THESIS REPORT ON

ADJUSTMENT PROBLEMS OF FEMALE

TEACHERS AT POSTGRADUATE
DEPARTMENTS IN UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR

By
AMBREEN MAHMOOD
LALA RUKH
M.A (Final Sociology)

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR
Session: 2006 – 2007
In the Name of Allah
The Most Beneficent,
The Most Merciful
 APPROVAL SHEET

Research Conducted By:

AMBREEN MAHMOOD ___________________
LALA RUKH ___________________
M.A. Sociology

Approved By:
PROF. DR. RASHID KHAN ___________________
Chairman,
Department of Sociology
University of Peshawar.

Supervised By:
DR. NIAZ MUHAMMAD ___________________
Lecturer,
Department of Sociology,
University of Peshawar

External Examiner ____________________

Remarks ____________________

Grade Obtained ____________________

Dated: ____________________
CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 EDUCATION
Education has been perceived to be a significant instrument in
improving the status of women and consequently there have been efforts to
improve the access of girls and women to education. For a country which has
accepted the goal of a democratic, egalitarian society, promotion and
development of women's education is foregone commitment. Policy makers
have recognized that, apart from the political structure, corrective legislation
and economic transformation, the formal education system has to be made
more democratic and change- oriented.

For modernizing India, high hopes have been pinned on education

as a significant determinant of aspiration. Technology, productivity and
mobility. In fact, it is a fundamental prerequisite for participation in the various
developmental activities of society. The level of recognition of the crucial
significance of education for women is dependent upon societal expectations of
women's roles.

In 1986, based on the perspectives provided in its document. National

Policy on Education (NPE), the Government of India prepared a Plan of Action
to meet the challenge of the technology revolution envisaged in the coming two
decades. The document states that, without adequate measures for the spread of
education, 'the chasm of economic disabilities, regional imbalances, and social
injustice will widen further. resulting in the building of disintegrative tensions'.
Studies on women's education during the period 1984-87 have to be reviewed
in this context.

In the earlier three surveys, the topic of women's education was not
presented as a special area but was covered under other areas, e.g. History of
Education, Administration of Education Guidance and Counselling. It is
gratifying that the fourth survey treats studies in this field as a separate area,

1
despite the fact that the number of studies reported in it during the current
survey period is much less than that in the earlier period. In the third survey, 51
studies have been recorded as related to women's education; during the current
survey only 33 studies have been noticed.

It would be useful to discuss the issue of gender justice through

education before we delineate the various aspects of women's education which
deserve attention.

1.2 THE CONCEPT OF EQUALITY IN EDUCATION

In a developing country like ours the obvious inequality of women vis-
a-vis men is subsumed under the more pervasive inequality between various
sections of society. Further, in Indian society, where stratification through caste
is a marked feature. Where privileges and discrimination get entrenched
through custom and usage, acceptance of equality of status and opportunity
becomes a significant landmark

Where economic and social inequalities are widespread, the importance

of educational equality as a goal assumes special importance. It becomes a very
serious issue as to how wide are the opportunities for entry into the portals of
knowledge; how more and more persons from disadvantaged sections of
society can be given access to education4n the context of this chapter the index
of progress is how many more

1.3 DEVELOP ENT OF WOMEN'S EDUCATION

In India, since the 19th century, when the first voice was raised against
the inferior status of women in society, social reformers gave high priority to
women's education. With the establishment of the Bethune School in Calcutta
in 1949, and a few indigenous efforts in Gujarat and Maharashtra at
establishing schools for girls during the same period, first steps towards
acceptance of women's education were taken (Desai-Raj, 1987). Though the
liberal reformers recognized the value of education for girls, its content and the
levels to which girls were educated was very much determined by their limited

2
notion of women's role in the family. They believed that, in the gigantic task of
transformation of society in which educated middle-class men were involved,
women, if given education, would not only appreciate the changes taking place
in the society but would also collaborate in hastening the process of change.
They never envisaged any change in the traditional wife/mother role of women.

However, it goes to the credit of these social reformers that they were
able to generate a climate of acceptance of the value of giving education to
girls (Natesen (ed), ND.); Karve, D.K. (1936); Ranade, M.G. (1902);
Mazumdar, Veena 1985).

In spite of fervent pleas made by social reformers, the spread of

women's education was not striking.

During the nationalist upsurge, particularly after the thirties, a

significant change was initiated when women took an active part in the
nationalist movement and built up organizations where the need for education
was constantly stressed. Of course, during this phase too, there was not much
change in the role perception of women, yet it was being gradually realized that
education is an asset in their wider participation. In comparison with earlier
periods, during this phase more women went to schools and colleges, a few
more entered the profession's of teaching, medicine and law. But in spite of
some of thee advances the growth of women's education has been very slow.
On the eve of independence, only about eight per cent of women were literate,
25 per cent of the relevant age groups were in elementary classes and barely
five per cent in middle schools. A meagre 18,675 girls, around ten per
cent of the total enrolment, were in higher education.

Even after independence, there has been a very wide gap

between the avowed goal of equality of access to education and its
realization. Though education has been considered crucial for development, the
empirical reality is not very encouraging. The gender bias in spread of
education is quite evident. In 1981 over 45 per cent of girls in the 6-11
age group, over 75 per cent of the 12-14 age group and over 85 per
3
cent of the 15-17 age group were out of school as compared to 20 per cent, 57
per cent and 71 per cent of boys in the respective age groups.

The problem gets compounded with regional imbalances. In Kerala,

female literacy is as high as 73 per cent, whereas in Rajasthan not even 12 per
cent of women are literate. In fact, because of the regional disparity, special
efforts have been suggested for promoting women's education in nine states
which have been declared educationally backward. This imbalance further gets
accentuated when the rural dimension is added. According to the 1981
census, female literacy in rural area was 17.96 while in urban areas it
was 47.82 per cent. The picture is not different at school level. At the secondary
level, while only 13 per cent of the girls in the relevant age group are in school,
only a meagre 17 per cent of these

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF WOMEN'S EDUCATION

One of the important issues with regard to women's education is-Why
do girls need to be educated? As mentioned earlier, for centuries women's role
has been perceived as that of wife or mother. In the traditional structures. where
upper caste women, by and large, were not expected to participate in spheres of
life beyond the family, formal education was not considered essential. As
Aparna Basu mentions.

Whereas education of males was directly related to employment, female

education had no economic function. It is, therefore, not surprising that when

the Bombay Government undertook an enquiry into the state of indigenous

education in the 1820s, in the reports received from the Collectors, Judges and

Commissioners, there was no mention of a single female scholar attending any

of the common schools of the province' (Basu, Chanana, 1988).

Everyone believed that the skills necessary for performing household

chores, or for productive work could be learnt within the precincts of the
family. Hence the need for education for a woman is only realized when she is

4
required to participate in wider social activities. Further, the role of education is
appreciated when values of individualism liberalism, personality growth and
identity development are part of the group ethos. The need for women's
education was therefore first articulated during the 19th century, when liberal
ideology dominated amongst the intelligentsia. The social reformers though,
vehemently lobbied for women's education. However, for them its objectives
were confined to developing efficiency in performing their traditional roles.
Over the years, due to a variety of factors, education for future economic
participation and for widening of knowledge have been accepted as additional
objectives of girls' education.

Due to the middle class bias of educational structures, poorer sections of

the society somehow do not feel the relevance of formal education. A number
of studies in urban slums have borne out that formal schooling has a marginal
role in the lives of girls there. The girls are needed to help with housework and,
therefore, one mother said, 'why should I waste my time and money on sending
my daughter to school where she will learn nothing of use? What does the
Hindi alphabet mean to her?' (Karlekar, 1983 ). On the other hand, the
demonstrative effect of education providing opportunities of better jobs creates

a feeling among poor people that, if education is given to girls, they will be
able to improve their status. Maidservants, particularly, aspire for their
daughters to have jobs other than domestic work.

Unfortunately, the increasingly higher minimum educational

requirements for any kind of employment leads to frustration. as many of the
girls are unable to complete their education. It may also be mentioned that the
objectives of education are different for different classes; they are also
dependent upon levels of education (Desai and Raj, 1987). In short, social roles
of girls define their educational needs and goals. Not only is the instrumental
value of education different for boys and

5
1.5 WOMEN'S EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SYSTEM
As mentioned earlier, the educational process needs to be looked from a
sociological point of view, as this is likely to provide insights into the operation
for social factors vis-a-vis education. One of the important concepts in the
sociology of education is the viewing of the educational system as not
operating in isolation, but being affected and affecting other sub-system like
polity, economy, family, personality, etc. Further, it is also useful to look at the
sub- system of education as composed of institutions, personnel and the
normative structure of society. The societal concepts of roles, status,
expectations, aspirations, values-all affect the educational structure. Moreover,
the phenomenon of social change as affecting the educational system in a
variety of ways needs to be understood. Similarly, women's education is not an
isolated, in dependent activity but a phenomenon affected by social forces.

Consequently, while dealing with women's education. we have to

understand the role and status of women teachers, women students and women
administrators.

Further when education is considered as a subsystem, it is pertinent to

know how family, economy or polity affects woman's education. For instance,
in access, selection of courses, options available in career, etc., the pressure
from the family is crucial.

1.5 WOMEN'S EDUCATION AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Availability of educational structures affects women's education
significantly. While availability of schools, adequate number of teachers,
facilities, etc. affects both boys and girls, the constraints operate more
effectively in the case of girls. Quite a few studies have shown that lack of
middle schools at walking distance, unavailability of women teachers, sub-
standard teaching, and absence of certain support structures like creches, have
led to dropping out of girls from the education system.

Educational institutions reflect and reinforce gender differences in

various ways. Separate schools and classes for girls and boys, content of the
6
syllabi and textbooks in which the dictomy of masculine and feminine roles is
projected and, finally, encouragement given to the study of certain subjects like
home science and discouragement of girls going in for the science stream or
plying football are few examples which indicate the strengthening of sex
stereotyping at the school level.

Though studies on students belonging to coeducational and single- sex

schools are available, most are descriptive and do not investigate why girls in
co-ed schools behave in a docile manner and why they are aggressive in single-
sex schools. Vibha Parthasarathy's experiment on generation of a
non-discriminatory atmosphere is worth noting. She says, 1396 Neera Desai.

1.6 SOCIALIZATION AND WOMEN'S EDUCATION

We have been emphasizing so far the links between education and other
social systems. The sub-system of economy affects education through cost
structures, providing economic opportunities in certain direction enabling
institutions to avail of certain facilities, encouraging skills to be developed
which are necessary for economic activities, etc.

Likewise, family and kinship have a determining influence on women's

education. As Leela Dube mentions.

Gender roles are conceived, enacted and learnt within a complex of

relationships. A family structure, at a given point of time is not just a function
of demography, it also reflects the rules of recruitment and marital residence
and the normative and actual patterns of rearrangement of the family in the
process of the replacement of the old generation by the new.

Second, there is something beyond actual composition of a family unit-

its 'configuration of role relationships' and 'specific' and 'objective' contribution
of members to the business of living-that goes into the apportionment of family
resources, gender based and age-based division of work. and the conceptions
of; and training for, future roles of male and female children' (Dube in
Chanana, 1988).

7
 The important point to note is the overarching significance of
socialization on the lives of girls and women. The process is so intertwined and
subtle that it determines motivations, expectations, perceptions and attitudes to
formal education of girls and women as students and as teachers. Again the
socialization of others, such as parents, policy makers. educators, influences the
curriculum, organization schools, the availability of subject choices in
school/college and the role models.

The sexual division of labour that allots the major responsibility to

women for family and child care, irrespective of their work roles, results in a
woman balance

1.7 PROBLEMS FACED BY WOMEN

The process of getting knowledge and skill involves a number,of
situations which may pose problems for girls taking education. The problems
could be grouped into following six categories:

 Problems related to psychological adjustment

 Problems in connection with employment of educated women

 Problems of scheduled caste and scheduled tribe girl

 Problems in connection with institutional structures, such as school or

college

 Problems of dropping out of the education system

 Problems of women in the non-formal system.

1.8 PROBLEMS IN CONNECTION WITH PSYCHOLOGICAL

ADJUSTMENTS
Girl students often stiffer a traumatic experience when they enter an
educational institution. The sharpness in the difference of the environs is
experienced when a girl enters college, the trauma is accentuated if she has
studied in a segregated school and goes to a co-ed college. Adjustment has to
be the alien environment, to methods of teaching, to distance felt about the

8
teachers, to requirements of self-reliance and such other situations. The cosy,
supportive, family-like atmosphere of the school is constantly missed. Girls
who are well adjusted may not find the new environment challenging, but girls
who are maladjusted feel much disturbed. Unfortunately, the- realization that
entry into school/college is likely to cause trauma is absent among parents and
the community with the result that the entire issue is ignored or side tracked.

In the present survey we have four studies belonging to this category. It

has been noticed that those girls who have a well- adjusted family setting do
not suffer any problems. But when the values and practices of family and
college are divergent, problems emerge. For instance, rural girls face more
adjustment problems than the urban girls. Another study was conducted in the
area of attitude of adjusted and maladjusted girls towards religion. concept of
equality and family planning. It is a sad commentary on the modem girls that
the findings suggest that the majority of girls were unaware of certain
problems. Very few knew about even the process of.

1.9 PROBLEMS I N C O N N E C T I O N WITH EMPLOYMENT AND

EDUCATION
The relationship between employment and education is quite complex.
Education per se cannot create employment. It has to respond to the demands
made by changes in the labour market, as the utilization of skills produced by
the education system depends on the absorptive capacity of the economy,

One of the striking features in post-independence India is the

phenomenal increase in the number of employed women among the middle
class. The rate of growth of higher education for women has been faster than
that of men, though either in absolute numbers of as a proportion of total
enrolment, women continue to lag behind. Educated woman-power has been
increasing and simultaneously there is an increase in the tertiary sector
providing opportunities for administrative jobs. Developmental activities and
welfare work have also brought a noticeable expansion of various professions.

9
 Along with these macro changes, there have been attitudinal changes,
resulting in less resistance to women going out to work. Of course, acceptance
is not without conditions. Entry into employment is determined by whether the
job has social prestige: whether it is below that of the husband; whether it
would involve mixing with men, whether it coincides with children 's needs, etc,
Further, quite a few studies have shown that employment does not mean
autonomy or authority.

As mentioned earlier, the employment of educated women does not

mean liberation from domestic responsibilities. The strains of attending to dual
role have been clearly brought out in many sociological studies, One of the
consequences of the dual burden and the priority of family responsibility has
been underscoring of achievement and promotion.

In the present survey we have only two studies on this crucial topic. One
is of job satisfaction among teachers. clerks, mechanics and 'medical personnel.
This study has also tried to compare attitudes of those girls who are in
vocational schools. In most of the factors like job satisfaction.
vocational attitudes and vocational interest they were affected by different
variables. A noteworthy finding is that school achievement was negatively
correlated with the occupational aspirations of girls in vocational courses.

The second study purports to examine the changing status of working

women in Bihar. Though currently, women have a poor employment status
there, the researcher hopes that, with the, growth of.

1.10 PROBLEMS OF SCHEDULED CASTE AND SCHEDULED

TRIBE STUDENTS
Whereas the problems of women taking education are quite formidable.
the problems faced by backward class girls are over more complex and serious.
In their case. the effects of caste, class and gender get compounded. Access to
education for them is very limited, with the result that very few girls coming
from these groups are able to reach even the college stage. There is a feeling
that reservation of seats and preferential treatment benefit S.C. students but

10
empirical reality is quite different. It has been seen in various studies that there
is minimum enrolment of S.C. girls. Further, there are hierarchies among the
scheduled caste. Elites among these groups secure advantages while the
majority number face deprivation.

In the present survey, there is only one study on the problems of S.C.
postgraduate girls. The study points out that the majority of girls in
postgraduate classes come from good educational and economic parental
background. The study reiterates the experience of discrimi- nation which the
S.C. girls undergo in terms of residence, friends, and extra-curricular activity.

1.11 PROBLEMS OF WOMEN IN THE NON-FORMAL

EDUCATION S Y S T E M
In third world countries, the role of formal education as a democratizing
agent and as a means for upward mobility has been seriously questioned. In
terms of accessibility and content, the formal system seems to favour the upper
and middle classes against the rural masses. Realizing the inadequacy of the
formal system to reach out to the vast majority of poor people, a number of
efforts are being made to reach out to the masses. Nonformal education is one
such measure. In such programmes, besides

1.12 PROBLEMS IN CONNECTION WITH INSTITUTIONAL

STRUCTURE
One of the major limitations of the education system is the defective institutional
structure. Schools and colleges are well known for their inadequacy in terms of
facilities, space, opportunities and democratic atmosphere. Though this problem is
faced, both by male teachers and female teachers, the implications are more severe
for the latter in a patriarchal social system.

As observed earlier, infrastructural constraints affect educational attainment. One

of the striking lacunae is the organization of teacher education. A curriculum
which was formed decades ago continues in many teacher education institutions.
The elaborate training has no relevance to classroom needs. For innovative
practices in a changing environment and requirements, no encouragement is
provided. Thus the gruelling training is forgotten when the teacher enters the
11
classroom. In the present survey there is one study on problems of teacher
education for women. Though there has been a steady growth of institutions for
training, the politics of school management and lack of physical facilities pose
serious hurdles for women teachers. There is an urgent need to design teacher
education from a sensitive, innovative and flexible perspective.

There are two studies covering the non-formal system. One examines
the expectations of girls studying at such centres. The study reveals that,
besides the usual subjects, special training in craft education is given to girls.
The vestige of formal education still lingers in terms of an expressed need for
examination and tests. It has also been pointed out that the classes are running
in very congested spaces and continue to suffer from lack of facilities like
electricity and water.

The other investigation is in the area of comparative study of attitudes of

adult literates and illiterates towards early marriage and family size in
Bhubaneswar. Unfortunately, the title is misleading in the sense that literates
include professionals, which is a very wide category. Consequently, the
comparison appears to be un- fair. To infer from a sample of 100 women that
education has a significant effect on attitude towards family size and marriage
age is rather hazardous.

1.12 ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND WOMEN

In the educational process, academic achievement is of paramount
significance. In present-day society, individual achievement largely leads to
status and power rather than the ascribed qualities. In the formal system of
education, academic achievement at school or in college provides possibilities
of access to power positions. The formal education system has its own
hierarchy based on' academic achievement and performance. It has been
gradually realized that, in the case of girls, academic achievement is not fully
determined by the efforts made by the educand for achievement, but value is
placed on academic achievement by the society. Though middle-class boys too
have to face pressures of various kinds while pursuing academic excellence, the

12
problems of girls are more severe. Further. even though the syndrome of
achievement does not operate heavily on girls. yet the fear that failure may
result in withdrawal from school generates an anxiety psychology in girls.

There are various correlates of achievement, like personality

socioeconomic status, backwardness and failure, affectivity and others. In the
present survey, we have three studies in the area of academic achievement of
girls. One study refers to the role of guidance and counselling on academic
achievement.

1.13 PROGRAMMES FOR PROMOTING

WOMEN'S EDUCATION
The government of India has, at various periods, declared its concern for
women's education. In the place of the lukewarm attitude of the colonial
masters, the rulers of independent India have exhibited a positive attitude to
women's education.

Besides appointing commissions and committees to look into the

problems of women's education at different time in the post- independence
period, efforts are being made to introduce special schemes for facilitating
access to education for girls. Despite all these efforts, it has been observed that
girls are very much behind the boys. In the recent formulation of a Programme
of Action as a part of the national policy on education, the policy makers have
recognized that, in the rural areas, girls are kept busy in various household
chores like looking after siblings and house care, fetching fuel. fodder and
water, or in earning a day's wage. Therefore, special support-services in terms
of child care, increased drinking water supply, midday meals and other
nutrition programmes, need to converge with the objective of universalization
of education (Programme of Action. 1986). Unless rigorous mesures to
implement these programmes are taken, the realization of universal literacy
will be a mirage.

The present survey covers three studies in this area. One attempts to
evaluate the effect of incentive schemes of S.C. and S.T. girls. The study aimes

13
to examine the effect of different incentives like free uniforms, textbooks,
boarding and lodging facilities etc. on enrolment. The findings indicate that the
incentives had a more positive effect on boys than on girls.

A second study analyses the impact of the extension education

programme on women. with special reference to family life education. The
study revealed that those who had no schooling and came from a low income
level appreciated the literacy component of the activities, while those who had
some schooling and belonged to a higher income group favoured participation
in activities of educational content. The infrastructural facilities were very poor.
The findings indicated that, for successful implementation of the programme, it
was necessary to monitor field staff, utilization of existing institutions and
build up participation of the community.

The third study is a published report of a project which aimed at testing

the efficacy of the integrated child development (ICD) programme. The
mother-child centre service gave the best results in terms of payoffs in
knowledge, positive attitude to child care and adoption of more rational
practices. The programme also helped in reducing nutritional deficiencies.

14
CHAPTER-2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 TEACHER
The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent
a worldwide view of the subject.

In education, teachers are those who teach students or from whom pupils
learn, often in a school. The objective is typically a course of study, lesson
plan, or a practical skill, including learning and thinking skills. The different
ways to teach are often referred to as the teacher's pedagogy. When deciding
what teaching method to use, a teacher will need to consider students'
background knowledge, environment, and their learning goals as well as
standardized curricula as determined by the relevant authority. The teacher
should also be able to deal with students with different abilities and should also
be able to deal with learning disabilities. Many times, teachers swill have to do
their job outside of the classroom by accompanying students on field trips.
They also supervise study halls, help with the organization of school functions,
and serve as supervisors for extracurricular activities;_

A teacher writes on a blackboard in an American college.

15
Related positions
 A teacher who is positioned to help the student in a particular subject, is
in some cultures called a "tutor".

 A teacher or trainer from whom a student learns a great deal may be

called a "mentor".

2.2 UNIVERSITY TEACHERS

Teachers in college are called instructors or lecturers. In the United
States, the term "professor" is usually applied to college or University teachers
who have received their Ph.D., while instructors or lecturers have received their
Masters degree, and usually are pursuing their Ph.D. Professorial rankings from
Assistant Professor through Full Professor that may be defined differently at
various institutions.

The rank of American university instructors depends in part on the

amount of relevant and publishable research completed over time.

An "assistant professor" is typically required to have completed

extensive research seminars at the post- graduate level and have written and
defended the dissertation. The Ph.D. is almost always required.

2.3 TEACHING AS A PROFESSION

Teachers are considered professionals on par with physicians and
lawyers because they are often required to obtain specialized education and
professional licensure.

In most cultures, teaching is referred to as a profession. Arguments for

this include the respect that is felt for teachers in some cultures, the existence
of a body of specialised professional knowledge, and codes of ethics. In
Canada some provinces such as Ontario and British Columbia operate a
'College of Teachers' established by legislation to serve and protect the public
interest through certifying, governing and enforcing the standards of practice
for the teaching profession.

16
 The College's functions include setting out clear standards of practice,
providing for the ongoing education of teachers, investigating complaints
involving members, conducting hearings into allegations of professional
misconduct and taking appropriate disciplinary action and accrediting teacher
education programs.

Teachers in publicly funded schools in these provinces must be members

in good standing with the College. Many private schools also require their
teachers to be College members.

2.4 WORLD TEACHERS’DAY

UNESCO inaugurated World Teachers' Day on 5 October 1994 to
celebrate and commemorate the signing of the Recommendation Concerning
the Status of Teachers on 5 October 1966. World Teachers'

Day also highlighted the Recommendation Concerning the Status of

Higher Education Teaching Personnel adopted in 1997. Some countries or
regions such as Taiwan also celebrate Teacher's Day as a national holiday. In
Brazil and Chile, it is celebrated on October 15, while in India it is celebrated
on the 5th of September. In Brunei, it is celebrated on September 23. In Turkey
it is celebrated on 24th November since 1928. North Cyprus also celebrates this
day. In Malaysia, it is celebrated on 16 May.

2.5 RELIGIOUS TEACHER

In Hinduism, a spiritual teacher is known as a guru. Traditionally, a
spiritual seeker would revere his or her guru highly, and demonstrate utmost
submission and humility through menial service in order to prove worthy to be
a recipient of esoteric knowledge from the guru.

The term "teacher" can also refer to any religious person who preached a
religious dogma. The figure Jesus of Nazareth was often referred to as a
teacher. This is true of other religious figures beside Christian advocates.
Buddha and Confucius both were considered learned teachers as well as
religious men. Often these teachers would have a group of followers that would

17
travel and live with their teacher and leader. The Prophet Mohammad is often
referred to as both a teacher and a warrior of the faith.

2.6 EDUCATION
Education is the application of pedagogy, a body of theoretical and
applied research relating to teaching and learning. It draws on other disciplines
such as psychology, philosophy, computer science, linguistics, neuroscience,
sociology and anthropology. It sets up a curriculum to educate people, usually
the young. Schooling can become systematic and thorough. Sometimes
education systems can be used to promote doctrines or ideals as well as
knowledge, and this can lead to abuse of the system.

Life-long or adult education have become widespread in many countries.

I lowever, education is still seen by many as something aimed at children, and
adult education is often branded as adult learning or lifelong learning.

Adult education takes on many forms, from formal class-based learning

to self-directed learning. Lending libraries provide inexpensive informal access
to hooks and other self-instructional materials. Many adults have also taken
advantage of the rise in computer ownership and internet access to further their
informal education.

 Primary education
 Secondary education

 Higher education and academia

2.7 ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION

Alternative education, also known as non-traditional education or
educational alternative, is a broad term which may be used to refer to all forms
of education outside of traditional education (for all age groups and levels of
education). This may include both forms of education designed for students
with special needs (ranging from teenage pregnancy to intellectual disability)
and forms of education designed for a general audience which employ
alternative educational philosophies and/or methods.

18
 Alternatives of the latter type are often the result of education reform
and are rooted in various philosophies that are commonly fundamentally
different from those of traditional compulsory education. While some have
strong political, scholarly, or philosophical orientations, others are more
informal associations of teachers and students dissatisfied with certain aspects
of traditional education. These alternatives, which include charter schools,
alternative schools, independent schools, and home-based learning vary widely,
but often emphasize the value of small class size, close relationships between
students and teachers, and a sense of community.

In certain places, especially in the United States, the term alternative

may largely refer to forms of education catering to "at risk" students, as it is,
for example, in this definition drafted by the Massachusetts Department of
Education. [I ] (http://www.doemass.orglalted/about.html? section–definition)

2.8 SELF-EDUCATION
Education curriculum

A kindergarten classroom in Afghanistan.

Academic disciplines
An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge which is formally
taught, either at the university, or via some other such method. Functionally,
disciplines are usually defined and recognized by the academic journals in
which research is published, and by the learned societies to which their
practitioners belong. Professors say schooling is 80% psychological, 20%
physical effort. Each discipline usually has several sub-disciplines or branches,
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and distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of
broad areas of academic disciplines include the natural sciences, mathematics,
computer science, social sciences, humanities and applied sciences.

2.9 EDUCATION PROCESS

Learning modalities
There has been a great deal of work on learning styles over the last two
decades. Dunn and Dunn focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may
influence learning and manipulating the school environment, at about the same
time as Joseph Renzulli recommended varying teaching strategies.

Howard Gardner identified individual talents or aptitudes in his Multiple

Intelligences theories. Based on the works of Jung, the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator and Keirsey's Temperament Sorter focused on understanding how
people's personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this
affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning
environment. The work of David Kolb and Anthony Gregore's Type Delineator
follows a similar but more simplified approach.

Education can be physically divided into many different learning

"modes" but the learning modalities are probably the most common

 Kinesthetic learning based on hands-on work and engaging in activities.

 Visual learning based on observation and seeing what is being teamed.

 Auditory learning based on listening to instructions/information.

Depending on their preferred learning modality, different teaching

techniques have different levels of effectiveness. Effective teaching requires a
variety of teaching methods which cover all three learning modalities. No
matter what their preference, students should have equal opportunities to learn
in a way that is effective for them.

Teaching

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 Teachers need the ability to understand a subject well enough to convey
its essence to a new generation of students. The goal is to establish a sound
knowledge base on which students will be able to build as they are exposed to
different life experiences. The passing of knowledge from generation to
generation allows students to grow into useful members of society. Good
teachers are able to translate information, good judgment, experience, and
wisdom into a significant knowledge of a subject that is understood and
retained by the student.

Parental Involvement
Parental involvement is an important element in a child's educational
development. Early and consistent parental involvement in the child's life, for
example by reading to children at an early age, teaching patterns, interpersonal
communication skills, exposing them to diverse cultures and the community
around them, and educating them about a healthy lifestyle, is critical. The
socialization and academic education of a child are aided by the involvement of
the student, parent(s), extended family, teachers, and others in the community.
Parent involvement is more than the parent being the field trip helper, or the
lunch lady.

Parents need to be asked about how their child learns best. They need to
share their career expertise with the children. Today's educators need to
remember that parents are the child's first and foremost teacher; parents, too,
are experts, and teachers should learn from them.

Academic achievement and parental involvement are strongly linked in

the research. Many schools are now beginning parental invol vement programs
in a more organized fashion. In the US this has been led in part by the No Child
Left Behind legislation from the US Department of Education.

2.10 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Inexpensive technology is an increasingly influential factor in education.
Computers and mobile phones are being widely used in developed countries to

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both complement established education practices and develop new ways of
learning such as online education (a type of distance education). This gives
students the opportunity to choose what they are interested in learning. The
proliferation of computers also means the increase of programming and
blogging. Technology offers powerful learning tools that demand new skills
and understandings of students, including Multimedia literacy, and provides
new ways to engage students, such as classroom management software.
Technology is being used more not only in administrative duties in education
but also in the instruction of students. The use of technologies such as
PowerPoint and interactive whiteboard is capturing the attention of students in
the classroom. Technology is also being used in the assessment of students.
One example is the Audience Response System (ARS), which allows
immediate feedback tests and classroom discussions.

Primary School in "open air". Teacher (priest) with class from the outskirts of
Bucharest, around 1842.

Information and communication technologies applied to education

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are a "diverse set
of tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and
manage information. These technologies include computers, the Internet,
broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony.

There is increasing interest in how computers and the Internet can

improve education at all levels, in both formal and non-formal settings.

Older ICT technologies, such as radio and television, have for over forty
years been used for open and distance learning, although print remains the

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cheapest, most accessible and therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in
both developed and developing countries. The use of computers and the

Internet is still in its infancy in developing countries, if these are used at

all, due to limited infrastructure and the attendant high costs of access.

Usually, various technologies are used in combination rather than as the

sole delivery mechanism. For example, the Kothmale Community Radio
Internet uses both radio broadcasts and computer and Internet technologies to
facilitate the sharing of information and provide educational opportunities in a
rural community in Sri Lanka. The Open University of the United Kingdom
(UKOU), established in 1969 as the first educational institution in the world
wholly dedicated to open and distance learning, still relies heavily on print-
based materials supplemented by radio, television and, in recent years, online
programming. Similarly, the Indira Gandhi National Open University in India
combines the use of print, recorded audio and video, broadcast radio and
television, and audio conferencing technologies.1131

2.11 EDUCATION THEORY

Philosophy of E d u c a t i o n
The philosophy of education is the study of the purpose, nature and ideal
content of education. Related topics include knowledge itself, the nature of the
knowing mind and the human subject, problems of authority, and the
relationship between education and society. At least since Locke's time, the
philosophy of education has been linked to theories of developmental
psychology and human development.

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Fundamental purposes that have been proposed for education include:

1. The enterprise of civil society depends on educating young people to

become responsible, thoughtful and enterprising citizens. This is an
intricate, challenging task requiring deep understanding of ethical
principles, moral values, political theory, aesthetics, and economics, not
to mention an understanding of who children are, in themselves and in
society.

2. Progress in every practical field depends on having capacities that

schooling can educate. Education is thus a means to foster the
individual's, society's, and even humanity's future development and
prosperity. Emphasis is often put on economic success in this regard

3. One's individual development and the capacity to fulfill one's own

purposes can depend on an adequate preparation in childhood. Education
can thus attempt to give a firm foundation for the achievement of
personal fulfillment. The better the foundation that is built, the more
successful the child will be. Simple basics in education can carry a child
far.

The nature, origin and scope of knowledge

A central tenet of education typically includes "the imparting of

knowledge." At a very basic level, this purpose ultimately deals with the nature,
origin and scope of knowledge. The branch of philosophy that addresses these
and related issues is known as epistemology. This area of study often focuses
on analyzing the nature and variety of knowledge and how it relates to similar
notions such as truth and belief

While the term, knowledge, is often used to convey this general purpose
of education, it can also be viewed as part of a continuum of knowing that
ranges from very specific data to the highest levels. Seen in this light, the
continuum may be thought to consist of a general hierarchy of overlapping
levels of knowing. Students must be able to connect new information to a piece
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of old information to be better able to learn, understand, and retain information.
This continuum may include notions such as data, information, knowledge,
wisdom, and realization.

2.12 PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational
settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of
teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Although the
terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used
interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as
educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related
settings are identified as school psychologists. Educational psychology is
concerned with the processes of educational attainment in the general
population and in sub-populations such as gifted children and those with
specific disabilities.

Educational psychology can in part be understood through its

relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology,
bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between
medicine and biology. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of
specialities within educational studies, including instructional design,
educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning,
special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both
draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In
universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within
faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of
educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas,
Blazek, & Raley, 2006).

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2.13 ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION
Education and economic growth
If we look at a sorted list of nations with the highest level of secondary
schooling we would notice these to be the richest countries in the world, based
on GDP per capita. High rates of education are essential for countries to
achieve high levels of economic growth. In theory poor countries should grow
faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting edge technologies
already tried and tested by rich countries. But economists argue that if the gap
in education between a rich and a poor nation is too large, as is the case
between the poorest and the richest nations in the world, the transfer of these
technologies that drive economic growth becomes difficult, thus the economies
of the world's poorest nations stagnate.

2.14 SOCIOLOGY AND POLITICS OF EDUCATION

The sociology of education is the study of how social institutions and
forces affect educational processes and outcomes, and vice versa. By many,
education is understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving
greater equality and acquiring wealth and status for all (Sargent 1994).
Learners may be motivated by aspirations for progress and betterment.
Education is perceived as a place where children can develop according to their
unique needs and potentialities (Schofield 1999). The purpose of education can
be to develop every individual to their full potential. However, according to
some sociologists, a key problem is that the educational needs of individuals
and marginalized groups may be at odds with existing social processes, such as
maintaining social stability through the reproduction of inequality. The
understanding of the goals d means of educational socialization processes
differs according to the sociological paradigm used.

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