4X4 DRIVERS

HANDBOOK
2
 INTRODUCTION ...................................... 4

CONTENTS
VEHICLE DYNAMICS ............................... 6

4X4 DRIVING SYSTEMS........................... 8

TYRES..................................................... 16

CARING FOR YOUR TYRES.................... 25

OFF-ROAD DRIVING SKILLS................. 35

VEHICLE RECOVERY TRAINING............ 50

3
 A QUICK INTRODUCTION
We’re the adventurers, the explorers
and the go-getters. We’re the ones
that like to get amongst it. To get
down and dirty. If you’re not content
to let life simply pass you by, then
welcome to the ultimate "know your
4x4 guide". Life is a veritable feast of
adventure, and when your 4x4 calls,
you’ll be ready.
This guide has been created by the
highly knowledgeable team of
Travis Duggan and Tyrelife Solutions
disrtibutors of Cooper tyres in
Southern Africa. As you begin to
journey through these pages, you will
discover knowledge at your fingertips
that will see you become a confident
and competent 4x4 driver.
We offer insight into both on- and
off-road 4x4 driving, ensuring you
get maximum enjoyment out of your
vehicle.
Special emphasis has been placed
on the safety of both the driver and
passengers, and remaining ever
mindful of our impact on nature and
the environment (we might be tough,
but our hearts are kind).

4
 Travis Duggan is a car enthusiast who believes

THE WRITER
he was born with a thirst for driving – it’s just
always been part of his being.
There was never a question that this passion
would lead him to the motor industry where
he became a 4x4 Instructor and spent many
years as an Advanced Driving Instructor before
opening his own business in 2010.
Travis is a Level 5 NQF (National Qualification
Framework) rated Assessor, where he examines
to see to what extent an individual has
mastered this field of learning. And through
his successful business lives his dream daily,
of imparting driving knowledge on to other
enthusiasts.

The Cooper brand is a legendary one, having

COOPER TYRES
produced tyres that are tough, tenacious and
intelligent for over a century.
Cooper invests heavily in research and
development and products undergo vigorous
testing at the 1000 acre Tire & Vehicle Test
Center located in Texas. There are facilities for
testing dry and wet handling and a purpose-
built off-road 4x4 course to ensure that Cooper
tyres are put through their paces.
Cooper 4x4 tyres are built to thrive in the
toughest of African conditions, and thanks
to constant innovation, deliver a blend of
endurance and handling to tackle any terrain.
Cooper tyres are, quite simply, the perfect
4x4 companion.
Cooper boasts a comprehensive range of
passenger and SUV tyres that are engineered
to deliver a world-class combination of high
performance, optimum ride comfort and
superior handling.
For more information on the comprehensive
Cooper range visit www.coopertires.co.za

5
 The world would be a very boring place if everything was the same

VEHICLE DYNAMICS (and especially if we didn’t 4x4). It’s our uniqueness and quirks that
make us fascinating. And, thankfully, the same applies to our 4x4’s.
So let’s explore the differences, similarities and implications…

VEHICLE DYNAMICS
Getting to know your vehicle is the first step towards being a safe and
successful off-road driver. There are various natural attributes of your vehicle
which determine the severity of the obstacles you can drive. These include
the approach, departure and ramp over angles, the ground clearance and the
suspension travel. Good suspension travel allows all four wheels to remain in
contact with the ground for as long as possible. This increases traction and will
allow you to progress further before getting stuck.

GROUND CLEARANCE AND ANGLES

Decent ground clearance is vital if you want to make progress without
dragging the body of your car over the ground. Ground clearance is
usually determined by measuring from the ground to the lowest point
on the vehicle.

les you can drive. These include

avel allows all 4-wheels to remain 20˚ 25˚ 30˚ 700 mm

Departure Ramp-over angle Approach
angle angle

45 O 44 O 640mm

NOTE: Angles will vary on different 4X4 vehicles

These angles dictate the severity of the slopes your vehicle can attempt without
causing damage. The ‘approach’ or ‘attack’ angle is the angle formed if you draw
an imaginary line from the lowest part on the front bumper to the bottom of
the tyre. This dictates the degree of slope which can be approached without
‘attack’ angle is the angle formed
contact with the ground. The ‘ramp’ or ‘ramp-over angle’ determines the size of a
ramp-like obstacle which can be tackled and is affected by the wheelbase of the
nd. The ‘ramp’ or ‘ramp over angle’ vehicle. Shorter wheelbase vehicles have better ramp-over angles. The longer
the wheelbase, the less the ramp-over angle. Your wheelbase is the measured
heelbase, the less the ramp over distance from the centre of your front wheel to the centre of your rear wheel.
The departure angle is the angle at the rear of the car.
6
TRANSFER CASE

VEHICLE DYNAMICS
The transfer case is an additional gearbox that is able to transfer the power that
it receives from the vehicle’s main gearbox to either just the rear axle or both the
front and rear axle simultaneously.
Depending on the type of vehicle, the transfer case may be either a single-speed
high-ratio gearbox or a two-speed high- and low-ratio gearbox.
2H (2-wheel drive high ratio) sends 100% of the power to the rear wheels in a
rear-wheel drive vehicle, or 100% of the power in a front-wheel drive vehicle.
4H (4-wheel drive high ratio) splits the power 50% to the rear axle and 50% to
the front axle. In 4H the vehicle feels almost the same as it does in 2H because
the gear ratio is the same (high ratio).
4L (4-wheel drive low ratio) splits the power 50% to the rear axle and 50% to the
front axle but because of the lower ratio on the gear it allows the engine to have
about three times more power at one third of the speed (a lot more power while
travelling at a much lower speed).

FREEWHEEL HUBS
There are many differences between permanent and part-time 4-wheel drive
vehicles. Part-time 4-wheel drive systems are fitted with front freewheel hubs
which allow the driver to disengage the front wheels from the front prop shaft
whilst the 4-wheel drive system is not being used.
Most of the modern 4-wheel drive systems use an automatic system to lock and
unlock when required. The older vehicles have lockers on both front wheels at
the hubs – they have a switch with an arrow which should be at ‘FREE’ in 2-wheel
drive high ratio, or at ‘LOCK’ in 4-wheel drive high or low ratio.
Some vehicles have two settings on the front wheel hubs which require the
vehicle’s wheel spanner to change the setting. You will find ‘AUTO’ and ‘LOCK’.
The vehicles must be permanently in the ‘AUTO’ setting for on-road driving. If
the vehicle is in the ‘AUTO’ setting, the vehicle will automatically lock and unlock
the hubs when required from the driver changing between 2H, 4H or 4L. The
only time the driver should select the ‘LOCK’ function on the hubs is in EXTREME
TERRAIN when you want to manually override the ‘AUTO’ locking system. If you
do this, the driver must change the setting on the hubs back with the wheel
spanner when wanting to return to 2-wheel drive high ratio.
It is recommended that you travel a short distance on a gravel or a dirt road in
both 4-wheel drive high and low ratio at least once a month.

7
 AXLES

4X4 DRIVING SYSTEMS There are basically two types of axles used in 4x4’s – solid (live) axles or floating
axles (independent suspension). The make-up of these differs between vehicles.
Some have two solid axles, others have one of each and the rest have floating
axles. Those vehicles that have one of each type will have a solid (live) axle on
the rear and floating (independent suspension) up front.

PART-TIME 4-WHEEL DRIVE SYSTEMS

These systems mean the vehicle can be driven in 2-wheel drive or

4-wheel drive. The vehicles are equipped with a 2-speed transfer case,
with high- and low-gear ratios, which the driver can choose to select
depending on the terrain. Part-time 4-wheel drive systems operate as
follows:

2H (2-WHEEL DRIVE HIGH RATIO)

Here the vehicle is in 2-wheel drive with 100% of the engine’s power being
transmitted to the rear wheels. 2-wheel drive high ratio is to be used on any hard
surface (paved, tar or concrete). In 2-wheel drive high ratio the hubs on the front
wheels are disengaged automatically for automatic locking hubs or in the ‘FREE’
position for manual locking hubs.

4H (4-WHEEL DRIVE HIGH RATIO)

Before selecting 4-wheel drive high ratio, you must ‘lock’ your hubs. Manual
locking hubs need to be locked outside on the front wheels. Most modern 4x4
vehicles are fitted with automatic locking hubs which lock automatically when
you select 4-wheel drive high ratio. 4H is to be used on gravel or dirt roads where
there is slip available. If you are travelling and drive onto a gravel or dirt road,
you should stop and select 4H.
It is recommended to pull the vehicle over to the side, stop with your hazard
lights on, select 4H, turn hazard lights off, indicate to go back onto the road
and continue when safe (doing it this way means less wear and tear on moving
parts). If it is a dangerous road, or there is a risk of being hijacked, you can select
4H travelling at under 60km/h in a straight line (the slower the better). You need
simply to make sure you are travelling in a straight line, take your foot off the
accelerator, select 4H and then continue to accelerate (you do not need to use
the clutch for this operation while moving or stationary).
8
When you select 4-wheel drive high range, the transfer case now splits the

4X4 DRIVING SYSTEMS

power 50% to the rear wheels and 50% to the front wheels at the same time.
This gives the vehicle maximum traction. A lot of people make the mistake of
believing they can drive faster on a gravel or dirt road because they are in 4H.
This is not the case! You should travel at the same speed as you would in a 4x2
vehicle. All 4H does is to prevent the vehicle from under and over steering, as
there is power on all 4 wheels. You will notice in 4H that the vehicle will not turn
as well as it did in 2H.
In 4H you can make use of all the vehicles gears 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th (6th if
it has) and reverse. We recommend you drive according to the conditions and
be cautious on gravel or dirt roads. A maximum of 80km/h is recommended on
gravel roads, depending on the surface. For very hard-packed, firm gravel or dirt
roads where there is no safe stopping space available rather stay in 2-wheel drive
high range and proceed cautiously.
NOTE: The 4-wheel drive high ratio indicator light might not turn on, on the
dashboard straight away. Drive 10 - 20 metres and as soon as the automatic
hubs, transfer case or centre differential lock up, connect or engage, the
indicator light will come on. The same goes for disengaging.
Generally there is a neutral between 4-wheel drive high ratio and 4-wheel drive
low ratio. If you select neutral, the vehicle will not send any power to the axles.
It won’t matter which gear you select, the vehicle will not drive until you put the
transfer case back into a ratio, 2H, 4H or 4L.

4L (4-WHEEL DRIVE LOW RATIO)

Before you select 4-wheel drive low ratio, you must ‘lock’ your hubs. Manual-
locking hubs need to be locked outside on the front wheels. Most modern 4x4
vehicles are fitted with automatic-locking hubs that lock automatically when
you select 4-wheel drive low ratio. You must also be STOPPED / STATIONARY
and the main gearbox must be in NEUTRAL. This is especially so in the case of an
automatic gearbox, but is also good practice with a manual gearbox.
When you select 4L the vehicle splits the power 50% to the rear axle and 50% to
the front axle but because of the lower ratio on the gear it allows the engine to
have about three times more power at one third of the speed (a lot more power
while travelling at a much lower speed).
Most of the modern vehicles will turn off the on-road traction control in 4L but
have a specifically-mapped traction control still activated in 4L for off-road use.
4-wheel drive low range is to be selected when travelling off-road just before
negotiating steep inclines, declines, rocky terrain, water, sand and anywhere
where maximum traction and vehicle control is required in off-road conditions.
In 4L we suggest you use 1st, 2nd, 3rd and reverse gears. It will not cause
damage to use 4th, 5th and 6th gears, but it is best to go back to high ratio if
you start travelling in 4th gear or above, as it’s a bit too fast for low ratio. In an
automatic you can be in Drive (D) for most obstacles but it is good practice to
switch to tiptronic 1st gear, or lock it into 1st (depending on the auto gear box)
when negotiating steep descents. This will help with engine braking and save
brake pads. It is recommended that you drive according to the conditions and be
cautious. A maximum 40km/h is best, depending on the surface.
9
 NOTE: The 4-wheel drive low ratio and traction control indicator lights might

4X4 DRIVING SYSTEMS

not turn on in the indicator light display on the dashboard. Drive for 10 - 20
metres, and as soon as the automatic hubs, transfer case or centre differential
lock connect or engage, the indicator lights will come on. The same goes
for disengaging 4L for 2H. The 4L indicator lights may stay on after you have
selected 2H, so simply drive 10 - 20 metres, it will disconnect, and the light will
turn off. If the lights stay on, do not drive on the hard surface. It must be off, as
you may wind up or break the 4-wheel drive system.

FULL-TIME 4-WHEEL DRIVE

The main difference between a full-time and part-time 4x4 system is the
part-time system has a transfer case whereas the full-time system has a 3rd
differential which is positioned midway between the front and rear axles.
This is referred to as the ‘CENTRE DIFFERENTIAL’.
The centre differential is not normally visible like the front and rear differentials.
The centre differential system allows the vehicle to drive off the two rear wheels
to save fuel. If there is any chance of the vehicle understeering or oversteering
(skidding), the vehicle’s Engine Control Unit (ECU) picks up the slip on any wheel
and it will automatically transfer the correct power to the correct wheels (front
and rear) to keep going as per the steering input.
This can be 1% right up to 50% power depending on the conditions because of
the viscous-type coupling in the centre differential, and the electro-magnetic
control coupling located ahead of the rear differential. This makes the vehicle
what we call an ‘ALL-WHEEL DRIVE’.
The vehicle benefits from improved road handling while driving in 4H with
the centre differential open (not locked). When going off-road, and depending
on the terrain, the centre differential needs to be ‘LOCKED’. Locking the centre
differential can be done in a number of ways (depending on the vehicle), via a
small gear lever, switch or a button.

CENTRE DIFFERENTIAL LOCK

The reason a full-time 4-wheel drive has a centre
differential is to allow for a speed variation between
the front and rear axles to take place. This is vital when
driving on paved surfaces during every day driving.
When a vehicle corners, the front and rear axles are
forced to travel at different speeds to each other which also means that the
wheels on the rear axle will travel a shorter distance than those on the front
axle. The centre differential does this by allowing the amount of power coming
10
through the centre differential to vary between the front and rear axles whilst

4X4 DRIVING SYSTEMS

cornering. The centre differential should only be locked on gravel road where
there is slip available or when off-road. When you lock the centre differential the
available power is distributed evenly to both axles in a 50:50 split.

HIGH RATIO FOR CENTRE DIFFERENTIAL LOCK VEHICLES

In a vehicle that has a centre differential you can stay in the vehicle’s normal
on-road setting with the centre differential open for most gravel-road travelling,
relying on the vehicle’s computer to send the correct power to each wheel.
However, if there is a lot of slip available and you feel the car moving around,
rather lock the centre differential. This is done by simply pushing a button,
turning a switch or on a lever, depending on your specific vehicle. Vehicle
depending, you will see a light with an 'X' between the front and rear axle turn
on in the driver’s dashboard warning light cluster.
For most vehicles you can engage High Range Lock at speeds under 60km/h
when traveling in a straight line. However, unless it is in a busy area where
you could be hijacked, stopping to engage is best as there is less strain put on
moving parts during the engagement (less wear and tear). When you engage
or disengage, the vehicle can be in gear and you do not need to use the clutch.
If you do engage the High Range Lock while moving, take your foot off the
accelerator when you slide the lever forward or push the button, depending on
your vehicle.
To shift back to High Range with the centre differential open for on-road driving,
follow the same measures. Either stationary or on the move, take your foot off
the accelerator and either push the button, slide the lever or turn the switch
(vehicle depending). Please make sure the light with the X in between the front
and rear axle is off on your driver’s dashboard warning-light cluster before you
drive on the tar surface.
NOTE: If you forget about the centre differential being locked and you continue
on-road with it locked, wind up will start to occur. This is the tension build
up between the front and rear axle due to a lack of slip on a specific surface.
Winding could lead to damage or a broken centre differential. Make sure you
disengage 30 metres before the on-road surface. The light may not turn off
straight away, so simply drive 10 - 20 metres and the light should turn off. If it
doesn’t turn off, reverse back turning left and right. If it still has not switched off,
repeat the disengaging procedure until it does.

LOW RATIO FOR CENTRE DIFFERENTIAL LOCK VEHICLES

When shifting from 4-wheel drive high ratio to 4-wheel drive low ratio you must
be completely stationary and the vehicle must be in neutral on your main gear
box. Being in neutral is imperative for automatic gear boxes and while it is not
mandatory for manual gear boxes, it is better practice and allows for a smoother
engagement. If your vehicle is a manual and you are in neutral you do not need
to depress the clutch when shifting the lever to LL or switch to 4L. The same
applies for shifting back from low ratio to high ratio.
When driving in low ratio you will notice the traction control light appear on the
dashboard as the vehicle does not want the on-road traction control to kill the

1111
 power when a wheel starts to spin. Most of the modern vehicles will turn off the

4X4 DRIVING SYSTEMS

on-road traction control in 4L but have a specifically-mapped traction control
still activated in 4L for off-road use. 4-wheel drive low range is to be selected
when travelling off-road just before negotiating steep inclines, declines, rocky
terrain, water, sand and anywhere where maximum traction and vehicle control
is required in off-road conditions.
In 4L it is best you use 1st, 2nd, 3rd and reverse gears. Using 4th, 5th 6th gears
will not damage the vehicle, but it is preferable to go back to high ratio if you
start travelling in 4th gear and above, as it is a bit too fast for low ratio. In an
automatic you can be in Drive (D) for most obstacles, but it is good practice to
switch to tiptronic 1st gear or lock it into 1st (depending on the auto gear box)
when negotiating steep descents. This will help with engine braking and save
brake pads. It is recommended you drive according to the conditions and be
cautious, and a maximum of 40km/h is suggested depending on the surface.
NOTE: The 4-wheel drive low ratio and traction control indicator lights might not
appear on the dashboard straight away. Drive for 10 - 20 metres and as soon as
the automatic hubs, transfer case or centre differential lock connect or engage,
the indicator lights will come on. The same goes for disengaging 4L for 2H. The
4L indicator lights may stay on after you have selected 2H. Simply drive 10 - 20
metres – it will disconnect, and the light will turn off. If the lights stay on, do not
drive on the hard surface. It must be off, or you will either wind up or break the
4-wheel drive system.

ALL-WHEEL DRIVE (AWD)

Not all full-time 4x4’s have both High Ratio and Low Ratio, and these are known
as AWD (All-Wheel Drive).
The vehicle will send drive to the wheels to reduce fuel consumption for
everyday driving. When the vehicle's Engine Control Unit (ECU) picks up slip on
any wheel it will automatically transfer a percentage of power to the correct
wheels (front and rear) to keep you going as per your steering input.
When you lock the vehicle by pressing the AWD Lock button, most AWD vehicle’s
go into a 50:50 ratio at speeds below 40km/h. If you are traveling in AWD Lock
and you travel faster than 40km/h, the system will automatically click out of AWD
Lock and revert back to its on-road setting.

REAR DIFFERENTIAL LOCK

The rear differential lock should be used in cross axle situations (where one front
wheel and the opposite side rear wheel loses traction at
the same time), or at any time you feel there is a chance
of losing traction. This lock should only be engaged when
required or if you are unsure of an obstacle. Immediately
after the obstacle or as soon as you do not require the
lock, stop and turn it off immediately. Do not drive for long
periods with it on, as this will cause rear diff wind up which
will damage or break the rear differential. When turning
on the rear differential lock, it ensures that 50% power is
being sent to the rear differential. The differential lock when

12
locked splits that power and sends 25% power to each back wheel. To engage

4X4 DRIVING SYSTEMS

the rear differential lock you must be stationary and in 4-wheel drive low ratio.
It is a safety feature that the rear differential lock will only engage when the
vehicle is in low ratio. If you try to turn on the rear differential lock in 2H or 4H
the light that appears 'on' in the driver’s dashboard warning-light cluster with
the X on the actual rear axle will start to flash but it will not engage for most
vehicles.
If you are in low ratio, press the button with the X on the rear axle or turn
the switch (vehicle depending) to engage the rear differential lock. A light will
appear 'on' in the driver’s dashboard warning-light cluster with the X on the
actual rear axle, and the orange ABS light will also appear. Sometimes the rear
differential lock light will still flash which means it is trying to engage. Carry
on driving and as soon as the vehicle needs the rear differential lock, it will
engage and the light will remain fixed on the dashboard warning-light cluster.
Sometimes it will connect straight away and the red light will indicate this by
not flashing.
When you turn off the differential lock, the vehicle must be stationary. Push the
button once or turn the switch back to ‘Off’ (vehicle dependent). The light on the
dashboard warning-light cluster will generally stay on. Do not get confused and
keep pushing the rear differential lock button. If you have pushed it once, pull
off and drive, turn hard left then turn hard right (or vice versa). This will usually
cause it to disengage. It may take up to 20 metres for the differential lock to
disengage and the light to turn off. If it does not turn off or if the track is narrow
and you can’t turn left or right, then stop and reverse back or try changing gears
from 1st to 2nd if the track allows you to. As soon as the load is off the rear
axle, it will disengage. There may or may not be a click, but as long as the rear
differential lock warning-light and the orange ABS light switches off, you can
continue with your journey.
You must travel under 20km/h when your differential lock is engaged and you
should get lined up with the obstacle first before engaging it. Drive as straight
as possible when it is engaged to prevent rear differential wind up. If you need
to turn sharply the vehicle will still turn but the inside wheel travelling a shorter
distance, will scrub to keep up with the outside wheel that is covering a greater
distance while turning. This causes rear differential wind up and is why it should
only be used for short periods of time. Never forget about the differential lock
being engaged. When driving off-road in 4-wheel drive low ratio, keep looking
at your dashboard warning-light cluster to make sure you only have the correct
systems on for the terrain.
Some vehicles have both a rear and front differential lock.
You will only use both the front and rear differential locks in
extremely severe terrain. For the majority of the time the rear
differential lock should suffice.
If you do engage both, you will see three warning lights
appear − the normal X on the rear axle and next to that another warning light
with an X on the front axle, and the orange ABS light will appear. With both
engaged, the vehicle's turning ability will be reduced. To engage and disengage,
use the same procedure as above.

1313
 OFF-ROAD TRACTION CONTROL

4X4 DRIVING SYSTEMS Just hold on tight and we’ll show you how to do the same on your next 4x4
expedition. And remember your tyres are the contact between you and the
toughest of terrains, so choose wisely. Choose Cooper tyres, we know you’ll
feel an instant at(traction).
Traction control regulates the grip at each wheel while negotiating uneven or
slippery terrain. Traction control operates on each axle and independently of
each other. Speed sensors that are on all four wheels, pick up that one wheel on
an axle is spinning faster than the other wheel on the same axle. The system will
then brake the wheel that is spinning faster, thereby transferring the power to
the other wheel, which then brings it up to speed. All this happens in around
16 milliseconds.
If you are driving a vehicle with traction control and you feel a loss of forward
momentum, just accelerate slightly and turn the steering wheel a quarter turn
from side to side. This will speed up the thinking of the traction control and give
you much better traction.
A vehicle that has traction control may also have a rear differential lock, but
when the differential lock is engaged this will override the traction control
system. They cannot work together as the traction control works through the
ABS system controlling the brake-fluid pressure to the slipping wheels. When
you engage the rear differential lock this turns off the ABS system and so the
traction control switches off until the differential lock is disengaged and the ABS
system turns back on, thus turning your traction control back on.
When using the traction control system you may hear a noise coming from the
brakes when the traction control system kicks in. This is normal and is not a fault
or problem with the vehicle.

CRAWL CONTROL
Crawl Control is a system to further enhance the capabilities of 4-wheel drive
vehicles in off-road driving. Only a very select few vehicles have this new
technology. It was designed for low speed extreme off-road conditions.
Crawl Control reduces your input in off-road driving by controlling the
accelerator and the brakes for the driver as the vehicle moves through the rough
terrain. All the driver needs to do is steer.
Crawl Control works by operating the power and the braking of each wheel
individually when the system is switched on. This allows the driver to
concentrate on steering alone, as the foot can be removed from the accelerator
and brake pedal.

14
Crawl Control uses information from a variety of sensors and sends it to an

4X4 DRIVING SYSTEMS

Electronic Control Unit which sends commands to the various components
required to carry out its functions. These sensors include the wheelspeed sensor
and other sensors used for stability control. Stability control components can be
used as it is somewhat similar to Crawl Control. Both systems control power and
braking to each wheel individually but for a different reason. The information
from all these sensors is used together to determine the amount of power to
give to any or all of the wheels and to apply brakes to any wheel that needs it
while the system is on.
To switch the system on, the vehicle must be stationary in 4-wheel drive low
ratio with your foot pressing on the brake pedal and the transmission must be
in drive (D) or reverse (R). Switch the Crawl Control selector on and select one
of five speeds (3km/h, 4km/h, 5km/h, 6km/h or 7km/h) on the dial. Set higher
speeds for driving uphill and lower speeds for steep down hills or severe terrain.
Remove your foot from the brake pedal and the vehicle will move.
Remember that when you activate Crawl and select 3km/h, most cars idle faster
than 3km/h, so the vehicle will jerk and the brakes will make a big noise. This is
normal. Continue until you can increase the speed. This can be done by turning
the switch to the desired speed while the vehicle is moving.
Crawl Control can be operated consistently for up to 12 minutes and the
accelerator or brake pedal can be used to override the system and control the
vehicle normally during the 12 minutes. To deactivate Crawl, stop the vehicle
and press the Crawl button. It will now be deactivated and you can continue
driving normally.

A-TRAC (VEHICLE DEPENDING)

A-TRAC is Active Traction Control system. It
automatically helps prevent the spinning of
four wheels when the vehicle is started or
accelerated on slippery off-road surfaces.
Basically it is the same as traction control,
but it is faster working. To activate, press the
A-TRAC switch − you need to be in 4-wheel
drive low range. Push the A-TRAC switch
either while stationary or while driving to
activate and deactivate A-TRAC.

MULTI-TERRAIN SELECT (VEHICLE DEPENDING)

Multi Terrain is found on your high-end luxury 4x4 vehicles. Multi Terrain
remaps the power transmitted to the wheels. It adjusts the braking ability and
accelerator control to make sure you get the best performance when driving
over difficult surfaces.
So, when rough terrain is encountered, turn the Multi Terrain selector switch
on, and then rotate the switch to select the desired driving setup. You can only
select Multi Terrain if you are not using the vehicle's Crawl Control. If you activate
Crawl the Multi-Terrain system will switch off until you deactivate Crawl Control.

1515
 TYRES
MODE ROAD CONDITIONS
Suitable for muddy roads, sandy roads, snow-covered
1 MUD & SAND roads, dirt trails and other slippery or dirty conditions.
Suitable for slippery conditions consisting of mixtures
2 LOOSE ROCK
of earth and loose rock.
3 MOGUL Suitable for very bumpy road conditions, such as mogul
roads.
4 ROCK & DIRT Suitable for very bumpy road conditions, such as mogul
or rocky roads.
5 ROCK Suitable for rocky terrain.

SPORT MODE
When you activate the vehicle’s Sport mode this puts the vehicle’s Engine Control
Unit on high alert and it sends more data to the ECU from sensors monitoring
the vehicle’s speed, steering angle, throttle input, yaw-rate and speed sensors on
all four wheels. This ECU then uses this information to determine the proportion
of torque to send to each wheel. In Sport mode it locks the vehicle into a 90:10
split for optimal cornering ability, with a slight increase in fuel consumption.

SELECTING YOUR TYRES

Selecting your tyres is probably the single most important decision
you’ll make when embarking on 4x4 adventures, or just day-to-day
driving for that matter. Tyres are after all, the point of contact between
you and whichever terrain you wish to tame.

TYRE SIZE
Firstly, establish your vehicle's tyre size. You can find this on the wall of your tyre
and in your vehicle's handbook. It looks like this:
Aspect ratio Tyre construction Load rating

265/65 R17 112T

Section width Rim diameter Speed rating

TYRE TERMINOLOGY
SECTION WIDTH
Cross-section width of tyre, in mm.
ASPECT RATIO
The height of the sidewall (from crowd to bead) expressed as a percentage
of the tyre width. A lower aspect ratio (low profile) tyre provides increased
stability and handling, especially at high speeds.
TYRE CONSTRUCTION
Indicates how the tyre was made e.g. R - radial ply.

16
RIM DIAMETER

TYRES
Diameter of inner tyre edge, in inches. Corresponds to wheel rim size.
LOAD INDEX
Indicates maximum load a tyre can carry at its highest speed.
SPEED RATING
Maximum speed the tyre can safely be driven.

Overall width
Section width
Tread width

Section
height /
or
aspect
ratio

Overall
Nominal tyre
rim diameter
diameter Rim
width

Static
loaded
radius

CONVERTING TYRE SIZES

To determine the sizes that will fit when converting your tyre size you require
the diameter of the original fitment size. The diameter is important as the
speedo, traction control, gear settings and torque are based on the distance
the tyre travels in full revolution. Therefore the diameter needs to remain as
close as possible to the original size and for 4x4 tyres we would not recommend
an overall diameter variance greater than 3%.
Whilst there is a complicated mathematical formula we suggest you go to the
Cooper tyre calculator http://www.coopertyres.co.za/Calculator/OD or download
the app “Cooper Tyres South Africa” on your phone.

RIM / TYRE COMPATABILITY

Fitting incompatible rims and tyres can have a negative impact on the
performance of your vehicle and will result in tyre, rim and possibly vehicle
damage.
1717
 LOAD INDEX AND SPEED RATING
TYRES Using a 265/65R17 112T tyre size as an example, the 112T at the end of the
size represents the tyre’s service description.
A service description identifies the tyre’s load index and speed rating. The
first three digits − 112 − represent the tyre’s load index and are followed by
a single letter − T− identifying the tyre’s speed rating.

LOAD INDEX
LT265/65R17 112T − The Load Index − 112 − is the tyre’s assigned numerical
value used to compare relative load-carrying capabilities. In the case of this
example the 112 identifies the tyre’s ability to carry a maximum of 1 120kg. The
higher the tyre’s Load Index number, the greater its load-carrying capacity.

The Load Index rating also represents the load-carrying capacity of the tyres
when they are inflated to maximum bar so the load-carrying capacity reduces as
tyre pressures are reduced.

LOAD INDEX KG LOAD INDEX KG LOAD INDEX KG

90 6000 102 850 114 1180
91 615 103 875 115 1215
92 630 104 900 116 1250
93 650 105 925 117 1285
94 670 106 950 118 1320
95 690 107 975 119 1360
96 710 108 1000 120 1400
97 730 109 1030 121 1450
98 750 110 1060 122 1500
99 775 111 1090 123 1550
100 800 112 1120 124 1600
101 825 113 1150 125 1650

SPEED RATING
Speed ratings are based on laboratory tests where the tyre is pressed against
a large diameter metal drum to reflect its appropriate load, and run at ever-
increasing speeds until the tyre’s required speed has been consistently
exceeded.
It is important to note that speed ratings only apply to tyres that have not been
damaged, altered, under-inflated or overloaded. A tyre that has been cut or
punctured no longer retains the original speed rating, even after being repaired.
Disclaimer: While a speed symbol is an indication of the speed capability
of the tyre, we do not endorse the operation of any vehicle in excess of legal
speed limits.

18
 TYRES
SPEED CATEGORY SPEED SPEED CATEGORY SPEED SPEED CATEGORY SPEED
SYMBOL KM/H SYMBOL KM/H SYMBOL KM/H
J 100 R 170 Y 300
K 110 S 180 Z Over 240
L 120 T 190
M 130 U 200
N 140 H 210
P 150 V 240
Q 160 W 270

LOAD CAPACITY
It is not the tyre that carries the load, but the air inside it. The tyre contains
the air. To carry more load you require more air. The best way to increase load
capacity is to use a bigger tyre or a tyre that can run at a higher-inflation
pressure. The tyre needs to be strong enough to handle the higher capacity.
The traditional ways to define this are Ply Rating and Load Range. The load range
/ ply rating is branded on a tyre’s sidewall and identifies how much load the tyre
is designed to carry at its industry-specified pressure.

What is “Ply Rating?”

In the days of bias tyres, casing strength was built up by adding layer upon layer
of cotton fabric. The layers were placed with the thread in each layer at an angle
to each other. This added strength because the tensions would be distributed
throughout the layers of fabric. The Ply Rating used to refer to the number of
layers of cotton.
Cotton was discontinued in tyres a long time ago. One of the major
improvements was making plies out of nylon. Nylon is so much stronger that
tyres were stamped with the words, “2 Ply/4 Ply Rating.” That meant there were
only two nylon plies, but they were so strong the tyre was equivalent to one
made of four cotton plies.
Ply materials continued to improve, especially with the introduction of steel-
ply materials and radial construction, making the old Ply Number less and less
meaningful. This resulted in the newer designation we use today, called “Load
Range.”

What is “Load Range?”

It’s no longer the number of plies. What is different today is the strength of the
steel cables in those plies or the number of cables per inch. Tyre manufacturers
are now at the point where instead of adding more plies, the strength of the
casing is adjusted to achieve the desired load capacity.
The Load Range is depicted on the tyre by an alphabetical symbol which
equates tyre thickness to a comparable ply rating.
Load Range = Ply Rating
C 6
D 8
E 10

1919
 TYRE APPLICATION

TYRES When choosing your 4x4 tyre it is best to consider the kind of application which
you use it for. This is based on where you do most of your travel.
BOTH ON- AND OFF-ROAD: Tyre patterns known as all-terrain. Used for travel
on both off-road and highway.
MULTI-TERRAIN AND OFF-ROAD: For travel on rough terrains. Suitable for
commercial operations / work-horse bakkies, 4x4 weekend off-roaders and
heavily-laden vehicles.
Remember if you have a 4x4 requirement a tyre bearing the letters LT (Light
Truck) is essential. The LT tyres have more rubber in the carcass and tread area, a
compound with enhanced cut and chip resistance and thicker rated gauge plies
(reinforced). A heavier tyre designed for harsh conditions.

20
COOPER TYRE RANGE

TYRES
Cooper Tire & Rubber Company, the manufacturers of Cooper-branded tyres,
is a leading aftermarket 4x4 tyre manufacturer, producing a comprehensive
range of 4x4 tyres. They are built to last through modern tread designs with
deep treads and have strong casings using the invention of Armor-Tek3
case construction on certain tyres. Cooper Tire & Rubber Company achieves
high standards through designing, testing and manufacturing their own
comprehensive range of tyres. This includes Passenger, SUV and 4x4 tyres.
Visit www.coopertires.co.za for full tyre range details.
Cooper Tire & Rubber Company is a world leader in the research and
development of modern tyre technology. The Cooper-owned Tall Timbers mould
facility is one of the most modern and unique plants in the USA. This facility and
the flexibility it brings means Cooper now produces the largest range of patterns
and sizes in 4x4 tyres of any tyre manufacturer.
Their 4x4 test facility in Texas consists of a mud traction area and concrete hill-
climb slopes, a silt traction area, a rough, rock-crawl strip, reminiscent of a rock-
filled gorge, and a V-Ditch, which tests and exposes tyres to extreme sidewall
wear and tear.

COOPER TYRES HAVE DEEPER TREADS

Cooper tyres have up to 30% more overall tread than most
original equipment brands and up to 45% deeper in the
shoulder grooves compared to most original equipment
brands. This is possible because of wider and stronger steel
belts under the tread. That can mean more grip, more miles
and more resistance to damage.

Cooper’s proven Armor-Tek3 construction

adds strength to the sidewall and tread
areas. The unique angled ply construction
absorbs and effectively dissipates tyre
impact that can damage a tyre in harsh
off-road conditions.

al
orm Pl
y
N

2121
 COOPER TYRES STAND UP STRAIGHTER

TYRES Cooper tyres stand up straighter which assists in the deflection of small objects
like stones. This results in more grip in adverse conditions.
Most non-American brands of 4x4 tyres have a rounder or belly shape in the
sidewalls. The disadvantage of this is that they are more easily damaged in off-
road conditions.

COOPER TYRES SOME OTHER BRANDS

265mm 265mm

Less Round Belly Rounder Belly

Straighter sidewall Belly-shaped sidewall

COOPER TYRES ARE AFTERMARKET INNOVATORS

Cooper extensively tests products not only in the laboratory but in real-world
situations. This is important because you know the tyre is tested and proven
before you even invest in a set of Cooper tyres for your vehicle.

COOPER HAVE THE HIGHEST QUALITY CARCASS COMPONENTS

Cooper’s long-term commitment to manufacturing premium-quality tyres means
only the highest-quality components are included in the manufacture. Cooper
only uses high-quality components such as:
– Super-Tensile Steel Belts − 15% stronger than regular steel belts, Cooper’s
Super-Tensile Steel Belts reduce the tyre’s overall weight and gives the tyre a
more uniform shape
– Thicker and Stronger Sidewall Cords − the use of high-tensile polyester cords
increases the strength of light truck construction sidewall cords by up to 66%
– Halobutyl Inner Liners − Cooper uses Halobutyl in its inner liner which leads to
improved air retention.

COOPER TYRES HAVE SEE-THROUGH TREADS

This means the latest tread designs have open grooves for wet grip and
self-cleaning.

22
 COOPER TYRES HAVE TREAD EDGES

TYRES
TO SUIT THE APPLICATION
Both ‘round’ and ‘square’ edge treads
feature in Cooper’s range of 4WD tyres.

COOPER TYRES ARE MADE TO LAST

This is clear from the added benefits Cooper tyres offer. There’s the unique
Manufacturer’s Warranty against manufacturing faults, for the life of the tread
or for 10 years, adjusted on a pro-rata basis.

2323
 TYRES
Cooper is the only tyre brand in Southern Africa with
warrantied conviction on the entire range of tyres.

FREE TYRE MILEAGE WARRANTY

AND PROTECTION PLAN
Consumers receive a mileage warranty and a two year protection
plan against irreparable damage caused by a penetration or
pothole, when 4 or more tyres are purchased and wheel alignment
is completed at the time of fitment.
The tyres must be registered on the Cooper online registration
form either by the dealer in the store or directly by the purchaser.
The registration documents must be submitted to Cooper within
5 days from date of purchase.

Consumers purchasing 1,2 or 3 tyres from a TyreLife

Dynamix Dealer will receive a two year protection plan
against irreparable damage caused by a penetration or
pothole.
The tyres must be registered on the Cooper online
registration form only by the dealer in the store.

AVAILABLE ONLY FROM A

TYRELIFE DYNAMIX DEALER

TERMS AND CONDITIONS apply, so make sure you read and

follow them carefully.
Unsure if your tyres have been registered?
Check on the CUSTOMER CENTRE,
www.coopertires.co.za/CustomerCare

24
TYRE-FRIENDLY DRIVING

CARING FOR YOUR TYRES

You may not realise it, but the way you drive can have a lot to do with how
long your tyres will last and how well they perform. As you head down the
road, there are a number of things to keep in mind:

SAFE DRIVING
Take it easy. Do not speed as this can cause excessive heat which will increase
the rate of tyre wear. Also, in wet weather, traction is reduced − brake a lot
sooner than you usually would.
Avoid hard cornering, rapid accelerations and abrupt braking and stopping −
these put a lot of stress on tyres. Smooth, safe driving is better for your tyres −
and for you!

ROAD HAZARDS
Avoid potholes and other hazards. Obviously, it’s best not to hit potholes or
objects in the road. But if you can’t avoid them, remember that the faster you are
going when you hit something, the greater the impact on your tyres − so slow
down as much as you can without endangering yourself or others.
If you can’t avoid a pothole, don’t apply the brakes when you hit it. Instead,
apply them as you approach the hole, and release them just before striking it.
This slows you down, but allows the tyre to roll as it hits, softening the impact.
If you hit an extremely large object or hole, have your tyres checked by a tyre
dealer. Such collisions can cause internal tyre damage that you can’t see −
but which can cause problems later on. Sometimes, a tyre can be severely
damaged and travel hundreds or even thousands of kilometres before failing.
A vibration or rough ride may be a sign of such damage − and that it is time
for a replacement.

GETTING STUCK − AND UNSTUCK

If you find yourself stuck in mud or wet grass, don’t spin your tyres rapidly, and
never spin them if a drive wheel is off the ground. Doing so can actually cause
damage to a tyre because if one drive wheel is stuck, and the other is free to
spin, all the engine’s power goes to the free wheel.

OVERLOADING
Watch out for overloading. Driving on an overloaded tyre is hazardous. When
your car is carrying too much, the weight can create excessive heat inside your
tyres − and this can cause sudden tyre failure. Never exceed the maximum load
rating of your tyres, which you can find on the sidewall of the tyre. When you
replace a tyre, make sure the new one has a load-carrying capacity equal to or
greater than what is specified on your vehicle’s placard.

STORING TYRES
It’s also important to treat your tyres right when you’re not using them. If you
store tyres, keep them in a cool, dry place, away from sunlight, heat and ozone.
2525
 Allow air to circulate around all sides to avoid moisture damage. Keep tyres

CARING FOR YOUR TYRES

away from grease, fuel and other substances that can deteriorate the rubber. Do
not store tyres within five metres of an electric motor, e.g. compressor, to avoid
ozone exposure.

PREVENTING TYRE TROUBLE

Regular inspections can help you prevent tyre trouble and keep you rolling
safely down the road. If you detect any damage, get it checked out at your
nearest dealer as soon as practical.
WARNING: If you ever need to repair a puncture with a string plug make sure
you have the tyre professionally repaired as soon as possible, as the tyre industry
does not recognise string plugs as a permanent repair.

“NEW” TYRES FOR TRIPS TO THE BUSH

For trips through the bushveld it’s better to have new, or nearly new tyres, on
your vehicle. The deeper treads of new tyres will give you a much better grip
and more protection from damage than tyres that are worn.

MECHANICAL / IRREGULAR WEAR

The wear patterns on a tyre tell a story not only of under- or over-inflation, but
also as an early indicator of a mechanical problem on the vehicle. This could
manifest as a vibration experienced by the driver.
Mechanical wear could be due to one or more of the following: worn shocks,
bushings or bearings, misalignment of the axle, damaged rims, loose or worn
suspension components, and / or a bent vehicle frame or chassis.
Again it is recommended that tyres are regularly rotated, balanced and aligned
to minimise the damage to the tyre as a result of the mechanics of the vehicle.

26
TYRE PRESSURE

CARING FOR YOUR TYRES

One of the simplest − and most important − things you can do to keep your
tyres in good shape is to make sure that they are properly inflated. Failure
to maintain correct tyre pressure may result in fast and uneven treadwear,
improper vehicle handling, and excessive heat build-up which could result
in tyre failure.

REGULAR TYRE PRESSURE CHECKS

You should check your tyres’ pressure at least once a month, before each trip,
and each morning before you drive, during an off-road trip. Ideally, tyre pressure
should be measured when tyres are cold − that is, before doing any driving on
the tyres, otherwise your tyres may have heated up, increasing the air pressure
inside them − this is normal. As a rule never “bleed” or reduce the air pressure
from a hot tyre, since this could result in under-inflation. Only “bleed” or reduce
air pressure from a hot tyre when you need to lower pressure to drive on
particular terrain (see “Tyre Pressure Guide” page 29), but remember to re-inflate
your tyres when you return to terrain that requires higher pressure.

MEASURING TYRE PRESSURE

It’s important to be accurate in filling your tyres. Don’t try to “eyeball” the
pressure − a tyre can lose half its pressure without looking flat. Instead, use a
reliable tyre pressure gauge. It is also a good idea to have your own gauge.

OVER-INFLATION
If your tyres are over-inflated by as little as 0.5 bar they could be damaged more
easily when driving over potholes or debris on the road. Over-inflation also
causes tyres to wear in the centre of the tyre’s tread which will reduce the tread
life. Higher-inflated tyres will give you a much harsher ride.

IMPORTANT FACTORS IN SELECTING TYRE PRESSURE

There is no universal “right” pressure for all tyres. The proper inflation level is
dependant on many factors such as what tyres you have, type of vehicle, amount
of load, how the vehicle is being driven and the condition of the road, to name
a few. The important thing to remember is, as load increases, you will need to
increase pressure but never exceed the maximum pressure stamped on the
sidewall of the tyre. For harsher road surfaces, a lower pressure with lower speed
may be needed to avoid tyre damage.

2727
 WEAR PATTERNS OF AN UNDER-INFLATED, PROPERLY INFLATED

CARING FOR YOUR TYRES AND OVER-INFLATED TYRE

28
THE “0.3 BAR” RULE APPLIES TO TAR

CARING FOR YOUR TYRES

ROAD USE ONLY
As a general rule, the following can be used − for road use only:
For passenger tyres, inflate your cold tyres to the recommended tyre pressure
on your vehicle’s tyre placard* or in your vehicle owners manual, to determine
if you have the correct pressure for a given load, note the cold pressure reading.
Drive for at least 20 - 30 minutes to ensure your tyres have reached operating
temperature and then check again. Ideally, they should be about 0.3 bar above
the cold pressure. If the pressure is more than 0.3 bar above the cold pressure,
you should add more air. This is because there is too much friction, which
builds up more heat than desirable. Conversely, if the pressure is less than 0.3
bar above cold pressure, the cold pressure is too high. Adjust your pressure
accordingly. For bakkie and 4x4 tyres, use 0.4 bar as a guide, but rough and
corrugated roads cause more flexing and your tyres may rise more the 0.3 or 0.4
bar − in which case applying this “rule” is not recommended.
* Beware of vehicle placards with recommendations below 2.5 bar. Some
older vehicles may still show lower pressures which were used to “enhance”
ride but resulted in poor tyre life and in some circumstances are dangerous.
All pressures stated are based on an average range of sizes not a specific
size. Tyres must be re-inflated to proper levels once your vehicle is returned
to normal road applications and conditions. All pressures stated are
suggested for light truck construction tyres only, and should not be advised
to any person driving on passenger construction tyres. Consult the vehicle
manufacturer for recommended tyre pressures.

TYRE PRESSURE GUIDE

3.5 bar 3.2 bar 2.8 bar 2.4 bar 2.1 bar 1.7 bar 1.4 bar 1 bar

EFFECT OF ADJUSTING TYRE PRESSURE ON THE SIZE OF A

TYRE’S ‘FOOTPRINT’
This diagram illustrates the effect of reducing your tyre pressure on the size of
the footprint of your tyres. Reducing pressure and increasing the size of your
tyres’ footprint spreads the weight of your vehicle over a larger area so when
driving on sand, for example, your tyres will drive ‘over the top’ of the sand. If
you maintain high pressure and a small footprint, your tyres are more likely to
‘dig down’ into the sand and even get you stuck! Reducing pressure and
increasing the size of your tyres’ footprint will also increase traction in off-road
conditions. Remember, whenever you reduce your pressure, re-inflate to the
proper levels as soon as you drive back on to the tar.
2929
 TYRE PRESSURE GUIDE FOR DIFFERENT TERRAIN

CARING FOR YOUR TYRES WARNING: This is just a guide based on an average range of sizes not
a specific size. Narrow commercial-style tyres require higher pressure.
You should consult your vehicle owners manual to get the right
pressure for your specific vehicle.
Lowering pressure may be necessary to get your vehicle through an extreme
section of terrain and reduces the possibility of tyre damage in off-road
conditions. However, lowering tyre pressure below the manufacturer’s
recommended pressure for your vehicle is at your own risk and judgment, and
doing so could cause over-heating and long-term tyre damage. So, you must
drive slowly over obstacles and re-inflate your tyres to proper levels once your
vehicle is returned to normal road applications and conditions.

TAR 2.2 - 2.6 bar*

For standard-size tyres, use pressures specified on your vehicle’s placard. Higher
pressures will be required when carrying heavy loads.

SAND 1.2 - 1.8 bar*

This depends on the depth and coarseness of the sand and also the grade.
Lower pressure improves your longitudinal footprint and flotation but you
should only deflate when necessary. You want enough momentum to stay on
top. Higher pressures will be required when carrying heavy loads. Sudden or
heavy movements of the steering can be dangerous and speed needs to be
appropriately reduced depending on the depth of the sand. Sand can vary
rapidly in patches. Sand can also build up a lot of heat in your tyres because you
are running lower pressure for flotation, so you may need to rest your vehicle
regularly. Sand creates the most constant resistance to tyres, gearboxes and
motors out of all terrains and applications. Ensure you have a good compressor
to reinflate as soon as you get to a harder surface.

FAST / SMOOTH GRAVEL 2.2 - 2.5 bar*

Too low pressure on this surface and you lose good steering response and
stability, especially if you are driving fast. Higher pressure will be required when
carrying heavy loads. When driving over corrugated roads you should reduce
your speed as heat builds up quickly on this road surface.

SLOW / ROUGH GRAVEL 1.8 - 2.2 bar*

This depends on how slow, how rough and with what load. Keep in mind that
the higher the speed, the more heat generated in the tyre according to your load
and the terrain being covered. High temperature in the belts of the tyre is not
something you can always feel by hand. Chipping of the tyres is minimised by
lower speeds and lower pressure to improve the tyres' resistance to objects and
heat build up. Higher pressure will be required when carrying heavy loads.

ROCKY GRAVEL / ROCKS 1.5 - 1.9 bar*

This is really assuming that the going is very slow, driving in low range, and not
generating a lot of heat in the tyre. The low pressure allows the tyre to improve
its traction and flexibility over the obstacles without impact fracturing. Higher
pressure can be used but the trade-off is more wheel spin and less grip.
30
Very low pressure, around 1.4 bar and below, can create the risk of pushing the

CARING FOR YOUR TYRES

tyre off the bead of the rim and therefore 1.5 bar is generally an acceptable
minimum low pressure limit for most sizes. Higher pressure will be required
when carrying heavy loads.
Malleability or flexibility at low speed is what you want to achieve and improve
traction without spinning your tyres and often shredding or chipping them
up. Lowering tyre pressure will increase the size of your tyres’ footprint which
spreads longitudinally along the tyre, which is what you are trying to achieve
for maximum traction. While lowering pressure does reduce the risk of overall
damage, it could increase the risk of sidewall damage.
Ever noticed how easy a balloon pops at higher pressure when it hits something,
but when the balloon has low pressure its harder to damage or pop? Same with
tyres on rocks in most slow situations. If you go to any off-road competition
event where slow rock-crawling is involved, ask the drivers what pressures they
run on. Sidewall damage can be reduced by careful wheel placement and again,
slowing down. Obviously, there are tyres designed to be better suited to rock
work than others.

MUD 1.5 - 1.9 bar*

This depends very much on what sort of mud, the steepness of slope and what
sort of base you have under the mud. You may not even need to lower your
pressures.
If it’s thick mud, with a loose, deep base, lower pressures and less wheel spin is
best but maintain momentum. If the mud is watery and has a solid base, you
can maintain higher pressure, again maintain momentum but never drive fast
as you can lose control of the steering, damage engine components and the
environment.
Mud is the terrain where you want enough momentum while maintaining
traction, without losing steering control and causing minimal damage to the
track for others behind you or in the future. Higher pressure will be required
when carrying heavy loads.

PRECAUTIONARY NOTICE
*Disclaimer: All pressures stated are based on an average range of sizes not a
specific size. Tyres must be re-inflated to proper levels once your vehicle is
returned to normal road applications and conditions. All pressures stated are
suggested for light truck construction tyres only, and should not be advised
to any person driving on passenger construction tyres. Consult the vehicle
manufacturer for recommended tyre pressures.

3131
 ROTATING YOUR TYRES
CARING FOR YOUR TYRES Tyre rotation can be beneficial in several ways. When done at the
recommended times, it can preserve balanced handling and traction of the
tyres and prolong the life of your tyres. It can even provide performance
advantages.

WHEN AND WHY SHOULD TYRES BE ROTATED?

Tyres should be rotated at least every 8 000km. Tyre rotation simply means
moving tyres around so they “trade places” on your vehicle in a systematic way
to achieve more uniform wear for all tyres on your vehicle. Rotation is important
because each tyre on a vehicle carries a different amount of weight, especially
your rear tyres if you are carrying loads, making them wear at different rates. By
rotating them, you basically even out those differences. Remember, tyre rotation
cannot correct wear problems due to worn mechanical parts or incorrect
inflation pressures. While no one likes their tyres to wear out, it is actually an
advantage when all of the tyres on a vehicle wear at the same rate throughout
their life. Since tyre rotation will help all of the vehicle’s tyres wear at the same
rate, it will keep the tyres performing equally on all four corners. When your tyres
wear out together, you can get a new set of tyres, without being forced to buy
pairs. If you replace tyres in sets, you will maintain the original handling balance.

FITTING A PAIR (2) OF NEW TYRES

If you do need to fit only two new tyres, most tyre manufacturers now advise
you to always fit the new tyres to the rear axle, whether your vehicle is a 4x4,
front- or rear-wheel drive. Although you may have been advised in the past to
fit new tyres to the front wheels, accident research has shown that a vehicle is
more controllable if the rear tyres have more grip especially on wet, greasy roads
and are less likely to spin out or fish-tale as a result of the better grip. Also, new
tyres have deeper treads and are less likely to suffer damage when driving on
gravel and off-road. However, if the tread depth between front and rear varies by
more than a 2-3mm you should consider replacing all tyres to maintain balanced
steering and braking.

FOUR (4) TYRE ROTATION

If your vehicle is a front-wheel drive with non-directional tyres, rotate your tyres
as shown in Diagram A. If you drive a rear-wheel drive or all-wheel drive vehicle,
rotate your tyres as shown in Diagram C. If your vehicle has a directional tread
pattern, rotate your tyres as shown in Diagram E.
If your vehicle has different size tyres on front and back, rotate your tyres as
shown in Diagram F.
WARNING: Your spare tyre must be the same diameter, construction,
and load index as all four tyres on your vehicle.

32
FOUR (4) & FIVE (5) TYRE ROTATION PATTERN FOR FRONT-WHEEL

CARING FOR YOUR TYRES

DRIVE VEHICLES
Diagram B
FIVE (5) TYRE ROTATION
Diagram A
FOUR (4) TYRE ROTATION
FRONT

FRONT

REAR

REAR
SPARE

FOUR (4) & FIVE (5) TYRE ROTATION PATTERN FOR REAR-WHEEL
DRIVE & ALL-WHEEL DRIVE VEHICLES

Diagram C Diagram D
FOUR (4) TYRE ROTATION FIVE (5) TYRE ROTATION

FRONT FRONT

REAR REAR

SPARE

3333
 FOUR (4) & FIVE (5) TYRE ROTATION PATTERN FOR VEHICLES

CARING FOR YOUR TYRES WITH DIFFERENT SIZES FOR FRONT & REAR AND DIRECTIONAL
PATTERN TYRES

Diagram E Diagram F
DIRECTIONAL PATTERN TYRES DIFFERENT SIZE TYRES FRONT & REAR

FRONT FRONT

REAR REAR

The most important part of your tyre is the tread, which gives you the traction
to stop and hold the road on curves. Tyre tread also squeezes water out from
under the tyre, which helps to reduce aquaplaning, where a vehicle actually
rides on a layer of water and becomes difficult to steer or stop.

WHEEL ALIGNMENT
Improper wheel alignment can affect driving performance as well as cost you
money. Total alignment sets all four wheels positioned straight ahead and
parallel. The benefits of this:
Improved fuel consumption − having your wheels aligned properly improves
your fuel efficiency by decreasing rolling resistance.
Reduced tyre wear − one of the signs of wheel misalignment is excessive or
uneven tyre wear. If your wheels are not properly aligned, your tyres can show
wear more quickly due to them not rolling straight and being dragged in the
wrong direction.
Improved vehicle handling − if your steering wheel pulls to the left or right, if
it vibrates or if it is hard to turn, chances are your wheels are out of alignment.
All of these can be corrected with a wheel alignment which can provide a
smoother ride.

TYRE BALANCING
Every time a wheel is first mounted onto the axle with a new tyre, it has to be
balanced. The goal is to make sure the weight is even around the axle. Wheel
balancing is checked on a machine that can sense as little as 10g differences in
weight around the wheel. Why worry about 10g on a wheel that weighs over
15kg? Well, that tiny amount of weight is travelling very fast around the axle,

34
hundreds of times a minute. It creates enough momentum to cause serious

OFF-ROAD DRIVING SKILLS

vibration. And when you multiply by four wheels, the wobble really adds up.
Unbalanced tyres may wear unevenly. Tyre imbalance can also strain the wheel
bearings and suspension system.
The minute you leave the dealership with your newly balanced tyres, they begin
to get out of balance again. Every bump and corner affects balance, so does
tyre wear. Over time, your tyres will get out of balance again. That’s why it’s
important to have tyres balanced regularly.
If you notice uneven wear on your tyres or a vibration over 60km per hour, this is
a warning that your tyres probably need to be balanced. It’s a good idea to have
your tyres rotated, balanced and wheel-aligned every 8 000km, or if you replace
a tyre.

OFF-ROAD DRIVING SKILLS

We know you have skills. They're multiplying, right? Well, there’s always
room to grow them some more. Driving off-road is a very different skill to
driving on-road. The general rule of thumb is to GO AS SLOW AS POSSIBLE
BUT AS FAST AS NECESSARY.
It is important to trust your car and the systems / aids you have available to you.
Experience is the key, and the more time you spend off-road driving, gaining
experience and understanding your vehicle, the better.
4x4 drivers should always try to keep all four wheels on the ground where
possible, and always look to keep your vehicle as high as possible by driving on
the highpoints on the track. If you put your wheels in the holes or low points, the
vehicle goes low and there is more chance of touching or doing damage to your
vehicle.
Monitor your speed, and be aware of the centre of gravity in your vehicle during
obstacles. A general rule is low ratio for any steep ascents and descents and
high ratio for any fairly level stretches. Remember if you've got low ratio, use it!
Don’t make your engine, clutch and gearbox strain in high ratio going up a steep
slope, rather use low ratio to protect these parts. When going down a steep
slope don’t be in high ratio using the brakes and wearing out the brake pads,
rather select 1st gear low range, and let the engine braking assist and save your
brakes.

BRAKING TECHNIQUES
Either feather the brakes or cadence brake. Feathering the brakes is when you
press the brakes lightly keeping the revs just above 1000rpm but at the same
time listening for wheel lock up. When you hear the wheel locking up, ease off
the brakes to give you traction and better steering ability. Cadence braking is
when you are slightly on the brakes then off the brakes as fast and as smoothly
as you can (manual form of ABS), making sure you slow the car but don’t
generate wheel lock up.

3535
 CLUTCH CONTROL (MANUAL TRANSMISSION)

OFF-ROAD DRIVING SKILLS The use of a clutch in a manual 4x4 vehicle in low range is basic. You use it for
pulling off, changing gear and stopping. You DO NOT depress it (use the
clutch) when going down a steep hill. Remember to trust the vehicle. Let the
vehicle’s engine braking help to keep you slow, while you use only the braking
techniques above to slow the car. Select the correct gear for the obstacle before
you attempt to drive it. Do not change gear in the obstacle − this is a recipe for
disaster.

AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION
You can drive in Drive (D) for most conditions off-road, but if the vehicle starts
to hunt for gears rather lock it into a gear you think will suit the conditions by
using the tiptronic gears. For any steep downhill always make sure the automatic
gear box is locked into 1st gear to help with a bit of engine braking, but with the
automatic gearbox you will have to use your brakes more than you would in a
manual gearbox vehicle.

DIFFERENTIAL POSITION
It is important to know the position of your front and rear differentials as they
are usually the lowest ground clearance points of your vehicle. Similarly, any
other low ground clearance points should be noted e.g. exhaust, spare tyre
etc. When a large rock or other obstacle is on a track that you must drive over,
you should ensure you avoid driving directly over it with the lowest ground
clearance point of your vehicle.

HAND POSITION
When driving off-road, it is important not to place your thumbs on the inside
of the steering wheel. When driving over any large ruts or potholes, the wheel
could suddenly turn. This may result in the thumb being bruised or even
dislocated if it is inside the steering wheel. Remembering to leave your thumbs
on the outside of the steering wheel is a very easy skill to acquire and should
become second nature to you. With power steering fitted to most 4-wheel
drives these days, this technique is not as critical, as the power steering unit
dampens out sudden steering wheel movements as well as steering stabilisers.
Owners of non-power steering vehicles will have undoubtedly experienced
at some time the force at which the steering wheel turns when hitting an
obstruction.

VEHICLE LIMITATIONS
A 4-wheel drive vehicle cannot be treated like a normal car when cornering.
The 4-wheel drive will roll over more easily than a car while cornering, if it is
taken too fast. This is due to the higher centre of gravity. This applies to gravel
and paved roads equally. Although a 4-wheel drive vehicle generally has better
traction on gravel than a car, when safe cornering speeds are exceeded the
4-wheel drive will tend to roll earlier than a car. Always pack heavy items low
down to lower the centre of gravity.

36
FIRE RISK

OFF-ROAD DRIVING SKILLS

Grass should be removed from around the vehicles exhaust system whilst
driving for prolonged periods through tall grass, as the hot exhaust could ignite
the grass. Grass caught inside the wheel close to brakes can also become a
problem. Stop every now and then to check your vehicle and remove anything
that may pose a risk. Make sure you have a fire extinguisher in the vehicle. Also
look out for the seeds at the top of long grass being caught in your vehicles
radiator which could lead to overheating (fit a radiator cover if required).

PASSENGERS
If in doubt, use a passenger to guide and assist you through an obstacle.
Someone on the outside of the vehicle has a far better view of what’s happening
than the driver has from inside the vehicle. Be sure that you have a common
understanding of hand signals between the two of you before driving the
obstacle.

OBSTACLES
Before attempting an obstacle follow these four steps:
1. Stop and walk the obstacle, choose your lines according to what you see
(look for the high points where possible). Look out for any dangers and try
to be as environmentally friendly as possible.
2. Make sure the vehicle is 100% lined up with the obstacle. Decide what gear
you are going to select to drive the obstacle. Decide whether you require Rear
Diff Lock, Multi-Terrain Setting or Crawl to drive the obstacle.
If there are blind spots in the obstacle, ask your passenger to assist you from
outside the vehicle. When driving obstacles make sure your windows are
either more than ¾ shut so you can still hear your passenger, or completely
shut if you do not require outside assistance. This is to protect your limbs if
the vehicle rolls because it is your natural instinct to try break your fall and
you do not want to roll the vehicle onto your arm.
3. Drive the obstacle as slowly as possible but as fast as necessary. If you
encounter a problem while driving the obstacle, STALL the vehicle to
stop. Get out and reassess the situation. We stall the vehicle so the car parks
stationary. Stall the car by putting your foot firmly on the brake pedal until
the vehicle cuts out. This is the safest way to stop the vehicle because you
have the gear that the vehicle is in, and the footbrake holding the car on
the slope.
4. Then pull up the handbrake and ease slowly off the footbrake to see if the
vehicle will hold on the obstacle. You can then reassess the situation and
decide if you can safely drive the vehicle out or if a recovery is needed.
For an automatic, brake the vehicle to stop, pull up the handbrake and shift the
gear into park, then reassess. When driving a 4x4 you never trust your brakes are
working 100%. You could have driven through some water causing the brakes to
cool thereby not being at the correct operating temperature, or you may have
damaged a brake pipe while driving.

3737
 REVERSE STALL EXERCISE
OFF-ROAD DRIVING SKILLS MANUAL GEARBOX
If you are driving and you get yourself into a situation where the vehicle loses
forward momentum and your wheels spin without moving forward, do not
keep on spinning your wheels. This will lead to digging in and you may require
a recovery. Rather stall the car. See point 3 under the Obstacles section on the
previous page.
Assess the situation, remember safety first. Normally if you have lost traction it
will be unlikely to pull off again from there and you do not want to put strain on
the clutch and drive-train of the vehicle. The best is to reverse the vehicle safely
and controlled down the slope to try it again from the start. Never push a bad
position when driving off-road. This is how the reverse stall is done:
1. STALL the vehicle by pressing your foot as hard as you can on the brake
pedal. Keep a firm grip on your steering wheel so you know where your front
wheels are pointing. The steering wheel can often pull in a certain direction
due to the camber of the road.
2. Breathe, relax and assess the situation.
3. Keep your foot pressed as hard as you can on the brake pedal, slowly
depress (push in) the clutch with your left foot, take the vehicle out of
the gear you are in and put it into reverse (R). Ensure reverse is properly
engaged − you do not want the vehicle to jump out of gear. Your right foot
should still be pushing as hard as you can on the brake pedal.
4. Once reverse gear is properly engaged take your left foot off the clutch
pedal, keep your right foot on the brake pedal.
5. Check your left, right and rear-view mirrors to get your bearings then as
slowly as you can, remove your right foot off the brake pedal. Put both feet
on the floor away from your pedals.
6. Keep your left hand on the steering wheel and right hand on the start
button or key. Start the car in the reverse gear with no feet on any of the
pedals (turn the key for 2 seconds). The vehicle will start in reverse gear with
the compression of the engine helping to keep the car driving back as slowly
as possible (diesel vehicle), but without wheel lock up by braking too much.
If it is a petrol vehicle, when you turn the key and the vehicle starts, rest your
right foot slightly on the brake pedal (feathering it) to compensate for the rise
in revs due to fuel injection. Make sure the revs stay slightly above 1000rpm
and listen for wheel lock-up (if a wheel locks and begins to skid, ease off the
brakes and allow the wheel to rotate again and gain traction).
7. Use your mirrors and / or cameras while reversing. If the slope is extremely
steep, keep your right foot pressed as hard as you can on the brake pedal and
check your mirrors. As you turn the key (2 seconds) release the footbrake until
the vehicle has started, and then rest your right foot slightly on the brake
pedal again (feathering it), but make sure the revs stay slightly above
1000rpm and listen for wheel lock up (if a wheel locks and begins to skid
38
 ease off the brakes and allow the wheel to rotate again and gain traction). If

OFF-ROAD DRIVING SKILLS

you lose traction you will lose steering ability, so keep all four wheels rotating
under the engine, braking from the compression the vehicle's engine
produces.
Some vehicles now require the clutch to be in to start the vehicle. For these
vehicles the reverse still is not possible but they will usually have a Hill
Descent Control system you can use. Please refer to the Crawl Control or Hill
Descent Control section on page14.

AUTOMATIC GEARBOX
It is impossible to stall an automatic gearbox, so if you are driving and you get
yourself into a situation where the vehicle loses forward momentum, do not sit
and spin your wheels as this will lead to you digging in and you may require a
recovery. Rather brake − press your right foot as hard as you can on the brake
pedal.
Place the vehicle into reverse, release the footbrake slowly, continue to feather
the brakes and attempt to keep speed at 4kpa without wheel lock-up caused by
overbraking.

CRAWL CONTROL OR HILL DESCENT CONTROL

1. Once you have stopped with all four wheels
stationary with your right foot on the brake,
engage reverse gear.
2. Press the Crawl on / off button ‘ON’ . The
vehicle on-board computer will state ‘Crawl
is Active.’
3. Set the speed at either 3km/h or 4km/h
depending on the severity of the slope.
4. Take your foot off the brake pedal and trust the computer to keep the vehicle
at the prescribed speed.
5. Use your mirrors and / or cameras while reversing.
6. When you are safely down the slope deactivate Crawl Control and continue
driving.
NOTE: For Hill Descent Control, when in reverse push the Hill Descent Control
button, ease off the brakes and allow the system to work. If it feels a bit fast
rather feather the brakes slightly to keep it slower, but if a wheel locks or skids,
ease off the brakes and allow the Hill Descent Control system to take over. On a
normal Hill Descent Control system you cannot select your speed − it is usually
set at around 5km/h.

AUTOMATIC WITHOUT CRAWL CONTROL OR HILL DESCENT CONTROL

1. Once you have stopped with all four wheels stationary and your right foot
on the brake, engage reverse gear.
2. Pull the handbrake up 2 or 3 clicks.

3939
 3. Feather the brakes trying to keep the vehicle at 4km/h without wheel lock-up.

OFF-ROAD DRIVING SKILLS

If a wheel skids or locks up, ease off the brakes to allow for it to rotate and
regain traction.
4. Use your mirrors and / or cameras while reversing.
5. When you are safely down the slope put your handbrake down before you
continue driving.

GRAVEL ROAD DRIVING

Engage 4-wheel drive high range (4H) or 4-wheel drive centre differential lock
(press the button with X in between the 2 axles or HL), if you are going to drive
at speeds in excess of 60km/h.
We need to keep in mind that not all gravel roads are the same. You can safely
go much faster on a gravel road that has much of the loose particles swept off
it and is wide, flat, hard and smooth, than you can on a bumpy track with plenty
of marble-like rocks comprising its surface.
A driver has to remain focused at all times on the specific road surface he
is driving on. For the safest drive on gravel a 4-wheel drive system is always
desirable. This lessens the effects of oversteer and understeer that become
apparent in rear-wheel or front-wheel drive. Do not assume that you know how
to drive on all road surfaces. Be a safe and cautious driver!
When travelling on gravel roads in rural areas and farm country it is not only the
road surface you need to be aware of. You are more likely to encounter broken
fences next to the gravel roads as well as wildlife and livestock. You can expect
to share the roads with a variety of other unique road users such as tractors,
grain trucks, quad bikes, cyclists etc. Most gravel roads are narrow, but still
accommodate two-way traffic, without the aid of a centre line. Some have a soft,
sloping shoulder – or none at all.
So be mindful of the following:
• Unpredictability of the road surface
• Visibility and dust
• Weather conditions and rain
• Increased risk of roll-over.
Safe driving techniques on gravel roads:
1. Control your speed
2. Turn headlights on dipped beam for better visibility
3. Stay in tracks
4. Maintain effective following distance
5. Be ready for skids
6. Know your tyres and be aware of reduced traction
7. Steer safely
8. Be cautious when overtaking
9. Keep to the side of the road and check for visibility.

40
STEEP ASCENTS

OFF-ROAD DRIVING SKILLS

4-wheel drive low ratio 4L, or 4L with centre differential locked, select 1st or 2nd
gear for a manual vehicle depending on the conditions or Drive for an automatic
vehicle.
1. If the terrain looks good with a reasonable amount of traction select 1st gear.
If it is wet or slippery a higher wheel speed is required (momentum) therefore
try 2nd gear. If your vehicle has a 2nd Start function, use it, and place your
automatic gear lever into 2nd or tiptronic 2nd gear. If you leave it in Drive or
1st this will result in a 1st gear pull off which could result in excessive wheel
spin and minimal forward momentum.
2. Stop and walk the route before driving any serious obstacle especially if you
cannot see parts of the obstacle. Look out for any dangers and make a mental
note of your route for the positioning of your vehicle.
3. Select if you would need to engage your rear differential lock / Crawl or Multi-
Terrain setting.
4. When possible it is important to attempt driving straight up the obstacle at
right angles to the slope rather than trying to attack the slope at an angle
where there is a possibility of sliding and doing damage to your vehicle.
5. You should never change gear on a steep slope. Select the gear you want
before the slope and use momentum to get up.
6. If you have used your rear differential lock remember to turn it off. Ensure the
light turns off.

4141
 STEEP DESCENTS

OFF-ROAD DRIVING SKILLS 4-wheel drive low ratio 4L, or 4L with centre differential locked. Select 1st or
tiptronic 1st gear for automatic transmissions (try not use Drive for steep
downhills).
1. Before you drive the descent look and plan your route. Make sure you can
drive straight down the descent. If you drive down the slope at an angle there
is a greater risk of a roll over.
2. 1st gear as mentioned above for both manual and automatic transmissions.
Use the compression of the engine whilst descending with a minimal amount
of braking (feathering the brakes and engine revs just above 1000rpm).
Diesel engines have a higher compression ratio than that of petrol engines
and will thus move at a slower speed and require less braking. Automatic
vehicles will have less compression and will require a lot more braking than a
manual vehicle (1st gear is imperative).
3. If rear differential lock is required to drive up the slope, make sure it is on for
the descent as it will control the vehicle better when wheels break traction
or are in the air. If you have Crawl or Hill Descent Control, turn it on.
Remember with Crawl Control to set the speed at a lower speed to suit the
conditions (3km/h or 4km/h). If you are using Crawl Control you do not need
to brake, trust the system to drive you down safely.
4. Control your braking. Feather the brakes down steep slopes and listen for
wheel lock-up. If a wheel locks up, either ease off the brake slightly to regain
traction, or on very steep slopes change to cadence braking (pump the brakes
on and off as fast as you can) which is a manual form of ABS braking. When a
wheel locks or skids you lose steering ability. If the vehicle slides sideways you
may need to stop braking and accelerate to get the vehicle back in line.
5. Do not press the clutch in and rely on the brakes to take you down the slope.
The vehicle would lose control and you are at serious risk of doing damage.
Never change gear on a descent. Trust the vehicle and allow the engine’s
compression to help you.
6. If you have used your rear differential lock, remember to turn it off. Make sure
the light turns off.

ROCKY OR ROUGH TERRAIN

This type of terrain is one where vehicle type is very important. Ground clearance
and suspension travel are two of the main criteria. High ground clearance allows
the larger rocks to pass underneath without contacting vulnerable vehicle parts,
while good suspension travel allows the wheels to remain in contact with the
ground.
1. If the vehicle has a Multi-Terrain setting, place the setting on ‘Rock’. If the
vehicle has air suspension, ensure this setting is on ‘high’.
2. Drive at a low speed and always look for the smoothest route. Avoid sharp
rocks that can damage your tyres or large rocks that can damage your vehicle.
If they are in your way move them or if they cannot be moved, choose a
different route.
42
3. If you find yourself being bounced around in the vehicle and it is affecting

OFF-ROAD DRIVING SKILLS

your right foot on the accelerator, try to brace half your foot on the side of
the car and the other half on the accelerator pedal for smooth control of the
accelerator pedal.
4. Where possible, mount rocks square-on to reduce the risk of cutting a tyre’s
sidewall.
5. Remember where your vehicle’s differentials are positioned as these are
normally the lowest point of ground clearance on the vehicle. Protect your
vehicle’s drive-train and important components at all costs.
6. Keep your fingers and thumbs firmly on the outside of the steering wheel.

RIVER CROSSINGS
4-wheel drive low ratio 4L, or 4L with centre differential locked. Select 1st or 2nd
gear for a manual vehicle depending on the conditions or Drive for an automatic
vehicle.
Water crossings can provide some of the most exhilarating and challenging
4x4 driving around. They can also prove to be the most expensive. As a general
rule, if it’s above the top of your wheels it’s probably too deep. A water crossing
should not be attempted by inexperienced or ill-prepared 4x4 drivers. The first
thing to do before any unfamiliar water crossing is to walk it. If you cannot walk
it, you cannot cross it. If the water is flowing too quickly to safely walk the
crossing, then it cannot be driven across.
Remember, vehicles actually float until water seeps into them, while you find out
exactly how deep the water is.
4343
 VEHICLE PREPARATION

OFF-ROAD DRIVING SKILLS 1. Walk the crossing to check its depth, condition of the riverbed surface,
strength of current and both the approach and departure slopes. When
walking through the crossing remember to check the conditions for both
wheel tracks (if you cannot physically see the bottom of the river use a stick
to feel the bottom surface). While doing this you are giving the brakes, axles,
diffs and gearbox time to cool down before driving through the cold water.
Never walk the water in areas where there are hippos or crocodiles. Rather
speak to the locals and find out where it is safe to cross or where a low-level
bridge is located.
2. Never cross fast-flowing water. For inexperienced drivers do not drive through
water higher than the vehicle’s tyres. Measure it on your leg, and if it goes over
the measured point, look for another crossing.
3. Place markers on hidden obstacles, or remove the obstacles. It’s very easy to
be disorientated in water. Remember wet rubber cuts very easily, so look after
your tyres. It’s a good idea to have recovery equipment on standby.
4. Always take off your seat belt and wind down your window in water. In an
emergency situation if the car gets pushed down stream, climb out of your
vehicle window onto the bonnet and jump into the river in the direction
the water is coming from so you have the vehicle moving down the river in
front of you. Swim to the side as fast and hard as you can. If it is a dangerous
crossing but you have to get across, always walk your family to the other
side of the crossing. The driver must be the only person in the vehicle when
attempting a dangerous crossing.
5. If you stall in a river never ever restart the vehicle. Rather get recovered by
someone else, and once you have been pulled out of the water you may
restart your vehicle. If the exhaust is under water and you restart the vehicle,
suck back from the exhaust could result in extensive and expensive damage
to your exhaust and / or the vehicle’s engine.
6. You should always enter the water slowly, and as the front bumper comes
into contact with the water accelerate and nudge the water to form a bow
wave in front of the vehicle. Keep pushing the bow wave forward by
accelerating smoothly, keep the vehicle sitting right behind the bow wave
and keep the acceleration constant until you exit the crossing. Avoid gear
changes in water.
7. After doing a trip or 4x4 adventure make sure you book your vehicle in to
check there has not been contamination of the oil in diffs.

MOMENTUM
Driving on soft sand can be compared to a speed boat on water. When the boat
is travelling slowly, it sinks into the water a little and the engine is required to
work harder to maintain forward momentum. As soon as the boat speeds up it
starts to plane along on top of the water. The engine requires much less effort to
push the boat along and the boat is able to quickly skim along the surface of the
water.
Similarly, driving slowly on soft sand will allow the tyres to sink into the sand
44
much more than driving more quickly. When the tyres sink in a little, the engine

OFF-ROAD DRIVING SKILLS

must work much harder to maintain forward movement. As you increase your
speed, your tyres will float on top of the soft sand, and the effort required to
maintain your forward momentum will be greatly reduced.
Use low range initially. If you start to get bogged, low range will provide you
with the power you need to drive out, but will also allow you adequate speed to
keep you on top of the sand. If you decide that the beach is hard enough, then
change to high range.
CAUTION: Do not overdo your speed. Driving on sand is nothing like driving on the
road and driving quickly greatly increases the chance of serious accident.

SAND DRIVING
4-wheel drive low ratio 4L, or 4L with centre differential locked. Select 2nd or
3rd gear for a manual vehicle depending on the conditions or drive for an
automatic vehicle.
For harder packed sand, engage 4-wheel drive high range (4H) or 4-wheel drive
high range with the centre differential locked, if you are going to drive at speeds
in excess of 30km/h.
The tips and tricks outlined on the next page are applicable to driving in sand,
be it on the beach, sand dunes, desert or in the forest. There are two elements to
driving your 4-wheel drive on soft sand. These are tyre pressure and momentum.
Applying these elements to your driving technique will result in your vehicle
‘floating’ on the sand, decreasing your chances of becoming bogged. Naturally
there is no guarantee that you won’t bury yourself to the axles, but your chance
of success is increased if you pay attention to these elements.

4545
 BOGGED

OFF-ROAD DRIVING SKILLS If you regularly drive on the sand, then eventually you will get bogged. Accept
this fact and prepare for it and your day will be far more enjoyable. When you do
get bogged in soft sand, there are a number of techniques to getting out.
1. Firstly, it’s important to realise early that you are bogged. There is no point in
spinning your wheels. This just digs you in further and makes any recovery
effort more difficult.
2. Don’t panic! The vast majority of the time, if your car stays bogged for a while
then the only consequence is that you’ll be late getting to your campsite. So
stay calm and take your time to think it though.
3. Reduce your tyre pressure even more than you already have. Remember that
the more you reduce your tyre pressure the more your vehicle will ‘float’ on
the sand (0.8 bar minimum).
4. Try to reverse out. Often the tracks you used to drive in are solid enough for
you to drive out on. Then you can have another go or take a different route.
5. Slowly drive backwards and forwards over the same track. This will compact
the sand and hopefully allow you to drive out.
6. If these tips don’t get you out, then get your shovel and start digging.
Choose which direction you want to drive out and then dig out the sand in
that direction. Be careful not to damage the tyre when digging, as this could
require you to change a tyre as well as digging the vehicle out. Don’t forget
that you’ll need to clear the sand from underneath your axles and
differentials. And if you’re bogged enough, then you’ll also need to clear
the sand away from your undercarriage as well.
7. Make a track for your wheels. You could try lining the track with dry seaweed
(wet seaweed can be slippery); sticks, leaves or car mats are phenomenal.
Anything to gain some traction.
Now that we’ve covered the fundamentals of driving on sand, below
are some more tips and techniques for driving your 4-wheel drive in
the sand.
1. Be aware of steep drop-offs on beaches. These are caused by wave
action eroding the beach sand and forming small cliffs. Driving too
close to the edge will cause these cut-aways to collapse, resulting in
your vehicle rolling.
2. Bright sunshine will make features on the beach harder to see. With the
glare of the white sand in your eyes, it’s easy not to see holes, cut-aways,
erosion etc. Driving your vehicle into a sand hole can bring your day to a
very sudden and complete stop.
3. Don’t get caught too close to the water. If you do a quick google search
you’ll find any number of photos of 4-wheel drive vehicles being destroyed
by pounding surf, or buried to the roof after a high tide.
4. Not getting bogged is much easier than digging out of a bog. Err on the side
of caution in all aspects of sand driving.

46
5. Don’t turn sharply. With reduced tyre pressure, turning sharply will increase

OFF-ROAD DRIVING SKILLS

the chances of your tyre separating from the bead of your rim. Tyres that
separate from the bead deflate very rapidly.

MUD DRIVING
No other type of 4-wheel driving can deliver so much fun and so much misery
in one day. From tears of laughter to tears of frustration in seconds − there is no
other medium like the sticky stuff.
Understanding that mud varies from location to location, means it is important
to approach each situation with an open mind. Whether it is brown clay, black
silt or salt-pan mud, at the end of the day it is simply a combination of soil and
water. Each muddy rut and every watery hole has the potential to offer varying
depth and adhesion. If something looks nasty, your senses are probably right − it
probably is. Investigation is always easier than having to make a plan while your
pride and joy disappears.

SHALLOW MUD
There are two types of mud you are most likely to encounter. The first is the
shallow but extremely slick layer of mud that can cover the surface of a poorly
draining road and make travel treacherous. Hard packed underneath, these
types of roads can become like ice skating rinks when deluged with water.
Anywhere from 3cm to 30cm deep, the aim here is to cut through the surface of
the mud and find the firm ground below.
1. Reducing air pressure may or may not assist on this type of surface. There are
a very few loss-of-traction situations where a lower air pressure won’t help.
However, care is needed not to deflate so much that the tyres aqua plane and
cannot cut down the mud and find traction.
2. Steering and throttle control become vital on slick surface mud. Understand
the direction your front wheels are aiming the entire time. If the car begins
to slide, then gently turn your wheels in the direction of the slide. If the car
4747
 begins sliding off to the left, steer left to resist the tail of the car trying to

OFF-ROAD DRIVING SKILLS

overtake the front. In slippery conditions the rear of the car attempts to pivot
around the steering tyres. The aim of steering a sliding car is to continually
re-direct it back to the driving line and prevent the rear from coming around
the vehicle. If the car refuses to turn when the steering wheel is rotated, then
the front wheels are sliding or plaining across the mud. Again, attempt to
steer the vehicle down the driving line.
3. In either situation gently decelerate, easing off the throttle to allow the tyre to
find some bite. Jumping on the brakes is most likely going to end in trouble
but smoothly pumping them on and off can aid the slowing of the slide and
help gain traction.
4. Going up and coming down hills requires the same technique and feel.
Feeding the right amount of power to the wheels to maintain traction is key.
Gear selection is crucial on slippery downhills. Low range should enable you
to crawl down most surfaces in a controlled fashion. Sliding is far more likely
on slopes and the loss of traction is amplified by the pull of gravity.
5. To remove the mud in your tread, you must be on a wide, flat surface.
Accelerate hard to create wheel spin, while turning steering wheel from side
to side. This will displace the mud. DO NOT attempt this on a slope.

DEEP MUD
1. Deep sticky mud is a different proposition altogether. Letting some air out of
the tyres is definitely going to assist here for the same reasons it aids the
vehicle in sand. More rubber down to the ground, a bigger footprint and the
vehicle wants to float across the surface.
2. Picking a line and choosing the high ground is a good option if it can be
maintained. If it’s a well-worn track water will always gravitate to the low
wheel ruts and this will be the section that turns to soup first. However,
sometimes it is possible to find a hard surface at the bottom of these wheel
ruts that will propel the vehicle along.
3. The higher ground in the centre and at the edges can often provide a better
footing but if the mud is really thick gravity will usually see you sliding into
the lowest hole.
4. Rapid acceleration is rarely useful in either slick surface mud or bog holes.
Momentum is the key, and again, finding the engine revs that deliver the
best traction is important. Establish forward momentum and maintain it by
constantly altering the throttle position in line with feedback from the tyres.
A higher gear may help to avoid excessive wheel spin.
5. A little continual wheel spin while you move forward can often help to clear
the tyre tread of mud build up. Maintain speed and momentum through the
section. If you are going forward – keep going. Don’t stop for a look around
and then find you just can’t resume where you left off. Momentum in mud is
precious. A mild see-sawing action on the steering wheel can help the front
tyres get a little side tread involved almost like they are biting from side to
side while chewing the car forward. This technique can be invaluable in sand
as well. All around it's usually great fun until it’s time to clean up.
48
SNOW DRIVING

OFF-ROAD DRIVING SKILLS

Knowing how to drive in snow and icy conditions is an
important skill – it requires doing everything more gently
than usual. As a rule of thumb for driving in snow, reduce
your speed to around half the posted dry-weather speed
limit but, at the end of the day, there is no such thing
as a ‘safe’ speed range for driving on ice or snow. Good
preparation is essential when planning to enter areas that
commonly experience cold weather.
1. If your vehicle starts to lose traction and begins to slide, take your foot off the
accelerator, slowly turn the steering wheel in the direction that the rear end
of the vehicle is skidding, and look in the direction you want the vehicle to go
then start driving toward it, slowly.
2. Remember, even where snow has been cleared from the road, the surface
may still be covered by a film of snow or ice. Driving on these roads requires
concentration and adept driving skills. A real challenge is posed by ‘black ice’
which is almost impossible to see. It commonly occurs in shady areas where
roads are typically cooler, so be alert and slow down.
3. Given the unpredictably of ice and snow conditions, always keep extra
distance from the vehicle in front of you and give yourself plenty of time to
stop. You need to consider the capabilities of other drivers on the road.
4. Consider adding anti-freeze to your engine radiator if you’re not already using
a quality inhibitor / anti-freeze. Make sure you match the amount of anti-
freeze to the capacity of the coolant system. If this isn’t done and the coolant
freezes, the engine block and radiator may crack, leaving you stranded with
an expensive repair bill.
5. Diesel engines require special care. In cold weather, some diesel fuel
components begin to separate out of the solution turning the diesel fuel
into a gel-like consistency. This can block the fuel system and immobilise the
vehicle.
6. Be sure to rectify faults before you leave. Cold weather conditions can
intensify existing minor faults so have your vehicle thoroughly inspected
before leaving home. This ranges from those things you can’t see easily (such
as the electrical system) to those that you can. For instance, you may not have
noticed that ice can form in ‘little’ chips and cracks in the windscreen causing
them to expand and ultimately rupture the glass.
7. Check your tyre pressure. Physics tells us that when the outside temperature
drops by five-degrees Celsius, so does the air pressure inside your tyres by
around 0.14 bar. Make sure you check your tyre pressure frequently during
cold weather and add enough air to keep them at recommended inflation
levels.
4-wheel and all-wheel drive vehicles can generally travel further in the snow than
2-wheel drives, and depending on the conditions they are generally exempt from
the requirement to fit chains. However, in heavy snow conditions, even 4x4s can
reach a point where snow chains will become necessary.

4949
 If you need to fit chains, make sure you’ve factored in enough time to do so.

VEHICLE RECOVERY TRAINING

Fitting and removing chains can take a considerable amount of time if you’re not
accustomed to it. If you practice before you head off, it’ll not only ensure you’ve
bought the right-sized chains for your vehicle but also saves time in the long run.
‘Stop, revive and survive’. Driving in snow or icy conditions is more fatiguing
than normal driving given the increased difficulty of the conditions encountered–
bad weather, darkness, narrow and winding roads. If a ‘white-out’ condition
occurs (the road ahead and snow poles are not visible) bring the vehicle to a stop,
leave the motor running and switch on your hazard lights. At the end of the day,
driving on snow and ice comes down to common sense. You don’t expect to
become an expert skier the first time you hit the slopes, and the same applies for
developing driving skills. Plan your drive and drive according to the conditions.

VEHICLE RECOVERY TRAINING

You’ll be ready for anything as long as you have the right ‘tools’ and a set of
Cooper tyres.
Vehicle recovery is extremely dangerous. It is easy to turn a bad situation
into a worse one by not thinking through your recovery and the options
you have available. Experience is the key in any recovery situation, and no
matter your experience, do not feel ashamed to ask others for help. At some
point in time 4x4 drivers have all been stuck or bogged but it is important
to learn from it and grow in experience.
Purchasing the correct recovery equipment to meet your trip requirements is
vital and safety always comes first.

EVERY 4X4 VEHICLE SHOULD HAVE A RECOVERY BAG

CONSISTING OF:
• Two-rated bow shackles
• Pull / winch strap
• Kinetic energy snatch strap or rope
• Recovery blanket
• Pair of recovery gloves
• Tow strap
• Tyre pressure gauge.

RECOVERY GUIDELINES
These are purely guidelines for vehicle recovery, the safety of by-standers,
participants or property. A professional recovery course is recommended.
With all recoveries the following should apply:
• Use rated alloy recovery bow shackles with a Work Load Limit of not less than
2 000kg to attach the strap, cable or rope used. (Fed Spec RR-C-271b)
50
• On a rated shackle the pin and body will be of a different diameter (pin is

VEHICLE RECOVERY TRAINING

generally thicker)
• The body will be embossed with the Work Load Limit (WLL) and batch number
• After hand tightening a shackle, loosen the pin a half turn back, this will make
it easier to open after the recovery
• A good range will be from 2 tons to 6.5 tons to cover all situations
• Do not use damaged ropes or straps
• Do not knot ropes or straps
• A standard tow bar or tow ball is unsuitable as an attachment point for
recovery
• Ensure that you have suitable recovery points to the front and rear of all
vehicles involved in a recovery
• Follow all safety and usage instructions
• Always recover in a straight line
• Keep participants and observers well clear of ropes, straps or cables in case
of recoil due to a failure (as a rule generally twice the length of the cable, strap
or rope utilised)
• Dampen cables, ropes and straps with recovery blankets (one per vehicle)
• Protect cables from cutting or abrasion when pulling over obstacles. Also
check that there are no sharp edges on the underside of vehicle that may
cause a failure
• Keep straps or ropes away from hot exhausts
• Regularly inspect your equipment especially after use
• If damaged, return to the supplier for inspection and possible repair
• Straps and ropes are not to be used for lifting equipment
• Evaluate the recovery and where possible make the stuck vehicle easier to
extricate by digging if badly stuck in mud, or packing out ruts or axle twisters
• Never step over a tensioned cable, rope or strap.

BOW SHACKLES
We do not recommend that you use commercial
shackles or a D shackle. A commercial shackle will
not show its rating and the pin and body will be of
the same diameter.
Carry a variety of bow shackles so as to cater to all
vehicle weights involved in a recovery. A good range
will be from 2 tons to 6.5 tons. Only use rated alloy
recovery bow shackles with a Work Load Limit of not
less than 2 000kg to attach the strap, cable or rope
(Fed Spec RR-C-271b / Factor of safety of 6:1).
5151
 On a rated shackle the pin and body will be of a

VEHICLE RECOVERY TRAINING

different diameter (the pin is thicker). The body
is embossed with the Work Load Limit (WLL) and
batch number.
The bow shackle has a larger inner working radius
than a D shackle, offering more space for a strap or
rope eye and giving it the ability to achieve greater
angles when recovering in difficult situations. After tightening a shackle, turn
the pin a quarter turn back, this will make it easier to open after the recovery.

PULL / WINCH EXTENSION STRAP

Made of polyester with limited stretch, an
extension strap is used to pull or tow stuck
vehicles through or over obstacles where a
degree of control is required.
1. Always attempt to recover in a straight line.
2. Once securely attached to both vehicles
take up the slack. The recovering unit then
moves off at a moderate pace to start the
recovery.
3. Used as the first line of defence, movement should be gentle with as few jerks
as possible.
4. Pull straps can also be used to extend a winch cable.

KINETIC ENERGY SNATCH STRAPS AND ROPES

Made of polyamide, most kinetic straps stretch 20-30%
of their length. This is a short sharp elastic rebound and
is used to extricate a severely bogged down vehicle from
sand or mud.
1. The strap is normally laid back over itself in an
‘S’ shape (about 1.5 metres, or half of overall length).
2. The recovery vehicle should take off in 1st gear, low range in a straight line
away from the stuck vehicle and stretches the strap to its fullest.
Practice will allow a good driver to stop before
the strap stops him, thereby allowing full
utilisation of the kinetic capability and not
straining the strap or recovery points on the
vehicles.
3. Sometimes this procedure may have to be
repeated with a new strap or rope and if the
vehicle is still partially stuck it may need to be
winched.
4. The kinetic energy recovery rope is used similarly to recover severely stuck
vehicles from sand or mud, possibly after a kinetic strap. The rope is an
52
 ultra-high elongation, high tenacity, plaited polyamide rope and can

VEHICLE RECOVERY TRAINING

elongate 30-40%. In both cases recovery from rest to reuse is once in
24 hours. Kinetic energy snatch straps and ropes are generally regarded
as the last line of defence.
5. Kinetic straps and ropes should never be used to anchor a winching
operation or extend a winch cable.

TREE PROTECTOR STRAP

The protector strap protects the delicate
bark of a tree when using a manual or
electric winch, thereby providing a secure
anchor point. A tree trunk protector should
be 100mm wide, and 2 - 4m long. Winch in
a straight line so as not to chafe and ring
bark trees.
1. Ideally straps having the same rating and function should be joined. In other
words, do not join a snatch strap to a pull strap.
2. Straps and ropes should be washed after use in sand or mud, to remove
abrasive particles. Thereafter they should be dried in the shade as the fibre
is sensitive to UV rays.

STRAP SAFETY
A strap from a reputable manufacturer should have a label stitched in detailing
not only compliance to SANS 94, but full technical specifications:
• Manufacturers name
• Material
• Strength
• Length
• Application
• Work Load Limit (laden vehicle mass)
• Factor of safety and / or minimum break strength.
NOTE: Without the above details, an unlabelled strap should be used with
caution as a tow strap, or thrown away. Your strap should be purchased in
accordance with the vehicle you drive in terms of the Work Load Limit. End
loops should be well constructed with a loose, movable sleeve to prevent
wear and tear and allow full protection.

KINETIC CAPABILITY
One often sees multiple use of a strap. A good rule of thumb is that, after one
vigorous snatch, the kinetic capability has been utilised and the strap requires
eight hours for every 10% of stretch to ‘creep back’ or be restored to its original
length and kinetic capability. To get back to 30% (full) extension requires
24 hours of rest.

5353
 The percentage of stretch is calculated according to the measured length of a

VEHICLE RECOVERY TRAINING

strap. In other words, a 10% stretch on a 10-metre strap would be one metre. For
example, when such a strap has stretched to 13 metres and no longer returns to
its labelled length, it has lost its kinetic capability. It can be used as a pull strap in
future.
There are two phases to the recovery of a strap: namely, the latent phase,
which is over time, and an immediate phase on rebound, which restores a small
portion of kinetic capability. It is important that you should understand that
the maximum percentage of stretch quoted i.e. 30% is also the point at which a
failure could occur.
Important factors influencing kinetic capability:
• Mass of the two vehicles
• How badly ‘stuck’ the vehicle to be recovered is
• Traction available to the recovering vehicle − in other words, the road surface
• Distance between vehicles and the speed at which the recovery vehicle moves.

RECOVERY SAFETY LANYARD

The lanyard is used when recovering vehicles from a recovery point for added
safety. It is made of low elongation (5%) high tenacity polyester webbing and is
attached to the vehicle and over the strap, rope or cable by two ring-hitch knots.

RECOVERY BLANKET
The blanket is used to dampen the shock in the case of the failure of a strap,
cable, shackle or recovery point. The unit is like a tube and is fitted over the
recovery equipment in use (rope, strap or cable). The compartment at the base
is filled with sand to provide the weight that dampens recoil in the event of a
failure. One must carefully evaluate a recovery, for an example, if doing a vehicle
to vehicle recovery at least two blankets should be used, close to each vehicle. If
multiple points are used in winching with snatch blocks more blankets would be
required.

RECOVERY BRIDLE
The bridle is used to balance or spread the load
across two anchor points when recovering a
stuck vehicle in much the same way as if one
had done this with a choker or drag chain.
However, as it is made from low elongation (5%),
high-tenacity polyester webbing it is softer on
vehicles in the case of a rebound. The safe option
is to use the bridle in conjunction with two
lanyards.

JOINING RECOVERY STRAPS AND ROPES

Firstly only join straps and ropes with the same rating and function. To ensure
that the fabric which makes up the eyes of the rope or webbing does not melt
and bind onto each other due to the force of the recovery, a link is inserted
54
between the two eyes to separate them. Made out of layers of webbing

VEHICLE RECOVERY TRAINING

aggressively stitched together, the semi-rigid link takes the place of the
traditionally-used branch or newspaper and what’s more, it has a retention strap
with a quick-release fastener to ensure that it stays in place whilst the straps or
ropes are not yet under tension. It is not safe practice to join straps or ropes with
a shackle as should a failure occur the shackle will become a potentially deadly
missile.

TIPS FOR SAFE WINCHING

• Make sure bystanders are well clear of the winching area. Bystanders should
keep away from the area extending from the winching vehicle to the point
where the cable is attached. This is in case of a cable snap, which could cause
the cable to whip around and injure bystanders in the cable’s ‘line of fire’ (this
distance should be twice the length of the extended cable).
• If the cable is under great strain, it is wise to dampen the cable at a point about
1/3 of the length of the paid-out cable closest to the clevis hook using a
recovery blanket (NB. use of multiple blankets). In the event of a cable snap,
the weight of the blanket will prevent the cable from whipping.
• When using a tree as an anchor point, always use a tree protector to prevent
damage to the bark. The tree protector should be positioned close to the base
of the tree.
• Use a cable guide to roll the cable onto the drum evenly.
• Always use winching gloves when handling cable. This will protect your hands
from burns and cuts from broken strands. Strong leather gardening gloves will
do. Cuts heal slowly in the bush.
• Ensure that the winch cable is correctly attached to a sturdy towing eye or
bow shackle and don’t loop the cable back around connecting it onto itself, as
this could damage it.
• Beware of loose clothing that might get caught up in the cable or snagged in
the drum.
• Always ensure that there are at least five complete turns of cable left on the
drum before winching, as the rope fastener will not support a heavy load.
• Never engage or disengage the clutch when there is a load on the winch.
• When using a winch to move loads, make sure that the winching vehicle’s
footbrake is depressed. This anchors the vehicle to the ground firmly with all
four wheels.
• Do not move the vehicle to assist the winch. The combination of the winch and
the vehicle pulling together could overload the cable or the winch itself.

THE WINCHING PROCEDURE IS QUITE STRAIGHTFORWARD

1. First secure the wheels of the winching or anchor vehicle. Ensure the cable is
firmly attached to the stuck vehicle and begin to take up the slack. Before you
put the cable under heavy strain, inspect its full length and all attachment
points. Try to avoid pulling at an angle as this creates drag and reduces the
5555
 winch’s pulling power. However, if you attach a snatch block, you can winch

VEHICLE RECOVERY TRAINING

around corners while keeping the pull straight.
2. The long lead on the remote control will allow you to stand well clear. Your
best position is behind the driver’s door where you can control the engine’s
revs and brake, and have the necessary protection in case of a cable snap. As
an additional safety precaution open the bonnet of the winching vehicle as
well. Evaluate the need to use the footbrake to hold either the winching
vehicle or the anchor vehicle (if winching off an anchor vehicle) as the force
can cause a vehicle to slide.
3. Whenever possible, use a snatch block and position the anchor vehicle at
sufficient distance to be on firm ground.
4. Avoid running the winch at full power for a protracted period. You should
pause frequently to cool the winch and allow the engine to recharge the
battery (your winch should cool off if it becomes hot to the touch).
5. When you have successfully completed a winch recovery, your next step is
to examine carefully, the extent of damage if any to the vehicle.
Remember to take special note of the state of the underside and suspension
which may have sustained damage. Do a routine check of oil, water and battery
levels and see that you repack the vehicle properly before you set off.
TIP: Unload a heavily laden vehicle to reduce the strain on the winch.

SAFETY ADVICE
• Always have the hook open end up! Attach the hook from below the recovery
point or shackle and make sure it is secure.
• Don’t forget gloves and never step over or stand close to a tensioned cable.
• All vehicles venturing off-road should have adequate recovery points that
draw off the chassis, both front and rear.
• Watch hands near the fairlead roller and watch the control − use a cable guide.
• Develop winch commands and work as a team, e.g.:
- Out − a clockwise hand movement above your head
- In an anti-clockwise hand movement at waist level
- Intermittent movement of control − open and close thumb and forefinger.
• Never winch with a frayed or badly kinked cable.
• When winching and using a bow shackle, the shackle pin should be at right
angles to the direction of pull, otherwise the force can stretch the shackle,
making it difficult to undo.
• Never use your clevis hook as a strap attachment for recovery (mounting
point). This could pull the cable into the roll, making it difficult to remove.
Remember maximum pulling power is on the last layer of cable on the drum
and decreases as you add layers.
• For self-winching without an anchor point, a sand anchor, spare tyre (buried
in the sand) or a steel stake can be used.
56
THE TYRE HAND WINCH

VEHICLE RECOVERY TRAINING

A hand winch is considerably cheaper than an
electric unit. Obviously it is portable and can
be used on the front or rear of a stuck vehicle.
When not in use, the cable, handle and winch
can be stored out of the way. The typical unit
comes with a cable and a handle for winching in
and out. Jaws in the winch grip move the cable
as the handle is cranked.
All safety methods should be followed and a
snatch block may be used. To lengthen a cable,
you can safely use a pull strap. A hand winch is
a highly effective piece of equipment which requires a fair amount of manual
effort − more than enough reason to improve your driving skills!

SNATCH BLOCK
Your snatch block can be used to re-route
the direction of your winch cable, but its main
function is 'doubling up' − simply put, this
is when extra power is required (i.e. when
you cannot run enough cable off your winch
drum). You then ‘split’ the cable through a
snatch block and back to the winch. This
'doubles' the capacity of your winch by giving
you two lines pulling at the rated capacity,
less about 10% for friction on the sheave (the enclosed wheel in the snatch
block).
NB: This is only applicable when both lines run parallel. ‘Doubling’ also halves
the line speed.

Single line

Double line

Triple line

5757
 THE DRAG CHAIN

VEHICLE RECOVERY TRAINING An overlooked piece of equipment, the drag chain

consists of a length of rated, welded, steel-link
chain with two removable clevis-type grab hooks
able to link back over the chain and lock in place.
Typical uses are:
• Where recovery points do not exist, the chain
can be locked around the chassis on both sides to form an inverted ‘V’. In this
way both sides of the chassis share the load
• A section of chain can also be used with a high-lift jack if no high-lift point
exists
• The chain can be used to anchor off large rocks for recovery
• Towing in emergency situations (as a last resort)
• The chain can be tied around obstacles such as trees which have to be moved.
Do not use a strap for this as you are likely to chafe the webbing.
The minimum breaking strain should not be less than 8 000kg and should have
a minimum length of 3 metres.

AIR COMPRESSORS
Tyres perform best when they’re set at a
pressure that’s appropriate for the terrain. While
highway use calls for a relatively high pressure
rate, lowering your air pressure will dramatically
improve your 4×4’s traction in a range of off-
road environments. Compressed air allows you
the freedom to adjust the tyre inflation level of
your vehicle to suit the conditions.

AIR JACK VERSUS HIGH-LIFT JACK

The high-lift jack has a particularly bad reputation in
the fear-factor department, and as a result there is a
trend that favours air jacks as a safer alternative. But
air jacks have other benefits too. They are fast acting
(when used with the exhaust-pipe attachment),
require no recovery points and are very stable on
soft ground. An air jack can also be used on rocks or
uneven terrain, whereas a high-lift jack needs to be
firmly placed on level ground.
When needing to lift the vehicle as high as possible
and as quickly as possible especially in mud or soft ground, the air jack is the
perfect tool for the job.
However, it should be said that air jacks aren’t entirely free of danger. An air jack
can be inflated using a portable air compressor (it would have to be a powerful
one) or via an exhaust pipe attachment. If you use the exhaust gas method,

58
you need to keep a close eye on the jack while it’s

VEHICLE RECOVERY TRAINING

inflating. The vehicle can be raised surprisingly
quickly, depending on its centre of gravity, so there’s
a risk of it toppling over if you over inflate the bag.
You may also be worried about the bag bursting
under extreme pressure, but a more likely problem
is that the exhaust pipe attachment will simply pop
off the tail pipe. Another disadvantage of an air jack
is its bulky dimensions when packed away. Even
when rolled up and fully deflated, it takes up a lot of
boot space. On top of that, you’ve got a thick rubber hose to contend with. The
chances are that most people will pack their air jack where it’s least accessible,
thinking that they probably won’t need it. Invariably, they’ll attempt countless
recovery short cuts before finally resorting to unpacking the air jack.
In contrast, a high-lift jack is normally readily available, whether it is bolted to
the side of a roof rack, in front of a bumper, or mounted on a spare wheel at the
rear. What’s more, the greatest benefit of a high-lift jack is its versatility. It’s the
Leatherman of recovery tools!
The high-lift jack was invented in the late 1800s and has remained largely
unchanged in its mechanical operation and design. It can be used to lift, push,
pull and topple a 4×4 from an obstacle. In some instances, you can use it to
move a rock or tree trunk off the road.
Regarding the high-lift jack’s reputation as being a dangerous tool, such claims
are often related to the jack accidentally shifting, falling or crushing the user’s
fingers. The most important tip when it comes to operating a high-lift jack is to
be absolutely sure that the vehicle’s tyres are securely chocked and unable to roll
backwards or forwards. The other thing to remember is that the jack’s footplate
must be placed on level ground.
You should wear gloves when operating a high-lift jack, and most importantly,
don’t hold the jack’s stem with your free hand. In the event of the vehicle
shifting and the jack toppling forward, you don’t want your fingers caught
between the jack stem and your vehicle’s bumper. Whether you opt for an air
jack or high-lift jack, both recovery tools have their merits, and if you’ve got the
packing space and budget for both, you will find good reasons for owning both
of them.

TYRE CHAINS
Only consider using tyre chains where the road surface
is covered in a protective layer of compacted snow / ice
/ mud. If you try to use chains on a road that has been
cleared of snow you risk damage to the road and to the
vehicle. If you have fitted chains, stop and remove them
as soon as you reach a gritted/cleared road – choose
a safe place, preferably on level ground and consider
wearing a reflective jacket for improved visibility. A
4-wheel drive vehicle should have chains fitted to all
four wheels.
5959
 DRIVING WITH CHAINS ON

VEHICLE RECOVERY TRAINING Generally, traction control / anti-skid should be turned off when using chains.
Check the vehicle handbook and the instructions for the chains as advice
can vary from product to product. Chains will not keep you from getting into
difficulty if you drive too fast in muddy, icy or snowy conditions. Drive gently
with chains fitted – keep speed down (generally, you should not exceed
60km/h), slow down for bends and avoid harsh acceleration and braking. With
some designs of chain you have to stop after a short distance to check and
adjust the tension – refer to the instructions for your chains. Stop immediately
and remove the chains if they are damaged or broken in use. Check chains for
damage when you take them off – look for worn / broken links and connectors.
Clean and dry chains before putting them away after use, this will prolong their
life.

SAND LADDERS
A sand ladder is any rigid formation of steel,
aluminium or plastic device that provides some
strength for use in bridging and ramping. They
provide grip and level crossing for a 4-wheel drive
vehicle in soft, sandy / snowy or muddy terrain.
The device works by creating a much larger surface
than the tyres can provide. Grip is then provided
by perforations or lugs in the ladder surface so the
tyres can latch onto them. Surface grip of the sand
ladder is most important in wet conditions where
the tyre’s adhesion properties are reduced.
If the sand ladder is rigid enough, it can be used as a bridging device to allow the
vehicle to cross a deep rut or ledge. Bridging capability is desirable in a sand ladder
and improves its safety. Being able to traverse washouts and ruts of considerable
depth is an important feature of sand ladders.
Metal bridging ladders are used as a bridging device to span a deep rut or ledge
that the vehicle may otherwise not be able to traverse. Often these devices have
large bracing on the sides of them to prevent them from flexing. The downside
to the bracing is that it makes them very heavy and bulky to carry inside the
vehicle. For a device so bulky, they are rarely used. Using a sand ladder as a ramp
is not recommended as most will not be capable of supporting the weight of the
vehicle as it climbs up the embankment.
Sand ladders are generally large bulky items that require storage space in your
vehicle that could be used for many other potentially more useful products
or food and water. This begs the question: how often will I need to use them?
And what other functions can they be used for in order to make them a more
valuable device? Useful attributes such as acting as a camp table or being used
for flooring for a shower can justify the space sand ladders take up.

SAND MAT
Sand mat is a soft carpet-like device that is flexible and includes a variety of
rubber matting and rolling segments.

60
BRIDGING LADDER
Bridging ladders are far bulkier and maintain a lot more strength when used in
bridging or ramping configurations and their size should be considered when
purchasing.

A PARTING NOTE…
Well now you really can put your shoulders back and puff out your chest. You are
one of the most knowledgeable 4x4 drivers in town. Your life has just got bigger
and fuller. So go and book that trip, fit those Cooper tyres and plan to track
down the smorgasbord of adventure that awaits a skilled 4x4 driver.

DISCLAIMER
This Handbook was produced for information purposes only and is a general guide regarding the use of a 4 x 4
vehicle and any dynamics and techniques in relation thereto. Please note that no warranties are made with regard
to the accuracy or contents contained herein;
Accordingly:
1. Top Draw Tyres (Pty) Ltd t/a Tyrelife Solutions ("hereinafter referred to as "Tyrelife Solutions") cannot be held
liable for any inaccurate information published in this Handbook, save where such liability arises from the gross
negligence or wilful misconduct of Tyrelife Solutions or its employees, agent or authorised representatives;
2. Tyrelife Solutions shall not be liable for any direct, indirect, incidental, special or consequential loss or damages
which may arise from your use of, or reliance upon, this Handbook or the content contained in this Handbook
and as such reliance on, or use of the content contained herein is entirely at your own risk and you assume full
responsibility for any risk or loss resulting from same in this Handbook;
3. Whilst Tyrelife Solutions takes reasonable measures to ensure the contents of this Handbook is accurate, Tyrelife
Solutions makes no representations or warranties, whether express or implied, as to the quality or accuracy,
completeness or reliability of the information in this Handbook. If any such representations or warranties
are made by Tyrelife Solutions' representative, Tyrelife Solutions shall not be bound thereby and any views or
statement made or expressed in this Handbook are not necessarily the views of Tyrelife Solutions, its directors,
employees and/or agents.
4. Tyrelife Solutions disclaims liability for any damage, loss or expenses, whether direct, indirect or consequential
in nature, arising out of or in connection with your use of the information in this Handbook and / or any
content therein unless otherwise provided by Law.
6161
62
63
www.coopertires.co.za