Date:

1. PHOTO CELL

Aim : To draw the characteristic curves of a photo cell and determine the stopping potential.

Apparatus : Photo cell, volt meter, micro ammeter, supply, and a source of radiation.

Desription:
A photo cell is a device which makes use of photo electric effect for converting light energy into
electric energy. According to their construction Photo electric cells are three types.
1) Photo-emissive cell 2) Photo Voltaic cell 3) Photo Conductive cell
Photo-emissive cells are of two types i) Vacuum and ii) Gas filled.
Vacuum type photo emissive cell consists of two electrodes, cathode and anode. The cathode is either V-
shaped or semi cylindrical and is made of metal coated with emissive material like potassium or cesium i.e.
alkaline metals. The anode is in the form of nickel or platinum wire facing the cathode. The two electrodes
are sealed in a glass or quartz bulb .When light of frequency greater than he threshold frequency is incident
on cathode, electrons are emitted which are attracted by anode. Thus a current flows in the external circuit.
This current depends on (a) intensity of incident radiation and (b) anode to cathode voltage. As the anode
potential is increased, the current increases until saturation occurs.
In Vaccuum photoelectric cells, the current is very small. In order to increase this current the cell is filled
with a suitable inter gas like helium, neon etc at a Pressure of 0.1 to 1 mm of mercury. The photo electron
ionize the gas and thus the current magnified. The drawback of gas filled photo electric cell is that the
photo electric current does not vary linearly with the intensity of light. In our experiment we are using gas
filled photo emissive cell.

Theory : According to Planck‟s quantum theory a photon of frequency ύ has an energy

E = h.
When such a photon of the incident radiation strikes the metal surface of the photo-cell,
electrons are released or emitted by the cathodes (metal surface) which are accelerated towards the anode.
The energies of these electrons, according to Einstein is given by the equation

K.E = h – w

Where w is the work function of the metal surface, and is equal to ho, where o is the threshold
frequency.

The maximum energy of the emitted electrons is

½ mv² = h –ho

The maximum energy of the emitted electrons ½ mv² = eVs

Where Vs is the stopping potential.
Definitions:
Stopping potential (vs): The stopping potential is the negative anode potential required to stop the most
energetic electrons emitted by the cathode and reaching the anode.

Work function (w): It is the minimum energy required to remove the electrons from the surface of the
metal.
Threshold frequency (o): It is the minimum frequency of the incident radiation to start the photoelectric
effect.
Circuit Diagram:
Positive anode potential :

Fig. (1)

Procedure:
Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.(1). Keep the source as close as possible facing the cathode. Note
the distance between the source and the photo cell. Keep the anode potential at zero and note the current in
the ammeter. Now increasing the anode potential in convenient steps, note down the ammeter reading till
the potential reaches the maximum value.

Stopping potential is the –ve anode potential that is required to stop the most energetic electron, emitted
by the cathode in reaching the anode.

Circuit Diagram:
Negative anode potential :

Fig. (2)
Procedure: Connect the circuit as shown in the fig. (2). Keep the source at the same distance from the
photo cell as in the case of positive anode potential and note the reading of the ammeter at zero potential.
This should be the same as in the positive anode potential circuit. Now increase the negative anode
potential in small steps till the reading in the ammeter becomes zero. Note the potential and ammeter
reading at every step till the zero current value is reached.
Graph:
Plot a graph with +ve anode potential on the +ve X-axis and –ve anode potential on the
-ve X-axis with the current on the +ve Y-axis.

From the graph note down the value of the stopping potential.

Precautions: The distance of the incandescent lamp from the photocell (cathode) should not be altered
while taking the readings for a particular intensity.

Result:

Lecturer signature with date:

Observations:

+ ve anode potential:

For Intensity I1 For Intensity I2 For Intensity I3

(d= cm) (d= cm) (d= cm)

S.No + ve anode Photo + ve anode Photo + ve anode Photo

potential current potential current potential current
(Volts) (A) (Volts) (A) (Volts) (A)
- ve anode potential:

For Intensity I1 For Intensity I2 For Intensity I3

(d= cm) (d= cm) (d= cm)

S.No - ve anode Photo - ve anode Photo - ve anode Photo

potential current potential current potential current
(Volts) (A) (Volts) (A) (Volts) (A)
 Possible Viva Questions:

1) What is photoelectric effect?

2) Who discovered the photoelectric effect?
3) What is a photocell and what are the types of photoelectric cells?
4) How the electrons released from the metal?
5) Are all the metals useful for photoelectric effect?
6) Does the work function depend on the incident light and the cathode metal?
7) What is the stopping potential?
8) Does the stopping potential depend on the incident light and the cathode metal?
9) What is the significance of photoelectric effect?
10) What is the main source of error here and how will it effect the result?
11) What are the types of photo emissive cells?
12) What is the advantage of gas filled photo emissive ell over vaccum photo emissive cell?
13) What is the drawback of gas filled photo electric cell?
14) In this experiment which type of photo cell is used?
15) How is the energy converted here?
16) What voltmeter is used in the circuit, wether ac or dc?
17) What is the range of the current in this experiment?
18) What is the value of planks constant (6.6X10-34JS)

Date:
 2. Determination of Planck’s constant ‘h’

Aim: To determine the value of Planck‟s constant(h) with the help of a photo cell.

Apparatus : Photo cell, volt meter, micro ammeter, supply, different colours of filters and a source of
radiation.

Description: Same as in photo cell experiment.

Theory: Same as in photo cell experiment.

Circuit Diagram:

Negative anode potential :

Fig. (1)
Procedure:

1.Connect the circuit as shown in fig(1) i.e. negative anode potential connection.

2. Keep the source as close as possible to the photocell

3. Using white light as source determine the stopping potential (i.e. the negative anode potential where the
current becomes zero)

4. Now without changing the distance between the source and the photocell, insert a filter (say green) of
known wavelength in the path of the light (in the slit provided)

5. Repeat the step(4) and (5) or other filters also.

Graph:

1. Draw a graph with the frequency of the light corresponding to the filters on the X-axis and the
corresponding stopping potential on the Y-axis.
The slope of the graph is given by h/e

Where e is the charge of the electron

whose value is 1.6 x 10-19 Coloumb
OA gives the work function.

From OA we get the work function (W)

Now calculate plancks constant

h=ex slope of the graph

2. The intercept on the negative Y-axis gives the work function.

Work function = intercept X e
3. Planck‟s constant can also be calculated from the formula
h=e (v2-v1)12/ c (1 - 2)
where C is the velocity of light = 3X 108 ms-1
Red filter 1 = 6143x 10-10 m
Note: wave length of mean colour of white light i.e. yellow colour
2 = 5890x10-10 m
Green filter 3 = 5645x10-10 m
Blue filter 4 = 5265x10-10 m

Precautions:

1. Care should be taken to see that the filters chosen are monochromatic as far as possible.
2. Filters can‟t be exposed for long duration, otherwise it will be spoiled.

Result:

Lecturer Signature:
Observations:

-ve anode potential:

For Intensity I1 For Intensity I2 For Intensity I3

S.No - ve anode Photo current - ve anode Photo current - ve anode Photo current
potential (A) potential (A) potential (A)
(Volts) (Volts) (Volts)
Observations:

Stopping potential Vs
Frequency of incident light
S.No Colour corresponding to zero photo
 c/λ ( Hz)
current (volts)
Date:
3.Experiments with Fibre-optic kit
Aim: - Using the fibre-optic kit to determine
A) Loss in fibres at 660nm and 850nm
b) Numerical aperture of optical fibres

Brief Description of the kit:

Fibre-optic analog Transmitter kit

The transmitter unit converts input electrical signals to optical signals for transmission through an optical
fibre at 660nm (FO LED1) as well as 850nm (FO LED2), simultaneously. The electrical signal is converted to optical
output, by driving the FO LEDS linearly, using negative feedback operational amplifier circuits. DC LED current
setting is done by rotating the knob marked set P0. The optical power is coupled to the optical fibre through the SMA
connectors.
Set P0 sets up dc currents through the LEDs. The LED currents can be measured by monitoring the voltages
V01 and V02 with a Digital multimeter (DMM) respectively. V01/100 gives the FO LED1 current; V02/50 gives the FO
LED2 current. (V01, V02 is the voltage across 100 resistor in the Transmitter kit for 660nm, 850nm).
Fibre optic Receiver unit: The receiver unit accepts the input optical power at the SMA connectors from the optical
fibre and provides linear or logarithmic outputs. When the optical signal is given to Fibre optic PT , it is demodulated
linearly to give an output voltage, Vout. This is directly proportional to the optical input power. For DC
measurements, an oscilloscope is required. When the optical signal is given to the FO PIN the resulting photocurrent
is converted to a logarithmic voltage P0.

The optical power, is given by (DMM Reading)/10 in decibels referred to 1mw. As an example, if the meter
reading is -193, then the optical power P0 is -193/10 dBm or -19.3dBm.
 The DMM may be used in 0-200mV range for higher sensitivity. The reading in this range when divided by
10 again gives optical power P0. The optical power meter has been designed to read in decibels (dB) referred to 1mw
(dBm), directly as this is the standard practice. The optical power meter has been calibrated at 660nm. (e.g.: 0dBm =
1mw, 10dBm = 0.1mw or 100w; -20dBm = 0.01mw or 10w; -3dBm = 0.5mw)

The P0 readings have to be corrected for when measuring optical power at 850nm, in the case of the 850nm
LED.

a) Losses in optical fibres at 660nm and 850nm

Aim: To study various types of losses that occur in optical fibres and measure losses in dB of two optical fibre patch
cords at two wavelengths, namely, 660nm and 850nm. The co-efficient of attenuation per meter at these wavelengths
are to be computed from the results.

Definitions: Attenuation in an optical fibre is a result of a number of effects. The optical power at a distance L, in an
optical fibre is given by PL = P010-L/10, where P0 is the Launched power and  is the attenuation co-efficient in
decibel per unit length. The typical attenuation co-efficient value for the fibre under consideration is 0.3dB per meter
at a wavelength of 660nm. Loss in fibres is expressed in decibels as -10logP0/PF, where P0 is the launched power and
PF is power at the far end of the fibre. Losses at the connector junctions may vary from 0.3dB to 0.6dB.

Losses in fibres occur at fibre - fibre joints or splices due to axial displacement, angular displacement separation,
mismatch of cores diameters, mismatch of numerical apertures, improper cleaving and cleaning at the ends.

The loss equation for a simple fiber optic link is given by

Pin(dBm) – Pout(dBm) = LJ1 + LF1B1 + LJ2 +LF1B2 + LJ3(dB)
Where LJ1(dB) is the loss at the LED – connector junction, LF1B1 is the loss in Cable 1, LJ2 is the insertion loss at a
splice or in-line adapter.
LF1B2 is the loss in cable 2.
LJ3 is the loss at the connector-detector junction.

Procedure:
Block-diagram:
Step1:- Connect one end of cable(1) of length 1m of the TX unit and the other end to the F0PIN Port(power meter
)of RX unit.
Keep the DMM between the terminals 1 & 2.
Step 2:-Set the digital multi meter to the 2000mV range and switch on the multi meter.
Step 3:-Set the Po knob to set power of LED1 to a suitable value, say -15.0dBm (the multi meter will show 150mV).
Note this as P01
Step 4:-Wind one turn of the fibre on the mandrel and note the new reading in power meter P02. Now the loss due to
bending and strain on the plastic fibre is P01-P011 dB. For more accurate values set the DMM to 200.0mV and take the
measurement. Typically the loss due to strain and bending the fibre is 0.3 to 0.8 dB.
Step 5:- Remove the mandrel and relieve the cable1 of all twists and strains and measure P01. Repeat the
measurement with cable2 of length 5m and note the reading P02. Use the in-line SMA adaptor and connect the two
cables in series. Note the measurement P03.
Loss in cable 1 = P03 – P02 – Lila
Loss in cable 2 = P03 – P01 – Lila

Assuming a loss of 1.0 dB in the in-line adapter (Lila = 1.0dB) we obtain the loss in each cable. The
difference in the losses in the two cables will be equal to the loss in 1m of fibre (assuming that the losses at connector
junctions are the same for both the cables). The experiment also may be repeated for other P0 settings such as -
15dBm, -20dBm, -25dBm etc.
Observations: Loss in the cable1 (1m cable) due to strain and bending = (P01-P011) dB

b) To determine the Numerical aperture of the optical fibres:

PMMA fibre – Polymethyl methacylate
Numerical aperture of any optical system is a measure of how much light can be collected by the optical
system. It is the product of the refractive index of the incident medium and the sine of the maximum ray angle.

Numerical aperture NA = ni Sinmax

ni for air is 1, hence NA = Sinmax

For a step-index fibre, as in the present case, the numerical aperture is given by

N = ncore2 – ncladding2

For very small differences in refractive indices the equation reduce to NA = ncore2, where  is the fractional
difference in refractive indices.

Procedure:

Step1: connect one end of the 1m FO cable to P0 of TX unit and the other end to the NA jig.
Step2: Switch on the unit. Light will appear at the end of the fibre on the NA jig. Turn the set P0 knob clockwise to
set to maximum P0. The light intensity should increase.
Step3: Hold the white screen with the 4concentric circles (10, 15, 20 and 25mm diameter)
Vertically at a suitable distance to make the red spot from the fibre coincide with the 10mm circle. Note that the
circumference of the spot (outermost) must coincide with the circle. Record L, the distance of the screen from the
fibre and note the diameter (W) of the spot.
Step4: Compute the Numerical aperture NA from the formula
NA = Sinmax=W/ (4L2+W2)1/2 . Tabulate the reading and repeat the experiment for 15mm, 20mm and 25mm
diameters.
Step5: Incase the fibre is under filled, the intensity with in the spot may not be evenly distributed. To ensure even
distribution of light in the fibre, remove the twists on the fibre and then wind 5 turns of the fibre on to the mandrel
using adhesive tape and now view the spot. The intensity will be more evenly distributed.
Specifications of the fibre.
PMMA – Polymethyl methacylate
Fibre structure – step index type
Cladding material – Fluorinated polymer
Cladding refractive index – 1.405 to 1.417
Core refractive index – 1.492
Numerical aperture - 0.5 (typical)
Connector – SMA
Acceptance angle – 55 to 60 degrees.

Precautions:
1)Be careful while using the fibres, do not bend and cut them
2) while measuring the numerical aperture make sure that the corresponding circle is field with maximum intensity.
3)keep the digital multimeter either 150mv or 200mv

Result:

Lecturer Signature with date:

 OPTICAL FIBRES

Fibre optics is a technology related to transportation of optical energy(light energy) in guiding media
specifically glass fibres.

Principle of optical fibre: The optical fibres are based on the Principle of total internal reflection.(Total internal
reflection means when incidence ray angle is greater than critical angle, the light ray does not undergo refraction and
travels back into the same medium.)

Structure of optical fibres: An optical fibre is a hair thin cylindrical fibre of glass or any transparent dielectric
medium. In practical applications, they consist of many thousands of very long fine quality glass/quartz fibres. The
fibres are coated with a of lower refractive index.

An optical fibre consists of an inner cylinder which is made of glass, called the „CORE‟. The core carriers
light. The core is surrounded by another cylindrical shell of lower refractive index called „CLADDING‟. The
cladding helps to keep the light within the core through the phenomenon of total internal reflection. The core
diameter can vary from about 5m to about 100m. the cladding diameter is usually 125m. for greater strength and
protection of the fibre, a soft plastic coating (primary coating) is done whose diameter is about 250m. This is often
followed by another layer of coating known as secondary coating.

Types of optical fibres: The optical fibres are classified into two categories based on a)The number of modes
b)The refractive index

Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture:

a) Acceptance angle: The maximum angle that a light ray can have relative to the axis of the fibre so that it
may propagate down the fibre. In other words, the maximum angle from the fibre axis at which light may
enter the fibre so that it will propagate in the core by total internal reflection.
i0 = Sin-1(n12-n22)
where i0 – Acceptance angle; n1 – Refractive index of inner core
n2 – Refractive index of an outer cladding
 b) Numerical Aperture: It is defined as sine of acceptance angle. In other words, it is a measure of how much
light can be collected by the optical system.

NA = (n12 – n22)

Numerical aperture = 0.4 to 0.5 in short distance communications

= 0.1 to 0.3 in long distance communications

Operational amplifier:

The operational amplifier is a special type of direct-coupled high gain amplifier with a very large input
impedance and a very low output impedance. The unique features of the op-amp makes it suitable for performing a
variety of linear functions and hence is often referred to as the basic linear integrated circuit. A negative voltage-
shunt feedback is normally employed to the amplifier to control the over all characteristics of the op-amp.

Operational amplifiers can be used to perform arithmetic operations with signals. Op-amp can also be used
to integrate and differentiate signals.

Symbol:

If V1>V2, the differential input signal produces a positive output voltage V0.

If V2>V1, the differential input signal produces a negative output voltage V0.

The power supply terminals are not normally shown for the simplicity of circuit schematic of an op-amp.

Operational amplifier can be used as a sign changer or inverter, scale changer, phase shifter and buffer.
Operational amplifier can also be used to perform mathematical operations such as the addition, subtraction,
differentiation, integration and logarithmic operations.
 Table of readings for 660nm:

P01 P02 P03

Loss in Loss in Loss in 4 meters

cable1 dB cable2 dB difference in losses Loss per meter
S.No (dBm) (dBm) (dBm)
of cable2 and (dB) at 660nm
(1m+5 m) PO3 – PO2 PO3 – PO1 cable1
(1m (5 m
cable) cable) Cable

1 -15.0

2 -20.0

3 -25.0

4 -30.0

Repeat the experiments with LED2 at 850nm and tabulate.

Note: The power meter has been calibrated internally to read. Power in dBm at 660nm. To calibrate the power
meter at 850nm, deduct 2.2dB from the measured reading
 Table of readings for 850nm

P01
P02 P03

(dBm) Loss in Loss in Loss in 4 meters

(dBm) (dBm) cable1 dB cable2 dB Loss per meter
S.No difference in losses of
(dB) at 850nm
PO3 – PO2 PO3 – PO1 cable2 and cable1
(1m
cable) (5 m (1m + 5 m
cable) cable)

1 -15.0

2 -20.0

3 -25.0

4 -30.0

Table of readings:

Numerical

S.No L (mm) W (mm) Aperture  = Sin-1NA

NA

1 10

2 15

3 20

4 25

5
Date:
4. The Solar Cell
Aim: To draw the characteristics of a given solar cell.

Apparatus: Solar cell, source of light, micro ammeter, variable resistance, voltmeter and connecting wires.

Theory: The Solar Cell is basically a P-N junction diode which converts solar energy into electrical energy. In
principle, a solar cell is nothing but a light emitting diode (LED) operating in reverse.

Common materials for solar cells include silicon, gallium Arsenide (GaAs), indium arsenide (InAs) and
cadmium Arsenide (CdAs). The most common is silicon. For silicon, the band gap (the energy necessary to transfer
an electron from the upper valence level to the conduction band) is 1.12eV. The maximum theoretical efficiency of a
solar cell depends on this band gap. For silicon the maximum efficiency is only 22%.

When photons fall on a p-n junction, electrons are lifted from the valence band to the conduction band
provided the photon energy exceeds Eg, the energy gap. Thus additional carriers, both electrons and holes are
provided by the photons.

Few of the additional electrons in the n-region have enough energy to diffuse to the p-region, but electric
field to the n-side. Similarly holes are swept to the p-side. Thus photons increase the minority carrier densities
substantially in both p and n-region and an appreciably greater minority carrier transfer is produced across the
junction.
When no external potential difference is applied to an illuminated p-n junction. The photon induced charge
transfer results in producing a photo voltage Vp across the barrier layer with the n-region negative and the p-region
positive. Once equilibrium is established in the crystal in the absence of an external circuit, the forward current due
to Vp just balances induced current Ip.

When a solar cell is used to supply power to a load the photon-generated current Ip is equal to the load
current IL plus the forward junction current due to the induced potential difference V.

Ip = IL + I0(eVC/KT - 1) -----------------------------(1)
 The voltage VL appearing across the load is the generated potential difference minus the potential drop IL RC
, where RC is the solar cell resistance, due almost entirely to the very the p layer.
Combining VL = V – ILRC with (1) leads to
VL = KT/e log(IP - IL)/I0 + 1 - ILRC

A good silica solar cell may have an efficiency of about 15%.

Construction: A solar cell consists of P-N junction diode made of silicon. The inward arrow in the symbol indicates
the incoming light. The P-N diode is packed in a can with glass window on top so that light may fall upon P and N
type materials. The thickness of the P-region is kept very small so that electrons generated in this region can diffuse
to the junction before recombination takes place. Thickness of N-region is also kept small to allow holes generated
near the surface to diffuse to the junction before they recombine. A heavy doping of P and N regions is done t obtain
a large photo voltage. A nickel plated ring is provided around the P-layer. This acts as the positive output terminal. A
metal contact at the bottom serves as the negative output terminal.

Working :

When light radiation falls on a P-N junction diode, photons collide with valence electrons and impart them
sufficient energy enabling them to leave their parent atoms. Thus electron hole pairs are generated in both the P and
N sides of the junction. These electrons and holes reach the depletion by diffusion and are then separated by the
strong barrier field existing there.

There are some minority carriers in both P and N regions which reach the opposite side inspite of the barrier
potential. Their flow constitutes the minority current which is directly proportional to the illumination and also
depends on the surface area being exposed to light.

The accumulation of electrons and holes on the two sides of the junction gives rise to an open circuit voltage
Voc which is a function of illumination. The open-circuit voltage produced for a silicon solar cell is typically 0.6Volt
and the short circuit current is about 40mA/cm2 in bright light.
Procedure: Study the circuit configuration given on the front panel of the trainer. Connect 47E resistor between the
(-) and (+) terminals of the solar cell. Focus bright light on the solar cell. Measure the voltage between the (-) and (+)
terminals of the solar cell and also the current through the resistance. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for different values of the
resistors provided on the trainer. Note the effect of increased resistance in series with the solar cell. Connect 10K
potentiometer, between the (-) and (+) terminals of the solar cell. Vary the potentiometer. You will notice that as the
resistance changes, the current and voltage output of the solar cell changes.

Characteristics: Typical (VI) characteristics of a solar cell, corresponding to different levels of illumination are as
shown below. Maximum power output is obtained when the cell is operated at the knee of the curve.
Uses:
1. Solar cells are used extensively in satellites and space vehicles to supply power to electronic and other equipments
or to charge storage batteries.
2. Solar cells are used to power calculations and watches.
3. Solar cells are used to provide commercial electricity.
Precautions:
1. When you‟re not taking the readings switch off the source so that the solar cell is not damaged.
2. Check the maximum and minimum intensity of the source before you start the experiment, so that you can
choose three convenient intensities for tabulation.
Result:

Lecturer signature with date:

Observations

S.No Voltage (V) Current (A)

Date:
5.
Temperature
characteristic
s of a
Thermistor

Aim : To draw
the
temperature
characteristics
of a thermistor
and to evaluate the constants.

Apparatus : Thermistor, three resistance boxes (1 – 1000 Ohms), 2 V battery, table galvanometer, 0 - 110°
c thermometer, water bath, test tube with oil, two plug keys and connecting wires.

Theory : A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor. It is a semiconductor made up of mixtures of oxides

of cobalt, magnesium, manganese, nickel or uranium. In many respects a thermistor resembles a
conventional resistor. It is a two terminal device having resistance as the fundamental property and is
operated in the same way as a resistor. A thermistor is available in many shapes such as a rod, disc or bead.
Most of the thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance R = A e B/T . The resistance of
a resistor varies linearly with temperature. A thermistor, on the other hand, has a non-linear variation of
resistance with increase of temperature given by the relation,
R = A e B/T ---------(1)

Here A and B are constants and T is the temperature in degrees absolutely. The constants A and B are
characteristic of the thermistor used. It is our aim to determine R as a function of T and to evaluate the two
constants A and B.

Then Loge R = Log e A + B/T

Principle of wheat stone’s bridge:

A wheat stone‟s bridge consists of four resistors P,Q,R,S in the four arms connected in series to
form a bridge. Two opposite corners are connected to a battery through a plug key.
 The bridge is said to be balanced when there is no flow of current in the galvanometer arm. Under
this condition the ratio of resistance P, Q will be equal to the ratio of resistance R, S i.e. P/Q = R/S. This is
called the balancing condition of the wheat stone‟s bridge. Using this we can determine any unknown
resistance.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig (1)
Procedure : Make the connections as shown in the figure 1. The thermistor is connected in the fourth arm
of the bridge while P, Q, R form the other three arms. P and Q represent the ratio arms. Take P = Q = 100
 and balance the bridge with the thermistor in the test tube containing transformer oil or sweet oil and the
test tube maintained at the cold water temperature of the water- bath.

The value of R which is obtained for balancing the bridge gives the resistance of the thermistor at cold
water temperature.

Heat the water – bath till the water boils and now again determine the resistance of the thermistor at
regular intervals of 10°C each, only while cooling as the temperature is steady. Tabulate the results as
follows.

Note: we keep the thermistor in the test tube containing oil for heating. Because direct heating of the
thermistor in water will spoil the specimen, due to large heat capacity of water. Secondly since the density
of oil is les than that of water. The specimen will get heated slowly and reach the steady temperature.

Graph:
Draw a graph with Log10 R on Y-axis and 1/T on X-axis. Draw another graph with resistance ( R ) on y-
axis and temperature t° C on x-axis.

Slope of the straight line gives

 B = MN Х 2.303 K
LM

The intercept of the Y-axis gives log A, but it is easier to calculate A from the equation
Log10 A = log10 R – B log10 e (log10 e = 0.4343) --------(2)
T
Substituting the values of R, B and T in equation (2) A can be calculated.

Specimen calculation of A:
Let R =120 Ω at T =333°K and B = 3000°K
Then Log10 A = -1.8295 = -2+0.1705 (by adding and subtracting „1‟ on both sides)
= 2.1705
A = 0.015 Ω

Precautions:
1. Remove the plug key from the galvanometer circuit while heating.
2. Tighten all the keys in the resistance boxes before you start experiment and also see that keys
are replaced tightly after using them while doing the experiment.
3. Do not operate above 90°C.
4. Values of resistance should be picked up to get a exact null deflection in the galvanometer.

Result :

Lecturer Signature:
Observations:

P = Q = 100

Room temperature tO C = TK

Resistance at room temperature = 

S.No. t° C T° K 1/T R Ohms Log10 R

 Possible Viva Questions

1) What is a thermistor?
2) How are thermistors made?
3) What are ohmic and non-ohmic resistances?
4) Why do have to take readings while cooling only and not during heating?
5) What are the shapes of thermistor?
6) Why galvanometer should show zero deflection while finding the unknown resistance?
7) what is wheat stone‟s bridge?
8) what is the balancing condition for wheat stone bridge?
9) How is the thermistor‟s resistance found by using the balancing condition of wheat stone‟s bridge?
10)why is the thermometer placed in oil instead of water?
11)why a semiconductor has got a negative temperature coefficient of resistance?
12)which materials have got positive temperature co-efficient of resistance?
13)in a semiconductor at absolute zero how will the valence band be?
14)what is a semiconductor? what are the types of semiconductors?
15)what are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor?
16)why much care is needed while using thermistor?
17)why are all keys tightened in the resistance box while doing the experiment?
Date:
6. HYSTERESIS CURVE OF TRANSFORMER CORE

Aim: To trace the hysteresis curve of a transformer core using a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, find the energy
loss per unit volume per cycle the corecivity and retentivity of the material of the core.

Apparatus: Given transformer core with primary(Np) and secondary (Ns) windings, a step down
transformer(Tr) (having an output of 3V to 6V and 100mA) low loss capacitor Cs of 4F capacitance,
Resistors R1 and R2 ac mains supply (220V-50Hz) and cathode ray oscilloscope.

Formula: The phenomenon by which the magnetic induction (B) lags behind the magnetizing field (H) is
called hysteresis.

The hysteresis curve-graph with H on x axis and corresponding B (of the material) on y- axis will be as
shown in Fig-1

The area under the B-H curve gives the hysteresis loss per cycle, that is the work done per unit
volume per cycle ------ (1)

OQ gives the value of the retentivity (Br), that is the remanent induction even when the field H is
removed ------- (2)

OR gives the value of the coercivity (Hc), that is the negative field to be applied to demagnetize the
specimen completely. ---------(3)

Circuit Diagram:
Theory: Ferromagnetic materials like iron, cobalt and nickel are having certain specific magnetic
properties. They will be having a large number of small regions in which magnetization will be already
saturated spontaneously. These regions are called “Domains”. Different domains will be having their
magnetization in different directions and the overall magnetization with no applied magnetic field will be
zero.

When an external magnetic field H is applied, the domains having their magnetization parallel to
the field grow at the expense of other domains. Thus, initially the magnetization increases. This is shown
by the curve OP. As and when all the domains get magnetized, there is no further scope for increase in
magnetization and the magnetization is saturated as can be seen from PP1.

Now let us gradually decrease the magnetizing field H. instead of coming back along PO, the curve
retraces along PQ. At Q, even though the applied field H is completely removed, there still remains certain
magnetic induction Br (=OQ). This is because, the domain boundaries do not move completely back to their
original position. This Br is called the retentivity of the material.

Now, when the applied field is reversed in direction (-H), the remanent magnetization decreases and
becomes zero at –H=OR. OR=Hc is called the corecivity. As we further increase H in reverse direction, the
specimen gets magnetized now in an opposite direction and this process continues up to saturation at S.
when the negative field is gradually decreased the curve follows the path ST where there is still
magnetization (now is negative direction) even when H= 0.B becomes zero when +H is increased up to U.
With further increase of +H the curve follows UP. The closed curve PQRSTUP is called the hysteresis
curve of the given ferromagnetic material. The phase lag between B and H is the cause of hysteresis loop.

The tendency of the magnetic domains to turn around (both during magnetization and
demagnetization as well) gives rise to mechanical stresses in side the material. This gives rise to heating.
The energy wasted due to the cyclic magnetization is called the hysteresis loss and is given by the area
under the hysteresis curve.

When we apply an alternating current, the material gets magnetized during one half cycles and
demagnetized during the second half cycle. Thus we get the hysteresis curve in a simple fashion. The curve
can be visualized on the CRO screen by feeding Vx of primary to „X‟ plates and Vy of secondary to Y
plates.

Procedure:

The electrical connections are made as shown in Fig-2 and Fig.2 (a). The primary of the transformer
core is connected via the resistor R1 to the step down transformer (Tr) which in turn is connected to the
220V-50Hz mains. The secondary of the transformer core is connected in series with the resistor R2 and
capacitor Cs. The voltage Vx across R1 is fed to the horizontal input (XX plates) of the CRO. The voltage
Vy across Cs is fed to the vertical input (YY plates) of the CRO.

The horizontal and vertical gain control of the CRO are adjusted to get a convenient size of the
hysteresis curve of the material of the transformer core.

Here Vx corresponds to H while Vy corresponds to B.

On a graph sheet, trace the B-H curve appearing on the CRO screen by plotting point by point wise.

Observations and Calculations:

By adjusting the horizontal and vertical gain controls of CRO a hysteresis loop of convenient size is
obtained on the screen of CRO.
The same is plotted on a graph sheet.
The area of the hysteresis loop PQRSTUP is counted. This gives hysteresis loss.

1) OQ = Br = retentivity = ______________tesla (Wb/m2)

2) OR = Hc = corecivity = _______________ampere/meter.

3) Hysteresis loss = ________________________joules/cycle/unit volume.

Precautions:
1. Do not touch the transformer while doing the experiment.
2. Use graph paper while measuring the area of the hysteresis loop.

Result:

Lecturer signature with date:

 Possible viva Questions

1. What is hysteresis?
2. In what materials do you find this behaviour?
3. What is the root cause for hysteresis?
4. What are magnetic domains?
5. How is the curie law modified due to these domain?
6. What happens to a ferromagnetic material above the curie temperature θC.
7. What is the cause of hysteresis?
8. What is the cause of hysteresis looses?
9. How can you estimate the hysteresis loss of a given specimen?
10. What are the practical uses of hysteresis curves.
11. What are the differences between soft iron and steel as far as retentivity and corecivity are
concerned?
12. What are the characteristics of a transformer core?
13. Can we use an electrolyte capacitor for Cs in this experiment?
14. What are the units of B and H?
15. Out of soft iron and steel which has got smaller hysteresis loop?
Date:
7. STEFAN-BOLTZMAN LAW

AIM: To verify Stefan – Boltzman‟s fourth – power radiation law using an electrically heated filament.

APPARATUS : A sealed bulb with tungsten filament , a variable D.C source, a milli ammeter of 0-
200 mA range, three resistance boxes, galvanometer, plug key and connecting wires.

THEORY : STEFAN – BOLTZMAN LAW : A black body at absolute temperature T surrounded by

another black body at absolute temperature (To) not only losses an amount of energy
σT4 but also gains σTo4 . Thus the amount of heat lost by the former per unit area per unit time .
E = σ(T4 – To4)
Where σ is known as the Stefan‟s constant .
When T >> To , To can be neglected in comparison with T .
Hence E = σ T4.

If the body is not perfectly black and its emissivity is „e‟ then Stefan‟s law may be written as E = e σ T4.
According to this law the energy radiated by the tungsten filament of area „A‟ is given by E = eA σ
T4 .
The experiment consists of measuring the resistance of the filament of the bulb for different currents and
equating the rate at which electrical energy is supplied to the filament to the rate at which energy is radiated
by it.
i²R = eA σ T4 ----------------(1)

Here we are neglecting energy lost by heat convention.

Taking log of equation(1) ,
Log (i²R) = log (eA σ) + 4 log T ------------(2)

If a graph is plotted with log (i²R) on the y-axis and log T on the x-axis , a straight line is obtained whose
slope should be equal to 4 verifying Stefan–boltzman law .
The temperature of the filament is calculated using the formula
R = Ro [ 1+ α (T- To)] -----------------(3)

Where, R is resistance at temperature T.

Ro is resistance at room temperature To.
α is the mean temperature coefficient of resistance.
α = 0.0053 k-1 for tungsten
solving eq (3) for T , T = [(R-Ro)/ α Ro] + To ---------------(4)

Circuit diagram:

Fig(1)
PROCEDURE :

1) A wheat-stone bridge is constructed with the tungsten filament and a milli-ammeter in one arm and its
resistance is measured for different currents.
R = S X 150/1500 Ω

2) A graph is plotted with current I on the x-axis and resistance R on the y-axis . The intercept on the y-
axis gives Ro the resistance of the filament at room temperature.

3) Temperature of the filament for different currents is calculated by substituting the values of R, Ro, To
and α in the eq (4).

4) A graph is plotted by taking log (i²R) on the y-axis and log T on the x-axis .

Graph:

Precautions: 1) All the precautions for using the wheat stone‟s bridge must be taken.
2) Note the ammeter reading only after keeping the key.

Result:

Lecturer Signature with date:

 Possible viva questions

1. What is Stefan-Boltzman fourth-power radiation law.

2. What is temperature co-efficient of resistance.
3. What is an ammeter? What are the types
4. Why the current in galvanometer should show zero.
5. What is a black body and perfectly black body. Give an example?
6. Why the slope should be equal to 4 from the graph.
7. What is a table galvanometer.
8. What is a wheat stone‟s bridge.
 OBSERVATIONS :
P = 150 Q = 1500
Room temperature To =
Resistance at room temperature (from the graph) Ro =
Temperature Co-efficient α = 0.0053 k-1

Current i Resistance R = Temperature

S.No i²R Log i²R Log T
(mA) S/10Ω T = [(R-Ro)/Roα]+To
Date:
8. CONSTANT OF A BALLISTIC GALVANOMETER

Aim : To determine the constant of a B.G by steady deflection method or half deflection method.
Apparatus : Three resistance boxes of range 1 to 10,000, ballistic galvanometer, two plug keys,
commutator, stop watch and connecting wires.
Circuit Diagram :

Fig (1)
Theory : The moving coil ballistic galvanometer is a specially designed galvanometer suitable for
measuring charge. It performs angular oscillations and the maximum deflection is proportional to the total
charge passed through it.
The moving coil galvanometer is said to be dead beat when the coil returns to the initial position
quickly without making any oscillation. The steady deflection produced is proportional to the current.
When a coil of “n” turns and area” A” is suspended in a magnetic field of strength “H” and a charge
“q” passes through it, the coil will oscillate. If “C” is the restoring couple per unit twist of the suspension
fiber, “T” is the time period of oscillation and “θ” the ballistic deflection then

q = {C/nAH} {T/2╥}. {Φ} that is q = K Φ

The ballistic constant K = {C/nAH}.{T/2╥} = q/ Φ

For a galvanometer in the dead beat mode if „i „ is the current and „Φ‟ the steady
deflection then
i = {C/nAH} Φ that is i = k Φ

The galvanometer constant

k = C/nAH = i/ ø

Therefore the ballistic constant K = K T/2

Potenial Divider Circuit :
Since a moving coil galvanometer is very sensitive instrument, a potential divider circuit is used to send a
small current through the galvanometer.
Current in the circuit I = E / (P+Q) current is kept constant throughout the experiment by keeping P+Q
constant.
The potential difference across Q = EQ / (P+Q) is varied by changing Q (but keeping P+Q constant) to
send different currents through the galvanometer.

Half Deflection Method :

To Find The Resistance Of The Galvanometer G :
Let ø be the deflection in the galvanometer when a current i passes through it
and the series resistance R = 0 (in the dead beat mode)

i = [EQ / (P+Q) ] . 1/G = K ø ------------------------- (1)

Let R be the resistance to be included in series with the galvanometer to reduce the deflection to half. Then
the changed current i' is

i' = [EQ / (P+Q)] . 1/(G+R) = K ø /2 ----------------------(2)

Dividing eqn (1) by eqn(2) we get (G+R)/G = 2 or G = R

Procedure :Connect the circuit as shown in the figure (1). Adopting the potential divider method, unplug 1
ohm from Q, keeping R=0 close the circuit. Adjust Q keeping (P+Q) at 10,000 ohm until a decent steady
deflection is obtained in ballistic galvanometer. At this stage note the value of Q unplugged and the steady
deflection noted. Reverse the current with the help of a commutator and note the deflection in other side.
Let the average deflection be .
Now to determine the resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method, unplug resistance from
R till the deflection is reduced to half of its previous value . The resistance unplugged is equal to the
resistance G of the galvanometer. Take six set of readings and tabulate the results and do the calculations.
Write the results.

Time Period Of Oscillation :

Change the galvanometer to ballistic mode and make the deflection maximum by passing current . Now
disconnect any one wire going to the galvanometer from the commutator and note the time for 20
oscillations.

Precautions :
1. Do the necessary adjustments of galvanometer.
2. The deflector must be same for left and right while steady current is flowing.
3. While determining the period of oscillation, detach the galvanometer from the circuit.
4. Connections should be very tight and make sure that there is no insulator around the copper wire near the
connections.
5. Remove the plug from key 2 while the experiment is not being done.
Result :

Lecturer Signature with date :

 Observations :
Table
Time for 20 oscillations Time period
T=t/20sec
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Mean t

E.M.F of the battery E = _______ volts.

P+Q = ohms
Resistance R for half
S.no PΩ QΩ Deflection ø k =[EQ/ (P+Q)G].1/ ø
deflection = G Ω

Left Right mean Left right mean G

Average galvanometer constant K = amps / def

The ballistic constant K = K T / 2╥ = coulombs / def.

 Possible Viva Questions

1. What is a potential divider circuit?

2. What is the action of a commutator?
3. What is the action of plug key K1?
4. What is the time period of oscillations?
5. What is the use of moving coil ballistic galvanometer?
6. What is an oscillation?
7. What is magnetic field strength?
8. What is a Restoring force?
9. What is the relation between produced steady deflection and the current?

********