch now.

The men from the health club eat every day after working out.

The tall, green men from Mars are eating tuna sandwiches.

Some of the men ate the apples (that) I left on the table.

Whenever he feels like exercising, the fat man eats a huge meal instead.

Basic Sentence Structures

S-V He sleeps. S-LV-N He is a doctor.

S-V-O She eats rice. S-LV-Adj The doctor is sick.
S-V-IO-DO She told him a lie. S-LV-Adv The doctor is here.

Coordinators

Coordinators connect elements of equal importance.

S + V , but S + V (and, but, so, or, nor, for*, yet)

S + V and V

S and S + V

N and N

Adj. and Adj.

Phrase and Phrase

Can be used in a series: A, B, C, or D

Subordinators

Subordinators connect elements of unequal importance. One clause is not as strong as the other.

S + V although S + V (although, even though, because, since*,

when, while, before*, after*, whenever,
wherever*, if, unless, whether?[or not]
as, as [adjective] as, so that, whereas
anywhere*, anytime*)
Although S + V , S + V

Sentence Connectors

Sentence Connectors connect paragraphs or show relationship between very different ideas.

S + V . However, S + V (however, therefore, thus, moreover,

nevertheless, first*, then*, next*, still*
S + V ; however, S + V besides, consequently, furthermore)

Prepositions

Prepositions show relationship among elements of a sentence. They are followed by noun phrases only
and cannot take on a S + V.

S + V (prep. phrase) (during, after*, before*, in, on, at

despite, in spite of, for*, since*, by
(Prep. phrase), S + V like, except, but*, about, to*, from
between [A and B], among, with
(Prep. phrase) V + S (unusual) within, without, beside, near, next to)

* These words have more than one function

What can be the subject of a sentence?

A noun:

Jonathan loves chocolates.

Mrs. Smith lives next door to the barber shop.

The yellow dog makes me nervous.

Crocodiles are very dangerous.

A pronoun:

It isn't time yet.

They went to sleep at 9:00.

Are you coming to the dance?

Words like everyone, everybody, everything, something, anybody, nothing, no one

Everything is ready.

Is everyone here?

Is anybody home?

Quantifiers with nouns/pronouns Without nouns/pronouns.

Some of the pie was gone. Some (count) are here. Some (non-count) is not.
Some of the pies were gone. All is well. All are watching.
Both of them are in the foyer. Both are correct. (as a group)
Neither of them is in the foyer. Neither is correct. (separately)
None of those people are nice. (all of them are not nice)
None of those people is my friend. (not any individual)

Noun clauses

Whoever left the food on the table is in trouble.

What you say is not important.

How you do it is up to you.

"Dummy" subjects

There are five people in the room.

There is some milk in the refrigerator.

Be careful

In most cases, the words before the verb are the subject of the sentence.

It is just the three of us.

The three of us are going to be there.

Prepositional phrases cannot be subjects, even if they come at the beginning of a sentence.

On the table was a red hat.

On the table were a red hat, white gloves and a blue scarf.

Some words look plural but are actually singular:

Physics is my favorite subject.

The news was good.

Scotch and soda is my favorite drink. (This is very uncommon usage.)

My faithful friend and companion is Terry.

Mass or "group" nouns may be singular or plural, depending on focus.

The family is more important than the individual.

The family are going in separate directions.

With either/neither...or/nor, the subject closest to the verb determines agreement.

Neither John nor Jane was the winner.

Either the men or the women are going to take the cake.

Neither Mr. Jones nor his sons have a car.

Neither the boys nor their father has a car.

Some can sometimes be used to indicate an unidentified person.

Some woman was here to see you.

Some guy keeps calling you.

Relative clauses do not affect the main subject-verb relationship; however, S-V agreement within
the relative clause may be different, depending on the meaning.

The people who live there are my friends.

The house that the Jacksons built needs to be remodeled.

One of the men who live there is deranged. He is the only one who lives there

Noun Phrases

Noun Phrases are groups of words that can function as subjects or objects in sentences. They may take on
various forms:

Moneyis important for survival. (Single words)

Lalith spoke to DrRamya. (Proper names)
The boy ate fruit.. (Nouns and articles)
My friend works with her uncle. (Nouns and possessives)
The young girl wore a long, white dress. (Nouns and adjectives)
Some of the kids ate all of the cake. (Nouns and quantifiers)
The man with the gun frightened the people in the bank. (Nouns and prep. phrases)
The woman who lives here is my aunt. (Nouns and relative clauses)
The dogs sleeping on the floor should be left alone. (Nouns and phrases)
Whoever wrote this is in trouble. (Noun clauses)

Pronouns and similar words can also function as subjects and objects:

He gave the money to us.

Someone left this.
Give me one of each.

Verb Phrases

Verb phrases are groups of words that express action or state of being. They take on
various forms.

The men live in the dormitory. (Single verbs)

He stayed at the Hi Hat Hotel. (Past tense verbs)
I am learning many new things. (Progressive verbs)
She has been there before. (Perfect verbs)
They have been working here five years. (Perfect progressive verbs)
I could use some assistance. (Verbs and modals)
The trip was approved by the professor. (Passive verbs)
Do you want some more pie? (Verbs in questions)

Other words can be added to enhance verb phrases:

The mayor works here. (adverbs)

Neil is not a candidate. (negatives)
They live in the suburbs. (prepositional phrases)
She'll leave whenever she wants. (adverbial clauses)
Don't talk while eating. (phrases)

Adjectives are used to describe nouns. They give more details or information about the nouns they are
associated with.

A: Tell me about your boyfriend

B: Well, he is tall, dark, and handsome.

A: Sounds like mine.

Adjectives can be used to answer the questions What kind (of) or Which one?

A: Hi. I'm calling about the car you're selling?

B: It's a great car. (It's) in excellent condition.

A: What kind of seats does it have?

B: They're very comfortable seats, (soft, plush, just like a sofa.)

A: Uh. I think I'll sleep on it.

A: Hand me a book.

B: Which one do you want?

A: The red book. The red one.

Adjectives come before the nouns they modify (not after).

Three happy hippies lived in the Taj Hotel.

WRONG: Three hippies happy lived in the Taj Hotel.

Adjectives can also be used with linking verbs to describe the subject of a sentence. When used in
this manner, the adjective(s) come after the linking verb.

My mother is tall and slender.

WRONG: My mother tall and slender. (No linking verb.)

Adverbs are used to describe actions. They may come before or after a verb, but not between a verb
and its object.

Mrs.Jenner softly sang. (Most common word order.)

Mrs. Jenner softly sang. (Also possible.)

Mrs. Jenner softly sang a lullaby.

Mrs. Jenner sang a lullaby softly.

Mrs. Jenner sang softly a lullaby. (Not correct.)

Adverbs may come between a main verb and its auxiliaries.

Mrs. Jenner is softly singing a lullaby.

Mrs. Jenner softly is singing a lullaby. (Not correct.)

Mrs. Jenner has been softly singing that lullaby for a long time.
Some time and frequency adverbs are "movable." That is, they can be placed at various points in a
sentence.

Yesterday I visited the dentist.

I visited the dentist yesterday.

Jack Prompt is here already.

Jack Prompt is already here.

Caution: Even though some adverbs can be used in certain sentence positions, others can not.

I yesterday visited the dentist. (Not okay.)

I already visited the dentist. (Okay.)

Already I visited the dentist. (Not okay.)

Adverbs such as quite, very, really, extremely, and absolutely are used to modify adjectives and other
adverbs.

They come directly before the words they describe.

Greg is quite happy with his new boss.

Sue eats very slowly.

You're absolutely right!

Many adverbs can be formed by adding –ly to adjectives:

Carl is a quick runner.

Carl runs quickly.

Some adverbs are identical to adjectives in form. Others are completely different.

Carl is a fast runner. (Adjective) Jill is a good student. (Adjective)

Carl runs fast. (Adverb) Jill studies well. (Adverb)

Adverbs are words or groups of words which tell time, place, frequency or manner.
 I ate my lunch yesterday. She went there.

I ate at that restaurant last week. She went downtown.

Prepositions are usually followed by objects in prepositional phrases. They can also be used to indicate
time, place, frequency, duration, reason, manner, or to show contrast.

I ate my lunch at noon. She went to the store.

I ate in the cafeteria. She walked into the house.

*Do not use adverbs as objects of prepositions.

Incorrect: Correct:

I went to somewhere. I went somewhere.

I was busy at last night. I was busy last night.

John works in downtown. John works downtown.

She came to home on yesterday. She came home yesterday

The Prepositional Phrase

Recognize a prepositional phrase when you see one.

At the minimum, a prepositional phrase will begin with a preposition and end with a noun, pronoun,
gerund, or clause, the "object" of the preposition.

The object of the preposition will often have one or more modifiers to describe it. These are the patterns
for a prepositional phrase:

preposition + noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause

preposition + modifier(s) + noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause

Here are some examples of the most basic prepositional phrase:

At home

At = preposition; home = noun.

In time

In = preposition; time = noun.

From Richie

From = preposition; Richie = noun.

With me

With = preposition; me = pronoun.

By singing

By = preposition; singing = gerund.

About what we need

About = preposition; what we need = noun clause.

Most prepositional phrases are longer, like these:

From my grandmother

From = preposition; my = modifier; grandmother = noun.

Under the warm blanket

Under = preposition; the, warm = modifiers; blanket = noun.

In the weedy, overgrown garden

In = preposition; the, weedy, overgrown = modifiers; garden = noun.

Along the busy, six-lane highway

Along = preposition; the, busy, six-lane = modifiers; highway = noun.

Without excessively worrying

Without = preposition; excessively = modifier; worrying = gerund.

Understand what prepositional phrases do in a sentence.

A prepositional phrase will function as an adjective or adverb. As an adjective, the prepositional phrase
will answer the question Which one?

Read these examples:

The book on the bathroom floor is swollen from shower steam.

Which book? The one on the bathroom floor!

The sweet potatoes in the vegetable bin are green with mold.

Which sweet potatoes? The ones forgotten in the vegetable bin!

The note from Beverly confessed that she had eaten the leftover pizza.

Which note? The one from Beverly!

As an adverb, a prepositional phrase will answer questions such as How? When?orWhere?

Freddy is stiff from yesterday's long football practice.

How did Freddy get stiff? From yesterday's long football practice!

Before class, Josh begged his friends for a pencil.

When did Josh do his begging? Before class!

Feeling brave, we tried the Dragon Breath Burritos at Tito's Taco Palace.

Where did we eat the spicy food? At Tito's Taco Palace!

Remember that a prepositional phrase will never contain the subject of a sentence.

Directions: Locate the prepositional phrases in each sentence

1. On the fifth day of each month, Mr. Brown collects all of the reports from his students in every class
except the last one.

2. Take the child to the store on 5th Avenue for some new clothes.

3. As the snow gradually melted near that neighborhood, people with snow shovels in their hands
emerged from their homes.

4. Throughout his life, Henry slept soundly on a twin bed by the front window.

5. Meg answered the telephone within a minute of the first ring.

6. Under normal circumstances, we keep all records in the file cabinet until the next semester.
7. The play about the brave hero was considered a success by everyone but the nasty critic at the local
paper.

8. After two false starts, the referee warned the athletes about the penalties for such actions.

9. Without you at my side, I cannot do much of anything before ten o'clock on the first day of each week.

10. Like any stranger on her way to the next town, the traveler from Barcelona lifted her suitcase and
headed toward the bus station near 42nd Street.

Prepositional Phrases - Answers

1. (On the fifth day) (of each month), Mr. Brown collects all (of the reports) (from his students) (in every
class) (except the last one).

2. Take the child (to the store) (on 5th Avenue) (for some new clothes).

3. As the snow gradually melted (near that neighborhood). people (with snow shovels) (in their hands)
emerged (from their homes).

4. (Throughout his life), Henry slept soundly (on a twin bed) (by the front window).

5. Meg answered the telephone (within a minute) (of the first ring).

6. (Under normal circumstances), we keep all records (in the file cabinet) (until the next semester).

7. The play (about the brave hero) was considered a success (by everyone) (but the nasty critic) (at the
local paper).

8. (After two false starts), the referee warned the athletes (about the penalties) (for such actions).

9. (Without you) (at my side), I cannot do much (of anything) (before ten o'clock) (on the first day) (of
each week).

10. (Like any stranger) (on her way) (to the next town), the traveler (from Barcelona) lifted her suitcase
and headed (toward the bus station) (near 42nd Street)
Find out the noun clauses in the following sentences and state what purpose they serve.

1. The king ordered that the traitor should be put to death.

2. He said that he would not go.
3. That he is not interested in the offer is known to us.
4. He said that he was not feeling well.
5. I cannot rely on what he says.
6. I don’t know where he has gone.
7. He asked whether the servant had polished his shoes.
8. That he is alive has been confirmed.
9. that the soul is immortal is almost universal.

Answers

1. Here the noun clause ‘that the traitor should be put to death’ is that object of the verb ordered.
2. Here the noun clause ‘that he would not go’ is the object of the verb said.
3. Here the noun clause ‘that he is not interested in the offer’ is the subject of the verb is.
4. Here the noun clause ‘that he was not feeling well’ is the object of the verb said.
5. Here the noun clause ‘what he says’ is the object of the preposition on.
6. Here the noun clause ‘where he has gone’ is the object of the verb know.
7. Here the noun clause ‘whether the servant had polished his shoes’ is the object of the verb asked.
8. Here the noun clause ‘that he is alive’ is the subject of the verbhas been confirmed
9. Here the noun clause ‘that the soul is immortal’ is the subject of is
10. Here the noun clause ‘that we will have to admit defeat’ is in apposition to the pronoun it.

Practice in Identifying Adjective Clauses.

1. I bought a car from Merdine, and it turned out to be a lemon.

2. The car that I bought from Merdine turned out to be a lemon.

3. Pandora, who had recently celebrated a birthday, opened the box of gifts.

4. Lila, who has been the fire warden for 30 years, lives in a trailer with some scrappy dogs and cats.
 5. Lila, who lives in a trailer with some scrappy dogs and cats, has been the fire warden for 30 years.

6. People who smoke cigarettes should be considerate of nonsmokers.

7. Jacob, who smokes cigarettes, is considerate of nonsmokers.

8. Mr. Mann has small, dark eyes, which peer inquisitively from behind metal-rimmed glasses.

9. My wedding ring is worth at least ten dollars, and now I have lost it.

10. I have lost my wedding ring, which is worth at least ten dollars.

Practice in Identifying Adjective Clauses.

1. (no adjective clause)

2. that I bought from Merdine
3. who had recently celebrated a birthday
4. who has been the town fire warden for nearly 30 years
5. who lives in a trailer with some scrappy dogs and cats
6. who smoke cigarettes
7. who smokes cigarettes
8. which peer inquisitively from behind metal-rimmed glasses
9. (no adjective clause)
10.which is worth at least ten dollars

Identifying adverb clauses.

1. While the cat's away, the mice will play.

2. A lie travels around the world while truth is putting her boots on.
 3. If you don't know where you are going, any road will get you there.

4. Memory is deceptive because it is colored by today's events.

5. Never look down on anybody unless you're helping him up.

6. You have to kiss a lot of toads before you find a handsome prince.

7. Whenever you find yourself on the side of the majority, it is time to pause and reflect.

8. Life is what happens when you are making other plans.

9. As soon as you forbid something, you make it extraordinarily appealing.

10. Everything is funny, as long as it's happening to somebody else.

In the following sentences, the adverb clauses are in bold print.

1. While the cat's away, the mice will play.

2. A lie travels around the world while truth is putting her boots on.

3. If you don't know where you are going, any road will get you there.

4. Memory is deceptive because it is colored by today's events.

 5. Never look down on anybody unless you're helping him up.

6. You have to kiss a lot of toads before you find a handsome prince.

7. Whenever you find yourself on the side of the majority, it is time to pause and reflect.

8. Life is what happens when you are making other plans.

9. As soon as you forbid something, you make it extraordinarily appealing.

10. Everything is funny, as long as it's happening to somebody else.

SEQUENCE OF TENSES

Sequence of Tenses is the principle in accordance with which the tense of the verb in a subordinate
clause follows the tense of the verb in the main clause.

1. When verb in Principal clause is in Present or Future tense, the verb in the dependent clause
may be in any tense (according to sense).

1. He says that he likes music. Or He will say that he likes music.

2. He says that he liked music. Or He will say that he liked music.
3. He says that he will work hard. Or He will saythat he will work hard.

2. When the verb in the main clause is in the Past Tense, the verb in the Dependent clause must also
be in one or other of the four forms of the past Tense.

1. He said that he was late.

2. You said that you would help him.
3. He worked hard so that he might pass.
4. He said that you were working hard.
EXCEPTIONS :

3. If the Dependent clause states a universal truth or a habitual truth, a Past Tense in the Principal
clause is followed by Present Tense in the Dependent clause.

1. He said that the sun rises in the east.

2. You said that you are a vegetarian.

4. A Past Tense in the Principal Clause is followed by any tense in the Adverbial clause beginning
with ‘than’ as :
1. He liked you more than I do(like you).
2. He liked you more than I did ( like you).
3. He liked you more than I shall (like you).

4. I valued your friendship more than( I value) his.

5. I then saw him oftener than I see him now.

5. A Past tense in the Principal Clause may be followed by any tense in the adjectival clause as:

1. I visited the place where he lives.

2. I visited the place where he lived.
3. I visited the place where he will live

6. Some other Exceptions :

1. He works hard lest he should fail. (Purpose)

2. He talks as if he were mad. (Manner)
3. I eat that I may live. (Purpose)
4. I shall nurse him that he may live. (Purpose)

EXERCISE: Put "C" if the sentence is correct. Put "X" if there is an error in the pattern.

_____ 1. I will ask how much do they sell for.

_____ 2. Did the professor tell you when is the next test?
_____ 3. I wonder when it is going to begin.
_____ 4. Forget about where we are going to play tennis as it is starting to rain.
_____ 5. Did you see what did he do?
_____ 6. Do you remember how much the tuition was?
_____ 7. Ask the operator what is the charge for a three -minute call to New York.
_____ 8. We don't know when will we see our friends again.
_____ 9. He forgot where he parked his car.
____ 10. Would you please ask them where is the subway entrance.
____ 11. He sent a telegram saying when he would arrive.
____ 12. I forgot to ask him what time does the class begin.
____ 13. Bill did not realize what time it was when I knocked on the door.
____ 14. Can you tell us who that distinguished-looking gentleman is?
____ 15. Ask Mr Blake what does his daughter study at the university

PHRASES

Directions: Circle the noun phrase in each sentence given below.

Example A: The basketball coach was happy with his team’s effort.

Answer: basketball coach- with his team efforts

1. Has anyone seen the little, green, parrot?

2. The football coach got very upset with his team.

3. She is my favorite English teacher.

4. The kids were surprised by the summer rain.

5. I live in a good, family home

. 6. We are excited about the championship game.

7. He gave the crying child a toy to play with.

8. I decided to walk down the yellow, brick, road.

9. I went to watch the beautiful play.

10. I picked the dark horse to win the race.

Underline the verb phrase in each sentence.

( 1 ) Zachary always wants to play tennis.

( 2 ) I am becoming very tired of Chinese food.

( 3 ) Jasmine has received a coupon for a free pizza.

( 4 ) Erin is feeding some water to the guinea pigs.

( 5 ) The dispenser has run out of napkins.

( 6 ) The bicycle was held to the rack with a chain.

( 7 ) The horse can carry us both up the mountain on its back.

( 8 ) The horses have been saddled for today’s ride.

( 9 ) James had run to catch his bus before he came to college.

(10) The men will dig a deep hole for the new swimming pool.

Directions: Locate the gerund (gerund phrase) in each sentence. .

1. The Andersons enjoyed playing cards with the Smiths.

2. Very few people would enjoy Jim's job, taking complaints from dissatisfied customers.
3. The children continued counting the proceeds from the bake sale.
4. Doing physical therapy will help Jerry to improve his coordination.
5. Marilyn's nervous habit, blinking, embarrasses her.
6. Hal considered hitting the ball into left field.
7. Please telephone the restaurant about reserving a table for 6:00 p.m. tonight.
8. Buying a new home often causes people great anxiety.
9. My goal this week is losing five pounds.
10. Before entering the stadium, all fans must show their ticke
t
PARTS OF SPEECH*

Sometimes a word can be identified as a noun, adjective, adv verb by its

suffix (ending).

1. The following suffixes usually indicate nouns:

-ion, -sion, -tion accuracy

-acy image
-age permanence
-ance, -ence childhood
-hood scholar, doctor
-ar, -or socialism artist
-ism government
-ist happiness
-ment beauty
-ness realify, capacity
-y
-ty
population
-ion, -sion, -tion
-acy
-age
-ance, -ence
-hood
-ar, -or
-ism
-ist
-ment
-ness
-y
-ty
population
accuracy
image
permanence childhood scholar, doctor socialism artist
government
happiness
beauty
realify, capacity

2. The following suffixes usually indicate adjectives:

-al natura/
-ful beautiful
-ly friend/y
-ic chron/c
-ish child/'sh
-like childlike
-ous populous, numerous
-y happy
-ate accurate
-able, -ible capable, terrible

3. The following suffix usually indicates adverbs:

-ly
happi/y. readi/y, beautiful/y
The following suffixes usually indicate verbs:

-ify beaut/Vy
-ate populafe
-ize realize
NOTE:
There are some exceptions to these general rules.
 A.I was amazed at her natural beautiful.
A. I was amazed at her natural beauty.
B. His illness was chronically.
B His illness was chronic.
C. Happily is a rare state of being.
C .Happiness is a rare state of being.
D. He had an unhappy childlike.
D. He had an unhappy childhood.
E. You should reality the truth.
E. You should realize the truth.
F. That country has a very large populate.
F. That country has a very large population.

Chapter-I – The Same Word Used As Different Parts.

Act

 This is an act of kindness on his part. Noun

 This play consists of five acts. noun
 The new act comes into force with immediate effect. noun
 He did not act on my advice. verb
 Our team staged one act play on the stage. adj

Aid

 The boys rendered first aid to the injured. noun

 We should aid him in the hour of his trouble. verb
 He teaches in a government aided school. adj

Air

 The child filled air in the balloon. noun

 This news was first aired on radio. verb
 Aim

 The aim of his life is to become a doctor.-- noun

 The hunter aimed at the deer. verb

Abuse

 We should remove social abuses from the society. noun

 He hurled abuses at the poor beggar. noun
 He abused the poor beggar. verb

All

 His all was lost in the recent earthquake. pronoun

 All attended the last meeting. pronoun
 The boss was all alone in the room. adverb
 All members were present in the meeting. adj

Above

 He sought blessings from above.. noun

 Explain the above sentence. adj
 Nobody is above law. preposition
 The heavens are above. adverb
 Act according to the instructions listed above. adverb

About

 He wandered about in the garden. adverb

 There is something pleasing about him. preposition
 I was surprised at his about turn attitude in the matter. adj

After

 We reached soon after. adverb

 Mother looks after her son. preposition
 We dispersed after they had left conjunction .
 He is the most sought after person in the city. adjective

Any

 Is there any man present in the room? adj

 Does any one of you want to go there? adj
 Is that any better? adverb

Book

 He is fond of reading books. noun

 He got his account books checked noun
 He is a book worm. adj

Back

 Mother carried her child on her back.

 He backed out from his promise.
 No one in the office will back you on this point.
 He came back from his office in the evening.
 He hit him on his backside with a stick.
 She entered the house from back door.
 She is in the habit of backbiting.
 The teacher made all the backbenchers stand on their benches.
 He is a patriot to the backbone.

Bite

 He died of snake bite.

 He was bitten by a dog.
 Bail

 He was set free on a bail.

 The accused will be bailed out today.

Better

 The chairman put forth a better plan in the meeting.

 She sings better than you.
 He tried to better his condition.
 We should always respect our betters.
 He submitted his plan but we should bring forth a better..

Bank

 He deposited his all money in a bank.

 He was walking along the river bank.
 You cannot bank upon such a person for help.

Before

 I have not seen you before.

He went away before I reached there.
He came before the appointed time.
The thief will die before he tells the police anything.
He spoke before a huge crowd.
Your needs come before theirs.

Beat

 The farmer was beating the bullock with a stick.

 The drummer was beating the drum.
 The postman distributes dak in his beat.
 Their team was beaten in the semifinal.
 The doctor was feeling beat of his heart.
 He has beaten his own earlier record.
 At the first beat of the drum all the guests started clapping.
 Bag

 He was having a bag hanging on his shoulder.

 The deserving team bagged the trophy.
 He spent the afternoon bagging groceries at the local supermarket.
 The bagpiper gave an interesting performance on the stage.
 He left the city bag baggage.

Bed

 He went to bed at 9 p.m.

 He purchased a new bed cover for me.
 Idioms:
 To put something to bed – to finish something.
 To get up on the wrong side of the bed—to be irritated from morning since beginning of day.

VERBS—TENSE

The following are common verb-tense problems:

1. Present Perfect. Remember to use the present perfect only when the action has started in
the past and still relates to the present.

I have been in the United States for six months. She has played the piano since she
was a child.

2. Past Tense. Remember to use the past tense when the action occurred or existed in the
past.

I went to California last summer. He visited several museums in Spain.

3. Past Perfect. Remember to use the past perfect only to express an activity that happened
before another past activity.

The movie had begun when we arrived.

I had already left when he called.
 Note: It is possible to use the past perfect in sentences where before or after show
sequence, but it is not necessary.

VERBS—TIME CLAUSES

Use the simple present tense in future-time clauses (when the action will take place sometime
in the future). (Never use will or going to in . future-time clauses.) Time clauses* are
introduced by such words as:
when, while, after, before, as soon as. Etc

a) Future-time clauses:
FUTURE-TIME CL PRES
As soon as they get their degrees, they are going home.
FUTURE-TIME CL
When I see him, I will give him your message.

Other tenses may also be used in time clauses, but the present tense must be used in future-time
clauses when the main clause is in the future .

.
A Whenever you will be in town, call me.
B.As soon as I will get all the vaccinations I will need, I will be leaving for Southeast Asia.
C. After Dave is going to break the track record, many universities will offer him scholarships

Answers

A .Whenever you are in town, call me.

B.As soon as I get all the vaccinations I need. I will be leaving for Southeast Asia. .
C .After Dave breaks the track record, many universities will offer him scholarships.

VERBS OF "DEMAND"

The simple verb (V) is used for all persons in a noun clause after the following verbs:

demand recommend be necessary

insist urge be required
require advise be essential
 suggest request be important

A The doctor advised that I am going on a diet.

B. The restaurant suggested that we arrived on time for our reservation.
C The instructions ask that we don't use a red pen..
D The law requires that students are in school a certain number of days a year.
E. It was important that money was collected for the cause.

Answers
.
A.The doctor advised that I go on a diet..
B.The restaurant suggested that we arrive on time for our reservation.
C.The instructions ask that we not use a red pen.
D.The law requires that students be in school a certain number of days a year.
E.It was important that money be collected for the cause.

VERBS—WISHES

1. Present wishes are expressed in the past tense.

2. Always use were in present wishes for to be.
3. Past wishes are expressed in the past perfect.
Exercise.

A.Steven wishes that he has a bigger apartment..

B.Helen wishes that she does not live in a dormitory. .
C.The actor wishes he was not required to perform every evening.
D.Ted wishes that he did not lose his job last month.
E.Bob wishes that he bought that house last spring.
F.I wish that I was living in a warmer climate.

Answers
A. Steven wishes that he had a bigger apartment..
B Helen wishes that she did not live in a dormitory. .
CThe actor wishes he were not required to perform every evening.
D.Ted wishes that he had not lost his job last month.
E.Bob wishes that he had bought that house last spring.
F. I wish that I were living in a warmer climate
VERBS—CONDITIONAL
TypeI Real conditions are used for possible situations. The present
tense is used in the conditional clause, and the
future tense is used in the result clause
PRES FUT,
If he comes to school, I will give him your message. (It is possible that he will
come.)

Type 2 -Unreal conditions are used for impossible or unreal situations.

a) the past tense is used in the /f-clause and would, could, or might, + the simple verb (V) is
used in the result clause.
PAST WOULD +v
If he studied, he would get good grades. . (He doesn't come to school.)

Type 3- In past time the past perfect is used in the /f -clause, and would, could, or might + have
+ the past participle are used in the result clause.

PAST PERF. WOULD ♦ HAVE ♦ PAST PART.

If he had come to school, I would have given him your message.
(He didn't come to school.)

SUMMARY: If + present ...... future

If + past would + V
If + past perfect ..... would + have + past part.

a. In general, avoid using would in the /f-clause.

b. In present-time unreal /f-clauses, the correct form of the verb to be for all persons is
were.

A.If I will win the contest, I will buy a new car.

AIf I win the contest, I will buy a new car.
B.If you had lost your job, what would you do?
B.If you lost your job, what would you do?
OR
C.If you had lost your job, what would you have done?
C,If I had been there, I would make a speech
D. If I were there, I would make a speech.
OR
If I had been there, I would have made a speech.
E.If they had ask me, I would have given them my opinion.
E.If they had asked me, I would have given them my opinion.
FIf Bob had studied more, he would have pass the test.
F. If Bob had studied more, he would have passed the test.
G.If Jane had known it was supposed to rain, she would have took an umbrella.
G. If Jane had known it was supposed to rain, she would have taken an umbrella.
H. If I would have a degree from that university, I would get a good job
.H If I had a degree from that university, I would get a good job.
I.If he would have been on time, we would have asked him to the party.
I: If he had been on time, we would have asked him to the party.

VERBS—MODALS

1.After all modals use the simple form of the verb (V).The following is a list of modals:

can could must

may should will
might would shall

2.Use the past participle after the modal + have

3.When you change direct speech to indirect speech, could, would, should, and might do not
change for
4. Use must have + past participle for past conclusion only.

The ground is wet; it must have rained, (conclusion)

5. Use had + infinitive for past obligation.

I had to go to the dentist yesterday, (obligation)

EXERCISES
1. The following verbs can be followed by the infinitive (fo + V) as the direct object:

agree forbid mean

care forget offer
decide hope plan
deserve intend pretend
fail learn refuse
2. The following verbs can be followed by the gerund (V + ing) as the direct object:

admit deny postpone

appreciate enjoy practice
avoid finish stop
cannot help keep suggest
consider
3. The following verb phrases (verb + preposition) can be followed by the gerund (V + ing).
Remember that gerunds, not infinitives, follow prepositions in general and not just the
prepositions in this list.

be accustomed to decide on plan on

be interested in get through put off
be opposed to keep on think about
be used to look forward to think of

4.Use the simple form of the verb (V) after the causative verbs let, make, and have when the
second verb is active.
b) Use a past participle after the causative verbs have and get when the second verb is passive
in meaning.
PAST PART
i. She had her passport stamped at the immigration office.

PAST PART.
ii.They got their house painted last summer.
c)The following verbs of perception are followed by the simple form of the verb (V) or the
present participle (V + ing):

Feel hear notice observe

see smell watch

PAST PARTICIPLES

The past participle is used in the following:

1. .Present Perfect

PAST PART.

He has broken the world's track record. 2. Past Perfect

g. PAST PART.
Mary had spoken to John about the matter before I
— arrived.
.

Fill in the blanks using the correct form of the verbs

1. Hardly had the minister finished his speech when gunshots ---- (storm) the stadium.

2. Everybody will be at the office at about 08:30 tomorrow as the meeting ---- (start) at nine o'clock.

3. That candidate who we had been interviewed before we ---- (speak) to all the others is still my
favorite.
4. While climbing onto the mountain top, I ---- (encounter) a strange animal which I'd never seen
before.

5. The chairman was sure that his plan would work out fine as no other member ---- (oppose) it up
to that time.

6. I wasn't surprised to hear that Monica ---- (have) an accident as she is a very reckless driver.

7. Since the very first day when the Umbrella Company embarked upon such a dangerous and risky
lab-research, very strange incidents ---- (take place) within the research complex.

8. Urbanization ---- (always / be) a problem which causes several environmental challenges ever
since the rate of migration ---- (increase) after the industrial revolution.

9. When I ---- (come) home this evening, my parents had gone out for a walk.

10. By the time the troops ---- (arrive), the war will have ended.

11. By the year 2020, linguists ---- (study) the Indy-European language family for more than 200
years.

12. Gasoline ---- (become) a major problem for people for the last ten years, therefore, during this
time many people have preferred to sell their cars and buy smaller ones.

13. By the time he was 14, Wolfgang Mozart ---- (compose) an enviable number of musical pieces.

14. Nothing in my life ---- (be) so strong to stop me achieve my goals so far and I don't think
anything will be.

15. Archaeologists ---- (explain) recently that an ancient underground city around Cappadocia has
long wide corridors where there are many special areas for making cheese and wine.

16. I was amazed when he accepted a drink, since I ---- (always / assume) that he was a teetotaler.

17. I ---- (play) tennis tomorrow but I won't be able to do that because I have injured my right ankle.

18. We ---- (visit) the seashore many times before but last summer we enjoyed ourselves more than
ever.

19. According to a survey, thousands of vending machines ---- (have to be converted) before the
new coins come into circulation
1. stormed
2. starts
3. spoke
4. encountered
5. had opposed
6. had had
7. have taken place
8. has always been, increased
9. came
10. arrive
11. will have been studying
12. has become
13. had composed
14. has been
15. have explained
16. had always assumed
17. was going to play
18. had visited
19.will have to be converted
.
1. When I last talked to him, he ______ English.

A) studies B) study C) was studying D) studied

2. I met her at yesterday’s party, but I ______ her by sight for years before that.

A) had known B) have known

C) will have known D) had been known

3. By 2010, scientists surely ______ a cure for cancer.

A) are discovering B) have been discovered

C) will have discovered D) had discovered

4. Since the day he ______ ill he ______ a lot of reading.

A) was / had done B) is / has done

C) was / has done D) is / has been done

5. A: What’s the time? B: I’m sorry I ______. My watch ______.

A) can’t tell / stopped B) didn’t know / stopped

C) don’t know / has stopped D) don’t know / had stopped

6. He ______ in the library every night for the last two months.

A) would be studying B) will have studied

C) has been studied D) has been studying

7. Last Sunday we ____ out of the house where we ____ for five years.

A) had moved / lived B) have moved / had lived

C) moved / had lived D) will move / have lived

8. We spent hours talking about what we ______ since we left school.

A) have done B) had been doing

C) have been doing D) were doing

9. They ______ married but in the end they changed their mind.

A) are going to get B) will have been

C) were going to get D) had been

10. A: Would you like me to give Mike a message for you?

B: Oh, I don’t want to trouble you.
A: It’s no trouble, really. I ______ Mike tomorrow anyway.

A) am seeing B) saw C) have seen D) would see

11. When I counted my change I realized they ______ me $ 3 too much.

A) gave B) had given C) have given D) had been given

12. When he’d counted his change he ______ it in his pocket.

A) was put B) put C) had put D) has put

13. As soon as she ______ out of bed she got dressed.

A) had got B) gets C) has got D) would get

14. In a fortnight’s time they ______ their exams.

A) have taken B) will have taken C) will have been taken D) had taken

15. They were very rude to us. We ______ there again.

A) won’t go B) hadn’t gone C) didn’t go D) wouldn’t go

16. In about forty years’ time we’ll probably ______ on pills.

A) be living B) have been living C) have been lived D) have lived

17. A: Why have you set your alarm clock to go off at 5.30?
B: Because I ______ then. I have to catch the early train.
A) get up B) was going to get up C) am going to get up D) have got

18. A: I’ve planned my future for the next five years.

B: That is very clever of you. What ______ when you retire?

A) will you do B) are you going to do

C) have done D) do you do

19. You’ll feel a lot better after you ______ a rest.

A) had B) have had C) will have D) had had

20. Next August, while you ______ for your exams, I ______ on a Chennai beach.

A) are preparing / will be B) were preparing / would be C) prepare / will be D) were preparing / was
21. He ______ my name, so I reminded him.
A) forgets B) has forgotten C) had forgotten D) forgot

22. By 5.30 this afternoon, Tom ______ at work for eight hours.
A) had been B) would have been C) will have been D) has been

23. She ______ unwell for several days when she was taken to hospital.
A) had been feeling B) has been feeling C) was feeling D) had felt

24. During this year we ______ many advances in computer science.

A) had seen B) have seen C) saw D) are seeing

25. Our maths teacher ______ us a lot of homework last week but he ______ us very much so far this
week.

A) would give / didn’t give B) had given / didn’t give

C) gave / didn’t given D) gave / hasn’t given

26. It is expected that man ______ on several planets by the end of this century.

A) would have landed B) will be landing

C) will have been landed D) will have landed

27. A: I’m going to the pop concert. ______with me?

B: Thank you very much. I’d love to.

A) Are you going to come B) Do you come

C) Will you come D) Were you coming

28. It rained! I didn’t think it ______.

A) is going to rain B) was going to rain
C) was raining D) had rained

29. I ______ to see you tomorrow, but now I find I can’t.

A) will come B) come C) was coming D) am coming

30. He found everything rather strange as he ______ never ______ abroad before.
A) has / been B) will / be C) hasn’t / been D) had / been

31. I ______ you know as soon as the telegram ______.

A) will let / arrives B) would let / arrives

C) will let / arrived D) let / had arrived

32. Please ______ until the plane ______.

A) not smoke / takes off B) don’t smoke / takes off C) don’t smoke / took off D) not smoke / has taken off

33. It is the first time I ______ of anything like that.

A) had heard B) have heard C) hear D) am hearing

34. You’re always late. This is the third time you ______ late this week.
A) had been B) were C) have been D) will be

35. It was the first time she ______ ever ______ a prize.
A) has / won B) had / won C) is / won D) would / win

36. He ______ about to give up his job when they offered him an increment.

A) was B) is C) has been D) had been

37. Yesterday while I ______ in class I ______ the hiccups. The boy next to me told me ______ my
breath.
A) was sitting / had got / to hold
B) sat / got / to hold
C) was sitting / got / to hold
D) am sitting / got / hold

38. Hello! I ______ to phone you all week. Where ______?

A) am trying / were you B) have tried / did you go
C) tried / were you D) have been trying / have you been

39. It is time we ______ goodbye to each other. The train is due to leave in a minute.

A) said B) say C) will say D) had said

40. I think you should apologize when you______ her.

A) will see B) see C) saw D) are seen

41. His clothes are in a mess because he ______ the house all morning.

A) has been painting B) will be painting

C) had been painting D) will have painted

42. Since I last met him he ______.

A) will get married B) gets married
C) had got married D) has got married

43. They quarreled last week. They ______ to each other since.
A) didn’t talk B) haven’t talked C) don’t talk D) hadn’t talked

44. I ______ much of the film because I fell asleep half-way through.
A) had seen B) didn’t see C) wasn’t seen D) saw

45. There is nothing we can do that ____ people from driving too fast.

A) is stopping B) stop C) will stop D) stopped

46. I didn’t answer the phone when it ______ because I ______ a shower, so I ______ it until it was too
late.
A) rang / was having / didn’t hear
B) rung / was having / wasn’t heard
C) was ringing / had / didn’t hear
D) rang / was having / wasn’t heard

47. Last night I ______ you, but the phone was out of order.
A) would phone B) phoned
C) were going to phone D) didn’t phone

48. She wants us to meet at the cafeteria, but I’d rather we ______ here.
A) meet B) will meet C) met D) had met

49. We met at the cafeteria as she wanted. I’d rather we ______ here.
A) meet B) would meet C) met D) had met

50. It is likely that by the time you ______ to the shop it______ shut.
A) will get / will be B) got / will be C) would get / will D) get / will have been

Key.

1-C 2-A 3-C 4-C 5-C 6-D 7-C 8-B 9-C 10-A 11-B 12-B 13-A 14-B 15-A 16-A

17-C 18-B 19-B 20-A 21-C 22-C 23-A 24-B 25-D 26-D 27-C 28-B 29-C 30-D 31-A 32-B 33-B 34-C 35-
B 36-A 37-C 38-D 39-A 40-B 41-A 42-D 43-B 44-B 45-C 46-A 47-A 48-C 49-D 50-D

" If the sentence is correct. Put "X" if there is an error i n parallelism.

1. When he was a college student, he learned to play tennis, to golf, and swimming.

2. Do not speak out, but raise your hand.

3. To face adversity, to solve problems, and to overcome difficulties all give one a sense of
satisfaction.

4. We enjoyed the perfect weather and seeing nature in Norway.

5. Go to Window A, ask for a form, and bring it back to me.

6. Before he died, he had sold his house, wrote a will, and set up a trust fund.

7.Her hobbies are reading, playing the piano, and gardening.

8.Being a homemaker is as difficult as working in an office.

9. After years of dealing with the public, she developed great charm, wit, and confident.

10.On their vacation they enjoyed swimming at the beach, walking through the quaint streets,
and sitting in the picturesque parks.

11.He could not decide whether to get a job or studying.

12.Although he was quick to criticize, he was slow praising his students.

13.The presidential candidate was a man of intellectual strength, moral character, and personal
integrity.
14.The attendant took my bags to my room, opened the door, and puts them at the foot of the
bed.
15.Jogging is more vigorous exercise than to play golf.

MODIFIERS

Adverbs like only come as close as possible to the adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs they
modify.

A. We only have four hours to finish this paper

B. She just wants to take one class.
C. That house nearly costs sixty thousand dollars.
D. She was so quiet that hardly he noticed her..

Answers
.A: We have only four hours to finish this paper.
B: She wants to take just one class.
C: That house costs nearly sixty thousand dollars
D: She was so quiet that he hardly noticed her.

SPLIT INFINITIVES

The infinitive is to + the simple form of the verb (V). Do not put an adverb between to and V
1.He wanted to carefully read the directions.

2.To thoroughly understand the subject, ask an expert.

3. He was looking for a way to rapidly complete the job

Answers
1.He wanted fo read the directions carefully

2. To understand the subject thoroughly, ask an expert.

3.He was looking for a way to complete the job rapidly

DANGLING MODIFIERS

The subject of the main clause must be the same as the understood subject of the introductory
phrase. In other words, the introductory phrase modifies the subject of the main clause.

1.Once learned, a language cannot easily be forgotten.

2.When only a child, my father taught me how to play soccer.
3. Studying and reading, the day passed quickly

Answers
1. Once learned, one cannot easily forget a language
2. When only a child, I was taught how to play soccer by my father
3. Studying and reading, I passed the day quickly

ADJECTIVE/ADVERB CONFUSION

Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns

Adverbs modify verbs

Adverbs also modify adjectives.
Adverbs also modify other adverbs

Some words have the same form for the adjective and adverb:
Adjective Adverb
late late
fast fast
hard hard
 (Do not add -ly to these words.)

a. The adverb for the adjective good is well

A. The bus arrived lately, so I missed my first class.

B. We did not pass the test, but we certainly tried hardly

C. My sister plays the piano very good.

Answers

A. The bus arrived late, so I missed my first class.

B. We did not pass the test, but we certainly tried hard

C. My sister plays the piano very well

.
ADJECTIVES AFTER VERBS OF SENSATION

These verbs of sensation are generally followed by adjectives', not by adverbs: feet, look, seem,
appear, taste, smell, and sound.

A .Those flowers smell sweetly.

B. That loud music sounds badly to me

C.He looks handsomely in black

Answers

A .Those flowers smell sweet.

B. That loud music sounds bad to me

C.He looks handsome in black

NOUN ADJECTIVES

When nouns are used as adjectives, they do not have plural or possessive forms.
EXCEPTIONS: The following nouns always end in -s but are singular in number when they are
used as names of courses or sciences: physics, mathematics, economics
 1.My friend is an economic major.
2.John turned in his term's paper this morning
3.Three footballs teams were tied for first place

Answers
1.My friend is an economics major.

2.John turned in his term paper this morning.

3.Three football teams were tied for first place

MODIFIERS—DEMONSTRATIVES

The demonstratives this and that (singular) and these and those (plural) must agree in number
with the nouns they modify.

A These type of potato is native to Peru..

B That kinds of women are likely to succeed in business
C. Jane never buys these brand of canned goods.

Answers

A. This type of potato is native to Peru

B. Those kinds of women are likely to succeed in business

C. Jane never buys this brand of canned goods

MODIFIERS—FEW, LITTLE, MUCH, AND MANY

1. Few, fewer, and fewest, as well as many, are followed by plural count nouns.

2 Little, less, and least, as well as much, are followed by non-count nouns.

A. There are much books on the shelf.

B. There is not much industries in that town..
C..He had few winter clothing when he arrived.
D.He had little winter clothing when he arrived.
E.You need a little dollars to buy this book
F.Lloyd scored the least points in the basketball game.

. Answers
A. There are many books on the shelf.
B. There is not many industries in that town.
C. He had little winter clothing when he arrived.
D. You need a few dollars to buy this book.
E. Lloyd scored the fewest points in the basketball game

MODIFIERS—CARDINAL AND ORDINAL NUMBERS

There are two kinds of numbers, cardinal and ordinal. Examples:

Cardinal Ordinal
one first
two second
three third
four fourth

1. Ordinal numbers are used in this pattern: the + ordinal +noun ( N)

2.Cardinal numbers are used in this pattern: noun ( N) + cardinal

NOTES:
 a. Use the with ordinal numbers.

b. Do not use the with cardinal numbers.

A. We are supposed to read the chapter seven for homework.

B. The subway stop second is Broad way.
C. Pick up your boarding passes at gate the fifth.
D. Terminal first on your right is Pan American.

Answers

A. We are supposed to read chapter seven for homework

B.The second subway stop is Broadway

C.Pick up your boarding passes at gate five

D.The first terminal on your right is Pan American.

MODIFIERS—SAMENESS AND SIMILARITY /COMPARATIVES/ SUPERLATIVES

1.Sameness and similarity are expressed by the following patterns:

as adjective as

2. One-syllable adjectives and two-syllable adjectives ending in -y* form the comparative by
adding -er.

Most two- and three-syllable adjectives form the comparative by putting more before the
adjective

3. Some adjectives have irregular comparatives and must be memorized.

Examples: good, better: bad, worse.

4. Than is the only structure word that can follow comparatives.

a. Do not use both -er and more in the same comparative

structure.
 b. Be careful to use only than after a comparative structure.

b. Be careful to use the comparative for two items, not three or more. For three or more,
use the superlative.

There are two main kinds of errors with comparatives, errors in structure and errors in logic

c. Structure Errors.

A. Betty is more smarter than her classmates.

A. Betty is smarter than her classmates.

B: This building is more expensive as that one.

B: This building is more expensive than that one.

C. Jane had much longer hair that her sister.

C. Jane had much longer hair than her sister

D. I own two cars, a Ford and a Chevrolet. I like the Chevrolet the best.
D.I own two cars, a Ford and a Chevrolet. I like the Chevrolet better

Logic Errors

Do not compare two nouns that cannot be compared .

A.John’s salary was much larger than Bob.

B.The number of people at the meeting is larger than last week.

Answers

A. John's salary was much larger than that of Bob.

or John’ s salary was much larger than Bob's.(Salary cannot be compared to bob)

B.The number of people at the meeting is larger than that of at last week's meeting.

(Number cannot be compared to week.)

Do not compare a noun to itself

A. Mary is smarter than anybody in her class.

B. Alaska is larger than any state in the United States

Answers
A. Mary is smarter than any other student in the class OR
Mary is smarter than anybody else in the class
(Mary is a member of the class. Mary cannot be smarter than herself.)

B.Alaska is larger than any other state in the United States.

(Alaska is one of the states in the United States. It cannot be larger than itself.)
.

Superlatives

a. Always use the in the superlative pattern

b. Be careful not to use -est and most in the same superlative

pattern.

c. Do not put than after the superlative

d. Be careful to use the superlative for three or more items. Use the comparative for two
items.

A.Yesterday was coldest day of the year.

B.John is the smartest student than anyone else in the class

Answers

A.Yesterday was the coldest day of the year

B.John is the smartest student in the class.

Compare the meanings and patterns of too, very, and enough:

4. Very means to a high degree, but does not suggest impossibility or

undesirability.

5. Too suggests impossibility or undesirable degree

6. Enough suggests possibility or sufficient degree$.

7. a. Be careful to put enough AFTER the adjective.

b. Be careful to put to + V (infinitive) AFTER enough.
c.. Enough generally comes before a noun to express sufficiency.

A.This cake is too delicious.

A. This very is very delicious.
 B It was very late to catch the plane.
B. It was too late to catch the plane.
C: He was enough old to get a driver's license.
C: He was old enough to get a driver's license.

D His English was enough good as for him to pass the exam.
D: His English was good enough for him to pass the exam.

E.We had very much time to finish our work.

E: We had enough time to finish our work.

MODIFIERS—NEGATION

1.Not is an adverb that negates verbs. Not is used in the following patterns.

2.No is an adjective that indicates the absence of something. It modifies nouns.

3.None is a pronoun meaning not any or not one. Use none when the noun it replaces

has been mentioned already.

EG. They asked me to contribute some money but I had none, (none = no money).

4.None + of the + noun In this pattern, the noun that none refers to is placed after of the.

EG. When I arrived, none of the cookies were left.

5.Remember to use any after negative words to express the absence of quantity for
plural count nouns and non-count nouns. [Anyone, anybody, anywhere, anymore and
anything can also be used in negative sentence constructions.]

6.There are some words that have negative meanings e ven though they do not appear to
be negative, for example: hardly, scarcely, rarely, seldom, without, and only. Do not use
another negative word with these words.
7. Never use not longer when longer means time/ Remember that no longer is an idiomatic
negative expression of time

A.. He is no going on vacation this summer.

A. He is not going on vacation this summer.
B.There is not butter in the refrigerator.
B.There is no butter in the refrigerator
C.There were none children in the playground.
C. There were no children in the playground
D.We do not have no class Friday.
D.We do not have any class Friday.
E.They seldom do not go to the movies.
E. They seldom go to the movies.
F.I encourage you to do not wait for him.
F. I encourage you not to wait for him.
G. She said to sit quietly and to not open our books.
G .She said to sit quietly and nof to open our books.
F. He ran out of money and could not longer continue school.
F. He ran out of money and could no longer continueschool.
G. The children went to the movies without no money.
G. The children went to the movies without any money.
H .I searched all day for some new shoes, but there were none shoes I liked.
H .I searched all day for some new shoes, but there were none I liked.

PREPOSITIONS (GENERAL USE)

A preposition is generally used to show the relationship between its object and other words in the
sentence. The kinds of relationships which can be shown are as follows:

1. Place (in, on, under, over, etc.)

Your book is in the desk drawer.

2. Direction (to, toward, into, etc.)

The student ran into the room.

3. Time (in, on, at. etc.)

We can meet at three o'clock.

4. Agent (by)

This book was written by an elderly woman.

5. Instrument (by, with)

I heard the news by telephone, (communication)

She came by plane, (transportation)
 He opened the door with a key. (instrument; tool)
Note: Use by + N (no article) for communication and transportation.
Examples: by phone, by radio, by telegram and by train, by car. by boat

6. Accompaniment (with)

They like spaghetti with red sauce.

Mrs. Jones went to the bank with her husband.

7. Purpose (tor) (See also Basic Patterns—To/For_ [Purpose]),

page 140.

He went to the store for bread.

Note: Never use for + V + ing to express the purpose of the verb. Example: He went to the
store for buying bread.
WRONG

8. Partition/Possession (of)

They painted the front of the building. He broke the top of the table.

9. Measure (by, of)

We buy our rice by the pound. Please buy a quart of milk.

10. Similarity (like)

John looks like his father.

11. Capacity (as)

Bill worked as a lifeguard this summer.