CHAPTER 9

Vector Differential Calculus.

Grad, Div, Curl

Engineering, physics, and computer sciences, in general, but particularly solid mechanics,
aerodynamics, aeronautics, fluid flow, heat flow, electrostatics, quantum physics, laser
technology, robotics as well as other areas have applications that require an understanding
of vector calculus. This field encompasses vector differential calculus and vector integral
calculus. Indeed, the engineer, physicist, and mathematician need a good grounding in
these areas as provided by the carefully chosen material of Chaps. 9 and 10.
Forces, velocities, and various other quantities may be thought of as vectors. Vectors
appear frequently in the applications above and also in the biological and social sciences,
so it is natural that problems are modeled in 3-space. This is the space of three dimensions
with the usual measurement of distance, as given by the Pythagorean theorem. Within that
realm, 2-space (the plane) is a special case. Working in 3-space requires that we extend
the common differential calculus to vector differential calculus, that is, the calculus that
deals with vector functions and vector fields and is explained in this chapter.
Chapter 9 is arranged in three groups of sections. Sections 9.1–9.3 extend the basic
algebraic operations of vectors into 3-space. These operations include the inner product
and the cross product. Sections 9.4 and 9.5 form the heart of vector differential calculus.
Finally, Secs. 9.7–9.9 discuss three physically important concepts related to scalar and
vector fields: gradient (Sec. 9.7), divergence (Sec. 9.8), and curl (Sec. 9.9). They are
expressed in Cartesian coordinates in this chapter and, if desired, expressed in curvilinear
coordinates in a short section in App. A3.4.
We shall keep this chapter independent of Chaps. 7 and 8. Our present approach is in
harmony with Chap. 7, with the restriction to two and three dimensions providing for a
richer theory with basic physical, engineering, and geometric applications.
Prerequisite: Elementary use of second- and third-order determinants in Sec. 9.3.
Sections that may be omitted in a shorter course: 9.5, 9.6.
References and Answers to Problems: App. 1 Part B, App. 2.

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

In engineering, physics, mathematics, and other areas we encounter two kinds of quantities.
They are scalars and vectors.
A scalar is a quantity that is determined by its magnitude. It takes on a numerical value,
i.e., a number. Examples of scalars are time, temperature, length, distance, speed, density,
energy, and voltage.

354
SEC. 9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space 355

In contrast, a vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. We can say
that a vector is an arrow or a directed line segment. For example, a velocity vector has
length or magnitude, which is speed, and direction, which indicates the direction of motion.
Typical examples of vectors are displacement, velocity, and force, see Fig. 164 as an
illustration.
More formally, we have the following. We denote vectors by lowercase boldface letters
a, b, v, etc. In handwriting you may use arrows, for instance, aជ (in place of a), bជ, etc.
A vector (arrow) has a tail, called its initial point, and a tip, called its terminal point.
This is motivated in the translation (displacement without rotation) of the triangle in
Fig. 165, where the initial point P of the vector a is the original position of a point, and
the terminal point Q is the terminal position of that point, its position after the translation.
The length of the arrow equals the distance between P and Q. This is called the length
(or magnitude) of the vector a and is denoted by ƒ a ƒ . Another name for length is norm
(or Euclidean norm).
A vector of length 1 is called a unit vector.

Velocity

Earth

Force
Q
a
Sun
P

Fig. 164. Force and velocity Fig. 165. Translation

Of course, we would like to calculate with vectors. For instance, we want to find the
resultant of forces or compare parallel forces of different magnitude. This motivates our
next ideas: to define components of a vector, and then the two basic algebraic operations
of vector addition and scalar multiplication.
For this we must first define equality of vectors in a way that is practical in connection
with forces and other applications.

DEFINITION Equality of Vectors

Two vectors a and b are equal, written a  b, if they have the same length and the
same direction [as explained in Fig. 166; in particular, note (B)]. Hence a vector
can be arbitrarily translated; that is, its initial point can be chosen arbitrarily.

a b a b a b a b

Equal vectors, Vectors having Vectors having Vectors having

a=b the same length the same direction different length
(A) but different but different and different
direction length direction
(B) (C) (D)

Fig. 166. (A) Equal vectors. (B)–(D) Different vectors

356 CHAP. 9 Vector Differential Calculus. Grad, Div, Curl

Components of a Vector
We choose an xyz Cartesian coordinate system1 in space (Fig. 167), that is, a usual
rectangular coordinate system with the same scale of measurement on the three mutually
perpendicular coordinate axes. Let a be a given vector with initial point P: (x 1, y1, z 1) and
terminal point Q: (x 2, y2, z 2). Then the three coordinate differences

(1) a1  x 2  x 1, a2  y2  y1, a3  z 2  z 1

are called the components of the vector a with respect to that coordinate system, and we
write simply a  [a1, a2, a3]. See Fig. 168.
The length ƒ a ƒ of a can now readily be expressed in terms of components because from
(1) and the Pythagorean theorem we have

(2) ƒ a ƒ  2a 21  a 22  a 23.

EXAMPLE 1 Components and Length of a Vector

The vector a with initial point P: (4, 0, 2) and terminal point Q: (6, 1, 2) has the components

a1  6  4  2, a2  1  0  1, a3  2  2  0.

Hence a  [2, 1, 0]. (Can you sketch a, as in Fig. 168?) Equation (2) gives the length

ƒ a ƒ  222  (1)2  02  15.

If we choose (1, 5, 8) as the initial point of a, the corresponding terminal point is (1, 4, 8).
If we choose the origin (0, 0, 0) as the initial point of a, the corresponding terminal point is (2, 1, 0); its
coordinates equal the components of a. This suggests that we can determine each point in space by a vector,
called the position vector of the point, as follows. 䊏

A Cartesian coordinate system being given, the position vector r of a point A: (x, y, z)
is the vector with the origin (0, 0, 0) as the initial point and A as the terminal point (see
Fig. 169). Thus in components, r  [x, y, z]. This can be seen directly from (1) with
x 1  y1  z 1  0.

z z z

a3
Q A
1

r
P
a1 a2
1 1
x y x y
x y

Fig. 167. Cartesian Fig. 168. Components Fig. 169. Position vector r
coordinate system of a vector of a point A: (x, y, z)

1
Named after the French philosopher and mathematician RENATUS CARTESIUS, latinized for RENÉ
DESCARTES (1596–1650), who invented analytic geometry. His basic work Géométrie appeared in 1637, as
an appendix to his Discours de la méthode.