VOLADURA

Bl ASTING PRINCIPLES
FOR OPEN PIT MINING

GENERAL DESIGN CONCEPTS
Copynghted rn:ttenal l
• BLASTJNO PRINC!PLES FOR OPEN PIT MININO
.' ' VOLUME 1 - GENERAL DESIGN CONCEI'TS
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BLASTING
PRINCIPLES FOR
OPEN PIT MINING
Volume 1 - General design concepts
WlLLIAM HUSTRULID
Profes..'-01' Et"eritu.J
Colorado School ofMines. Goltkn. Colarodo. USA
A.A.BALKEMA/ROTTERDAM/BROOKFIELD/1999
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Contents
DEOJCATION IX
Refercno:s
ACKN()WI fOOfMfNI$ xv
1.2 Mine design tac.tors 2

1 3 D 1c srcam showl 4
1.4 Haula •e 12
1.5 Drilling and blaslin¡¡ 14
16 Pnxh&e!jnn slaljs! jt"1 18
l. 7 Produclion stmtegy thcn :md now 20
Refereoccs and bibliography 22
2 I H E ER AGMENTATION S Y SIEM ('()NCEI'T 24
2.2 Mine-mili fragmcntation systcms 25

2.3 The cnergy rcguircd in fragmcntation 30
2.4 f'ragmentation evaluation 38
2.5 Ootimum fragmcntation cun·e~ 42
2.6 Fragmentation systcms cngint.-cring in practice 53
2.7 Summ· 58
Refcrenct.~ and bibliography 59
1 EXPI OSI VES AS A SOl lRCF O E ERAGMENTATION ENERGV 62
3. 1 Hxplosivc power 62
V
VI Contents
32 Pressua:-\'olumr cuNes 63
3.3 Explosive strength 68
3.4 Encrgy use 69
3.5 Summarv 70
References and bibliographv 71
4 PRE!.!MINARY BLAST DES!ON OII!DELINES 73
4.1 lntroduct joo 73

4.2 Blast design ratioru~le 73
4.3 Ratios for initial design 80
4.4 Ratio-based blast design example 82
4.5 Thc Ash dcsign standards 83
4.6 Dctcnnination of Ka 89
4.7 Simulation ofdifferent dcsien altcmativcs 94
4.8 Rock structurc and blast pattcm dcsign 97
4.9 Measure-while-drilling systems 101
4. 1O Rock blastability 106
4. 11 Fragrnentation prediction 108
Refere:nces and bibliographv 119
5 DRILLING PAITERNS ANO HOLE SEQUENC!NG 12 5
5.1 Blast round tcrminology 125

5.2 E.nergy covcragc 129
5.3 Thc innucncc of face shapc !35
S4 One an<lrwo mw b lasts 139
5.5 Sizc and shapc of blasts 143
5.6 Sorne scgucncing principies 144
Rererences and bibliography 149
6 S!NKING C!IT DES!GN ]52
61 lntmdu cr jon 1 52
6.2 Btnch blw;ting zone !53
63 The shallow zone 154
6.4 The transition region !55
6.5 Sinking cut cxarnple !56
Reference.~ and bibliography 162
7 8111 .K BI .A$TING AGENIS ]63
163
169
7.4 Light ANFO 17 1
Contenls Vll
7.5 Water gelslslurries 174

7.6 Emulsjons 183
7. 7 Heavy ANFO 188
Refen:nccs and bibliography 193
8 INITIATION SYSTEMS 198

8 1 J'n!roductjon 198
8.2 lnitiation and prooaaation of the de!onation fronl 199
S3 Primers and boosters 201
8.4 The end initiation of explosive columns 204
8.5 Tho sidc initiation of explosivcs 208
8.6 lnitiating devices 210
8.7 Blast scquencing 254
8.8 lnitiation exarnple 261
Rcfcrcnccs and bibliography 264
9 ENYIRONMENTA!. EfFECTS 269
9 1 Ground mnljon 269

9.2 Airblast 28 1
9.3 El ock 285
Rcferences and bibliogruphy 289
)O PERIMETER Bl ASTING 293
IQ 1 lntmducrjoo 293
10.2 Tailoring the cnergy ofcxplosivcs 296
10.3 Special damagc eontrolteehniques 30 1
10.4 Perimeter control design approaches 3 12
References ;md bibliogrnphy 373
Dedication
To the member.; ofmy lilmily who bave waited patiently in the background while 1 spent
much of our quality lime togethcr on this book.
IX
Preface
Propcr rock fragmenlation is lhc key first element of the ore winning process. 11 is a two
step activity in the sense that the holes for distributing thc cxplosivcs within thc rock. mass
must firSt be drilled (Step 1) as specified by the fragmenuuion plan. This is thcn followcd
by the controlled rubblization (Step 2) ofthc intcrlyíog rock. Thc n:sulting product is then
picked up and hauled away (Steps 3 and 4 ). Hence, when considering the structure of a
book on Uoit Operations in Open Pit Mining it might be considered logical to begin with
an intcgrated trcatment ofdrilling and blasting under the heading of fragmentation. On the
other hand most mining books are organized by individual unit operation and the presen ~
tation is in the arder in which they occur in thc mine. i.c.
- Drilling,
- Blasting,
- Loading,
- Hauling.
This is also a very logical sequcnce from thc miners point of vicw. Howcvcr, in reviewing
thc composition of thesc four unit operations. eme rapidly comes lO lhe oonc l u.~ion that
they are a mixture of three apples and an orange. The physical opcrations of drilling. load·
ing and hauling are vcry hcavily machinc-oñentcd (thc applcs) whcrcas blasting is engi~
necringldesignfexpericncc oricnted (thc omogc). Today a number of mining ami quarry-
ing operations in recognizing this trueism 'fanu-out' their blast cnginceringldesignlim-
plcmentation toa blasting contrac,tor with lhe required spec.ialized expertisc. Thc in-hou....e
expertise is focus.~d on the three remaining unit operations of drilling, loading and haul-
ing which actually service the fowth, blas1ing. This relationship is shown diagrammati-
cally in Figur<: l.
lmportant in thc· past and important today, carefully enginecred blasting will be an
even more important aspect of successful open pit mining in the futurc as pits bccomc
deeper and ~teeper
and quality separation to avoid dilution and ore losscs during blasting
becomes paramount Therefore, lxltb mjning engineers and mining companies must have
a fi.nn g.rasp of blasting fundamenrals and practice whether or not the actual design and
implcmcntation is done in-housc or by contractors.
In response lo this, the originally planncd book cntitlcd Unil operations in open pit
mining has been divided into two books. This book 8/osling princip/1!3 for open pü min·
ing deals with both the engineering and the scientific aspects of blasting with special ap.
plicalion lO opc.m pie mining. In a book under prtparation Unit operations in open pit
XI
XII Prefáce
Blasting
minlng the principies of the m.achine-ba.~d sen•ice nc::tivities of drilling, loadil)g, and
hauling will be prescntcd.
B/a$llng principies has bcen divided into two volumes. Volume 1 entitled ' General de-
sigo concepts' is intended 10 introduce the readcr to lhc basic cnginccring conccpts and
building blocks whic.h make up a blast desjgn. It consists of ten chapters:
- Chapler l. An historicaJ perspce!ive

- Chapter 2. The fragmentation system concept
- Chapter 3. Explosives as a source offragmentation energy
- Chapter 4. Preliminary blast design guidelines
- Chapter 5. Drilling paue.n:tS and hole scquc-ncing
- Chapter 6. Sin_king cut design
- Chaptc-r 7. Bulk blasting agcnl'O
- ChapteT 8. lnhiation systems
- Chaptcr 9. Environmental e ffects
- Chapler 10. Perime-ter blasting
Volume 2 cntitled ' Theoretical foundations' is intended to provide thc rcader additlonal
dcpth and breadth for better undcrstanding somc of thc fundamental conccpts involvcd in
ro<:k blasting. 1t consists of eleven c.b.apters:
- Chaptcr 11. Fundamcntals of cxplosivcs

- Chapter 12. Blasüng in the absence of a free face
- Chapler 13. The efTc.x.'t of lhe shock. wave
- Chaplcr 14. Ancnuation
- Chapter 15. Spherical charges
- Chapter 16. Cylindrical charges
- Chapter 17. Decoupling
- Chapter 18. Heave
- Chapter 19. The basics of cratering
- Chapler 20. Hydrodynamic-based models
- Chaptcr 2 1. Sorne Russian contributions 10 rock. blasting
Prefat' e XUI
lo lhese chapters lhe author has tricd to bridge the gap betwcen lheory aod practice and to
present the undcrlying coneeptS in an understandJible way. lt is hoped thal lhe contained
material will provide a basis for engineers to improve (a) lheir blasting operations as well
as (b) their ability to understand the content and potential application of papers appearing
in lhe technical literaturc. Historically, in spite of the importante of lhc topic, very fcw
boolu dealing with the de:rign a!ipect.fl of rock blasting have been v.Tiuen with lhe mining
cngincer in mind. The book The Modern Technir¡ue of Rock 8/asting by Langcfors and
KiblstrOm 6rst published in 1963 and two more rceent related books Swedish 8/asting
Technique by R. Gustafsson and App/ied t:xplorives Technology by Stig Olofsson are ex-
ccptions.
The series of Blastcr's Handbooks published for many ycars by Dupont and CIL are
aimed primarily IU bla.c;ters with quarrying and civil constructjon applit.-ations. In tbis rc-
gard,lhc lntcmational Socicty ofExplosivc Enginccrs (1998) bas rcccntly rcleased an up-
dated and cxpandcd version of original Duport Blasters' Handbook. Although thcsc
Handbooks contaio much valuablo infonnation thcy are not intcndcd to providc thc engi,.
neering background.
Rccently a numbcr of books havc bcgun to appcar aimed at thc enginecring practitio-
ner. They vary quite widely in both the depth and breadth of the.ir coverage of the subject.
The autbor rcfcrs tbc rcadcr to thc extcnsivc 'Blastcr's Library' collcction ofbooks avail·
able tbrough the lntemational Socicty of Explosivcs Enginecrs. Thc rclativcly rcccnt lxxlk
by Atlas Powder Coropany entHJed Explosú'eS atJd Rock 8/asting presents in a vcry rcad~
able way a discusslon of a number of imponant tapies. The book Rock 8/a.,~ting and F.x-
plosives Engineering by Pers.son, Holmbcrg and lec has becomc something of a standard
in the field. Final!y lhc book Principies of Rock Fragmenta/ion by Gc:orgc B. Clark is also
to be rccomrncndcd,
In additiori the interested reader is direeted to lhe bi-monthly magazine E.xplosives En-
gincering publishcd by thc lntcmational Socicty for Explosivcs Enginecrs as wcll as the
Prooecdings of thcir yearly conferenoe. The lntemational Joumal for Blasting and Frag-
rnentation FRAGBLAST published by &lkcma has reccntly hegun publication. 1t comes
out on a quarterly basis and is intended to publish papers which bridge the gap between
academia and pmctitioncrs in thc ficld. FRAGBLAST symposia have also held on a
regular basis since 1982 aod the proceedings provide a weahh of infonnallon rcgarding
blasting.
The mining world L<, for hetter or worse, still bilingual wilh bolh English (Imperial)
a.od SI units being used. In lhis book no altcmpt bas bccn madc lo follow one or the other.
lt is asswned lhat the reader can make lhe translation as nccessary. Thc symbols used are
consistcot witbio any givcn chapter but not nccessarily bctween chapters. The author apolo-
gizes for any confusion lhat this may cau."ie but it greatly simplifies the prescntation for
both lhe reader and the author.
Although care has becn taken co avoid en-ors both in understaoding and prcsentation,
lhey unronunately will he prcsent in a work oflhis magnitude. The aulhor will he plea.<ed
if thc rcadcr will bring them to his anention so that com:ctions 10 future editions may be
made.
This book is primarily inttndcd as a tc:xt for mining cngioccring students. However the
materiaJ contained and the presentation form should make il of valuc to practicing cngi·
necrs as wcll,
XIV Preface
REFERENCES
Ada." PO\'o'dc:r Company 1987. L:plwtl!d and Rod 8/m.tilt¡;.

Clark, G.B. 1987. Pl'lm'lpJ~.tq{R~I: FroglfU'fltRilott.lohn Wilcy & Sons, New York.
(iu:naf..'\SOn, R. 1973. S~uh Blasting TC'C/tnk¡utt, SPI, Gothcnbur¡, Swcdcn.
lntmtatilln3.1 Scx:icty or l~xpiMi~ Eng.i.necl1 1998. Dbt.>~lt:ll' liandbook, 17• td itioo. ISEU. Cl~o."Yc:l:wtd. Ohio.
Langerors, U. & O. Kihblrtlm 196). '!M Jlodc:rn Te&.h'ftiqu;¡ oj'Rod 8/Mii,g. John Wilc:y & Sons, Ncw York.
Olorss«.lfl, S.O. 19'89. AppHcd ExplosiwtS TecltnolqgJ•. Appkx, P.O. Oo.'ll: 71, Arta, S""*n.
Pc:rs.soo. P-A.. R. Holmbag & J. Lec 1993. Rod BJar.ting and Exp/IJSI<res útgiMt"t'lng. CRC Publishing Com·
P<'J\f,
Acknowledgements
Th_is book has, 1 gues.11, been in progress for nearly 40 y~. h began when, asan under-
graduate at the Univcrsity of Minnesota. 1 took my firsl class in surfacc mining from Pro-
fessor E.P. Pfleider. He was a very fine teaeher andan enthusiastic booster ofthe mining
indusuy. Through him and Profcssor Donald Yardlcy 1 bccamc hookcd on mining. Char·
les FairhurSl and Tony Starfield togelher with an energetic band of feUow graduate stu-
dents providcd my fonnal introduction to drilling and bla.<ting principies. There was a
stcady strcam ofthc world's bcst cxp<:rts in rock mcchanics and rclated topics who visited
the department. 1 had the chane< to worl< with Thomas Atchj.""'- Dave Pogelson and oth-
""' from thc Twin Citics Rcsearch Ccntcr, USBM during my graduatc studics. My first
acadcmic position after receivio,s my PhD in 1968 was in the Mining Departmenl of thc
Colorado School of Mines. 1 rcmemher very wcll, John Rccd, the department head, im·
pressing on me lhe importance oftrying to be a 'complete' mining engincer. That has nol
bccn an easy task, John, but 1 have tried and it has bccn an interesting voyage. The Den-
ver Research Center of the USBM was close to the Mines campus and 1 had the privilcge
of working with !.tonan! Obert. Wilbur Duvall and Harry Nicholls, as weU a.< othe" yoo
will meet later in the book. As the years have passed 1 have had the opportunity to come
in contact with, and sometimes worlc. witb, a number of thosc who 1 consider have madc
major conlribution< to thc field of blasting. To name a few, this group has included Ulf
Langefors, Georgc Clark. Richard Ash, Claude Cunningham, Mick Lownds, frank
Chiappetta, Gyn Harries, Keith Mercer, Bob Hopler. Tím Hagan. R.f. Favreau and Dane
Blair. <h•er the years 1have had the opportunity to worl< closely with tbe Swcdish Detonic
Research foundation. Roger llolmberg. Per-Anders Persson, Nils Lundberg and, most re-
cently, Finn Ouchtertony and Shulin Nie have been "aluable speaking panners. Oennis
Shannon ofCambrian Collegt has. tbrough my panicipation i.n his shon cour$CS, inspirtd
meto try and package thc blasting materials in an induslry·understandable fonn. A person
with more enthusiasm for minins is ha.rd t() ftod. lñc Swcdish mining company, LKAB,
has heen my work plooe during the last stages of completing this hook. The long, cold and
dark winters and the cool and somctimes rainy summers couplcd whh the long vacation
periods have presentcd me with an excelleot opportunity of pursuing thís hobby of mine.
At LKAB my speaking f"'rtners have hecn lngcmar Marklund, Lars Larsson and Carlos
Quinteiro. Bemt Larsson and Anders Nordqvist of LKABs daughter company Klmit AB
have provided valuable insights aod advice. To all ofyou,l extend my hear1 felt thanks.
XV
XVI Acknow/edgements
In preparing this book, 1 have had the opportunity to make some new friends. losif
Neyman has becn a very valuable spcaking partner in the development of ideas contained
in Chapter 20 on Hydrodynamic Theory. Dale Preece from Sandía National Laboratori<s
has graciously reviewed and provided feedback on the material contained in Chapter 18
regarding tbe use ofbis Dislinct Motion Code for heave prediction. Ruilin Yang and Ste-
phen Chung, ICI Explosives Canada llave provided input on Chapters 18 and 6, r<spee-
tively. Jim Savcly, lnspiration Coppcr, pro\•ided data on thcir approach to perimeter
blasting. John Watson of The Ensign-Bickford Company provided input on shock tube-
ba..-d electronic blasting caps.
Plc-num Publishing Company has vcry gcncrously pcnnincd thc publication ofmatcrial
from anicles originally published in Soviet Mining Science. Atla.~ Powder Company has
allowcd the publication of sorne figures from their book Explosives and Rock BLasting.
The University of Minnesota Press has kindly allowed publication of the photographs
from early Minncsota mining. ~ Society of Explosive Engincers, the Soc:iety of Mining
Eng.ineers. The Canadian Instirute of Mining. and MetaJlurgy, the Australian ln._uitute. of
Mining and Metallu¡gy_, and Blasting Analysis lntcmational, lnc havc all gcncrously aL~
lowed meto include materials originally published by tbem.
Thanks also go to Mariannc Sncdeke.r, formerly publications manager of thc SME,
Denver, Colorado who, sorne 20 years ago, introduced meto the world of writing mining
textbooks.
The picture on the cover L~ of Boliden Mineral AD's Aitik Mine, OAllivare. Sweden. h
was taken by Kurt Eriksson, Proroto AB, Giillivare, Sweden. My thanks are extended to
Mr. Eriksson for pennission to use his photo. lñanks are aJso extended to Agne Ahlenius.
Mino Superintendent, and 10 Bo Ringqvísl, Area Manager, ror lhe nwnorou.s chances to
vis-it and study this world-class operation.
Last, but not leas~ 1 want to acknowledgc lhc students who 1 havo had thc privilcgc,
pleasurc, and challengc of working with over the ycars. They have bcen the dri,·ing; force
for me lo IJy and put Ibis material ínto a readable and hopefully understandable form.
lmportant Notice - P/ease Read

This book has been wrinen for use as a textbook by student< studying suñace rock exca-
valion. in general, and mining cnginccring, in particular. Thc focus has bcen on prescnt·
ing lhe principies involved in explosive rock exeavation in as logical and easily under-
stood way as possíble. lnspite of great tfforts made to avoid the inlrOduclion of mistakes
both in understanding and prescntation, this may havo inadvcrtcmly/unintentionally oo-
currcd. Thc tiUthor would be plcascd if you, thc rcadcr, would bring suc.h mistakes to his
attention so that they may be corrected in subsequent editions.
Neither the author nor the publiomer shall, in any event, be liable ror any damages or
expenses, including consequential damages and expenses. resulting from the use or the in·
fonnation. mcthods, or products dcscribcd in this tc:xtbook.. Judgcmcnts made regarding
the suitability ofthe techniques, procedures. methods, equations. etc for any particular ap-
plication an:: thc rcsponsibility of the user. an<l the user alone. Recognizing that tbere is
still a great deal of •an• in successful blasting. field evaluation and testing remain an im-
portant pa11 of tcchnique. cxplosive and dcsign sclcction for a givcn cxcavalion in a givcn
rock fonnation.
CHAPTER 1
An historical perspective
1.1 INTROOUCTION
Today's shovcl-bascd, large-scale, opc:n pit mining has its origin. tbr all practica) pur-
poses, just about 100 years ago on lhe Mesabi Range in Nonhem Minnesota. As lhe 21st
Century rapidly approaches and we look fot'\\'ard to the developmcnts it will hold for
open pil technology_, and prior to discussing lhe 'modem' techniques in use today, it is
perhaps well to pause and reflect on thc tcchniqucs considcrcd 'modero' in earlier times.
Specifically tbe discussion will focus on lhe unit operations of drilling, blasting, loading
and hauling as practiced about 19 1Oon the Mesabi Rangc.
Tbe word 'Mesabi', according to Winchell ( 1920), comes from the Ojibway lndian lan-
guagc and is thc namc of a fabulous giant wbo made lhis district his dwelling place. The
various boulders which are so numerous in this area were supposcd to havc beco uscd by
him as ammunitíon in llilling game (Winchelll920 and Skillings', 1995).
The first mining claim in the State of Minnesota was stakcd at Prairic River Falls on
the westem end of lhe Mesabi Range by Henry H. Eames in 1866. Allhough the hard
hcmatite as exposed by Lhe Prairie River cutting throug.h the Range was of good quality, it
occurred in ralher thin laycrs (Winchell, 1920). As the years progressed, olher discoveries
ofiron were made along what would become known as the 'Range' but largc scalc cxplo-
ration only beg¡u¡ in earncst in about 1890. Tbe early prospectors faced great difficulties
since the country was a dense. almost trackless forest attemating with vast swamps. Sur·
face in<lications of ore werc almost totally absent. As indicated by Van Bame\•eld ( 1913),
•While some of lhe earliest discoverles were mtule by chance, the tradng ofthe Mesabi
formallons and thc disctwery of WJ!uable ore bodies is in the main the result of careful
study tmd resolute enterprise, intellígently directed'.
The resull of the exploration was the deftnition of not an orebody. nor a mining dls..
trie~but a Range of enonnous proportions. As can be seen in Figure l .l . thc Rangc bas a
lcngth of 110 miles, a width varying from two to 10 miles. and covers an area ofabout
400 squan: mílcs (O.:rry, 1912). Tbc Ojibway namc ' l'abulous Giant' fits 1he Range very
wcll indeed.
Tbe Biwabik Mine was 1he tirst on lhe Rangc (Van Bamevcld, 19 13) wilh thc original
discovery be-ing quite accidental wben an uprooted tree exposed lhe iron ore. This led to
systematic prospecting in 1892. The orebody which covcrcd approximatcly 80 acres lay
2 Blasting principies for open piJ mining: General design concepi:J
-·--MAP
_..,,._
TU[ IRON R/\;,Y;[S
MI~NESOTA
Figurt 1.1. Thdoeatian and cxtcnt of thc Mcsal.>i Range (Van li.amL""Yeld. 1913).
within 20 feet of the surface on the nonh end and dipped towa.rd tlle south at 1Odegrees.
The g.enem l thickness o f thc: o v<.-rburdc:n ranged from 20 to SO fec-t with a n extreme of 90
feet on thc south sidc. In 1892 thc first cxpcrimcnts in mcchanical mining were conducted.
when a small stcam driven stripping shovel wilS hauled in by \or.tgOn. ln 1893, a eontracting
company brought in a 27-ton (shovcl wcight, not capac.ity) shovcl, set it on rails, and stripped
scveral hundred thousand. cubic yatds of ovetburden. A shipment of 1S 1, 500 ton., o f ore was
made that year. This heraJded the beginning oflarge scale open pit mining on thc Rangc.
f rom those rather modest beginnings, steam shovel based mining increased very rap.
idly. Over the 19 year period from 1892 to 1910, the mines on the Mesabi Rllnge pno-
duccd a total of224,90S, I84 tons of iron ore using the mining techniques which will be
now be described a.'i well as sorne less 'modem ' . For the next few minutes ofre.ading s.et-
tlc bac.k and relax. Imagine tuming back the el ock to 191Oand uy to visualize through the
text descriptjon the mining as it was being cBJTied out at that lime.
L2 MINE OESIGN FACTORS
Nearly the whole reglon was covcred with glacial drift varying in thickncss from 25 to
150 fee~ with the average thickness being of the order of 100 feet The Mesabi hematite
ore was. for the most part. wcathen:d and soft and lay nca.r thc surfacc in nca.r horizontal
An historical perspective 3
~ e
o
'"'
,.. ,..
r--..
.., ,., ..,
"' 1011
--"" '"" ""' 1100 IJOO
Fi¡ure 1.1. A typical cross-stction lllroo&h a ~nltfll Mtsabl Ra"~ iron ore dcpo.sit (Van Ramt,•dd, 1913).
or gently dipping beds (Figure 1.2). The overall ore thickncss varicd froon about 50 fcet to
more than 300 fcct Generally thc ore was shipped directly to thc stcel mills without in·
tennediate processing. To be saleable, the minimum natural iron content (c:utofl' grade)
had to be greatc:.r 1han about So-A. Sincc thc g.lacial drin had to be first removed or
'stripped' away to exposc the iron formatjons, the cxploitation of thcsc dcposits depended
upon thc dcvclopmcnt of an incxpensivc mcthod for moving large volumes of material.
Hencc the application of stc:am shovcl U."Chnology was kcy.
Thc planning of a mine on thc Range involve a dctailcd study of the followi ng factors
(Van flameveld, 191 3):
l. The proportion of overburden to ore,
2. Location of the best approach for the tracks c.onsidering both the stripping and the
subscqucnt ore transponation,
3. Slripping dump localions.
4. Track systcm,
S. Drainage systcm,
6. Mechanical equ.ipment selection.
In prcparation fo r mine cvaluation and eventual dcsign, cxploratory holes werc drilled,
logged and the results ploned on the maps. The initial exploration holes were usually lo-
cal<'<i aboul 300 1\ apan unlil lhc ore was struck (Gcrry, 19 12). Thcn lhc pattcm was light·
ened up to 100ft squares or even c:loser. Chum drilling was used down to the ledge rock.
The holc was thcn cascd with pipe and a diamond bit used through the taconitc and other
rock. Drilling in the ore was then continued by chum drilling. The c:ontractors charged $3 to
$3.50 p<:r foot for chum drilling and SS lo S6 pcr fool for diamond drilling. Using lhc drilling
intbnnation the engineer would eonsuuc1 cross-sections and sometimes longitudinal sections
to show ch:arly thc positions of the various layers of ore and rock intrusions. On the plan
maps. con1ours showing top of ore, bonom of ore, 10p of high-gnode. etc would be drawn. A
•cn.:st ofon:' linc would be drawn in plan at sorne distancc outside ofthc on: holcs. Thc dis-
tance would depend upon lhe open pil 'SI""'J!lh' . A 'toe of stripping' line would lhen be
drawn.. This was displaced outward 20ft fmm thc: ·ere:;~ of ore' linc. Thc 'cn:st of stripping '
linc was then constructcd allowing a 45° overall slope in the ovetburden. For estimating the
available ore tonnage. an overall slope of 45° was used on the side ofthe pit intended to carry
lhe track system and an overall slope of 60° on lhe o<her sides. Because of d>e Oaner slope on
lhe track side, lhe pil approach had 10 be carefully considercd from bolh a stripping and min·
ing viewpoint
In 1910. for mine planning purposcs. the final pit sizc/cconomical stripping limits were
controlled by one or more of the following relalionships:
4 Blasfing pr;nciplesfor open pit mining: General design concepl.t
l . A maximum overall stripping mtio of one ydl of overburdcn strippcd for cach ton of
ore removed.
2. As applied al the final pi1 boundaty, lhe stripping limil was 2ft. deplh of overburden
(glacial t.ill) to 1 ft of ore. Since hard slates and taconite.s cost tiom two to lhree times as
muc-h to strip as ordinruy glacial till. it was customary when applying lhese figures to con-
sider 1 ft of such n1aterial as equal to 3 fi of overburden.
3. Thc maximum stripping dcplh should be lcss Iban or equal lo 1SO ft under all cir-
cumstances.
The uppcr portion of thc overburdcn gcncrally consisted of a few feet of vegetahle
mold and soil and often contained many granite boulders. The remaining thiekness was
composcd of sand, grave! and boulders. 1'he boulders increa~ed in both si1..e and fre-
quency near Lhe bQuom of the overburdcn. The lower overburden benchcs oftcn eonsistod
of boulders and compacted cfay and othe:r fine material. This had to be loosened before
the shovd coutd make any progress. As the shovel cocountcrcd thcsc largc bouldcrs in thc
loosened bank. they were 'chained out' and moved lo one side. A regular trail of such
bouldcrs was oftcn sccn in thc {wak.c' of thc shovcl.
Overburden stripping was done using benches about 30 ft in height until approaching
the ore when a 'clean up cut' 6 to 10 fi in heighc was takcn. In thc ore thc bcnchcs wcrc
&om 10 10 25 ft high depending upon the llf'lde ofthe tracks and lhe particular part oflhe
orebody being mined. With standard equipm.:nt, the width ofthe cut was 20 to 25ft.
Whcnc.Ycr possiblc, stripping was done a sc:J..Wn ahead of Joading so that pit grades
could be con.served and the pil Jcft uncrowdcd. for smallcr pits it was common for all of
thc stripping to be complc1cd beforc bcginning ore mining.
1.3 ni E SrllAM SHOVEL
This machine whic.h tOrms the centcrpiece of this tc:chnique will, before considcring thc
othcr unit operaüons, now be describcd in sorne dc.tail. Thc material uscxl has bcen largely
extraaed lrom the references by M""h (1920), McOanicl ( 1913} and Van Bamcveld ( 1913).
The power shovel has beco dcsigncd to imitatc in a mcchanical way thc n1otions gone
through by a man shovelling (Marsh, 1920). Reduced to the simplest tbrm there are three
basic movemcnts. The first, thal of advancing thc dippcr (buckct) into contacl with the
material to be removed. always occurs in a \•enical plane and is called the crowd. ln the
sccond mo,,ement, the dipper is filled and e-levated This also occurs in a vertical planc
and is caHcd hoisüng. Thc third motion in wbich thc loaded dipper is traversed laterally ln
a horizontal plane is called the swing. Each of the crowd. hoist and swing movements
may act indcpcndcndy of one anothcr or two or cvcn all three motions may occur simul-
taneously or with overlapplng motion pe:riods. The two auxiliary movements an: piopel-
ling and dumping. For oonvenienec in moving from place to place the machinc is usually
equipped wilh a self propelling mechanism which drives il backwards (moviog-back) or
forwards (moving-up). To cmpty thc dipper, lhc bottom, which is hinged and lalched, is
lripped thereby penniuing the material 10 fall through.
A standard stcam shovcl of this era is shown in Figwe 1.3. As can be seen the operat-
ing machi.nery and power equ ipmenl are placcd on the de<;k of thc car-body which, in
tum. is supponed on two four-wheel standard gagc trucks (bogics). The boilcr is locatcd
al thc rear cnd (Figure 1.4) din:ctly over one set of trucks and the A-&ame and boom are
An historica/ perspective 5
figure 1.4. '1111t Mation shovd wtlltlhe hl)using teii'IO\ cJ (V4!n Bamt\'t:ld, 1913).
a.t the fronl end over the olher set. The hoislinglswing eng.ines are placed in lhe middle.
Sincc thc car·body is subjcctcd to scvcrc and rapidly n:pcatcd strains, it mu.s1 be con·
structe<J vcry ruggcdly and rigidly. The O·ame (sill), made of steel 1-beams and channels
well braced both longitudinally and transversely, is topped by a 3-in thick plank floor
(dcck) of oak or yellow pine. The side LO sidc swinging of the boom, dipper and dipper
Copynghted fTlatenal
6 Blasling principies for opc.n pit mining: General design conct~pls
handlc tcnds lo tip thc front cnd of thc car. To prc\·cnt this, jack·braccs are placed on the
sides of the ear-body at the feet of the A-frame. Thc lower ends carry screw jacks wbich
can be easily raised or lowered to get n bearing on the ground surface. The in.side axles of
both trucks are chain connected to sprocket whccls operatcd by the cnginc. This fumishcs
the propelling power for moving the shovcl in either direction along the track.
Thc base casting which carrics a largc vertical joumal is mountcd at thc front of thc
fi'ame. This serves as lhe pivota! bearing tbr the rotating tumtable., swing circle and the
boom. Thc boom is a simple bcam madc in lwo sections which are spaccd lo allow thc
free passage ofthe dipper handle. Constructed of wood reinforced with steel plat~ oren-
tirely ofsteel it reaches from 14 to 20ft above the track/ground leve!, has a swing radius
of 1S to 20 ft and an included swing anglc of 180 to 240 dcgrccs. Thc boom is nonnally
inclined at an angle of 40 degrees above the horizonlal. The Jower end ofthe boom rests
on the swing circle which pivots around the front end ofthe platform. The upper (outer)
end of the boom is connccted to the head casting mo\mted at the top of the A·frarne by
boom support guys consisting of stecl rods or bars. The A-frame_. made ofheavy st<."CI bars
with timber reinforcement or entirely of structural steel posts, is given a slight inclination
forward. 11 ís considcrably shorter than thc top or the boom. Thc fcct or thc posta are supo
poned on each side of lhe tumtable. Tbe back leg. a salid steel tension member connects
the top ofthe A-ftame toa point at the rear end ofthe car, directly over the rear trucks.
Thc dippcr handlc is gcncraUy madc of a single tirnbcr of whitc oak. A toothcd rack is
fastened to its lower side and the upper cdg.es are reinforced with stecl anglcs or bent
platcs. Thc handlc which i-s run in and out by pinions on the shipper shaft is hcld in con·
tact with the pinions by means of the yoke block. A small, double-.cylinder, horizontal
type engine placed on the upper side of the boom. is used to crowd the dipper into the
bank. 1t operates a set of gears which revolve a shaft on which is set a steel pinion feeding
into a stccl·toothcd rac.k on lhc bottom sidc of thc dippcr handlc.
The scoop shaped dipper is attached to the lower end of the handle. NonnaJly il is
slightly widcr at the bottom than thc top to fac.ilitatc the dumping of thc muck. Thc bol·
tom is hinged and held closed by a spring lug·latch on the front side. The craneman emp.
ti~ thc dipper by puHing on a light line attachcd to the latch through a lever.
Thc car·body supports a framcwork of timbcr or stccl upon which a shcathing of wcxxJ
or com.agated steel is applied to fOrm the sides and roof of the car. This is necess.ary to
protect the crew and machinery from climatic conditions and falling rock.
A horizonlal, locomotive.type boiler is used. The required coal and water tbr maldng
steam are stored at the rear of the platfonn. The hoistlswing engine is ~ither of the vertical
type with a single stcam cylindcr or of thc horizontal typc with double steam cylindcrs.
The cngine !>upplies power for both hoist and swing. In the design shown in Figure 1.4,
there are lhree drums mounted on one shaft. This shaft is continuously rotated in one di·
rec.tion by a large steel gear driven by a pinion on the eng.ine shaft. The three drum.~
mounted on the shaft are actuated and controlled by friction clutches. The outer two. the
swing drums, are reversed and operatcd by the same Jever. A chain pa.sses around the
swing circle and is wound around the drums staning from the two ends. Ouring the swing
pan ofthe cyc.Jc. as the ehain on one drum unwinds it is taken up by thc other.
The drum in the center is tbr hoisting.. The hoisting chain passes from the hoisting
drum to shcavcs mountcd j ust bclow the tumtablc. Thc chain thcn passcs ov<.'f a shcavc
wheel mounted near the foot of thc boom and thcnce along the boom to the sheavc
mountcd on thc uppc:r sidc of thc boom near the cnd. lt thcn passcs around thc sheave
An hisrorü:al perspective 7
wheel locatcd directly at the end of the boom, continues around lhe sheave wheel con-
tained in the shc:avc block. continues up over the shea\'e whecl al the cnd of the boom a
second lime and finally is fas1ened 10 lhe sheave block. Rouuion of1he boisling drum leiS
out or draws in the chain and dtus lowers or mises the shovel. This hoisting arran.gemcnt
can be clearly seen in Figures 1.4 ond 1.5.
The Allanlic sbovel sbown in Figures 1.6 and l. 7 was inlroduccd 10 lhe Range in 191O.
The chain previously used for hoisting has been replaced by a direct wire--rope hoist. The
hoisting engine was bolted to the base of the boom and the wire rope passed over one
large lwin-grnoved sheave dirc:ctly lo lhe dipper baek. Thc Sleel hoiSiing ropc was made up of
lwo pan~llel cables whose loads wcn: cqualized by passing aroWJd a lhimblc on lhc dipper.
The plocing of lhc hoisting engine on lhc boom lhn:w a considerable amoonl of addilional
weight on lhe lumlable ond lhe llont end. 1t did however make place in lhe body whieh was
used for an extra large, efficicnt boiler wilh its largo water lank (Marsh, 1920).
A stcam shovel is nonnally operated by a crew of seven meo. the runner. the crane.
man~ thc fircman and four pitmcn (McDanicl~ 191 3). Thc runncr/cngineer and thc cranc-.
man directJy control the movemetlt ofthe machi.ne. The runner stands at the set of tevers
and brakcs placed in front ofthe machinery. He controls and direclS the raising and low.
eriog of thc dippcr, the swinging of 1bc crane and propciUng the macbinc. Thc crancman
conii'Ois the openuion of lhe dipper and lhe dipper bond le, regulates 1he dcpth or lhe cu~
rcleascs thc dipper from the bank, and finaJiy empties it into the car. He is stationed on a
small platform on the rig.ht side of the crane near the lower end. The fireman kceps the
hoiler SUpplied Wilh fuel and WQier ond looks afte.r lhc oiling of lhe machincry. Thc dutics
ofthe pitmen who generaJly are under the direct 5upervísion of thc <..-raneman consist of:
- Bn:aking down of high banks
- Assisting thc shovel in loading materiallodged too near the machine
- Levcling tbc surface in front ofthc machinc
- Laying of ncw traek
ScnleofFcet
o 5 10
Ck.ar HeiQ.ht
orun wO"
Figure 1.5. Orawing of lhc froM c:Dd of a staAd3rd sOOvd showing thc hoi.sdng aftd digsing gocotllCir)· (Van
B:unc:vcld, 1913).
8 Blasring principlesfor open pit mlning: General design concept.f
Figure l. 7. Dmwing showing the cross-seaion ofthe Allllllti<: Shovcl (Marsh. 1920, p. 29).
- Opcrnting thc jack braccs and blocking

- General service
\Vhen lhe ground is hard. from two to six extra laborers (rack men) are required to break
down ovcrhaoging material in high banks, drill holcs and blast out mat<'fial, assist in
loading the shovel, ele.
CopynghtE'C miltenal
An hi.siOrical perspeclive 9
McO.niel (1913) bas given lbe following ralber vivid and colorful description of thc
process involved in digging and loading rock using a steam shovcl:
'The act oj excawion commences with the dipper hand/e nearly w!rtical and the dipper
resting 011 the ground. with the cutting edge directed .tlightly into the eanh. The engineer
then mo''eS a le\'f!r throwing the hoi.rting drum into gear and starting the engine. The ret.'O-
Iution of the hoi·rling drum winds up the ltoistittg /ine and pulls the dipper upward Al the
sume time the cranesman starts the engine whic.h control.t the thru.'fting <ifthe dipper handlc
and mows the latter forward m the dipper rises. 7ñese hVO motWns must be made .tmot>thly
and coardinately or the haisting engine wü/ be stopped and the whn/e machine tlpped sud-
den/y forward When the shovel hru reoched the top qfthe t:ut 01' its highest practicable po-
s ilion, the engineer thro·ws the lroisting drum ou/ ofgear and sets the friction clutch with a
foot brake, thus bringing the dipper to a stop. lmmediately the <:ranesman release.t hit brake
and reverses the engine which druw.v bock rhe dipper hand/e, tlms relea.sing the dipper from
the f(J(.'e ofrhe e:rcomrion. When tlw shovel or dipper digs clear ofrhc e.;cccn'C'ltion. il is un·
nece.ssary lo release il a.t described in lhit la.tl rm>Jion. The engineer then start.s rhe swinging
drum.r or engine inro operatWn and swings 1he boom 10 the side. until the dipper is O\'er the
p/oce for dumping. Wil!J a foot brah! he sets the jricJion clutch and stops the rew>lution of
rhe .vwinging drum or drums. The cranesman then pulls the latch rope, which opcns thc latch
and a/lows the door at the bollom of1he dipper to drop and release the <:onten/S. The engi·
neer then relea.ses the frictkm clutt·h by the /OQI bralces tutd reverses the swinging engine,
p1111ing the boom and dipper back to irs posilion for tire nexr cut. As the boom is swung
around, the engúreer gradual/y re/ea.'J(!;.v the friction dutch <if the h<>ísting dn1m and allows
the dippcr to drop slowly toward the bottom of the CUI. When near the poinf o/commencing
the new cut andas the dipper approaches the •..-ertical, the cranesman re/eases the friction
clutc.h on the engine wilh his foot brake. which regulotes tite dipper htmdle. n1us, as rhe la.Jt
partt>J the drop L> made by the dipper, lt ls al.<o brought into the proper ¡mi/ion and the
lcngth oftire dipper arm set for the beginning ojthc new cut. As the dippe.r drops into place.
tlt.e bottom door closes and latches by iJs own weight. The time required 10 make a cut anJ to
dump lhc excavoted material varles from one.Jtalfminute for IOO$C eartiJ or grm'Clto tltrec
minutes for hard and dense soils. The length ofeaclt complete operation depetJd'i 10 a great
extent u¡xm the skill and experiem:e ofthe operators. The motions describcd above must be
C()()rdinoted 10 produce a smooth and harmonious action. '
The Bucyrus Company and lhe Marion Company S'upplied most of the steam shovels
used on the Range ar the lime. Sorne inJOmtation coneemjng two of the most common
models is given below:
- Model 91 M(JJ'ÍOn
Working wcight = 120 tons
Oipper • 3 to 5 yd '
- Modei9S·C Bucyrus
Working weight = 107 tons
Oipper = 3 112 to 5 yd'
Overall dimcnsions = 44.2 ft X 10 ft
Width of cut at 8 n devatiun = 66 n
Height from rail to point ofboom =28ft
C learance height (lh)m raíl to bottom of dipper door when open) • 17ft
Cost = S 12,500-S 13,000 FOB Milwaukce, Frcight = S450
10 Bla.~ting prlnciplesfor open pit mining: General design concepl.s
With both these models the boom was located at and rotated about a tumtable mounted al
thc front of thc shovcl. The dippcr was hoisted using a chain as opposed to by wire rope
which had j ust been 1otroduced.
The time consumed in the various motions of the shovel vary with the nature of the
ma1erial and !he hcighl of lhe bonk (Barneveld, 1913). Typical sho,•el cycle times during
Slripping mighl b<
Condi1ions Cyde tima {Sot(.)

Easy disging andtor hi j!;h banb 20
Dlff;cult dlgglng andfOt lo w bartks 40
A veras-= 25-30
The movc·up distance w:tS usually 6 ft and required 3 to 5 minutes to accomplish. When
working a 30 ft high bank, thc shovcl would move up about 1O times a shift (about once
an hour). This gave lhe pit men ample time to clean up, lay traek ahead of lhe shovel and
gct cverything rcady for the movc. Undcr those conditions a minintum amow1t of time
was consumed in moving up. for banks only 20 ft high the shovel \vtl'\ required to move·
up more onen (perllaps 15 time.s per shift). When mining. low banks and on dean·up work
many more moves \ 1/CTC rcquircd and hencc mu<:h shovclling time was lost from the shif\.
This La.rge variation in operating conditions is reOected by the Jarge percent time distrihu-
tion range.s applic.ahle tbr a 10-hour shovel shift shown in the Table l. l.
Sincc ahe advancc pcr move is dctennined by Lhc: fl..xed lcngth of thc cxtcnsion track
segments, the face area (heigJn x widtb) whicb 1he shovel works conlr()ls toa h.igh degree
the lt)ading cfficie:ncies and C-OSK
As indicated 1he sh0\1CI is moved-up in 6 foot increments. The 6·foot trac.k ex1en.~i ons
havc lhc usual platc con.nccticms and bridlcs found with standard 1rock. As soon lhe sho-
vel has advanccd about 50 ft on such segmcnts, a standard tra<:k segment is substituted for
thc.se shon segmcnts. This process is continued as the shovel moves along the bcncb. Al
thc cnd of thc c.ut. the shovcl movcs back. along thc standard track to beg.in lhe next cut.
This standard track thcn bccomcs thc ncw loading track used by the lo<:omotive and the
cars and the previous looding track is tom up and used in oonstructing the new shove1 track.
Although thc ore has been shol, thc result of the blast is oflcn mostly a shaking of thc
bank and lhc fac-e is ran.:ly thrown down. Somctimes thcrc are masses of ore cspecially at
the top oflhe bank, whic.h remain almost undi$turbed and with euough strength rcmaining
so that they do not faH down or crumble under their own wc:ight. In this case thc fucc is
scaled by dragging thc dipper across the fat.-e wilh thc bonom opcn so that thc ore [alls
down in front of thc shovcl. The proccss is called 'elawing'. In addition to the tace di·
i 'ablc 1. 1. 11m..: di~ribudon ((Ir ~ovct loading ( Van l)anll,."ltdd, 1913).
Actu:~l Sc»ding 40 lo 75%

·Moving-up' 2S1o 5%
Stll'l,•cl tqlllirs I.S co 10%
Waiting on c.aN IStoS%
Mlscdlaneous (thaa time necdcd for 10121 to be 100%)
An historica/ per:Jpective 11
rectly ahead of the shovel, c-lawing of the side is also done. This rcsults in a verticaJ face
of ore being fonned at a distance from thc shovcl track cqual to thc· extreme rcach of thc
dipper handlc. Such a 'claw.:d' bcnch sítuatíon is sbown in Figuro 1.8. Aftcr loading is
complcted a small pi le of brokcn but unloadahle ore remains i.n the comer. This is re-
moved with the next pass.
Tablc 1.2. indícatcs thc supplics consumcd by a typical Bucyrus 95-B shovcl cquippcd
wilh a 2 112 yd' bucket and dluing in íron ore (Bucyrus. 1911 and Van Barncvcld, 1913).
Typic;¡¡l stripping perfonnance. for a 10-hour shift might be
Oigglng Condhkln$ Productioo ()''d3fshift)

2000
1500
7SO·IOOO
When using shovels for stripping. produc1ion rates rangcd from 45,000 to 80,000 ydl/
monlh (52 shifts of 10 hours eaeh). When loading oro the comparativo figure• were 75,000
U) 100,000 long tons ( lt) per month. To provide a volume comparison, the loosc wcig.ht of
the ore (tonnage factor) varicd from about 13 f\3/h for ore running 62% Fe to 17 ft3/h for
that runniog 49% Fe. An average vaJue might be 2 lttydJ. Assuming an average shovel
production of 1500 yd'lshift and an ave-rage shovel labor cost of $30 per shift thc average
direct labor cost involved in loading would be 2 ccnts pcr cubic yard.
Ncxt Cut
Figure 1.&.. A t)'pkal cros.s-scction ~ing lhc bcnch gcomcuy ~bcn kledingon: al thc Stlkn Pit. (Bucyt\ls. 1911).
T.able l.l, ~y tOnS~Mnption ~al-I n. yd3 .\110\'el (V•n ~mC'Ycld, 191)).
ltt:m
Coal (¡xr 10 hoor sh.lft) 2112 to3 ln toos
Watc:r(pcr IOhourshi.ft) 4000-6000 gallons
Lubc"leanu
Black oil (P« 10 hour shift) 1 1/4 to2 112 ¡;alloos
Vllh·eoll(per IOiwur s.hift ) 1 1n to 2 tn ¡all~ln$
Gf'Q.o:t (ptr 10 hoour slljl\) 112 to 1 lb.
llluminants
G:w~linc (pes nigflt) 10 to IS ¡aHon.s
Km.~Sme (pcr ni¡flt) 2112 sa'""'
12 fllasling prú1ciples for open pil mining: General de.vign t·onc:i!pl.'i
1.4 HAULAGE
Both ore and wostc was huulcd by rail (Figures 1.9 and 1. 10). Thc 50 or 60 lb rails
(weight per yard) were standard gauge and 1hus the di.stanc.e between the rails (as meas-
urcd bctwccn thc rail hcads} was 56 1/2 inchcs. Thc stnndard sidc dump ovcrburdcn car
wa.~ Oat-bouomcd and high-set. They were construc.ted of wood. had l\VC) 2-\vheel trucks
(Fig. 1.8), hada nominal capacity of7 ydJ (6 ydl actual capacity) and could dump to ei-
ther side. The dumping w·a s still done by hand although alr dwup caes of 12 to 16 ydl ca-
pacities were becoming available. These had the advantage of reduced labor expense as
well as less dumping related detays which meant that the cars could get bn.ck to the shovel
quicker. In strirping, n standard train consisted ofup 10 12 cars depending up0n the grades
involvcd. On the main haulagc lincs thc; grades could be as high as Jo/o. The pit grades
copld at times be 5% and even up to 7% over s.hon strt:lches. The h.auJ distante varied
greatly but in thc l~rgest of pits it could be from two to three miles. Thc ore was gcncrally
loaded directly into 100,000 lb (50 ton) capacity stecl cars equipped with two rour·wheel
tn1cks. These would evenrually be fonned into a train going to the port. In the rit 1wo 10
four cars could form a tmin in which stccp grades wcrc invoh•cd and 6 to 8 cars on casy
grades.
The majority of the tocommivcs wert StL'"ám d rive-n. coal Jin:d. standard gagc tmd
weighcd from 50 to 60 tons each. In 1910 thcre were 233 locomotivcs and 126 steam
shovcl.s in active opcration on thc Rnnge.
Careful dump planning, dcsign and construetion wcrc an imponam part of thc h.aulage
system. The first concern in this regard was dump location. A lthough one might chink that
lhc obvious first choioc would be to fill in sorne of thc plcntiful muskcg swamps of thc
tlrca, thesc tumcd out to be very poor sites. In examining the remaining pmenrial sites.
Fi¡;utt 1.9. Sltippi.tl$, '-'ilh 1hc Allantioc Sllo\•d (Van Oam.:veld, 1913).
Copynghted rrtatenal
An hi:slqrical perspective 13
Hgurc 1 10 Steam sllo"C'I mining ar ore cVon Bnmf:'·dd, lql 3).
14 8/asting prindple..•;for open plt mining: General deslgn t:oncept.v
care had to be taken to avoid placing dumps ovcr future orcbodics. B.ased otlen on bad
prcvlous e.xperience.s lhe companies would general!y drill a series of exploratory holes to
make sure that the proposed dump land did not contain mineable reserves. Sincc the relic:f
was low, the dumps were built upward in a series of lifts or benche.c; each 20 to 25 teet in
hcight. Thcrc wcrc two basic systcms of dump building. In thc first typc, thc: dump was
started by baddng the tr.ein out of the pit with the locomotive in the rcar and thc cars in
the front. Upon reaching the future dump site. tbe train wouJd stop and thc loads from all
thc cars would be dumpcd bcsidc thc u-ack whcre thcy wcrc parkcd, with altematc cars
being dumped to lhe same side. The dumping crew would lhen shovel the rock back to-
wards 1hc ccntcr of the road bed whiJc jack.ing·up the track.. This proccss would continue
until thc !;tarter dwnp (appearing much like a long dike) had reached the dcsired hcight
and lcng1h. lt could lhcn be c:<pandcd to c:ither onc or both sidc:s by dumping to the dc-
s ircd cxpan.10lOn direction{s). Upon reaching the desired height with the expansion slice
thc track would be thrown (moved) s idcwisc 4 fcct. Duc to tbe lowcr initial compaction of
the dumps outer edge compared to a.n inner pos-ition. the outer raíl would be elevated suf.
ficicntly with respect to thc inner 10 allow for settling under the repcated loading by the
trains. Thc final dumps crcatcd in this way could be scvcml thousand fcct long and scv..
eral hundrcd fcet widc-,
The second technique of dump building began with the building of a wooden trestle 20
lo 25 fcct high and lhc lcngth oflhe desired dump (1200 10 1400 fcel). Thc trcsllc was
simply an easy way of gaining height and eliminating the successive lifting of the track
requircd by the fi rst mcthod. lt carricd, howevcr~ a pricc tag of betv.·cen $2.50 and $4 pcr
lineal foot depending upon the required load carrying capacity. Since it is only temporary
(thc treslle will c:vcntually be fuUy encase<! by the stripping material which wi.ll thc:n take
or
over lhe function supporting fully loaded trains) it is of light construction being nble to
carry (suppo<t) thc weighl of the cmpty train bul not the loaded train. Figure 1.1 1 shows
thc paniaHy complcted starter dump. The locom()tivc. pu8hcs thc l<l3dc<l cars out o f the pie
as díscussed with the previou.o; mc:thod. Wben the first loockd car jw~t pa..c;se.s the transition
point betwee:n the encased and the exposed trestle, the tmin is stopped and the car is
dumpcd to ooc sidc. The locomoti"e 1hen advances the train one car leng:th and stops. The
second car is lhen dumped to the opposite side from thc first. This proccss continues with
altemate side dumping until the la.c;t car has been dumped. At this point the entire line of
empty cars is on the trestlc but thc locomotivc rcmains on the startcr dump. Thc dumping
crew shove-ls the dumped rock toward the center region of the trestle and fills in around
lhc lcgs. Once this startcr dump has bccn created sidewisc ex:pam;ion occurs in the samc
way a.c; described earlier.
1.5 DRILLING ANO BLASTING

Although dritling machines were avaitable and were uscd on sorne parts of the Range,
much of thc blastholc drillíng in 1910 was still being done using hand methods. As will
be seen. due to lhe general softness of the ore and thc ovcrburdcn, thc produc:tivitics and
rcsulting oosts were good which no doubt enoouraged maintaining lhe l«hniques. In de·
scñbing these techntques l:he author has drawn heavity on infonnation oñginally presented
by Fay ( 191 1), EMJ (1912), Anonymous(l913c), Van Bame,·eld ( 1913)and Gillctte ( 1916).
In ore, thc 15 to 25 ft high benchcs wcrc somclimcs soft cnough lo be dug by thc dip·
pcr tccth withoul any blasling. However. in most Ortbodies. blasting Joosened the existing
An historical perspeclive 15
rock structurc and madc loading much casicr and more ciTicicnl. Vertical blast boles, or
so-called 'Top' holes. were placed about 15 to 20 n bac.k ftom lhe crest and about the
same distance apart extending along the entire bcnch to be brokcn. With rcgard to thc
panem dimensions being used., the rules sug,gested that lhe burden and spacing should be
about cqual and rangcd from 112 lhc holc dcpth to equal to the hole depth depending on
the prupenies ofthc material (Marsh, 1920). The specific drilling ranged from
- 0.25 to 1.25 fi ofhole/yd'
:111d the specific charge (powder factor) from
-0.30 to 0.70 lb ofblack powdcr (or40% dynamitc)lyd1
TI1ese top holes were drilled using a 'chum' or 'jumper' drill. A chum drill, as the narne
implies, u.o;ed an action similar to tha1 of a butter chum for creating a hole in the rock. The
drills were made fro m 1-in LO 1 114-in hexagonal, octagonal or round steel bars tipped
with L L/2-in diamete.r chisel bits. Often botb ends ofthe steel bars were tippcd with bits
---
•
'
- • -
Figure 1.11. Construetion ora d:ump using a st:nning ltC:stle (VM Bamevt'ld. 1913).
16 8/asting principies for open pil mining: General design concep1s
so that the required steel sharpening changes were halved. A 25-ft long rod 1 114 in. in di·
amele< weighed slighdy more thal 100 lbs. In drilling, the rod would be lifted vertically
aboul 2 ft off oflhc holc botlom by 2 lo 4 mcn (depcnding upon lbe bole depth) and then
allowed 10 drop freely. For lhe case oftbe 25-ft long rod dropping through 2ft. the veloc-
ity al impacl would be 11.3 ftlsec (3.46 mlsec) and the kinelic energy available for rock-
breaking aboul 400 ft·lbs (SS.S N-m). Lifting of lbc stccl is facilitalcd by mcans of a
heavy iron cross handle or yoke 26 inche:!! long. h was slipped over the steel and fastened Ln
place with a 6.. inch wcdgc. Thcrc was onc such sct of arms for cach pair of mcn. Bit rotation
was accomplished simply by the men movin.g around a J-foot diameter circular path sur-
rounding thc hole.
Whcn thc holc was at lbe required depth (about a foot or two below the desired grade
so that therc would be no 'tight' ore on the boUom). one or two sticks of 7/8-in X 6 in
long 60 pcrocnl dyoamilc would be lowered and shol lO 'spring' (enla<ge) the hole. The
hole was re-<>pcned and now 5 lo 1S sticks of dynamitc wcrc placed al the bottom of thc
hole and shotlo spring thc holc furtber so that it would evcotually hold 2 lo 3 kcgs (cach
kcg contains 25 lbs) ofblack powder. About 2/3 ofthe way through tbe loading process, a
primer consisting of ftve sticks of 60 percent dynamite tightly wrapped together was pre..
pared. Each primer had two clcctric caps or two caps and fuses. Thc remaining powder
was then poured into the hole. Aft:er the powder was in place thc holc was finnly tamped
with sand. During cold weatber only one hole was shot at a time and the loosened mate-
rialloaded out before it had the opportunity to frcczc. In thc summcr oftcn 1S to 20 boles
would be shot one after the other yielding enough material to keep the sho"el busy severa!
days. A gang of 4 mcn could drill, on average, 100 linear fcct of such bole in a 10-hr
shifi. Assuming an average in plaoe spccific gravity for the ore of 4.0 and a 1S ft X 15 ft
panero, therc would be 25 long lons pcr foot ofbolc. Thus thc 4 mcn could drill out 2500
tons of ore per shi fi. At a wage of $2/shiftlman, the direct Labor portian of the drilling
would be about 0.3 cents per ton.
Vertical chum drill boles wcrc somctimes also used for breaking ovcrburden. These
holes we<e spaced IS to 20ft apart, ata distance of20 ft back from the prevíous shovel
cut and wcrc 20 to 2S ft decp. Thcy would abo be chambercd at the bottom. In such mate-
riallhe gang of 4 men would average 40 linear feet ofhole in a 10 hour shift.
Nonnally, howcvcr. whcn blasting benches in overburdcn, a 'gophcring' process was
u.;;.ed. In particular it was used (a) in ground so dry and sandy that a vertical hole could not
be ktpl opcn or (b) wben the hench was too high to be drilled from the top. The collar of
the hole was located at the base of the bank and the hole inclined downward from the
horizontal al an anglc of 10 lo 20 degrees. These 'gopher' holes were 15 10 2S feet d"'P
and spaced at 15 feet in hard material aod high banks and at 25 feet in lower banks and
softcr material.
The typical set of tools needed for gophering are shown in Figure 1.12. In loose mate-
rial, the hole was created simply using the ordinary No. 2 round-pointcd shovcl. Thc sidcs
of the blade would he rumed slightly upward to give a depth of 2 inches and the socket
opening enla<ged lo acccpl the largc 2· lo 3· inch end of a pccled sapling (20 lo 25 ft
long). An ordinary hand auger of small diameter (not shown) was sometimC$ used lO start
ahe hole and remove the fttSt few feet ofnt.aterial. This hole would then be blastcd with a
fcw sticks of dynamitc. Thc cfTect would be to lcave a long boolleg 8 to 14 incbes in di-
amete:r. Since the auger was unwieldy in deep holes. a long pointed moil would nexc be
brought into sen•ice. 'lñls would be drivcn a foot or two into thc bottom of thc holc by
An hi.storical perspective 17
a Long Moil Wcta Plau ..d Wcdgc: For Ori\·ing i1 Ou1orthc Hok
m :::= ~>
(C>-• • • • • • •• • • - · - · ..~-· ... ·- · 211··· . ...
u . . .. ... . . . .. .. . . ...
0~=yG? 1 •
:o-~ -1 )~···~
b. Spoon ,, Shl>vd
(E -I~r-:-
~... .. ... .... .... ... . ..211'···· · ·· ···· -·········""
e:. Loadinl Tf'OUih
,..
. ...... . .. . . . . . . ... .
.i .f""" .. ....... J>o,.'tcl
· - 20'·· · · ······-······ · .. ·• .1
.,.
~e ~1 · -· ," 7:':) Figure 1.12, A lypical $d orOopber·
Hole tools ( Anonymoos, 1913c: 011d
d. Twnpin;g B11r EMJ. 1916).
two men u.~ing double jack.~. When progres.s became slow, a perforated plate about
1 1f2 X 6 X 8 in was slipped o ver thc cnd of thc moil and wcdgcd to it, cithcr with two small
wedges or wilh onc wedge and a track spike as iiiUStrale<l. By hitting the head of the
wedgc(s) with the two doublejacks, the moil could be eXU'acted. During this process. the
moil was usually supportoo on a log, to keep the plate off of the gtOWtd. l'be moil hole
was thcn blastcd by insertiog a stick or lwo of powder and cxploding wilh an eleclric cap.
The loose din was 1ak:en out with the shovel and these altemating processes of drilling,
springing and sbovcling continued until thc dcsired dcpth was n:achcd. Holc depth de-
pended both upon Lhe height or Lhe bank and on the width of the cut. The bouom of Lhe
hole was then spnmg as described earlier with respec.t to the vertical boles. A finaJ sprung
diameter of 1Oto 14 inches was desired.
Two tcchniqucs werc uscd to place thc blaclc powdcr chargc in thc sprung gophcr holc.
The first technique was to feed the black powder into the hole hy means of a wooden box
or spoon 3in wide by 3 ín hígh (irn;idc dímensions) by 32 in long altachcd to the cnd ofa
25 fi long pole. In the second te<:hnique, a Y-shaped trough was constructed or3/4 X 4-in
boards. The powder was poured into the upper end a.nd the trough then g:iven a series of
backward and forward motions shaking thc JX>Wder along thc trough to thc holc bottom.
Copper nails were uscd in the construction ofboth the spoon and the trough to avoid set-
ring ofl' the powder from spark..... Tamping of the loosc powdcr using a woodcn tamping
polc such as shown was an important pan of the opcration. The priming was done in thc
same way ao; des(..-ribed with the vertical holes. Tamping to 1he hole mouth wilh loase
g.ravel was essential to contain the energy.
Thc benchcs wcre drillcd and blastcd by a regular gopher-holc crcw consisting of 10 to
30 men (common laborers) working in g.angs oftwo. The time required for drilling suc.h a
gopher hole varicd from 2 to 12 hours depending on the ground. lt was considcrcd gnnd
work ifthe blastcd bank carne down to the loading traek but did not cover it.
18 8/asting prlncfpi~J'for open plt mintng: General desígn com:ept.s
J\s iod icated earlier there we:rc many granite boulders of vlfious si~.es present in the
overburden. 1ñe sbovel could us.ually 1nove and Jood those smaller than 3 feet in diame-
tcr. Thc rcst, howcvcr, which rangcd up to 12 fcct in díamctcr had to be brokcn by 'block·
holing'. Single· or doubh:·jacking wa.11 used. In sing le jacki.ng onc man hcld thc 7/8 inch
diameter drill stccl with one hand while pounding with the other. The weight or the bam-
mer u.o;.ed was t:o mmonly 4.5 lbs. In two hand drilliog (double jack.ing), onc man hcld tbc
steel while the other hammered. In three-hand drilling one man held the stccl while two
mcn .struck the st~o.o:cl.
The weight of the hammer in thcse cases was 1O lbs. For vcnical
boles water was poured into thc hole to hold lhc cuttings in suspcnsion. The resulting
sludge was removed from time to time. Nomtally single jacklng wa.<; used and the hole
d epth was o fthe nmge of 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 feet. Oepc:ndi.ng on the lcngth, 2 to 4 sticks (J/4 in x
7 in long) of 60 pcrc:cnt dynamitc wcrc inscrtcd in thc complcted holc and shot. 1ñe pow-
der had tO be v.<eH rammed and lhen tamped w ith a little mo ist el ay. The d_riUer worked on
contract with 25 cents being paid P"" linear foot. Usually he drillcd 12 to 15 fee.t of such
holc pcr day.
1.6 PRODUCTIONSTATISTICS
Given these semi·mec.hanized min ing techniqucs, onc might question tbe possible pro-
ductiOCl rate$ and productivilies achievable. Table 1.3 provides the productjon statistics
for sorne ofth c largcr opcrations on thc Rangc for thc ycar ending Junc 30, 1910.
The actual totals for all of thc open plt opcrations on thc Rangc for this pcriod wcre
- 20,667,751 tons of ore shippcd
- 25.902. 178 ydl or o••crburdcn strippcd
for this year, the ore from thc Mcsabi Rangc supplied 40% of the fecd for US pig iron
productio n. This amountcd to 17% of the wortd's supply. A total of nearly 9000 mcn
Tabk 1.3. Prodoctioo ffom 50rtlC or lbc lwF ~ rw.- operal.ion& fur tbe )~ Cfldiflg '"" 30. 1CJ 1O(Fay. 191 1).
Mii'IC Stripping ()'d J) On: Shipped (lt)
SusquehaMa 532,8S7 215,709
Huii-Rusl 2.923.4«1 3.624.414
Mallooing 568,79 1 I,SS2,114
I).,I~·Uno 1,694,203
Sellen 1,356,865 9&t>,S0.3
Ru!o1 1,)01,669
Monis ,,.87,?13 1,973.:2S8
Ad:wns 1.260.742 1.739.9%
F&)'tl l47.629 2.,02J.OSJ
Gcnoa 1.064.791 1572
l.cooanl 1.716,407 341,030
Shoc:NI~J:,'<> 1,43 1,7$19 9 10)170
1-ian.k')' 2,240,649 95,37 1
e""'
Slevt:lll$o.)n
1,002,.)))
82.190 1,378,174
SllbtOI21 18,912,348 1~ .90S.Q6.1
An hislorical perspectiw: 19
wcrc cmploycd witb 4879 in stripping c.lperntions and 4054 in ore mining. Although today
open pil operations are generally regarded as safcr !han !hose conducted underground, the
liuality rate was 4.59 per lhousand as compared lo 3.32 per lhousand ror lhe underground
mines. The reao;on for lhis was lhat lhe open pil operations more nearly resernbled railroad·
ing !han mining. Thal such tonnages C<>uld be produced wíth lhese lechníques speaks wcll
for the mincrs of that era. Tables 1.4, 1.5, and 1.6 providc an indication ofthe wages paid.
the costs, and the revenues., respectively applicablc to mining on the Rangc atthal time.
Table 1.4. Wa¡c:s (SIIO.hr duy) PWd on thc Mcsuhi Rán¡te in Abotd 1910 (Anonymous. 1910 and Van Ba~m·
vc:ld. 19B).
Job CakSOtY
Minins engi:neer $3.84
A.ssistant cnsin«r 2.51
Chcmi.$1 3.25
Carpc:otcr ).12
J.6S
"'"""'
M~hi.nist
Olndl.smilh
J.SJ
3.16
Stcam shon:l open~tor (Runner)• 5.77
Crancman (helpct on shovel)• 4.04
f'in:man (oo looomodv..::s) 2.50
L.owmotivt msíl'll:tt* 4.10
Pit.mun 2.3S
Surf;<tc:e f~an J.37
Pit f~man 4,1)
Rodmlltl (commoo labor) 2.00
•1JonusScJw4ule
Ronncr S2S.tmonth .,r2s days
Crancntan S20fmon.1b or2S days
Locomotive engincers S201month maximum
Tabk I.S. Appro11oimuu: 1910 ('(.)$$ applk:abl~ ft~r Mcsabt Ran~ ores (F1nlay, 1909, Anonymous. 19 13a. Manll.
1920. Van Bamcvcld.l913).
1. Stripping co:slS
- Glacial drift SO.JOiyd'
- Paint rod:: S0.30tyd'
- Bf'OI:en tacooitt S0.7Siyd'
... Stllid ~ac"ni~ so.oor,..,
2. O re mining SO.I S/loo
). Mioing.. atripping and loa~l overfl~ duit¡:C$ (..-e
on ear.t) hui c:xtluding royal¡y, taxes and c:~:trancous
ove:rh..-ad cttargc:s.
- Ran¡c SO.I.Sto SO.7S/ton
... Avenaac SO..aOflon
- Favorable S0.30tltln
4. Royalty S0.4MQn
S. Taxes SO.IO!ton
20 Blas ting principlesfor open pít míníng: General design concepls
'l'abt~ J..S . Conlinued,

6, Ore tmnspon (l():StS
- Tr.!lin frorn thc Mcsabi Rangc h) thc llppct l.akc
Pon (Outulh) S0.80Jibfl
- Boa! U1111Sp.:trt from Ouluth to Lakc Eric pon S0.60hoo
- Traln fnlnl Lakc Etie ¡'IOrt w PltLihuf8h S0.60fl<~n
7. A'·~~c hlt.11 CMt (insh\1 to bJast fumacc) S2.90tton
Table 1.6, Prici.':S paid at thc Piusbutgtl bl:as.1 rurnac:e;s i••1911 ( VM Ll:tmL"'cld. 1913).
I . B~r or~
Pr'-:1!! S•l Jl$/lc)llS ton
Analysi.._
- t.:tluTfiJ il'(ln • SS%
... m..,~1un! .. 10%
- dried ;ron • 61,t2%
.. dlied phosphorus • 0.045'}•
lbse unh \'alue; 0.0881818 c:~,,tS/1111. Thlsl$ upplied lo tt.c n:uuml iron coo,cnc
2. Non·lk..~mcr ore;
l'w'loe: S4.10Yion¡; tc>u
An:•lys.is:
.. n..aurJI iron ... SI.SQ%
- moist11rc .. 12%
- dricd in.m .. SH.52%
Base unit .,:aluc: 0.0'71)(,11 ccmsll1u. This is applkd 10 thc JUuural in)ll conltnl
(ltu x l..,ng ,..,., unit}
1.7 PRO D UCTI QN STRATEGY THEN ANO NOW
Succcssful mitling opermicms an: nol simply a maucr of mc.n, machin(."S and tcchniqucs
b ut rcquirc wcll thought throug.h l)pernting s"trateg.ies for their eflicicnt use as well. Ac-
cording to Van Oameveld (1913) 1he essenlial requircme.nt.s for a su cces...c;ful slrippingjob
were:
l. r-'ropcr s upervision of lh c wholc job. Tili.s mcans keeping tinnly in mind that coop-
cration all a long lhe linc is thc key to succcss.
2. First-class mac.h int:-ry adapted to the work.
3. Facility for quick rcpairs and thorough upkecp ofthc plant.
4. Skilled runncrs (shovel OpératOr;\) and cranemen, expcricnced in 1hc particular ficld,
prcfcrably mcn accustomcd to working togcth cr.
5. Easy acccss to the shovcl for stripping trains, \vith the ernpty lt'.ain polling outllS thc
loadcd train pulls ot1t.
6. Good track systcms with rcasonablc grades and curves.
7. A good pit (;rcw anda wcll organized dump g:mg.
Thc o pcnuing stnuegy (Van Bamcvcld, 19 13) for 1hc.se largc Sh!am shovcl opcralions
(figs 1.1 3 and L 14) was., swtcd simply, to kccp thc shovcls (lhe sourcc of supply) going
stcad ily. Maximum ellicioocy could only be maimainerl by kt.'f!ping other opcrations sub-
scrvicnt to thc steam shovel. In practicallenns. this meant 1hat
An hi.slorico/ perspectl~e 2 1
(a) The shovel should ncver have 10 wuít on a locomotivc. For a properly o rganized
s1ripping operation half a dozen trains may be waiting al any givcn time in various places
and posi1ions roran available stcam shovel.
(b) Since bank blasting was suc.lt a1l important pan o fthe process it should be kepl well
ahead ofthe shovel.
(e) Poorly bla.slcd material inc:rcascd
- Thé str.tin o n thc shovel
- The numbcr of delays and brcakdowns
- Thc repair bill
and caused bolh dirc:ct and indirc..-et rcduc-tions in the outpul.
Copynghted rT'-:ttenal
22 8/osting principies for open pit mining: General de1ign concepl:t
(d ) 'J11e blasting cfficicncy was not mcasured by minimum powder eonsumption bUl
rather by a lhorough conuninution of the bank. This was dcfincd as that which yiclded
ma..ximum digglng and loadingetliciency at theshovel with a minimum ofrepairs.
Today, although the equipmem and tcchniqucs have signiflcantly ch angc..-d through time.
thc o pcrating strate.gy remain..~ ba.~ically the same; keep the looding machinc - 1hc sourcc
ofsupply - produc.ing effic.iently. lfthcrc is waiting to be done, il is by the trucks a.nd not
thc loadcr. Fragmcntation cosls (drilling and bla-;ting) except in the bardest ofrock typcs,
still make up· a relatively small percentage of tbe total opernting costs. Tbc cffctts of in-
adequate fragmcnta.tion on thc loadinglhauling operations remains the same today as in
19 10. Whcn considering the overall proces.,. ofremoving ore from insitu and delivering it
to the fi nal customer one strives todo that at mínimum overaH co.st. For steam shovel iron
mining on lhe central Mesabi Range in 1910, the apparent •cwtomcr' was thc ore car
s ince intcnncdiate proccssing was often n ot req_uired. The truc customer was in fact the
sho.,-el since il was simply an extcnsion of thc rail car.
For open pit metal mining operations today lhis is gcnerally nor tbc case. Thc truc
customer may be a convcnlional fixed primary crusher, a mobile crushcr/conveyor. or
cvcn the cnüre mili itself expressed in tenns ofthroug.hput demand.
In the future the optimization proccss wiU be even more complicated. lt will involve
idcntify ing thc 'real' customcr and together spec.ifying the producl rcquircmcnts and 1hcn
developing a strateror (manpowcr. machin cst tt'(:hniques and procedures) for satisf)'ing
those n:quircmen ts al a mínimum cost.
As indicated in the 1)¡-eface lhis book (Volumcs 1 and 2) deals o nly with the unit opera.
tion blasting. A comprulion volumc, in prcparation, will covcr d rilling, loadíng nn d haul·
ing. Evcn though, by necessity, the specitic technical a-~pccts im1olvcd with thc cUfferen1
unit operations are covcrcd in different chapte.rs and even in different volumes., the rcadcr
must c.learly keep in mind their important intcrdep:ndcncc.
REFERENCES ANO BIBLIOORAPIW
Anlltl}'mous 1910. Wages paid on dlC Mesabi Run¡c. Tht EngWt:ring tutd Minins .Journa/90(26): 1244.
l)ec lA.
Anon)'mous 1912. c,;¡p.,·n ph minil\g of Mcubi iroo ore. Tite E,¡gfnurlng orad Mining .kiunml 93( 19): 938. May
"·
AfiM)'IIIOuS 1913a. lron mining in Minnc:sotJI. TM. t·,.güw:ct-ütg ol'td Mini"g JoV1'PJ41 C).S(26): 129:S. JUilC 28.
Ano.lnymous 19 13b. Ld:e Su.pc:ñor ln~U.Jt l: Mc.:ting. 7'/te /Ingit)bfri.ng and M inlng JiJu.,.I'I0/96(10): 455-456.
Sept 6.
Ath:ltl}'IJIOUS 1913c. Opcn pil mining undcr difrK:uiiÍI.-:t. 1'he E"g;,__,.;,.g und M/ntng .lo11/'tftJI 96(11); 497,
Sept 13,
Al'l()fl)'mous 19l3d. Choice of mining mcthod~ (In 1hc-M~bi. 1ñél Engllfh'rf~~g dnd MMng J<w.tM/96( 13); 592.
So:pc 2?.
Anclflymot.~S 1913e. OriUil\g Mesabi goplll:r holc$, Tlt.: l:,.gi~tt":,.;ng Md Minit~g »urnoi96(2S): 1169--1110. Ott
lO.
Anonymous 199S, 'lllc spclHng 1.1f M~.·sabl. SJ.tlling,,• Mit~lng Rtf'•/(fW ti4(2J: 48.
IJ\K.yn.ul Company 191 1. ffandb.ook ofSumftl Sllcn..-1 Wwt (First Editioo). The Oucyrus C om¡nny and ConMruC>
tion S.:rvicc Company, pp. S..l $, 236·244.
l~tJ 1916. Dt·lt.lil~ Q{ l 'r.x;th:ol Mit~it~g ( 11inl f dill<lfr). Corttpi.k-d by thc editorial stalf from tbe Enginec:ring And
Minin¡ Jooumal , McGr.-w·llfllllook Company. fnc~ Nc:Yo· York. 544 PJF5- pp, S8·6J .
Fay. t\JI. 1C)ll . S1 e~m Mlo wl ~Id: orr lhot Mcsabl R.ang<. Thtr Engiflt!el'l ,g t~,¡ /./Ullltg .)t)urnol, 91(11): 420-423.
Feb U..
An historicai perJpccliw 23
Finlay, J.R. 1909. Cost or plg iron madc: from lakt' Superior ores. TM &g;,_.;ngtmJ MWng ./nunw/87(1$):
7)9-7<5. April 10.
Gmy, A.t.. 1912. lron min.ing on the Mesabi Rang.e. TI.: Ülgin«Tif18 aOO Mining Jawttal94( 1S): 693-696. Oct.
12.
Gilldtc, H.P. 1916. Handhooi. ofR«'l: ~'(Jt/Qn M«ltoJJ lJifJ CoJI. Clart: 8ook Compat~y, New Ycrl:. pp. 21·
39.
Kdlog. L.O. 1914, Notes on Mcsabi Ra~~gc mining ¡nctiCJC-L Tltt Engi~ing artd Afifliltg JowN1197(14):
695-699. April 4.
Marsh, R.• Ir. 1920. Sleam Shovft Min¡,rg (FítSI Edit.ion). Me('.n.w-11111 Book Company, Nc:W York. pp. 1·30,
S!·S4, 7S.82, 93·99, 135· 149, 224·226.
McDanict, A.U. 1913. ~-athm Mtrt:lli~ry. Mcúnrvo•-1-HII Ooot Compcmy, Nc:w Y<ñ. pp. 43-69.
Van Bamc'Vcld, C.l~. 191J. lroR M ining in Mimre.JOIQ, BuUetin No. l. Minnaool School ofMines Experimcne
Station. The Univcrsily of MinnCliOUI, Minneapolis. pp. IJJ.J SJ.
Winchcll, H. V. 1920. Letter oommunicatioo with Sldllings' Mining Rc,•ic:w. Jan 27.
CHAPTER 2
The fragmentation system concept
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In Chaptcr 1, the historical background to modero large-scale open pit mining systcms
based upon mining on tbc Mcsabi Range in Mínne!i4.)ta was presented. Today the 2 1/2 to
4 yd3 dippers u.;;.ed to load the narural ores on the Mesabi Rangc in 1910 havc bc:cn rc-
placed with loading machines about 1O times la111er. One truck will carry the same
amount as 20 of the wagons makin.g up an early stripping train and thcrc havc bccn corrc-
sponding changcs in thc drilling and blasting operations. The ore being mined has
changed as wcll. As opposed to thc casi!y rnined natural Ol'd, the taconite currentl)' being
mincd is sorne of the hardest roc.k in the world. However, even tbough (a) the machincry
has grown with the times, (b) the tcchniqucs havc vastly improved, and (e) hand labor
was long ago rcplaced by machines, the basíc operating strategy remains the same - all
othcr unit opcmtions are subservient to the loader and to loading. Allhough thc loadcr
does indeed fonn the hean ofproduction sincc it is thc source of ore supply, blasting pro-
vides the musclc. These museles mu.'\t be properly developed and then appfied to the
proper degree and in the appropriatc way for the sueceeding operatioo.~ 10 be successful.
This was probably true then, is true today and will be especialty true in the future. lfthis
muscle funetion is underdeveloped and thcrcby pcrfonns poorly or below capacity so then
will all thosc opcrat ion..~ which follow.
Although the endearing tenn 'powdcr monkcy' has often been used 10 refer to the per-
son responsibte for lhe blasting in the mine. today it ls more likcty to be thc 'blasdng cn-
gineer' and in the fu ture lhe ' fragmentation spcdalist'. These do not have the s.ame color-
fui ringas 'powder mt)nkey• but are more ñning descriptions ofthc background, posiüon
and le,·el of responsibility for thc pcrson in wbose hands depends an important part of the
ovcrall mine eeonomy.
This Chapter will providc an ovcrvicw of thc subject of fragmentation cng.ineering and,
in p3rticular, thc fragmcntation system concept in theory and reality. The powerfut, ver·
satile explosive mu.~cles with which wc have lo work will be introduced in Chapter 3.
24
The frogmentation system concept 25
2.2 MINE - MlLL FRAGMENTATJON SYSTEMS
Thc cxprcssion 'systcms approach', in vague today, is used lo describe the process of
systcm idcntification, systcm dcscriptíon, systcm goal definition and finally system opti-
mi~.ation. The concept is t.h.at by examining the 'system' a~ a whole one can often realize
cos~ productivity, product quality, etc improvemeniS which would not otherwise he achiev-
ed by considering thc various elcments comprising thc system singJy,
The •system' to be optimi1.ed can be any group of people. machi_nes or other elemenlS
that work togcthcr todo a ccrtain job or accomplish a ccnain objcctivc. When the compo-
neniS or sub-systems interact significantly it may he possible to achieve the same final
level of performance in many different ways. An enhanced or s-uperior performance leve!
by onc sub-systcm may offset a lcsser performance somewhcrc clsc along thc chain. Once
the system and its sub-system.• ha,•e heen defined and lite system goal(s) defined then lite
various means for achieving thc final dcsircd rcsult may be studicd. Thesc optimization
studies.. called 'tradeoffsrudies', suggest how a g.iven resuh may be achieved in the most
cconomical manncr.
The boundaries distinguishing one sub-system (operation) from another in the produc-
tion chain are often traditional. for example one group may be responsible for drilling,
another group responsiblc for blasting etc-. Givcn this structun:, thc individual •opc:mtjom'
or 'sub-systems' are generally often very highly developed and may in fact he 'optimized'
within thcmsclves. lf, howcver. thcsc traditional boundarics are flcxc<l (moved) or re-
moved eotirely then the ncw sub-systcms fon:ned may. or may not, be optimi1.cd. lf they
turn out to be sub-optimized, Ibis prcsents an improvernent opponunity. In applying a
systems engineering approaeh toan operation one examines both the whole (lhe system)
as well as thc indi\ridual parts (sub-,systc:ms). Spccial attention is paid to thc interface rc-
g.ions. By, at least conceptually, flexing (removing) thc: current interfaces and fonning
ncw groupings, one is in cffcct rcquircd lo look concurrently at the forcst, \'arious grovcs
of trees. and the individual trees themse.lves for co~t and productivity improvements. Sin-
ce this often involves a number of well developed practices and even individualty •optÍ·
mized' sub-systems of long standing the job is not easy hut can he híghly rewarding.
Consider now how this 'systems approach' might be appfied to the system of rock
fragmentation by the mine-mili complex. The stated goal will he that of
ac.hieving a prescribe.d leve/ offragmentálion at mlnimum cost.
Thc: main mine unit opcrations are-. as shown in figure 2. 1, driHing and blasting, loading,
hauling and primary crushing. Thc latter mayor may not be thc rcsponsibility of thc mine
but it will be included as so in this discussion. In Figure 2.2 the drilling and bl.asting cate-
gory has bccn split into the two componcnt pans. A 'l)roducf box has been inserted be·
tween each ofl.he unit operations in Figures 2. 1 and 2.2 to represent lbe seller-buyer ac-
tion which occurs al hand~off.
As opposc:d 10 thc mining of natural ores on thc Mcsabi Rangc in 191 o_, most ores t.o-
day require some type of funher treatment before going on lO the marketplace. In this case
it will be assumed to be a mili which adds valuc to thc mincd product by rcmoving al Least
a major pon ion or the associated waste productS and produces a concentra te which is now
sent funher. for the purposcs ofthis discussion the mili will be detined as the unit which
peñonns the funher mechanical breakdown of thc ore. Thc unit opcrations includcd are
shown in figure 2.3. which prcscnls an ovcrvicw of thc cntirc Mine-MiLI fragmentation
26 B/a$ting principie& for opcn pit mining: General design concepts
OREOOOY
'
ORII,L & l\ LAST
1
1 PROOU~'T B 1
1
LOAO.t HAUL
1
1 PROOUCT C 1
1
PRIMARY
CRUSHER
• 1
1 PKOOUCT O 1
•
M ILL
f i¡ urt 2. 1. Diasrammatic represtnwlan of lhe chain o( mine u.ni1 oper:uíotU
sllowin¡ produce tr.lnSft rs.
OREOOOV
¡
ORILL
1 PftOOU~'T A 1
BI..AST
1
1 PRODUCTO 1
1
LOAD
Figure 2.2. Thc «ill·blasl ponion o f thc unil opc:r'\\lion dlain wilh produd booces
addcd.
system being considered. Funher treatment of the mili product. might include fl otation,
mag.netic/electrostatic separation, etc. lt is as.swned that all mccbanical fragmcotation ac·
tivlties have been completed by the time the ore leaves the mili. Often the mine and mili
fragmentation sub-systems are treatcd separatcly and this is dcnotcd by the dashcd lincs in
thc figure. lf thís is thc case then the scllcr.customer representation becomes that shown
in Figuro 2.4. Thc product box shown drawn bctwcen thc two simpfy indicates lhat mate·
rial •sotd' by the mine and 'purcbased' by the mm. In closely examining Figure 2.4 one
can sec that it can be exprcssed in terms of fragmcntation and transportation unit opera~
tions. This has beco dooc in Figure 2.5. From this it is clear that when looking to make
The fragmentation system concept 21
OREOODY
,....---
,---
-- ------1
---
'--
---
1 ORILLINO 1
1 RLA.l>'iiNG 1
l.OAotNG
1 1
1 HAULING 1
1 PRIMARY CRUSHJNú 1
M I N~
L-- ----
--- ----
------
IMitL
1 SECONDARY CRÚSHING 1
1
1
1
1 1 GRINDING 1
1
¡ __
---- ---- _ _ j Jli¡u~ 2.3. Dio.ar-mmat.ic: rqwese:ntalion
~-- -- - -- of the o,·mU minc--mitl fnagmemaLion
systtm and lht mint and mili subsys-
FURTHER TREATMENT
'"""
funher improvements. a systems study based upon tracking fragmentation is in order. The
entire process takt$ insitu material with a "particle size• considered to be very large and
rcducing il down to. for example. - 325 mesh (in the case of taconite ore) to faeilitate the
funher treattnent. The problem becomes that of deciding where in the system thc diffcrcnt
stagc:s of sizc rcduction should occur and to which lcvcl thcy should occur sincc suth size
rcduction is accompanied by thc cxpeoditure ofincreasing amounts ofcnergy per unil volu-
me using processes having difTerent breaking efficiencies. This question of cncrgy rc-
quirements in fmgmentation will be explored more fully in the following section.
To simplify the diseus."ion the milling ponion of the fragmentation chain will be re~
placcd by a producl dcmand rcquircmcnl (Product O) and thc focus will be on lhal pan of
the chain traditionally ennsidered the mining responsibility as shnwn in Figure 2.3. As a way
of proceeding one can consider the product speeifications or requirements for each prod~
uct box. lf onc bcgins witb Product O, thc succoeding steps in the process are very energy
28 8/ast;ng prinóplesfor open pit mining: General design conc.epts
OREBOOY
¡
MINE
1
1 PRODUCT D 1
MILL
1
1 PROOUCTE
t
Flaure 2.4. 1lle min~>millllyi.tem with product boxes added.
INSI TU
t
()Ril.UNC..i Fnamentalion
Bl.ASTIN(l Fragmc:ntllioa
(.()ADfN(j &; Toospon

UAUUNG
I,RIMARY
CRUSHINO
e <.:ONV~OR
1
S l:C()N()ARY
CRUSHJNG
1
GRINOING
'
fUR'I'HER TREA'I'ME'N'I'
The frogmentalion system concept 29
dcmanding and therefore one might like to have as finely crushed leed as possible-. On fhe
other hand if autogencous miiJing is bcing u.scd a certain ~ize distribution is also needed
for bcst result• and maximwn throughput. Thus therc: cuuld be a desirc, if not a dcmand,
tbr a cenain size distribution and average si:r..e. The mili requin..-ments on thc procccding
steps in thc ftagmcntation process are shown in Figure 2.6. Knowiog the reduction char-
acteristic.-. or the primary t.wshcr onc could ttansfcr these into the mili requirements
placcd on Product C which is the fecd to the primary crusher. Considering simply the
primary crushing operation itself. for high capacity th_roughput and efficient crushing a
feed commensurate with itS designed function is rcquired. This primarily means the
elimination of oversize which causes bridging. One would ideaHy like to have material
that would pass through without crushing and then this stage could be removed. On the
other extreme one wants to avoid particles of such size that •bridging• occurs because
then the throughpul is dramatically reduced. Thus the-rc is room for optimization with re·
spect to this unit With rcspecllo fragmentation, Products B and C are the same except for
ORIWNG
'
Spedlitd
l>tfJt rau~.w
INTf:RNAl. ENVIRONMENT f}M'F,ltNAt &NVIRON'Mf.

Minlmllfn
Mi:nimum Olast Flyrock
N"(l~
Wali O.~ E"l!io=l,g
AirbhtSI
Groood Vibtlllioo
Good
Fragmc~Uion
PlkS,.. LOADIN(J 4: IIAUUNG
Oiggllbflit)'
..
Ui¡JI Througflptll
Btidgfua ~ct1tion
PRIMARY t:RUSHEft
Efficicnl CMhlf'l8 SECONDAKY

CRUSJII N(i
& Orindíng
fced
"
GRIN:OING
Fi¡urc .2.6. Thc fra;gJhenlatioo tcQuitc:~t f\ow sheét.
30 8/asting prindp/esfor open pit mining: General design conceprs
the fmgmcntation which occurs during the loading process. This will be negJec:tcd in this
discu.ssion. In addítion lO thosc rcquircmcniS imposcd by Pr()duc.ts C nnd O, Product B
hru; spccific requircmcnts rcgarding rrugme:ntation a.<o impose<l. by transpon (loading and
hauling). ·lñesc are:
- Oiggability
- Muck pite shapc
- Average sizc and sizc dis.tribution
- Bouldcr frcqucncy/si?..e
What about f'roduct A? Thc Blast Engincc:ring function sp<..'cifics the hole pauems . and
1hc Drilling runction carrics l)Ut thc design. Therc are aJso sorne othcr factors (constraints)
which most be considercd. f irst thcrc are two groups of environmental fac1ors. The extct-
nal environmcntal factors are airblast, ilyroc.k~ noise and far fie.Jd ground vibration. Thcsc
often havc lim.iting valucs im.poscd by law. Obviously the.s e also affect thc near field mine
environment as wcll bul it is not thc samc type of constraint. 1l1e imemaJ environmental
factor whic.h doc-.s have a direct etlect on tite mine is unwantcd rock drunagc done by
blasüng to the remaining waUrock. This constraint does not apply throughout thc pit but
where it is imponanl, it is importan! , An ore grndc control constraint is somctimes im-
po.sed wlth the dcsirc being that the ore remain more or lcss in the samc place bcfore and
atlcr blasting. Thcrc are also constmints imposed by linlited operating room. bcuch sizcs,
equipmcnt or fac.ilitie.s in closc proximity, cte. Thc Blasl Enginecring box is shown with
thc dillCrent dcmands imposcd upon it in Figure 2.6.
Now thc.rc are obviously c.osts (pcnahjes) and benefil<o ao;.sociatcd with thc diffcrcnt
demands and sorne tradcoffs havc to be made-, Howeve~: with the fo.c10rs ide:ntified and
spccificd. thc bla)1 engim:er can begin the dcsig.n process and w-cigh the diffcrcnt alterna ..
tives.
Figure 2. 7 illustralc:s quite wc.ll Lhc many controllable and uncontrollable variables in·
volvc.d in any given blast and thc rcsuJting outputs. The logic trail involvt:d in pre.paring
the dcsign are shown in Figure 2.8 with a somcvlhttt simplilied. vc:rsion oCthe dcsign•tCSt•
rede.o,¡-ign circle given in figure 2.9. As can be secn thc proccss of t:Jlgincering a blas.t is a
challc..'Tlging pn:K.:t:ss involving the marriagc of
- E.xplosivc c.haractcristics
- Explosive fracturing phenomt:na
- Layout geomctry
- Rock and rock mas:s propertie.s
- Tinling
- Set:tucncing
so th:u thc dcsircd dcgn.~ of fragmcntation as rcquircd by the down-strcarn o¡xrations as
wcll as thc othcr dcmands shown in figure 2.6 are saüs6cd. Thc tools r<."<J.uin:d to attack
lhisjob are prcsentcd in thc remaining portions ofVolwne 1 ofthis book.
2.3 THil f.NERGY REQUIRED IN FRAGMENTATION
lñere are thrcc common approaches whjch have been usc<l. throughoul che years to de-
scribe the work done in breaking down a material from onc pa.rticle si1,.c to another using
mechanical mcans. In 1867, Riuingcr suggestc..-d lhat thc energy (work) requircd was re-
latc..'<l 10 the amoum of ncw surtitce arca crcatcd (encrgy was a funcLion of arca). Kic.k
The fragmemation system concepi 31
(A) CO NT AOLLAB LE YAAIABLES
• HO LE OI.AMETEA • INITIATING SYSTEM

• HOLE OEPTH • INITIATING SEOUENCE
• SUBAill OfP'H • NO. OF FREE FACI!$
• HOLE INCLINA l'IQN • 8UF"FERS
• COLLAR HEIGHT • EXPLOSIVE TYPE
• STEMM ING HEIGHT • UPLOSIVt E.NEAGY
• STEMMI NG MATERIAl • CHAACE GEOMETAY
• UENCH HEICHT • LOAOINC ME THOO
• PATTERN • WATER 1$0M(TIMES
• UUROEN lO SPACING RAT IO UNCONTAOllA8lE)
• ULAST $1Zt ANO CONFIGUAATION • ETC,
• BlASTINC OIAECTION
,., UNCO NTROLLA 8LE VA RI A IL.ES
• GEOLOGY
• MATERIAl STRENOTH$ ¡. PAOPEATII!$
• STAUCTUAAl OISCONTINUITII;$
• WE.UH IEA CO NOITIONS
• WATI!A tSOMETIMES CONTAOlU8lE)
• ETC.
1
0 llttOIIdl
'
LOA.OEO BlAST
!:!Q.!l; TY PIC Al
~
PRODUCTION Bl.AST os
LES$ THAN TWQ
SECONOS OUAATION
l UCO"'d$
' <
(C) OUTPUTS
• FAAGMENTATION
• MUC k Pllf OISPLACEMENT
• MUCit Pllf PAOfiU
• GAOUND VIBRA TIONS
• AIA8UST
• 8ACk ANO $lOE $PlllS
• HYROCk
• MISFIRES
• ETC,
F'i¡ure 2.7. Field mo6el Ulus~t~tlna bl.w desi&fl inptats OOCP\II.S (ALias Pow4er Comp;any, 1987).
(1885) on lhe Olher hand concluded that it was related to lhe total strain energy required
by the particles to bring lhem to the point of failurc and hencc a function of volumc. Bond
(1952) indicated in his so-callcd 'Third Law' that sincc lhe partíele must fir.il be strained
to the breaking point (volwne dependence) a.nd then new suñace is created during failurc
32 8/a.sling princip/e$/Or open pil miníng: General design concepls
Goal
• ' llAQIII(N TAtiON
• t.tUC IIt Pll-l OloiAA CC t.tCN"W Optlmlzed
1.AJ:US:·
• I A Cil AN O $10( $.fl'l t\ $
o f~'UIOCIIt
Mlnlmlzed
• . .SIUitS
• W.ML llOCil '
Sito
• GCO LOOY
• UAT(IltAL S1111 l NCTI'I S & PIIIOPtATIIU
• ITAUCTUAAL OIICQNTIHVIntt
o Wl.&TNCit COHOm OIQ
• WA U il
• HO~t OIA"'tflR • l l'flTIA liNG $f $ T(Iol

•
•
HOll Q(Pl H
sv••u u o t~> TH
. '"n'"''"o n ouu,.ct
o N O. 0, f ii.U I'ACC$
• N~C lNC~INA U ON o 8 U,ff:IIIS
• COU.A.II NIIGN f • Uli"LOSI"f '"" '
S U:t.IOIIIfG NCIGH T • Uh.O SI"f f lf lll<lY
o SUt.tOitlf G OIA UIU.AL • CH M IOt OtONflllf
• . ! NCH Hfl(lNT
.'""'''"'"'
• LO.t.OII;G Wtf"OO
• IU IIOf N tO $.1>AC11\10 ""'"0

• ILAST SIU -' NO CONriCO:VIIIA fiQ!\1
• I \,AITINO OlllfCHO"f
u oen
~
No
J Objeetlves A c:hleved ?
Productlon Pettem
1 1
f igure 2.8. Bias~ desi¡ n Oowshea lo¡lc (modified after Alias Pow6er Comp;~~~y, 1987).
(arca depc:ndcncc) lhal both proccsscs must be involvcd. Oka (1%9) showcd thal all thrcc
ofthese 'laws' can be d~bed by the following formula
(2.1)
The.frllgmentation .ry.tem concept 33
Blasl
Ocs;gn
Optimum
Blast
Perfonnancc.
Figu~ 2.9. Thc bla.u dcsign<valua·

tion -rcdesign improvt:mcnt cird.:
(H um~rcys. 1'»S and J))'nl)fWc:s--
farma-s, 199J).
where W = total encrgy (work) required for sizc rcduction from fccdsizc (f) to product
:;i7.e (P), F = feed diameter, P = product diameter, K; = COnstanl which is 'Law' depend-
ent, 8 - infinite (Kick's law), 8 • 6 (Rittinger's law), 8 = 12 (Bond's Law).
Since this relationship is most easily demonstrated for the Rittinger Law, such an ap.
proach will be followed here. The work required according to Equation (2.1) is
1 1
W= K, ( p - F] (2.2)
wherc KR = the Rittinger constant.

In lhc bcginníng of tbe proof, assume thal one begins with a cube of edge length F. lo
the ca~ of a unit cube, F = 1. The surface atea (A,.·) is
A,-• 6 F 'Z
and the votume (V p) i..~
VF' = F'
Thcrc is just 1 such cubc so lhat lhc numbcr (N,) of fccd particlcs involvcd is
N,= 1
lf the suñace energy per unit area is assumed equal to S, the general expression for the
total energy (E) thc:n bccomcs
E = NXAXS (2.3)
where E = total surfacc energy, N= no. of partíeles. A = surface arca pcr particlc. S= sur-
face energy/unit area.
Substituting into Equation (2.3) the values appropriate for the feed one ftnds that
E, = 1 X 6 F' x S ~ 6 F ' S (2.4)
)4 Bla.~·ting prindp/e.o;jor o~n pit mlning; General deJ·ign conr:epts
Consider now that aner c.rushing the product is made up of particlcs h.aving a side length
P. The surfacc area (Ap) and the volutnc (Vp) of each particfe are respective!y
Ap• 6P 1
Vp = P J
Thc numbcr (Np) ofproduct particlcs is

3
Np • :.VVp F
. .t:.. • -p'J
and thc total surfa (,.'C cncrgy (Ep) aflcr crushing is
. F3 6F3 S
E,.• pJ x6P' XS • p (2.5)
The work done ( W) is the diflCrenc.e i1~ the surface encrgics beforc and afu."T crushing.
Hence
W• ErEF=
6 F's ., 1 1
6f -S = 6SF' ( - · - - 1 (2.6)
p p F "
This is the fonn requircd. Thc othcr fomllllas can be devcloped in much thc same way.
Today. thc Bond Law ts probably the most oficn uscd:
WK] I 1] (2. 7a)
'"' 1.1 p ll"l - p ll2 .
whcre W = work or energy input toa mnch.inc rcducing material from a dcfinitc fccd sizc
toa dcfinitc product sizc. lt is exprcssed in k\Vhlton. F ~ diameter (expressed in microns
( 10 -ó m)"l of the squarc holc thal will pass 800/o of thc fced. 11 is dctennincd from ¡:¡ sieve
analysis. P = diamctcr [cxp ~scd in microns ( 1O• >b m)l of thc squarc hole that wiU pass
80% of the product. lt is d etennincd from a sievc anslysis.
E.quation (2. 7a) can also be writtcn in the altcm.atc fom1of
FII'Z - p l l '!
W• KIJ p ll2¡;·112 (2.7b)
Thc constant K8 i.s cxp~scd us ing Equation (2. 7b) as

p"'- F " 'l
Ke ... W ,,., 112 (2.8)
F ·- P
and is dc1crmincd by mcasuring thc amoun1 of e-nergy required to reduce a given feed toa
given produc.l. 13y way of example assumc that an input encrgy of3 kWh reduces 1 ton of
material from a s izc F = l600 microns to f' • 400 microns. Substituting these values into
Equation (2.8) one finds that
3 X 400112 X 160011 :Z
KD = 112 11
= 120 kWh-micron 112/ton
1600 - 400 :!
Using Equation (2. 7a) onc can calculatc thc cncrgy required to go from a fccd which is in-
finite in size (f~ • infinite) to any given produc.t size P. Thc energy will be rdCrrcd to as
thc total cnergy or the tolal work and given the symbol, W1 • TIHL~
Thefragmenralion jys1em concepl 35
_ 1 1 _ K8
W,- Kal p lll - w "l 1- plll (2.9)
For thc examplc.

120
W, = tn = 3 k Wh/ton
1600
Another irnportant special case is lhe calculation of the arnount of cnergy rcquircd to ro-
duce the material from infinitc fccd siz.c: toa product s izc of 100 microns. This is given
lhe symbol W1 and is lhe Bond Wo~ lndex. Subsliluting into Equation (2. 7a) onc finds
that
1 l K8
IY¡ = Knl 100112 - ootn j • 100112 (2. 10)
Using thc cxample values and solving for JY1 one finds that
120
1Y1 • 12 .. 12 kWh/ton
1001
This lndex provides a common basis by which engineers around thc world can compare
the comminution propcrtics of and the encrgy rcquircmcnlS for diffc-n:nl materials and
processes. The total energy (W,) required to reduce a 0\lllerial from infinite leed size to a
product size P, can (a) be obtained using Equation (2.9) or (b) by applying Equation (2.8)
to calculatc thc (.."tlCrgy rcquircd to go lo an intcnncdiatc siz.c P1 and thcn adding thc en~
ergy needed to go from size P 1 10 P2• The total energy requircd to go from an infinite size
to a product size of 400 microns in the c:xample is
_ K 8 _ 120 _
J~ - p'n - 400112 - 6 kWhlton
Now as was tbund earlier, the energy required to go ffom an infrnite feed si~.e 10 a pn)duct
s.izc of 1600 microns, was 3 k Whlton. The mc:asurcment mnde whcn rcducing thc 1600 mic.
ron material 10 400 microns was 3 kWh/ton. Thus the total a.~ expected is 6 kWh!ton.
Whcn tak:ing a total systcms approach to thc fragrncntation proccss as was discusscd
earlier in Section 2.2. one must examine both the amount of rcquired input cnergy and the
point at which (and in which fonn) it sbould be introduced into the system. In this regard
consider thc following cxamplc in which an approach bascd upon thc Bond Work lndcx
has been applied to a hypot:het:ical bl88ting and crushin.g situation. lt is based loosely oo
the Northshon: Mi.ne in Minnesota us-ing published data when available and making rea·
sonable assumptions as ncccssary. Figure 2.10 shows thc sizc distribution ofthc blastcd
rock as detennined from video films of 1ruck loads of mine nm ore (Pastika et al., 1995).
Here one can see lhat lhe average size was 4.25 ins and lhe size lhrough which 800/a oflhe
material would pass was 9.S ins. They indicate that in good blasts 80% of the rock is less
than 4 ins in dimension. In Bond (1952), Worl< lndex values as calculated li·om Allis-
Chalmm laboratory tests have been presented for santples collected from many mining
properties. The valucs given for Reserve taconitc (the predc:ccssor ofNorthsbore Mining)
are given in Table 2. 1. The Work lndex values are given in kWhhon from iofinite feed
size to SOO/ó passing 100 microns. Thls corresponds to about 65~o passing 200 mesh. Us..
íng all valucs, thc rangc is from about 11 to 26 kWhlton with thc average bcing 17. Using
36 8/asting principlesfor open pil mining: General design roncepls
"o~------J-5~-------u,~
o --------~
,5~------~20'
Sile tins\
¡:¡ JUre 2.1O, Run·(l(o(fl\ne fragm01t sizc 1111alysi.:s f"or thc North.:shorc mirte. (~ika et al.. 1995).
Tabk 2. 1. Work iOOc:x ,.aJucs fOf Nontuhott (RcsctYc:) Tacooite (Bond, 1952).
T"t Mil.l typc Spcc. &fll''ity M"h Work lndcx (multipfc sampk::s)
1748 Rod 14 16.2&. 25.70
2476 Rod 14 18..80. 13.80
2475 Rod 14 18..50. 21.42. 17.75
2159 lmpotet C rushing ).50 11.10
1817 • 3.75 14.86, IS.OO, 19.28
17411 • 3.01 15.88
14S6 3.16 16.29
39R • 3.48 12.1)1
The5c wort indCJ[ Y'llluC$ h¡¡,·.e bcxn c:ak:ulatod from laboracory ICSlS oonduc1t'd b)' Allis Olalmers. Tbt gi\'C'n
v~lu.es nrc c:xprct.'led in lo: Wblton for :an infi nitc: fccd 3i~ to so-,.t, p:~uing 100 miaons (or aboul 65% p~~.uing
200 rncsh).
Equalions (2.9) and (2. 1O) onc finds that thc total cncrgy rcquircd to break thc material
ti"om infinire (insitu) size toa product ofwhich 800/o passcs 9.5 ins (0.24 X to6 microns)
would be
W = IY:1 (-100 )11"- = 17( 100 6 11/ ·" =0.35 kWhlton

' P 24 x J0
On the other hand the amount of energy required to produce a product with P • 4 ins:
(0. 100 X 10 6) microns would be
100
W = 17[ 1' 11 ~ 0.54 kWhlton
' O.JOO>< 10•
In using this approach thc cxpectation would be that to reduce the product sizc from 9.5
ins to 4 ins an enCl'!!Y input of 0.19 kWhloon is rcquircd.
lt is intcrcsting to compare thc cncrgy rcquircmcnts as calculated using thc Bond Work
lndex with thosc: expended in blb1ing. An average powdcr factor of 0.9 lbs/long ton will
be used. Tbe energy contentlunit weight (E~) ofthe emulsion explosive will be assumed lO
be 93% of thal of ANFO or 850 cal/gm. Sincc 1 caloric is equal lo 4.184 Joules, thc en-
ergy content is
Thefragmentaricm sysrem t:<lncept 31
E,~ 850 cal/gm = 3556 Jouleslgm • 3.56 MJ/kg

Since
1 kWh =3.6MJ
thc explosive cnergy cxpressed in the samc units as clectrical cnergy is
E, & 0.99 kWhlkg
E, = 0.45 k\Vh/lb
Using thc powdcr factor of0.91b/long ton. the total cxplosivc <.-nergy per long ton i.s
E,= 0.91b/lt X 0.45 k\Vh/lb = 0.41 kWh/lt
Since the Bond Work lndex value is given in tenns or energy/short ton lhe conversion bet·
wcen short and long ton must be madc.
1 short ton = 2000 lbs
1 long ton = 2240 lbs
hence
2000
E, • 0.41 X
2240
=0.36 k Whlst
This ls of the samc ordcr of magnitudc as would be calculated using thc Bond Work In·
dex. Although this result may simply be fortui tous, it does provide a con\'enient way fOr
cvaluating thc amount of cxplosivc coergy rcquircd to achicvc a givcn fragmcntation and
compare it with energy being applied throu.gh electricity.
11 must be noled tbal nothing has beco said about the eiTectiveoeos (efficiency) of en-
ergy utilization in e.ither process. In the case of the erusher, the eleclricity is that used to
drivc thc clcctric motors. In blasting, the theorctical encrgy ofthc explosivc is uscd. To
perfonn an actual enc:rgy balance. the efficicncits must be known. Thc approach outlincd
may, however, be the only practical way to pruc<ed.
In making decisions as to where the energy should be applied to create a certain frag-
mcnlation. 1bc cost of encrgy application t.-nters. The cost of thc t)(plosive will be as·
sumed 10 be $0.16/lb. Using the energy value/lb determined earlier the explosive cost
would be
e= soJ611b = so.J6/kWh
' 0.4S k\Vhllb
On lhe othcr hand, thc cost for eloctrical powcr is in lhc raogc of $0.05 to SO. I0/kWh de-
pending upon location, den\and and other t3ctors. Thu.!\ looking S'imply at energy cost on a
kWh basis explosive energy is of the order of 5 times more expe:nsive than eleclrical en-
ergy. However thc cost of the systcm for applying the energy must also be included. It is
not fair 10 examine the cnc:rgy cost alone. In blasting, additional energy may oflcn be ap-
plied to the <ystem by simply increasing the energy of the explosives loaded in the exist-
ing boles. However if adding energy 10 the systcm requires that new boles be drilled and
lhese tilled with explosives thcn obviou.,.Jy the addcd cncrgy OO.SL" are much higher. In
crushin& onc has both capital and opcraüng costs to considcr. Thc opcrating costs involvc
liner plates, repair/maintenance labor, etc. while the capital costs rcflcet thc investment ín
38 8/asling principlesfor open pil mining: General design ccncepls
lhe crushing plant l'lence. in both cases. one must calculate thc total real costs involved in
cncrgy application cxprcssed in $/kWh and know the energy needed to aehieve a ccrtain
fi-agmentalion. On that basis thc most favorable time and place for energy application can
be selected.
2.4 FRAGMENTATION EVALUATION
A critical element in fragmentation system optimizulion is the developmcnt of practica)

mcthods for detennining the degree of fragmentation. By degrce of fragmcntation onc:
generally means :specifying tbe average particlc sizc and thc distribution of the particles
around that mean. 8oth direct and indirect methods are available for detcrmining thc
fragmentation. The direct methods includc screcn analyses, counting boulders, and meas-
uring the pieees direcdy. The most accuratc method ofdctcnnining fragmentation is obvi·
ously to sievc thc whole pile. Although this is possible todo for small amounl'> of material
and for very spccial purposes it is very tedious, time consuming and very eostly. This is
even more true when measuring the picccs directly. Counting and measuring the bouldetS
(oversizc) is a common practicc and easily done. ll provides infonnation about the ex-
treme tail ofthe distribution but nothing more.
There are two categories of indircct tcchniques:
l. Photographic mcthods
2. Measurement of paramcters which can be corrclatcd to thc dc:grce offragmentation.
In applying thc photographic tcchniquc, the following steps are followed (Rholl et al.,
1993b):
l . The photographs are aaken with a 35-mm camera, a medium fonnat camera or a
video camera.
2. Thcy are then digitized. In the evaluation of the photographs, one can do the digiti·
zation by hand or with an automatic image processing program. The hand .method is very
tedious and time consuroing. The scanner sereens the image and convcrts il into an output
consisting ofx and y coordinates (the intersections of eacb row and column) and assigns a
value corresponding to its shading on the grey scale. This infonnation triple is storcd in
mc-mory and bcnce casily accessible for performing further digital evaluations.
3. In the oomputer technique, speciaJ software is used to enhance the rock fragmcnts
and tc.l dete<..1lbe edgc:s. Thc: digitizc:d points are connec.ted to fonn closed shapes.
4. Once the outlines ofthe individual rock fragments are defined,the sizes ofthe indi·
vidual frngments may be dctcnnincd.
5. The size ofthe fragmenL~t are related to the mínimum screcn size througb whicb thcy
would pas..c¡.
6. In the final step the fragmentation distributioo is calculaled.
The accuracy of the photographic as.."lessment technique depends upoo controlling thc
source errors and minimizing their magnitudc (Rholl ct al.~ 1993b). Theses errors include:
J. Photographs have limited resolution and rock fragments which are smallcr than a
certain minimum valuc will not be observed.
2. Pbotographs leave a third dimension unexposed.
3. Photographs nonnally samplc only thc rock fragmcnts on thc suñaces ofmuck pi les.
The fragmenlallon J')~flem com~ept 39
4, Rack fra¡pncnts in pholograpbs 1end 10 ovcrlap and may also be cul off allhe cdges
oflhe photoanphs.
S. PholosraPh~ images can easily be dis1oncd.
6. lma¡c intctpteWioo software can intrOdutf: errors, especialty in tho5c cases wbcn:
lhe sutf'accs or rock tngmenJs are highly ~<xrurcd.
Thc príncipe! Slcps ínvoh·cd in lhe pholognphic lcchniquc are shown in Figun: 2.11.
~are also Slereo ln:hníques as opposed 10 lhe 2-0 proccdurcs dcs<:ribed abovt which
providc a dii'CCI cvaluatioo of J-0 dala. However lhey are lime c:onsuming and require
high peñonnancc, cJC:pcnsivc equipmc:nt. The photognaphic.: t.:c:hnique can be applied to
Slationary muck faces or muck piles. Jt can al.so be used to sca.n thc material as it pas.~~
by in haula¡¡c ln~<b or on a conveyor belt. Just (1979) has found th•l phologrophs taken
or lhe surfucc: of a muck pi le or the digging face are nm rcprcscnhilivc of thc whole. Still
ph01o¡¡rophs of lhc malcrial conlaincd in passing h11ul lmcks does, on lht Olhtr hand, pro-
vide such ""'"liS. Al the ROssiog Mine (Huntcr ti ol., 1990) cvery truck thnt p.'IS$e$ the
camera duríng daylight hours can be samplcd in 1his wny. Syllcm irnprovcmeniS could in-
elude 24 hou.r pholography and captwi:ng lh•c imagcs tL,ing video cameras.
Crwhcr monitoring is onc of tbc rechnjqucs whic:h providc:s an indlrcc.t i.ndic:azion uf
the fra_gmentatioo. h includes detcnnining
- Crushcr •n<1'SY eomumption
- Thc l)'p<, slmlgth and siz.e oflhe feed ma1erial
- Thc siz.e of lhe crusl>cd product
- Crwl1er lhroughpu1
Thc lhcory bchind this •pproach has lxxn discussed in Stetion 2 .3.
Anoth<r indii'CCI and widely uscd tcchnique is thc moniiOring of secondary break-
insfblulina cosb.
Shovel monitoring is a natural way of following •nd dcseribing both quali~11ivcly and
quantativdy fragmcnlatíon and fragmcntation changes. The diggability or fragmcntatioo
indexes dcvcloped on thc basis of shovcl monitoring should incorporatc thc ciTc:i:ts of s.i:zc
distl'ibution, swcll factor und muck pi le profile. One such moniloring system currently re-
cordslproducegthc following valucs (Hunlcr et al., 1990):
- Lolld time per lrUCk
- Time per dig cycle
- Time waiting for tn.lck:s
- Downtlme
- Fíll an¡le (are moved 1hrough during lhe dig mo1ion)
- Swin¡ an¡lc (angle from dig 10 lrUCk)
- Numbcr of boom jaokings and hoisls
- Tripouu
- Boom vibnJion
- Motor voltaac, currcnt and coergy consumplion
1'bdc: data providc many diffcrc:nl pcmibilitio fOO' learning about lhe cffeetivcness of lhe
loading opcnation and idcnlifying improvement poosibililics. As W•lliamsoo ct al. ( 1983)
point OU~ when devcloping a degrec Of fro¡¡mcntation iudcx Íl is imporlanl lO ídenúfy
a measurc whích will rel31e pri_marily to diggln_g conditions 1111he face nnd be ins.ensitivt
to opcrator bch:avior, truck availability, and a variety of other fac..1ors wh.ic:h inOuence
e py•tgnted 'llale tal

40 8/asting principies for open pit minlng: General de.vígn L'tJncepl$
b.ObjoetCCIIIOIII1
e.- -
Figutt 2.11 . A frngmentaLion anatysis system (VO&t & A.Obroct, 1993).
productivity. ln the shoveling action shown in Figure 2.12 and described earlier in Chap-
tcr 1 thc dippcr is forccd into thc bank through thc use of thc crowd action whilc bcing
lifled with the hoisting mO\'emenl. The load is then swung and dumped. With respect to
focussing on fragmcntation conditions and largcly climinating thc other factors, only the
digging section of the operating cycle is considere<!. For electrie loading shovels the fol·
lowing parameters are easily monitorcd from the rclevant elcctricaJ circuits:
Thc fmgmcmmlon sys.tcm concept 4 1
..
- Crowd ltmalurc vofla,gc and cwrc:ru

- ltoisliJ'Tl'Wure volta,ge and cutT'Uit
- Dippcrtrip (dwnp) n:lay ond tbc: crowdlpropcl n:lay.
A nwnbcr of diiT<TCnt indexes have then becn developcd ba><d upon using thcse meas-
umnents. Thn:e of thcse are:
- Dig Ulillution lodcx
- DiSPbility l.ndcx
- Boom Vibrotion lndcx
Williumson et al. (1983 ) deline the Oig Utilization lndex os thc rutio of the number of
bucket• hnulcd lo the total numbct of digging action.s. This gjves un indication of the rill·
ing chnracrcrlstlcs or tighutes' of thc facc as wcll as lhe faec profilc. A rchued indcx is the
Buckct Fill f"acror which is thc ralio of thc mínimum numbcr 10 thc ~tvcrage numbcr of
buektt louds pcr truck observed under the given digging conditions. 11te Oiggubility ln-
dcx (Williwnson el al., 1983) is a more oomplkated il\dcx bascd upon a sbape analysis of
the cmwd macar voltagc signals duri11g diggjng. An altcm:lli>c indcx boscd on the cro" 'CI
m<liOr power oomumption is eosily oomputed fmm the voltage and cummt sips. llowever
it has been found to be k:ss scnsitivc ID tbc: li>gmcnUJtion than the crowd voltagc. This iodcx
reflecu the ciTetts of si>.: distribution and swetl fld«. The Boom Vibrolion lndex (ll"""" "
aL. 1990) is defuted as the oumbcr of peaks abcwc a cauin du-cshold n:rordod by a lilt sensor
!llOUilled 011 the boom during the looding of one truclc. 11 tPVCS a """"""' Of digin¡¡ condi-
tions. opmnin¡¡ clwacteristics and i5 a diltct mcasun: of loadin¡¡ SC\crily on the boom's me-
c:ltonical SIIUCiure.
Figure 2.13 is a flow sheet which shows how the fra¡¡men101ion 3Jld tbc: diggabilil)l
components a.rc combi.ncd at a mining opcration to define thc owmll bllSt rcwlt.s..
With rcspect to mean fragment sizc and di.stribution 1here :are prcdíctivc tcchniqucs
avuilable b:I.Sed upon thc rock typc and thc cxplosi"clpattcm b<ing u.ow.:d. Titc:w= techníques
will he discus""d in Chnptcr 4.
y •gnt~ 11a 111

42 8/a.,~ting principies for open pil mining: General design concepts
Fragmenuuion r-- P'h<Ko¡mphic

Mc:as,urcmct~l
Boollkr Cour«.ing
m..
Re:sults
l:i¡ure 2. 1J, 1'he di¡pbilily Md
'1 D~l;oy r-- l.orlding Time

Oiggability 1ndex
Vibrntion h~
fnwne:nwion inpuu for cvaluating
bl.asting teSUits (Williamson d al.
19113).
2.5 OP-r!MUM FRAGMENTATION CURVES
2.5.1 The MacKetrziefragmentation curves

Somc 30 years ago, MacKcnzic (1966~ 1967) prcsentcd his now dassic conceptual curves
showing the cost dependence ofthe difterent mining unit opcrations
- Drillíng
- Blasting
- loading
- Hauling
- Primary crushing
on the dcgrcc offragmcntation. Thcy are prcsenuxl in their original fonn in Figure 2.14. As
can be seen sorne ofthe costs decrease with increasing fragmentation while otbers increase.
By adding lhe curves togcther one obt-ains the overa.ll cost versus degree-of-fragmentation
curve presenlcd in thc: lower part of lhe figure. ll has the fonn of a saddle indicating that
there is a cenain degree of fragmcntation for which the ovcrall cost is a minimum. Ln thc
particular case shown, lhe base of the saddle is quil< broad suggesting lhaJ the overall
costs change linle over a wide fragmentation range. Before discussing the development
and application of thcsc curves it is important lo understand thc logic bchínd them. Be-
ginning with the toading, hauling and crushing curves the logic, as presented by MacKen-
zie, is as foiJows:
Looding
An incrca.sc in thc dcgrec of fragmcntalion will givc abe shovcl a highcr ratc of produc-
livity. At SIJlndard opernting costs per hour (for aJI practicaJ purposes independent oflhe
producúon ratc) this will rcsull in lowcr costs pcr ton or cubic yard moved. Thc ctTcct of
wcar and tcar will aJso decrease, giving lower operaling cost pe:r hour.
Hauling
Undcr similar condítions of haul, lift, size an<l type of truck and haul road condilions.
ltUd: production per hour will increase wiih greater degree of fragmentation due to faster
shovcl loading ratcs and a dcc:rcasc in bridging (and hcnce waiting time) at thc crushcr.
Thcre wiU be a conscqucnl decrease in cycle lime. At a standard operating cost per hour,
this increase in truck speed or productivity will result in lower unit operating costs.
Thefragmentotion system concept 43
••
C05tlunit DRILI.ING
BLASTI/\'G
tnc.:rcasc in qu¡'lnlity
or hi8hcr t'J irf&)'
Sf-IOVEI. tOADINO
••
Costlunil
IIM:fCase in produc:CMty
dccrca>c: in repairs and
maintcn:mc..:
Frugmentalion
TRUCK HAUUNG
d. lnacase in productivhy
CoWunit in C)'Ck tin~
d ..."CCcasc
Fragmcntution
CRUSIIING
•• Dc:crc:asc in btidging
Costlooit ..... · · ·. ·.' ··..·.:: ;· incrtasc in produc1ivity
Fn.gmcntation
~ ~ OI'TIMUM ULASTINO
·:·· ..:. ;r - - - - - Lo"'"t':SI unit (:0!;1
...·~~
....
Fi¡ un: 2. 14. The effect or the de¡m: of fn~ammwti.on on lhe indi\·idual unit opera!ion w.sts Md on the ovc:r<~ll
C:O!il (MacKcntk. 1967),
Croshing
An increase in the degree of frogmentation give$ lower crus.hing costs a10 more material
passes through as undersize. Liner costs, repair and maintcnance, and bridging time will
decre.ase and the crushing rate per hour will incrca.se. As indicatcd dccreascd bridging
time aJso cuts down on truck delay time at the crusher which in tum g ives h.igher truck
and shovel produc:tivity. Any inerease in degree of frngmentation me-.ms less work for the
crusher. The % bridging time is one indicator, along with shovel loading rale of this de-
grcc of fragmcntation.
These have been the easiest to explain since the unit costs alwnys decre.ase with in-
crcasing fragmentation. 'Thc same is not true for the drilling and blasting cos1s. There are
many possible combinations which can occur depending upon thc particular dcsign. Thc
following explanation has bcen paucmed af\cr that givcn by MacKenzic.
44 8/asling principies for open pil mining: Generúl design c.·oncepls
8/a.sring
For a givcn rock typc, gcologic stmcturc, and firing sequence, an increa~ in the degree of
fragmentat:ion may be achieved by (a) inc.rcasin.g thc consumed quantity of a givcn cxp!()o
s-ive, (b) changing to an explosive havlng greater e.nergy cotttent per unit holc volume
(highcr cncrgy contcnll dcnsity), or (e) combinations ofboth.
For blasting case (a) the associatcd drilling cosl would increasc if thc cxplosive qurul·
tity were to be increased by simply dtilling lhe same diameter drill hote.s but on a tighter
pattcm. Thus thcrc would be more drill holcs rcquircd to blast a givcn volume. lf larger
diameter dril! holes were substituted and the increased hole volwne (explosivc quanlity)
achieved in this way then the rate of increase or decrease would depend upon lhc com-
parativc drilling cost pcr foot ofholc. For case ( b), presuming that thc samc hole diamctcr
and pattem is used., lhe drilling costs would remain consumt independent of the frag.mcn-
tation. f'or case (e) the drilling cost could 1. Remain constant. 2. lncreac;e or 3. Oec.rease
depcnding upon thc situation. lf thc samc fragmcntation is dcsircd and a more energetic
cxplosivc is !iub!itituted for thc one currently in use. then the unit drilling cost could de-
crease duc to the possibility of increasing the hole spaclng (spreading the pattem).
(n his original presentation MacKenzie has explaincd lbc drilling dcpcndcncc as fol-
lows:
'Drilling. General/y speaking, for a giwm type ofdrilling ami ofexplosive, the co:u pt•r
cubic yard or ron wi/1 remain conslanl or increase wilh lhe degree of.fragmentalion. lf
hlghcr Mergy ~.xploslves üre substltuu-d. , thc tirilllng cost pcr )'(1rd wi/J (/("CTC(I:~e. The rote
of im:rease or decrease or decrease wi/1 be dependetU uponlhe dril/ing cosl per fool.'
Unfortunately, by attempting to prcsent severa! of the different possible combinations
on thc samc drilling figure (fig. 2.14a) thc close coupling bctwccn the drilling and blast-
ing costs is Jost and the possibility for confusion ariscs.
In tcnns of thc pmctical dctcnnination of dcgrcc of fragmcntatioo MacKcn7.ic sugsc:stcd
that the mos1 cffcctive evaluation is obtained by using the shovcl loading ratc, exclusive of
all delays. Thc degree of sccondaty breaking, high bottom, and bridging detays at thc
crusbcr may be uscd in conjw1ction with shovcl loading ratc to achfcvc a bcttcr com:lation.
Belbre discussing some praclical applications ofthe concept, it is pe.rhaps well to prcscnt
some background infonnation rcgarding thc Qucbcc..Canicr Mine applicablc at about the
same time as these papc:'fS by MacKenYje were written. Table 2.2 desc.ribes the main
mining unit Opt -rntions wüh partkular emphasis on the drilling and blasting whilst Ta·
ble 2.3 gjves the estimated costs and the cost dL~itribution.
The costs in Table 2.3 should help to put lhe effects assochued with cost incrc-ascs or
decreases of lhe diffen:nt unit operations into perspective. The changc:s which wcre un-
dcTYt'ay in 1967 werc to increasc lhe holc sizc, to expand the paucm a.nd to '-'Onvcn lo a
metallized slurry explosive. The approach described in his papers was used as a way of
cvaluating the differcnt optionslcombinations.
There are numerous ways in which overall eost-degree of fragmentation curves can be
tL"Iied. Two will be discussed here using the MacKenzie rcsults. In thc first example it will
be assumcd thal onc has an cxplosive and a drill paltcm which yiclds suitablc fragmenta·
tion (Pattem A). Oue to various reasons one would like to cvaluate othe.r altemativc:$
which would yield at lcast equally good rcsults and hopcfully at a lowcr cost. This case. is
shown diagranunatically in Figure 2.15. One does not care at which absolute point on the
Thefragmentation system concept 45
Tabk 2.l.lnformalion regardi11g l.he Qu~·Cartier Mine (l'l'k:íder &. Weatoll. 1963).
l. Ore 1ypc: ·racunlte
z.. onmna
12 114" diametcr roc:uy biu in ore (9 1111• and 12 1/-4" in wasu:)
penaration ~te • 14.$ Mlr (16 f\/hr}
3. 8la$tin¡
powder fnQlof • 0.10 Ji)s.\on
Cll:plosi\'CS usc:d: ANF'O, .sluny. metallittd slurry
bcni.il heigtlt • 40 ft
sub&r&ck ., 4 ft
.spacing • 2J t\ {24--JO lt)
burden • 23 li (24-30 fi)
4. l.nadin¡, hau1if11J. and cn1..'\hina
Tabl<: 2.3. Eslimatcd d irttt opm~ting coses and tllc cost distñbllliM for thl! (~u::b«-Canicr Mine (Bammes.
1 %6~
Unit opcrat.ion C...($1lt) C I,)SI (~{,)
Orintng 0.06 1)
l)lalitlng 0.11 23
l~ine 0.61 15
UauUng 0.18 38
General O.Ol 11
TO'rAl. 0 .47 100
CoWUnit
u
1) l'>csig.n Variruions
E
A
e
Figurt 2.1'· l)i.,.mm:~tic rtpn.~"n·

truil)~t M O~lns lile blas1 dt.:si:¡n
whilt rnaini#Ín in¡ C(lfl"-1:&111 f'r.¡;.·
mcn~tion ,
overall curve onc. is opcraüng bul simply that thc fragmcntation rcmains more or IC$5 thc
same. Shown superimposcd on thc curve are thc results of four differenl pattems and from
lhis it appcar.s that Puncm e is an interesting altcmativc.
Consider lhe case of lhe Qucbtc-Cartier Mine wherc the drill hole.s werc 9 718 inchcs
in diamctcr and the bcnch height was 40 ft. 'fhese were maintained constant. ln the s-ystcm
currcnt at that time, thc lowcr portion of thc blastholc was loaded with a bouom charge of
a high energy, water resistant, more costly cxplosivc. Thcn in a sccond operation. thc up-
pcr pan of the holc was loaded with a column charge consis1ing of a lowcr cost, h.lW<.T en-
46 8/asting principlesfor ope.n pit mining: General de.fign t:oncepts
ergy, water-scnsitive cxplosive,, This two part charge will be dcnolcd as Pattcm A. For thc
squarc panero of holes with a hole spacing of 22.5 1\. the fragmentation was COI\Side.red
satisfactory. Jt will be assumed that thc drilling cost for each hole is S220. For 11altem A
the explosive cost per hole is $120 and henc:e the total drilling and blasting cost per holc
is $340. Since each hole breaks a volwne (V11) of
V = [22.5tl x22.5tlx40 ft] .
7500
" 21 n ' tcy Y
the fragmentation costs are $0.45/cy. lt is desired lo replace this system by one in which
the cntirc holc is fillcd with a water rcsi.stant explosivc in onc pass. This is to be done
whilc malntaining currenl fragmentation and costs. There were four possible explosives to
choosc between. The co~;ts (Sfuole) SSSOC·iated with cac'h are givcn in Tablc 2.4.
lt is obvious from ex.amining Table 2.4 r.ruu the hole spacing must be lncreascd for all
of 1he candidate explosives in order to maintain the current costlcy. 1be cost ($/cy) for
cach of thc ex.plosives is shown as a function of thc bote spaeing (assuming a squarc pat~
tem) in Figure 2.16. A series ofblasting test~ were perfonned with each of the explosives.
The holc spac.ing yiclding the same fragmentation a."i the currcnt pauem w~ identificd.
These positions are shown on the f~.gurc by the large filled circles. As can be seen, even
though the cost per hole is significantly more than that for the cunen1 pattem, f.xplo-
sive e dueto its increa.'ied breaking ability and the spreading of the panem yieJd~ a lower
1'able 2...4. Costs for th< dif't'em~<t ahCilllltive.s.

Costs (Sthole)
Explosive Orilling Ell:plosh~ TOial
A (cum::nl) 220 120 34<)
o 220 260 4110
e 220 m 495
o
~
220
220
l20
l40 ""'
560
A
0.50
Orilling &
l\la\ling COSt.\ (1,40
(SI<yl ~
()
e
O,lO
A Figure 1.16. Rcwlts from thc Que-·

b«·Cankr mine V~fi:':n blast de·
0,20 l----!~':-'--t:---!!o-+.:-+.-t-:-~c' sign f'kxing undcr coostlltlt ftag·
21 23 26 28 30 32 l -4 36
Holc Spacing (ft) menUitioo ~;(u,didcm5.
Thefragmentalion syslem concepl 41
costlcy than E"plosive A. The decision was made to change ro this explosive which tumed
out lo be thc mctallizcd sluny. Assuming a spccific gravity of3.3 for thc ore, the drilling
and blasting cost would be SO. I811t which is similar to !hose givcn in Table 2.3.
A second application ofthc: appmach would be lhat once the explosive and the hole di-
amcter has been chosen, onc could tlex thc pattem by changing thc holc spacing and
thcreby vary the specific chargc (thc amount of cxplosive per unit of rock). A common
fonn of specifie charge is lhe so-called powder tS.ctor. As the spacing is increased or de-
crcased thcrc should be a corrcsponding changc in thc dcgrcc of fragmcntation obscrvcd.
Based upon tbc corresponding economic analyscs onc's position with rcspcct to the opti-
mum can be dctcnnined. This typc of test is shown diagrammatically in Figure 2. 17. Ob·
viously onc: could also vary severa( parametcrs at thc samc time (cxplosive, hole pattcm,
etc) however then it Lo; much more difficult to identifY the cause of the improvement or
degradation. The resuhs from test series perfonned by MacKenz.ie to select the new ex-
plosive aod pattem wc-re apparendy also used to study thc position on the ovcraU cost·
degree offragmentation cu.rve. The resuhs are shown in Figure 2.18. There is good correla-
tion betwccn these actual results and the conceptual curves shown in Figure 2.14. with the
possible exception of thc blasting. Thc swnma.ry cost curve is as shown in Figure 2.19.
The question marks reOeet the possible type.s of curve c.:xtcnsíon with incrcasing frag-
mc-ntation. A.ll would suggest that thc current pattcms líe on thc lcft flank ofthc curve and
that further improvement is possible.
ln summary. this approach to detennining thc optimum fragmentation makes good
scnse. Since those costs associated with producing an increase in fragmentation (drilling
and blasting) incrcasc while !hose rclated to handling the product (loading. hauling and
crushing) decrease there sl\ould be a certain fragmentalion or fragmcnlatíon range yicld-
ing a mínimum O\•erall cost. The fact that the optimum is apparendy quite broad is posi-
tive in lhe sensc- that a pattcm Jying somcwhcn: in thc optimum rango would be cxpcctcd
to function nearly cqually wcU whcn onc of the non-controllablc inputs such as roek type1
rock conditions varies somewhat. The curve woold also suggcst that once onc has a work·
able design_. presumably lyiog in the optimum range) there is little economic incentive to
scck thc 'true' op1imum. In short, there is reason to establish pauern.s gi..,ing •satislltctory•
results in the dilferc:nt rock cypes occ.uning in the open pit but linte rcason to sed; opti·
mums. This obviously simplifies the productio11 blast designlfayout problcm markedly.
Cosc!Unit
l'i¡:un: l .l7. l) ilqp1JmPUitic n:prnc:ntatioo ofdlC op:imum socking proc:C$5.
48 8/ruting principies for open pit mining: General design concepts
Cost/Unit
---------·
ORILUNú
1 1 1
6 7 •
COSliUnit l'.)egt" ofFragmentt~tion
~ ---·
:
6
.
.. e BLASTINO
r =: 6
1
7
Ocgm: of Fr.J&mCntation
--- • LOAD! NO
1
liAUI.INO
6 8
CosVUnit
•
·~·;-'·lii.Ne~::... -.0... . . . --~.USHING Figun: 2. 111. Unit axst:JII$ a function o f the d~
6 Cl( ffa&mcntoatioo for thc d ifTcrc:ru I.W'I.it op!1':lti,~ns
al: tfle Qu~anic:r mine (MaeKen1.ie, 1967).
lndt;(
101.Al CcxniCY
r-- .... ORIU., BLAST. l..OAl>, HAUl., <.:RUSU•

..._.._ SECOMOARY BLAS'riNG
•
24 •
22 ""' • ,......... _
~ 1'-.
---
-....._ --- -.
•.
..,... ___ ?
••
20 . ' "'·1-
5.5 6.0 6 .> 7,0 1.$
Oegrte of FragmCfllation t Shovd l,oadin¡ Rifle)
l~i¡urc 2.19. Rtlativc: total cost vcrsu.s dcgn.-c of (~tu.....wcion curve f« the QtJCbcc.Cattier maDC (M:u:Ktnzic,
1967).
The fragmenta/ion system concepl 49
2.5.2 The Mlnntm.:· experience
Thcre is, uofortunately. very liule data availabte in the technicalliteraturc providing prac~
tical substantiation of thc MacK.c-.n.z.ie optimum fragmentation concept and the value of
seeking and operaling in the optimwn rcgion. Thcrc are scvcral probable rea.o;ons for this.
The first of thcsc is th.at thc rcquircd data are difficullto obtain espedally given the natu·
ral variations within a pit. A sccond rcason is tbat if the 'optimum• regían is quite broad
with linte change in unit cost over a rangc of rcasonable fra.gmentation conditions then
there is Little point in sccking out the optimum and operating there. This is probably the
case for lhe soft and even medium strength rock fonnations cspocially if onc considcrs
only the direct mine related fragmentation costs. For stronger. harder, more abrasi,•e rock
fonnations with a largc amount of downstream crushing and grinding, the situation is quite
diffcrcnt. This is one explanation why the examples presented in this Chapter all involve
the mining and proccssing of taconhe ore wbicb is one of lhe meanest in those respeclS in
the world. Eloranta ( 1995) has presented an interesting series ofrcsults aimcd at evaluat-
ing the opli.mum blast fragmentation point for thc Minntac Mine which is located in lhe
central pan of the Mesabi Range at Ml lron, Minnesota. In 1994, a total of 49,130,952
long tons (11) of taconite ore were mined and 14,440,418 long tons of taconitc pellcts
shipped (lns¡xx;tor of Mines, 1995). The weight of one long ton (lt) is 2240 lbs. Using the
ore mincd and the amount of pelle~ produced one finds that, on average, 3.4 long tons of
taconitc ore are rcquired to produce one long ton of peHeL.,. In collecring and presenting
bis data Eloranta has used thc powdcr factor (defined as thc amount of cxplosivc (lbs)
uscd pcr long ton brokcn) as the measure of fragmeotation. By doi_ng this, he assumes that
the degrce of fragmentation increases linearly with the powder factor. The explosivc uscd
at the Minntac Mine is a blend of ammonium nitratc/fucl oil (ANFO) and cmulsíoo and
gocs by thc gencric name of beavy ANFO. The characteristics of this type of explosive
wiU be disc:ussed in detail in Chapter 7. Since the energy content per unit hole volume
changes with the rclativc proportions of thc two components, Eloranta has nonnaJized the
results by calculating an ANFO equivalent powder factor. Although the powder fhctor is
expressed in terms of lbs/lt of mined ore, sorne of the results are given in tenns of powdcr
cost per long ton of pellelS (Silt). This transformation is casily madc knowing the powder
factOf, thc <..'0$1 of lhe e"plosive ($/lb), and lhe number of ore tons required to produce a
ton of pellcts.
Minncsota has a typical inland climate with warm swnmers and cold winters. Thus it
might be expected that the seasonal variations would afTcct thc rcsults. f igure 2.20 which
is a plot of shovel loading rate (llfmin) versus monthly temperature reveals that this tilctor
must be included when combining rcsults collcctcd during diffcrcnt times of the ycar.
Figure 2.21 is a plot ofthe shovel loading rateas a function of powder factor with the cor·
rec::tion for seasonal variation taken into account. The same type of temperaturc dcpcnd·
encc:- as was obscrved for shovel loading {fig. 2.20) was al.so observed for thc crusher
throughput ami, in additíon, the rato was also adversely af.Te<:ted by the snow depth. Fig·
un: 2.22 shows thc vañatioo in crusher throughput (as corrccted for temperature and snow
depth) and the powder factor over the period 1990 to the middlc of 1993. As can be sccn
there is no clcar rclationship. Thc c-rushcr throughput has, in general, steadily increased
whereas t.be powder fac10r has rem.ained more or less constant.
The ore undergoes a lar¡;e amount of fine crushing and grinding to libcrate the magnctitc
from thc wastc rock and thc plant is by far thc major consumer of electrical energy. To try
50 Bla.1ú1g principies for open piJ mlnlng: General deslgn concepts
21,(1 r---,,.-- -.-----.--.----.-----,.---,
......,······
w.s •
...............···•·•· ·
•
•S 2o.o
~
•••
S"" 19.5 ...... ..
~¡p 19.0 , /. , .. ··"'· - : .

••• •
!!
~
18~
18.0 JO
. ••• •.. •
• ••
• •
Fi¡un: 2.20. 'lñc &hovelloading
11·5 ·o~--!~o=---~2o:--30t:---,,~o---=so~--!.
..,::----:!7.o rate as a rooctioa or monthly
temperatutt (ElOI'lWlla. 199S).
l
20.()
19.S
1
'
......
.
•••
•
• •
. ..-··
1
.•.
...•• '
... .•....•• • ••
....-.
8
•• • • •
, .._.. ;,.....
19.0
~ •
1!'
~
~
18.S .,.
• • • '•1 ........
"
_g 18.0
•• . •••.
"' .•...• •
••
-'
17.5 1 .1 l;i&ure 2.2 1. SN~I k.»din&
o.so 0,$2 O.S4 O,S6 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 rate as a (unclioo or powdcr
ANI;O Equ.ivllknt Pawdcr f-.;~or (lbsllll faclor (Eioranta, 1995).
92 0.64
90 ..
f'.; PQ\ollo·&r f ac1or
•.., "'~
!• .• ' ...'·'
lS
••.., g
]. 86 ' l ¡. / O.S8
"'~
1\ / ·..¡ V ' •
..
1
g>
~ \
-~
\ \/'f /J' 0~6
~
6
•liJ:•
• Na ~aia 1
! 82
a 80
en..o.,, .1
0.54
0.52 ~
e
1.;-.,/ <
78 0.5
1990 1991 1992 1993
Y e•
Figun: 2.22. An historit:al vicw oraushcr throughput and powdcr f.llclor c:hangcs 11t thc: Mbnac mine.- (Ebanta, 1995).
The fragmentation system concept 51
and a'i.Sess how the fragmentation in the mine affects the downstream fine grinding costs
it is natural to examine the electrical consumption per ton ofpellets produced. However as
seen in Figure 2.23 this is also strongly tempcraturc dcpcndcnt and hencr: thls must be
taken into account. Furthennore the elcctrical cncrgy consurnptioo is largcly independent
or ore grade but the peUet production per long ton of ore is strongly dcpcndcm on grade.
Thus when oonsidering electrical cost per ton of pellet production ore grade must be in·
eluded. The relationship between electtical cost (as corrected) and powder cost is given in
Figure 2.24.
Other costs assoclated with frngmentation are those rclatcd to thc dippcr. Thcsc have
been simply grouped together under the heading of ' teeth' cost with the results shown in
Figure 2.25.
Combining the e leclricity, teeth and powder cosb (SIIt of pelleL• produced) and plot-
ting the result versus powder cost ($/lt of pellets) on obtains the result depicted in Fig·
urc 2.26. As with thc other plols the.rc is quite a lot of scatter although there dc)('.s appear
0,40,--,..--~--~--.-- ......--~-.,...--,
I~
f • • ••
• •< c.
•
.. ,. .. .
W OJO
~ () :
·é • • ·~ ,.
K-o... .. ...
-0.20 .__.. __ . __.__..__...__..__.....,_ , • • Figure 2.13. l~k'Cirical pawer
- 10 O 10 20 JO 40 SO 60 70 c;osl as a runction of' monthly
temper&tU« (E.Ioranca, 199S ).
.
O.tS ,--,---,--..,.--~--.--,----,
.•."'···...
• . ..
.• ..• . - .... •
··....,
···..
••••
···,.. ...,., '-., _.,. ·.....,
• ••
···-......
-~=
"··......
.. .
~··........
··•....,.
• •
•
o
- 0. 10
•··...
·,,
..O.t S l:-:--:7---A.:--'-:-- :7-..:C..-A.,..----:-'--,J

···... f'igure 2.24. Clur:~¡~ in ~k'(:·
0,25 0,26 0.27 <U8 0.:19 O.JO OJ I 0.32 tricuJ c:o$1 11$ 111 f~.~t~dion of
Po.,.·dc:r Cost (iflt pcl1t.'tS) powckrW$C (Eionnla, 199 5 ~
52 8/asting principies for open pit mining: General de.dgn concepts
0.».----.--
, --,-.:,..-..-.--,.----.--- -.--...,
.. ....
....
•·· •
. ...,.., ...•. •··
••• •
0.20
•••• ••••
'·
... ···..
·····-.... ...
~
. ..
·P. ••• • •
··•···.. • ~
.........
o.os ..........
•••••••...
Figure 2.25. Oippct' ttttb COSI
o.2.s o.u 0.21
'
0.0 '::---::-'::---::-'::----::-'::----::-'::----::-'::----::-':-:-~
0.23 0.29 o. ~ o.J t o.32 as a CunccM:In <1f powdcr COSt
t•owdt:r Cost (snt ptllcll) (Eionma., 199.5)..
.
4 Month Mo,·ins Avmge
o.•o .----.-- • .....-'_=.r--'--=..--'=,,r--.-
, --T"':' _ , -..,
0.08 • •••
...
0.06 "·-...
0 04
~
•
......
..
.
l!lcdlicir)' · • ·. • ·
T 1'ttlh ·, • ... ·•.
+ Powokr O.Ol . . • . · .. e• eT • \1~. ··..•
CtJst Ch..se o.o --- -----
(Silo pellrul-o.Ol •
:...~-- --- .- -- -.-e'- -::--- -
• · •.. ._-¡.•~ •• ·
-0.04 •. .• • •
-<>.06 • •• ••
-o.••'::-----:c!::--~,-~::--~'=-'~-7.';-;-....,-l.
0.25 0,26 0.27 0.2! 0.29 0.30 0.) 1 0.12
Powdct Cost (SJII pdlcts)
figure 2.26, 'lñe «!$ <>f cle..:Arieit)', dippe.'t rceth and txpl()(llivc as a fur.ction of expio.sh·e cost (Eioranta, 1995).
to be a trend of decrea'iing CO.'it with increa~ing powder facto r and by implication in~
creasing degree of fragment.ation. SU<:h a trend would s.uggcst that thc currcnt blasting is
on tbe lefl flank of the oplimum c.urve and lhat there r:night be merit in increa.c¡ing the en~
ergy going into primary rock breaking. 1'hjs study shows very c::learly the complcxity of
thc problcm of data collection and analysis.
2.5.3 C()mputer-hwoed informalion &)'11em opprooch

lt is obvious that thcrc are a great many fac,tors that go into the c<mslructil)n ofthc ovcmll
cost versus degree-of-fragr:nentation curve. first one must have a good system for e''alu·
ating the degree of fragmentation. Sorne of thc various possibilitics wcrc discusscd in
Scction 2.4. Ofthcsc. thosc in which the dota are captured and processed avtontJJtio;ally and
directly into quantitative measurcs such as loading machine opcrating paramcters andfor
image processing systems are the most intercsting sincc no intenncdiatc handling or man-
Thefragmentatlon .rystem con<."ept 53
ual data cntry is ncccssary. The scc:ond part of the procc:s.o; is to identify and tra<:k the reJe.
vant costs. The third part is to relate the coslS and the degree of fragmcntation achicvcd with
the pattems/explosives u.'led Hunter et al. (1990) have dcscribed the oomputer·based
system used by them at the ROi."iing Uranium Mine to collect and process the infonnation
required to construct ftagmentation c:ost versus dcgrec-of·fragmcntalion curves. lt uses
thc following data bases:
l. Mine Opcrating Cost Data Base.
2. Dril! and Blast Managemcnt Systern
Th_is system contains the records regarding the blast design, operators record."li of drilling
and charging, and routine observations of houlders and digging conditions made by the
blast forcmcn
3. Blast Analysis System
This sys1em contain.~ the surveyed coordinates of each blasthole and the blast outli.ne ge.
omet:ry. 1t is used for locating the position of the shovel white loading and for correlating
thc blast resullS with posítion within the blast.
4. Managemcnt lnfonnation Sys·tcm
This system reports on all haul truck and shovel operations using data received via the
dispatch system. The information is used in conjunction with shovcl monitoríng in ordcr
to corre late tbe resuhs with the area in which the shovel is digging. lt is also used in con·
junction with lhe Fragmentation Analysis System to identifY the sourcc and dcstination of
the material photographcd in caeh truck.
S. Fragmentation Analysis System.
This is a computerized method fo r analyzing photographs of broken rock for making sizc
distribution (f111gmentation) dctcnninations.
6. Shovcl Mooitoring System.
This is computer system mounted oo each shovel which monitors crowd and swing motor
voltagcslcurrcnts, boom till and a number of factors wbich are uscd to calculatc diggabi1·
ily as well as other indexes.
7. Mine Maintcnaocc Systcm.
This system provides data regarding the long tenn consumption und cost of the major
componcnts (boom, crowd gearbox and dipper sticks) afTccted by digging conditions. for
example. severe shock loading occurs when high bottoms and boulders are met while dig·
gmg.
Even aftcr gathcring thcsc data and having lhcm in a managcablc form thcir intcrprcta-
tion is complex becau.c¡e oflhe grea1 many factors involved.
2.6 FRAGMENTATION SYSTEMS ENGINEERING IN PRACTICE
The Mesabi Range. lhe Fabulous Giant, is Slill very much alive today. But times havc
changed. Where there were more than 100 mines in operotion on the Rangc in 1910. to·
day thm: are 9. Oft.bese thcre are J whkh still send to markt .t the natural ores which wcrc
the trademark of the Range up untillhe 1960s. The 1994 natural ore tonnage of slig.htly
moro than 500,000 long tons paJes in thc facc of thc nearly 21 million long tons scnt dur·
ing 191O. However the total 10nnage sent to market from the Rangc in 1994 was ncarly 44
million long tons. Thc differcnce bctwcen thc: natural ores and the total tonnagc was madc
S4 8/a.~tin¡: prlnclple.'l[or open pil mfnlng: General d~IJJ" t'Om'tpl$
up or. highly p<O<<Ssed product in 111< fonn of pclleos. TIIC uon instead of bc:ing COil•
taincd in thc son. ea!ily worked hcmatitc on: is now in lhe form of magnetite grains
tighdy buund in txonite sorne of the lwdest rock known. Thc~ a.re currcntl)' 1 mines on
lile Rllng< producing lllesc pellas fiorn tacooilc. To produce the pclkiS n.."VIy 140 milli<>n
loo¡ tOO~ of ore ~en: mined aod 30 millioo cubic yards of \loaJII! Sl!Ípprd in 1994. The
cmp)oymenl wa.' JUSl abou1 6000 people. To be economte. che fragmenwion S)'Siem uscd
10 hbcra&e thc iron fir$1 from insitu and then do-.-n &o thc la.._.q stA.g~ wheR: the individual
gr.uns are hlxr.ucd musl be ' 'cry cffectivc.
This sec:tion dcscñbes the fragmentation system and stntu:gy employed by thc: North-
shorc Minina Compnny locatcd al thc Eas.tcm tip ofthc Rangc. The material being mincd.
is thc h.ardc:st of the taconites. The discussion which f<JIIows h. b:&'\1 largdy upon the pa·
pcT> prescnl<'il by l'astika ( 1995) and lndihar (1991 ).
NonhshON Mining Company. a subsidiary of Clcveland cuns. lnc .. mines approxi·
matcly 10 million long tons oftaconiu: running 25.~% mag.nctic lron pcr ycar at its Petcr
Mitchell Mine in Bubbin, Minnesota. Mining bcgan :u the propcny in thc early 1950s un-
dcr thc ouspic~ uf lh.c Reserve M ining Company. onc of thc 1"0 pioneering large scale
lnCQnne operations on thc Range. lt closed in 1986 due 10 poor cconomic conditions. lt
wus rcop.:naJ in 1990 by C.'yprus Mínernls and on October 1, 1994 (..'l1ffs Minnesot3 Min·
cr.~lJ Company took over lhe ownerstüp and thc opcrations. Althc min~ lhe ore is drilled,
blastl'<l. lood<d. hauled and cruslled 10 - 4 inch bc:for< bcina shippcd 47 miles by rail 10
lhe E.W. O'.wis Works at Silvtf" Ba:y. A capSule ,ic.-w orlhc mining as practictd at the
NortMhcn- m1ne tNith panicular refermcc to thc drillin¡ and bloutin& opmuions is given
1n Tablc 2.6. Al 1he D:lvis Wlrts lile on: is crusbcd to -)14 inch. ¡¡roood 10 89% possing
325 ni<Sh. eonc<nlr:lled using m:t¡!IId.ic scp3n1tion and fl~lioo, ond finally pcllc:ti1.<:d in
On( oftwo tra"ding grute fumaces.
l , 1~ t'Ncii.ICikWI
~/H1.& ,0 10 11(In: mlncd
J.S0$.hSZ 11 rdlcu ~1\ippcd
281 ,0i.6 ~'1' wMIC~1n1Wed
on: lo j'l:ll\'1~ r:ucio • 2 84
llv\':1:11\' ore~ 2$.11% mugnc~itC il'\ln
l'lumb<r o(~mplo)cn .. 417
2. JKOflll.c Of'C'
t.Pl-'ifi.: Jl'lnlty J.() w ~ O ckp:nd"" on d~~t iroo ('Orlt(rll. /l.'ftn¡t )J~
~\llh.' biinl~':\' 7,o
I,IAt.\i.IJ (OIIIpn1oi"'C !l(nn&th • SG-70.,000 pW
J. Onlh"C
hok~ 161M
'Cf)' ~ Mt-~ ·~ c-MtNdr . . . . bits
pcncV1bOII,. )O f\1w
hMitfc 1100 ft
fJ'I'1Wo~• 90.000 h
NQII(Ift riiiC' ¡..() 1'1""
" l..ct.cl'n•
1) t:) dC'C'Itie ~I'C)\'CI!
S. lt.ul~"
UIOtnfl cuructt) U'I.Kiu.
<.,opynghted mate 11
The fragmenta/ion syslem concept 55
Table 2,6, (~iniiCd).

6. Crushin¡
- 1~ in i)'rulOI)' primary crusher
- 4·30 in S)'tMOr)' secondary c:rus;~rs
- r.nal product -4 lns.
7. úrinding
- 89% - J2.S mesh
- 70% - .SOO mesh
8. Blastin&
- cm.~blon txplo$i\'C, S(l = 1.3S, (OSI: a $0.16/lb
- A\-crage powder factor • 0.90 lbsllt
- AVCf'l&'C· bmc:h hcighl • 4$ ft.
- staUftCd plllml a lO ft X 30 ft
- .wbdrill • norte
- sttmming • 12ft
- Primadet dcconatcn
- 2·2 lb boof>tmlt!Ok·
- w faee fines • 2S graln Primacord
.. tUW$ tired en cchclon with 3S ms ckll)'l bctwccn n)YI'S
- indiYidual hole cklays within eadl row
- dttkcd chatgcs somctimes u.1Cd
- *'"'t:tg< shot slzt • SOO.OOO lt
- bla." sccurity radius • SOOO ft
The proccss of producing a tnarkelable product from taconitc can be brokcn down into
three distinct stages:
- Disasscmbly
- Separatjoo
- Reassembly
As indicated earlier~ in the distu.tembly stage, the ore is
- Drilled, bwted and crushed (coarse crushing) to -4 inches at the mine and then sent
to thc mili whcrc it is
- Further crushed to -3/4 inches (fine crushing) and then
- Oround (fine grinding) to 89% passing 325 mesh.
Seporati<m is the proc:e$S of pickíng the -325 mesh magnctitc particles out of thc mi:<tun:
created during disassembly. lt is done hoth magnet.ically and by flotati<ln. RetJ:<semb/y is the
process of putting thc iron partícles back togclhcr in a fonn and sizc that can be shipped and
utilized by a blast fumacc.
Por the particularly han! ore at Northshore the relative costs of these three stages as a
pen:entage of the direct coses of producing one long ton of pelleu are:
Oisowcmbly
Sq.ation
R......,bly
From this: it is obv1ous rhal

breuking rodc ís a major parl ofthe costs úrvolved with producing a finol product.
56 Blasting prindplesfor open pit mining: General design concepts
A closcr cxamination of thc costs will now be pcrformed beginnlng with those nor-
mally considcred as dirtcl mining costs. Thcse are cxpressed below as a pcrccntagc of thc
total minlng cost:
Orillio.g ,.,.
Blasting 22%
Pit handling tloading. tuwling. mise,) 64%
l)rilling and bla"iting C::Ost.'O., particularly explosive costs. are onc of the biggest single linc
itcms in any hard rock mining budget. Thc tcndcncy and practicc, at times, has bcen to
minimi:ze mining costs by reducing costs for blasting. When looking at all of thc costs as-
sociated wilh the disassembly process. the picture becomes:
DriUing
Blasting
Pit handling
Coarsc crushing
Fi-ne ctu:stdng
liine grinding
The pit handling costs have been included as d.isassembly costs even though no size re-
duction occurs since the cost of delivering the broken ore to the crusher is a direct func-
tion of fragmentation and a major portion of lhe overall cosl at this stage.
from this it is clear that
- Breaking rock gets more expcnsive downstrcam
- ¡·he cntiro mining process bcgins with drilling and blasting and all downstrcam cffi-
cicncies and costs are controlled by effective fragmentation.
To pul drilling and blasting costs in pcrspeetivc, although thcy stand by thcmsclvcs as
significant linc ilems, they are but a small pan of the overall costs. Of furthcr and major
importance. drilling and blasting are the first s1ep in the disassembly process and control
10 a large degree all downsueam cost.~. induding in-pít handling. Thus drilling and blast-
ing l\a1o·e a large levcragc on ovcrall costs out ofproportion to their relativc size.
This leverage is incrcased by lhe t'Bct that. in addilion to any direct downs.tream sav-
ings that can res.ult. better fragmentation also permits majar redesignslchanges in the min-
ing p<OCess with very bigh co<~-savings poleOtial. lf, for example, one could break thc rock
to - 4 inches by blasting one \VOuld etiminate the need for both lhe prima.ry and secondary
cone crushcrs at thc mine.
Northshore Mining has based its philosophy of drilling and bla.ouing on the following
throe fundamental axioms:
l. The whole is nol cqual lo the sum ofthe parts.
This first axiom si.r:nply sta.tes that drilling and blasting are pan ofthe ove.raU process and
that proccss must be trcated as a total system. Thc parts ofthe systcm are not indepcndent
and thc total cost of the process cannot be minimi.zed by minimizing the individual parts.
Decreased costs tbr explosives, for e.xample, do not necessarily Jower overall costs. ln-
crcascd spcnding in one arca can be offset by grcater savings in other areas.
2. Dreaking rock gets more expensive down.uream.
Tllefrogmentotion system concep1 51
This means tha4 at lcast up to a point.. it is more clfcclive to break rock with explosives
than mechanicaJly in crushers or grinding milis. Al sorne poinc ir does become prohibicive
lO further decrease drill spacing and incrcasc the amount of cxplosivcs ustd lo blast the
rock. At Northsbore, th.at puint due 10 tcchnical difficulties such as the teehnical con-
straints imposed by delay timing accuracies has nor yet been found.
3. The entire minio¡¡ process begins with drilling and blasting and all downstream effi-
ciencies and costs are controlled by effective fragmentation.
This simply means lhat no mauer how efficient or Jargc mining cquipment is, it cannot
be effective unless the rock can be handled efficiently. furtbermore. because downstroam
costs are large in comparison, the opportunity cxists to savc moncy downstrcam by bctter
fragmentation from blasting.
When tal.king to realtors about selling a house il is wcll koown thar the three most im-
portant faclors are: Location. Location and Location. History at Northshorc has shown
that drilling and blasting efficiency as defined by decreased average and 111l1Ximum frag-
mcnt sizc is also controllcd by thrcc important factors: Encrgy. E.ncrgy, and Encrgy. Spc~
cifically fragmentation is controlled by l . The total energy in the shot, 2. The energy dis-
tribution. and 3 . Thc energy utiliza/ion.
With regard lO the first of lh;e. energy factors. total energy, the idea is 'the more, the
bcncr' as long as thc blasting can be kcpt under control (the rcsulting muck pilc is satis~
tactory, etc.).
Since holes are drilled lo hold the explosives, the energy in a blast is concentrated in
discrete locations. Fragmentation is excellent near the charge and gets worsc as thc dis~
lance away from the cnergy source increascs. The sccond encrgy factor, cnergy distribu-
tion. is a particular problcm in thc uppcr part of the bcnch whcrc cxplosivc has bccn rc-
placed by stemming. Nonhshore has improved the energy distribulion., increased the total
energy, and minimized poor fragmentation in the top part ofthe blao¡ts by placing shallow
(8-1 O foot) satellile holcs with 200 to 300 lbs. of cxplosive ccntcrcd between cach main
production hole.
The third energy factor, energy utili7.ation. is controlled by two factors proper stem-
ming and proper timing between holes and rows. Both are needed to contain the explosion
and pro\•ide thc time needed for lhe explosives to do their work. lt is particularly impor-
tant that the delay between rows is of sufficient duration to allow each row to move out
before the following row fires.
Experience has shown that drilling and blasting must be treated as a system and that
any single factor such as holc spacing. powder typc or powdcr factor, or tirning alonc will
not irnprove results unless all the factors are baJanced.
Results have shown that better drilling and blasling practices can produce better frng-
mentation which in tum has a positivc cffcct on overall costs.
As indicated earlier, the mine closed in 1986 dueto advcr.;e ecnnom.ic condition.\, was
reopened in 1990 and is opcrating succcssfully loday (1998). For this 10 occur major cost
reductions were needed. The major productivily increases and savings from 1986to 1994
as cxpressed as pereentages based upun 1994 dollars are as follo"':
A. Drüling and 8/asting
- 28% decrcase in thc cosl pcr ton mincd.
B. Ore Loadlng
- 2.90/o productivity increa.sc with thc same cquipmcnt
58 Bla.tJing principies for open plt mining: General Je:rlgn t.:(mt:epls
- 3Jo/. decrea.~ in the cost per ton mined.

C. Mine Haulage
- 6% incrcasc in productivity.
- 48'.4 decrease in the cost per ton mined.
D. Miscelloneous Pil
-SO% rcduction in the cost per ton mincd.
E. Coorse CTWihing
- 34o/o increase in crusher productivity (lons crushedlhour).
F. Fine Crushing
- 220/o incrcasc in crushcr produclivity (tons crushedlhour).
- 4 1o/o reduction in the electrical cost per ton cru.~hed.
G. Fine Grinding
- 42% reduction in overa.ll grinding cosiS.
The overaJI cost 10 extrae! and reduce !he ore 10 le$$ !han !he 325 mesh sit..e ncedcd for
scparation has dccrcascd by 42% ovcr this pcriod. lmprovcd fragmcntation has beco
achieved even l.hough !he overall powder fac1or (lallll explosives used per Ion of rack) has
not chimged. The additional drilling for sateHite holes has not increased drilling costs ap·
preciably since l.hese holes (a) drill fasler lhan average due 10 prefrac1uring of !he lop of
eacb beoch from previous blasts and (b) allow lbe spacing for !he deep hales lo be ex·
pandcd. Hence !he improvements 10 dale have been largely achieved lhrough lhe beller
distribution and utilization of tbe cxplosive encrgy. lncreascd costs for drilling and blas.t·
ing dueto genem.l inflation have been more Iban offset by cost savings brought about by
- lmproved operalor perfonnance
- lntproved maintenance pmctices
- The urilizarion ofmore cost ctTective explosives
In summary, since 1986 !he costs 81 Norl.hshore 10 break rack 10 less !han 325 mesh has
decreased by 42% and !he overall oost 10 produce a Ion of pelleiS by over 50%. The sue-
ccs.s has bccn thc rcsult of many faclors including good managcmcnt, an cxcellent work-
force, reduced overbead., cooperarion and help from suppliers and nurnerous changes in
operating practiccs. lmproved fragmcntation from blasts, howc:ver, has been a major fac-
tor both directly and indirectly by aJlowing sorne ofthe other changes to be m.ade.
2.7 SUMMARY
In thi.~ chapter the dominant role that fragmentation plays in the overall process of ex-
tracting thc ore from thc insitu through to final mineral libcration at lhe cnd of lhc mine-
mili processing chain has: b«n described and cmphasi1'..ed. Tbrough the years much h.as
been said aboul how moot ifnol all ofl.he pritnary crushing should be done in the pit and
that explosivc energy is onc of thc:-most conveoient and i_nexpem;ive sources of energy for
the miner. Yet there has also been great anention placed upon maintaining as low powder
factors as possible since explosivc costs can be substantial. Book kccping by Wlit opera~
tion Corees each unit operation to focus on cost cutting: for that particular opemtion and to
maintain costs at as low a levcl as po:ssible. Howcvcr, as was cmphasizcd rcpcatcdly
throughout thc chapter. a 'low-cost' blasting unit opcration may not at all be low cost when
The.fragmentotlon JySiem concepl 59
lhe addcd costs due to sub-optimizing this onc operation continue lo incur addition.al costs
for lhe downsb'elm opcrations. Today lhere are many ncw and powerful tools for ev:alu-
atina the dcgrce of f~entation at ' ·arious Slagcs in lhe procas and for collcctir1g, stoiÍJlg.
ptoeasing. an:alyzin¡¡ and pn:scnting tbc gn:at omounts of data gmcratcd by an opcnlioo
eoch day. Thus the possíbilitics to make lhe sys1em decisicru asto whc:re to setlhe com-
pany's f~tation resoorccs can be mad< on a mU<h '"""' solid fOUil<Wion thao ever
before. As lhe costs of tbc vvious fonns of enerar chanae in the future. one has tbc op-
portunity to allocau !hose enerar dollars in tbc most cO'cctive way. To do thi.s one must
undentand the systcm, tbc inttractions wbich occUI' within thc sy¡tem and the wotkings
of each orthe unjt operatioos lhc.."Dlsclves.
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y tgnt~ 11a 111

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At.d r,lll8.....,......,. 6:f 8/a¡~~... l(qo-..oM, Cobwlo. flP.- J.ll •J92.
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s,-.
11M R.rt F~., Ay 11/QN._. Fru.t-
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~ "'C'tllod ~-wt..,_,. lnJ lfll S)WVl'. """ /Wis.i , ., ._ by Bltdtllot. (W.L. roumcy 4 R..D. Oick. cds).
K~, C"olo. A~~&- Socicty (or Expcrima~hl M~e!.. pp 102·11)
~ Y. A fl \la¡tm;a 1969 l:n"VY m¡ui~1$1fl si:u n:dwcdoo frwu S.K Hiflt C.., (tWI(J.l44(9Y, l-49--
1$1 ,
Pustlka. l),l ,. M. ln<lilw.t .t O Voo Watd 1995. lmprov~ f~ntatlOI'I far mine CMl ~~Qjun. Ph.x.wdútg,r Qj'
1/w ~lit AIWIMo'l ,\ t.r.-UnJt r( Mlmi(U(}(d $ect~ AIME Qlf4/ J.61h M/Hne,.-,, Mil1llfg Sj.mpmtl«lff, Ou/ulh. pp,
18S· I9l.
P-cr.;son.. [lo.A. 1911J. 11f lt:rgy in roc:k fr~mcn'"'-tion , l'rfH!~N.-.IIngt •if tht• /o'ln.r 1/tl, .ft) lfiP cm RtX.•l. 8/astlrtg by
l•i'(ql"liilllllll irm. l,t~/;-6, ."in~·r/,•n, Aug\ISI. pp, m .711i,
l•llt'idcr, KP. & (i.f'. Wc-.¡too 1968. lron ore mining. Sccmm 1J.4 i.tt SurjtH.'Ir Mlm,g (t.f', I•Octdcr. ~,.-dJ, AlME.
NY, ,.,_ 897-927
Rholl, S.A.. S.Ci CntnJM:s &. M.S Stagg l ~Ja. ... IU@Jllcnl si7~ discribl11iuf1 •~11.'"131'11C'n• u•inc a dlgital imagt
h:...c'd nw:a~í.lrc:mtl'll l>)'MCII'I. I'~"I:S o/tM 9f.A AmtWII .,\)"'Pan l~p/c~~orw.II/W/8/uJ.t(lfJ: R~urrll. St:li
""2<1 ·210
Rt.Qil. S A,. S G. Ot~~II'IIM$ &. M.S. SaJa 199Jb. ~ic •'~-~ o( tM ~ion diw.'bubon or
roet qllln)' muc-k¡~>lks. P~ of1/w 11h J,¡ S)..,. Qtf Ro« f~ioft by IUusr,.. Frogóllm..J
(lt P kM~ith. ~). A A. Oattcma. Raucrdam. pp• .$01-306,
~. DA 1919 Ond, Ww., lo.ad and haul prxdca at Rossq Millle. ~tbía TI'WU 1-U.!.ISlitt (May·AtJ&k
A 98-A 1().&.
\btl"'P> O f'o,. 199S Ncwtt. AmcñcM 1t0n ~ ~ • IS.)e. hip.prodvnlc. .t"99.ll mlflot.CJO!a W. iD
199J SI.Jiflr$ ,,~ -.,...._ .tul) 19. 8A{JO): 20-3$..
SUg. to.t.S a R l . ~ 199$. Ell'ea o(blaslin@. pncticn an filpxllltlliQn rutl«* l'all.b. ~
11/~ 6N1" Alll"fiell ,'l«f/"11 t'f~ S«fKlolt SMf. MJ 56tlt Ml~Hift $>"'1"\fJt~~~t. Dw.tiM. \iinnnou. llft
2"·26. pp. 21 S· 2JO,
Ven Aw.-.:-,p4, H A: C. V.O, CIIMiflll'am 1916. Thc- cstimatlon o( (l'llltMI\I.. foo In bid m~lpílc$ by tnc'.W or
M;a1líbrd pt!a~phs. J .tAJM.\l 86( 12f. 469-474.
Copy•tgnted 'llatenal
Thefragmentalion syslem concep1 61
Villat, J. W. &. A. W, Swanson 1992. lnK••grtld• iron or~~· t'Mpir~ Mine. SMt: Minirtg t'nginruif(g lftmdboo4.
lnd Edltkm (H.L. Hartman, scniot cd.). Sookcy for Mining. Mctallurgy, and Expbation, loc. Liulccon, C~
lonldo. pp. 1)80.1)84.
Vogt. W. &. O. A.llbrock 1993. Di&kal ima¡e: pro«$Sing ~ an instnnc:l:'lt to n"aluate rock fragmentation by
bblstin& in opc:n pit mines. Pl't)aedú:g.' o/rhc 4th lnt. SyMp, on Rqck Prop~lfWiion by Bla'!ling. F'rngbla'!l•
4 (H.P. R05$mloith, cd.). A.A. Blllkcma. Ronerdam. pp. 317-}24,
Voo R itti~r, P.R. 1867. Lelft'hth deT Atifbereltwtg.d.Wtlk. lktlin.
Wcstcm Mine Engineering. 1nc. 199-4. Spokarle. Wa, p EP 85.
Williamsan, S .• C. M3CKcnz.ie ~ H. O'tough_lin 1981. El~ie shovc:l pcñ(lll'maOOC as a n1easW'C ofbla.'iting cffi·
cimcy. l'r1'1C Flr:u l n1. Symp Qlf R<Jck ti'rnpNnUJfÑ:Nf by 81Mting, l..ukl, Sweden, pp. 62.5·635.
Yalum, Y. 19117. A sitt d istri~tion study oflflc bhlsted on: fra¡mO'US in Shui..Chlln¡ Opcn Pit Mine, Chim.
l~f'.Cding.t, Z!fd 1m. Symp. o., R«lr f.'rog.. by Blosti"8o (W .L. foumcy & R.O. Oick, eds). Kc)'stonc, Colo.
Sodccy fOf Experimental Mcchanics. pp. 672-676.
CHAPTER 3
Explosives as a source of fragmentation energy
3.1 EXPLOSIVE POWER
An cxplosion is a type of redox (reduction/oxidation) reaction wbich takes place ovcr a

very short lime. Common rusting is an example of a redox reaction which ta.kes pla1..-e
very slowly. The equation describing the ru.~ti.ng process is written bc.low
4Fc + 30, => 2F"20l + Heat (3.1)
The iron (Fe) is oxidized lo rus1 (Fc20 1/fcrrous oxide) and lhe oxygen (02) is said 10 be
reduced.
In ex:plosivc tenninology the 0 2 is the oxidizing agen1 and the f"e is the fue/. lf one
placed sen."iitive thennocouptes on a rusting iron building, an increase in temperature
would be found to accompany the process.
A common blasting agcnt uscd in opcn pil mines today is a combina1ion or ammonhun
nilralé (AN) and No. 2 dicscl oiVfuel oil (FO). The combina1ion is callcd ANFO. Al-
lhough neither of lhese components are cxplosive in thcmsclves. under the proper condi-
lions thc mixture can be made to delonate (the explosion front will propagate along a col-
umn of explosive). Under other conditions. the mixture wiU simply dejlagrate (bum) at a
very rapid ratc.
The chemical reaction for the process is givcn bc.low
3NH,N03 + CH 2 => 7H20 + C02 + 3N 2 + heat (3.2)
ln Ibis case, lhe AN is lhe oxídi2er (il conlain.• lhe oxygcn) and lhe fucl oil is lhc fucl. Thc
fuc l oil is oxidizcd and the AN is rcduccd in a vcry. very shon time. As can be seen. the
products are gases at high temperarure. The amount of energy liberatcd in thc fonn ofbcat
is callcd lhe heat of explosíon and dcnotcd by symbol, Q. For ANFO, Q ~ 9 12 CJ!Ioriesl
gram.
Thc rcaction is carricd along the column of explosive at the velocity of dc-tonation
(VOD) whicb for ANFO is oflhe order of 4529n:Vsecond.
Although one knows lhat thc power involved in an explosion is large. it is difficuh to
visualize jusi how large simply lhrough lhe energy releasc valuc of912 calorieslgm. To
hclp in Ibis reg¡trd, consider a borehole 300 mm in diameler (O) and 8 m in lcnglh (LJ
filled wílh ANFO having a densily (P.) of0.8 glcm3•
The column would have a volume ( Yt<) of
62
E:r:plosil1eS as a source offragmcntotion energy 63
V, = "o' L' s 11(0.30)'(8)/ 4 • 0.566ml (3.3)

4
containing cxplosive with a mass (MJ of
M,= p, V,= 0.566 (800) = 452 kg (3.4)
Thc total cncrgy (E) unlcashed would then be
E = 912 kcal/kg x 452 kg = 412,000 kcal (3.5)
To obtain thc eocrgy in kilojoures· onc multiplics kilocalorics by a factor of 4.184.
E=4.184x0.412x 106= 1.72x 106kJ (3.6)
Using a deiOnat.ion vclocity for ANFO of 4529 mlsecond, lhe time (t, ) required for lhe
entire column to detonate is
le= V~D =8 m/ 4529 mis cr l. 77 X 1o-Jsecond~ . (3.7)
Thus lhe power (Powl generated is

Pow . ! =1.72 x lo6/ 1.77 x 10-l ~ 0.97 x lO' MJ/second (3.8a)
t,
or
(3.8b)
By dividing lhe powcr expressed in MJihour by thc faclor 3.6 ooc obtllns thc powcr in kW.
Pow= 912 x 106 kW (3.8c)
Since 1 horsepower(hp) is equal lo 0.746 kW,Ihe power outpul expressed in honepowcr is
P0 w=912x 106/0.746 B 1.30x 109 hp (3.8d)
Thc cballcnge in blast design is to bamcss this powcr so that it pe.rforms the desired useful
wotk.
3.2 PRESSURE-VOLUME CURVES
An ANFO mixture will detonate when suitably confined (such as in a borehole) and initi·
ated by a high explosive (callcd a primer) of sufficient intcnsity. Thc reaction progresscs
along the explosive column with a speed equaJ 10 the velocity of detonation (YOD) . The
prcssurc of thc gas dircctly al tbc dctonation front is caHcd thc detonotion pressure (P067) .
for many explo."'ives it may be approximated by
Poer(atm) • 2.5 p. (VOD)' (3.9a)
PDF.T(MPa) = 0.25 p, (VOD)' (3.9b)
wh<rc P. = dcnsily (kglm'). VOD = dct0113tion velocity (km/sec). PDET= delonalion pressure.
' Thc prcfix kilo (k) means lo', meg¡. (M) mc:ans 106 and giga (G) means 109 oflhe unit in
queslion. Thus 1 kcal means 1o' calones.
64 8/u.sting pri,ciple,, for ope.n pil mining: Gem:l'al J"slg'' etmcepts
Thc cxp/oslon press11r< (P,) whi<:h dcnui<S lhc gas pressurc applicd 10 th< bon:hole
wnll) just ofh.·r d(tOn.ation is approximately one-hal( o(this value.
P~ • 112 Pocr (3.10)
T o ckmotuarate how this wortcs. considcr th<e: simphfied e.xan1ple of a 1O cm diameter
borcholc 200 cm m lcnglh fillcd wilh ANFO (p, = 0.8 gmlcm' and VOD ' 4S29 mis).
'T'hc lota1 volume (V,) and mass (M,.) of explosi\'C im·o1"cd 1rc respectively
"4
V, •- Dll..,.=0.01571 m l
M, • ¡D'L,{l,= 12.S7kg
U~ing F.<¡utUions (3.9a) and (3. 10). the csümatcd dclonution (f•¡~r) :~nd cxplosion (P*)
prcssures ore rc.s ¡M:cti~cl y
Pm:r • (2.S) (800)(4.S29)2 • 41,024 atn>
P, • 20,SI2 atm
Thc actual valu<:i (see Chaptcr 11) are
Pf.lfr• 43.943 11m
P,. • 19970alm
Ahhou¡h not s.lricdy applieable duc 10 tbe vcry high IC1npc:raturcs a:nd Pf"SUJl$ in,·oh·c:d.
rdauonsh1ps bascd upon id~l gas behavior are "U)' u.scfu.l '" demonstraung baste C:OO•
cepts. A mc<e ngorous waonent oflhis topic is providc:d lhc inten:stcd R:Odcr in Cho¡lrer 11.
lfthc ttmprnnurc is maintained oonsta.nt (isothmnal conduions) during the subsequcnl
e:xp:snsion of lhe explosive gases with an uecompan)'ing dt.."Crell!OC in borcholc pressurc,
thcn 1hc righa hand side (nR1) ofd1e Ideal Gas Law
(3. 11 )
whcrc P • J)n;:ssurc (nlm), V • volume {1/kg), n • no. of moles of ans (moleslkg), R = uni-
verso! go.s constnnt = 0.08207 1 - atrnl(mole - °K), 1' • tcmpcntturc (•K) l:t a constant.
F.qu:uion (3.11) can be wríuen as
PV • constant (3.12)
An altcmOIIÍ~t rorm ofthis pressure-\'Oiwne rclationship familiar lO all physics Studems is
P 1 V1 • P:Vz = P,V, ¡3.13)
Knowing that
P~ • 19.970 alm
V, • O.OlS1 l m1
thc: pn:ssure-volum( curve shown in Figure 3.1 may be ooru:rruc:tcd. llo\11 e\'er the tem-
peratun: of thc t:xploshre g35r:s does no/ f'C'l1'1J'Ún consaanL lnitially it is very high (of lhc
ordc:r of 2810°K) and then decrea.'>es with expansion lo ncar ambicnt (298°K). A much
bcHer llpproximarion 10 lhe truc P-Y curve dcsc:ríbing this shuation is achieved by as-
suming th:u thc t:xpansion takcs plac.e adiabatically (lhcrc is no heat loss).
C DY' gntP.d meten

Explosú•e.f as a source offragmentation energy 6S
25.000
20.000
e
!. IS,OOO PV • tonsc.ll
J 10,000
$000
o'--'A'!:;--"-;~-. .:--~-:-~~,--;;~ Figun: 3.1. Tlle pnxtieted r .v

0.01 0.02 0.00 O.Q.I O.OS 0.06 curvC' assuming iscehc:nnal ~·
pansion.
The appropriate Ideal Gas Law equation is

PVY = constant (3.14)
whcn: y= ratio of thc specific heats.
For ANFO, thc appropñatc valucs ofydcpcnd upon lhc prcssure range. For this exam-
ple lhe foUowing values (see Cbapter 11 for details) will be used:
Region 1: y= 2.035 4500atmSPSI9,971 atm (3.15a)
Region2: y= 1.631 500atmSPS4500atm (3.15b)
Region 3: y= 1.285 100 atm S P S 500 aun (3.1Se)
Region4: y • l.271 1 aunSPSIOOatm (3. 15d)
Tbe pressure-volume relationship for Region 1 (pressun: rangc P ~ 4500 atm) is
PV2.0JS = pl V,2.0JS = constanl (3. 16)
The valuc of tbc constanl is obtained by s-ub~tituling lhe known values for P~ and V.,
P.= 19971 atm
v. • 0.1571 ml
into Equation (3.16). Thus
P, v,2.0JS = 19,970 (0.01 571)'-035 = 4.262 (3. 17)
Thc equation
P1 V12·035 = 4.262
may now be uscd to determine thc prcssure givcn thc volumc or vice versa for any point
ir\ thís Rcgion. ln particular ít can be used to determine the \'Oiwne (Yn) at the pressure
ttansition point (Pn)
66 8/a.rtltt¡.: print:tiJ!c.ttj(Jr opcn plt mining: GenC!I'OI deslg11 c.-om·cpts
P11 4500 lltm

Substituting mto Equruion (3.17) one finds that
Vn'"" • 4.262/4500 = 0.0009471
Vn • 0.03267 m1
For Rcgion 2 (Pf'CS<Un: nmge 500 atm S P < 4500 auu) Equa1ion (3.14) becomcs
/JVUll n P,V,i 611 = 4500 (0.03267) l.6ll = 16.97712 (3.18)
Al thc §«Ond tN n.sition prcssure (Pn """ 500 atm) tlu~, volume ( V72 ) i:;.
v,., •.•, •• 16.9771/500 = 0.0339543
V71 • 0.12S68 m3
For l<cgion 3 (prcssure range 100 atm ~ P < 500 atm) Equntion (3.14) hcc;omcs
PV 1 " ' • P,V1'-"'= 500 (0.12568)'-"' ~ 34.795 (3.19)
At the third trun.•1ition prcs.surc ( P n = 100 atm) the vulume (Yn ) Í$
v,• '" 34.795/ 100 • 0.34 7954
Vn 0.43975 m'
For Kc¡¡oon4 (P<""""' ronge (1 atm S P< 100 alm) Equation (3.14) bccomcs
PV 1::1 1 • P,V, 1 ~71 = 100 (0.43975)U 11 = 35.1976 (3.20)
When thl.: ~un: ( Pr..) drops 10 1 atm. Lht: ,•o lurhé V t• is
Jt 1, 1• 11 35.1976/ 1.0 = 3S.19765
v,. ,. • 16.473 ml
2HJOO
20,I)(M; .... . ...... •
i- IS,OOU
~ pv:•u ... (:OfiSQnl
A'. 10.000
SClCIO • • • • • • • • •• • .... • • • • • -•••••
ll¡1.11T ,l,l. lb~ ickalind

oL---L-~L-~~~~--~--~-- lldlllhiiK ft•Y rut\-e for ANFO
UUI 002 ooJ o~ o~ c•c~ u•llkraoina Kllltivr l)' smaiJ
\úlunlC {n11) C'll:f'llll) l\)8;1$,
Cooyr1ghted mctenal
Explosives as a source offragmeniOJitm energy 61
20,000
1
'
1
'
4000
2000
.Q
•
I~L·~~jt~-I=p~v~··~"~'·;ro::~:~~~J_~~P:v~":"~=~c~o""~..
.:··-----·
0,1() 0,20 0.30 0.40
~fume (m' )
~_¡~
O.SO 14.9 IS.O
Figun: 3.3. Tbe Mlealizcd adiaNtic p.V OJI'Ye roe ANFO over thc el\tke expan!!fM rans.c~
Using Eqwuions (3.17·3.20) thc prcssure·volumc c,urvc for thc entire range can be con 4
structcd. Figures 3.2 and 3.3 show the predicted P- Y curve drawn to two ditTerent volumc
sea les.
Thc amount of cxpansion work (A) which can be done is given by the arca undcr thc
curve.
A =
YnI PdV+ YJ' PdV+ 'J"PdV + I PdV J"u
(3.2 1)
Y, Yn
ln this case
0.0)16? d V O.t!S6i dV
A . 4.262 I ,..,, + 16.977 I .......,. +
G.OIS71 y O.OJ267 V
(3.22)
0.09'1$ dy !6.4.13 dV
+34.795 I --;:w+ 35.t9s
o.t 2Jo611 V
I 1.211
o..n'I'7J V
lntegrating tiquation (3.22) one finds that

A_ 4.262 [ 1 1 }
l
- 1.035 0.0157 1..0" - 0.03267'"''
16.977 [ 1 1
+ 0.631 (0.03267) .., (0.12568) ..." +
68 8/a.uing principies jbr open pít miníng: General design concepts
+ 34.795 [ 1 - 1 J+
0.285 (0.12568 >"-"' (0.43975}"-285
(3.23)
35.198[ 1
+ 0.271 0.43975"·" ' - ..,(1...,6_
.4c'7-,
1
J)"•"
" "'
J
Thc cxpansion energy is
A= 161 + 133 + 66 + 103 = 463atm-ml
This can now be converted into kilocaJories by

A = 0.0242 X 1Ol X 463 = 11 ,205 kcal
Since there are 12.57 kg of ANFC) invol\·ed in the explosion the amount of ene-rgy re~
Jea....¡ed per kilogram calculatcd using thc idcalizcd P·V curve dcsc-ribcd by Equation (3.15)
is
A = 11,205112.57 • 891 kcal
lt sbould be rccallcd that thc thcorctical cncrgy relcasc is
Q = 912 kcallkg
and lhe difference between Lhe two is heat energy (.. 21 kcallkg) which rcmains trappc:d in
thc explosive products. Thc ratio bcrn·cen the amount ofusefuJ energy (A) available to the
theoretical energy (Q) is callcd thc mcchanical cfficicncy (e).
A
e =- (3.24)
Q
In chis case ic is
• = 891/9 12 = 0.977
which mcans that 97.7% of the theoretical explosive energy could do ll~ful work i f re~
le8..S4!d in a conltolled way down to a pressurc of 1 atm,
J.J EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH
Although thc discussion to this point has focussed on ANFO. there are m.any other explo-
sivc typcs and variations. Whcn sclc:ccing an cxplosivc for a ccrtain application one of the
more imponant characteristics to be considertd is 'strength'. Over the years. various wa~
have bccn uscd by manufacturers to measure and describe dte strength of their explosives.
Today unforrunately there is no standard approach of producing and providing thc$e dala. 1t
has bccomc quite common, howcver, for manufacturers to include weight strengths and buH
slnmgths (both absolule and relalive) on their product spc:c:ification shcct.s (scc Chaptcr 7).
Thc weight strength (SWT) is defined as the explosive energy per unit weight (mass).
For ilS cakulation. the problcm becomes that of dcfiníng which 'cnergy' to use. Thc sirn·
plest is to use tlle theoretical heat of explosion {Q) calculatcd bascd upon the constitucnts.
For ANFO (94.5%15.5%) thc valuc of Q is
Q a 912 kcal/kg
Explosives as a ~Y>urce offragmenJaJion energy 69
Henoe the weight strength is

Swr= 912 kcaiJI<g
The bul.k strenglh (S8 uuc) is defi_ned as the explosi\'C energy pcr unit volume and has units
of kcaVml. caVcm' , etc. Sincc thc cost pcr unit ..•olwne of bote creatcd in the rook mass by
drilling is substanliaJ it is gcncrally dcsircd to pack as much explosivc powcr into this
votume as possible. Thus for most applications, the bulk strength is more important than
thc wcight strength. The two are related throu&Jl thc density.
s.11,.K = p, s." (3.2sJ
For ANFO with a dcnsity p = 0.8 gm/cm3, thc bulk strcngth is thcreforc
SRI/LJ( = 0.8 X 912 cal/gm • 730 caVcml = 730 kcalfml
l 'he 'energy• used in the calculation eould also be defined in sorne othcr way, i.e. that de-
fincd by thc P-JI curve, thc gas bubble cnergy, etc. Manufacturen often publish relathoe
wcight strcngth and bulk strcngth values for thdr explosives. Most of thc üme the
strengths are relative to ANFO (94.S/S.S) of a given deÍ~>ity, diametcr and degree of con-
fincment.
Assume for example thal a cert.ain explosive has a heat of explosion equaJ to 890 caVg
and a dcnsity of 1.3 glcm3• Thc wc-ight strcngth of this cxplosivc rclativc to ANFO is dc-
noted by SANfo- Since for ANFO the heat of c:xplnsion j¡; equal to 9 12 caVgm and density
is 0.8 gm.h.."II11 thcn for thc new cxplosivc thc rclativc wcight strcngth is given by
SANFO= 890/912 = 0.9766
On the other hand, the bulk strength relative to ANFO denotcd by B,Nro is
BANFO = [890 X 1.3]/ (912 X 0.8] e I.S9
One might conclude that for lhe same hole diameter this explo¡;ive would be far superior
for fragmeoting thc roc.k than ANFO. Unfortunatcly, thcrc is not ncoessarily a 1 to 1 cor·
relaticm between total energy applied and lhe fragmentation produced.
3.4 ENERGY USE
In rock blasting thc energy goes into

- Creating new fractures
- Extending old fractures
- Displacing pans of the roek ma.<S relative to others (loosening)
- Moving thc center of gravity forward (heave)
- Unde5irable etTects: flyrock, ground vibrations, air blast., noise. hcat.
Exactly how thc cncrgy is partitioncd into thcsc diffcrcnt categorics depends upon
- Thc cxplosivc
- The rock/rock mass
- The blast geomeuy
Sorne (hard, massive) rock types require the crcation of ncw fractures for adcquate frag-
mentation. The shock energies needcd for ocw fracture gcocration are associated with
high explosion pressures (high detonation velocity and high density).
70 8/asling principlesfor Opcn pít miníng: Get~erof dt:sign c:oncepl!i
~ ·~ ~ 6.:11.pii).Si"c B
... 2~-
.... ·.. -
·'"":"'
· · · • . :;.· -~.
Figure JA. Oi.agramma1ic ~P·
p. y CUI'\'CS
f'1:SC11Uili'tlfl Of l:hC
v, fl.'lr t""'0 expi~\'CS with lh~

samc encr¡y.
Othcr rock [ypcs whic.h are already c.ratked dept.~nd mo re upon the hcaving/displacing
action providcd by gas prcssurcs for brcaking . This may be best aocomplishcd by an ex-
plosivc with a lower dttonation vclocity and dt..·nsity.
·rwo explosives could have exactly the same total enc.r gy (same area.o;; under the curves)
but as shown in Figure 3.4 quite diffcrcnt p.y curves,
Note. Lhat
- Explosh·c A has a much highcr peak prcssurc Iban explosive 8
- 'lñe total cncrgics ofthc two explosivcs are dlc same (Area 1 • Arca 2).
- Explosivc B maint.ains a high(."f gas prt:ssun: with cxpansion lhan does cxplosive A.
Explosivc A. tc-nned a h ig h brisanccllo w g.as prt:ssurc explosive~ would be rcco mmendcd
for use in hard) brin le rocks. Explosivc 8, on thc other lland, is a low brisancelhigh gas
e.xplosivc tOr use in sofleT/mo re jointcd rocks. To proper-ly match explosivc/rock/gcomctry
and achicvc optimum blasüng rcsults, it is thcrcfore imponant to undcrstand
- Thc rock mass fa:ilurc proccss
- Thc partitioning of the c-J~:plosivc en crgy (shock cnergy/heaw t:ncrgy)
- Exp losiw-rock intt:raction.
Thcsc will be discussed in suc.t<.-eding Chapters and partkularly in Chaptcr 12.
3.5 SUMMARY
In the past only a n:latively fCw explosivc products with propcrties lying within a rela-
tively nnrrow range were available for thc fragmentation engin ecr to choose between. To·
day thc p roducts placed in the hok-s are many an d their propertit:s can be ea.sily vañc:d
over thc hole IC11gth. In addition initiation üming has bcen markcdly impro,•ed. Thus thc
possibilities availablc to thc blast dcsignc-r are rar more than those of a few short yc-.ars
Copyrighted materia
Explosives as a source of.fragmemalíon energy 71
ago. The cha.llenge facing the mining engineer is how to most etTectively u..~ these ¡x)SSi-
bilities. Engineercd fragmentation ao; opposed to 'blasting' or the epítome •military'
blasting will be an even more important aspect or futu.re mining. The following Chapters
will !Urther dcvclop thc foundarions nccdcd for skillfully upplying thcsc highly efficicnt,
convenient energy sources so tbat our fragmentation objectJves are mt!'l.
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOORAPHY

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M-.
Af.CI ÜpiUllives and Chcmicals l,..imiled 19&4. lntroduc:tWn w c~plo$lves. t:xpiosh·•~ T()day. Series 2, ao 35, ISL
Quane<.
AF.CI Ex.plosivu and Ou::micals L.imlkd 1988, The tlistorioal developtnent of commmi:al cxplosives. E:xp/tr
sñ-uToday.ScricsJ, ao l. Sept.
Anonymous 1975. P~Tng Y~-,. 8/UJJ Wi1h Gu!JE:xplrn~s. Oulf Oil Qemical Company. 47p.
Anon)·mous E:tp/cn/w! ula.:lkm ,.,;u:ritt. Explosivcs l~n¡ineerin¡, E:<c:crpted (~ l:lurcau or MinC$ IC 6925. pp.
19-ll.
Ash, R.L. 1963. l'he mcdlanics o( rock. brcakagc (Part 3) - ChataclrristiC$ of exp&osi\'C$.. Pit and Qoorry. ~6(4 )!
116-131.
Atlas Powckr Company 1987. &plruñ-e3 4rul Ro& Blasli"f:. Maplc Pres.s. 662pp.
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O'rown, f .W. 19S6A. l>ctmnilllltion of tMsie: performance propcn:ics of bbsting C'(P'osi'~· Sym~um on Rock
Mcw.:hanK:s. Quon~rlyofllre ColorodoSdtooi ofMinta 51 (3): 169-188.
Bro~·n. f.W . 1 9~6b. Simplifkd mcttlods fOt compullng pcrformane~e pa:ramete:rs ..,r ocplo:>i..u Prt~di~
Second Anru;o/ Sylft/10$/um or~ Mlltlng R*seardr; (G.6. Clatk, cdilor) Rolla, Mis..~uri, N.-w. 12· 13 MÍ!191Kif'i
Sdlool ofMincs, BuUcti:n No.~ pp. 123· 136.
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Colo Sdtool r)/Minu 75(1) lanl.llll')'. 4 7pp.
Clark, (i.O. 1981. Basic Prupc:rtics of Ammoaium Nitratr Fue! OH Explosives (ANFO). Qt«muly af the Cola
School qfMinu 76(1)J;amwy, l2 pp.
Clarlt, G.B. 19117. ~im:lples ofRuc:k F~ttuiM. John Wtley &. Sons. NCOA· Yort., 61 Opp.
Coot. M.A. 1958. TM ScUm" o/ High f~i,~;r.. Amc:ríc;un Chc:mica.l Soc;iet.y Mooognt.ph Scric:s, No. 139,
keinhokl. Ncw Yort, «<pp.
Cook, MJI. 1974. The Sc./eJH.,"e D{ lndwtrial Exp/tMiwa . !reto Cbemi~ls. O.ic: &.:rv-k-c: and $uppl)·, 10(,
449pp.
Oay, J.T.. M.L. Thom~ 4 Ll. Udy 1987. Thc-importance of explosive ene:rgy on minin,s ~'· Proe«dillf) <if
tite llt}, Cunformce Ofl /i.x¡J~iw:s and 8/asting Trxltlfk¡'*", SF.f:. pp. IJ1·143.
OM:k.. R.A. 1968. Foeton ilf sd«'ling tmd llpplyillg commur:ial up/osiw~ tutti bla..flirtg o_gcnu, USUM IC 8405.
JOW,
Oi.ck, R.A. 1972. The l!tfPDCI oj8/ast¡ftg, A~s qfld Sllln'icu (lrJ Explruhot3 Terltnology. USOM IC 8.560. 44pp.
Oick. ItA.• D. V. O' Andrca & LR. Fktchcr 1993. Bac:k to basic::s: Thc che:mistry and phy$it:~ c1f e.>:pio!llves. F;.x..
ploshoa F.lfJJU..:Vilfg. IO(S): 33-41.
Dkk, R.A.• D. V. D'Andrea & L.R. Fktchcr 1993. Back. lO basi<:s: Ptopertic:s of t:NpfosiYCS. l:.xplruñtt J.'llgi·
nurflff:. 10(6): 211~ $ .
Dic:k, R.A.• t.R. F1etcbcr & O.V, O' Andtea 1983. üp/oúw.s lNfd Bltut;ng Proc.Wun, Manwl. USBM IC 892$.
JOSpp.
Oowdillg. C.H. & C.T. Aimont 1992.. Rock bN:abgc; ~pktsiYa, t'llapecr 9.2 in SME M't~T!tg Eng1'ntw'rl,.g
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l..ittl~on, Colo. pp. 72:2-746.
Orury, F.C.&: OJ. Wcsii!Uü 19711. C6n$idt:r.~~1ons afrcc~ in¡ thc selcction ancJ use or modc:m c:bemieal o:p'o-
sh'CS. PH:><:etdil'l&'l oft~ ~th CM.{m!lfC~ on exp!DSil~3 ond 81411ilfg T~t:hniqli~. SEt'. pp. 1211· 1Sl.
12 11/cutlng prím:lple.tfiJr open pll mining: General tlesi¡.:n i'fmN!pl.f
On.if}, I .C. 1910, Ammonium nittllk bf.astiag tgcnt.S rrom. tnllllUfacbl~ 10 ri~I,J u,o; PNCNÓlt'lf;l of IN &h
e~~ ,..,. l:q,/wl'l'n anJ 8/mtu.g T«lttúqw. SEE.. prp. " ' S-429.
t. 1. Otultunt de ~IUI" • ca o..PoN lllallfM • ~~ 1m U11100 w¡am~. Prtl "~ PP.
tvan.t.. W U .t fJ P r_,t.or 19S1. l\knckd A~'f'().~o.plosh~ CIJ.I Balkh~t 10t90S)I; 60-64
tbtntol.. o 1m. r'~"-o, ~ 2 otlhc-Aru.1Tl11ioa uu..:m~ ~~11011. ~« Mdllíck.. 2-6 ~-
'""""- G 1m. 1....., of ......... """"' S o f l h < - - o,.... .,.¡ 111. .""'
\t1111C1aJ t ~k• lnc. Adrbi&; 2..6 ~t.y. 6StJp.
T-. A-
1-brnc' G 19711 llrcabf:e ofroc:k ~· ~plorsh.'C$. ~"19 ofúw A'a-t Hnottlt;( ~)-.pw-111111'1'. Aus. t\t..M_
M-dbounw: lkMch,,.. 107·11l.
llll:fbsl, A .S &: D J. Schtllct' ItA. A~.$ ,\'. twrs, IACkl•bk 1111; ~i!olu"'¡ ComPin)', Ounc; MOiltaQ.
llolnh""V. R. 1•11. C""""'&c1' rwucram for cak-ul.cion or (';t:plmit'" ent~ Rt'('M 0!\ 1911: 16. S"wllsh
~Jno..•c- RtJontrrh r~rt(kllio,., 22 pages.
JOO~ü~•MJII\, C'.ll & I'. A.I'CN'i(Wt 1910. ~</111¡:/t l!xplool~vo. At'.Mkmi~ l'fn..' Nc" Y«'; JlOI)p.
or
IA"I\d~. e:.M. 19tl6. 1he 'ltrenglh explasi\"e$. Thlt Í~li!WillfJ! Ulld O,.roiN.It ttf {)pt'lf l'# wlli Su-lp MIIICI (I,P.
Oc~Jefi. ed )Jol\llnne>~ru.. SAIMM, pp. ISI· I59.
l.,e>"ltds, ('.M. 19'.1\. f.ner¡y partitlc~rtinQ in blustbr$.- 11n~tn.<Ji''&' l!} 1hor lr~.II!JR~Tn:lt Sll'llllf't(IJ' t.m OltJtti•'8
7t-"C.itlllllltJK)', '"''"" motmulirm und &pto.ril'C'.'f ~lpp/irotifJnf, l)líl.nlnll A"lll)•tl~ lntem11.1ion11l. lnc, J¡~nc .
M¡a¡r~m. J.J. IQ7tta. E~ploslvcs: t.hclt cl:usifK.:adoo and chllt'.actcrbtiC$.. EJMJ O¡H'MinJ: lltmdbtwJk nf Mine,.ul
$,¡;,," Miffi'lJ ,,._¡ f:.Xp/tKt~tiM (Ri~d J.lopp!. «1.). CIMJ Minina lnfomliii.IOIUII S~ro. i.;cs. Mc:Oru.w~H ill,
NY, NY. pp U2-ll6
M:nlfl, J.J 1Q111b. Thc: cl\c-mi:w}· aod pl\isM::s or CJ(pl~iva. F.I\U ('}rNNNIItl( 11~ qf \lilwrof SIAl'~
M41t11QC unJ l.:rpkwutltHt (Rkhard lloppc. ed.). FAU Mir~tna In lómtat.JQn.t.l Sen ice, Mt.:Orv." ·1fill. NY. NY.
PP• IS7·166
MW,Il\. JJ 191k bplo:.¡~tJ! Tk ~tes of dcWNiioll. FIW o,.ruJing 1~1. o{ ¡f,wru/ Swfo«
'""U~KtlltJ l..l(lltwOikw(ltktwd. t~ cd.). ~U MirMftt:ln~l ~ten. ~kCrn• .tlill, ,.."V, NV.
PP. 161-161
M--. JJ 191id ('--.dal a,pl~Cl~!lio.t. ol ~ Eic\U o,.r..,.u...,•ad 6/J.r<Mnll S~ ,l&.
,..., fllfJII #.qlortttttlttiRtC'twd ltoppe.. <'4.1 E.'MJ ~f'.-..lnrom.II!Ofllll \en ~~U, ~--U,.I, ~'Y. ~'Y pp.
169-171.
Manon. JJ. 197St~ JtQ'III 10 trka.,. ~piM.ivear bJMti:n¡attnt fOI' • ~,re~ 1: \U()pr«i.ll'r"'f 1~ ~1
.\f~M'Nl SwjutY 4fiiÑ,_, t-.1 ~- (RK:b.d 1-IC'JCif'C. ed ). rAAJ MW"J lnfontJIIlonal Senitt:s.
Mc(l,.,.·lhii,NY,NV, f19 ln-18)
M~W\ C.J~ 4 W C. Mon~. 1918. Al\lll'linum ad<h1h·"' in1f*1 tntr¡) al'dxn)i11\i1)' to rtJin)' ex.ploswtS.
1-;AU l>JWN,•tllfX /l,·md/M}filt of MiMrol 54~ Mi"YQ; tJttd EAp/()lfW/Ktlf (Richard llnrrc. ed ). f..IMJ Mitain&
l ~tfurnllii!Onlll SM !«!', McGraw·l-li"ll. NY. NY. pr . 1114·186,
Mulunty, O. ICHII, F.~terg), st~gth and pcrfom'lanc-c. aOO lht'ir impli<'al lCif'l~ in ratlng oommmi;~l o:plosh'cs.
111'fJtWdllfJ:II uf'"~ 11h C(mf~rM('él fJ•I P.Jtplosfl't~ (lrió/8/m-tlng T''t.'lrll/qllt' sr:.f:. pp. 29J-J06.
¡•o¡¡ldoek. H..C:. IQM7. A pr¡•ncr .:.n ~-xri-Mi \•c-S ('1()5tS. C.:.o1 Mini"'. Man::h. pp. 42--4.&
l'~~wrt. i•· A. R. llolrnbt-rc & J. l.~.: I9'J4. Jroct IJ/d~tlng umJ li.v,/mi•~'J li'•Wm~.,.fl?r· CKC ltn::ss, hw;, IJox:n
Rll&un, l'._wlda,
l'<~!oCIII. I,·A . Jq'J }, IIo~o~o annplosiv.:C'an .s«m ~~i~-c: 11nd y~ sha~c bllt'lill& .:MIJ,. ~~~~ ~\U, 174{6);. 110.11 ),
19Sl, Ot•fmii(Jf/rHI/fl ~~ E.rp/tJShW. (b(ord Id lk Clan.'T!Ck!n Pn.-.-.:
rlli)'t.JI', J
Tbomk)'. G M k A.G Funk 1981. Ahuninim:l bl~i:ft&'*-t""'- Proc'ftdin¡lJ u{tlw 1tlt C~f'"'-"C"" Úp/o--
61~' .,.¡ Nlnti'W T«<trt"w.t SE.E. pp. 271-292-
T(MUIC)'. G ll, Jr, l976 Thc profasional ~ to dnllq .w1 b!M"'& ~iMklll1 Pfqwkll N'o. 76-f.JI2.
Star lf/ \¡,, &xr, tt{Al\fe For ~ • tbc 1916 S"-1b-AI\II hJI t\k..1~ A f~ (Otn~""CT.
C...) S.,.. l·l
W). LL .a t M. C..O.ncb 1990. lk panilr.o. of cacq>.,. ~"''""ich ~ n~ F~ '90.
Prot.!Mb~ fl(dtt- kd lttl .$)-. .,. ~ F~ 111 111-uff~. 1~, Aupa Adnl lt~~j~, Min
o\WiaR.. V~ AU\hl.a, ,.,.l7..Cl.
...,.,.. K_ W 1916, flf«<I\C ~ fOIINil cJesip-sdcdll!lf (be n¡le ~~~·e: fOI' llhc .,... job ,\ft,,.. btgi-
_.,._ JIIU.: lt.-31.
Yant'll. JJ I'Hfl. \looo¡,,¡r"'(J Bkl.,filfg f~AXFQ \-b!aoal /;j t:XJ'IIivlw' pró~KJ Mdf,..Jd ~
eiNMik'ff"tl.u n l7pp.
Yunnlt, 1 J. lt A.A. AriiL1 1969 T«hniquc for ~l«tioo o( optlm"m t.\p4t.nh.: ')"''"""' r:ncntial ek:menl to
adlk,•ll'l3 t>J.Í,f)llm bl~il'f8, ~N ot tM IIth CM\YtVtu~toj'Mlm'tg fns:¡,,.,..,,,,
t.ima, Pn'tl. llrc~ Upp.
C..opynghled maten
CHAPTER 4
Preliminary guidelines for blast layout
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter guidelines which can be used fbr preliminary blast design will be provided.
As a result of feedback from thc ficld, thc pattcms can he thcn adjustedloptimized for the
actual characteristic."i ofthe rock mass - explosi\'e - geometry combination. The blasthole
tcnninology wh.ich will be used is shown in Figure 4.1. In bench blasting lhere is nor~
mally a long dimension of the bench. anda shon dimension. h will be assumed lhat the
rows of blast hoh..-s are aJined parallelto the long dimension.
The drilled borden (8) is then dtfincd as thc distance bctwcen the individual rows of
boles. lt is also used to describe the distance from the front row of boles to the ffce facc.
When the bench face is not venical the borden on this front row ofhole:s varies from crest
to toe·. Thc spaclng (S) is the distancc between boles in any given row. Generally thc boles
are drillcd hclow thc dcsircd final grade. This distance is n:fcrrcd toas thc subgrndc drill·
ing or simply the sulHfrill (J). A certain length or hole near the collar is lcft uncharged.
This will be rcferred to as tbe stemming length (7) whether or not it is left unfilled or
filled with drill cuttingsicrushed rock. Thc drilled lcngth (L) is cqual to thc hcnch hcight
(H) plus the •ulHfrill (J). Thc overnll lcngth of lhc cxplosivc column (f..) is c:qual to thc
hole length (L) minus the stemmíng (7). This column may be divided into sections (decks)
containing explosives of various screngths scparated by lcngths of stcmming materials.
Sometimes the e:xplosive strength is varied along the hule. i.e. a higher strength bouom
chargc with a Jowcr strcngth column charge. As will be scen in the next scction. thc dif·
ferent dimc.:nsioos involvtd in a blast dcsign are not arbitrary but closely rdated to one
another. The selection of one. for example the hole diameter, fixes within rather strict
limits, many ofthc orhcrs.
4.2 BLAST DESIGN RATIONALE
This section presents a rationale for ahe type of gcometrical design used in most open pit
mines today. five different design relationships will be introduced. Consider first tbc plan
vicw (Fig. 4.2) of a hcnch in which the hole spacing (S) and burden (8) are as shown.
In vicwing the figure il can be secn that the hole spacing can be cxpressed as a constanl
(K:;} times the burden
73
74 8/astf,tg ¡Jf'lnrlplcsfor open plt minlng: General tleslgn concept.f
o •
o o
11 • Bcnch lfetPl
B • &nkn
11 S • Spad"'
L L • llole t.c:ngtll
u 1 • Sub·dríll
" r • SIC'rl\mÍng
O ~ llolc Ou&lll('ll'"l
___ _!
••
-t'-1>
----T J
1·1&\lre 4.1. An l~tlctrfe ' 'k"''
or • bcncfl sho~ blasc gc--
"""'"
r- o . ......., """ ,..,. o1

llw onc: rcw lt&.dc layout
(4. 1)
wh..:re K,,. • con.sumt rcltlling s pacing 10 the burtlen.
Thís is the lirst of thc. fundamental d<:s ign réhllio•·k¡¡,hips.
F!nch holc of diameter D can be thought of as having 10 break ils own individual arca
(A.-) as outlinc.'d by the <lashed lines, in the figure.
A• 8 >< S (4.2)
Thc \OIUine rcquimt lo be broken by a hole ofunh length is
Y,~ • BxSxl (4.3)
A a:ru1n amount of cxplo:sh·e mcrgy pcr unit ,·otume (E.,) muse bt: apphed to satisfucto..
rily frogrn<1lllhc rock. The !Ola! energy (C, ) requin:d is t.h<r<f""'
E.- • v.xf:.,= BxSxE, (4.4)
Combinin¡¡ liquoliOfl.l (4.1) and (4.4) !he requirtd cnergy b<c:orn<s
E, • Ks B' ti, (4.5)
llcnc.'C the rcquircd fragmt.•ntation cncrgy is propOrtiona l l O thc sqU.IlrC or thc burder•.
Copy•1gnted 'llatenal
Pre/iminary guide/incsfor blastlayout 15
(4.6)
The amount of available explosivc encrgy (E_,) is dctcrmincd by the ex.plosive volume Vf'
prcsent in that unit lcngth of bon:holc
v.. -¡De
- " 2 (4.7)
where De = explosive diameter, mulriplied by the explosive bulk strength expressed as

energy per unit volume (EJ
"
E... = ¡ v'E
(' (' (4.8)
Whcn using packaged cxplosives and at pit perimeters whc.re perimeter bla$ting lech-
niques an: employed, the charge diameter (D,) may be lcss than that (D) of thc holc.
However, in production blasting using bulk blasting agcnts, thc entiro cross-scctional arca
of the hale is filled wilb cxplosive-. Thus thc hale diametcr (0} and thc explosive diameter
(D,) an: the same. This assumption will be lL'ed here.
Tbus the available cnergy is proportional to thc squarc of thc hale diamctcr
EA (J. [jl (4.9)
Setting the ava.ilablc and the requirtd explosive energjes equal to one another one ti.nds
tbat the burden is proportional to the hole diameter.
BaD (4.10)
lntroducing thc proportionality constant K8 , thc rclationship can be wriuen as
B • K8 D (4.11)
where K8 = constant rclating burden to thc hole diamcter.
This is the sccond of thc fundamental dcsign relationships. The <'OnStant K8 , as will be
discussed in Sc:ctioo 4.6, incorporales both explosive energy factors and lhe rock density.
Tbe design relationship (4.11) suggests a linear increase in thc burden with hole diamctcr
assuming that the same explosive is used (Fig. 4.3).
The toe region (fig. 4.4) is highly contined and extra explosive encrgy must be applied
to assurc adcquatc ftagmcntation. This extra cxplosivc cnergy is generally provided by
cxtcnding thc drill holc bclow thc toe clcvation and filling the so-callcd subdrill Jcngth
r ~20
....,.¡,~ - - ----
~,...
~ ____ _ Figure 4.:3. Oiayamm3lk ~~~rc

.scntaliOI:I showin¡ lhc e-fl'ca of
hule diam~cs on burdcn.
76 Blasting principlesfor open pit mining: General de~1·ign amcepL'i
HiJhly
Conurai..ed Toe:
Figure 4.4. The goomctrical n:btio!Uh1p bctwc..-n
lhe subdrill and me highl}' COO.'\fr3incd
coe.
1
·! 1 Steady Statc VOO
~ -- --- - - --_;..:>' 1
0
Run..up Oist.,« 1
'¡¡ 1
e 1
J
Figure 4.5. Thc variation of lhc de~Msdon
o 2 4 6 lO \'t lO(ity with diSW~Cc from thc primer (undcr-
Numb\.- .o(H()Ic Olamc:cers From lnicbctor dñ,·.cn) AECl, 1987b.
()), with cxplosivc. Thcrc are scvcral ditTcrent rationales used for selecting the appropñ-
ate length. Bere an explanation based upon e.'<.plosive run-up distance will be presented. A
sccond onc wiJI be included uodcr thc discussion ofthc stcmming lcngth. In Chaptcr 16 a
lhird approach based upon strain wave superposition will be described. The result~ are es-
scntiaHy the sarnc with aH thrce techniqucs.
As will be dis.cussed in more detail in Chapter 8. tht-re is a ccrtain distance (called the
run- up distance) chanl.cteristic of lbe ioiriating systemlexplosive which the shock wavc
mustlravel awa)r from the point of initiation before Sleady state conditions are reached in
the explosive column (Fig. 45). To break the conlined toe, the borehole pressurc should
be as high as possible. Since lhe explosion (borehole wall) pressure (P,) is proportional to
the square ofchc detonation vclocity
P,a(VOD)' (4.12)
the clevarion in the hole at which steady state velocity is reached should oot be higher
than thc bcnch toe elcvation. To be conscrvativc thc mínimum run~up distance will be as-
sumcd oo be 60.
In addition. the primer is seldom plaoed directly at the bottom of the blasthole due to
thc prcscncc of cuttings and walcr. A nonnal offset is of che ordcr of 20. Thcreforc. 1hc
distance from the drilled end of the hole to the toe elevation {the subdrill distance ./)
should be
Preliminary guldelines for bias/layout 11
Jcw8D (4.13)
As has been shown
BaD
and therefo"' the subdrill J may be c:xp..sscd as
J s K¡B (4.14)
where K¡ = eonstant relatínglhe subdrill distance to the borden.
This is the third ofthe design rellllionships. As will be seen later, the burden dimension
(B) for most bulk explosives and roek types is ofthe order of
B s (25-> 35)0 (4.15)
Using Equations (4. 13) aod (4.15), one would thereforc expect that
K¡ • 0.23 -> 0.32 (4.16)
A typical value used for design is K¡= 0.3.
Ncar the holc collar, Ihe risc of the explosivo should be controlled so lhat thc possíbíl·
ity ofbrcaking upward toward thc horizontal free surface sbould be 'as difficult' or 'cven
more difficult' lhan brealc.ing, as is desired. toward the venicaJ free nace. This could be
satisfied, for cxamplc, by thc placcment of a spherica/ charge capable of brcaking burden
•8' ata distance of' V' bclow thc collar (Fig. 4.6).
Tbe general constraint would be wriuen as
y¡, 8 (4.17)
The spherical charge geometry is nota practica! one for mosr surface mining applications..
Howcver as will be discusscd in a later chaptcr. thcre is a practica! cquivalcncc in break~
ing effcct between spherical and cylindrical cbarges. In Figure 4.7 the spherical charge
has bcen replaced by a cylindrical charge of length Te having the same total weight and
c!Tccl
Obviously the degree of 'equivalcncc' of thc chargcs wiU dc-pend upon thc proximity
to the charge. As a first approximation il will be assumcd that Te is linCillly related 10 the
dislanCe of interest which in this case is B.
(4. 18)
For 8 large. then Te i.s large and vice versa. The general expression fOf che unchargtd
hole length ( 1) may be written as
..
B
Jt-l
/ / :• 1
í '
1
1•
\ i;
:i
'' i:
Figur.: 4.6. Scctioa vicw sOOwing 11 ${lhcrical di~ loc:ned
near lhc rollar.
78 Blatting principle.t for open pil mlning: General design conr.ept.t
T
' l. V
:r,--L-
'
T
J
' F¡g:IU'C 4, 7, S«tioo ""=""' sllowing • short
q lindñc:al c:hangc: b:ntcd at 1hc: bol~
collar.
T = V- Te (4.19)
lf onc uscd the 'as difficult' brcaking constraint in Eqwulon (4.17). then
V• 8
Combining foquation (4.18) and Equatíon (4. 19) subject to this condition yiclds
T= 8 - Kn:B=(l- K:: f (4.20)
Equation (4.20) can be simplitied to

T=K7 8 (4.21)
whe.re
Kre
X r • 1- - (4.22)
2
This becomes the fourth of the fundamental retationsbips. The problcm is thcn l.he detcr-
mina.tion of K re.
f'or bench blastíng Langcfors & Kihlstróm (1963) have suggested that the spheri-
callcylindrical charge equiva_lence is a~ shown in Figure 4.8. To explain the significanoe
of lh.e curve, consider a bench containing two vertical sidc-by·sidc blastboles. Thc burdcn is
thc same for both. Rather lhan discussing che collar region which is lhc subject of this por.
tion, this examplc will involve thc toe rcgion. Thc rcason for lhis is thal the cxplanation is
easier and the principie is the same. Coo.•ider a spherical charge or quantity Q. placed 01 !he
toe ele>ation in one of the hales. In the second blasthole a cylindrical charge with a linear
charge concentration of 1kglm of hole is cmpl.aced. The bouom of lhe charge is at toe eleva.
rion and then the column extends upward towards thc collar. Thc k:ngth of thc elongated
charge is expressed in multiples of the burden 8. For a cylindrical charge of length 8, the
total charge would be 8 x l. From the Figure one can see that at the toe this elongated chargc
has only the cquivaletn brcaking power ora sphcrical charge of weight 0.6 x 1x 8. This is
undtTStandable sine< the en"'llY contained in thot pan ofthe elongated chargc near thc collar
must tra...el a much long.er distante to reach thc toe and in thc process the t."'lcrgy is spread
over a much larger volume of rock. The energy densiry hy the time it reachcs lhe toe is much
less than that produced by energy which has travelled a shortcr distancc. For a linear cbarge
or lcngth 0.38 the total charge has a ma<S or 0.3 x 1x 8. From the curve it is seen that this
Pre/iminary guidelines for bfastlayoul 19
Equivalcnt
Spllt<i<'l Ch*1<
(Q.l
/
0.6 I · U
-- -_-__-_~ ---/.-:~~---_=--~·~::..:·~::::-:..:·=~
/
/
0.4 1·8
0.3 1· 0
1
0.2 1· 6 1 O.J B
1
0~--~--~~----~L.-------~~
o.sa 1.oa 1,5 1}
Lc:ngth of thc Cyti..ruical Ctuu¡.c
figure-4.8. ioe btcaking cquivaJcnoc of spherical and cytindrical chargcs (l..angefoo & Kihbtt'Otn, 1963).
has !he same effect at !he toe as a spherieal charge placed din:ctly at !he toe elevation ";ti, a
mass 0.3 x 1x B. For charges shorter !hao 0.38 Ibis relationship holds as well, ie !he eloo-
gated cbarge of a givcn wcight has !he samc cffcct at !he toe as a sphcrieal chargc of the
same weight. For elonga1ed chatges wilh lengths greater !hao 0.38, lhe effcct at lhe toe di·
minishes rapidly wilh incrtasing length. The same effeet could be achieved by considcring
the clongatcd cha~t cx;tcnding from the toe elcvation dov.nward. Thus an clongated chargc
extending trom 0.38 below the toe to 0.38 above the toe elevation (for a lOral explosive
weight of 0.6 x 1x B) would. at(..'Ordiog to the curve havc thc same brcaking capacity as a
spherical charge wilh a weighl of0.6 x 1x 8 placed directly at !he toe elevation.
In transfering chis concept to !he collar regioo one finds lhat
Te S 0.68 (4.23)
Comparing Equations (4.18) and (4.23) one finds that
Kn:S0.6 (4.24)
Substituting this into Equation (4.22) yiclds
Thus
Kr~0.1 (4.2S)
To this point in thc discussion therc has been no specífic mention ofthc hench height. lf
onc c:ontinues to increase the scale (hole diameter) as shown in Figure 4.9~ the c::enter of
charge progresses further and further down !he hole. The limiting condition is when the
ccnter ofcharge reaches the toe elevation (Fig. 4. 10). This occ.urs for a hole diameter whic:h
yields a burden just equal to !he bench height. The fifth and last ofthe fundamental rcla·
t_ionship.s is
H = KH 8 (4.26)
where KH .,. constant relating bench height to the burden.
The value of KH is
KH ~ 1 (4.27)
80 8/cuting principle:s for (Jpen pll minfng: General design concepJS
~-·- - -- -· --~- -- - -
Figure 4.9. Thc dfccl or charge
1· a-¡ diameter on lhe th¡qe Clenter of
gra,•it)· loc:~ion.
1
H=O
,.......,._r.,.,.d7- - - - - -- -
Figure 4.10. 'Ole limitin¡ ¡l!()melry (or
bmch btascin¡.
Por most open pit operations today K 11 is between 1.S and 2. Combining Equations (4.26),
(4.27) and (4. 11) one finds that
H?. K8 D (4.28)
Rearranging Jlquation (4.28) yields
o~!!_ (4.29)
KB
which provides a rule ofthtunb for Jimiting the choice ofbole diameter.
4.3 RATIOS fOR INITIAL DESIGN
In Secrion 4.2 lhe following ti ve re.Jationships were developed for pretiminary bla~t design
Re/aJionship 1: Spacing-Burdc-n
S=KsB
Relationship 2: Butden-Oiameter
B=KsD
Relalio~hip 3: Subdriii-.Hurden
J = KJ B
Re/mionship 4: Stemming-Burden
T• Kr·B
Relalionship 5; Bench height-Burden

H = K11 8
In lhis section nwncricaJ values for the ratios Ks. K 8 , KJo K r. a.nd KH will be presented tOr
use during initial dcsign (Ash, 1963).
Prcliminary guideline$ for blastlayout 81
Ratio Ks
As is discussed more fully in Chapter 5, the ratio of spacing and burdcn as drillcd is bascd
upon energy coverage of the bench. For a square pattem, the best energy coverage is
achievcd with Ks = 1 ahhough then: isn't too mucb di.ffcrencc whcn Ks is varicd. belwecn
Ks e 1 to Ks ~ 1.5. For a staggered drilling pauem, the best eoergy covcrage is with
Ks = 1.15. The efficicncy of covcrage is not substmtially different for Ks = 1.0 to 1.5. A
staggered pauern yields a much beuer uni.fonnity o( cnergy covcragc than docs a square
onc.
Ratio K11
Ln Section 4.5 a dc:tailed cxaminatlon oftbis factor is prescntcd. ln brief~ it has bcen found
that
K 8 " 25 when using ANFO (p ~ 0.80 gm/cm>, s.,.,.0 • 1) in rock of mcdium density
(PR = 2.65 gm/cml). When using other explosives
p = density
SA Nfo'O .,. weight strength
in rock of this density one can use. as a first approx_imation,
K = 25 PXSANI'O {4.30)
8
O.Sxl
lf for cxamplc thc cxplosive has a dcnsity of 1.2 gmtcmJ and a weight streng.th relative to
ANFO M 1.1 the appropriate K8 becomcs
1. ( 1.1) = 32
2
KB = 25J0.8 1
RatifJ KJ
Thc most common valuc of K; is 0..3. ln ccrtain sedimentary deposits with a parting plane
at toe c.lcvation subdrilling may not be rcquired. lo very bard toe situations, the subdriiJ.
ing may be increased over that indicatcd by using KJ = 0.3. Howcvcr it is probably bctter
to consider using a more energetic explosive. lt mu.~t be remembered that the subdrill re-
gion generaJiy fonns thc future crcst/bcnc-h top for thc bcnc-h bclow. Unwantcd damagc
done at this stage may have a long and oostly life. In addition excessive subdrill res:ults in
l. A waste of drilling and blasting expenditures
2. An increase in ground vibrations
3. Undesirablc shaucring of thc bench tloor. This in tum creates drilling problems,
abandoncd blastholcs and dcviations for thc bench bclow.
4. lt accentuates verticaJ movement in the hla'\t. This increases thc ch.aoccs for cutofTS
(misfires) and ovcrbrcak.
Ralio Kr
'fbe minimum recommended \•alue (or Kr for large hole production blasting is Kr • 0.7.
Some specialists suggest the use of Kr = 1.0. Placing thc charge too close to thc collar can
rcsuh in backbreak, tlyrock and early releas< of the explosive gases with resuhing poor
fragmentation. On the other hand, increasing the length of stemming may reduce the en-
ergy concentration in the collar rcgion to thc point where largc boulders rcsult.
82 8/tuti"K /)l'¡,lciplesfi>r open pil mining: General desi¡.;n ('OnctJpiJ'
Raliu KH
Curnntly moSt opcn pil opcraaions have Kn values which are of thc ordcr of 1.6 or more.
In sorne openuions the bunlen is of the same onkr liS 1ht bc<>Ch heigh1 (KH 1) '"hich
mcans 1h:u 1hc bh»lin& is similar to aaccri.ng "ith '"'Ofree surfac:cs.
4.4 RATIO IJASED UL.AST DESIGN EXAMPLE
To iHu.strute thc u~c ofthe gcometrical relationships developcd in Scc.1ions 4.2 and 4.3 as·
§ Unté that the initi:d th.!sigr' par-.t~neters are
Rock • •ycnuc porphyry (SG = 2.6),

Exl•losive ANFO (p • 0.8, SA:••ro • l ).
- llcnch hcighl ( /1) = 15 m,
- llolc diontclcr (D) = 3~ 1 mm (1 S ins),
- Slaggercd drilling ¡)atten•. vertic-al boles.
4 rows ofholcs cach containing 6 boles 10 makt" up 1 bltt.sl.
Using thc d~ign rc:lalionshíps. the following resuhs are obtained
K1 • 25 (,¿_-.sumcd)
8 • 25(0.381) = 9.5 m
S • 1.158 - 11 m (>~aggered drilling J"'ll<m)
T • 0.18 6.5 m
J O.J8 • 3m
L 11 • J • 1S m + 3m= 18m
Thc: voluc of K, t:, calculated to be
1$
K11 • - = l .6(aeccp1able)
9.5
Thc lnyom for this comer blast would bé as shown in l"igurc 4.lla. Thc burdcn (8) and
holc spucing (.S1 dimensions (the pauem to be drilled) havc l'>ccn laid out with rcspect to
1hc long fuc:c.
Figure 4. 11 b is a typtcal cross Sl."CtioJl tltrough ont" of lhc: holes. Thc volume (V,.) and
wdg.ht ( W, ) of cx¡>losh·e loadcd inlo each holc is givcn by, NSt>ecth·cly
V, !!.o>(L 7) - !!.(0.381)'(18-6.5) = 1.31 m'

• 4
IY, 11, p I.J 1m' X 800 kgfm' = 1049 k;
Stnce lhcrc are 24 hales in thc round the total amount of c:xptoswc n:qum:d ( Tar) is
r,., w, ~, 24 x 1049 ~ 25.176 kg
whert:, • numbcr ofholes.
Th~ volumc of r01,;k which will be brokcn is
v• • n~ BxSxll
Cm~yr¡gnt8d 11a '1 11

Prelimlnary guideline.<r for blast lay<>ut 83
11m
(a)
..... .......... ._.. . l - -- ~- -· - - - l.

·-·-•····•····•·-· · •-·· -•---•--· ..... J:·Snt
--
........ ...-·- ·• ·· -··- · -. ..........
(b)
P ig.utt' 4.1 1. La)'Out for • oomcr blast.
Thus
v. = 24 (9.5)( 11)( 15) = 37,620 m3
Using a rock density of2.61hnl, a total of
r. = P• X v. = 97,8 12 tons
would be broken. "fñe resulting powder factor (Pf) defined as thc amount of explosivc
required to break one ton of rock is
TEXP 25,176
PF Ah'FO • - a = 0.26 kglton
r. 97,812
Thc subscript ANFO has bccn added to thc powdcr factor designation sincc it is cxplosive
dependen t.
To complete the design decisions have to be made regarding hole sequencing. This im-
ponant topic is covered in Chapter 8 and the example will be continued at lhat time.
4.5 THE ASH DESIGN STANDARDS
4.S. I lntroduclion
Before proeeeding. il is wellto have a reality cheek on lhese design equations. One ofthc
classical papers in rock blasting 'The Mechanics of Rock Blasting' was written nearly 35
84 Blastlng principies for opcn pil mining: General design concep1s
years ago and presented in four parts by Ash ( 1963). The present author highly recom-
mends its reading even today ~y both students and practioners. The nomenclature and ra-
tios K8• K11, K.~o Kr and Ks used in Sections 4.2 through 4.4 are the same as introduced by
Ash in 1963 with thc exccption that thc prcscnt aulhor uses a bcnch hcight ratio K11 in~
stead of the hole length ratio K11• used by Ash. The fomter is more relevant when dis-
cussing opcn pit blasting with largc boles versus quarry blasting which was the basis for
much of the Ash field data. Thus the • will be anached to hLtt K11 ratio to denote lhe dif-
fcrcncc in thc calculation base from that uscd in thc rcst of thc book.
In the introduction toPan 11 Ash (1963) states
'/1 is not enough jusi lo undersland what hoppens during bl~ting. Probably tlu: most
importan/ thing lo know is how blast effects can be controlled 10 suit the requirements of
his operalion. In 1hi.Y respcct 1here are avoilable fi••e basic standards upon which 10
evo/uate b/as1s, al/ of which are unitless (dimen.sionless) ralios. They can be applied 10
both underground and surface bfa.sling wilh equal .mcce.t.,·. For simplicity, however, their
use wi/1 be diJcussed as applied 10 surface (open~pit) blasling. 11re .standords are defined
as foi/(Jws:
l . Burden Ratio (K,J - lhe ralit> oflhe burden dislance in feel 10 the dlame1er oj11te
explosive in inc.hes. equal to 12 BID.
l. Hole-Depth RallCI (KH•) - the ratüJ ofthe hole dep1h ICJ the burden, bmh mea.m red
in fee t. or HIB.
3. Subdri/1/ng Ratio (K) - the ratio of the subdrilling u.red to that af the burden. bath
expressed in feet, or J/8.
4. Slemming RallO (Ki) - 1he raiJO of 1he s1emming, or collar di.slance 10 lhat oflhe
burden, both expressed infeet, or T/8.
5. Spacing Ratio (KsJ - lhe rallo of lhe spacíng dimension 10 that oflhe burden. both
measured infoet, or $/B. ·
4.5.2 Field data

In Pan 11 of this paper Ash presented the design data reproduced in Tables 4.1
through 4.4. These data were collccted from a widc range of operations and cover a corre-
spondingly wide range of condition.tt:
- All types of surfoce blasting,
- 20 differcnt rock types,
- Hole depths from 5 to 260 1\,
- Holc diamclers from 1-5/8 ins to 10-S/8 in.<;,
- All grades of cxplosivcs.
All of the holes were vertical. The values of thc ratiO$ KB> K11• , /(¡.. and Kr wc:rc calcu-
lated from the data oollected at lhe different operations. intervaJs were seleeted , and fre-
qucncy distributions fonncd tabulaling the nwnber of operacions in euch intcrval. From
these data the mean, the mode and lhe median vaJues were calculated. These are given in
Table 4 .5.
For cach of thesc ralios, Ash has providt.-d sorne comments regarding thcir use. Thcsc
are provided in his own words in lhe remaining subsections with only minor editing by
thc prcscnt author.
Preliminary guidelines for blast lay<Jut 85
Table 4. 1. 'l'bc freq~M::nt)' distribudon ofthc burdcn r.~Lio K11 using data (rom aJI opc..-..tons. Alier Ash ( 1963).
K8 lncc:rval frequcncy
10.13 o
14-17 S
IS..ll 13
lHS SI
U.¡<J 74
...,,
JO.))
)
66
44
311-41 20
4l..C.5 7
49-49 4
SG-SJ o
Toca! 284
Tabk 4.2. The fn.'(Jueflcy distributioo of tbc holt dq¡th ratio K11• using data (rom all op¡,:r.llil)n5., ARa Ash
(1963)
K;1 1nterval frc:qucru:y

0-<>.9 o
1·1 ,9 43
2·2.9 10
)..),9 56
.....9 4S
S-S.9 22
6-6.9 22
7-7.9 11
8-8.9
9-9.9
10-10.9
'
2
8
11-11.9 o
12.12.9 1
Tottl 284
Tablt 4.). Thc ffl.'C¡UCOC)' dislñOOtion o( lhc .sutbdrillralio KJ fo.- al! but c:oal ~rip Q~~CQi iOns. Aflcr Mh ( 1%J).
KJ into.:rval Ft\•qumcy
O.G-0.0 IS
0. 1.0.19 18
0..2..().29 27
O.J.O.J9 26
0.4-0.49 lS
O.S-<l.S9 2
0.6-0.69 6
0.7..(),79 2
0.11-0.89 o
Tol;;il 121
86 Blasting principie:~ for open pil mining: General design C1Jncep1s
Tabk 4.4. Thc: frcq~.KtK)' distribU:ion oflhc stcmming ratio Kr for all bu. ooal strip opc:raüons.. Aftcr Asb ( 1963).
KTintc:rval l"requCOI.'")'
0. 1-0.19 o
0.2-029 6
0.3-0.39 12
0.4-0.49 18
O.S-{1.59 18
0.6-0.69 25
0.7..,.79 19
0.8-<>.89 13
0,9-0.99 6
1.0-1.09 14
1.1-1.19 1
1.2-1.29 1
IJ. J.J9 J
U · l.49 ¡
I.S• I.$9 2
Total 152
1':~bk 4.S. thc n&n¡c, mnm, rnock and mcdi1111 valucs ror K_. K1/ . K,a:nd Kr Af\1!1" Ash (1963).
Ratio Sampks IUn¡e Me81l Mode Median
x. 2M 14-49 30 38 29
Ku• 284 1.0- 12.9 4.0 2.6 3.4
K> 12 1 0.0.79 0.28 0.24 0.21
x, 152 0.20-1.59 0.74 0.65 0.67
4.5.3 Burden rallo (Ash, 196J)

The most critica! and important dimension in blasting is that of the burden. There are two
requircmcnlS neccssary lo define il properly. To cover all condition5, the burdeo should
be considered as the distance from a charge measured perpendicular to the neare:st free
face and in the direction in which displaeement will most likely occur. lts aclllal vaJue
will depend on a combination ofvariables including the rock charac-teristics. the explosive
used, etc. But whcn the rock is complctdy fragmcntcd and displaced littlc or not at all.
one can assume the critical value has been approached.. Usually. an amount slightly less
than thc critica! value is prcferred by mo.-rt blasterS.
There are many fonnulae that provide approximate burden values but most require cal-
culations that are bothersome or complcx to the average man in the field. Many also re·
quire knowledge of various quantities of the rock and ex,plosi\•es, such as tensile strength:s
and detonation pressures, etc. As a rule, the necessary infonnation is not rcadily available.
nor is it understood.
A convenient guide that can be used for estimating the borden, however, is the Ks ra~
tio. E.~perience shows that when K11 ~= 30, the blaster can usually expect satistilctory results
for average field conditions (Table 4.5). To providc grcalcr lhrow, the K8 valuc could be
reduccd below 30, and sul>sequenlly finer si7Jng is also expected 10 re$ull.
Light density explosives, such as field~mixed ANFO mixtures. necessarily require the
use of lower K8 ralios (20 10 25), while dense explosives, such as slurries and gelatins,
Preliminary guideline:s[fN blastlayout 81
pennit tbe use of K8 near 40. The final value seleeted should be the result of adjustments
made to sWt not only the rock and explosive types and densities but a1so the degree of
fta¡¡¡nentation and displacement desired.
To cstima.tc th.c dcsircd K6 valuc onc should know that dcnsities for explosivcs are
rarely greater !han 1.6 or less than 0.8 g!cml. Also, for most rocks requiring biBSting, the
dcnsíty in g/cm1 rarcly cxceeds 3.2 nor is lcss !han 2.2 with 2. 7 far !he most c:ommon value.
Thus, the biBSter can, by ftrst approximating the burden at a K8 of 30 make simple es-
timations toward 20 (or 40) to suit the roek and explosive characteristics. densities for the
latter cxerting thc greater influencc·.
Thus
- for liglu explosives in dense rock use K8 = 20,
- For heavy explosives in light roek use K8 a 40,
- For light explosives in average rook use K8 -= 2S,
- For heavy explosives in average roek use K8 = 35.
Figure 4.12 illuslraleS the relationsh.ips between burdeos and explosive diameters and can
be used to approximate values for quíck estimations. 1t sbould be noted. however, that the
burdcn must be more carefully sclectcd for small-<liametcr blastholes !han for largcr char·
ges, a fact well confirmed by field cxpericnce.
lO
<S
K11 • 20
10
Figure 4.12. Thc rtlation5hip

bctWttn bw'dcn and explosh·c
o 2 ~ 6 ' 10 12 14 16 diamdcr U$l:n¡ tbt ash t\lan•
O~er or Explosivc (ins) dlnl mk>(A>h. 1 963~
88 Bla$ting princip/e$for open pil mlning: General design <."'ncepts
4.5.4 Hole deplh ratio (Ash. 1961)
As a rule, a blaslhole should never be drilled co a depth less than lhe burden dimension ir
overbreak and cmtering are to be avoided. lo pntCticc blastbolc.s are gcncrally drillcd from
1-!-\ to 4 times the burden dimeosion. Blasting is most frequen~y done with a K;,
value of
2.6 (Table 4.5).
4.5.5 Subdrilling ralio (Ash. 1963)

Thc primary rcasoo for driUing blastholcs bclow floor lcvcl (or grade) is to assurc that a
fuU facc will be removed. Uneven floors causcd by hwnps or toes generaJty create prob-
lcms for latcr blasting, as wcll as for loading and haulage opcrations. For most conditions,
the required subdrilling (J) should never be less than 0.2 the burden dimension, a K1 of at
lcast 0.3 being prcfcrred for quite massÍ\•e Jcdg<:s (Table 4.5).
The amount of necessary overdrilling Jogically depends upon tbe structural and density
characteristics of Lhe ledge. but aJso on lhe direction or the blastholes, i_n tbat inclined
hofes require less subdriiJing. and horizontal boles no subdrilling whatsoever. 'Under cer-
tain eonditions no subdrilling is required also for vertical boles, as would be the case for
many coaJ strippings or rock quarries having a pronounced parting at the floor level. ~lt)
wcvcr for rclativcly massivc rock drilling, at lcasc 0.3 tbe burdcn bclow thc Ooor will en~
surc that full lcdgc heights are obtaincd~ providcd. of coursc, that a propcr K11• value is
also used.
4.5.6 Stemmlng rú/lo (Ash, /963)
Collar and scemming are sometimes used to express the same thing. However. stemming
refcrs to thc filling ofblastholcs in thc collar rcgion with matcrials such as drill cuttings to
contine the exptosive gases. But stemming and the amoun.t of cottar. the latte:r being lhe
unloadcd portian of a blastholc. perfonn othcr functions in addition to confining gases.
Sincc an cncrgy wavc will travcl much faster in solid roc·k than in the lcss dense
unconsolidated sternming material, stressing will oc:cw much earlier in the sol id material
than compaction of thc stcmming material could be accomplishcd. Thus the amouot of
collar that is left {1). wbether or not stemming is used, detennines the degrec of stress
balance in thc rcgion. Thc use of stcmrning material thcn assists in confining thc gases by
a delayed act.ion that should be long enough in time duration to permit their performing
thc necessary work befare rock movcmcnt and stemming cjcct1on can occur. f"or stress
balance in bench-blasting of massive material. the value of T should equal the 8 dimen-
SJon.
Usually a Kr value of les.~ than 1 in sol id ruck will cause sorne cratering, with back
break and possiblc violence, partkularly for collar priming of c:harges. However. if there
are structUJ111 discontinuitics in thc collar rcgon, n:flcction aod rcfraclion of thc cncrgy
waves reduce the efTectS in the direction of the charge fength. Thus che Kr value can be
rcduccd undcr such circumstanccs, thc amount dcpcnding upon the degroc of encrgy rc-
duction at the dtJt..'iily or structural interfaces. Ficld c.xpuiencc shows 1hat a K 1 value of
O.7 is a reasonable approximation for the control of air bla~t and stress balance in the col-
lar n:gion (Tablc 4.5).
Preliminary guldelines for bla.sllayom 89
4.5.7 Spaclng ratio (Aslt, /96J)

Commcrcial blasting usuaUy rcquircs thc use of multiple bla'\tholes.. making it necessary
for blasters to know whelher or not lhere are any mutual cffccts bctwccn cbargcs. If adja-
ccnt chargcs are iniliatcd separat.ely (in scquence). wlth a tíme-delay interval ofsufficiem
length to permit each charge to complete its et:'l tire blasting action, there will be no intcr-
action between their energy waves. However ifthe time intuval for initiating adjaccnt char-
gcs is reduccd, then complex effccls will result.
Tbc manner in which the z:ooe of rock between hole.'\ is broken depends then not only
on the particular initiation-.liming system used but also on the spacing dimcnsion. Ideal
energy baJancing belween charges is usually accomplished when the spac.ing dimension is
ncarly cqual lo double lhat of thc burdeo (!(, = 2) wbeo chargcs are ioitiated símullane-
ously. For long-interval delays, the spacing should approximatc thc burdcn, or K..s = l . For
sbort-pcriod dclays, lhc K., value will vary from 1 to 2 depcoding upon lhe interval used.
However since structural planes of weakness such as jointing, etc .• are not actually per·
pendicular to one another. the exact value for Ks nonnally will vary from 1.2 to 1.8, thc
prcfcrrcd valuc of which must be tailorcd to local conditions. Most difficultie$ resulting
from blasting can be artributcd lo thc use of an unsuitablc Ks relationship.
4.5.8 Summary(Ash, 1963)

Most blasting difficulties occur bccausc of a lack in undcrstandiog of how rock is broken
and the use of improper chargc-placcmcnt and initialion-timing praclíces. The clucs as to
what could be wrong are often reveak:d by how a blast pcrfonns: whcthcr or not unifo""
breakagc rcsults, toes are left, ovcr-brcak and violcnce occur, and similar undesireable ef-
fc:cu exist Provided that the prope:r explosives are employed for the operating conditions,
certain standard.s can be applied, to hclp in thc evaluation of blasts. Thcsc standards can
also assisl in providing guideli~:~es as to whjch dirtction adj ustments should be made for
correcting any difficulties. Tbe standards are practica! and simple to apply, bcing ba.sed
on two fundamental, usually known quantities: exptosivc diamctcrs and bcnch hcigbt. Thc
standards are as follows:
K8 = 20 to 40 (30 average).
K *11 • J-!hto 4 (2.6average).
K1 = 0.3 minimurn,
Kr = 0.5 to 1 (0.7 average),
Ks= 1102.
The standards will be found to be quite convenient and uscful, aftcr vcry littlc practicc~
not only for thc initial dcsign of blasts but also in providing guidelines upon which to cor-
rect fonnaf blasting difficulties which invariably occur from time to time. Howcver onc
mu.sr realize thal the standards in themselves are no1 eure-alls, sinoe blasting as such de-
pc-nds hcavily on cost and safcty considcrations as well as on tht explosive grades used.
lhe materials characteristics, and the blasting techniques employed.
4.6 DETERMINATION OP K,
The kcy dimensions required in tbc dcvclopment of a blast design are based upon lhe bur-
den which, in turn, is related to lhe borebole diarneter lhrough the burden factor K,.
90 Blasting principies for open pil mfning: General design concepts
B=KaD
The value for Ks
K8 e 25
has been found by the preoent author and others (Ash, 1963 for example) to work well for
a wide range of hale diamctcrs whcn using ANFO in rocks of mc:dium density
(SG • 2.65). Sorne guidance regarding the selection of K8 when using explosives in rocks
of other densities is needed. The approach described in this scction is proposcd as a first
approximatioo. Thc devcl<>pment of the basic equation for K8 will be flrst done u."ing
units of the mctric system and then thc cquivalcnt fonnulac in the Engli.sh system wiU
simply he stated.
In addition 10 !hose pararnelei'S already introduced the following needed.
SGt .. speciñc gravity ofthe explosive
SG• = specific gravity of thc roe:k
PFEXP = powdcr factor (kg/ton)
TF~ tonnagc factor (m3/ton)
The hasic geomclly is shown in Fig~ 4.13 where one blasthole from the round has been
isolated. The number oftons (T11) broken is given by
(4.31)
whcrc
8 = burden (m),
P112o = dcosity ofwatcr (mtlml)
Since in the metric sys.tcm
p1120 = 1 mtfm3
Figun: 4.13. ihc I"'Ck volumc ~

ciatcd wilh a blast bok.
Prel/mínary g11/delinesfor blastlayo111 91
this term will not be carricd through che remaining equations. Knowing the powder factor
required to provide the desired degroc uf fragmc:ntation (PFRXf), thc wnount of CJ<plosive
required (EIIQO) is
EIIQO • r,xPFtx1' • KsK11 D ><SG,x PF"""
1 (4.32)
The total amount of explosivo available (E.,,.) is
Em .• ! (D, )2 (DK 11 +DK1 - BK, f;G,•

4
(4.33)
2
= B¡(D,) (K11 + K 1 - K, )roE
wben: D, • explosivo diamem- (m).

Scuinj¡ the amount of explosivo required 10 that aYllilable yields
sc.K,K, B1PFr.x, • s!!.cD.>'(K" + K, - K, ~ct (4.34>

4
Solviog Equation (4.34) for 8 one liods that
B=D[(! ISGEI
' 4 SG,
1
PFvr,
IK,•K ¡- Kr]t'
K , 'JK s IJ
(4.JS)
As can be seen by comparing Equation (4.3S) to Equatioo (4.11 ), K, is eq\Ulto
K.-[(:g~: Ip)UPr~~;:~:Kr )]"' (4.36)
The powder factor based on the octual explosivo used (I'F¡;x,) will be replaced in Equa.
tion (4.36) by the equivalen! ANFO powder factor (PFANFOl
PFI!XI' - PFANFfl (4.37)
SAHFO
whcre SANFO = rclative wcight s1reng1h ofthc explosiva EXP 10 ANFO.

Equation (4.36) then becomes
K.J(!r~r s ••., t.
1 4 se, PF•"'" 1 K, • K¡ - K ,
K 11 K, 1
IJ
(4.38)
This is quite a powerful fonnula as will be dernonstrated through a scñcs of cxampl<s.

Exo.mpJe 1. One of the major ways lhll thc cquation can be used is to study the efTect of
ehanges in the explosivo on the blutin¡ pauem while keeping othcr factofS ofthe design
- Holc diamcter,
- 8cnch hcigh~
- Roek type,
- Spacing ratio K$>
-Subdñll mio K,.
- Stcmming mio K,..
92 BI<WbJjl prim_·/plesfor opcn pit mining: Genl'rtll de.ti¡.:n N l nr't!fJI.f
1he samc. Thc bcnch bcrgtll raaio K, depends upon thc burden which 10 tum dcpends upon
K.. llen.oe il W111 chlll1ge. Thc approach is. lh..-cfore. 10 wri~ Fqua1ion (4.38) twice using
subscripu to dcnmc ~p&osh·c l and Explosh·e 2.
F.xpfOSII'< f
K.,·[(:)(~~~)( :;:J,( Ku;~~~ Kr ),]'' (4 .39)
,.:.Xpltmvtr z·
K.,·[(:)(~~~)( I;F~~~;J,( Ku;:~: Kr ),]"' (4.40)
Taking thc rotio of Equations (4.40) and (4.39) onc finds that
m
In. (sG., )( n~wrolllXS••-ro<2l)(Ku~:~;K, ),
K., l SG,_, l PF,..-ro(2) S,.,,,0 (1) ( K11+K1 - K,) (4.41)
l Kn Ks 1
lfthc ANPO t--quivak11t po"dcr fa.c1or is maintained conuant (C\flcnlhc case). thcn E.qua·
1ion (4A 1) rcdue<O lo
~- (SGL xS t.\FO)! x K 11 K S ) (4.42)

K11 (SGr "S,.,rq~ K, • K 1 - K 1 1
lfthe voriouion of K, wilh c:tmnsing burden is nf.--gle<:tli!d th.en
(K¡¡ ;,~~:K, ), -( Kll ~~~~~ Kr), (4,4))
8Jld the simplificd txpn:ssion ht-comi:S
!i.u. J(,SGE X SA«fQ)¡

n
(4.44)
1<111 (SG~. xSANFo),
11'1us_. as 11 lln:t •pproximalion. 1hc K11 ra1io is «~ualw thc ooqunrc root of ahc hutk .strc.n.gth
rattn for dK' cxplosn·t.'$ invol\'ed,
To refine ahe vaJuc: of KIQ!> an i1cralion process invnlving th..: thrc.! t.oqualions
B: K~: o~
( J .46)
1 KHt KJ (4,42)
\ K m+ K J- K r
m S<.'\l\ltncc i~ ust..-d. The initiaJ value of K 82 Í$ subslitutcd into EA:1wUion (4.45) arld sol\'td
for 8:, 'l'hc \'Uiuc: of Km ís lhcn found rrom r;quation (4.46) whtch thcu i.s input into
e pyr¡gnt8d 11a '1 1

Prelt'minary guidellnes for bla.'itlaycur 93
Equation (4.42). The resulring value of K111 is compored with the initial estímate. lfthey are
the same, the process stops. 1f not tban this new value of K82 is input into Equation ( 4.4S)
and the proceso continuos. 1t converges rapidly to a stable solution.
Examp/e 2: This samc procedurc can be uscd to cvaluatc thc ctTcct of changing othcr
variables. Rock densiry is one parnmeter of interest. Equation (4.38) is written assuming
two materials having ditTerent densiúes (specific gravities).
Material Ocnsity 1:
K., ~[(¡)(~~:),( ~·::H KH;:~:Kr).]"' (4.47)
Material Den.'\ity 2:
K~((")(SOe)
92
4
( SANPO ) (KH+Kr Kr) ]"'
SOR , PFANFO 2 K uKs 2
(4.48)
Although not necessary it will be as.sumed that the following remain oonstanl
- Hole diameter.
- Explosive,
- Bench height,
- Spacing rario K.o
- Subdrill ratio K.,
- Stemming ratio KT·
Thc bench hcigbt ratio K11 dcpcnds upon thc burdcn wbic::h in tum depends upon KIJ and
hence it will change. Oividing Equation (4.48) by Equation (4.47) one finds that
(4.49)
lfthe variation of K11 with c::hanging burden is neglected. then as a 6rst approximation
Ks2 =
K BI
JSOR2
so., (4.SO)
Once the initial value of K82 is found, an iteration process involving the thrce equations
(4.4S)
H
KH2=- (4.46)
Bz
K., = JSO _1---'K

-"H
'"''-K
=s- K m + K¡ Kr
Rl (4.49)
Ka, SG1u K m+ K¡ - K r KHl Ks
is performed until a sta.blc valuc for Kn is obtained.
In the English system, Eqnation (4.38) bccomes
Ks =(2000J'"[(~)(§§.X SANn> XKH +KJ -K

4 so. PF AHFO Ku Ks
r)]"' (4.SI)
94 8/asting principies for open pit mining: General óe.sígn concept.s
whcre PFANFO = ANFO equivalen! powdcr factor (lbs/ton), 2000 = lbs/ton.

When using the iteration process it is important to malntain a consisrent set of units.
fee~ then the holc diamcter in Equation (4.45), for ex·
Thus if the burden is expressed in
ample, must also be in fcct.
4.7 S!MULATION OF D!FFERENT DESIGN ALTERNATI VES
In Section 4.5 a theorctical basis for cvaluating diffcrcnt dcsign aJtcmativcs was prc·
sentcd. Herc two design variations wiU be coru¡ldered starting wilb the pattem in use at
the mine today.
Hole diameteT = 12~ ins,
(lcnch height = 40 n.
flurden s 25 ft.
Spacing = 29 ft,
Subdrill = 7 ft,
Stemming = 17 ~
ANFO: SANFO = 1.0,
sc•.•ro = 0.82,
Q=912caVgm,
Rock: SG a 2.65,
PFA>'FO = 0.5 lbs/ton.
One questlon mlght be 'What would the pauem be using 15"' diameter hol~?' Using
Equation (4.51) one would first detennine the current value of K8 . The required input val-
ucs are
K11 =4012S = 16
K¡ a 7fl5 • 0.3
Kr ~ 11fl5 • 0.7
Ks = 29fl5 • 1.1 S
se.,.,= o.s2
SG,....=2.6S
SANFO = 1
PFANFO=o.so
Substituting thesc valucs into F...quation (4.5 1) one finds that
K8 =[2ooo(")(0.82)(-I) (1.6+0.3-0.7)]" ' =(634)'"=25.2

4 2.65 050 (1.6)(1.15)
This is what might have bcen expected using the guidelines of Ash (1963). For thc 15
ínch diameter boles, tbe firstapproximation for the burden would be
0
B=K • ( 12•)=25.2(.!..?.)=31.5
12 ft
This however changcs thc value of K11 10
Preliminary guidelines for bla.ttlayout 95
H 40
Ku = - = - - =; J.21
B 31.5
Substituting this into Equation (4.51) kccping all othcr valucs constan! onc finds that
K
8
=[972 (127+0.3-0.7))'"= 24 ,~
121 (1.15)
Jterating until a stable value is found yields
K8 = 24.3
The resulting pauem with the ts• di.amecer holes is
8=301\
s ~ 34. 5 n
r~ 2 1 ft
J = 9ft
(: r
The powder factor
)(:~ (40 + 9- 21)0.82 x2000

PFANro = 30 x 34.5 x40 x 2.65 a O.S I lbs/ton
is slightly different from lhe expected value of0.50 duc to round off. As was pointed out
carlier, this pattem would be e.xpected to yield a more coarse fragmentation than witl:t lhe
12W'' boles. To maintain thc same fragmcntation, the powder factor would have to be in-
creased. This can be easily included in the calculation.
Another possible question deals wit.b 'what happens 10 the pauem if the explosivc is
changcd?' Assumo that the mine is considering replacing A.NFO by a heavy ANFO with
the following properties.
so . 1.10
Q= 8 15 caVgm
The weight strength ofthis product with rcspect to ANFO is
815
SA.'FO • 912 = 0.89
Using Equalion (4.44) the value of Kn is
K =K 1.10x0.89 = 1 09 K
I1Z Bl 0.82 X 1.00 ' 81
Since
K8 1 = 25.2
lhen
Ktn = 27.5
The new burden would be
B2 • 27.5e~~5 ) • 28.1 ft
and Km bc<:omes
96 8/a.tting principies for open pil mining: General design concepls
40
Km = --= 1.42
28.1
This is now s.ubstituted into Equation (4.49) to anive ata new approximation for K 82 •
_
K81 -K (SGxS,Nro)2 X (K 11 +K;-Kr) X K11 K5 )
61
(SGxS,,vro)1 K11 K5 1
K11 +K; - Kr 1
Most ofthe tc::rms are: con:-.tant and it can in this case be: simplified to
K = ( _ ) (1. 10)(0.89) 1.6(1.15) K"' +0.3-0.7
25 2
., ~ 0.82(1.0) 1.6+0.3-0.7 K"' ( 1.15)
Ku 2 - 0.4
(4.52)
1.15 Km
Substitution of Km • 1.42 into Equation (4.52) yields
KH1 m26.95
Tbc ncw bun:k:n is
s,:26.95e~~5 ):27.5 1 ft
and the corresponding value of Km is
H 40
KH1 "" - = - - = l.45
8 2 27.5 1
This is subsailutc::d into Equation (4.52) and the pn>cess continued unlil a stablc:: value of
Km results. In this case it is
8 2 ~ 27.0
Thc blast pattem would be
8 ~ 27.0 (12.25/12) = 27.6 ft
S A3 1.7ft
J e 8.3 ft
T= 19.3 n
Thc powder factor bccomcs
(¡)(W)' (40+8.3 - 19.3)( 1.10)(2000)

PF«'""' = 27.6 x 3 1.7 x 40 x 2.65 0 563 lbslton
= ·
ln tenns oftbe ANFO cquivaleut powder factor this bccomcs

PF_.-ro: PF.,.,., x SANFO: 0.56 x 0.89: 0.50 lbs/ton
which is as expected.
As indicated. this approach to the paper evaluation of different blast designs is quite
general. Thc costs associalcd wilh lhc diffcrenl dcsigns can be easily added lo translate
the results into an expected ftagmentatioo cost per ton.
Preliminary guidelinesfor blastlayollt 97
4.8 ROCK STRUC.TURE ANlJ OLAST PATTERN DESIGN
Figure 4.14 shows the type of radial cracking which one might expect when blasting a
single hole ln a brittle. ma\.~ive roc.k fonnaticm. lhere will be a relatively few long cracks
(6-8) spaced uniformly uround thc holc. As one approaehcs thc holc thc crncks will be
shorter and more numerous.
Thc roax.imum length (RJ of thc radiaJ crack$ for a g iven explosive and rock type can
be shown to be directly dependent on lbe hale radius. Thus as lhe hale diameter is in·
crcased from 150 mm to 31 O mm tbe length of the Iongest CJ11c.ks would be expected to
about double. This is consisten! with the design relationship
8 = K8 D
presented earlier since the borden should be related to the lengths of the cracks generoted
8 u R" (4.53)
lf thc strcngth of the cxplosivc uscd in a hale of given diametcr is incn:ascd or dccrcased,
the outer crack radius should change aceordingly. This is rellected in the value of K8 cho·
sen. Since in genera.L, a larger diameter hale is less expensive to driiJ than one of smaiJcr
diamctcr (on a cost/volunw basis) the natural conclusion would be to dril! as large di·
ameter boles as possible. Unfottunately li'agmcntation considerations would suggest just
the opposite, ie the boles should be smaller to bener distribute the explosive throughout
the rock mass. To illu.~Urate this some simple geometric reasons will he given.
Figure 4.1 S shows two possiblc: blast paUcms using diiTerent si7.t boles but the same
e.xplosive. The specific energy (powder factor) is the same for both. A simplified repre·
sentation of the radial eracks aller blasting is shown in Figure 4.16 for eacb pattem. As
the hole diameter is increased and the pattem expands. the distance between adjacent
crack tips bccomes grcatcr. For the· case shown
L>l.'
Thus even though the energy density is the same, the fragmentation is more coarse. Gen-
craUy as thc pattcm is spread, the powder factor (energy f.'lctor) must be increased to
maintaio acceptable fragmentation. One way of doing tbat is to limit the panem spread to
sorne proportion ofthe theorettcal value. As shown in Figure 4. 17, there is now an over-
lap of thc longcsC fractures. Anothcr way of accomplishing this would be to incrc:asc thc
encrgy of thc explosivc being used.
F¡gurc 4.1 4. An i<k:¡lil:'Cd rqns«~~Jlioo of thc' radial crackln& surruuJld.

ing a single holc.
98 B/tH:thiJl prlnc:ipll!sfor open pit mining: GeneN1/ t/(•Jdgn CtiiK'epll
• •
• • • 111t:,vN ... 1' · ltu: e."tl.'fll uf (,.;king lbr
t""t' pnttcm.i wilh difl'cr.:nl hoh.: di·
amch'f'li,
Fl¡\lrc <4.16. Ma,lmllln blod: dilnO'I·

~'"' 10t 1hr hok plltlt'ms ~--.'1'1 in
H&\lrc-' U
fit,utt 4.17 ..N!W'ICflbllion f~Ñne(tn(lll

"" lll.Mtlcd by r\"tl~teing thl: $flacing.
e yr¡gnt8d 11a '1 11

Prell.mlnary guldelines for hlasr laycut 99
Therefore~ even in massive roc-ks, becausc of

- The point introduction of enetgy into the rock.
- Fracture geometry,
there are limiting holc diamc...-tcrslburdcn.slspacings which yicld aoccptablc fragmentation.
lt is well known tha~ an actual rock mass generally contains many discontinuities of dif-
ferent types. The most common being
- Joints.
- Bedding plancsllayering.
- Foliation.
- faults.
lf suct1 structures (joints in panicular) are now introduced, such as is shown in Fig-
ure 4.18. thc stOl)' bccomes cvcn more complcx. The radios of influencc for any given
hole is significantly reduced since
l . The radial crack.s will not cross thc gaps fonncd by the joints.
2. The high pressure gasses can be shon-circuited by the less resistan! joints compared
with the fresh cracks. Therefore the primary fracturing errecth•eness is reduced as weU as
that produced by a susttined heave ofthe fractured material.
Although these pre-existing cracks Hmit the fonnation of new cracks and providc avc-
nues of escape for thc cxplosivc gases. mobilization of these is a major reason why the
specific breakage energy in blasting is mueh lower than othcr proccsses which must auack
thc lntact rock.
Figure 4.19 shows two potential drilling pauems in thc jolntt.-d rock. Thc smallcr di·
ametcr, c.loscly spaced holes yield alrnost one hole per block and the fragmentation would
be expeeted lO be good. On the other h1111d, thc largcr holcs on widc spacings could yicld a
large number of substamial blocks largely isolated from the eiTcct of the explosivc by thc
hJe;¡fízed Cmddn¡ Joirtl Syscem
l' igurc 4. 18. Effc:ct ofjointing on fragmcn1:11ioo.
,., lb)
Figu~ 4.19. Two possibk: bla:sc paucms supcrimposed on jolmc:d rock.
100 8/a.rting prindples for open pit mlning: General design ,·oncepts
joints. Pattern (a) would havc higher associated driUing and blasting costs than Pattem
(b). Oy assigning costs 10 the degrec of fragmcntation, an 'optimum' pattern can be dc-
termined.
The orientation or the major s-tructures can have a significant enect on blas-ting resuhs.
There are three cases to be considered (Burkle, 1979).
- Shooting with the dip
- Shooting against the dip
- Shooting along thc strike
In shooting with thc dip (Fig. 4.20) o ne finds
(a) a tendency to get more back break
(b) less toe problems
(e) a smoother pit noor
(d) more movement away from the facc and then:fore a lowcr muc:kpilc profilc.
When shooting against the dip (fig. 42 1) one finds
(a) l es..~ backbreak since the s-trata is dipping into the wall.
(b) thc toe would be more difficult to pull.
(e) a rougher Ooor condilion.
(d) the muckpile may be hig.her with less movement from thc facc.
Oitec1ion ofRW.1 -t
Figure 4.20. Oiagrammatic rq¡mcntation of

shoocin.g. in lhe dip diicctton (Burldc, 19'79).
Figure: 4.2 1. Oi:agmnunatk ttpresctltation of

shooting ~ins. lhe dlp (Rurtlc.. 1979).
Pre/iminory guidelines for blostlayoul 1O1
Oircc1ion oi'Ohts:l -t
..- --
-----
--- --.
-------
--
---
----- ---
-- .. -
--- Figure 4,22. Oiagrammalic represcntatioo o f
:\hoollng alona " rikt (Burtle. 1919),
Finally, when shooting along the strike (Fig. 4.22) one tinds t.luu the noor can be highly
saY+1oothed due to the different rock types intersecting the floor. For the same reasons the
back break is irregular. 'lltese are some of the worst conditions for lhose involved in drill-
ing and blasling. To ovcrcomc lhis, thc working facc may be n:oricntcd coa more favor-
able condhions.
The fonnation.s should be cxamincd to idcnüfy thc strike and dip dinx:tion of the most
prominent joints. In igneous and mela.morphic rock fonnations, one should consider align-
ing thc rows of holcs parallcl to thc alignmcnt o f the dominant jo int systcm. In scdimcn·
tary rock..~ the drill hales should be placed in rows drilled parallel to the fonnatio n strike
line.
4.9 MEASURE-WHILE-DRILLING SYSTEMS
Modcm drilling machines may be cquippcd with systems which monitor amongst other
variables
- Penetration rate
- Torque
- Pulldown pressure
- Rotary speed
as a function of hole advance. This practice has been g iven thc namc Measurc· Whilc·
Drilling (MWD). From these data one-can calculate quantitic:s such as thc spccific encrgy
(cncrgy rcquircd to rcmove a unit volume ofrock) which can be related to thc difficulty of
breaking rock. One such record for a rotary driU uscd in coal formation rocks (Pcck el al.,
1990) is shown in f'igure 4.23. The strength differences in the various rock types can be
casily sccn. Bascd upon such results decisions can be made regarding, for example. the
placement ofhigher energy explosives, slemming. etc.
One mining property where the MWD technique has been u.~d wilh success is at
Highland Valley Copper in British Columbia (Daly & Assmus, 1992). Due to poor frag-
memation, high toe arcas, excessive shovel wear and tear, etc an integrated program to
improve drilling and blasting practices was inítiated in the early 1980s. In this sut>.section
a bric:f ovc:rvic:w of thcir program and thc resuJts achieved at the Valley Pit will be pre·
sented. In 1992 lhe time at which the paper (Oaly & Assmus, 1992) upon which this scc-
tíon is based was written, the production from &he pit was about 200,000 tons pcr day of
ore and waste from bc:nches 12.5 m in height.
102 Blasling prlnclplesfor open pit mlnlng: General design concepls
~
001
~-
¡g<
'~
o>
o
"' o
0001
p·"'
-~ 001
:¡¡~
-.¡:
o
001
~
• o¡
~
e
o
D
1
D
Preliminaryguidelinesfor blaSI/ayouJ 103
Thc ore host rock is Bcthsida quartz monzonitc·. Thc other rock lypcs presentare {a)
qWU12 and QUAI11. feldspar porphyry wb.ich occur in dikes ranging from 0.3 to 35 m thick
and (b) lamprophyrc dikcs avt:raging 4.5 m thick. Thcsc dikc matcrials are bard and un-
altered. Tbe quartz. monzonite has experienced various desrees of hydtothennal alteration.
The altcralion zoncs commonly strikc north·south and dip stccply to thc cast Other more
local structural tr<nds are
- North-south fractures and faults dipping stecply to the 1ves~
- East-wcst fractures dipping stecply to thc south,
- Southeast striking fractures dipping modmuely northcasterly or southwesterly.
This combination of structurc and altcration typc and intcnsity largely detennines the rock
blastability.
Rock strength is a traditional component of a blastability classification system. The
field strength categories used by Highland Valley Copper are given below:
E$Cim~ rod: ma..u oumpn:!lsivc Sl:rmgttl (psi)
Rl 182-1825
R2 1825-?300
RJ 7300- t 4,600
R4 14,600-2'9,000
R5 >29.000
Thcn: are o1hcr factors. howcver. which detenninc the overall blastability. The rock mass-
blasting zone classitication system which was developcd dhrided thc Bcthsaida quartz mon-
zonítc into lhe thrcc categorics poor. fair and good. Roc·k with a blastability classi.ficatioo
·poor' mcans Bethsaida quar1Z monzonitc with an RS strength. lt can cithcr be fresh to
wcakJy altcred or intcnscly argillicaly ahcrcd but intcnscly silicified (approximately 39-
S901o). Joint spacing is commonly 1.5 to 6 m and joints tend to be master joinlS with 12m
or more (bcoch height) continuity and continuity along strike of SO mor more. Thcse master
joints divide thc roe-k mass into largc blOC·ks which. when blasted. resull in vcry chunky
muck. The classification •good' means R2 or R3 rock strength material. uswtlly moderate
lo intcnsely argillicly aJtc:ml Bethsaida quartz monzonitc cut by frequcot fractures, shcars
and gouge-filled faults. The intense fracturing and the strong alteration renders the rock
son and friable and blastable into fmc muck. The rock classificd as 'fair' consists ofmod-
erate to moderate-intertSe argillicly altered Dethsaida quartt m002onite with an average
R3 uniaxial oomprcssivc strength. It is commonJy wcll-fractured and yiclds blocky muck
approximately 0.3 m in diameler.
A combinatioo of geoteehnieal mapping, penetration cate data. toe elevation contouring
and obscrvations on shovcl and drill performance wm= used to detcnninc the characlcr
and extent of thc blast :rones. Thc proccdure used "'dcvclop the blast zones w11S as fol-
lows (Daly & Assmus, 1992):
l. The active-Jy mined faces and lhe final walls of lhe beneh are mapped recording all
pcrtinant gcotcchnical infonnation.
2.. The alteration zones are projected along lhe predominanl structuraltrends across the
beoch using a hydrothennal alteration model.
3. Expcricncc gaincd from the ovcrlyíng beoch ís utílizcd:
a. Blaslh.ole drilling pe:netration rate maps
104 B~·ting principies /or open pit mining: General design concepls
b. Toe elevation eontours (0.3 to 0.6 m intervals) to show the hlgh rclief arcas.
c. Shovel and drill performance dal4 as they drilled and mucked the bench. Hard
zoncs are indicatcd by areas which requircd rooodrilling due to poor fragmentation
and tough-digging zones for the shovels indicated hard zones.
4. 'Jñe penetration rate data and toe elevation data were tben used to verily or modi!Y
lhe blast zone contaets as projecled IK."l'OSS the bench from the gcotechnical mapping..
Once each bench is mapped anda blast wnc outlined, a blast pattcm sizc is dc·tcnnincd
for each zone. When the blast plan for each new bench is made up. a panicular powder
factor is assigncd to each blast zone, according to the blasting resulls. digging perfonn-
ance and geotechnical characteristics of that zone on the last bench. Tough digging and
very chunky muck mean that the powder factor must be increased, where3S fine muck and
easy digging indicate the powder factor can be rcduced. 'Jñe extent of the blast zoncs with
a particular powder factor may also change from bench to bench depending on the dip and
plungc ofthc struclural!altcration makc-up oflhc zoncs.
After a pattem has been bta~ted. the broken rock is monitored to see if the digging is
adequate and the fragmentation aoceptable for both the shovel digg.ing the mudo and the
L"ru.'~her, if it is ore. At the Valley Pit the ore mu.~ be blasted more for lhe (:rushers than for
the shovels. l'oor digging is manifested by chunky and poorly broken muck, a lot of scraping
of lhe face hy lhe shovel tu dislodge chun_k~ shaking ofthe boom cables and rockjng on
thc tracks as thc buckct brcaks loose a hard chunk. This is vcry hard on thc shovcl.
The topogrnphy of thc toe can be a good indication of the success of the blast. High
toes of 1.5 m to 3 m were oommon in the poor zones in the early days unüllhe blasting was
n:fincd. On ttH: othcr hand, low toes and fine. floury muck indicatc ovcrblasting. Whcn a
bench has been mined out and mapped a new blast plan is oullined for the next bench.
Expericncc has sbown that the gcotechnical mapping and drill penctrntion times have
thc greatest impact on detennining blastability 7.ones. Figure 4.24 shows two main poor
zones on the 1125 bench. The nonhem zone consists of very chunky, tough Bethsaida quartz
monzonite bound together by a closely spaced network of quartz-bomite stringers and
hardened by quanz-grain silicitication. The southem zone consi.us of fresh to weakJy altered
Bcthsaida on the wcst sidc and a quartz vcin nctwork on the case side rcsulting in tough
digging. Both of these geological1.ones conelated well with 35 to 49 minutelhole pene-
lnnion ratc contours shown in Figure 4.25. Both zonc.s wcrc blastcd wilh 7.3 m by 8.4 m
pattems anda powder factor of0.267 kglt. The central ' fair' 7.0ne is a vertically pc:rsistc-nt
zonc that cxhibits closcly spaced fracturing (commonly 0.3 m spacíng or less) and mnderatc-
intense argillic alterat-ion. This zcme strikes nonherly and dips consistenlly easterly at about
60° and phmges to the north. CorrcJating quite wcll with thc 20 ntinute penetration rate con-
lOOr$. it wao; blasted using a 7.8 m by 9.1 m pattem anda powder factor of0.228 kg/L Wilh-
out the infonnation provided by the mapping and penetration rate, nonnally one panem
would have bcen uscd for thc entire bcnch. Bascd on thc use of this infonnation. thc pat-
tcm spacing was widened due lo this more friable 7..0nc. thus saving explosives and still
achi<-ving gond fragmcntation. 'lñc pa«em sizcs used for the 1125 bench (west wall) are:
·-
lo»< Puucm sitt Po-.·dcr r-actor (kg/1)
7.)rn xK.4m 0 .267
Fair 7.8 m x9.1 m 0.2:2ll
Oood 9.1mX I0.4m 0 .174
Preliminary guide/ines /01' bfa.!l faym11 105
Fig.u~ • .24. Ol¡·utlillty plan (or tlle

112S bc:nch of the Vt~Ucy pit (Daly &,
Assnlul, 1992).
l~iguft 4.2.S. Ul~~ll1alc dlill ~CM::~tatioo

f'llk for thc 112S btr.Ch o( k V•lky pil
(Oaly &. AwnltS. IQ9l),
Copyr ~ ted l"atcr 1

106 8/ru lln¡.: princi¡Nc.f for O¡Nn pil minlng: Gttneraf de:rign ('Onccpls
¡ J"' 84 m
]611< 8 7 m
7,1 11< () lm
1lcu'"" .. 26, Patlcm w.n for tbe

ti U bmch uf' tl!c Valle) pil (Daly a_
Aumu.._ 1991,.
Thcsc w-e sho~ n in figUJ'l: 4.26.

In concfusíon. by accuratefy deu,nnining lhe bfaslabilily tones. cxpfosi>1:S. blasting
acCCS$0r'in, blaMholc drilling and sho,·eL and uuek o~ation~ can M opumized "';th a
!klb5c.."<IUCnl substanti:tl cost sa..•i.ng.<>. Thc bcndiiS of bencr fraa.vncnta.lion 10 lhc tnR:k-
l'lhOv(l opcr111tions are me-c~.~ured in increasc.-d prodU(..'1Ívity 11nd dc."<:rc.¡m:d maintcnance
costs. From a maintcn;;mcc JX)im of,tiew thcn:: is lcss shovel bn.:"kdown. tcss rcplacem'-':fll
of crowd trons.Jnassions, bcuer dipper lite and increuscd t..:cth und adaptor liH:. Thc trucks
hcncfit lhun lcss ltnpact on the box durin.g loading of 5mallcr slz"'<l c:hunk:t 011d truck op-
cnuors upprccim~.: lhe gcutlcr loading rcsuhing from the fi ncr rnuck.
4.10 ROCK I)I.ASTAI31LITY
An i!Uempl to rclate bla~tabi l ity to roe.k and roc:k ma.o¡s propcnies ha¡ bccn reponed by
Liffy ( 1986) Thc bf.,.labilil)' lndcx (8/) is dcfined as
81 ]_ IRMD • JPS >JPO • SGI + fl] (4.54)
2
wht.tt RAID rock mass dnaiption., JPS =- joint planc spacing. JPO • joml planc orien-
tat.ion. SG/ spx:1fic: gr.wity innuence. H =- hardncss.
Thc nninws for thc diffcrcnt paramct~rs a.n: given in Tablc 4.6. The Mob's scalc of
h~rdtk.""SS ~-d to define JI is given in Table 4.7. lli:.loric.:ul <bita from the iron mines lo--
catcd in nonhwt:.\t Wcslem Aus1ralia were oscd in constn1ctin¡ lhc ANFO powder lilctor -
blasutbility indcx curve shown in figure 4.27. Thcse mine" a.rc 1ypicully largt scaJc, ropc
shovd 0~11uion~. ANFO is the primary cxplosive nnd larg_c prinmry t.•rushcrs are usc..-d. A 81
e yr¡gnt8d 11a '111

Pre/iminary guidefincsfor blas1/ayou1 107
Tabk 4.6. Ratings fOf the blastability i"<<ex pararnc<m. AftcY Ully ( 19'86).
Ratin.g
l. R<.d mass cksc.:riptinn ( RMD)
1. 1 Powdcry/friablc: 10
1.2 Bloc:ky 20
1.3 T041Llly massi\'1! lO
2. Joint Plane Spacing (JPS)
2.1 C~(< O.I m) 10
1.2 lntermediate (0. 1 lo 1 rn) 20
2.3 Widc f..> 1 rn) lO
3. Joim Planc Orimwkxl (JPQ)
:U Uori:ron1al 10
3.2 Oip oul of facc 20
l.l Slrikc nonnalto face JO
}.4 Oip into racc: 40
4. Spccific Gravit)' l~:~ flucnoc (.5(;1)
SG'I • 2S SG - SO, wbeteSG i$ ((Jualtu !he spcc;irH: 1P11''íty o l' thc roc;k
5. 1-iard"llSS (11)
(Moh's hardness sealc)
Table 4.7. Moh' s scalc of hardness (RCIIM:rts, 1917).
Moh 's llllrdncss

Tale 1
Roek salt, gympsum 2
Cakilll l
f'luoNpar
Apotilc
•l
fcldspar 6
Quam. 7
Tol)ll1. 8
Coorockum 9
Olamond 10
value of 100 refers 10 a massive, extremeJy har~ iron-rich cap rock. lt has a spccific gravity
of 4. Son. friable shales have an indcx of around 20. The energy factor axis was addcd by
Lilly ( 1986) lO allow considcratioo of other cxplosivcs. Thc fotlowing two cxamplcs wcrc
u.sed by Lilly (1986) to illustrate the application ofthe Blas1ability lndex.
&ample l. A highly laminated, soft fmuginous •hale which has hori7.0nlal 10 sub-hori-
zonlal bedding
RMD = 15
JPS • lO
JPO = 10
SG/ • 10
H= 1
TOTAL = 46 and 8/ = 23.
From Figure 4.27, the powder factor is about 0. 1 kg/tonne.
108 Bla1tlng principies fO#' upen pit mining: General desígn C:(}ncepts
0,5 ,--------------,
'·'
Figllt'C 4.27. ~:t:p~~in: u9t as 11

o ~--~-J--,~.--~~--~-4~,o8
• IUastlbfri'ty lnd.:~
funct«.Jn o ( !he blastubility imkx
(Lilly, 1 986~
Example l. A weU-joi_nted.. blocky q-uatttite in which the bedding planes strike roughly
nonnal to thc bcnch facc
RMD • 20
JPS= 15
JP0 • 30
SGI ~ 15
H =8
TOTAL 88 and 81 • 44
s
From Figure 4.27 powder factor is about 0.18 kgltonne.

Although Figure 4.27 has bcen constructcd for thc· statcd (Au~tralian) mining and rock
mass conditions, one can, using thc Bl, casily construct a similar curve for othcr condi·
tions using available f'ield data. When using front..end loade.rs. for ex.ample, higher pow-
der/energy factors will be requircd to achic-.•c thc appropriatc fragmentation nnd muck
pilc shapc than for a rope shovel operc~ti l)n.
4. 11 FRAGMENTATION I'REDICTION
4. 11.1 The basic model

The engineering of fragrnentalion is going to be an imponant pan of mining in the future.
As loading machines bccomc more automated and bclt conveying is the rule ratbcr than
the exceprion. a sir.e speciftcalion for the fragmented mater1al will be required.. This sec-
tion prcscnts sorne fll11d.amcntal background infom1ation in that regard. Most of this in·
fonnation has b<.'<:n adaptcd from publications by Cunningham ( 1983, 1987).
A relationship between 1hc mean frngmcnt sizc and applicd blast cncrgy pcr unit vol ~
umc of rock (powdcr factor) has beco devclopc:d by Kuznctsov (1973) as a function of
roc.k rype. His equation is given bclow
X• A(~]·~Q}' 6 (4.55)
Qr
Preliminary guiáeline.s for blast ltzyoul 109
where X ~ mean fragrnent S'i7..e, cm., A • rock factor $11 7 for medium rock.c;. 1O for hard.
highly fissured rock.<, 13 for hard, weakly fissured rocks, V0 • rock volwne (cubic mete")
brokcn pcr blastholc = Burdcn x Spacing X Bcnch Hcight, Qr = mass (kg) of TNT con-
taining the eocrgy equivalcnt ofthe cxplosivc chargc in cach blast.holc.
The relative weight strength ,,r TNT compared to ANFO (ANFO • 100) is 11 5. Uence
Equation (4.55) based opon ANFO instead ofTNTcan be written as
O.S ( ) - 19/JO
X=A ~ Q tt6 S.tNFO (4.56)
[ Q, ) • 115
whcrc Q.e = mass of cxplosivc bcing uscd (kg), SA/I'FO = relativc wcight strength of thc ex~
plo•ive to ANFO(ANFO • 100).
Since
~ - ..!. (4.57)
Q, K
whcrc K = powdcr factor (spccific chargc) = kg!m3 •
Equation (4.S6) can be rcwrittcn as
9 /JO
X = A(Kf''Q;"
( J_115
SA11ro
(4.58)
Equation (4.58) can now be uscd to calculatc thc mean fragmcntation (X) for a givcn pow-
dcr factor. Solving Equation (4.58) for K
K= [:!.Q,"•(
X
115
S,.,..,.o
)'"l'l)'·" (4.59)
one can ca1culatc thc powder factor requircd to yicld thc dcsircd mean fragmcntation.
Cunningham (1983) indicales that in their experience the lower limit for A even in very
weak rock types is
A=8
and the upper limit is
A = 12
In an anempt to better quantify lhe selection of•A ·. the Blastability Index initially propo-
sed by Lilly (1986) ha• been adapled ror this application (Cunningham. 1987). The equa-
tion is givcn bclow.
A = 0.06x(RMD +JF+ ROl + HF) (4.60)
whcre the diffcrent factors are dcfined in Table 4.8.
Two cxarnplcs illustrating this procedure have been given by Cunningham ( 1987)
&ample 1: A massive fine grained lava

Here UCS is 400 MPa, Young's modulus is 80 GPa and the density is 2.9 tlm'. Thcrc is
little jointing closer than thc anticipated drilling pattcm. UCS detennincs thc Hardncss
factor.
RMD • 50,
JF • O,
11O Blasling principie$ for open pit miuing: General desígn com-ept~·
1'ah&e 4.8, Cunoi.ngfuun·s 'A.' f~etor.
Symbol Quantil)" R.ati.ns

Rack factor 8 U) 12
Red:: M~u l)e,cription
.. powdery/friabh: 10
- vcrtital.ly jointcd JF
- massive so
JF JPS -t JPA
JPS Vertical Joint Sí*i.ng
... < O.Im 10
- O.I toKS' 20
- MStoDP so
MS 0\-crsi:le (m)
1)1' Dñllina patte m si~ (m) as.$umi"a
DI' > MS
JPA Joint plano anglc
- dlp out of f.acc 20
- Mtlkc perpendiwbr to f~ )O
... dip lrt.ll) (a.z
RIJI Dcnsít)' in R~~ence '"x RD -
2,5 50
RfJ Den.sit)' (tfm3)
HP lbrdncss factor
- lf Y< SOGPI uF• m
- lfY > 50GPa lfF a UCSIS
y Yoongs moOOius (OPa)
uc~ Un()()ntincd ~o'()rn¡)t"CSSive Sllen¡th (MPa)
ROl = 2S x 2.9 - SO,

HF • 80:
ROCK FACTOR= 0.06x(SO + 22.5 + 80)= 9. 15
Example 2: A friable, hoñzontally laycrcd carboniferous shale

l,lere lhe average Young's Modulus L~ 18 GPa and thedensity is 2.3tfml. Y de.terminesthe
Hardness Factor.
RMD • 10,
JF = O,
ROl = 25 x2.3 - 50,
f!F = 6:
ROCK FACTOR= 0.06 x (1 0 + 7.5 + 6) = 1.41
lt is of importanoe to know the fragmenta/ion distribution as well as the mean fragment
s ize. In that n:gard it has hcen found that the Rosin· Rammler formu la
(4.61)
whcre X =- screcn si;r.c-, Xc= charactcristic si_7.e, n = index of uniformily, R = proportioo of
material retained on the sereen. gives a reasonable descriptioo of fragmentatjon in blasted
rock. The charac.teristic sizc (Xc) is simply a scale factor. ll is the sizc through which
63.2% ofthe particles pass. lfthe. characleristic si1.e (Xc) and the indcx ofuniformity {n)
Preliminary guidelines for blast layout 11 1
100
F~ 4.28. A typK:al fragrnc:nc4nion cuve &how·

0~------~------~~~
X lncrtailng ing lhc= pc:rccM rctained as a functkm of scrttn
Sc::m:n Opening Size (mm) opening.
are known then a typica.l fragmentation curve such as shown diag.rammaticaJiy in Fig 4
urc 4.28 can be plottcd.

Equation (4.6 1) can be rcarranged to yield thc following cxpression for thc character·
istic size
X
(4.62)
X e= [ In - 1)"'
R
Sincc the Kuznetsov fonnuta gives tbe screen size X for which 500/o of the material would
pass, subslituting these values
x~ x
R =O.S
in10 f'4uatioo (4.62) one findsthat
-
X
X = .,.,..-,=:::--,;;:: (4.63)
e (0.693) 11"
The expression for n developcd by Cunningham ( 1987) from field tests is
(4.64)
where 8 • burden (m), S • spacing (m). D" • hole diameter (mm), W • standard deviation
of driiUng accuracy (m), L =total charge length (m), H ~ bcnch height (m).
Thc burdcn (8) and spo.cing (S) valucs used in Equation (4.64) npply to thc drilling
layout and nor the timing. layout. When there are two diffc:rent explosive:s in the hole
(bottom churgc and colum_n charge) Equation {4.64) is modifitd tO
1 r
n•(2.2-14 ~·)[ +2! (1-; )[abs(BC~ -CCI.) +0 f(*) (4.65)
when: BCL = bottom chargc lcngth (m), CCL = column chargc lcngth (m), abs = lhc ab-
solute value.
11 2 Ohwinx prlnciple:t for ope11 pil minitrg: Genertll d~SiJ.:n t•oncept:r
,.,,.. cqua1io"s opply for a square (in-line) drilling palie m. lf o mggmd dnlling
~ucm ls \."mployed. n is incrcased by 1O'A.
11M: \Diue of n tkltmlinn lhe: shape of the Rosin..RJammk., C:Ur'\C. •lig.h \ 'aiUC$ in<licate
unrform suing.. Lo" ulues on thc othcr hand su.g,gest a \Ude rangc of sins including
both O\cnvc and firw.~. ~ ctfec-1 of lhe diffemu bla:sllng paramctn:., on ·,.· are indi-
~tcd belO\\ :
··-
H~ 1lulc dlllllnt\tT
l)rilllniJ.IICI."'\II'IIC)
l'llilli" k'll¡phihmch ~illfll
"""'"""
l rw:~
lncrci1-.a.
SpM·my.lbur\kn lrw:t'Ca.'ll:'-
lt i.s nonnolly tlcsir.:d 10 havc unilbrm ftag_mentulon so high vuhu;s of n urc prcfcrrc.'d.
Expcricncc by Cunningh¡1m {19S7) has suggested thut:
l. Thc nom1nl mngc of 'n' tOr bl;u-ting fragnu:ntation ln rusom~b l y compct~nt
ground
is from 0.7S to l.S. with the average bcing :lrt'l4Jnd 1.0. More compctcnc rocks have high.:..T
valucs.
2. VthJf:" of ·~,· beiO'-'' O. 1S rcprescnt a. sicu:uion of 'du$1 and bould'--n' "'h.ich, if it oe-
cun un 11. "tdt scalc tn prac:tice. indicrucs that thc rod wnchttuns :lit" 001 conduci\e lO
control of lragmmtauon t.hrough clwtge:s in blasting. Typ1cally tht.S an~ loll'hcn stripping
O\tftM.In1rn •n \~teathered ground.
3. t-or "aluc._-s befo" 1 \'UÍations in t.he unifonnity inckx (n) are:~ critkal to ovcr·
Sti'C Md tini!S. For n I.S and higbcr. muckpik: Cc>.turc dod no1. chAnge much, and errors
IMJUdgctnt.'11t tite k'S~ puniiÍ\C.
4, 1 he me~ al u givcn silc "illtend lO break into u particular shn('tC Thesc shapes may
be too~ly tcnned ·cubc..o;', 'plutcs" or ·shards', Thc 31hnpc fGctur hu :m 1mportan1 •nOu-
cnc.-c c'n thc rel\llhlC of sievmg tesiS, as the mesh uscd i.s g\!"n~nt ll y qqunrc, ami wí/1 retain
thc1 "'t!/WIIY ~~fmgml,.,l.r hur;,rg mt)•dimenJimr grellter thtm thu mrulr .vi:e.
This ct~ntb i nul ion of the Kuznets.ov and Rosin-Rnmmlcr cqutalicms yiclds who.l has
bccn call"-'tllh\.\ Kw·-Rum Fragmcntation Modcl. Ctmtion shuuld be c"ereiscd whc.n apply·
in¡¡ lhis sirnpl< modd . Th< fo llowing poiniS should be rcmcmbcrc:<l (Cunningham, 1')83):
lniu:uiun nnd uming mu.st be: :urang~...-1 so as to rcii.'SOII.IIbly cnhnncc frngn:tcntation
und a'lo'Oid 111i dír~ or cut-oflit.
- Thc cxptcxive should yield an energy dosc lO itS talcutatcd Relativ..: Wc:ight Sm;ngth. 1
11\C jOtming and homogcntÍI)' ofthc ground rcquirc tarcful ~'cssmen•. fraglllf.:•nla-
üon ~~ ofkn built into the roclt stru<:'hm!'~ espedally "hcn kMbe JOtnting ~more closely
spaced lhóln thc drilling panan.
4.11 .2 K~a~Rnm mrKkl applicalion

Tih:f'C are mílny difTcr~.,_'llt
hlasting scenarios \\htch can be cvwlu:ued usmg the Kuz-Ram
Fmgmcn1ation Modc:l. The two cxampfes considen.-d by Cunningl1am (1983) will be ex-
pl"incd 111 somc decuil. Thr: infonnatjon comJnon to both i~
e r h ~meten
Preliminary guidelines for blast layout 113
D = hole diarneter = 50, 75, 115, 165, 200, 250 and 310 mm,
SIB = spacíog-burden ratio= 1.30
J = stcmming = 20 x holc diametcr (m)
W = hole devialion • 0 .45 m
A = rock constan! = 1O
p = dcosity of ANFO = 900 kg/m3
H ~ bench height ~ 12 m
Example l. Con.stant meanfragmentation

In this first cxamplc, thc pattcms for each of the 7 drill hole diamews are to be determined
under thc constraint that thc mean fragmcntation for cach should be maintaincd constant
at X= 30 cm. This is thc typc of problcm ooe has wbcn thc on: musl pass thrnugh a small
crusher. The fiogmcruation distribwioo and maximum boulder size are also to be ealculated.
Step /: The amouot of explosivo (Q.) wbich will be contained in each hole ahovc thelevel
of the bench toe is calcuJated.
(4.66)
where D • hole diameter (m), L = loaded length ahove the bench toe (m) = H - 200, H =
hench height (m).
The vaJues of L and Qll!' are gi\·en in Table 4.9 for the different hole diameters. lt should
be noted that thc e!Tcct of any suhdrilling has not becn included.
Step 2: The powder factor (K) required to obtain the mean fragment size X = 30 cm in rock
with a constant A • 1Ois calculated u.~ing
K•[AQ~'"(
X
11 5 )'•" •]"''
SANFO
For ANFO, SA.vFo • 100 and hence
(4.67)
The resulting values have been added to Table 4.9.
Tablc 4.9. Cak:ulltcd ' '&fUC$ of L. Q.- arw.l K as • funaion ofholc: diamdc:t fqr Elulm¡llc: l .
D(m) L(m) Q. (kSil>ole) K (kgtm' J
so 19.4
7S
liS
"
IO.l
9.7
41.8
90.7
O.l2S
0.616
o.m
16l 8.7 167.4 o.m
200 8.0 226.2 0.875
2SO 7.0 309.6 0.93•
)10 S.& 394.0 0.983
114 8/mthiJ: principJcsf(Jr tJpcn pi1 mining. Geneml deslgn <'Once¡JIJ'
Step J : Onc uses thc lmown values of K and Q. to delt.'1'minc thc votume uf rock (Y.,)
"hich can be brokcn.
JI
• K
!l.. (4.68)
Sine< tbc bcnch bctghl (H = 12 m) and lhe spoc:ing-burdcn ,.,., " mrunlJlln<d coosunt
(S'B • I.JO~ the '"'Ud
of 8 and S= found usí"ll Equ.•uoos (4.69) and (4.70)
JI
Bx S '-"- (4.69)
H
B • (/Jx
1.30
s)'' (4.70)
Thc Vllluc:;; {IN si ven in Table 4.1 o.
Str:p 4: Thc vnlucs ofn are calcuJated using Equation (4.64)
\\hCR! o· botchol~ duuneltt

in mm.
The rcsuhs ~ gn·en in Tablt 4.11
r11tlk" 10. C.akut..td ~aluu o r 1..,. B llrtd S as a func1icxl Mhok di.tmdi:r ''" F.umpk 1
IJ(mm• JI" (ml) BxS(ntl) 8 ( 11\) S (lit)
10 36.Y) ),0$ U4 2.00
7S 67JI6 MS 2.08 l.71
liS 12US 10.4-j U <t ),1'>9
IM í"OJ OS 16.97 ) .61
200 218.11 " _s. 4,0 7 ""
>.29
2S<I J)l •& 11.62 ...61 >99
310 400.MI l:t-40 l 07 (,_j9
T* t .. 11 ( IIIN~ 'u..ts or" arw1 A.. ror E.umpk 1.

D(R~~I
• '1-~·
~ l.2JO .oo•
7! UJ2 )9$
1.3S2 l9J
'"
16$
lOO
•.n•
1.211
l?•
2>0
.110
1.096
0.931
'"'
.....,
;tt,Q
e pyr¡gnt8d 11a '1 11

Preliminary guidelines}Or blost layoul 115
Step J: Thc charactoristic si.ze (Xc) is detennined applying Equation (4.62)

X
X e= [ 1] ""
In -
R
for the special case when
X=X = 30cm
R =0.50
Thus
X = 30 (4.71)
e (ln2) 11 '
Thc rcsulting valuc. for Xc have bcen added to Table 4.1 J.
S<ep 6: One uses Equation (4.6 1)
to calculate values of R (the fraction rctaincd) for diffcrcnt sizes (X). In lhis case the sizes
selected are 5 cm, 30 cm, 50 cm and 100 cm. Using the values of n ;md Xc for thc
200 mm diameter hole one Hnds that
R ' )""'
= e· (:-.;,
Subst.ituting lhe desired vaJues for X yields
X(tm) R
S 0.92l
30 o.soo
so 0.275
tOO O.OlO
which means tbal 5% (R • 0.05) of the material would be rctaincd on a scrcen with
100 cm openings. As cxpccted 50% (R = 0.50) would he retained on a screen with 30 cm
opcnings. The values for the olher hole diameters are given in Tablc 4.12.
Tabk: ... ll. Percen1 (or.~"k'd a5 01 razio) n.:Utincd u Afunc1ion of thc hok dl:wctct and scn:<n sizc.
Hok d lamtttr ( lnm) P~"t'C.."'t'lt ~ained (Ri
X • Scm X • lOcm X • SOcm X • IOOc:m
l() 0 .926 o.s 0.21} O,CW7
1l 0.9)8 o.s 0 .2S4 0 .032
liS 0.94 O.l 0.25 0 .029
t6S 0.9)} o.s 0.263 0.038
200 0.92S O.l 0.215 O.Ol
2SO 0.907 0.5 0.297 0 .075
310 0.878 0.5 0.32i 0.1 19
116 BlrJ.\'tmg prirtL"IpleJjor open piJ mlnlng: Gc,~ml de.d¡.r, ronct¡Jts
Su:p 7: Onc U..loCS Equation (4.72) to calculatc thc: mnx1mum boulder sia (BDR)
,r 1 )"•
Xc ( In R (4.72)
This k ddincd as lhc scm-n sizc through which 98% (1hc mean sli.c -.. 2 saandard devia-
tiom} or thc mah:nal would pass. 1be maximum bouldn six ror thc di«erent hol~ di-
•mctm. totl"CSponding to R = 0.02 are given in Tabtc 4. 13.
Thc n:.suh:s :U'c plott&:d in figur~ 4.29. As c.an be 5ecn, as the blastholc diametct in-
Crca5C'1
(a) thc spccilic chargc rcquired increascs quite stecply
(b) the SÍZe or thc ma.'<ÍI11Unl bouldcr only ShOWS IBrgc inC~I1SC) D.boVC Uhole d iliJnC(é-T
of 11 S mm. This is bccausc or thc conflicting resuhs of rd:uivc drilling nccurncy and
cquulity or distribution of c:c pl o.~ i vcs. 1'he formcr improvcs nnd thc lattcr deteriorares as
holc ~i J"c incrc.aM.::..
(e) ahhougll mean frogmcntution rcmains constan!, thc proponions of both fines and
ccwtrse nnlh!riul íncrcasc.
E.xtunple 1. Con.\'l
_ant powderfocwr
In rhi.s M!<:Ond cumple tbe pcmder raclor (K) v.>ill be Mld con¡.tan1 at
K • O.S kgtm'
Mdlh<
- M:vumum bo\lldcr SIZt'.
Mean fmgmcnt sizc,.
- f"nagment site disrribution,
will be c.alculated os the hole diamctc:r is changed from 50 mm up co J 10 mm.
As 111 thc pn:víous cxample thc following w 1ll be auumcd
ANrO (p • 900 kg/m1 )
SIIJ l .l
Sh.:mrnin" • 20 times thc hole diamctcr (m)
Thc amnunt nfchnrgc pcr holc (Q,) and 1hc ch:uge length (/.) urc thc s.amc as in E:cam~
pie l. ·rhc hurdcn and spacing value.s are given 1n TBhlc 4. 14. Thc ' 'ulucs or n are now
calcuhucd using Equalion (4.64). These vaJues havc OC-en uddtd to Ta.blc 4.14. The mean
fragmcn1 si7c (;\') is cal<,laled using Equatioo (4.58)
!lO ll:!
"
lll
16l
110
IOf
liS
roo IN
lj()
) 10 '"
19)
Copy••gnted 'llaten-
Prcliminary guidclincs for blast layoul 117
Table 4.14. C'haric,lc:ft&lh, bunkn, s.pac:ing at1d n \"'aluc$ for F.nmple 2.
D(nwn) L(m) B(m) S(m) n

50 11 1.58 2.05 U35
75 10 .$ 2.31 J.OI 1..336
11 5 9.7 3.4 1 4.43 I J4J
165 8.7 4.63 6.02 1.268
200 M 5.39 7.00 1.194
250 7.0 6.30 8.19 1.073
310 5.8 7.11 9.24 0.912
(o)
- 1.2
f.
i'"o.x
~
~
M
so 15 165 200 250 3 10
(b)
100 - lOO cm 2.0
-SOcm 1
1
1
-30 cm (mean sil..e) 1

/
/
,/
/
s~r1-
20 ~/:/!( ,.
~.~..........
o ---
, , ~
-San
1.0
50 15 li S 165 200 250 310
OlastOOk Oiamcttr tmm)
f'igutt 4.29. Spcdr~e el\argc.. wd&ht p.YC~o·nt passlng .and m:a.'Citnum bouklcr sb_.., as a fW'If.'(ion of blaslholc di·
~m1.11..'t. Cunningham (1983, 19'87).
118 Blasting principies [or open pit mlning: Cenera/ design com:ept.<
X- Á (K)-···Q~'( 1~5)19/J<)
Thc calculatcd values are givcn in Tablc 4. 15. The charactcristic s ize Xc is obtained from
X
X - -.:..:...,.,..
e- (In 2)""
These values have been added to Table 4.1 5. f'inally, the maximum boulder size (screen
size pas.sing 98% of the materia)} as detennined from
BDR =xc ( ln1-) ""

0.02
are added to Table 4.15. The pe:rcentages retained on screens having ope:ning s-izes of
100 cm and S cm havc been calculaled using
R ~ e-!:&J
are givcn in Table 4.16. The values have been plotted in Figure 4.30. lt is seen that a.-.
blastholc diameter increases,
(a} mean fragment size increase.s by over 60-lo
(b) the coarsc (+ 100 cm) fraction increases from S% to 2.5%
(e) fines do not vary muc.h but are minimal tOr the medium diameters. More fine.~ are
generated in small díameters owing 10 the proxirnity of boles and the greater cffect of
drilling inaccuracy. ln large diamccer boles they an: caused by incensive crushing around
the blasthole wall.
(d) thc maximum boulder sizc im::rcascs from just ovcr 1 m to almosl 2.8 m.
In ovc-rburde-n thc fragmcntation is scldom a critical fac-tor and blast design for larger
blastholcs m.ígllt be based oo a con>1aJll powder factor.
Tabh: 4.15. Cal~llll:cd \'ilt~ts of X. X~ alld BOR asa fuooion ofhok diamcter.
0(m) X(on) Xd <m) 8/)R(cm)

so
75
t15
31.2
35.4
40.3
....
41.98
52.9
127
129
146
t65 44.7 59.7 175
200 46.95 63.8 200
250 49.5 ~.7 249
310 31.5 76.97 J4)
Tabk 4,16. Thc:: rractiorl rt1ainr:d by sc:rt'c::f'IS witb opc:nings or 100 cm and S c:m as a runction orholc diamnc:r.
Q(mm) R(IOO) R(S)

so O.OS4 0.930
7S 0.062 0.95 1
tll 0.09S 0.959
165 0.146 0.958
200 0.181 0.953
250 0.229 0.9-03
310 0.181 0.921
Preliminary guldeline.r for bla.<t layout 11 9
3.S . - - - . - - - - - , - - . . - - - - . - - . - - - - ,
ANFO
S/8 = 1.3
Stcmming • 20 Hok Di.-nQUS
K• O. S K¡tm'
.l!
U') 2.S
j
i 2.0
~
l.S
1.0 '=---+.----,:'-:----:-!.,..--~----=~--='
SO 75 115 16S 200 2SO 310
Blaslhole Oiamt:tcr (mm)
80
.~
i. 60
$ fl1\~ Slu ~ _ - - -
""'e:.a!. - ·- - - -
.~
"':S
40
r--- -- -- - -
20
liigure 4.3(). W~t pm;:mt JMSS-
- 5 cm in¡. m&~~ imwn boulder si~ 11nd
0 mean fntgmrot sil:c: as a function
so 7S 115 165 200 lSO o f blllSiflolc: diamact'. Cunning
4
Blastholc Oiameter (mm) ham ( 19113, 1987).
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~·
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tion and PC ~ tecbntqucs. Procn!dútgs Dj'the 5th Hlgf't.Ttt'lr &111llt(JJ' 011 814Stlng Te41lmology. lrt.ftnl.
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~k.K:ity or cktonation l"tttfdcrs. Prt~ettdilfiP ()jtM 5th 11/gh-Te<h Semllt(lf' 019 Blasllng TfCMology. llt$lnw-
mt'111Qii019. ond Explmi~s Applicmi()ffS. N~:W Orleun.r, IA Wiontt (July 1)..14). Blasting Analysis Interna-
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Cunningham., C. V.B. 1987. fl"8@mtnt.ation cstimllions and lhc Kut-Ram modd .. Four ycars on. Proc«din¡p.
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Oaly, S. & O. A.ssmus 1992. Olast optími.ntíoo and stabili1y •.:ntlanocmm.t 1hrough geot.echnical mapping at
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t'«dlftgS of tite 5tlt 111gb- T«h S.llflnar on 8/(Uifng T.:cltnology, Jm tn.urrrntation, and Explwivu Applk-o·
1l01U. Ntw Orl~ Lowisitmo (luly 9·14). 8 1ulin¡ Analy$ts lntcmallonal,lne. pp. 4J7-4j7,
Oick. R.A. A JJ, Ol,$0n 1970. (.'llcmins the propcr bon:holc ~ fót bcnch bCBMinJ. Pro«eJ/ft8:' oj1~ 4Jf'ti
AnntlfJ Martng of the Ml.~~ne.rota Seeflon. A/ ME tmá tht J l t1 AlfltJIOI Mining SymposillPft. u,;., qf M;nn..
DrJ~~tlt, Jan. pp. 201·207.
Oick. R.A. &. J J . Olson 1972. Cboosircg 1hc propu burchok sale fi.JI' bc':oeh b~cln$- Milling F.nginffri1f8, 24(3):
4 1-4.5.
122 8/a,,·tln¡.: ¡Jrindplesfor open pü mitúng: Ge, eral flc.viRII C'Ottt·c•pts
D•t '-;, R.A, 1 R 11aeh~& IJ.V.I)'Andra 1983. ~-~wqortJ/llw;ti~J~-, .\~, l..!iO\i 1Ci9l.S.
IOSrJ'.
Otm«t;, k 1t A O U. C!.a,10n 19n. K ennocon·~ ~"" bbflieJ 1C'dwl"ff"' n~~~ ~~ ""pron:" p.l subtfll).
\f...,..-,.. .~ 19(.. 1: )7...0
1+1 DliPMf dt: ~.,.. Co.~Jt.¡pa,w IIJD~rn • lt~. 1977 rAieot \\ ''"'~ 1Jrrd "91 rp.
Or.-.1 C~IIOft 191.& 8'-holr ¡:dan ~'0111 ~
U!...., o-. •~J Op&.ilftllllll&atr&J lliwnbul,_m.,..ck.\."' ~kn- 4t:"L .,.,,.
Flo)d. 11- l'hr7 lbt lllifU.X.. oC pmoal ~.s (.w bb\t ~ llftll .,..ty,t, f"runalimu ti/ tite IJ./JJ
C~n;'llf'tt~ l.A,.,IW$.,.¡ 814tlilfg 1«4Niq.a Sf.E.. pp Jn.t&J
FDN)fC, R (j A W 8. Plfktt 1979. Roclc·h:nlling ttdlf'liqua at Si'!hc'n
4M
•-ore
111;rw: .JS¡ff.U.\1. 19 (U): 4S4--
Gadbtn')', A K 1 ~1 . MM!!: piMvl!~"~g·lts dfC'Cl on drilling :md bl:tili.... p,.,,....,.o;::¡hffS,1 oj 1~ Ttlt C~ or;:
E:q>/fiiii'C'f a,.,_l Bl<ulfltg Ttvlutiqwt. SEE. pp. 108·1 12.
G3d~rt'). A .R. 1914, Rcducing ~kbs (hn 1). &p/o.m'C':r f,¡gfnn.'-''"if· 2(l); U ·lH.
Gik!bcrr) ,/dt 1~·l. Pi)lll brcllll&W!'~ Wl•at d~•c.ot lt r.:all)· C(l$1. f'.x¡Jns:ivo•r MJrm•rrriffK 1(4): lt).ll
{i3dhcny, A R. I'Jg$, Man"'Scnlcnl'.s cl1'~'1:l on drilling ant.l blbling. I'I'YX:n'llm¡.;_~ uflllr 1111• C'tJf'ljtY"'"m.'< OJt Ex·
p/ml l 't't ¡,lff.f IJ/tu llrt¡t T1v.:.lmiquc. St.~E pp.. 284·292.
Galll!i, .I.M. 1%.$. O¡~~:~•·rh drllltng IU'Id bli!Siln& !lt Crnit;n1on1Milk". 1--hnilcl!. (,'/,WlttJI4.'1ÍII , ~i(fo~J: 623-6)1.
Ci una r~lillf'l. k. 197),s...
t<Ji;rh IJic.dJIJtg r~duriqw S-PI l)u.bl!~twr, GoiJI('IIbtKjL. s....-cdcn. )27f'P.,.
lltppl\, 1 N. 1 1il7~. lnitt.tion ~oq•.u:nce: Vital claTIC'IIol o( Ofle'l pit biiL1t dclll¡;n lk.'A.Sfl t\ok11Kids 1" Rod: Mt·
ehani<'\ (C.h!Jh\¡"t &. S 1~ Cro\dl. eds) PrOC«dJifgJ Clj'1/<w 16tlt U.'i .\)·mp-o11- ,,. Roc! Uothank6.. ,lll•
M.U~u. l11m1 A$(' f., J9n pp. JIIS·JSS
llapn. T N, 1977 l k cl'f't'Cb o(bi&M ~· an6 i11iliillliolt! SCQI.K'M: nn hlaMu~ ~ti~ Cbitpl« 6 , in AkS·
IN/ímt \llnmM l 'owlÚ:IIkMS 'VriiU'Igfl'td IJJastittg T«ltnoiogy' Coww, Adtblldc, Mol) • .SSpp
u.-. T.N 1971 l noru o( ddi) 1imill@ C!11 bbsli"f. ~ Chlpcr 7 ~ rft~VfVIJM \IHtt'!".J Ft~tt"*"kM '.J
OrJI-cll*lm...,M.It r.~ · c~ Addaidc;~ J7rr
•...., T,.. ••n.
<.ioood ...,. blllm"f.opn::n:rflliW&c- cr C'fl'JCicc tJno~c.. w.a~ hui. ••Jtrllku lfW ,,_
(!61): ..,,,..
'lnoll~
fbpft. T N 4 (, ltwnb lcm'. Tht~tfa.'1Sof nJd ~-- bb..a•flllftUib..{~ 4iftd.ur-aJ'ialr J.&.

t:rlll FowJulfliN'f t 'l}rJ/,ttt lllfiiM..«""fl T~· C011nt:. Acklillick, MI) J 1rP
11~ f N. 197'il, At.-UNIC ~ timint-atld O.llolfS. ~ 10 in lhc- .-.orL~JP /)NC«Jl'l¡f.'l /tJI- 'ltJfiW"" 9/
fiftKt PTfJI-ItUtlo_, '"' O,illll1g iMtJ 11/;;;n.,,._ . 1\.diel;~~l(k. ;z.s.~ IIIOW >\\l~tr;th-Ml MlMnl follWidlM;.¡.. Lw
,..u~m.
H;ap!t. T N 1~N 1be control uf rm.::s thR:K~gh impro~ bl~ ddi~Ao l'rot: lf~;_,¡,.,IMI ltW M!lf Mo11ull (171);: 9--
20
lf~. ·r N Soif.ttyu",J t;jj;,.,mry m Qut,rry Bhuti'fR ,lfwu¡¡,f ICI A•,.ndi» (~'RI ICIIU f'ty,l,.td 1 ~tpkxsh·cs o;.
'rlllinn. F01 ~INC Mtll\:lt 26-.211 in Syilncy,
or
u .n. T.N. & (.~. llan k$ 191'9. 'rhc e!Tl-'Cill of r(ltk fll'l:lpcnÍ('ll)n 11\I,J dc$1w• • nd n,"'IJIIS bl:t'I4ÍIIQ. Ctm.¡ltcr 2 or
lhe A11~trolllm Mírt~va/ Fmmriíllilm'.f Wwt\·hrtp Co.fr.Y~ Mmmal 'l'lflu~lfé:r llj Rocll'rí~•l'lk.1 tm /hl/ilng
u11tl BIMoii~Q: ' Adcl.tlde.
IIJIGIUI, ( N. 1911\ fliC' lnRIICIM.'t or OCifltn)Uabk bl!l6l ¡'lar:ll'nelcr$ ()fl rr.&n-e•U~I it111 ••MI mlniltg OOMi. ?'l'ill:~
l~Y • .¡,¡_. 1~-t hrt S) ..,¡p. rNf Rut:i Fnt~;.,_I,U4it»f by RlaMi"R, LuJct. pp. J I·Sl,
llaga~~, l'.N, 19ft) hd4 mc-a.\Umf~Cnb o( rod; tJWS prop:nia: •n n~t i:a) rtoqtllrt:mcnl fOr oplimbin¡ bliSI ck-
,,gM t•IW' lut S)"'V'., Fltld ),~~~ ¡,. ~IC'W, '/widl, ~ S·tl ,.._ 10S 11) , 4
ltJGM, 1 .N 1: J K. MCttCt 198:3. Saf.: and f..fficatnt BW.ins m0pm 1't1 M In~ ~tM~»I v.riUOI for lbt c.ourw
IJW'ft • Kllft'alh&. A.-all11 2l-2S No,'tfl'lbtt. tCI AUS.ttllb ~~ Ply.. 114 ~plo~hC>! Otvisicllt.
lt....ip._ R.G ~ CJ KOf1).._ lftS. Tbe dfc:ct ofbclndt mo'~' ,...¡¡t¡ ~~~~~ bla!llhtd~ em,dl. ~
ff{U.II,It('..,.,""'M&pie~..WB~T«~w(Jii#f/-"..,._,..¡ W pp 9Sol05
tb!Jh¡p._RO A. CJ. K~ IQU Et"r«tolfC'OIOBy• burdald~rcM. ~o/"- JbiJC...,...
m«OrtF~4WWI~ T«<wiq_.(,\lilffi~ SU pp.. lfl-101
tbn~a.. ú . .t tt 1 lrnn~ 19'71 81$ifls ofhigb dcmfr) 4Wa. Prr«~ ff(IÑ J.d BnWN~X s,~
A~ I.M M, \tctbcune 8nnch.. pp. 171-176 •
ffrlvfn, A M ((d.} 1~7•. fjdbf~m~~ ttb:•tk.. Td..n~ f"orl4, (hla pl77
llri..'Mm'l, W O 19K6 Orilling and c:ost nnalysis I.ISing a pmoflal I!OIIIC'Uk'T ~md ,(!rt*l•n /'ro...WJJ~ f1/
J !tlt Co"'"""" tJrt l..tp/~>J~ wJ BI<Uting T.r<ltmqw. SEC pp. 234~2QJ,
*
Preliminary guidelínes /l1r hlast layout 123
UCICk, E. & J.W. Brty 1973. Rt.»& SIDpe F'.nglDffl'útg. ChJC~~cr 11. 8 1asail\g.. lrwn of Min Mc:t., London. pp,. 271·
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Uolmhet¡. R. 197S. Compu«''' calculatioft.s of drilling pattt:ms for surfacc: and undcrground blasting. fksi¡n
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Joncs., M. 198.S. StcondarybltWin,g. Do~·td ine..l.u~~e No 4. p.a. Ott. ICI Elíplosi~.
Just,. G.O. 1979. Rotk frlgmc:rQitkm by blasting. CIM Bull~.tin . 72(803): 143· 1~$.
JWit. (i.O. 1919. Smnm.ing of bltiU!olcs in rnining cxcavatiorls.. Proc AltJtral~tt. lrasL Mln. M~_tQ/1. (169): 7-1 S.
Kidmsn, V.T. 1981. Thc u.-;c ofhlgtl spced photograph)' 10 im~ve blll'ling. Proteedin&$. Worbhop Coursc
1Sl/'81. ' Drllli!tg and 814Ulng in ()pM P/16 and fJ'uol'riu ·. Australi:an Minen~l l~oun~ion. Brisbanc 30 M•·
l April pp. 56-l l l.
Kins¡. B.M.• G.D. JU$1 .l C.K. MeKemk-1988. ltyrowd ~'tll~«~tion ,"Ont.,.pt~· lrt b/(UI do·égn. 1'rans IMM (Scc:'
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Kirby,l. 1984. /.loklring •xp/Mi~v ro f't.ld. Oownllne. IMU..: 1\'o 2, Oec. pp. 4-5. ICJ Ex:pl~iw:~t.
K()dQno\tt'lky, OJ. 1960. Tlwory oNI P"'ffCll" ofilfdirwd drilling fix sW'fot:l! Minilfg. Mlncnl lndusaricll Oult<>-
lin, Penn Slllk Univrrsil)', \'OI JO, n3, Occ.
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Koa)'a,. C.J. & J.Oavis 1978. Thc: cffcc:.ss ofs&cmmi.og consist ormemion io blll$lhole~o./"roe«dinp tJ/tM 4th
r
Confotynce Off Exp/miws Mil 8/cnti~tg «hniq~. SF.E.. AM\121Meclin¡, New Otleans. pp. 102·112.
Konya. K.J. 1(¡188. Problcm~ with rmMunc:tkJnin¡; bl;uth()ll:s. Prl~inp of tlw! Uth COtlforturc:t~ éM Exp/orives
Oltd 8/(l,ff/JtR Tedmlq~«t SEE. pp. JJ4-J.48.
K\IZfti:(J(W, V.M. 1913. TM llft!(Jit dia~tv uftM .frugm«nt4 fq#-Pf<td h>· blastfng r«,t, Soviet Mi.nin¡ Scicnoe,
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11th Confo~YJt<.'tttm &xplorl~~ ond /J.Jt4tlng TecNtlq~e. SF.~ pp. 5 · 19.
Tous.lcy, G.H., Jr. 1976. Tbc: profc:ssional approadl to drilling and blasting opmllioos. Pn:pñnt No. 16-F-312.
Soc:. llr Min. Engrs. or AIME. for pteKntatlon JR the 1976 SME·AIMF. Fall Mmlng & Exhibh (O.:f\w-r,
Colo)Sept l ·'l.
V 1n Onncr, U,P., Jr. 1983. lllc chao¡ing «onomics o( pc:rtUU.ÍOI'l blast hok driUin¡. P~o..Jing.~ of thc 9th
O»tJ~nlfC~ Dn t:xplo.riwt:r onJ 8/a.ni~tg T~#miqvtt. SEE. pp. .tSI-478.
Zlbu11.1nov, S .A. 1990. 911Siing; Mind 0\'T:I' m~tcriaJs. &UU. 191(4): 20-lS.
CHAPTER S
Drilling patterns and boJe sequencing
S.l BLAST ROUND TERMINOLOGY
Production blasting is most often conducted in the middle of a waJl (face blast) or at the
comer belween two faces (comer blast). Thcsc are shown dlagrammatically in Figure S.l.
The holcs are drillcd in rows. Thesc rows may be in·line ( f'ig, 5.2a), which applies to
square or rectangular hole pallcrns, or thcy may be st¡ggcrtd (Fig. S.2b). Thc tcnn ' squarc'
mcans simply that tbc rows and columns of holes are at rigbt angles to one another in plan
and are therefore •squarc• with cach othcr. The actual pattern may be squnrc or rectangu-
lar in shape.
Thc rows of boles may lhcn be shot
- Holc·by·holc
or
- Row-by-row.
Thc 'as-shot' rows of boles may be difl'erent lhan the 'as-drilled' rows used when laying
out thc: driUing pattcm. Tbe 'as· drilled' rows are nonnally defined as those with the row
axis parallel to the long face ofthc beneh.
Thc oricntation of thc shot rows with rcspcct to thc drilled face can be described by the
letter • v•. The angle of the • v· is defined as that existing bctween the long bcnch facc and
the blasted face. Consider, for example. thc facc blast shown in Figure 5.3. This particular
pattem which has the form of a chevron is used for taking a notch oul of a long faoc. Thc
charactcristics of such a chcvron are
- lt causes the roek pile 10 be concenlnlted in a cenlnll position
- Becau.~ of impacts bctween rocks in thc diffcrcnl rows additional fragmentation may
resull.
Here the bonom of Lhe ·Y' opening corn;ists of 2 holes and the paucm is tcrmc:d a cloJ ~
ed chevron. Thc comer bias! shown in (Fig. 5.4) is an exarnple of an open chevron.
The open chevron pattem yields natlcr, more evenly spread rock pi les than the closed
chevron. Hence lhcy are well suilcd 10 thc use of front end loadcrs. Sorne olher advan-
tagc.s of thc opcn ovcr the closed chevron are that they
- Minimize the possibility oftight toe problcms
-Are easier to connect up since the paths can be easily scen.
125
126 8/a.~ting principies for open pil mining: General design concepts
Comer BlaU
f ace Blast
• • •• • •• • Fia1.1re $. 1. (kncfl rqll'eseo~:~tioo

showin¡ a face 11nd a comer blast.
a. Holcs OriUcd in 'S(Iuaro' (lft-Li..c) Rows
• • • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • • • •
b. Holcs Ofillcd 111 '-Stllg&Cftd' Rows
q « o " " "" ' " " " " " ">~
•••••
.. . . .
• • • • •
""""'"""''"'"""
f'igure. 5.2. l)efmilio11 of 'SQUMe'
and 'lll3g81.-red' p¡lUI.'fTIS.
1 11 \ \
Figure S..3. A c:loscd chc,'ron patll.'tn (AECJ,

1978b).
Figuro 5.4. An open chevron ~umt (ASCI,

• •111b~
Drilling pattcm& and hole sequencing 127
By drawing lhc initiation lincs at differcnt angles through 1he hole pauem one can c.reate
differcnt ehevron patlcms. Thc so-callcd 'Oame.s' of these panems is denoted by lhe
number O, 1, 2, ele following the •V'.
Considering a single froot row hok~ the chevron which intersccts the ncarest holc in thc
next row, i.e. lhe bote immedlately behind, defines the • VO' chevron. lf the anglc of lhc
ehevron is Oattened so lhat it extcnds lhrough !he ncxt ncarcst holc, Ibis defines !he • Vl'
chcvron, and so on. Thcse dcfinitions as applied to a square d:rilling pattcm are shown in
Figure S.S.
Figure 5.6 shows thc samc dcfinitions as applicd to thc staggcrcd drilling p~lltem. Thcy
appear Oattcr since !he sideways distance is increased by half!he spacing. The '1'0' pattem.<
are lhe same as 'in·line" firing. The V1 and V2 chevrons are those mos1 commonly used.
As indicatc<l, the 'as-drillcd' burden (8) and spacing (S) dimcnsions are taken wi!h re-
spect to !he long axis of !he pattem. Figure S. 7 shows !he drilled burdcn and spacing for a
eomCt" cut lf !he squarc pattcm is sho! ' in-line' to !he Y dim:tion thcn !he 'as·shot' burden
and spacing are !he samc as !he 'as-<lrillcd'. lf thc square pattem is shot 'Jo.line' to !he X di·
rec.tion lhen the 'as.sbot' burden is equal lo the 'as-drilfed• spacing and thc •as.shor' spacing
is cqual to !he 'as-<lrillcd' burden. Thc 'as-shot' "lllucs are olll.'ll pm:cded by the words ' ini·
•
•
VO VI
SquMt" Orillins PJII~m
Figure $..$. A sqU3re dtilling paru:m initiaJl'd in
v:wiOOII Wr¡s(Al:( l,l978b).
•
•
VO
Figurt 5.6 A st~Uered dtiJling pattcm initiatt'd
in va:rlou~ ways ( AECI. 1978b).
il
• • • • " s, • e:> X -
• • • • • • • ,'
• • • • • • • ' Figu~ 5.7. A oomcr cut drilltd in a
squarc= paut:m.
128 BlaJting principies for open pit mining: General design concepts
tiation' or 'cff~ive ' lo distinguish lhcm from tbc 'asoodes.igned' or ·~-dril1ed '. lf a VI ini-
tiatioo paltem is used (Fig. 5.8). lhcn thc fiñng dircction would be al 45• to tbe long face
Thc etTective (initiation) butden (8,) is the distance bctween the chc:vrons. In this case: it is
B
B, = .fi (5. 1)
Thc effcclivc (initiation) spacing (Se) is the-distanc:e between boles in the same chevron
S, • B.fi (5.2)
Tbus the effective spacing·burden ratio becomes
S, .., 2 (5.3)
B,
whereas for the driJied panem it is
~= 1 (5.4)
8
The ae\ual burden (B.) in front of tbe blastholc lics somcwhcn: bctween tbe drilled (8)
and initiation (B,) values as shown in Figure 5.9. The initiation ratio (S/BJ is use fui for
cornpañng the different panems. Table 5. 1 sumrnañzes the lnitiation Ratios (S/B,) for tbe
VI and n chevrons at various S/8 ratios.
•
•
•
Fi&urt S.8. The comer cut shot as f'l.
Sqllft Puttcm SIB = 1.0

V2 Chcvroo S~c ,. S.O
.. .
8 - Otincd Btwdc:n
S - 0<01«1 """"'"*
Be -lnitiltioo Bunbl Fi¡ure 5.9. A dia¡rammadc repuen~ation ()(
Se: - lnit.bdoct Spacing lhe ~1 blmkn on a hok (AECI, 1978-b).
Drilling pallerns and hole sequencing 129
Chcvron l)'pe Squart: drilling paucm S~rtd. drilling pattcm

S/8 . 1 SIB ~ l .25 SIB • 1.5 SlB '"' 1 $18 • 1.25 SIB • l .S
Yl 2.0 2. 1 2.2 l .l 3.6 4
Y2 s.o S.8 6.7 7.3 8.6 JO
5.2 ENERGY COVERAGE
In examining thc: bcst type of •as-drilled' and ·as-initiated' paltems to be used. considera-
tion must be given to effective energy coverage of the volume to be fragmented and thcn
selcction ofthc initiation gcomctry to makc bcst use of thc cncrgy. Thc concept of cylin-
drical f1118Jl1enled plugs of rock around each charge (in the absence of a free surface) is a
uscful tool in this rcgard. Onc considcrs thc rock inllucnced by cach blast bole to be boundcd
by a eylinder of influence radius R. Rock lying outside of this radius will also be affected
but in a very minar way. f'igure 5.10 L~ a view Jooking down on a beuch for which the
'plugs' have been drnwn. In this particular square design the influence radii jusi touch in
both the burden and spacing directions. Thus
s ~ 2R (5.5)
B = 2R (5.6)
and hence
S= B
The plan area ofbench assigned pcr hole by th.L< layout is AH
A11 = BxS = 82 (5.7)
and thc plan arca (A 1) per hole which is influenced by the explosive is
A1=n:R2 = - -
n s' (5.8)
4
Thus the percent of the plan area assigned to the hole which is influenced by the chargc
(% 1) is
A, == 100"
YJ = 100- - = 78.5% (5.9)
A11 4
The staggered hole layout shown in Figure 5.11 is an alternative. The hole spacing (S),
the burden (8) and the influence radius (R) have all remained the same. Thc only change
is that thc rows have bcen traoslatcd by a distance R from thcir positions in Figure 5.1 O.
The area a!!Signed (AH), the area of influence (A 1) and thc percent area influenced Wol) are
the same as for the square Layout. However. the fragmentation results are often better with
lhe staggercd pattem. Tbe rcason for this is that evco tbough thc totat ·non-inOuenced' or
·un-rouched' ares is tbe same in both cases. for the staggered pauem the •un-touched' area
is brokcn down into hJr·o smaUer arcas rathe-r than onc largcr arca (compare figs 5.10 and
S.ll ). for thc squarc pattcm. the distancc (d") from the ncarcst holc to lhe cc:nter of the
untouched region is
(5.10)
Drilling pattern.t and loo/e sequencing 13 1
S
11igutt $.12. S~rtd layout wltl\ tite I\'IW influ·

C1'l« n:gioons toucfüog (S/8' •
l.1SS).
thc burdcn to spacing ratio is
!!_ =,ÍJR =0.866 (5. 14 )

S 2R
Thc invcrsc of Equation (5.14). thc spacing to burdcn ratio, which is nonnally quotcd ís
~= ~ = 1.155
8' ,¡3
The new bench area assigned to cach bolc with this layout is
A'11 • 2R(,ÍJ R) = 2,ÍJ R1 (5. 16)
The area influe:nced by the explosive is
Aí =s n R1 (5.17)
and hence the pereent coverage is
%.1 -= ..& = ~ - 90.7% (5.18)
Aí, 2,ÍJ
lflhc spacing
S • 2R
and hurden
8' =,ÍJR (5.19)
are maintained but the row.s translatcd wilh respect to one another to form a square layout.
the result is as shown in figure 5.13. In the burden direction there i.s an overlap ofthe in·
flucncc c:in;les and in the spac:ing dircction~ thcy just touch. Thc spccific drilling ( thc
number of drill holes per plan area) is ohe same for both Fig ures 5. 12 and 5.13. Now the
arca pcr holc affcctcd by cxplosivc cncrgy can be shown to cqual
A', = ( 2n + ,ÍJ )R' (5.20)

3 2
while thc assigned plan arca to thc holc-is
A'H= 2,ÍJR1 (5.21 )
Thus thc cfficicucy of the encrgy covcrage is
o/J ~ 100 Aí ~ 85.5% (5.22)
Aj,
132 8/asting prindple.t jbr open pit mining: Get~eral design cot~cepls
,. S
·1
•
ll [ --·--
1
- -·-- f ieure S.ll. The squa.re p¡dttm (SIIr .. LISS)

whh c::oMIICI in thc row direáion and ovc:r1Dp in
lhc bun:lcn d irtttion.
$'
Figure S.l4. S~a;¡¡¡en:d ~tcm (S/8' • 1.0) wilh

tbe $f1KiP¡ rcduced to ac:hicvc to~al co,·erv.ge.
which is substantiaUy Jess than for lhe staggcred pattcm. Thc distancc from lhe nearest
chargc lo the center of the untouched region is, as before, also greater than with the stag-
gcred paltem.
Beginning with the staggered pauem shown in f"igure 5.12 one would now like 10 reduce
the untouchcd arca to zcro. Thc eondition that thcrc should be no untouched reg.ion means
that the distance d,. from each triangle comer to 1he midpoint shwld be the rudiu$ of in-
Ouence R
d, = R (5.23)
Working through the geometry it can be shown that lhe new hole spac.ing (S') should be
S' = J3R (5.24)
This design is shown in Figure 5. 14. There n;mains an untouehed area becausc thc burdcn
has not as yet been adjusted. Maintaining the ideal staggered geometry in which
Er = .{j S' (5.25)
2
one finds lhat
3
Er=-R (5.26)
2
Figure 5. 15 is the result of reducing the burden from 8' 10 Ir and the spacing from S 10 S'.
As can be seen, the region un1ouched by the explosivo charge has now vanished.
Yo/ • 100%
Thc layout arca for cach holc is now
A"u~ lrxS' • J./3 R 2 • 2.6R2 (5.27)

2
Drilling palternJ and hole sequencing 133
as opposcd to
Au=4R 2 (5.28)
in the original design shown in Figures 5.1 O or 5.11. This means thal the specific drilling
has incrcascd by a factor of I.S4 whilc incrcasing thc cncrgy covcragc from 78.5% to
100%. An alrcmativc to this is to try and inc-rcasc tbc radius of influcncc R by changing to
a more energetic explosive.
Table S.2 presents the relat.ive etliciencies tbr ditTerenl burden to spacing pattems. The
cfficicncics givcn are rclativc to thc paucm shown in figure 5.1 S which has an cfficiency
of IO<r'lo. When examining pauems and pattem modification one must keep finn ly in
mind (a) the changes which occur in the specific drilling :md (b) the practicality of drill·
ing the pauem as designed.
As can be seen from Table 5.2. the staggercd pattem produces a more unifonn distri~
m
bution of the fracture circles and thus more even fragmentation the rock pi le for the
same powder factor. Optimum coverage is obta.ined with equilatemJ ttiangles, however it
varies rather liule o"·er the range from S/8:::: 1 to S/8 = 1.5.
Thc bcncfits of thcsc staggcrcd pattcms may be lcss cvidcnt in bighly fracturcd ground
whcrc cxisting fracture planes limit thc dcvclopmcnt of ncw radial cracks.
The obsetvant reader should ha ve noted that the design burden on the fmnt mw of boles
as mcasurcd from hole to c:rest is % that of lhe sucoccding rows. This sccming inconsistcncy
is explained by the fact that the bench face is nonnally sloped such as shown in Figure 5. 16.
Thc front row ofholcs are laid out sucb that thc toe burden is B. A typical bench facc angk
(70') and bench hcight (1.5B) give a holc to crost distancc of approximatcly 112 B. Thc upper
part of thc holc is cbargcd lcss than thc othcr boles in thc roWld to account for this. Figure
5.17 shows the circles ofinfluence superimposed on a rwo row blast.
When taking into account both drilling and blasting aspects the most desirablc O\'erall
drillinglinitiation pattcm (AECI, 1978b) is
s·
fig~.Uc S. IS. St~ggcrW dtilling p¡l1tc:m (S/ Ir • L IS)

with thc bu:rden n::duccd 10 achic\'c total C:O\'tf'agc.
Table 5.2. Effcc::t o r dtilting pactcms and SIB ratios on the a~« eovcrc:d by l.he rrac:tu~ eirtks. Equi.IMmluian-
¡ubr loryoua • 100%(1\ECI, 1978b).
SIB ra.6o ~. pancm St:aggc::rt'd pattcm

% %
1 77 985
I.ISó 76 100
1.25 75 995
1.$ 71 94.6
2.0 62 77
134 IJ/mting principies/o,. optm pit mi11ing: Generlll Út':tlgtt c.•our4!pl-''
~ií1~-
" -j
1
.
1
•1 1
ll 1
11 •• 1
1·-·u-· 1:
11
l• lO" 1
1
1
·'---
" ~
1 .~
loe
heun .S 11 1-«:~liOI'I of~ f1111. rov. ofboln ..,;ilh ~ID

t.hoe baol. *""·
ln:JiaU!JI' l'l)ent
._,~ nrn.-. fWkm. SM .. 1..2! fWUft' S li. A f.)oo"Or:lblr H.ng

~ \ ...,..,... t....~~ s./D.: .. ) • pilknl lftd . , . . . . ~
Yll-"k-o"-..... e..ottto-¡.,1~~ \!U., • •
• nrc...-IIIC •"> In. T....u..r CA[O, 1"""-l
A >Oog¡<-rod dnlhng p311cm wuh S/8 = 1.25.

- VI ch<Hoo inuia1ion whicl1 gives S/B, = 3.6.
l11is b sho\o\'n in Figurr 5. 18.
e oynghlrx! me ter
Drilling patterns and hole sequencing 135
5.3 THE INFLUENCE OF FACE SHAPE

A major conclu.~ion from the previou.~ section is thatthe :rtoggered pallern (BIS = 1.25) is
best from both ease of drilling and energy distribution viewpoints. The most appropriate
burden·spacing relationship for both single and multiple row blast~ must now be selected.
This topic has two separate but related aspects.
l. Face shape
2. Time dclay betwccn boles
The inlluence of face sbape on fra.gmentation can be praclically dcmonstrated (Hagan,
1983a) by considering lhe blasting ofboulders. lf a hole is drilled to the center of such a
boulder and a small charge in!>Crted. the boulder can be brokcn. The rcquired powder
fuctor is of the order of 0.1 O kglml (0.08 lbs/ton), which is much lower lhan that required
in standard production blasting.
The lheoret_icaJ e:xplanat:ion for this is lhac the sphe-.rical charge sencls out a spherical
strain wnvc which, upon meeting thc sphcrical surf..1cc of thc bouldcr, is totally rdlcctcd
back toward thc charge. Thc rctle<:ted waves coopcratc with onc anothcr to cncouragc
DlJIXimum crack creation and growlh. Of major imponance here is that (a) an points on
the face are equidistant from the chCU'ge and (b) the face completely wraps itself around
lhe chargc.
Figure 5. 19 shows lhe results of a serie:> of modcl experiments condu<1ed by Field and
Ladegaard-Pedersen (1%9a, b) who inve.úgated lhe effeet of face shape on li'aj)11lentation.
Under the same charge·burden eonditions. the convex surface shOYt'S a much h.igher (more
intense) degree of fragmentation than the olher surfaces. Since the concave s urface dissi·
pates thc ctTect of the strain wavc therc is no break-out cvcn though part of the surfacc is
within 12 mm of the chargc. For the saw·tootb surfoce pan of the wave ts refle<:ted to~
wards thc cracks and part is rctlcctcd from cffcctivcly two angled sourccs. Thc largc
number of radial crncks are an about the same lcngth.
The spherical charge and spherical rock geometry (Fig. 5.20a) is not a practica! alter-
native in production blasting. Stepwise howeve:r one cao arrive at sorne practical geome-
lties. Figure 5.20b shows a shon rock cylinder containing a s-pherical charge. The results
would nol be cxpected to be too diffcrent from lhal of thc sphcrical rock mass. This is not
a practica! get)metry either. Howcvcr the half c.y linder shown in Figure 5.21 starts ap-
pi'OO(hing a practica! design clcmcnt. Such a series of elemcnts could be stackcd as in
Figure 5.22 yielding a column design. The deeldng of charges (charges separated by inert
sections) procticed at a number of operations is similar in principie. Even though the
spherical charge shapc is not practica! pcr se, various invcstigators havc shown thal in
crater blasting cylindricaJ ch.arges with length to diameter (LID) mtios S 6 approximate
such charges quite well.
Figure 5.23 shows a logical division of a typical cylindrical cbargc. At thc collar and
toe rcgions. the shor1 cyliodcr conliguration containing an equivalen1 spherical charse ba·
sically applies. In thc rcgion in betwccn. the rcprcscntation is a linc chargc shooting to a
cw·ved face. Thc strain wave rcflcctions coming off this facc cm:ourage a high dcgrce of
fragmentation. The obvious problem is lhat of producing such a curved face in reruity. As
onc nonnally draws thc blast dcsign.s. thc faces are flat and not curvcd. This is oftcn truc.
as will be shnwn later, for S,JB, rntios of2 or less. However for S,JB, ratios oflhe order of
3 to 4 such curvcd suñaccs do result.. Considcr, for exarnplc, the staggercd 3 row pattem
shown in Figure S.24.
136 Blastíng principlesfor open pit mining: General design concepts
- •
I S 11'1m
f
'
b. Conca\'t Faa
¡
~·~~--~'
~. Conl'tXfJC"e~
lómm I.S mm
T mm
Figure 5.19. P.fTcct of fooe. ~pMltl ttle fragmcnwton (F'Ield &. Ladcgaard-Pcdcnen, 1971).
(a)
(b)
d
V '
T
..----
'
,::-t-..,
f igure 5.20. A splw:rkal di~ $h()()ti.n& tO (a) sphtrk-al
surftct and (b)<~ full C)'lindrkál surfjté (H.n. 1983).
Drilling pattcrns ond hole sequend ng 13 7
• ~·i.¡.oute S.21. A half C)•lindcr f:ace goomcuy with

a s¡'lh1.'t'ic:al c:hatgc.
' . ·di2Jfll· .., ·' ' .. ..: ..

,::JI
• ''
'~'
- ' 1 ./
• 11 1'
~
1 1
1 ./
~! !_......-
d
d ! 1
.- ~-- s.n .
'- ./
Figure A column dl3rgc made up of
.s1acked spherieal thargc unil.s.
Column t1uup
l;igun.: S.2J Expluded Ylew s~-ing thc toUar,

thc colutm, and the toe clur¡.es.
138 8/asting prindp/e$.for open pit mining: General design c()f~Upts
\Vhen lhe boles of such a staggered panem are shot individual!y, the gcometry prior lo
shooting hole 8 is as shown in Figure 5.25.
As can be seen, allhough the shape 10 be blasted is not cylindrical it is nottoo far from
it. Rather thnn shooting each bote individually as was done here, the same exact etrect can
be achievcd with a VI ftring pattem.
In summary, optimum fracturing is obt.aincd by ensuring tbat each blasthole tiros indc·
pendently. This can be achieved in two ways
- lnitiatc cach blastbolc in sequencc-.
- Armnge lhat simullaneOusly initialed blastholes are far enough apan to preven! murual
interaction between their stress fields. This can for exampte be achieved by 'chcvron' firing.
In practice (Hag¡m, 1977a,b,c) it is usually not considered expedientto initiate blastholes
individually in sequen<:~ although this technique finds application where blasting vibra~
tion considerations impose a restriction on the cbarge mass detonated per delay. Nor·
mally, the best solution is 10 reson to chevron firing. which is simply achieved and in
most case givcs excellcnt results.
The main parameter which de.termines whelher or not stress i.nterference takes place
between "simultaneously' iniliated blastholes, is the SJBe ratio at the time of 6ring. In
homogenous rock where S,/8, is less than 2, the adverse cooperation of adjacent holes re-
suiL-; in reduccd fragmentation. Real benefits are obtaincd as S/8~ is increased above 2,
rcaching a maximum at about 8, but with littlc real improvement above 4.
A series of dclay paUc:ms is !>hown in Figure 5.26. Thc intcrested rcadcr is encouraged
to evaluate dtem regarding predicted fragmentation.
Figure S.24. Tht gcomctry ~ilm shoocing bolc·b)•·hol<.
\ \ \ \ 'C""""i_
\
' 12
. \
\ 11
'\
' lO
\
' 9
\,
\ 8
~···~~
\~
+'- -- • ,-- - '"' -- -""'-- -
\' 18
\' 17
\\ 16
\
\ IS
'\ 14 ' 13 /:
·--- · --- -·-- --· -- --· -- -·-- V,
Drilling pauerns and hole sequencing 139
FIICe
~-:·:·:1:·:~:-~
5 • 3 • 6
(b) Symmelrical Slagg<r<d ' V I'
3 3 • 5
(e) Asymmwiclll Stngered ·V 1'
Face
8
887 5C32 Figure S.26. Somc t)'pieal ddtl)' psuems

(d) St~rcd ' VI" Fi~d lo Fr« End (llupn &. Mercer, 1983).
5.4 ONE ANO TWO ROW BLASTS
Some ofthe principies discussed will now be applied to one and two row blélSts. TI1e first
example will assume instantaneous initiarion of all holes (in-line firi ng cowards che free
face} whilc mainraining S x 8 constant. This means rhat the amount of rock brokcn by
each hole remains constant. Four diffcrent burden-spacing rclationships are shown in Fig-
ure 5.27. As can be seen a cratering (failure) ang.le of 140° has bcen superimposed. Even
lhougll the powder factor is lhe same in all case< lhe type offragmenlation will di !Ter.
In the case of thc wide spacing (Fig, S.27b). thc chargcs would produce cmtcrs basically
independently of one anolheT. For lhe closest spacing (Fig, 5.27c), thc boles would simply
split along lhe holeline lhcreby releasing the gases very early and pmducing large chunks.
The paucms lying in betwecn thcsc cxlrcmc:s. S = 8 and S = 1.1 S 8 rcvcal good cncrgy
coverage and are those which are used in practice today. Figures 5.28 and 5.29, respec-
tively. show the result<ri of model expe,rimentS for S/8 = 0.5 and SIB = 2.0 while main-
taining S x 8 constant. The rcsult.s reveal what intuition would suggest.
The following rules (Hagan, 1977a) apply for a single line ofholes.
l . An elongated pattem (where S > B) is generaHy mosl efTeetive in massive. hardbrcak-
ing fonnations. A Larger spacing te-nds to cause more twis ting and tearing ofthe rock, less
splitün,g along the linc ofthc blastholcs, and lcss O\'Crbreak.
140 8/a.u/ng principle.rfor open pit minlng: General deslgn concepls
a. Slll • 1
~
,, " ,,
--- IJ - - - - -- --- - -- -- - · -
~~>..,W>
~,~,~- - -
, , 1.40 ·1
(', SI'O • O.S
d. S/8 • us
Figure 5.21. fragmertlation fat dif·

rmnt SIB ratios whik «:taining O x
S eonslanl.
•••••
Fi¡ure S.lS L.nbomaory frtgmcntation ror SIB • O.S

(lAn¡efors &. Kihl.sar(!m. 1961),
2. With grcatcr spacings (and smallcr burdcns) thcrc is lcss chancc of cutofTs,
3. Spacings cons iderably greater than the burden can be used to advnn1age \vhere struc-
tural planes such as joints run parallcl to the face.
4. Spacings appreciably lcss than the burden tend to cause premature splitting be.tween
blastholes nnd early loosening of the stemming. Both of these eOCc-ts cncouragc rapid re-
tease of ga.~s to the aunosphere. Overbreak is usually considerable. This loss of gas cn-
crgy dctracts from ovcrall brcakagc in thc burdcn, Largc s labs are often found in thc
muckpilc.
Drilling potterns arui hole seque.ncing 141
• • • •
Figun:: S.29. l.aboniOI)' f~t:~tlon for SIU • 2 und S x ll

thc same as in Fig¡n S.28 (l.angcfors &. Kihlst:rarn. 1963).
(b) faoe
,,, , , tt?7< ' ' ~· ,. 7 "'. . . 7 ' «>J«J7«
(C) t'acc.
Figt~re5.30. Thc t"IT«t or end

(d) t'nce ~onditions whcn shO()Cin¡
single rows (Hapn & Mcr-
ecr, 1983).
Thc efTect ofthe nurnbcrs ofholcs shot at one time can be sccn in Figure 5.30. For thc
single charge configuration (Fig. S.JOa). a high dc:grce of confinemen t is provided by the
side rock.. ln 1earing the burden from the adjacent stationary rock mass. side free surfaces
having a total lcngth Pare creatcd. This rcquircs thc cxpcndilure of significant c-ncrgy.
The overall effect is fragmentation of thc prism involved but also back break. When two
holes are shot togelher. the amount of fixcd pcrimctcr/charge i.s rcduccd to O.SPJhole.
They cooperatc on breaking thc inctuded votumc as opposed to thc waiL Although posi·
tivc with rcspcct to backbrcak. lhis coopcration can rcsull in a poorcr fragmentation and
greater heave. When one moves to lhe 9 hole blast 1he fixed wall/hole is P/9. Thus with
respect to edge etTect and back break, che general principie is that it is be-ner ro shooc
longcr rathcr than shortcr rows.
Consider now the we of delays bctwecn the holes. Figure 3.31 shows a row of holes
with ccntcr initiation. Through thc use ofdclays, thc dircction ofthc blast motion and hcncc
142 0/asling principies for open pit mining: General design concepts
the burden are changed. Once the center hole has been removed. the succeeding boles
have two suñaoes to which to break. Thc shapc of thc volumc associatcd with cach holc
now more closcly rescmbles that of a haJf cylinder lhereby yielding beuer fragmentation
and less damage to the remaining wall rock. Howcvcr. thc delay time must be sufficicnt
for lhc rock to movc prior to the initialion of thc next holc.
Thc ncxt stcp is to considcr cwo rows ofholcs drillcd in a squarc pattcm. Conccptually
thc rows will be considercd to be shol instantancously as sllown in Figure SJ2. Thc front
row can obviously break to thc free surface as W'clS described earlier. Because the rows are
shot at the same time. the front row has not moved. The free suñace for the second row is
1hercforc thc samc as for row l. Hcncc, lhc casicst (closcst) suñacc to whích the second
ruw can break is upward (cratering). With this design.. the backbreak from row 2 is ex-
pected to be high and lhe rcsulting muc·k pilc would be vcry tight if any real brcakagc oc-
curred. 'lñe comer boles in thc sccond row. in particular. are highly constrnincd. ln addi-
lion. ve:ry high ground vibrations would be expected. In revicwing this dcsign. thc first
ahernative would be 10 put in a single dclay bctwccn thc first and sccond rows as shown
in Figure 5.33. Thc amounl of delay chosen must be enough tbr the front row 10 move
outward sufficiendy for a recog.nizable tfee surface 10 be tbnned bctween the rows. Al·
though an improvement, thc comer boles are still highly constraincd. lf thc rock lying bct-
ween hole.s is not comple.tely hroken such as shown in f'igure 5.34, thcn thc facc configu·
ration for the scx:ond row of holcs is poor from a fragmenlation point of vicw since it is
concave rather than convex.
Fi¡utt S.3l. A $lngl~ row or hoks with

ocntcr initbuioa and clcla)'S hetwce:n IM)Id
(Huaun & Mcrocr. 1983).
-.I : : : ~· : : : I
Flguri: 5.32. Oouble row shol in·
stunlancou,;ly (ll;a¡un &. Meroer,
1983).
J~i gun: S.33. I)Qubk row wlth de·

lays b.:tw~.."Cn thc rows (lluga11 &
~knxr. 198)}.
Drilling pallems and ho/e sequencing 143
l;ig"~ S..3-'. Comer hok$ ~

on !le't*l'lle ddays (Hagan &
Mt""r,I98J),
¡:¡gl.l~ SJS. IA=Iays used lO

providc a squarc ·r p:¡uc:m
(H ~gan &. Mcl't'CI', 1983).
An improved design tor this two row bla.ll (Mercer & Hagan, 1978) is shown in Fig·
urc 5.35 in which a series of delays i.s uscd. b is U.."t1l1ed a square • V' pauem. As can be
seen, with the exceplion of lhe holes shown on the O and 1 delay lines, lhc rcmainder of
the round has been changed from being shot in·line to staggercd.
5.5 SIZE ANO SHAPE OF BLAST
As lndicatcd carlicr, sincc most blasts are fircd cithcr toa s ingle vertical facc or to a free
end (Fig. 5.36}, thcsc are tbe only two which will be addrcssed here. The bla.st should be
as long as practicable.
For multiple row blasts, the length (L) ofthe blast should be at least 1.5 times but pref·
crably 3-4 times thc width of thc cut. Wherc thc blast length is lcss than about 1.5 times
its width. the stationary rock on one or bolh sides ofthe blast has a restraining or drag ct:.
fcct on forward rock movcmcnt (Hagan & Mcrcer, 1983).
Bla.sts should be a.~ large as pcn;$ible. The nwnber ofn)\VS ofblastholes is usually die·
tated by the wori<ing width of the benchlpit and the burden. With Large blasts (Hag¡.n,
1977a, 1983a}:
l . Productivity is generally improved since the amount of unproductive move/travcl
time is reduced for all of the unit operations. The drills and shovels can spend a grcater
amount of time working at one place and the charging of thc holcs is more efficicnt.
There is a reduced cyclic.ity of blasting and hence (ewer delays involved in moving
equipment back and fonh.
2. f"ragmentation general!y impro,1es with an increasc in the number of rows. In mas·
sivc or blocky strat~ singlc-row blasts oftcn give inadequate fragmentation. There are
fewer blast boundaries created when fragtnenting a block of ore with large blasts than
with smallcr blasts. Thc fragmentation at such boundarics tmd'O to be poon::r than within
the heart of a blasted block due largely to
(a) Thc opcrator's inability lo drill an cntirely regular blaslhulc paucm alongside
the boundary.
(b} The gases liberated in the blastholes rapídly escape tlu'ough cracks alongsidc thc
boundary. Thcse crac-ks are thc rcsult of thc ovcrbrcak causcd by the adjoin.ing
blast. The early loss of gas pre$Sure means poorer fragmcntation and muckpilc
looseness. f"urthennore there is an increased chance for Oyrock.
144 Bla.fting prbu:iples for open plt mlning: General design concepLv
1· L
·1 1· L
·1
Facc 818$1 Comct Btast

f ig.uR! 5.36. otmen..~ons fOt' oomc:t and f;¡oc bla.~ts.
..-- -
¡..
-- -- - - "" f igure 5.37. Providing n:ficr for the bact

rows.
3 . The freq uenc.)' of environmenlal distutbances is reduced and hence potential noisel
dust c.:omplaints.
4. Large chunks of rock that often sit in the newly exposed face (but are effectively
dctacbed from the rock mass then:by prcvcnting pcnetration of cxplosion--gcncratcd strain
waves), are usually thrown out vinually intact in the subsequem blast. The percentage of
such blocks in the muck pile decreases with an increase in the numbcr of rows (Haga!\.
1975).
There are sorne disadvantagcs with large blasts however (Hagan, 1977a, 1983a).
l . Ovcrbrcak of thc back row and sidcs increases with the number of rows. This is be-
cause progressive n::litf ofburden is achieved with greater difficuhy towards thc back ofa
deep blasl Where lhere are too many rows, back-row charges will nOt see ao efiectíve free
facc (Fig. 5.37).
2. The ground vibrations increase with the oumbcr of rows.
3. The displacemem of the back rows may be poor resulting in 'tighl' digging condi-
tions.
4. Whcrc blasts are wcll d esigned, the amount of 'diggable overbreak' is virtually in-
dcpendenl of the numbcr of rows in a blast. In higbly fissurcd stta~ for exampte. it ma.y
be possible to tllke advantage of the greater amount of diggable overbreak from single-
row sho&s. U a 4-row bl8)1 would be replaccd by 4 singk:·row blasts~ tbc volumc of dig~
gablc overbreak would inc:rease by a factor as high a~ four.
5.6 SOME SEQUENCfNG I'IUNCIPLES
Thcrc are a number of principies which s hould be applied for achieving the best ftagmen -
laliOn when dcsigning a blast Thesc principies which havc beco cxtractcd from Hagan
(1975, 1977a,b,c, 1979c, 1983a) are summarized below:
General principies
1. Cha.rgcs should dctonatc in lhc scqucncc lhat maximizes the successivc dcvelopment
of effective free faces.
DrU/ing patterns and hole 1equencing 145
2. Each charge should be given just sufficient time to effectively detach its quota of the
burden from the rack mass befare tbe next charge detonates.
3. When allocating delay numbers in the blast design phasc, the designers should con-
struet lines of breakage for each charge. By doing this
- Any instlOCes of poor sequcncing are cxposcd,
- A lternative superior delay allocations can be made.
4. The scatter between initiation periods even for the sarne delay number mean that
holc:s go in<lependently.
S. lnitiation should commence at that point in a blasl which gives ihe best possible
progres.sivc relief for the maximum number ofblastholes.
(a) lfthere is a free en<!, initiation should begin atthat en<! (Fig. 5.3&1).
(b) If thcrc is no fn:c cnd, initiation should bcgin near. but not at, onc cnd of the
blast block (Fig. 5.38b).
(e) lf a buffer of broken rock líes alongside one end of a blau block. initiation
should begin near tbe en<! of the block remate from the buffer (Fig. 5.38c). The
principal direction of rotk movement will thcn be roughly parallcl to thc buffcrcd
face 800 the blast will be hardly awarc ofthe bulfCT'S prescnce.
6. When shooting in-line holes simultaneously, the spacing: borden ratio sbould be as
large as possible to achieve the best fragmentation. However. 'vhere the SIB ratio is too
large, each chargc: fragmcnls and displaces a prismatic secrion of rock. Thc face midway
bctwecn back-row blastholes may remain intact especially near floor level where the large
spacing would appcar as loe.
7. h is csscntial to have good control on lhc blast holc layouts. largc diamctcr boles
should be within 1 foot ofthe designed Jocation.
(a)
• • • • • •
Fiaurc S.38. 'Bese" inltiatlc), pointS

oodc:l' vllrious cond itions (H~n.
1 979<~
146 Bla.•ting principies /()1' open pit mining: General de.•ign concepts
Si11gle row blasts

l. Short delay intervals bctwcen hules give beUer frngmentation than instantancous
blastS.
2. The optimum delay inlei'Val incrcases with the burden dimcnsion. The optimum in·
ter-row dclay is rarely less than S mslm ofburden.
3. lf the inter-hole delay is eonsiderably longer than the decaehmcnt pcriod, blocks or
rock within the progrCssively created faces have sufficient time to detach themselves
from~ but rcmain pcrched alongsidc, lhe rock mass lO be blastcd. By the time their corre-
sponding blastholes fire, these blocks are often thrown out intact into tbe muckpile. Such
blocks are usually largcr than thc mean ftagmcnt sizc in the muckpilc. Their fonnation
should be minimi>.ed by sclecting an inter-hole delay that is nottoo long.
4. lf the inter-hote delay is too short, theo the additional free face is not created. The
chargcs tbcn act almost as though thcy have been initiatcd simultancously.
Multiple row blasts

l . The initiation sequence should be such that each eharge shoots to a free face that L"
extensive, preferably convex (with respect to the charge) and reasonably clase.
2. A square pattem fired in a • V' provides bcttcr fragmcntation than onc shot in-line
(i.e. row-by-row). Tbe "V' shot is effectívely staggered and has a S,/8~ ratio of2.0 rathc:r
than 1.0. This situation is shown in Figure 5.39b.
3. Fragmentation usually improves as the effec:tive spacing: effective burden S/B~ ratio
incn:ases up to about 4.0.
This value is bcst achieved by:
- Orilling blastholes in a staggered pattem (an equivalcnt triangular or slightly more
clongated grid)
- Us-ing a VI initiation sequence.
lfthe boles (Fig. 5.40a) in the 110 pattem are shat one al a time, theo the etl'ective burden
(as defined as the pcrpen<licular distanee bctween hole rows is 0.578 and the spacing is
28. The S/B, ratio is 3.51. The actual peak burdcn is l. 158.
lf thc hales are shot on the samc delay (Fig. S.40b) then S,IB, = 1.15 and the hales
would cooperate with one anothcr. For the staggered drilling pallem shot as VI (Figu·
re 5.4 1), thc calculated burdcn is 0.578 and S is 28. Howc:vcr in this case cvcn if shot on
thc samc delay, the boles would ftmction iodepcodcntly.
4. The blasting engineer shauld ask himselfwhether thc inter-hale delay
(a) wiU crcatc ncw cffcclivc faces in time for thc subscqucnt rows
(b) can cause cut-otl's when using surface delay systems
Easy forward movemcnt Limits the uplifting forces which an: largcly res-ponsible for cut-
offs. Fragmentation and muckpile looseness are greatly inOueneed by the availability of
cffcctivc free faces.
5. As a rule, blasts are fired
- Along the long a>cis of a staggered pauem,
- Along the <liagonal of a square pattem.
Drllllng ptllterns and hole sequencing 147
(a) Square 1ns1an1a1tcOUS
~=
o o
1
6.5 m
1
(b) Staggercd ln-l.inc
• 3 2 ¡"""'
o 1 2 3 4
S S
6 6
1 1
6 S
(e) Squar¡,: ·v·
4 3 • S 6
Facc
3 2 o o 2 3
S 4 S Figure S.J9. Oclay p;ttcnn for mullipk row

(d) Equilaleral Triangular St~rcd · v ¡· blasts (l-lagan & Mcrcer. 1983).
6. For a multi-row b las.t where it is coruidcred nccessary to dcto natc each hole on n
separatc dclay, thc dclay time between holes in successive rows can be execssi\'e lcading
to the possibility of •cut-off' holcs. To ovcrcome 1his down-lhe--hole non·cleclric delays
can be uscd.
7. To reduce projection into thc pit.. thc front row ofholcs should be loaded according
to thc amount of back break experienced from the previous blast. (t is usual to incrcasc
the stemming height by reducing thc cxplosivc column length in the front row of boles.
This produces a much betrer muck pi le profile with considcrably less ' tair to the bla~t.
148 Blasting prindplesfor open plt minlng;· Genero/ design c•onceptJ
1 \} 1 1 1
.,~~... ,~'.::.._'--~f---+
• 1 1 1
' ' '

.r ---'*---..,.(.
1
'US 0 ,'
~~..,!'<::~---
""
~tl·' 1 11 11 11
~& 1 120" l;l 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 ,
1 1 1 ,
1 1 1 1
-- - · -- --1
. - --- -f--
• --+
1 --
a. lncfi\'lcktal deb).,_ VO indimion ~quem,:e.
' '
1:¡aure $.<40. Sm¡wcrcd J»Ucm $11(1(

hQie-by-hole ulli:rtg u VI iniLiation se-
b. Samc dday, VO iniliation sc:qucncc. quenc:~.
f igure $.41. S&na~ered pottc:m $11ot """"'by·nrw usins a 1'1 ínilia~~kJn seq111.:nce.
8. 1f thc toe of thc first row is not displaced suflkiently. charges in lhe second and sub-
sequent rows will be cho/t.ed increasingly as the btast procceds and the liketihood of cut·
otrs increases.
9. Slope stabilily increases with the inter-row delay. The amount of ripping and dis·
ruption of final faces dccrcases wilh incrcases in the areas of cffeclive faces assc:.ciated
with thc use oflonger delays.
Drilling pallern.t and hole sequencing l49
10. lfthe numbcr of rows is largc. blastholes at or towards the rear may g.ive quite un·
ac.:eptable fragmentation. They may be incapablc of displacing the rock forward. The
charges can only crater lO the horizontal facc. Thc rcsu1t is
- High muckpile,
- Toe problems,
- Tight digging,
- Likelihood ofairblas~ Oyroc:k and overbrcak (with associatcd clcan·up opcrntions and
instability potcntial).
11 . The optimum inter.row delay lies in the time mngc which allows good fragmcnJa·
tion and displacement of each burden withourlhe presence of cutoffs.
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A OCII~xpi<ISoi''t:!!
und Otemic:c.ls l.imilcd 197&.. Punmdc:n in a;urface blasting. F.xpltnlw!l Todoy. Sc:ties 2, No
ll, Marc:b.
AECI Explosi~ at1d Cbcmieals límitcd 1978b. 8 111Slho! ~ drilling :md iniliaüon pauems in .surfnce blo:sting. Ü·
pknt.Ta TI)I)Q¡·. S('ñes 2, No 12. June.
AF.CI Ex:pl0$iw::s and ChcmicaJs l.imited 1986. Tbe degisn a( surrace bbsts. Explos{!,'t,f Tl)({ay, Sc:ries 2. rt0 41,
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or
A,sh. RJ..... 1961, Orill pattem 4 initiation-timillg relaüonships multipli! holc blasdll¡. Qwrt.·rly CSM, V 56.
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Ffdd, J.l! .& A. ~·Pedcr$0'1 1969b. 'llte Íntp()(UlnCe ofllle reflettcd $~k "';a,·e in roct blmlting. Repon
No. OL 1969:7 SWOI.lish Detonic RQC:IIrdl Foundation.
Fiekl. J.E..&: A. l..adep.ard-P*rscn 1971. 11tc importante ofthc n:f1cctcd sbod:. wavc in rock blasting. lnt. J.
Rock M«h. Min Sci. 8(3): 213-226.
Cius«ufMOO, R. 1913. ~ Blast/Jtg Toohnlquwt SPI P\lbli.sh<T, Gathcnburg. Swc:den, 327pp.
H~ T.N. 197S. lnitialioo scquencc: Vital dcmdtt of optt1 pit b~ ddi¡n. Dest&" Mtthods in Rock Mediantes
(C..Fairhur$1 &. S.t. C'n.ludl, c4' Prn.:«ding:s of the /6tlt (J$ $yntf!Q..'IiWftl oo IWd M«honic$. Min,JOO(KIIi.J,
MiM. ASCé., 1977. pp. 3-'S·JSS.
Hapn. T.N. 19na. Thc cfl'ccu ofb~ gcomcoy and illilialion .sequcnceon blasaitlg n:suls. Olaptcr 6. in Awrollolf
MiiWJ'(I} Foundation ',1 'Drillilfl! tmd Bla.1ting Technolugy' COIIT'Sr, AiWiaiJ~. May. SSpp.
Uagan, T.N:. 19nb. EftCcts o f delay bming on btastiflg ~eehniqucs. Olapter 7 in ALISCr8liat'l Mineral Foondation's
'Oñllin¡ iiOd Olulin¡ Tectmok>¡y' Coursc.. Adelaide. May. J7pp.
Hagan, T.N. 19nc. Good ckb)· timing-rnrcquisitc of cfflc:iml bc:nch bl~ Pwoc. AIUiftJ!tu. hut. M;tt MMNI.,
(16));47.54.
Hagan. T.N. 1979:1. Accura&c dday liming and CUJOffJ . Chaptcr 10 in t.Jw ~~~rubhop ~lng1/r.Jr 'lnjl~~enr.·~ of
RocA l'mperlit!.f Cfff /)rülillg and 8/asdng' tfdelaidc-, 2S·29 Jwte. Aulll.ni.IU.n Mineral fciUndalM.,_ lnc:•
... 2S6·273.
ll~tpt. 1'.N. 1979b. 'f'he control (1( f"IIIQ thrQugh i.mpro,·ed blasit desigl\. l'roc AN.Stralm lllfl Min M~taU. (271):
9-20.
Hagan, T.N. 1979c. Designin¡ pñmary btasts for incrcased slopc Slllbil.ity. PI"'(Wdl,gs. Fot~tlt C~~ lrll.
Soc. ofllocl: Af«ltolticl, J.fomreall..'t, Switurland, SqM 2·8. Vol l . pp. 657-664.
Hfl8llll. T.N. 1980. Stifety and Efficlency ln (/wlrl')' Blastlng tWMual. IC J AusaraUa Opcrarions Pty, Lid Exp'o-
si!foCs Di"b:ion. March 26--28 in Sydney.
llag¡sn, 'r.N. 191SJ•. 1'hc lnllucnoe o( tOn&rollable bla1& parwncccrs on rrtiJJ,IIlCilllllion 1111d minio¡ OOSI5. Procf:M..
¡,g, qftM 1st lnt S>""P• 01J Rod FragRWmation by Bl.asllng. Luid. Swcdcn. pp. J 1-Sl.
u ~. T.N. 198Jb. f icld mcasurcmm's o frock mass propmks: an c:s:seM.iaJ requiremc::nt for opcimi.siog blast
dcs(gM. Proc. lnt. S)'wq;.. 01J Fleld ,\l«nwe~nt,s bt G«Jm«.hanlcs, Zurich. Scpt 5-8. pp, 1OS-11 J.
Hagan, T.N. & G. Harrics 1971. Thc c-ff«(S of f"'Ck propcnks on blasting tt$Uits.. Chapcct 4 llf tfJISlrrÑkm Min-
eral Fmmd111fm1 's 'Drilling and Rlwtütg Tedmol(lf!,Y' Cm;r1f~, Aáelakk, May. 31pp..
l-l. .n. 1'.N. & O. H~ 1979. 1'he effms ofr()d¡ propenk$ oo lhe de$¡n and rcsults o (blasting, (;hapter 2 o f
tiJI: Austroliall Mln~rol f'CiflfldaJioo 's W<t~·bltop Ct~e Mnmwl '1#1,/TIH!nt:tl oj' Roclt PTV.'/INTii.e5 on DrU/ing
and Hlarring •. Adc:b)ck.
1'1~. ·r.N. a J.K. Merccr 19'83. Safe und i!ffid eru lll;.rsti_n¡ in ()pcn Pit Mines. MalfUtJI wrin~n jiu th~ ~
gMn m KtiiTntha. AIISCnllia 23·25 Novcmbcr:. ICI Auscrnlia Opcrations Pty.. Ltd. Explosive$ Division.
Hoek. E. & J.W. Btay 1913. Rock Slo~ fftglntrTing. Chaplcr 11. 8/QSiilfg, l~n o f Min Md.• London. pp. 2? 1·
J07.
Holmbcrg. R. 197S. COOlptXcr cakulalions of drilling pauems for surfa.cc- aAd ut1dcrground blasli:ng.. Desig¡J
Methcxb in Rod Met:hllllk~ (C. Fairtlun:l .t S. Crooelt, ed$) 161h $j7ttp0.rlrmt Off RQt:i: Jkchlmic.Y, , Mi, _
polls. Minn. ASCE. 1977. Al- 3S7·364.
Lan¡e(ors, u.&. R. Kihlsii'Qm 1978. ~ Alndcrn Tcchniquc QjRoci Blartillg, Jobn Wik:)' & Sons.. lnc., Ncw
York. 40Jpp.
Mt'I'CCf, J.K. & T.N. Hagan 1978. ProgR":SS towards optim..-n blasaing - • key to incrcascd p-oduetivity and prof.
illlbilil)'. Pr0Cffdl1tg1. /ltlt C()ntml)lfW.n.Jitlt Afin.lng and ;\ ktollurgy Congre$.~. Hoog Ko~tg. May. pp. 68l·
600.
Moorc, O.J. 197~ . Practica! applkatlon of cmpirical blas.1 deslgn. Pl'tX'C't'tfirtgs f"irst Conforen''t: Cfff &tp/tJJ.ivc-,,
t~nd 81a.fling rttc:Jmiqw. Sf.t. pp. lS-47.
Drilling palterns and hole se'luencing 1S1
Pugli~ J.M. 1912. Des-igning Blast Paucms Using Empirical Formulas - A compari50n or calw lated patt~
with plans used in quanyln¡ limeston~ and dobnile wittl ¡eolo¡le consldcnlions. U$.8M tC 8S50. 33pp.
SlaS&. M.S., S.A. Rholl A R.E.. Ottctncss. 1989. The efTca of cxplosive type 11.t del1y ~«~~ tmt'5 on frag-
merution. Pr«m/INgy ()jtM 15th O:P(enna on &p/osl•'t'3 aJfd 8Jas.11ng Ttclurlque SEE. pp. lSJ.-366.
CHAPTER 6
Sinking cut design
6.1 INTRODUCTION
To develop new beneh levels in an open pit mine. a sinking (ramp) cutis used (Fig. 6.1).
ll is different fmm the usual pmduction blasting done in lbe mine in lhat the free surfacc:
to which the breakage occurs is horizontal. The blastholes are oñenred perpendicular
rathcr than parallel to thc free surfacc and rock movemcnt is againsl gra\'ÜY. Thus spccial
blast design procedures are required.
1t will be as.sumcd that production drillholcs of the same largc diameter will be uscd
for the entire cut. Al the sballow end the cut depth is only a tew multiples ofthe hole di-
ameter and the blasting rescmbles cratering. At the deeP'"end, the sinking cut rcsembles a
fu U benehing operat:ion. From a strictly practical viewpoint. a certain minimum drilling
geometry (hole depth, pattem) is requined. lf 9 718" diameter boles are bcing drilled, lbr
eKample, it is not practicalco drill them on 1 m c:enters to a depth of 1 m as might be theo--
retically requircd at the entry 10 the ramp. 11 is also not practica! to vary the pallcm and
depth from bote to hole. Thus the cut is dcsigned in a scquence of segments. Within each
segment lhe hole depth and paucm is mainuained eonstanL A certain amount of subdrill-
ing will be required to ensure that the eventual ramp satisfies the desired grade. The ini-
tiation scqucncc must be such as to allow sufficicnt rock movcmcnt bcforc thc ncxt holes
detonate. Finally, careful blasting techniques should be used when the ramp is lt) fOnn
pan ofthe final pit wall.
The overall sinking cut design requires specification of:
l. Drilling depth
2. Burdcnlspacing
3. Hole loading
4. lnitiation sequence.
The approach describcd in this section is broadly bascd upon a paper by Chung ( 1982). lt
has bcen expanded somewhat by the author to assist in conccpt w1dersranding. The blasting
nomc:m::lature has beco changcd lo make it consistenl wilh that uscd throughout this book.
The discussion will be btoken down into three pans according 10 geometry.
l. Bcnch blasting
2. Cratcr blasting
3. Transition zone
152
Sinking cut design 153
Lo Dcep End
Figure 6.1. Diagnvwnatk rqRSelltation of a sinking c:ut.
T
T
o,
'
.....,.........h,l- - -
J
figu~ 6.2. 1'hc bln Jlllllem llllhe runc:ut end.
6..2 BENCH BLASTING ZONE
At thc full dcpth (bcnch blasting} cnd of the cut, thc situarion is as sho\\'11 in Figure 6.2.
As was seen from the basic design fonnulas (Chapter 4) there are a series of relations re>
latíng burden (8), spa<:ing (S), subdrilling (J) and slcmming (T) for a given rock lypC,
hole diameter (D#) and e:tplosive. For consistency these same tenns will be u.~
8 = K•D (6.1)
S=KsB (6.2)
J=KJ8 (6.3)
T=Kr8 (6.4)
A series of blasling !eses will be assurncd lo provid< K8 , KJ and Kr. Usíng Equotion (6.3)
!he burden-subdrill rolationship bc<omcs
J
8=- o m.J (6.5)
KJ
where m= proponionality constant = IIK¡
Givcn the amounc of subdrill (J). the corresponding burden (8) ean be calculatcd.
Exprcssíng thc ramp p e as a ratio (G) the dist.ancc Lo from the begiMing of the
ramp 10 the l\JU benching rone is given by
H
Lo= G (6.6)
154 Blustlng principlesfor open plt mining: Generul design e<mcep4
6.3 THE SHALLOW ZONE
11w shallow-zonc (Fig. 6.3) is dcfmcd as lhal rcgion ofdtc cut conlrollcd by eilher (a) dte
mínimum paltcm dimcnsion or (b) lhc mínimum drill (cut) deplh. The hole deplh and
charge siu is conslllllt throughout tbis region.An enlarged view of lhe boles at lhe dcep
end of the shallow zone is shown in Figure 6.4. SeveraJ de:sign simplification..~ will be
used.
l. The top of lhe charge is placcd at lhe desired grade leve!. Cnuering L• assumcd com-
plete to lhe top of lhe charge. Hence lhe cut deplh (ff) is equalto lhe stemming lenglh.
2. The rclationship hetwec:n the cut deplh (ff), lhe chargc lenglh (J), and thc charge
diameter (D,) is given by
(H' + J' ) = 19(E._) (6.7)
2 2
Thc use oflhe pri_me notation simply means that tbey apply to thc shallow end.
3. In Ibis region, packaged ralhcr litan bulk explosives will probably be used in dte
boles. The lenglh J , lhat of a single cartridge, can be expressed as a function of lhe hole
diameter
J' = K,D, (6.8)
wbere K~ = length to diametcr ratio of a single explosive charge. h depends upon the ex-
plosivo and lhe packaging.
For dtc hole diameters undcr consídcration (~ 8 ins.), K, is of lhe order of 2 to 3. Thc
average valuc of2.4 will be assumed to apply. Thus
J' ,.. 2.4D, (6.9)
4. The burden (B'} is related lo thc arnount of subdrill by
B' = mJ' (6.10)
Slu.l ~ F.nd
1
d
J'
11
tigure 6.l. Odm.wionof~- :ihsllowmd..
8'
H'
r
------ -------~
T
Figure 6.4. Enlargcd "M:w or 1he &hallow cnd blastin¡ re¡ion.
Combining Equatíons (6.7) and (6.9) one finds thallhe deplh ff oflhe cut in lhe shallow
rcgjon is
H' = 8.3D, (6.1 1)
The length of lhe shallow rcgion is given by
H'
Ls= G (6.12)
6.4 THE TRANSITION REGION
The length (Lr) oflhe transition region

Lr= LrrLs (6.13)
has now been defined as has !he deptb or cut and thc subdrill depths
ShsiJowtnd Orecpcnd
Ir 11
J J
at bolh ends of Ibis zone. The subdriU deplh for Ibis zooe, as shown in Figure 6.5, is as-
sumed to increase llnearly from the shallow to the deep end.. This is shown by the dashed
line in Figure 6.5 which intcrccpts thc suñacc at a distanoc X away from thc dayligbting
point
Using similar trianglcs it can be shown that
(H' + J')I(Ls + X) "{H +.!)/(Lo+ X) s (H, + J,)I(L, +X) • K (6. 14)
Equation (6.14) can now be solved for distanee X
X • [(H' + J') Lo- (H + J) LsVI<H + J)- (H' + J')] (6.15)
Thc amount of subdriUing (J,) at any point (L,) in the transition zone can be detennined
ustng
J, • K (L, + X) - H, (6.16)
H, = L,xG (6.17)
The borden for the holes in the transition zone is given by
8,= mJ, (6.18)
...
... _...
- - -
--
H'
r- ......
Tnaaicioct
---
"·
J;- ... __
H
J
-
f igure 6..5. Thc transition :r.one.
156 8/astíng principies for open pit mining: General de.Jign con<:-epls
·Jñese equations can now be used to cakulate the pauems for differenl cut depths or the
cut dcplhs for givcn pattcms givcn thc rcsults from a rcfcrcncc blast.
6.5 SINKING CUT EXAMPLE
'lñe example given by Chung (1982) will be used to illustrate the proeess. The details of
the nonnal production blasting in thc ramp arca are
Hole diameter (D,) • 0.25 m (9 718")
E•plosive = ANFO
Explosive density =850 kgfml
Burden (8) = 7 m
Spacing (S) • 7 m
Bench height (H) ~ 12m
Subdrill (J) = 1.8 m
Stemming: (7) • 4.5 m
Lcngth of chargc = 9.3 m
Amount of explosivc = 391 kg
Thc fragmmtation was deemed to be satisfactory. Using this information, thc problcm is
to dcsign a 30m widc sinking cut drivcn ata grade of8% (G = 0.08) from thc surfacc toa
deptb of 12m.
Stcp l. Thc charactcristics of tbe dccp zonc are calculatcd/summarizcd.

H= 12m
L 0 = 12/0.08 = 150m
D~ "" 0.2Sm
B a~~ S ~ 7m
J • 1.8 m
Lo = BID,= 7 m/0.25 = 28
~ = J/8 = 1.817 = 0.26
K r • TIB • 4.5n • 0.64

m = 8/J = 7/1 .8 = 3.89
Step l . The characteristics ofthe shallow zone are calculaledlsummarized.

The packaged ANFO has a length to diarnetcr ratio of 2.4. Cartridgcs 8" in diameter are
uscd.
J' = 2.4 D, • 2.4 (0.25) = 0.6 m
H' • 8.3 D, • 8.3 (0.25) • 2.08 m

Ls ~ 2.08/0.08 = 26m
8' "'J X m = 0.6(3.89) = 2.3 m
158 Blcuting principies for open pit mining: General de.sign concepls
Step S. A desigJ1 nomogT~~ph is prcpared to simplify the desi8J1 proeess.

figure 6.6 sho"~ the nomOgTIIph pn:pared by Chung for the pn:sent example. lt con-
sislS of four scales
- Horizontal distance L.
- Depth of cut H.
- Subdrilling J.
- Burden and spacing.
To demonstrate its use draw the line passing through the pninl represenling a homontal
distance of SO m and the alignment point P. The li_oe intersects the other 3 scales to gh·e
H = 4m
J ~ 0.85 m
8 = 3.3 m
Step 6. The nomograph is used for design.

The c-ut is divided into 2 parts, Part 1 cxtcnds from Oto 80 m and Pan 11 cxtcnds from
80 m to ISO m. The requin:d ramp width is 30 m. Allhough then: are many other combi-
nations which c:ould be used, integcr dimensions wiU be used as much as possiblc for
burden and spacing. Al tbe deep end lhe nominal burden and spacing is 7 m. Al lhe shal-
low end they are 2 m. Hence the actual design involves the transition from the 7 m panero
10 lhe 2 m pauem.
The tirst step in the layoul is to detennine the hoñzontal distance regimes in which the
paUem is constanl Sorne judgement is requin:d in this reg¡ud. Lines corresponding to burdeos
of 6.5, 5.5, 4.5, 3.5 and 2.5 m are drawn lhrough the alignment pnint. The corresponding
horizontal distanccs are given in the Table 6.1.
These lines are then superimposed on the plan map offigure 6.7 and lhe nominal bur-
dcn x spacing valucs added. Thc dct!iled layout for the region of O lo 81 m is sbown in
Figure 6.8.
Tabk 6.1. Holc: burdcn M a func:tion af the hori2.0t1tal distmoe ak)ng ~ c:ut.
Rurden(m) tloriZC,~r~bll di~ (m)
6.5 136
5.5 110
4.5 81
J.S 53
2.5 28
Horizootal Oistanct (m)

o 26 l3 81 106 1.16 ISO
Figure 6.7. Plan view ofthe sinking cut showing lhc: di ff~ pattem rqjons.
I'IOrTtocllll Oisla'l« (m)
o
" 26 10 >3
" 81
1•
101
.. • • • • • • • • •
.. Sm
....•• •• •• • • • • • • • '• •• •• •
..
.• . • • • •
•••
• •
•
• ••• •
•
30m
. • •• •• 3 ttPtl m
••• •
4m x 4m
••• •
sm ~ sm
.. •• • • • • • • •
. .• •• •• • • • • • •• •• • • • • • S•m • • •
Fi¡~~Je 6,1J, Octailed l¡yout for t.he sN!IIe>w end.
Ucwlzo,.al Disc.ncc (m)
,. ·1 ,.
130
·~,
81 106 136
101
1·
>m 6m
• • • •sm•
• • o •b m a um
e 7m • 7m
6 '"'• 6m
• • •
• Sm x Sm
• 6111 ~" 6m
• • 30m
• • • • • 7m • 7.Sm
• • • • • o • .. • • • •
Figute 6.9. Octailtd layoot for (M. ttansition :mtlc:.
Tabk 6.2. Holc ckpdl apptying fot lbc diffcn:tal pl'lktnS..
Hole d<plll (m}

7x7 13.8m
6 x6 12.4m
SxS 10.2m
4<4 7.8m
3><) S.Jm
2x2 3. 1 m
The detailed layout of Part 11 now begins from the deep end. The spacing is incn:ased
to 7.5 m lO confonn to lhe 30 m width but lhe burden remains at 7 m. The results are
shown in Figure 6.9.
Stcp 7. Determine thc drilling depth for each pa«em.
These depths are selected in the same way as the deepest hole (Cut + Suhdrill) using
the nomograph. The results are summarized in Tablc 6.2 and in Figure 6.10.
160 Blasrlng principies for open pü mining: General design concepls
Step 8. Thc amount of explosive to be placed in each hole is now dctcrmined.

Al the deep end (7 m x 7 m pattem) thc lcngth of stemming (T) in the hole is equal to
0.64 B. Sincc this hole is bulk loaded with ANFO the amounl of powder is
w = 714 D,' (H + J- T) 850 = " (0.25)2 ( 12 + 1.8 - 4.5) 850 S 388 kg

4
Thclcngth ofthc cxplosive column is 9.3 m.
In thc shallow zonc (2 m X 2 m pattem) a single cartridge (0.203 m) 8 ins. in diameler
and 0.490 m (19 ins.) in lcngth is used in each hole. The amounl of explosivo is
W• =d' L (850) = : (0.203}' (0.490) (850) = 13.5 kg
Thc cxplosive length convened lo the fuU hole diamcter (0.250 m) is 0.32 m. These val-
ues are in good agrcerncnt with thc values given by Chung ( 1982) in Table 6.3.
Step 9. Dcsign thc initiation sequence.

Tbe complete cut may be blasted in one shot or in sections. The advantagc of onc shot
is that'pit disturbancc is minimized. However, a large number of dclay intcrvals are re·
quired to avoid a hígh cxplosivc cbargcldclay and the resulting ground \•ibrations. Thc pos-
sibility of cutotm is also increased.
Figure 6.11 shows thc sequcnce recommended by Chung for the blast bctwecn SO m to
ISO m.
Horl2001at Disun<e (m)

o 26 S1 81 t(J6 136 1 m
1
¡J. I
••• 7• 7
'kttical [)q)th
(m)
Sm
lOm
12m
'-;-;-;>'- 13.8 m
13.8
Figure 6. 10. Crou-scctlon ~na &be drillin¡ ckplhs in thc diffc:mn rqioM.
Tatle 6.3. Cbar¡c lcngth and ""'Ci&fM for the difT~ panems..
Dunkn & spac;ing (m) Char¡¡< kn&lh (m) Chal¡< wci¡ht (kg)
7 9.3 391
6 s.o 210
S 1.8 76
4 0.7 29
1 0.4 l7
2 0.3 13
Delays: 15 ms- 25 ms-
lnicintion
- Frum Da)1ighc -
,. ·· ····r ··· ·· ·r ·······r ·······r ··· ···· r ··· ···., ...... ·r ·······r ····· ·r ·· ··· ·1
SOm 60m 10m 30m 90m lOOm 110m 120m 130m 140m UOm
Figure 6. 11. Oelay sequenc,:e without waJI control blasting (Chu~ 1912)..
Ddays: 15 ms- 2j ms- 4Sms-
ltlld ation
- From Oayfi&ht -
r·· ····· r· ···· ··r · ·· ···· r ······ ·r ·······r ····· ··r· ·· ·· ··r ·· ·····r ·······r ·······1
SOm 60m 70m 30m 90m l OOm 110 m 120m 130 m 140m ISQm
Figul't' 6. 12. Oelay seq~~CnCe wilh wall control blascing (Chun¡. 191n).
No1e that the initiation begins al the dcep end with the instantaneou.o; firing of the l\\'O
middle holes. This helps 10 easc lhe breaking al grade for holes up lhe ramp and lo reduce
culoffs caused by flying rocks coming from the shallow holcs.
Whcn a conventio1UII surfacc delay systcm is used, Chung suggests the following delay
intervals between firing lines.
25 msee delays - deep end,
15 msec delays - shaJiow end.
Figure 6.12 sbows a tic-in method for a sinking cut in which one side will become par1 of
the pcnnanent pit wall. Tite holcs along thc wall control linc are
162 8/a:sting principie,, for open pit mining: General desfgn c;.f>ncepts
- Drillcd 10 final grade,

-No more than 1/3 oflhc nonnal loading should bcu.sed in lhcsc boles.
To furt.her reduce blast vibration in thc wall. a 15-mscc dc-lay is introduccd in cach firing
line. A combination of surface and in-hole delays may also be used.
Armbrust, J.C. 1988. Mormc:i Mine - Blasling aAd [)c.,.,--atering of lhe 4050 Orop Cut. Pttprint No. 88·146. Pn:·
scrncd atlhe SME Atttw31M«ting. Pttocnix, Ariwna, Jan 2:5-28. 3pp.
8arlow, V.S. 1958. H rJw tlw.: Hingham Pil MaU.s a /)ropcut. EMJ 159(6): 92·93.
Chun,g. S.l.t. 1982. CompUterizod sinking cut dc:sian mopen·pit míni_n¡.. CIM Spccial Volurne 3(). Rrxl 8n:o!iJ18
and A.f«.hottit:Q/ &cawnion (P. Baumgartner, cd.). Vancouver, UC. May IJ-14, pp. 87-90.
E..l. DuPont de Ncmoors and Co. DoPont Bltntus • HtmJbtxa. 1977 Editlon. Wilmingwn, DeL~~ pp.
Haaan, ·r.N. & J.K. Mercer 1983. Slfe and Effielmt Bla,,dna tn Open P1t Minina- IVrJr!sltop Proufffling.,, ICI
Ar.t.flroiNJ. XIV'rotha, 23.1S Nov.
CHAPTER 7
Bulk blasting agents
7.1 INTROOUCTION
This section will deat very briefly with the most common blasting agenlSfexplosives used
in opcn pit mining. The emphasis is on bulk loading of blastholcs using a mix-pump truck
rather thao on pac.k aged products since this pracllce is dominant by far in surfacc mining
applications. A blasting agent is defined (Oick, 1968, 1972) as a chemical mixture which
- Contains no ingredient that is in itSelf an explosive,
- Cannot be initiated by a No. 8 detonator in lhe unconfined state (in thc open air).
These two favorable conditions have a major iropact on s.hipment, storage and handli_ng
procc:durcs. A bulk cxplosivc. on thc othcr hand, docs contain an ingrcdient that is~ in it·
sell; an explosivc on<l/or can be initiatcd by a No. 8 dctonator. In this Chapter the tcrms
bulk explosive and bulk blasting agent will, for simplicity, be u.'ied interchangeably. The
reader mLL'« keep in mind lhat the twtl are not tU alllhe same. As wi.ll be seen. ammonium
nitratc (AN) is a major component of most blasting agents. 1bc rcliable dctonation of
blasting agents rcquires, in general, ínitiation by a high cxplosive primer in good contact
with the charge. The characterist_ics WR = water resistance. MD • recommended min_i-
mwn diamctcr (mm), W = loadcd density (gfcm' ) of tbe most common types of bulk ex·
plosivcs are summariz.cd in Tablc 7.1.
The main factors which influence the selection of an explosive, in addition to price, are
(Hagan & Mcrcer, 1983):
l. Water rcsistancc,
2. Strength,
3. Density,
4. Scnsitivity.
5. Velocity of detonation,
6. fumes,
7. Storage and handling qualities,
8. Physical characteristics.
9. lnflamrnability.
Each of !bese factors will be bricfly dcseribcd using material extnlcted (rom Hagan &
Mcrccr ( 1983). Thc water resistance of blasting agents and high explosivcs varies consid~
erably. In general, aH deteriorate progrcssively in wet conditions. The amount of dctcrio-
163
164 Bla! ting principles for open pit mining: General de.tign concepts
T abk 7.l. Common t)"JIC'S of bulk aplosh'eS (A ECI, 1983 ).
E.xpi«Si\-e type WR MO 1.0

ANf'O Nil so 0 ,8 P'orou$ prilk d AN witb 6'Y•
absorbed fu.el oil
ALANFO Nil ISO 0.8S-0.9S AN " 'ith up 10 15% atomi2cd aluminum po"'-
d"
(I'C'IIed 81aslin¡ E:tcdknt 12S 0 .8S· I.4$ AN soflllion inc()f'p(H"'.a1in¡: fue!. sensitirln8
A¡tnl.siSiurrics 1111d gdling agcrns
Emulsific:d Blasting E•cd k nt 100 0.9-1..36 Similar toa sluny but with wa1Cf rcistancc
A ~nt.s/Emu iSiQI'IS pro,•ic:lcd by cmulsifyin¡ thc AN &Oiulion with
(ud o il imlcad ofl.l$in¡: gclling ~cnts
Ut avy ANF'O Varics ISC._lSO 1.0·1.36 Emulsion m~triJr; incorponui.ng AN pñlls to
rorm an CBC:rp:Cic. bigh-density. low oost cx-
plosi...c
ration increases with the severity and period of exposure. The efl'ecrivencs.s of explosives
is reducc:d when penetratcd by water and~ on prolonged cxposurc, eventuaJly rcaches a
point at which tite detonation wave is nol able to propagate through the explosive column.
Whatever the explosive type used, the period of exposure to blasthole water should he
kepl to a mínimum. This mean:; tbat the blast should be fircd as S(X)n as possíblc aftcr
charging.
Strength refers to the energy generatcd by the detonation of an explosive. Stronger ex-
plosivcs dcvclop grcater cncrgy and are capablc of doing more work. As indicated in
Cbapter 3 lhere are two stn:ngth valucs of importancc; weight streogth (cncrgylkg, for cx-
ample) and bulk strength (energy/volwne). The total amouot of energy plaeed in a bore-
hole depe:nds upon the explosives weight strength and its dcosity. An explosive with a
high weight strength and high density is often used at the bonom of the hole where the
work lo be done is thc grcatcst. An cxplosivc with a lower density can be used as an upper
coturno charge where less energy is nonnally required. lf the density of the explosive is
greater than 1.0 glcm3 it will sink in watcr.lfil is less, Íl wiU float.
Sen5itivily is a rneasure of the ease witb whicb an cxplosive can be dc:lonated by hcat.
friction, impact or shock. An cxplosivc with higb sensidvity is easily initiaced and the
detonation wavc: trave-l"'i from one end of the charge column to lhe other without any ten-
dcncy to fadc or die out. Explosivcs having low sensitivities are more difficult to initiate
and thc detonation wnve~ onoe dc:vcloped. i..o¡ less capablc of travc:lliog the c:ntirc lc-~:agth of
thc explosivc column.
Velocity of detonation ( YOD) is the speed with which a detonation wave propagates
througll a column of explosive. As a general rule, the higher the VOD, the greater the bri-
sance or shaUering effect. Where better breakug:c in tough massivc rocks is rcquir~ onc
generally would prefer a higher velocity explosive. In rock which is relatively weak or
which exhibits a closc nctwork of natural cracks and planes of weakncss, onc would se~
lect one with a lower YOD yielding less shock energy but greater heave.
Toxic fumes produced by the detonation of charges in open pit blasts do not nonnatly
pre$Cnt any hlll.ard since they are rapidly dispersed into the open air. On very calm days
in the bouom of deep pits, however. operators should avoid exposure to post deton.ation
fumes. Rusty·orangc colored fumes, for cxamplc, indicate thc prescnce of nitrogen di ~
oxide.
Bu/k blastill8 agem.t 165
Most explosívcs u.rc JX.Tishablc in lhc scnse tbat thcir charo~c:teristics change (deteriori·
ate) with time. Doth climatc nnd mag¡lzine condilions are importan! factors affccting shelf
lifc.
The phy¡ica.l ehamctcrislics oflhe vu.riou.!l ty~ ofbla5ting ogcnts and high explosives
ditrer markcdly. ANFO·typ< blasting agcnts .,.. loose, f....,.llowing granular compo>i·
tions. Watctgcl blasting agents h.avc a rubbcry, gcl-like consistenc:y. E.mulsion blasting
agent~ h.a\'e a consistency betwccn d\31 ofha.ir cream anda finn putty.
tnnamm:ability is a measure of the eue with which an exploshte or blasting agent can
be ignitcd. ANFO.type blastin¡ agcnts ignitc n:adily and bwn wcll. Bccousc ofthcir water
contem, wau:r¡¡eb and c:mubions will not suppo<t combustion unlcss an OU!Sid< souree or
flame is applied continuousty.
7.2 ANFO
Ammooium nilr.Uc (AN) whcn mi•cd with fue! oíl (t'O) in the weigbt ratio of94/6 makes
up the most oommon bla5tin¡ o¡cnt uscd in opcn pit mining today. Thc basi<: t<aetion is
3NH,NO, + CB 1 -> C0, + 3N1 + 7H20 + 91 2 kcallkg (7.1 )
As is distu.ssed in""""' dctail in Chap<cr 11, the publisbcd val..,. for the amount of en·
crgy relc:tS<d "ilcn ANFO dctonotes (which in this =• is given as 912 kcallkg) can vory
rather widely. 1ñe primary rca.son for this is that diffc:n:nt auth.ors and manufactun:rs as-
sume difTerent fonnul:uions for focl oil each of which has an associated heat of formation..
ln the commonly written reaetion (7.1). thc symbol CHz is uscd to rcpn:scnt thc: fud oil.
In practicc the actual organic compound i.s much more cornplic.ated lhan tbis and the ratio
between thc number of hydrogcn 11nd carbon atoms. for cxamplc, may be only approxi·
mately 2. The heat of fonntuion for thc con..1tituent Cll;z is not fi•und in a standard refcr-
cncc such os thc Handbook of Chcmistry ond Physícs. lnstead one finds values for or·
ga.nic compounds made up ofmultiples of'<.:ll 2 such os C6 11 12, C1H1.,. etc. Fot each ofthese
there are dilTeren1 ammgcments oflhe atoms yíclding diflCrcnt hea1s of formation. To add
to the confusion, cxplosion produc..'l:t Olhcr th:1n thosc givcn in reaclion (7.1) may be in-
cluded. Thus the so-called 'standard' ANFO is far from standard.
As shown in figure 7.1. the mux.hnum strength is oblaincd wher' about 5.5% fuel oil
by wc:ight is nddcd. Whcn loo linle fucl oil is addcd, the cncrgy drops rapidly and various
nitrous oxide5 (N011) are fonncd. Whcn loo much fucl oil is added the energy a.Lso de-
crea.o;e•. In this case thc deadly ¡¡as carbon moooxidc (CO) is fonncd.
Consisten!~ cfficient blasdng whh ANF'O is only uchievod by placing charges with a
known, unifonn densiry and mix in every blastholc. Although various fonns of AN are
availoble and could be uscd, thc spccíally manufactured porous pnlls are: J)T\'fem:d. Thc
quality of porous ¡l<illammooium nitrotc Í5 dcfincd (AECI, 1990) by:
- Density contrOl
- Prill porosity
- Prill hardness
- Prill thcrmal stability
- Etrcctivcncss and incru>ess of the anti<akin¡ a¡cnt uscd
Thc d<nsity of crystallinc: AN iJ about 1.n amJan' and thal ror fue.! oil abou1 0.75 amJ
cm'. Assuming an oxy¡cn-balanccd ratio of 94.S/S.S thcn the ovcrall d<nsity (or sud! a
166 Blastlng principies for open pit mlning: General design concepts
1~ .--,,--,---,---,--~---r---r---.--,---,
900
...:;:
~
3
~ 800
~
¡(
.¡¡•
"'!!'
~
700
~
'" 600
Fuel Oil (%)

figure 7.l. Rdati\'CANFO cnergy as a function ofthe paccn1 fuel oil \ISCd (Hagan, 1980).
mixture would be 1.675 gm/cmJ. Howcver, as indicatcd. .thc AN is not in crystallinc fonn
bul rather as porous prills. for good blasting grade prills, the prill stze.distribution is be·
lween 6 and 20 mesh (US Standard Scrc:en). This corrcsponds lo particle sizes lying in the
range of 0.84 to 3.36mm (0.033 lo 0.132 inches). Nonmal ANFO is aboul 50% by volume
air and thus thc dcnsi1y in thc loose-pourcd fonn is about
1.615f2 = 0.84 gm/cm3
The air volume is distribuled aboul 70'/o between the prills and 30% as inlemal pore
space. Thus the free void space betwcen the prills accounts for about 35% of thc ovcrall
volumc. Tbc density of ANFO as plaeed in !he hole can vary from aboul 0.8 gm/cm 3 10
nearly 1.0 gm/cml depending upcm !he method of emplacemenl (how much !he free void
spacc is rcduccd in thc proccss). ANFO is rclativcly incomprcssiblc so that thc dcnsity at
!he bottom oflong column charges will nol be much hig)lcr !han that al the lop. The 'dcad
press' density (lbat for which ANFO will n<>t detonate even under the action of a powerful
primer) is aboul 1.25 gm/cm' .
Although distillales other !han fuel oil are available, fuel oil has lhe following advan-
~ages :
- Relatively inexpensive.
- Mixes readily with AN to produce a unifonn mix.
- RcadiJy available at aU mine sitcs.
Sclid fuels such as earbon are not as etfeclive as liquid fuels in ANFO. As a result they
have only been used as a partial ralher than a total replacement for fuel oil.
As can be seen in figure 7.2~ blasthole diameter has a significant effect on the velocity
of dctonation. Thc VOD ís less for smallcr diamcters than for larger diameters due to the
proportionally targer resis1ance to delonation propagalion provided by !he rough hole pe·
rimeter. Tbis VOD -diameter dependence carries o ver to the borebolc prcssurc and thc
shock energy-hcave energy partilioning. The total energy yield is not alfecled, however.
Bu/k blasting agen/.r 167
S
I
- 4
/
11
'o 3
i'!t 1
2o 100 200 lOO 400 Fi¡utc-7.2. Effcc:t of ~ d.iarnc1tt on lhe ''dotity o f dcto-
Chllf!C Diamcur (mm) natlon fOr ANFO. Ctark ( 19111),. Anonyn,o~n (1976).
Table 7.2. Polytbroe 1~ Si7.W:S for difl'crtnt blaMhok diamtler$ (Ha¡an & MctOer, 1983).
Blasthok diamc:tcr (mm) Nominal diamctet oflincr (mm) NominaJ sizt of layllat (mm)
127 140 220
143 IS6 245
IS2 166 260
17S 191 300
187 204 320
200 216 HO
229 248 390
2S I 274 430
270 293 460
311 337 530
lnitiation sensitiv1ty decreases with increasing bla.fOithole diamerer. For diameters greater
Iban about 150 mm (6*), casi primers weighing at least 400 g (llb) are recommended.
Chargcs of bulk ANFO are only dctonator scnsitivc whcn confincd in small diametcr
blastboles (diameters less Iban about 3').
A ~or advanJage wilh ANFO is iiS low COSI per unit of energy delivered. A ~or dis-
advantage and llmitation is itslack ofwater resis&ance. Ammoniwn nitrate dissolves eosily in
water even wilh lhe added fuel oil. ANFO conJaining more Iban aboul 10% \Y8Jcr willlilillo
delonale. 'Damp' boles sbould be pumped dJy, charged and sbot as quickly as possible.
Even in 'wet' conditions good blasting resulls can be obolined wilh ANFO bul only if lhe
ANFO is kept dJy. Sorne water or sludge always n:mains at lhc bottom of de-watcred blast·
boles. This wíll desiTOy tbe ANFO in lhat pan of tbe holc faocd with thc most difficult
breaking unless a plastic borehole liner is used. Table 7.2 gives sorne typicaJ dimcnsioos of
these liners (Hagan & Mercer, 1983). The insertion ofthese linen into boles making water
can be a slow and tedious process. lt alsc has two inberenl risks (AECl. 1982)
l. The ANFO column may be 'pinclted-out' by water pressure around lhe tubing. This
will decrease the breaking effect ofthe ANFO and may even result in detonation failure in
lhesc boles.
2. The lay-flat tubing may be tom by projections in the side of the bla5thole allowing
water lo deSITOy lhe ANFO.
FUt't. 011. '1'1\NK
AN LOAOING HATCHI:S ~
"'~
~
~·
1l~ ·
..
~
.¡¡·
~
~
'
~
AN BIN
BAITERY
ISOLATIOII
.,•...
SWITCH S
FUELOIL PUMP .,..s·s·.

<:)
~TRUCK JIUEL. ,.ANK

o.
MAIN AUGER •
~
c11u ·r~
AN DISCHARúE POINT -...
l}
~
DISCfiARGE AUGER •
{l
~
oo
CONTROL PANEL
IIYORAUI.I ~ ~ONTROLS
FUELOILJET HYDRAULIC CYLINOER (TO VARY INCLINATION
OF DISCHAROE AUOER)
"'
TI '
1'RANSI'ER AUGER
'< SWIVH J(KNT
~
<O'
::r ~·í¡un: 7.J. A rypi..:al ttoek fOC' bulk Jollrding ANFO(Hagan & Mcroer, 198"3).
~
3
*"'
"'·
Bu/k blasting agenls 169
Al thc blast sitc, a bulk ANFO truck (Fig. 7.3) mix<-s thc AN and FO in the oxygen
balanced raijo, The resulling ANFO is citht.r blown using a pneumatjc delívery system or
augered into the blaslholes. In the pneumatic system lhe discharge hose is typically 10m
long. Whcrc the truck is drivcn bctwccn two rows of largc diamctcr blastbolcs four. and
sometimes six, blastholes can be cbarged ftom each position of the vehicle. Wilh the
auger systcm, normally two or three boles can be charged from one truck position. ANFO
discharge rates are usually in the range of 180.500 kgfminute. A weighted mcasuring tape
ís often used 10 che<:k the buíldup of the explosh•e charge in the hole. A wíde range of
truck capacítíes (3- 15 tons) ís availablc.Thc time requíred lo rcfill thc truck dcpcnds
largely upon the mctbod for loading tbe AN feeder.
When using dry blasting agents the following precautions should be taken (Diek, 19n¡
l. Thcy should not 00 uscd in thc prescnce of cxces.sive water unless ex'Cemal protec-
tion in the form of a rig.id cartridge ora plastic borehole li_n er is supplied.
2. Closc control must be exerciscd in i:ngrcdicnt mixing to max:imizc encrgy releasc
and minimizc toxic fume generation. A colored dye may be added to thc fucl to provide a
visual check on mixing.
3. The charge diameter must exceed the critica) diameter, prcferabl)' with a good safety
margin.
4. Adequate priming is essential. When in doubt, overpriming is recommended since
heavy priming will partiatly twercome many unfavorable field et)ndilions. In marginal
situations thc addition of boostcrs up the bon:hole will assist propagation.
5. When using electric blasti.ng caps. approved equipmeot should be u.~ fOr pneu-
matic loading and precautions against static electricity should be taken. Thc use of non·
conductive protct.1ive plastic tubing incrcases static clectricity hazards by insulating the
charge from the ground.
6. The possible hazard of ANFO's n:activity with rock, panicularly rack wíth a high
sullide content should be inveotigated.
1. Even an oxygen-balanced mixture can produce noxiou.~ fume.~ if insufficient deto-
oatioo QCC,UJ'$ because of water deterioration, scparation of ingredicnts, poor confmc:mcnt,
insufficient compaction. inadequate charge diameter. or inadequate inilialion. Thes.e con-
dilions also cause poor powdcr pcñormance. The use of plastic boreholc lincrs can in~
crease fume produc.tion.
8. Thc low air·gap scnsitivity of dry blasting agcnts makcs thcm susceptible to misfires
caused by chMge separation.
9. Uoles loaded with dry blasting agents should not be allowed to stand for excessivc
pcriods aft:cr loading because of thcir susccptibiliry to water dctcrioration and segrcgation
of liquid fuels.
7.3 ALUMINIZED ANFO
The addition of paint grade aluminum as a fuel increases the total energy output of the
explosive or blasüng agent to which it is added. The equation describing the detonation of
ammonium nitrate and alwninum is givcn in Equation (7.2)
3NU,NO, + 2AI .... 6U 20 + AI20, + 3N1 + 1620 kcallkg (7.2)
170 8/aslíng principies for open pil mining: General deslgn concep~J·
In this case the NH4 NO,!AI weig)ll ratio is 81.61 18.4. Simply oomparing lhc cncrgies
givcn in rcactions (7. 1) and (7.2) would suggest thatlhe wcight strenglh when using alu-
minum as lhe fuel instcad of fuel oil is greater by a factor of
162019 12 Q 1.78
Although true, this is somewhat misleading since some of the heat is bound to the sol id
product AI,O, and is nol available for use in lhe pressuriution of lhe explosion gasses. In
practico aluminum is nevcr lhe only fucl uscd. One way of incn:asing thc strcnglh of ANFO
is lhrough lhc addition of aluminum powdcr (Crosby & Pinco, 1991, 1992). This oombina-
tion, is usually referred lo in lhe lilerature as AUNFO. Figure 7.4 illustrates lhe percentages
of fuel oil required in ANFO at various levels of added aluminum in order to maintain
maximum cncrgy output. Fucl grade aluminum must conform lO ccrtain spccifications rc-
garding size, purity density and flow characteristics. The particle siz.e of the aluminum is
generally in thc mesh rango -18 lo +1SO. Particlcs largc:r lhan 20 mesh tcnd lo react slug·
gishly whercas particles finer then 1SO mesh prescnl a dust cxplosion hazard. Figure 7 .S
shows lhe relative weig)lt an<1 bulk strengtha (ANFO al a density of0.8S glcm' = 100) wilh
incrcasing aluminum content in ANFO. As indicatcd by Hagan & Mcreer (1983), inc:rc·
ments in available energy stan to decrease a.s the Al content increases beyond 100/o and
the incremenlS for cach pcrccnt incrcasc in Al past 1S% an: rclalively smaU. Hcncc. thc
most oommon composiüons contain between S% and 1S% aluminum by weighl The in-
creased cncrgy pcr unit weight mcans that moR work can be pcrformcd with the samc
volume of explosive. In certain rack typeS, Ibis means lhat lhrough lhe addition of alumi-
num better fragmentation can be achieved for the same pattem or that the hole pattem can
be sprcad. Such aluminizcd blasting agcnls are oftcn uscd as lhe toe load in bench blasl·
ing. Water resistance is not changed, however, from that of ordinary ANFO and the sensi·
tivity is also lhe same. Figure 7.6 shows a typical bulk ANFO IN:k capable of delivering
aluminizcd ANFO.
3 l
Figure 7.4. Pucmt fuel oU (by wrighl) requircd to ob-

0 oL----Ls----~,o~--~,~s----"2o· tain maximum encrcy OUIJ!Ut it1 ANFO at varioos k:\•clii
Alumhun Addcd (%) e~t ah.wniwrn ~ilion. (Crosby &. Pinco, 199tb)
Bu/k bla.rting ageniJ 171
150
1
1
14Q
1
1
1
1
1 '30 "'1 F~
'1
"'" ,¡ .,.;>~<;
'!!!/
! ~
1
"' 120
1
1
110 /,
;;
¡} Fi&urc: 7.5. Rdati,·e wcight
ilterlg(h a:nd bulk Strffl&th as a
func:tlatl or !he pcn:ent alumi-
100
Q 4 8 12 16 2Q num ackkd to ANFO (llapn &
%Aiuminum Men.:er. 1983).
BoomAuge:r AN Hopper
FONoules
F~Auger
F~urc 7.6. Truck ror loading aluminized AI'WO. (Cr'O$b)' & Pinco. 1991b)
7.4 LIGHT ANFO
There are sorne s il'uations where bulk blasüng agents which h.ave strengths lcss than bulk
ANFO are desired. One such situation is the minimization of back brcaklblast dama.gc
from p it perimeter hales. From Chapter 3 it will be recalled that an expression for the
detonation pressure (Pocr) is
112 8/a.Jtíng principies for open pit mining: General de.1ign concepts
PotT = 0.25 p (VOD) 2 (7.3)

when: Pmr = detonation pressure (MPa), p = explosive den.sity (kglm'). VOD =detona·
tion velocity (km/se<:).
The explosion pressurc (that which would be applied to the hole wall) can. without
much error, be tak<.-n as onc half of this value. One tcchniquc for rcducing thc applicd
wall pn:$5\Ut is to leave a gap berween the outer wall of the explosive c;.harge and thc hole
wall. As the explosion gases expand to come into contact with the borehole wall. the pre-
sure dr<Jps. AS.'iwning adiabatic expansion, one can write
27
P, = P.(~:) (7.4)
where P11 • the effective pres..c:ure at the hole wall, P~ • explosion pressure fOr ANFO.
D., = diametcr ofthc explosivc, Dh = diamctcr ofthc holc. y= thc cquivalcnt adiabatic cx 4
pan..~ion factor tOr the pressure range. P.. -. P11•

In practicc thc explosion prcssurc is also rcduccd due to the smallcr diamctcr chargc and
a smaJier degree of oonfinement than that for the fully charged blast hole. This technique,
which is called 'decoupling', is discussed in detail in Chapters lO and 17. In prac.tice. a
plastic pipe is inscned in lhe holc and il is filled wilh bulk ANFO. Although cffcctivc, it is
cumbersome sinee it involves the handling and filling ofthese pipes with explosive. Some
other mcans for a<Xomplishing these reduced wall prcssurcs which involvc the use of
fully charged hales is desireable.
To reduce the pressure applied to the wall by the explosive gasses (and lhereby the
amount of damage) one can, according to Equation (7.3), reduce the density, the VOD, or
both. In this regard, Hagan & Mercer ( 1983) have described the lL>re ofbulk loaded ANFOI
polystyrcnc compositions. Rcliable detonations have been consistently achievcd in large
diameter blastholes containing as much as 90% polyl§:tyrene by volume. llmh the dcnsity
and thc cncrgy conccntration dccrcasc dirccdy with thc pcrccnta.gc of the polystyrcne.
Duc to the lower shock cne.rgy and ga5 volumcl§: produced the amount of damage i:;, Hm 4
ited. 111e polystyrene is added to the ANFO just before the charging operations begin. To
minimiz.e segregation of lhc: ANFO and polystyrene due to the density differences. the
polystyrene particles should be about thc samc diamctcr as thc prills and spherical. A
small amount of water ( I.S% by weight mtlJ<imom) added 10 the polystyrene-ANFO mix·
ture has been found to add 'tackincss' and assist in mixing.
Wilson & Moxon (1988) condocted both loborato¡y and fie.Jd tests in which low density
material• such as polystyrene, bagasse (the stall<s remaining after extracting the sugar from
sugar cane). sawdust. pertite, etc wcrc mixed togcthcr wi.th ANFO and dctonalcd. In thc ficld
teslo; a bowt truck such as shown in Figure 7.7 was used for mixing aod delivery 10 thc hole.
Thcir rcsults, givcn in Tablc 7.3 for a 50150 volumc mixture (ANFOiadditivc) and in Fig-
ure 7.8 for bagasse, sawdost and polystyrene as a fonetion of% volume additive, indicate
that the VOD of ANFO can be significantly reduced by the addition of a low dcnsity addi·
ti ve. Sincc the grcatest ctTect on Pvt.T i.~ obtained ifboth thc VOD and the dert;;ity are s ignifi-
cantly lo\li-ercd, thc most attractivc systcms for largc scalc use (ofthosc tcstcd) are
- ANFO/baga.'IS<,
- ANfl!fsawdust.
- ANFO!polystyrene.
- ANFO/peanut skin.
Bu/k blasring agenrs 173
The additives used in the experiments are believed 10 lowcr the dclonation pressurc of
ANFO by acting as a low grade fuel which reacts or bums more slowly in lhc presence of
ammonium nitrate than does fuel oil. Thc mixtures are also very poorly oxygen-balanced
which further reduces the VOD.
The conclusions oftheir study wcre:
- Sawdust~ polystyrcne and bagasse will all fonn stable homogeneous mixtures with
ANFO in a tumble mixe.r. A viscous oil (400cs) such as Prorex 25 is required to aid rnix-
ing in thc polystyrene/AN system.
Figure 7.7. Truct mounttd agiwor bowl dlspcnsln¡ unlt. Clost, 1986.
Table 7.3. 1'ht: expl0$i,·¡: propcrties ofthe low dms:ity expk»:i\•e milrturci studicd. All result~ att fot 50150 by
votunw mbttun:s (Wibon & Moxon, 19118).
Mixtutt Dlamecer (mm) Omshy (kgtm3} 1'00 (kmlsec) Pt».T(MPa)

ANt:o 100 82<> 2A.ot 1220
158 82<> 3.211 2210
190 82<> 3.5 1 2530
258 82<> ) .70 2800
lnfmitc 82<> •.so 4150
ANFOIBII.pSSC' 190 380 2.7() 690
2$8 380 3.13 930
l nlinitt 380 3.60 123<)
A fi'F<l'$awd\1.1C 100 500 2.21 610
190 500 2.59 840
258 lOO 2.90 1050
lnlinitt lOO 3.30 1360
ANF()JV()Iystyrenc 100 410
150 410 2.00 <10
190 410 1.90 370
2S8 410 1.21 lOO
ln finite 410 1.40 590
ANFQJPc:rtitc:: 190 ,.0 1.40 71:10
ANFOIVcnniculitc: 190 l80 2•.S 1 910
ANFOIWh1.."al 190 720 1.90 650
ANPOIPi:anut Skin 190 460 1.21 560
ANFO'Coal Rtfusc
- 50150 190 7:l0
- 15.'2.$ 190 710 2JO 940
174 8/asting principies for open pit mining: General design concepls
lr---------------------,
• b~~CikS$lC
.a sawdtrSt
j• • pol ySI)'I'C':IIC:
!
~·
.!! }
t+; + + +
"
e
.2
~
+
.¡.
j, .¡. +
• • Figun: 7.8. 1'hc dY«:t of ndditive oon 4
1!--"::--'!:"-':':'-~-~-~--:':--! ecntr.ll.ion on die VOD and deiOnatk>n

O 10 20 30 40 SO 60 10 80 prcs.1Uft afB:lSII$-IIle. polystyrcnc: and Sl"'
4
Addh..lvt (% ~umc} ct...•u .systans. Wilsc~n & Ma:«m. 1988.
- Sawdust and bagasse can be easily mixed witb ANFO in a bowl truck to produce a
homogcocous mixture, PolystyrcnclAN!Prorex 2.5 mixtures should aJso be able ro be form-
ed in this manner.
- Sawdust/ANFO, polystyrene/AN/Prorex 25 and baga.<.<e!ANFO mixtures aH havc
lower detonation pre:ssures than ANFO. Thc magnitude of the dctonation prcssurc ofthe
mixture can be controlled by the proponions of additive used in its preparation ruaking it
possible to more closcly match the explosive to lhc material in which it is bcing used.
- Sawdust/ANFO, polystyrene/AN/Prorex 25 and bagasse/A.NFO mixtures do not ses-
regate when loaded into a borchole.
Thc field lrials indjeated that low dcnsily explos-ives can lead 10 $Ígnifrcant cost sav-
ings without compromising tfagmenratioo or produc:lion.
7.5 WATERGELSISLURRIES
ANFO wao; first intruduced to the mining c('lmmun_hy in 19SS. Duc to its low cost, rcla-
tively high wcight strcngth and good handling properties, it met with nearly immediate
acc:t.-ptance and suoces.o;. h had certain drawbacks. howcvcr
- No water rcsistancc.
- Low density,
- low cncrgy rangc.
which mcant that it was not suited for all applications. In 1958, Melvin A. Cook, then at
the University of Utah, published hi.o; now clas.o;ic book The Science of High Explosivcs
(Cook, 1958). In it, he reporte<! the development of water-compatible bulk explosives
(slurry explosivcs) and thcir use for underwatcr blasting at thc Knob Lake operation of
1he l.ron Ore C<>mpany ofCanada. His original slurries consiste<! of AN-TNT-H20.
Prior to discussing slurries in delail~ it is oonsidered wonh"·hile to examine some of
the basic reactions involved. The reac:tion describing the dctonation of a dry mixture
consisting of only AN and TNT is:
Bu/k blosling ogen1s 175
21NH.NO¡ + 2C6 H2CH3 (N02)¡ --)

47H20 + 14C02 + 24N 2 + 1010 kcallkg (7.5)
Thc hcat of cxplosion (Q) for this mixture with a weight ratio of78.7/21.3 is 1010 kcaV
kg. Appropriatc values for other ratios ofthis dry mix as publishcd by Cook (1958) are:
AN/TNT: 50150
density = 1.0 gm/cm3
Q = 870 kcallkg
explosion pressure =32 kbars
AN/TNT: 76.5123.5
density = 1.0 gm/cm'
Q = 975 kcallkg
explosion pressure = 31 kbars
Since water is one of the products of thc explosion {as indicated in Equation 7.5) it was
perhaps logical to consider the e!Tect of adding water to the reactants (left) side of the
equation. The result would be a watcr-bastd AN- TNT explosive. By accomplishing this,
Cook { l9S8) obtaincd much hígher densities and explosion pressures but somcwhat lower
heats of explosion as compared to thc ANITNT mixtures without water. Two examples by
Cook ( 1958) are given below:
AN!TNTIH 20 : 40/40120
deo.<ity • 1.41 grnlcm'
Q = 71 O kcaVkg
explosion pressurc = 50 kbars
AN!TNTIH 20: 65/20115
dcnsity = 1.40 grn!cm'
Q = 760 kcal!kg
explosinn pressure m 59 kbars
These values sbould be comparcd to that for ANFO as publishtd by Cook (1974) and
Sudwc:cks ( 1985):
3NH4 N03 + CH2 -+ C02 + 7H 20 + 3N 2 + 885 kcallkg (7.6)
The value ofQ given in Equation (7.6)
Q = 885 kcallkg
is diiTerent from that prcscntcd in Equation (7.1)
Q c 912 kcallkg
This provides just one concn.1c cxamplc of thc varicty of values found in the literature for
the amount of energy releastd when standard ANFO (94/6) detonates. Although Q is rela-
tively independent of density, thc cxplosion pressure is density dependenl For a density of
p ~ 0.8 glcml
which is typical for bulk-pourcd ANFO, the e.plosion pressure is appmximatcly (Cook.
19?4)
P, = 19.4 kbars
176 Blasting principies fiu open pit mining: General deJ'ign concepts
Hc."Dcc, thesc early slurrics had densities and explosion pressurcs which wcrc highcr than
ANFO but hcats of explosion which wcrc lowcr. Duc to thc dcnsity and weight strength
combination, the bulk strengths of these slurries werc higher than for ANFO. In ovcr·
coming the drawbacks aW'>Ciated with ANFO as presented in lhe inlrOduct:ion to lhis sec-
tion, these slurries offercd exciting application possibilities to, not the least, hard rock
blasting undcr wel conditions. Based upon this invention, a new explosives company was
formed. Originally called the lntermountain Research and Engincering Company thc
name was later changed to h•e co Chemicals.
These early slunies were not fonned by a simple mixing of AN. TNT (or sorne othcr
fuel) and water, stirring. and then pouring the resulting mixt ure into the hole. Rather it in-
volved (Sudwecks. 1985)
- Pro-dissolving thc ammonium nitralc in a smaU ammmt ofwater
- Thic.kening the solution with a guar gum or starch
- Adding fue! components as soluble or finely divided insoluble materials (solid 1)
- Adding dry oxidizers to reduce the overall water content (salid 2)
- (Optionally) cross-linking the gum ttiickeners to produce a gclled product
The presen~ of the solids (salid 1 and sol id 2) as well as the am_monium nitrate crystals
thal precipitatcd upon cooling of thc fonnulation lead to thc general designation of 'slur·
ries' for lhese composite blasting agents/explosives. Oue to the water used lO dissolve the
salts and suspcnd thc insolubles and the 'gell-like' nature of thc rcsulting prnduc~ they
have also heen gjven the name •water gels'. Although sorne resen·e lhe te-rm 'water gel'
for products which have been cross.Jinked to a semi.solid~ jelly-llke consistency and the
tenn 'slurry' for more fluid products (Dick, 1972), they are often osed interchangeably.
Such will be lhe case in this scction. Slurrics, which, as indicated. entered the blasting
scene in lhe late 1950s. can be either blasting agents or explosives depending on the in-
grcdicnto; uscd and the degrcc of ca~scn.sitivity.
Although it sccms that water is an unlikcly constitucnt for an explosive, a certain
amount is necessary lO provide lbe requi.red eonsislcncy and tcxture of a watcrgcl. lf more
water than that required. for suitable conslstency is used. the weight strenglh is decreased.
On the Olher hand. if too little water is used. the liquid phase is insufficicnt and the re·
sulting high viscosity hinders pumping. The water content also ser..,es to reduce hazard
scnsitivity associated wilh frre, ftktion and impact. The water content rangcs from 5 to 40
p<TCent by weig)lt with the average being 1S pcrcent (Dick, 1972}.
Because thc commonly used oxidizc~ ammonium nitratc and sodium nitrate are solu·
blc, thc water rcsistancc of a water gel dcpends on its physical state. Although Slatehes
wcrc u.scd to thickcn sorne of thc carlicr slunies, guar gum (polysacchride) is commonly
used today. The thickened slurry is gdled with a cross-línking agent to sct up an impenetra-
ble barricr whicb prcvents lcaching of the soluble salts by water permeating through lhe
borcholc. Modcm gclling and cross-linking tcchnology makcs it possiblc to produce these
slurries in any desired consistency. ti-om a ti-ee flowing liq-uid lO a coh~ i ve gell.
Slurries can be divided into threc categories (Dick, 1972):
l . Those containing high-cxpfosi't'e fuel sensitizers.
2. Tbose containing mctallic 1\u:l-scnsitizcrs.
3. Thosc containing none ofthcsc high-cncrgy-typc ingrcdicnts.
Whereas the tlrst generation of slunies had to be scnsitizcd with molecular cxplosive ad 4
diüves suc.h as TNT or with smokeles.s powde.r tO make them detonablt, laler reünements
Bu/k blasting agents 177
in fonnulation and manufacturing tcchniqucs havc allowed scnsitization with organic salts
likc amine nitratcs and perchlorates or very finely divided paint•grade alu.minum. Today,
most fonnulations are sensitized using only mechanically or chemically generated small
air or gas bubbles (Sudweeks, 1985).
The presence of air bubbles or void space is neces.ury for eflicienl detonation as well
as for appropriate detcnnination of scnsitivity lcvcl, dctonation \'Ciocity, and thc critica!
diameler (the smallcst diameter in which dctonation will propagate). Two types of ingre-
dients, aerating ageniS and gas fonners, can be used. Physical agitation will also aerate a
sturry. In using gas fonners. care must be taken that the system remains stable.
Onc of thc mechanisms by which il is believed that sensiaization by air bubbles occurs
is that ofhot,spot fonnation as illuslnlted in Figurt 7.9. When the vcry high p=urt shock
wave tfom the initiator cap or booster passes imo the slurry charge. it compresses the ai.r
bubbles. This oompression occurs so rapidly that the volume change is essentiaJiy adia-
batic and thc gas in thc bubblc hcats up to a vcry high tcmpcraturc. As this hcat is dissi-
patcd to thc surroundjng material, cxplosivc dccomposition occurs. This process is fast
enough so lhat the release of energy contributes to lhe propagation of the shock wave
through thc cntiro column of explosivo (Sudwceks, 1985).
Slurry ingredieniS can be selected as desirtd to vary the energy, sensitivity, oxygen ba·
lance, rheology, and the stability ofthe finru product. lt is possible to adjust the fume and
dctonalion characteristícs and the pbysical propcnies to meet specific requiremeots of
varying applications. Tablcs 7.4 and 7.S list sorne ofingrediems uscd in a sluny fonnula-
tion. Table 7.6 pn:sents represcnlalivt fonnulations for two slurric:s. In Table 7.7 tbe deto-
nation parameters for five lypicaJ slurries are give.n. Tbe energy and ga~ volume vaJues
have been calculated (Sudweeks, 1985) assuming the formation of the highest energy
products. Thc relativo wcight and bulk strtngths art detcrmined with rcspect to ANFO (Q =
885 kcal/kg, dcnsity = 0.82 glcm') on thc basis of thc thcoretical cncrgy. By varying thc
type and the quantity of fuel (and especially the aluminum powder), water gels can he
tailored to exhibit a widc rangc ofwcíght and bulk strcngths (fig. 7. 10). Variations in den·
sity affect the weight strength and the VOD as shown in Figure 7.11. The VOD increases
r"'""''';,"Rcact.ion
o.. "'"'.""
Ccn«m
Figure 7.9. Dia¡tammatic rtp~tion of

1hc: 5e:nsitilacion mcchaoism in Wlllc:r¡eb.
Suctwecks, 1985.
178 Bla.sting principies féJr open pil mining: General design concepts
T3blc 7.4. Sluny ingrnliellts (Sudwc:ek.s., 1985).
l. Oxidizc:rs
atM\Oilium nitnte
sodium nitrak'
caldumni~
sodium perd1lorat~
2. Soluble fuds
dhykae glyeol
mcth)'l alcohol
"'"'
alkytamincs
) . Insoluble fuels
pan:iculatc alurninum
COIII dust
clw<>ool
suJfur powder
f~KI oil
4. Th.id:.cncrs
suarsum
"""h
synthetic wlller·solubk polymers
Tabk ? .S. Some ingrcdknts c&aimcd to haYc becn uscd in slurrics (Robinson, 1969 3lld Oick, 1972).
l. Fuef-scru¡tittn
Exp/&1\-oe NlJfi·Üplmh~
Tl<f A.lumlnum
PUN Su¡ar
ROX u...
Pcntolile Fctt'OSilicon
Compu5hion B F12rnpf~Mphorol.ll
Guanideinc nilr:at.e Wood pulp
Oinittololuene
Hcxamine
l!;thykoe glyt<ll
Smokelcss powdcr Fud oil
Nitrostardl Patafin
Alk.)'bm.lne nhnucs Coal
c......
Nitromanoite Sulfw
Gilsonitc
Lignosulpbollltes
Pbttt fibct9 and ml-als
(il)>tctin
2. (h:tdizers
A.mmonium nitr;Jte
Sodiutn aitf'tlk
Nitricadd
3. Cross.-linldng agct1ts
Boron compound$
PoU~SSium dic:hroma1e
Antimooy ~potmds
Bismuth eompoonds
Pcriodatcs
L.itllllrge
Bu/k hlasting agents 179
l'able 7.5. Cominucd.
4. Gelling agents
Guar gum (polysattbaridc)
Slon;h
Acrylamide polymcrs
5. Oti rormc:rs
P«oxldcs
Acctone and creosote
Sodiool and pola$$lum nilr.rcc
Sodtum bia~t.e
6. Acmling agC'flts
fibrous pulps ~ rne~~ols
Vcrmic::ulite
Resin mkrotlaJioons
~lite
Gtus miaobraUoons
c...
lngredicnt Sluny 1 Sluny :Z

Ammonlum nittaU! 53.1 S7.<f
Sodh.wn nilnlt.: ......
w.... 15.8 14.4
Thick~rs 0.4 o.s
l,:lhyten~: ¡ l ycol o.•
Fue! oil s.o
Sulrur 2.0
GiiJO<\ile (as¡lluoll) ).6
Ahninum 7.0
Ory prills 24.8
Ttaoc ingt'Mients 0 .9 0 .3
100.0 100.0
Tabtc 7,7. Typical sluny propc:nics lSOO<Auks, 1985).
Ptope:rty Sluny
dcn11ity" (¡m/em) )
1
1. 10
2
1. 12
l
l. l5
•1. 17
S
1.21
cner¡p- (atV¡m) 680 764 SJO 940 ll45
wt srn:rtgthb OJI:l 0.91 1.00 1.12 1.34
gas vol ( mol.lkg) 4S 44 41 40 )7
JIQI:F (mfs) 4000 toe all mixcs
f'QI)(fVsec) IJI.ZOfonll mixC$
•: avc:r:agc bofco:ho~ defiSity
b: ANFO • 1 a t dl."flliÍ1Y 0 ,82 gmtcml
e: 6-ln. dillmeter .:11 s·c.
wilh dcn>ily up 10 a certain crilical densily beyond which thc VOD falls rapidly. 1ñe
weight strength is approximately constant up to this critica! dcnsity (Sudwecks., l98S).
Likc ANFO, s lurries can be used in severa! fonns. 1ñey can be (a) delivered as sepa-
ralo producls and mixcd allhc s ilc, (b) dclivcred prcmixcd for bulk loading, (e) packaged
180 8/aslíng principies for open pil mining: General design concepls
200
180
120
20 30
Alum.lnum Con1en1 (%)
Figure 7. 10. Variatioo of strc:ngd!. of u. typieal w:atervcl bl ~ing ;t,gtnt wilh u.luminum f;Ontcnt { H 1gan & Mcn:er,
198J).
Fl8ure 7.11 . VariatJon of 1'00 and weight stn:ngth of a typkal w;ater&oel blasting agc:at with deBSit)· (Hagan &
Mcrcc:r, 1983).
/ Copyrighted material
Bulk bla.sting age111s 181
in polycthylcnc for hand loading, or (d) c:artridgcd. In bulk loadi113, trucks bring cither
separate ingrcdients or the mixed product directly to tbe borehole. A n10bile plant for
mixing and pumping water gel explosive:s is shown in Figure 7. 12. As indicated. water·
gels begin as high temperature, satuntted aqueous (water-based) solutions of AN (somc-
timcs with sodium nitralc). At the central distribution facility, thesc: solutions are loaded
into the insulated •oxidizer solution tank'. Mix trucks are equipped to cany (Hagan &
Mercer, 1983):
l . A hot oxidittr solution thickened by gums
2. Dry porous prilled AN (optional)
3. Ory powdeml fuels ancl/or a liquid fuel
4. A c-ros.~linking solution., and
S. A ga~ing solution
The use of the high tcmpcraaurc solution rcsults in highcr tluidities and lower pumping
pressures. Atthe hole, fueJs, sensitizers and sometimes more AN prill~ are added. The fu·
els used in watergels includc alwninum powder and fuel oil. 'fhese ingredicnts are me·
tered by pumps and augers into thc truck' s mixing chamber from where the composition
nows into a surge funnel and is then pumpcd through thc charging bose into the blaslhole.
By varying thc type and quantity ofthc fud (especially aluminum powder), water ge L~ can
be tailored to exhibit a wide range of weight and bulk strengths. As it is pumpcd bubbles
of air andlor gas are added by aeration or by injecting a very small amount of a gassing
solution. Addition of the bubbles is vcry importaol for dcnsity control or 1hc watcrgcl. lf
thc dcnsity is too high, thc bouoms of dccp column chargcs can ' dcad prcss' duc to thc
collapse of lhc bubblcs. Undcr such condilions, cvcn the most powerful primcrs wiH not
initiatc the cotumn. lf, on the olhcr hand, the density is too low, the watergel wilt Ooat in
water filled blastholcs. Thc liquid phasc is thickencd with gums and tht."ll gclled wíth
c.ross-linking agents. Thiek.ening and cross-Jinkiog commc"ce as soon a~ the watergel i.s
mixed so that it is highly viscous by the time it leavcs the loading hose. The cros.c;.Jinking
agents are uscd to
- Keep the solids in suspe:nsion,
- Provide a satisfactory degree of cohesiveness,
- Maximizc water rcsistancc.
final thic.kcning to a highly watcrproof gel takcs place within a fc·w minutes of cntcring
the blasthole. When complctely gclled, watcrgcls havo a rubbery, porridgc-likc consis·
tency.
Thc mix·pump truc:ks uscd for dclivcring watcrgcls dircctly to thc holc are highly ver·
satile. Varying compositions or explosives, for example a hig.h..strcngth bonom charge
followcd without interruption by a lower strength column charge, can be pumped into the
borcholc. Trucks of2.S to 12 ton capacity are equipped to discharge cwo or more compo.
sitions t\1 rates up to 350 kglnünutc. 1ñc ingredicnts are mctcrcd by pumps and augcrs
into the trucks mixing funnd. From here they are pumped through a long. nexible rubbcr
hose (38 mm ID, 50 m long) to thc holc.
Sorne points (Dick, 1972) which should be kcpt in mind rcgarding slurrics are:
l. Close control over ingredient mixing is imponnnt
2. Adequate charge diame.ter and adequatc: priming are es.scntial. Thc placemcnt of
booste"' up the borehole may be beneficia!.
J. Cap sc:nsitive slurries do not rcquirc primcrs.
I'ARr VIJ.;W;-K,tt ,S.. ())ll~Y
AN el PREMIX 1!()Pf'¡¡R
~
FIW.IIATCIU!S OXI.Dil[R SOliJTION I'Nf.UMA,"I(; A(.."'.UA'ruR
f ( * } WA.Y VA I.VJ:!
OXIDIZERSOUtriOS ~ F'UEt.OH. TANK.S T¡\NK ~ LOCATF!O INSitw.TAN K
"'
(1'1\0CiiSSl
,............
"""" ........
:-..
~ .~...~
OXll>tlJ-:R
sot..UTION PUMP
-
ir
~·
:
!
'·...... . lf
;··.• ·
·-.:-.
'l
'·;>,. ~.
. , ..
¡·'
·:.-.
.~ .
'
1 OXII)I:tJ::R
SOI.Ul'ION UNP.
TOMIXER ~
~-
-¡¡·
'• ·. l
...P•~.;··:.u.~··
,., . ...J -
TO Flrll. OU, PU~CP
a
AA'I'1Ht't'~
I.SOC .A'UON
swrrt'll
·~
__ .. • MIXER
""~
~
"...3
Cllt:MICAI. A0DI1lVt;.<;
Re:5ERVIOftS
~~-1/.J - - - t'ONTROl PANEL
s·
s·
~~- - H Y(lRAUI ,t(;(;QN"rROt$ ~·
~
f Uf.l. OU. l>tl~t• >"""'
ROTAMETER PANEL
l
AUIU-!It St":RiiW
VARIAIV.H SPt!l~l) OltiVtf: TYrt;
P.OXT:Jl
V.~\TER(lEL HOM'ER
...~
~
~
¡¡
I IOSE Rl!l!.t. ASSEMBl.Y/
·-··ro IIOSR RUI. -g
t FROM WA'rE:RGEI. P\IMP
oo Fi&Urc 7. 12. A t)'pical pump truck ror the loading or- -at.ervel exploslver. (Htgan A Mercu, 1983).
'O
'<
~
<O'
::r
~
3
*"'
"'·
Bu/k blostíng ogents 183
4. Loading equipmcnt should be designed to avoid metal·to-metal contact even when

pwnping or mixing thc most inscnsitivc slurrics.
S. Acid or other reactive ingredients in slunies may cause dangerous reactions in sorne
rocks.
6. Nox_ious fumes may result from insufficient detonation, e\•en in oxygen-balan<:cd
mixtures.
7. A low air-gap sensitivity m.akes sorne cartridged slurries suscept:ible to misfires cau-
sed by separation of charges.
8. The scnsitivity of sorne slurries is seriously impaired by low temperalures.
9. Sorne acrated slurries reportedly havc an increased sensitivity at high altitudC$.
7.6 EMULSIONS
An emuhlon ls defined asan inti_mate mixture of N.·o liquids that do not dissolve in each
other. Expresscd in more technical tcrms, an cmuJsion is describcd as a two-phasc systcm
in which an inner or dispersed phase is distributed in an outer or continuous phase. Some
cXlllllples of cmulsions found in cvcryday lifc (Hopler, 1991) are:
Atpbalt cltlwway sealer Matgarine

f loor polisñ Cokl CI'C8m
l.akx paints Hydraulic flukls
Mayonnai# Println¡ lnts
'" c:ream Uuttcr
Milk Shoc pol.ish
C~.~tting oib
The materials in hoth columns consist ofvery small droplets of one material cnclosed in a
con_tinuous matrix of another mateñal. Close study of the items in the two lists reveaJs that
those matcrials in the lcft column dissolve in water, whercas those in the right are com·
pletely insoluble in water. For the 'water-in-oil' emulsions, a t.hin film of oil surrounds
each microscopic droplet of water or solution, thus protecting the water or solution from
externa! water.
lntcrest in explosivc emuJsions began in the early 1960s (Sudweeks, 1985). In this ap-
plication, the ox.idi.zer salt solution (nonnally ammonium nitrare (AN) plus sodium nitrates
and/or calcium nitrates in water) is suspended in the oil phase.
Ovcr thc ycars, ahhougb oxidizers and fuels have maintained a fairly constant chemis-
uy, the physical form of these chernicals has changed drastically (Anonymous, 1985).
Thcrc has bccn a progressivc n:duction in particle sizc from solids. to salt solutions plus
solids, to tbe micro-dmplets of an emul~ion explosive. The importance of particle size lies
in tbe increa~ in the rate and efflciency of reactions as the proximity of one unit or oxi-
diter co one unit of fuel becomes more íntimate. Tablc 7.8 summarizes these statements in
cbronological ordcr.
This progression through the ycars as described by Anonymous ( 1985), is hoth intcr-
esling and informative and is included in abbreviated fonn here. ln modem dynamhcs. thc
n.itrate salts are usually blends of grains and prills. The liquid sc:nsíti1.er. which abo func-
tions as a fucl, coats the grains and penetrates into lhe pares of the pñlls. An inti_mate
184 Bla.ding principle:r ji1r open pil minlng: General de..,.lgn concepts
proximity cxists only at thc liquid~solid and solid-solid contacts. The proximity of lhe
oxidiz« and fuel decreases rapidly away from lhose bouodarics. While dynamitc:s providc
a high level of sensitivity and peñonnance, they represent relatively crude mixtures and
low..:fficieney reactions. ANFO represents a v«y simple forro of oxídi7.er/fuel combina·
tion. The porous ammonium nitrate prill absorbs the liquid hydrocarbon fuel and no other
chcmical scnsitizer is rcquircd. The relationship is stiH thal of a surfaccooeoa1ed panicte.
The intimacy decrcases away from the contact boundary to produce an improved but less
than ideal rcaction efficicncy. Slurry cxplosivcs wcrc thc 6rst to utiliz.c nitrate salts in
water solution forro. This improved the accessíbilüy of the oxidizer to thc fucl, particu-
larty when liquid sensitizer-fuels werc used. The use of thickeners and gelling agents to
stabiliz.c thc Ouid phasc prcventcd segrcgation of solid ingrcdicnts and providcd water re-
sistance. Sinee much of' the oxidi:7.er is stil.l in solid forro. the slurry formulations are con-
sidercd as a compromisc. ln the cmulsion cxplosives both the oxidizer and the fuels are
liquids. Ralher !han being dry prills, che emulsion oxidiur is a higbly conceocraled sol u·
tion of ammonium nitratc andlor otbcr salts. By thc use of cmulsificrs and precise proc-
essing mcthods,. the 'particlc sizc' of droplcts of this solution 11m bc.."Cn rcduccd to micro-
scopic proportions. Surrounding cach microscopic droplet is a film of oil. The result is
still a 'mixture• of fud and oxidizer similar tO black powder. dynamite and ANFO but thc
particle sb'..e comes as close as possible to mimicking the intimacy of combination found
in molecular cxplosives suc:h as NG or TNT. Typical crnulsion oxidizer droplets (or ce11s)
surroUI1ded by a near molecular thickness of oil, have a diameter of from about 2 to
1Omicrons. The proximity of units of cach has bcgun to approach molecular proponions.
Thc charactcñstic sizcs ofthc oxidizcrs in thc diffcrcnt cxplosivcs are shown in Table 7.9.
As can be seen.. the velocity of detonation which is a good i.ndicalOr of reaction efficiency
is vcry depcndetlt on thc particle sizc.
Tablc 1.8. Physic:al form and ce:acgory oflhe ~ oomponcnt:5 in clCplosi\--es (Anonymous. 1985).
E.l:~ivc Oxidizer f~~el Scnsitizcr

t)ynamhc SOUO SOI.ID I. IQUIO
nitratc salts ...,.¡, nitroglyceñnc
voidslbubblocslfñction
ANFO SOUD '"'"""''"
UQUID
nltrMc salll dleset Cloil v<Hdslfriaion
Sluny SOtii)JLIQUIO SOUOII-1QUI(> SOl.IO/ t.JQt}IO
$ah solutions uluminum TN·r, tille ~luminum
nitracc sahs c:arboJUtc:C::OU!l bubbles
l~mutsion ~! QUID U QUID
sah ~lution oiJs, wa.'\es bubbles
Tabk 7.9. ChatKtcristic siln o r oxidittrs (Anon)'mous, 1985 ).
EX"piO!Iivc: Siu(mm) Form voo (k,..,..,)

ANFO 2.000 All sol id 3.2
Oynami1c 0.200 All soli.d 4.0
SluiT)' 0.200 Solidlliqukl ) .)
Emubcion 0.001 l iquid 5.0-6.0
Bu/k blasting agems 185
f i¡ un: 7.13. Suuc~ ora typical ~mulsion

(Xplosh·e as viewcd usin.¡ an elecuon m~m
$00pe. Magttilkatioo • IO.()C)Qx (Anonymoos..
1985).
Figure 7, 14, Suucturc <Ir a typk:ál cmulsion

c:xplosivc as viC"-ed usln¡s 11n dedT(IC'I micto-
~- Magnilic:ation • SO,OOOx (Anon.ymous.
19851
Mediurn lnscmal Phasc High lntcmal Phasc

Oispeñed Phase
..
~~ Conlinoo~D Pflme
f'iguft 1.1S. Cross sccc5ons through 1 oonc:cntru~ emulsion (Sudwcek$,. 1985).
The strucrure of a l)'pical emulsion explosivo is exemplificd in !he Figures 7. 13 and 7.14.
In Figure 7.13, an electron microscopc vicw at 10,000 x magnification. shows tha1lhe solu-
tion droplets are packcd togdher so nghtly lhal thc convencional representalion of lhem as
spheres is nc.>t uue. l.il<.c balloon.s f()I'QC(f into a box c:ach droptet assumes a polyhedraJ shape.
Figure 7.14, an elcctron microscopio view at50,000 x magnification, shows each polyhedral
droplet coa1ed with only a film of continuous 1\Jel plulse in !he ordc:r of millionlhs of a mil·
lime1cr lhick. Figure 7.15 shows stylizcd drawings of eross sections of emulsions wilh me.
dium and high (ligh1 packing) in~emal phase ratios for comparison. From Ibis it is casy to"""
how a relalively high viscosity can be obtaincd jUSI by !he naiUI'e of che sys1em wilhout lhe
necd of addcd lhiekeners. The inherenl viscosity of lhese emulsion sys1ems ranges from a
low of 10,000 to 20,000 el' up to 1,000,000 cP or mon: dcpendiog on lhe 1ype of fuel phase
Copyngilted rJai nal

186 8/ostlng principies for open pit mlning: Genero/ design concepts
used. Because of oxygen balance constraints, a large amount of oxidizcr saJt solution is
needed to react with a rclarively small amount of oil fuel. On a volumetric basis, this requires
approximal<:ly a 90/10 rntio of aqueous phase lo fue! pbasc (Sudwec:ks, 1985).
The maín sensítízatíon of emulsíon slurries ís províded by the intimacy bctwecn fue!
and oxidizer achieved when the oxidizf1' solution is dispersed into very small droplets.
Evcn with thc grcatly incrcascd fueUoxidizcr intimacy, cmulsions need to be addition·
ally sensitized by the presence of small air bubbles, just as IU)ueous sluny explosivos do.
Without the cross-Hnked gel network of aqueous slurries, however. emulsions do not hold
air bubbles as wcll. Therefore sen.sitization and density control are usually provided by
adding. very small glass microballoons. These hollow g.lass sphert$ mnge in diarneter from
30 to about 150 microns, with an average diamctcr of 60-70 microns. Although small,
these bubblcs are still signiJlcantly larger than thc dispersed droplcts of an emulsion ex·
plosive. This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 7.16 with emulsion on the lef\ anda
microballoon on the righl (Sudweeks, 1985).
Emulsion explosives can be tailorcd to exhibit a wide nmgc of charactcristics. Two
general examples of emulsion fomtulations are shown in Table 7.1O. Various types of oils
andlor·waxcs (Table 7.11) can be used in lhc 1\Jcl phase lo adjust thc fluidity ofthc prod-
ucl from that ora pournble or pumpable consisu:ncy 10 that of a finn, but moldable so lid.
Emulsion Droplcts Ol:as.s Mic:roblltloon
Fí¡ure 7.16. Siu eomparisoo ofc:mulsion dtop)ets and a singk glass mic:roballooo (Sudwceks. 1985).
Tabk 7.1 O. General c:mulsloa (OtTOOiations - pc:rcc:nt by w~igh1 (Sudwc:ek.s. 198S).
lngrc:dic:na Emulsion 1 Emub:ion 2

Ammonium nitr'lte 78.0 70.7
Sodium niuate 10.7
w..., I).S 7.)
Emulsificr I.S 0.8
Oil and~"U S.S }.1
Aluminum s.o
M icroballoons l. S 2.4
Total 100.0 100.0
Oxygcn balanoe - 1.4 0.7
811/k blosring ogents 187
Tabk: 7.11. Producl coftSistencics wilh common oil.s and waxo (AnonymoiJ$, 1985).
Fuel u...
l. Fucl oJI cold repumpable; small tt.> intctmedi-
•c dilmc:tCf hoks; HANFO
2. Paralin oil dün, pwnpablc when bot large diamct.cr bulk; slurnpablc; in-
tmMdiau: lO latge djlltlldtt pac:k.
O&<'
3. Panfin oil dlid:, ¡¡oft. SÜCk)' smau diamctcr plasaic cartridgcs;
and panlin wax """"""'>' bllsting .,.ru
4. Crude "''ax~ sdck)', poUy·like smsU 10 intcnncdlak diamekt po.per
cartridges·tampabk and Slablc
S. Flexible wax smaU diametcr papcr ellltridgcs-
(mk:RK:rys.talline) wnpable
Table 7.12 T)"pical crnubion propcrties (Sudwed:s, 1985).
Pmperty Emub lon
den$;1)" (am'anl¡
1
1.2>
2
1.2S
)
1.2S
•
1.2S '
1.25
enc:rgy (call¡m) 72:2 114 846 96') 1170
W1~~hb 0.86 (). 9} 1.00 1.1) us
ps voL (motltl) u .s 41.7 40.6 38.4 34.8
VOD' (mis) 5200 for aU mUtes
VOD (ftlso::) 17,060 foc all mixcs
a: ' 'Cf23C ~e ckru:it)'
b: ANFO • l at dtnsity0.82 ¡mt.:mJ
e:: 6-in. diamd.er uncantlnf!d 8l s•c.
In comparison with aqueoJJS-bascd slurries, thc increascd intimacy between fuel and
oxidizer in emulsions is believed responsible for their enhanecd dctonation properties
listcd in Table 7.12. Emulsion detonation vclocities tend to be in the 5000 to 6000 mlsec
rangc with detonation pressures from 100 to 120 kbar. The densities with microballoons
(1.1 to 1.4 glcm') also tends to be hígher than thc gasscd dcnsitics of aquc:ous slurries so
that the bulk strengths are higher. Tbe aluminum content can also be varied to produce an
cncrgy series justas was done with the slurrics (Sudwccks, 1985).
As opposed lO water gels. this mixing of emuls1ons does not take place in a mix-pump
ttuck but rathcr al a central manufacturing plant locatcd in thc vic:inity of the mine. Thcrc
are two approaches being u.'led to produce stable emulsions.
l. The chemical approaclt is based upon the use of emulsifiers for fonning and stabi-
lizing thc cmulsion. Mixing is done with a rclatively low shear (energy) mixer.
2. The mec.hanical approach uses a h_igh sbear (energy) mixer with less use of cmulsi-
fying agents.
Tbe advantages of high sbear mixers are that both capital and ingredient costs tcnd to
be lcss. On the other hand, it has been generally observed that chemical stabili7.ation is
superior to mechanical stabilization and lower cnergy mixing is of inherc:ntly highcr
safety.
Heated sources of aqueous phase. oil phase and emulsifters - stabilizets are required
for all productS. Tbe mix tempcraturc is of thc order of so•c. In thc manufacture of pack-
Hidden page
Bu/k blasting age.nls 189
Figure 7. 17. Wilh heavy

ANFO tlle air space$
bc:twecn thc prilts a~
lillcd with cmulsion
( Atlas Powdct Company
Ordi~· ANFO Hcavy ANFO 19117\.
dense and more water rcsistant than ANFO wilh relati\'e ly little added cost. The principie
bchin<l Hcavy ANFO (HANFO) is to filllhe volume be!Ween the prills with cmulsion. Thc
basic idea is shown diagrammatieally in Figure 7. 17. The water resislal1ce and/or the den·
sily ofthe mix can be tailored by changing thc cmulsion lcvel.
The production of HANFO in volves two separate technologics.
l. Production of the matrix cmuJsion
2. Mixing and loading oflhe final producL
The produetion of the matrix emulsion was the subject of the previous scction. In this
section the focus wiU be on the: mixinglloading of the final product and lhe propcrtics of
!he rcsulling HANFO. There are IWO varialions oflhe basic HANFO lruck.
Alternative J. A ooncrete mixer such ao; shown in Figure 7.8 is used. Thc HA.NFO is batch
mixed and chute loaded into !he hole. This has !he advanlage of delivering a unifonn prod-
uct al a very high ratc. The disadvanlllge is bcing able 10 load only a single product at a time.
Alternative 2. A lruck-mounted HANFO plant (sce Fig. 7.18) consisting ofan AN bin. an
cmulsion bin, an aJuminum bin. and a fuel oil tank. This one truck can thereby load l. A
completely waterproof product. o r 2. ANFO. or 3. All the variations in between.
Thc sccond altemative will be considercd here. Tbc prcparalion of HANFO is rclalively
simple. The emulsion matrix may be prcparcd at a tixed plan4 and lranSported by tank
truck for on·site storagc in the tanker, o r by pump tra.nsfer to fixed tanks. Since it is non·
explosive: this greatly reduces transportation and storage limitations. Thc ANFO is dcliv·
ered to the site by a standard bulk ANFO mix truck. An emulsion matrix tank is added to
a staodard ANFO lruck plus a pump and piping 10 inject the matrix into the delivery
auger. This mixing of the ANFO and matrix takes place after combining the AN with the
190 Blastlng principiesfi>r open pit mining: General de..vign concepts
fuel oil. The matrix pumplng rate detennines the ratio of the blend in a constant speed
augcr. lt has beco found that cven a relativcly short length of auger providcs good mixing,
The product is then dropped into the hole. When it is being allj!ered into the hole, HANFO
looks very much likc wet ANFO. At low matrix levels, the prills are coated but remain
free Dowing. Even at fairly high matrix levcls. tht· coating is fairly thin. Sincc tbc average
prill is 2 mm to 3 mm in diameter, even at 25% to 300/e matrix, 1he ooaling is only about
0. 1 mm thick. Depending upon tbe AN prill type and tbe matrix density, all spaces be-
tween prills will be filled in the 35% to 400/o matrix range. Since sorne emulsion is al)..
sorbed into the pores of the priJis. a somewhat higher matrix level than this is required to
actually fill all the spaces. With an increase in the emulsion level tbe prills are fo~
apan. Ahove about 55%, the volume of the matrix phase is grearer tban tbar of the AN
prills. Hencc instcad of HANFO one is now osing an ANFO 'doped' emulsion. With high
emulsion nuios one must considcr whether tbc air volumc in thc prills providcs sufticicnt
sensitization. Often additional sensitivity must be added. The matrix level, as seen in Ta·
blc 7 .13, has a profound eiTect on densíty, rclative bulk stn:ngth (RBS), scnsilivity as
measured hy the criticai diameter). cohesivencss: aod water resistance. (Evaos & Taylor,
1987)
The proper sclection (Van Onnmeren, 1992) of the blend ratio depends on several
factors, includjng
o
Tablc 7. 13. Thc dfecl ofi:NIUix ICV"CI on tbe physicaJ pcop:rticsofhcavy ANFO(Evans &. Taylor_, 1987). 'Thc
cmulsiM i.s c:onsidctc:d to llave a reJ:uive wtjght stml&th (RWS) of80 anda dc:nsity of 1.40 &fc:mJ.
% M:uñx Dtlulty RAS Crilieal Cobdh~ Water Redstane~

byWQaht (&lcm1) [>i~cr (mm)
o 0.84 roo 75
10
21)
0.9l
1.04
107
118
100
12$
"'"'f """"""
ret f'lowing
"'"'""""""
Slight
3'1 LIS 128 12$ Som~at f'a ir
1$0 Cohcsivt
"'<550 1.28
1.3S
IAO
l «l
14S
149
17$
200
Cohcslve
Very Cuflc$\'C
C.ood
Vtry (iood
F..):ttllen1
Bu/k blasting agents 191
l.llorehole environment (wet vs dry),

2. Oorehole diarneter.
3. Pumped vs augered product,
4. Necd for •gas cncrgy' versus 'shock cnergy' (bri-sance),
S. Prill quality.
Table 7.14 presents sorne basic guidelincs wbic:h should be followed. II conditions are
wct and sorne dcgree of water resistance is needed. lhen a higher percent emulsion should
be used in thc blcnd. Blcnds ha\ring ao cmulsion content under 30% have little or no wa.
ter resistance. A 50% emulsion btend has good water rcsistancc. A higher pc-rccnt blend
has cxcellent water rcsistance·.
Other factors which affect the water resistance are depth of water. dístance which thc
product travels through water when augered from the collar ofthe hole, and slecp time.
As shown in Tablc 7.1S thc VOD of blends (as mcasured in the borehole) is dependent
on hole diametcr, cmulsion/ANFO ratio and thc typc of cmulsion product uscd (5COSitized
with microballoons versus unsensitized). The theoretical or caleulated energies for variou.~
blends are sbown in Tllble 7.16. As eao be seen, the energy remains relatively consunt for
Tablc 7.14. Guidelinc:s ((Ir th.:% blend In H.(¡\'FO (Van Onntntn:n. 1992).
Bknd (% Emulsioo) Guiddines
UM! only in dty botes w1th dlametcrs of S" 01 grc3kT
Use 111 auJCr ~ystcm for lotding
.....
Holcs lc:ss tflan 9" JShould be d~ortcn:d hc(cm SO% blcnd is augcm! lnto lhc
In. 9~ hoks, j()% bk:nd may be augen.'d from the hole wit:hout de'l'--atc:ring. Care
shoukl be &akt"n to adjust lhe natc of loadifll to pcnnit full scukmc:nt ofthc bknd
lO ptc\'ctlt Cfltra¡ll'nttlt o( \\'ltcr pod.et.s
Uoles lar¡er dlan 9" can be rcadily loadcd throu&fl water (rom lhe top ofhoks at
OIICII af2S() l.n S00 pound1 pe:r mirwtc
Do "'-" pump bknds Wdh lm !han 60% cmul'ton..
Use in mot'C &e'l'c«: COAditions ofhi¡tl hcuds of' Wlter or tkqli~ times which ex·
<=1 , _ doys
Use a pumpina ~m with a retl and hose 1.() pmnit putnping ff'OO) lhc: boctam of
the hole up
70%ormon: Bk:nds wilh a minimum of 70% cmuls~ an: rooommendcd for holcs 3"" to 4" in
diamc:ter
Table 7.1S. The Velodt)· of Oeconation as • Function of the Mil( Ratio and Hole Oiameter for HCI' '>' Al•iFO
(Van Ormmc~. 1992).
ftaato Un:~m:iitiu-d Emuh ion/ANFO Scruitiud E.mulOOWA NFO

(Emulsion..: ANFO) 6-314" 1-718' 9' ). t/2' 6-314" 7-718" 9'
25ns 15900 !6800 17000
)()170 15600 16$00 16200 !6900
J5/6S tSlOO 17700
40/60 14700 tS600 !7200 t6SOO !11000
4'7Sj ! 2900 17500 !9000
5(l!SO tt400 !4000 17500 !8800
ó(l/40 NR NR NK
15125 NR NR NR t7t00
NR ., not recommcndcd
1<n Blasling prim;iples for open pil mining: General design concepls
l 'ablc 7.16. F.nti"J.)· ofbulk cmulsioniANFO blcnd$(Van Onnmcrro. 1992).
Emulsioi\"ANFO Wtight Ratio

2~ns 30170 W60 ~OISO 60/41) 15/25
Sensililed !Zmulsion
dcnsi<y(gm/cm3) 1.15 1.21 1.25 1.30 1.2JI 1.26
AI.\S (<Ollaml 1016 1035 1030 1040 985 925
RBS (ANFO • 100) 138 141) 141) 141 134 125
Unscnsitilcd Emulsion
d«<sity (&mfcm1) 1.16 1.22 1.30 U6
ABS ( <.V&m) 1030 1015 lOSO 109S
RBS (ANFO • 100) 140 145 146 148
T able 7.17. Recom~ priiTift' $ite (Van Omlmeren, 1992).
Bm:holc Diamc:tcr (ins) Primer

2-112 to 3-112 r to2·112"dynamilt•primer, l lbe.5thoo~iler
4~tos· )" d)1\lmhc: primer, llb cast booQc:r
s- to 6". 4" dynlmilc: primer, 3 lb cast primer
6- 114" atld latgct S" d)namite primer, 3 tO S lb ea~ boc»at~' C:()(nbin:wion priml!r
• Only spctlaUy fOI'Tnulatod nmoni.a at:Win dynllmiiCJ ~leS be I.ISIOd u primen.
blends bctwccn 2S toSO%. For blends higher than SO% cmulsion, thcrc is sorne reduction
in lhe calcula!ed energies. Blends using greaoer than 50% unsensitized emulsion are not
rccommended due to lack of sensitivity of the end product (Van Onnmeren, 1992).
Although initiation/priming of bulk explosives is one of lhe topics discussed in sorne
detail in Chapter 8, some of the guiding princ.iples as extracted from Van Onnmeren
(1992) will be included hm:. Thc initiation of cmulsioo/ANFO blcnds (or ANFO) is accom·
plished by applying the detonation pressure developed by primer detonation onto the sur-
face of lhe explosive product. lf the diameter of the primer is the sarne as that of the blasting
agent, then the pressure wave of the primer is applied unifon:nly to lhe entire suñace of
the blasting agent. lf the primer diameter is small in relation to the explosive column
clwge, lhen the area of pressure transler is greatly reduced. l.n addition, the primer mUSI
be of suflicient lenglh to quickly insure development of its steady state velocity. In boreholes
7" in diametcr and above it is not cconomic to use a primer ofhole diameter dimcnsion. h is
reasonable. however. to use a •combination• primer.ln practice. this means using a one to
four pound cast primer in corobination with a bag of high velocity explosive (such as
<lraight ernulsion) which surrounds the primer and matches the hole diameter. The objec-
tive is for the dctonation front to reach fuU dctonation vcloc:ity and prcssurc (> 100 kilo-
bars) in a very short distance when initiated by a small primer. Thc recommended primer
sizcs (Van Ormmcren, 1992} as a fimction ofborchoJc diametcr are givcn in Table 7.17.
Larger primers should be used under severe conditions such as wet boles sleeping for
more Iban one shift, or long drops through water when augering blends into larger holes.
Like most explosives, lhe perfonnance of blends can be adversely affected by deto-
nating cord. According to Van Onnmeren (1992), lhe factors which influence lhe per-
tonnance are types of blend, hole diameter, and detonating cord strength. Although lhe
best guideline is to elirninate tbe use of dctonating cord, if this is not possibl~ then the low·
est strength detonating cord wh.ich is compatible with the initiatinglprimer system should
be used. In no event should lhe detonating cord strenglh exceed those given in Table 7.18.
Bu/k bla.sting agents 193
Table 7.18. Recomme~:~ded maximum &Lren¡lh dctonating aKd (Van Onnmen:n. 1992).
Holc diamdtt (ins) Ma:dmum $1rm¡.tb oord
Under7-718 Oo not use
7-718109 25 grain
10-518 and grntet 40gnin
Thi.~ ability to combine ANFO and emulsion in proportions ranging from 100:0 to
0: 100 at thc-holc offcrs lhc blasting cnginccr thc o pportunity to vary encrgy, sc:nsitivity,
water resistance. density. e1c oearly at will to suit the conditions at hand. The challenge
now is how to best utili1.e thL" powerful tool.

AECI Expklsivcs and Chctnicals Limitcd 1981. The sart"flt!,lh of t:xplosives. &p/ruhou Todo,.. Series 2. No 23,
Man:ll.
AECI E..xplo:\i-ves and (:hemic.b Limllcd 198'2. 'lñ.: 11)(' o( ANF(J in MJrra~c blasting. &p/o.d'-'C!s rfJJoy. Series 2,
No 30, l)cc:cm~.
AECI Explcl$ivcs and Olemita.ls Limilcd l98J. Bulk c.xp1osive system:~. f:.Xp/Q.tiwt$ TodO>'· Serie! l . No Jl (re-
vbcd), lrd Quattcr, Ott.
AECI E.Kp'osivcs .00 Ocm~s Limited 1984. lntroductioo to cxplosives. E.xplruiwu T()({ay. Señes 2. No 35,
1st Q~~~~rtcr.
AECI Explosiva and Otoemkals Limitcd 191t7. The safeo and cff.ck:nt initiation of c~p\o;\i\'CS. Part 1 - Prine1·
pies. Series 2. No 47. Scptcmbe<.
AECI Explosivcs and Chcmia.ls Limitcd 1990. ANFO quality. &plosl\"U Todo,·. Series 3. No 9. Sep1.
AECI Explosiva and Chcmicab Limik'd 1988. Thc hjstoric:al d""lopncnt of comrncttial ccplosivcs. F..xplcr
sllYS Today. Series 3,1)() 1, Sept.
Anun)'ITWIU$ 197$. Progrtnnming Yo11r 81tnt Wilh Guf/F.xpl~i)YI. Outr()il {l¡emk:al Compaoy. 47pp.
AllOO)'moos.. l!xplosive selec:tion <;riteria. Explosiw.t &gil,u.ri~tg. Exc((Jl(cd rrom USBM IC 8925. pp. L1).21.
Anonymous 1976. Puuled about pñmc::n for tacg~iametc:r AN:FO chargcs? Hm:'s some help 10 md the rn~
k<)'. Coa/ Ag<. 81(&): 102-107.
A..onyrnous 19&Sa. R((:l()rmmmdnl. methods for the di¡¡posal of unwanwd cxrkll:lh·~.os. Dfl•·nline, l» ue No. 4 Oee.
ICI F.x~o:~ives. pp. 8·9.
A.DónYntii.IUS 1935b. l~mulsíon explosivcs. fJcrwnliM. l&.we No. 4 Dec.. ICI E.xplosivc:s. pp. ().. 7.
Anon)"R''Im 1986. EmulsKJn explosi\'.CS (Pan 2). /)qwn/lne. Jsn~~ No. 5 Sq~t. ICJ E~plosiw:s. pp. ~.
Anooyr:oous 1987. Ab.krn explosl\'f.'.t - c>m/Jsloru anJ tk.tU~ AN FO. World Mining Equl¡wcnt. 12 (MIIfthf
Apil): 34-)S.
Anoaymoos 19901&. Blasting tedvlology lldvanoes. lnt~nwliona/ Mining. 7 (April); 13-19.
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churat:tc-rWics. 37pp.
Yancik. J.J. & A.A. Arias 1969. Tcdaaique for sdcttlon o f opcimum cxplosive .systcm: Esscnt.iaJ dcment 10
achicvingoptimum blaslin&- Pre4-tmted(ll tite 1/lh Com'OtliOf'lojMIJtlng Engtnn:rs, LfMQ, Pmt. Dcc. 28pp.
CHAI'TER 8
Initiation systems
8.1 INTRODUCTJON
In the previous chaptcrs, the principies involved ln the layout of blast rounds have beco
disctL~ed. In this chapter thc focus ís on sorne of the aspects of putting the design inlO
practicc. lt is assmncd that the holes have been laid out and driUed in the designcd pattem
and the objective is now to communicate to thc boles
(a) The sequence in whieh lhe holes (or portions ofthc holc) should tire.
(b) Thc time delay between holes.
(e} The energy requíred lo bcgjn thc dctonation proccss.
The communications sys1ern may be likcncd to a network of roads catT)'ing both tirning
infonnation and energy. There are a series of major thoroughfares callcd tronklines which
communicatc bctv.·ccn holes as well as a number of smaller branch roads calJed downlines
which com_municate tbe informution down thc individual boles. Each section of the net-
work has a ccrtain spccd lirnit dctennined by detonation velocity. buming velocity_, che
speed of ligll~ etc. A series of traffic lightS, callcd delays, which also control the aJTival
times may be insened along both the trunkline:!! and downline$. The diffcrcnl communi·
cations syslems will be discussed herc-. Thcrc are also a number of devices used in the
holc for
(a) changing one fonn of energy to another and
(b) ampliJYing the enugy signals receivcd.
An cxamplc of the first is the electric cap in which electricaJ energy is used to triggcr a
release of chcmical enc:rgy. An example of lhe second are primers whieh when triggered
by a small amowu ofenergy, emita larg:e amount. Thc concc:pt of•scnsidvity' is very im·
ponant in the dcsign of initiating systems. for example a certain explosive may be 'cap-
sensitive• which means that the energy-density provided by thc cap is suflicicnt to initiate
thc cxplosive. Another explosive may not be eap-sensitive. In this case an cncrgy·
amplifier i-s nceded bctwcen thc cap and the explosive.
To illustrate the concept of energy trru:tSfonnation and amplicatio"'- a simple cxample
will be prcscntcd. Consider first tbe electrie signa! u.'led to energizo a blllsting cap. Thc re·
sistance of thc fusehead is 1 ohm and thc applicd cUJTent is 2 amps. The electric power
involved is
(8.1)
198
lnilialion syslems 199
This is applied over a time period (1) of about 1 mscc (1 x 1()-l seeood). Hence tl1e
electrical input encrgy is
lllectrical energy • P x T (8.2)
lllectrical energy = 4 x IQ-' watt-sec = 1.1 1 x J0-9 kwh
In tenns ofthe units normalty uscd whcn discussing cxplosives lhi11 is approximately
Electrical energy "' 0.95 X I0-6 kcal
ThL< application of energy causes lhc PETN contained in the cap (0.45 gms for a No. 8
cap) to detonate. The cnergy rclcased is 1462 kcal/kg or
Cap energy • ( 1462) (0.00045) = 0.658 kcal
The energy amplification factor (EA 1) in this process is
EA 1 = 0.658/(0.95 X 10-6)"' 690,000
The cap is inserted into a 1 lb (4S4 gm) primer which rclcascs 1100 kcallltg. The total
amouot of primer energy rt-leased is
Primer energy • 499 kcal
and lhc ampli6cation factor
499
EA 1 =--=158
0.658
The primer is located atibe bottom of an ANFO (p = 0.8 gmlcm3) column, 38 1 mm ( 15')
in diameter and 9 m (JO ft) in lcngth. Thc total amount of energy n:lea.<ed (912 kcaVkg) is
Explosivo energy = 1.5 x JO' kcal
The amplification factor in this case L11
EA3 ~ (7.5 x 1Qly499 = 1500
The overall energy amplification factor when going from thc ele<:trical signal to the cx-
plosivc c:olumn ís
EA (ovcrall) = (EA 1XEA 1XEA3 )= (7.5 x lOS) / (0.95 x I0-6) • 7.9 x 1011
Thus thc clcc::trical cncrgy has been amplilicd almost a tri Ilion times.
8.2 INITIATION ANO PROPAGAT10N OFTHE DETONAT10N FRONT
Because of the very shon times separating tbe series of events involvcd in thc dctonation
of a typical explosivo c:olumn, onc migbl vicw thc initiat1on snd propagat:ion of a srable
detonation front as occwring instantaneously. For some applications this simpli(ication
can be made wilhout significant error. Thi: ncxt lcvcl of complcxity would be to include
thc time of passagc of thc dctonation front through thc colum.n but to assume that a con-
stant VOD applies alrcady from thc time of iniciatlon. This approx.imation is commonly
introduced in consideri_ng various layouts. There are times however when a more detailed
exam.ination and deeper understanding ofthe process is ofbenefit. In this short section, a
simplificd dcsc:ription of thc complcx proccsscs ínvolved in going ftom initiation by a cap
200 8/asting pri'ndplesfor open pit mining: General design concepts
to propagation of a stable detonation front in an explosivc: column wiiJ be prcscnted. An

explosion, as dcfincd by Dmry & Westrnaas (1978), e< a supersonic lbenno-chcmical pro·
cess whereby mixtures of gas~ liquids and .solids react to fonn shock, heat and expa.nd-
ing gllS. To initiate thc rtaction, a sourcc of ignition having the proper temperature and
pressure condilions must be presenl. The pbenomcnon responsible for lhe mechanical ini-
tiation of an explosion in a wide rangc of cxplosivcs is the fonnation within lhe explosive
of ' hot spots~. This concept, which was briefly i.ntroduced in tbe previous chaptcr, wiU be
expanded upon here. A 'hot spot', as the namc implics. is a point in an explosive where
the temperature far exceeds the temperature in the surrounding arca. Thc prcsence of this
thennal anomaly, initiatcs thc reaction between the fuel and the oxidixer at thal poinl. As
more and more of thesc hot spots bccomc involved, the ovemll reaction front changes
both in shapc and velocity of propagation. Eventually a stable detonation front fonns
which propagales lbrougb lbc column al a constan! vclocity ( VOD) and amplirude (deto-
nation pressure) indepe:ndenl ofthe initiation procedure.
The original 'hot spot' is thc cap. The hot temperature generated in the near vic.inily of
lhe cap initiates lhe chemical reaction in the adjaecnt primer material. In addition a shock
wave is generatcd whicb travcls outward from this point. When this shock wave eneoun-
ters a gas or air filled void in the near vicinity. the gas is comprcssed adiabatically and
vcry rapidly to a high temperature. The material in lhe vic.inity of this void is now intro-
duced into thc rcaction process. Eacb of thesc new hot spots acts as a generator which
seeks out new voids in their immediate vicinities. The JO spreading proc.:ss takcs place at
a speed equal lo lbc VOD of lbc material involved. In lbe primer lbe VOD is very higb
being of the orde.r of 7500 mlsec or even higher. On rcaching thc primer boundaries. lhe
process cóntinucs with c:ach currcnt hot spot gcncratlng waves which seek out new voids
to be compressed in the surrounding bulk cxplosivelblastiog agent. Nonnally thc rnte of
travcl ( VOD) in thc the blasting agent is less than that in the primer. Since. the primer is
gcncrally smallcr io diametcr than that of thc holc it takcs sorne time for this process of
hol spol propagation lo reach lbe wall of lbe hole. Here lhe generating wavclcts are re-
Oected back into thc cxplosivc column. Evcmually a stable detonation front is developed
in the cotwnn. The time neces.'iat)' for this tO occur is called thc run·up time and thc dis·
lance from the point of initiation at which it occws is called tbe ntn·up distanoe.
As indicated. the presence of voids in the explosive mixture whicb will bccomc futun:
hot spots is csscntial to successful detonation of a column of explo.;;-ives. l.n ANFO the hot
spots are created by the void spaces existing between and within priUs. In watcrgcls and
emulsions. bubbles or micro-baHoons are artificiaUy introduoed to serve this function. The
explosive is said to be •sensitized' through their introduction. lf thcrc are no voids prcsent
or thc void volume is very small, then there will be no detonation. The presencc of void.~
is reflected in the density ofthe explosive. For a loase mix of ANFO prills thc void spaoe
is higb and lhc rcsuhing dcnsily is oflbe ordcr of0.8 grnlcm' . As lbe prills are broken and
compactcd, the density incrcascs. Thcrc is a critica! density for which detonation will not
proceed. In lbe case of ANFO il is of the order of 1..25 gm/cm3 . Dmry & Wc:stmaas
( 1978) indicate that the reason wet ANFO docs not detonatc is that the water has tilled the
voids which eliminates the potential for hot spot formation. In lhc samc way, if not prop-
crly 'scnsitizcd' with bubbles, watergelslemuJsions will not detonate. At the bottom of
long explosivc columns. tbc air bubbles may coHapsc dueto thc weight ofthe charge. The
result is that thc effcctive dcnsity is grcater than the critical den.o;iry and detonation wiU
not propagate. In suc·h a case thc explosivc is said to be 'dcad-pressed'.
lnilfnlion sy.~lems 201
Figure 8. 1. Di~ic rcpcescDUttion of tht ~ and primer

... ' ~ .. in thc botdlok.
Obviously for thc initiation proccss to work propcrly thc primer musl be sensilivc lO
the cap and lhe explosive column must be sen.sitive to the primer. Furthennorc the rate at
which a stable detonation (ront ls buiiL up depends upon the relative geometries, detona-
tion prcssurcs and dctona.tion vclocities of thc compoocnts involvcd. Figure 8.1 sbows the
rclative size ofthc cap anda 1 lb primer in the 15* diameler blasthole. Since the primer is
so rnuc-h smallcr than thc holc diamctcr, it can be imagincd that it takcs somc time for asta-
bit front ofhot spots to be developcd from thc original hot spot crcated by thc cap. The.o;c
ideas wiU be furthcr cxplorcd as thc chaptcr procecds.
8.3 PR!MERS ANO BOOSTERS
There is unfonunately no consünency in the literature regarding usage of the two tcm\S
'Primer' and 'Booster'. In this text the term ~ primer' refers to thc explosive chargc that
initiatcs thc powdcr colunm. Capsfdctonating cord are aJways attached to or inserted into
thc primer. A primer is a 'boosler' in thc scnse that it takcs input cnergy from the cap or
detonating cord and boost.s or amplific:s Íl to the point where it will effeetivcly dett)nale
the cxplosivc column. Tbc initiator plus the primer will be refcrred to as thc priming unit
(Fig. 8.2).
Tiu: primer must have sufficient energy to (a) initiate the detonatioo rcaction in the
main charge and (b) su.<Uaio it unril the primed expl0$ive pn)(luces enough energy to S'Up-
port the detonation reaction by itself(Dupont Blasters Handbook, 1977).
Most opcrators prefcr special cast primers. These are availablc in a wide rangc of
sizes and weight (Tablc 8.1) and are manufacturcd with ooc or more axial boles. Thc most
common si:zes used in open pit mining are % lb or 1 lb. Primers genenslly ha•,;e a deu.ma-
Iion velociiy of !he order of 7.5 kmlsec. a densiiy of 1.6 g/cm!, a detonating pressure of
200 kbars anda weight strenglh relative to ANFO of 1.18.
As will be discusscd latcr, there are a number of initiating systems availablc. Thc one
wbich will be used to illustrate priming principies bere will be bascd on thc use of deto-
nating cord. The detonating cord is fi:tstened (tied) to the primer which is lhen lowered
into thc blast·hole to the position where initiation is to occw. The hole is then fillcd to thc
designed leve-1wi1h explosive. If il is desired lo initiate the column al severa) points a]ong
202 Blasting principies for open pit mining: General de.rign concepls
" , ... , .....x<n<v~

:.·~·. ..
:....
. '
;_;;, - S~<mmln&
' '
' '
• t'
- Bull: Exp&osive
''
'' '
'~ '
'
•'' (
PrimillB Unit
'- •' (Cap + Primer) F igu~ 8.2. Croü-sceedon lhrou¡h
~ ... • borehole showin¡ thc primina
unit.
·~-
Sin: llbs) Oiamctcr (ins) l..ma.th (im)

1/3 1 518 3 1/4
1/2 15/8 • 112
J/4 2 • 1(4
1 21/4 • 9116
2.5 3 8
• • 8
the column at nearly the same time (multiple~point priming)~ then as each priming point is
rcachcd during thc charging opcration a primer is slid into thc hole along thc detonating
cord. The cord serves to guide them into position and provides positive contact and initia-
tion.
'Boosters' are blasting agellls/explosives ofhigher bulk strength than the main primary
coturno chargc which, whcn inscrtc:d at various points along the column increase the en--
ergy denshy (and henee lhe breJlking ability) at tho,. pointS (Fig_ 8.3). The booster does
not increa.o¡e the total energy output of the primary explosive (i.e., ANFO). However. be-
cause of its generatly higher detonation vclocity and pn::ssure lhan thc main cx.plosivc, il
may 'overdrive' (increase the YOD) of the adjacem exptosive. The detonation pressure
(PDCT) and hcncc the borehole pressure (PJ are temporarily inereased sincc
PDET= 0.25 p (VOD)' (8.3)
and
P, = O. S POE:T (8.4)
whcn: Pocr = dctonation prcssuro (MPa). p = dcnsity (kglml), VOD = dcton.ation vclocity
( km/,..), P, = explosion pres.<ure (MPa).
Thus the shock energy would be increased at the expense ofthe heave energy. Boosl·
ing may be of intercst at a rcgion whcrc a hard band crosscs thc borcholc or at hard lo pull
toes. Booster.; also be-tp 10 maintain detonation propagation ín relatively insensítivc butk
exptosives.
lnitiation systems 203
'
'
' ' Prim.in¡ Unit

(Cap+- Primer)
Fígu« 8..3. 'Ok' addition of a booster
10 thc: c:xpiO$h-e eolumn..
PrirnWI& Unit
(C~~p + Primc:r)
f igure 8..4. 'lltc: add:ítioo o( 11 sccon-
daty booster.
Thc relativc oost of primcrs on a wcight (or even cncrgy) basis is much higher lhan
other explosives.
Expl05ivc:
ANFO 1
Primer ll
Pltck.agc<l watcrgc:Vcmuls&on 6-8
Thereforc it is sometimes of interest to considcr thc usc of a systcm such a." shown in Fig-
ure 8.4. Here a bag of high VOD W111ergeVemulsionlslurry is placcd between a smaller
primer and the pñmary bulk explosive. lt serves as a secondary primer. This is somctimcs
referred 10 as •booster priming' or •oombinat:ion priming'. Thís secondary primer which
fi lls the borehole diameter greatly reduces the run-up dislance ara fraction ofthe cost of
using equivalcnt largc diamctcr cost primcrs.
204 Bla.tting principle.<r jbr open pit mining: General de,\·ign concepls
Sorne vcry useful rules which apply to aU typcs of priming units havc bccn providcd in
the Dupont Blasters' Handbook (1977).
l. The detonator or detonator cord should be fastened so lhat it cannot be pulled out of
or offthe primer cartridge or container.
2. Thc dctonator or dctonating cord should be placcd in thc safcst and most cffcctivc
position in the primer cartridge. 'Ibe primer should protect tbe detonator or detonating cord.
3. Thc wires of clectric btasting caps or detonating cord must not be subjected to dam-
aging pulls, stmins or abrasion.
4 . A primer wilh adequate watt1' resistance should be selected.
5. A systcm should be developcd that allows the entirc primer asscmbly to be loaded
safely. easily and in the de$i_red positioo in lhe charge.
6. The primer should m:ver be tamped or abused.
7. lt is economically sound to use thc: type. the sizc. and thc: number of primcrs known
to insure rcliahle and efficient priming with a margin of cooftdence.
8. Thc dctonator should always be directed towand the main charge.
9. Thc diametcr of the primer shouJd approach that ofthc boreholc.
10. Tbc detonation prcssurc of thc primer should always excecd thnt of thc explosivc
being primed.
The fo Uowing recommendarions are provided in the Dupont Blao;ters' H1llldbook ( 1977)
regarding multiplc~point priming.
A. Multiple.point priming is recommended.

l . ln water~fillcd boles whcre the sensitivity of the main ch.vge may be atfectcd by warcr
seepage intt) the pmducl This is especially ln.te ifthe holes are not to be shot immedintely.
2. Where packaged ANFO products having poor canridge-t().(:artridge scnsitivity are
uscd. Onc primer for every two cartridges is recommcnded.
3. Where blocky or !OC:amy ground may cau.w cutoffs. This is especially truc in dcc:p
holcs.
4, In raggcd (caving) holcs whcrc column scparation is susp..-ctcd or probable.
5. Where vibration levels must be controlled by using diffcrent delays in decks in
each blasthole.
B. Multiple-point priming should be considered when u..o;ing relatively insensitive explosilr'eS.

l . To insure that the e.xplosive detonates along the entire length of1he borehole.
2. To minimizc cutoffs hc:causc of ground movcment
J. To initiate the hole ata faster Linear rare.
4. To minimize any dlsrup1ion ofthe products by 1hc dctonating cord.
8.4 TI-lE END INITIATION Of EXPLOSIVE COLUMNS
The diameter and length of the primer are important whcn initiating cxplosivc columns. In
rctuming to sorne of the ideas intn.lduced in Section 8.2, consider ahe point-initiat<:d bulk
explosive loaded into the borehole as shown in f'igure 8.5. Upon delonarion. the dcrona-
tion front spreads initially outward as a sphcrical surfacc cvcntu.1lly meeting thc holc waH.
lniliaJion .tystem.s 205
A'
'
'
As the distance from thc point bccomcs largc (r..,) thc dctonation \\o'B"'e (ront becomes es·
sentially planar and undcr ideal conditions this stcady statc detonation vtlocity is main~
taincd through thc cxplosivc column. The distaoce required lO reach steady srate velocity
is called the nm~up disla,ce (dn.)· This distancc dcpcnds on thc strcngth and gcomctry of
the primer and that of thc bulk explosivc. At the lime of initiatíon, the vclocily of detona·
tion at the primer position is that characteristic of the primer but zero everywhere else
along that line. At d,., the velocity of dctonation is charactcrislic for thc cxplosivc of that
diamctcr and confinemenl. Experiments (Juok, 1972b) have shown that the steady-state
VOD's are indcpendent of the type, weiglu and shape of the primer. Between lhe point O
and point d,"' the average detonation vclocity incrcascs. Aftcr d,"' it is constant. Thus thcrc
is a zone of transient velocity and one of steady state vclocity. As indicatcd thc length of
tbe nm·up zone varies. Figure 8.6 shows the situation for ANFO oonfined in a rube 76 mm
in diameter. The primer-hole diameter ratio varies from 1/3 up to l. As can be seen thc
run·up distancc is long for the smaU diarnctcr primer. When thc primer has a diamcter
greater than about bal.f that of the hole. the initial VOD is greater than that which can be
maintail)ed in the colwnn. r·n such cases. lhere is a 'ru.n-down• distnnce similar lo the run-
up distance discussed earlicr. For ANFO in largc diameter hales the run·up disrance is of
thc order of 4 to 6 d. The bulk explosive is s.aid 10 be ·underdriven' by the primer in Case D
(Fig. 8.6). ln Case A it is said to be 'overdriven·.
As shown in figure 8. 7 the detonation pressure produced. by thc primer is also impor-
tant. In this case the primer has the samc diamcter as that of lhe e1lplosive column and
primers of differeot detonacion pn:ssures have been u.~~ed . Since the. detonation pressure
for ANFO is of the arder of 4000 MPa, the conclusion is that thc primer should always
ha\1e a detonation prcssurc grca.tcr than that ofthc cxplosivc filling thc column in onlcr to
mi.nimi1.e tbe nm·up dis:taoce. Pigure 8.8 shows a series of VOD versus distance curves
for ANFO placed in a 10-518... diametcr blastbole and detonated using primcrs ofdiflbrcnt
geometrical and detonation characteristics. For the 1-lb cast primer (diameter about 2...)
the run-up distance is about 3.5 limes lhe hole diamerer with a starting VOD about 600/e
that oftcmlinal. For thc S-lb cast booster, thc starting VOD is about 8So/o oftcnninal with
about the samc run·up. Al> thc size and strength of thc prtm« is increa.'ie'd lhe run·up de·
creases until it is eventually overdñven. Obviously there are cost consequences to these
performance improvcments which must be carefuJiy considered whcn sclocting the prim-
ing tcchniquc.
Thc position along thc hole at which thc priming occurs also changcs thc cxplosivc
perfonnance. ln bench blasting, the preferred position ofinitialion is near the toe. The rcason
for litis is that as the detonatjon progresses towards the collar the expanding ga'ies Bre con·
fmcd entin::ly by thc roc:k mass until thc dctonation wave blows out the stemming. The time
206 8/a.~ting princip/1!$ for open pit mining: General de.sign concepiS
,000
Primer
A Curw 0~(1' (m:tl:'l)
A 76
o 64
I ·ooo
~
eo ~·
15
z
<
~
o
e
.2
2o
·.!!-
Q
-~
~
2000
J) ANFO Oi.-ncsc:r ,.. 76 mm
A~bc.sh'li ·l'ubo Cunfit~~.-ment
o 100 200 300 400 500

Obtttn« From lniti3dion Point (mm)
l:i¡uR" 8.6. Veloc:ity of dc:to,.,.tion alj, a runcdun ar distanc~ from thc initiator antf JWimer diamae.r (Junk, 1972u
ar~d Hagan, 19'19,).
5000,---,----.---.----r---,
l.k4ollllion
<.:.utve ~ure (MPa)
A 24,000
9 IJ.SOO
e sooo
~4000 B
o
E
4000
700
2z
<
'O
.§ 3000
j
'O
i
~ 2000
Primer Oiatnc:IC'r • 76 nvn

ANF() IJiamci.CI' • 76 nwn
Asbc:stos Tubc Cortfinc:mcnt
Oiscancc From lniliadorn Point (mm)

r igure 8.7. 1:ffcct ofpñmer detC)flalian prrssurc: an initi:tl vele,¡eity of ANf'O. Junk, 197b.
/niliolit:Jn .'iystem:r 207
1 11,000 ¡-----c-------~-----,
1s.ooo
1 14,000
] 13,000
1!1
g 12.000
1 11,000 el
~
~
Tiwtsilion
Rtsion
10.000
~OL------L------~2------~3------~.~----~
~..oc From Primer (fl)
Figutt 8.8. Eff~ oflbe primer c:hanctcristies on lhc run-up d inancc for ANFO in a 10-518"' blastbole. W lfEx·
piMives, 197S.
a. Bottom initiation
Pn:ss:ure • Toe
Vcnatna Bqlm at Collar
Time
b. Top ini,ial_ion
l'rcssurc at1bc-
R_,id Drop Due to \~ming

Bdtind Octonalil)n Wave
Timt
f igure-8.9. 1·oe. pn:ll!tln varlallon.,1lh I."OIIuand toe ln.ítlatlon. AECI, 1987.
interval bctween oommenccment of detonation and when gas p~ure starts lO fall at the
collar as the sternming begins to eject. is typically 3 to 4 milliseconds depending on thc
detonation vclocily and column length. With hole bonom initiation (Fig. 8.9a), the subse-
quent PfC$Sure drop takes longer to reach lhe loe Iban wilh 1op initiation (fig. 8.9b). In addi-
tion, the impull;c of lhe shock wave is lowurds lhe collar which teods lo líft lhe burden.
208 8/astlng princ:lples for open pit mlning: General design com..-epu·
Hencc vibrations are reducc:d and swcll incrcased. With bottom initiation thc c..,tcrgy is not
only confined longer lhan with top initiation but it works more e!Tcctively (AECI, 1987b).
8.5 THE SIOE INITIA TION OF EXPLOSIVES
One can now extend the general initiation process described previously to examining the
cffcct of detonating cord nmning through a column of explosivc. Figure 8.1 Oa shows thc
typieal case when the delonating cord runs along tbe side of the hole. l'or hole sizes typi-
cally used i.n open pit mining, lhe cord size is so small (a l)'pical diameter for down line is
of thc ordcr of 0.25 in.) in comparison tbat it appcars as a linc initiator. Howcver, if thc
detonation pressure is sufficiently high (Fig. 8. 1Ob) side initiation of the column can oc-
cur. Thc prox:imity ofthe cord to thc holc wall enhanccs the cfTcct of lbc dctonation. lfthc
dctonation prcssure is high but not sufficicntly high lo initiatc thc cxplosivc, dcad-prcssing
of the explosive in the near viciniry of the cord can result (Fig. 8. 10c). As the hole di-
amctcr becomes Larger, the significancc of this affcctcd arca comparcd to thc total cross-
scc:tional arca bocomes small. The invcrse is obviously true. In any c.1se-, the cncrgy which
is contained and pajd for both in tenns ofthe hole and the explosive is lost. As indicated.
the 'dead-press' densil)' for ANFO is of the order of 1.25 glem>.
The situation resulting when the detonating cord is positioned in the center of the col-
umn such as shown in Figure 8.11a. It should be noted that this would only be accom-
plisbed wilh a great deal oftrouble in bulk bla."ing. However, iflhe cord detonates but is
not sufficiently strong to initiate thc surrounding bulk. cxplosive. thcn there can be a 'dead-
pressed' 1.0ne in the center of lhe charge (Fig. 8.11 b). In S®lll diameter boles, this ""'Y be
sufficient to prevent the detonation ofthe hole or produce only a partial detonation.
(o) (b) (e:)
Figure 8.10. tkad~ .mne duc 10 dctonating cord ~ed along tbc botc:hok wall.
(a) (b)
lniJiation syslems 209
so
40RAIN
10
0 oL-----~2L-----~.------~6======~~====~. ~o====~.2
Cflar&e Oi.amcltt (lns)
Fisun! 8.12. 1'he expiO!lh-e mcrgy lost ü to lht efftct ordle dctonating conl. ~a Wcstmaas, 1978.
In summaoy, the effecl of the deooruuiog cord (assuming that deoooation is nol pro-
duccd) is to decreasc thc encrgy of tbe remaining expiOlóíve column.. The extcnt of the cn-
e<gy loss is shown as a fionction of the hole diameler and detonating .cord sorength for
ANFO in Figure 8. 12. In general.Jbe exoeno oftht eñctgy loss·depc:nds upon
- The explosivc,
- Thc energy of thc downline, -
- The hole diameoer,
- The sorength of the eonfiniag roek.
- The time delay between the downline fiñng and the retuming detonalion trono from
the cxplosive column.
Thcte are also sysoems bascd upoo the use of very low sorength detonatiag cords whieh
produce little or no damage to low semitivity explosh·es. lñey require. howevcr, a dcto-
natorlpñmerlsecondaoy pñmcr/to initiatc the explosivo column.
Today, there are severa! oon-electrie systerns bascd upoo 'cords' whieh do not deto-
natc but instead carry a Oame to a detonator. In passing through the cxplosive column, they
do not damage it. An cxample of Ibis is Nonel. lnitiating sysoems based upon tbe use of
electric wires earryiag cunrent to thc detonator also do not damage the explosivo column.
These are discussed laiCr in Ibis ehapter.
Tbere are some situations in wbich it is desiretl to side initiate columns of explosive. In
•tracing' (Hapn, 1980 and Hagan & Mercer, 1983). a line of dctonating cord of higb
enough sorength to initiate thc column is strung along the side of the bole and the bole
fillcd wilh e:xplosive. Because thc maximum distance for the dctonaCion front to travel
while building up velocity is the hole diameler D, (Fig. S. lOa) and the diameter ofthe line
primer is mueh smaller Iban the hole, the mean VOD, Ys , is mueh lower than the stcady
staJe VOD. Y,, aehieved in end initiated eharges. This is 1rue cven when tbe side initiation is
caused by very bigh sorength detonating cord. Since tbe detonation pressure and hence the
explosion pressure is proportionaJ to tbe square or tbe VOD, thc:rc is a major diffm:ncc in
21 O Blasting principies for open piJ mining: General design concepts
lbc final borebole pressures. Thus allbough lbe total energy rcleased from c:nd initiatcd and
continuously side initiatcd explosivos is the same, the energy partitioning is quite diffcrent.
For side initiation, lhe amount of shock energy is significantJy reduced. More importantly
however, the initial borehole pressure is vel)' similar to the final equilibriwn pressure wftich
is somcwhat lower than wíth end initialion. Thls mc:ans that thc prcssurc is maintained at a
higha leve! roc greater displ.ocenu:nts or the burdco. Thus lbc chango from end initiation to
side initiation produces a reduction in shock cnergy and an increase in heave energy. End
initiatioo is fllOS.t cffecdvc in l:tard. briu.le ma.ossive r()Ck$ whereas sidc initiation is most ef~
fectivc in rocks which are sof\, weak and/or cxhibit a IJuge numbcr of natural cracks and
planes of wcakncss. Since hca\'C cnergy ís prímarily I'CS(XlDSiblc for mass movcment, sido-
initiated charges peñorm well where maximum displaeement or the burden is required. The
advantages or side initiation have also beco used in the gentic blasting of perimetcr boles.
8.6 INITIATING DEVICES
Thcrc a~ a numbtr of techniques which can be uscd for introducing cncrgy into a column
ofexplosives and thereby initiate detonation. In this section the primary ones will be brieOy
describcd.
8.6.1 Capandfuse
Blac:k po\ver (gun powder) is a very old technique for generating a rapid release of en-
crgy. lnvented by the Chíncse in thc 4th cenlwy it cventually found it's way to Europe
through the aetivities of the Oarbarians in the early pan of the 12lh Century. Black pow-
der consists of a mixture of
- Carbon,
- Sulf\tr,
- Potassium nitrate (salt peter),
in thc foUowing ratio:
8C + 3S + IOKNO,--> 3K2SO, + 2K2CO, + 6C02 + SN2
Unconfined. black powder bums: or deflagrates. Wben inserted in the confines of a bore-
hole, howcver, thc hot gascous produets produce pn:ssures high enough to fracture rock.
Black powder is still used today in some applications. lt is considered to be a very low
energy blasting agent rather than an explosive. The gaseous proportion is 100% ofthe total
energy rc-leased. There is no shock component.
Safety fuse cnnsists of a coro of black powder (gunpowder) wrapped in textiles wilb
layers of water·proofing materials Hke biturnen. lt is enclosed in a tough outer jacket
These covering..'» are designed to protect the black powder core from the penetration of
water and fuel oil. fuse is lit by a malCh ora speclallighter. lt spuuers as the Oame front
travcls along the fuse. The burning rato orsafety fUse is approximately 100 sccondslmctcr.
At the cnd of thc fusc is a plain dctonator (cap) containing a small amount of a hcat
sensitive primary explosive such as mercury fulgamate. The cap cons.i.sts of a small a.lu-
minum cylinder approximatcfy 6mm in diameter, closed at one end. and loaded with a
double-layered chargc which is pressed into the base (Fig. 8.13). The upper primary ex·
Hidden page
212 Blas1ing prlnciple.r/ór open pil mining: Oenert1l de:rign concepls
d/ 1 = 43 X lo-' sec = 43 (JS<C.

lf dclay times longcr than thosc naturally providcd by the cord are desired, separate dclay
elemenrs are added to the eircuit. The detonating relay connector (DRC) shown in Fig·
ure 8. 14 is one such design. As can be seen, the connector is designed and construeted for
easy hookup. Thc detonating cord trunklinc is cut and cach of thc free cnds is loopcd
through one end oflhe conneetor. The design shown in the figure actually c:onsists oflwo
dclay elemcnt.s (of thc samc numbcr) onc on either side of the central section containing
thc holc for thc downline. A simplified drawing of the coneept is shown in Figure 8.15.
As can be seen the high cxplosivc (HE) cnds are pointcd toward onc anothcr. Thus if thc
detonation in lhe trunkline comes from the right hand side of the figure delay element 1
will function. At thc cnd of the dc lay pcriod, HEl will explodc, setting off the downline
running through thc central holc and knottcd. HE2 will also explode sctting off thc ncxt
section of detonating cord without delay. lfhowever the detonation i.n the trunk li.ne occurs
from thc left thcn dclay clemcnt 2 is in ftmc:tion. This sysu..-m is a sccurity mc:asurc should
T~Jc 8.3. S«rm¡th or oommc>n ddolllllins cord.

Nominal PETN con: load Approxin11te c:.xtcmal diamC!I«
(gnmoslft) (glm) (ms)
IS J 0.14
18
15 'S 0.165
0.170
)O 6 0.175
40 8 0.1<)()
so 10 0.1 0-0.)0•
100 20 0~5
200 40 0~0
400 80 0.40
• Otpends upon brt1lking load
(a)Top VicW
• •
(b) Sidc Vttw
Fig~ATC 8.14. Dctonating relay conn\.~.

Dctolltlling Relay Conlkttor ICI, Firing Witb Octonudng Can!.
Copy nghteo r 1tenal

lniJiOiion syslems 213
HE2 lklay Ekmcnt 1
¡ 1
~:~-¡¡] lj~iiW&I
Dday Elcmcnt 2 f-IE 1
[)c)\lollliflc
Fi¡~~tt 8.15. Olagnmmatic ~prescntation ortt.t: det.Onatlng ~la:y CC)nnecaor.
Fig:Ul'C: 8.16. Dday locadon (O) fot n

c;omcr shol. ICI. ~·m na With l>elonuting
Coro.
figure 8.17, Oela)· loca1ion (O} for a f.M:c

shol. ICI. tlring With Oetonaling Cord.
a ponion of 1he trunkline be cut-off for any reason. Thcrc is also no ·nght...or-wrong• di-
rection when conoecting them up.
Figures 8.16 and 8.17 show two common delay pattems used in surface mining. The
delay element (D) is in.l¡(...-rted as close as possible to the hole firing next and as far away as
possi'ble from that firing first. Onc may use single trunk linc arrangcmcnts such as shown
in Figure 8. 16 or closed loop trunklines (Fig. 8.17). !fin the fonner, the trunk line should
be disturbed cithcr prior to or during blasting. tbe detonation will proceed onty as far as
the bmlk and then SIOp. In large complicated blasts the closed loop design is gcnerally
used. In this case, firing infonnation has two paths by which ro reach the individual boles.
Tablc 8.4 givcs thc nominal dclay times for detonating relay connectors. Although re-
lays with firing times of25 ms. 35 m• and 45 ms fulfillthe majority of dclay blasting re-
quirements. in sorne situations in which ground conditiOtlS and/or blasthole pattems are
such that cutoffs duc to premature ground movcmcnt are likcly to occur, rclays with short
delay times (e.g. 15 ms) may help to avoid mlsfircs. Whcrc cutoffs cannot casily occur.
there are advantages in increasing the delay time up to 45 ms or even 60 ms.
214 Blasllng principies for open pll mining: General design concepls
Tabk 11.4. Nominal ck'-Y limes for suñatt dcco..aring cord oooneclotS (tM).
"
25
lS
45
60
Detonating relay conncclors are a convenicnt and safc mcans of firing a short dclay
bla.st witb detonating cord. Their advantages are:
- Unaffecled by stray currents or statie eleclricity,
- Simply tied lnto the tnmkline system wherever necessary to achieve the desired se·
quenec offiring,
- Thc number of holcs which can be fircd in a single blast is virtually unlimitcd.
Ahhough used primarily as surfacc dclay.s., it is evcn possiblc to conncct such dctays in
downlines.
Thcrc are sevcral different dcsign options when using detonating cord downlines. Three
will be discusscd herc:
Cose J. Thc dctonating cord uscd has cnougb cnergy to initiate primcrs but not thc
bulk loaded explosives making up lhe column. Normally the core load ofthe downline is
of thc order of 10 glm. ln this situation as thc dctonation in thc cord rcachcs thc position
of ahc primer it detonatcs. Use of packaged cxplosivc:s of thc samc typc as those bulk
loaded is a special case ofthis procedure.
Case 2. The detonaling cord used has enough energy to initiate the explosives used in
the ex.pfmive column.
Case l Thc dctonating cord uscd docs not havc cnough cnergy to dctonate cithcr the
column explos,ive or the primer. A cap with or without a delay element is used between
the downline and the primer.
In Case 1. the points of lnitiation are at the primer locarions. The primer uppennost in
thc holc would dctonatc first followed by thc others. Down holc delays ~ru~y be in.serted
into the downlines (Fig. 8.18a). Normally bowever the delay betwecn primcrs would sim·
ply be thaa provided by the detonating cord itsclf. The following steps have been rocom-
mended for use by ICI (ICI, Firing With Detonating Cord) whcn priming and charging
non·dctonator scnsilive bulk ANFO and water gcls.
Stcp l . Check thatthc blasthole is unobstructcd to full dcpth.
Su:p 2. Makc a simple knot in thc detonating cord 1.0 to l.S m from the end. Thread on
thc: primer and make a further knol to hold the primer securely between tbe two knots.
Now tie the end of the detonating cord to a piece of rock small enough to pas..~ frtely
down thc blostholc yel hc:avy coougb lO actas a good sinkcr (Fig. 8.18b).
Step J. Lowcr the sinker and primer into the blastholc. Whcn thc s inkcr is on thc bot·
tom and while maintaining tension on the downline cut the detonacing cord from thc recl
1.0 to 1.5 m from the collar. The tension will keep the downline straight and should hold
the bouom primer above the sínkcr. clear of any fine: cuttings or sludge.
lnitfDtlon sysrenu 21 S
(o) (b)
Dctonatins
Cord Oownline
F1gurc 8. 18 . AtUdvncnt o ( primef1i lo

detonatiog cord. ICI, l;irins Wilh l)elu..
nating Cord.
~
.' S<emmina
Primer
..
.
Stcmming : :
Primer Figutc" &.19. Primc:r kxation for ded:ed char¡.c$. ICI, t-•iring Wilh ()do•
nt~ting Cord.
Step 4. Anchor thc downline at the collar by plucing it under a rock or tying it to a stake.
Pour or pump in thc ANFO, watergcl, crnulsion, etc. Slide additional primers down the
delonating cord as nccdcd during charging. The$e may he lO prime lhe lops and bottoms
of decks of explosive or to effect multipoint pñming of a full column of explosive.
Charging is interrupted as ncccssary to insen stemmin.g bctwcetJ. deck$. Ma.intaining the
tcnsion on the detonaling cord wiiJ avoid snagging by loading hoses, pcrmit primers to
slip into position quickly and ensure that thc bottom primer is cmbedded in explosive W1·
contaminaled by dirt or sludgc (Fig. 8.1 9).
216 8/asting principies for open p/J minlng: General design concept.r
When using a packaged or cartridged non·detonator sensitivo packaged explosivo, the

same procedure as just describe<! ís used oxeept that a primer should be slid down the
detonating cord aficr every 2 cartridges. The forst primer is sent down on top of thc first
cartridge into tho bolo (Fig. 8.20).
In Case 2. the detonating cord has sufficient energy to initíate the explosive without the
use of a true pñmer. The following steps havo bcen given by ICI (ICI, Fiñng With Dcto-
nating Cord) for use in the pñming and charging of canridged, detonator sensitivo explo-
sives.
Step J. Cheek that the blasthole is unobstructed to full depth with a mirror and meu-
uring tape or a plumb linc gauge.
Step 2. Attach the detonaring cord to the bottom 'pñmer' cartridgc so that thc cord
c:annot be readily pulled OUL Figure 8.21 shows one melhod for large diameter explosivos.
Step J. Inserta rod or spindle through the axial bale in the reel of detonating eord. The
spindle may be held in one hand while the pñtnel' cartridge is lowered into thc blastholc
with the other. lt is preferable, however, to mount the spindle in a cradle at the side ofthe
blasthole so that both hands can be used to lower the pñmer eartridge to the bottom of thc
blasthole.
Step 4. Ensure that the pñmer cartridge is at the bottom of the blasthole. In a dry hale,
raising the cartridge about 0.5 m from the bnttom and allowing it to fall freely will pro-
duce an audible 'thunk'. Waterfilled boles should be checked with the mcasuring tape.
Step J. Cut the deronating cord from the reel approximately 1.0 m fnom the collar of
the b!Jisthole. Wrap or tie the tail end of the detonatiog cord to a rack or piecc of wood to
hold it to onc sido and prevent it from falling into the hale. This tail will
(a) compcnsate for any slumping of the first cartridge into the cuttings or sludge at
the hole hottom and
(b) be used to make a connection to the surúce trunkline.
Step 6. Move the reel of deronating cord away from the blasthole just pñmed or move
it on to the next one. A reel should never be left connected to the downline. ln the event
.,.)
...••.
'mct f'la,ure 8.20. Primer kaúon wbm usin¡: paeh&ed e:cp&osívcs. ICI, ti r·
in¡ Wilh Octorwlng Cord.
Hidden page
218 Bla.tting principle.t for open plt miníng: General design concepts
IW Thict Cosh.ion Strip

ofStyrofoam or Cardboard
Figure 8.23. Altadlmeru of cord and cap

t0 thc prim«. DuPont B~ Handbook.
1977.
Trw~kline Q ¡;'jgurc 8.24. TNnkline-downlinc

Upper End of thc DMmJinc anw~gcmcnt
Figure 8.23 shows one tec,hnique for attaching a primer toa low energy (6 graínslft or
1.3 gfm) detonating cord terminated in a delay cap. As can be seen the cord is run be.tide
thc cast primer and thc cap is pushed into the wcll. A 114.. thick cwhioned strip of styro·
foam or card board is used to absorb ll1e shock of ll1e detonating cord. The cord is taped
to the primer using friction tape. The low energy cord will not initiate the primer but it
could ca\.L.'ie it to crack if run through thc ccntcr hole. In this case, initiation of thc explo-
sive column occurs at thc primer position. As indicatcd, dclay caps may be used. To achicve
multiplc priming of thc holc, separate Linc:s must be run from thc surfacc.
The detona.ting cord downlines must now be attached to the suñace. trunkJinc system.
Therc are severa! ways in which this may be done. Figure 8.24 shows diagrammatically
lhe detonating cord trunk line running past the line ofholes. Thc simplest method of con-
nccting thc two lines is through thc use of a knot or a wrap. It is vcry important that thc
connection be tight and made at appro•imately right angtes as sbown in Figure 8.25. Fig-
ure 8.25d shows a mcthod which can be used for cxtcnding trunk lines.
8.6.3 Non-electrlc .ty.ttems

Although the detonating cord-based ignition system is non-electric as well, che 'non-
clcctric• as uscd in this book rcfcrs to tbc Noncl and Nonel-lype systems. Thc Noncl sys-
tcm dcvclopcd by Nitro Nobcl in Swcden is basod upon thc use of a tough sealed plastic
tube (OD • 3 mm, ID • 1.2 mm) 1l1e inside ofwhich is coated will1 a reactive subslance.
A shock wavc and spark are transmitted to the tube using either a s~ial blasttng maehine
or a detonator. The shockwave whirls up a dust cloud of 1l1e reactive material which is inil~
ated by 1l1e sparl<. This dust exptosion travels along lhe tube at a speed of about 2000 m/sec.
The entire reaction takes place wüh;n the tubc wbich remains intact throughout thc proc-
ess. Beca.use of this
- The tube by itselfis not classified asan explosive
/nitialion syslems 219
downJihE! &o trunklinc (e) do'li!lc·"-nlP

(1) half hitdt hlal(hitc;h
""""""""'
(b)
stiffootd
(d)
do~nline~
half
hnch S ~·:
+... klin<
\..,.nline
~
conJ.to..cord connection
JqUIRkno1
f i¡ure 8.25 . AtCachment ofthe dc.Mnli_nes t.Q tbe ln.rnkline.l)kk et 11l.. 1993.
- 1t does not alfect anything around it. When used as a downline, it does not affcct thc
surrounding cx:plosivc
- The reaetion is quite silenl This has eovironmental advantages over detonating cord.
for example.
Thc diffcrcncc bctwccn thc dctonation froot in Noocl tubc and dctonating cord is
rather d111111l!tically illustrated in Figure 8.26. To avoid moisrure entering into the tube and
thcreby dcstroying tbe "dust-typc' of cxplosionJ thc tubcs are cut to Jcngth and sc:alcd at thc
factory. One cnd is simply sealed, thc other is equipped with a delay detonator (Fig. 8.27). The
detonatots with thcir attached tubes (Fig. 8.28) are then pacl<ed in aluminum foil bags. The
rango ofthc available dctonators is shown in Tablc 8.5.
A series of special connectors have been developed to join togethcr a number ofrubes.
A connccting bloc·k is shown dismantlcd in figure 8.29. 11 consists of a transmittcr cap
(strcngth of about In tbat of a nonnal higb strength dctonator) and a plastic block into
which thc cnds of four Noncl tubcs may be inscrtcd. Tbc block is dcsigncd to cnsurc that
all cnds are in intimatc contact with thc cap. As seco in f igure 8.30 whcn thc shock wavc
signal of the Nonel rube ( 1) reaches the connector (2) the transmiaer (donor) cap will be
actuutcd. The transmittcr cap in tum initiates all ofthc conncctcd Noncl tubcs (rcccptors).
In this way the initiating impulse passes (3) to one or more detonators and also thc next
(Onnector (4), where lhe procedure is rcpeated. fipue 8.3 1 shows a fully utili:zcd con-
nector. They symbols shown in Figure 8.32 will be u11ed when describing some typical
bench rounds.
Figures 8.33 and 8.34 show two arrangemen1s for hooking up a &mall bench round. In
Figure 8.33 one conncclor has been used per bolc and in Figure 8.34 thc conncctors have
been f\dly utilized for maximum economy. Thc¡ zig-zag cunnect:ion shown in Figures 8.33
and 8.34 should mJI be used in wide bench rounds since, in this case. the lnherenr de/ay in
the Nonel surface linos beenmes importan!. Recommendations for thc 6rst period dclay to
2:20 Blastlng pl'inclp/c1/or opcn pir mining: General desl&n L'Oncepts
_..._
o • ,. cocn
--..--
F'l pft 1.26. Comptdon ofdlc ~ ~ .uh Hoftd Mil .._ina con&. Ni&ro Nobcl QllntioftS
demc:nt
----o_-_ - - =
Fl¡utc 8.17. Ulastln¡ t:IP lU(t$ \lolth t'-e NoneJ systtm. Nilto Nobd, Qm.'Stlons and Amw.:rs AbolA Nonel.
1'abk IU . Pctlod tqe ror Nond daonaton (Nj1ro Nobel. Nond usm ¡uldt),
Number or pMods ln~al (ms)
3.-.20 11 7l-l00 2S
24, 21, )2. u. 40, .... 6 600-1100 100
lO, 16. 62, '*- 70, 10 6 Jl$C).2000 l lO
be used bas<d upon tbc maximum lengtb of tbc couplcd surfecc tubin¡ are given in Ta-
blc 8.6. In widc roonds il is •uggcstcd lhat all tbc rows of holcs be conncctcd in tbc samc:
way. Two possibililics are shown in Figures 8.3S and 8.36. Primina units are made up in
lh<: 5amC way os has alrady bcen dÍS<Us5cd wilh rcspcct oo dctonaoing conl bll5ting. Al-
though nomoally not a problem il should be notcd that thc breakins/stretching loads of
Nond tubo an: si¡nificantly less Iban lhose of detonating cotd, for cxample. Speeial tubos
with rcspcct to s:trc:ngth, wcar resistancc and tcmperaturc are howcvcr. availablc,
/nitlallon SJ1$1ems 221
Fi¡ure 8.28. Noneltube$. NilrO Nobd, Nonti UseN Guide.
Figure 8.29. A Nooel eonnoctor bloct.

Nitro Nobc-l. Nonc:l UseN Gujdc.
8.6.4 Ele~tric inlliLllion .Yy:Jtem.r

Many mines today employ initiation systems based upon thc use of clcc::tric dclay detona·
tors. Figure 8.37 is a cut~away vicw showing lhe constructíon of one such detonator. The
cap is designed so lhat elecuicity nows through a circuit comprised of the Jeg wircs and a
bridge wire. The bridge is a short, hair-like, high resistance alloy wire similar to thc fila·
mcnt in an clectric light bulb. Like the filament in the bulb. thc bridge hcats quiokly Qn
thc application of sufficient elec:tric cum:nt.

The power generated
P • I 2R
is released. as heat. The heat is sufficient to initiatc thc heat scnsitivc ignition chargc (rntr-
Cury fulminate, lead azide, etc.) which detonates the base eharge (generally PETN) ofthe
cap. The amount o( base cha.rge contained within the cap determines its strcngth. Cap
dcsignations such as No. 6, No. 8. etc. are uscd. Thc time bctwec:n the applica1ion of lhe

222 8/asting princip/esfor open pit minlng: General desígn conceptJ·
Figure 8.30. TypicaJ c:oot~ector anangtme:nL Nitro Nobcl. Noncl Usen G'u.idc.
Figute ti.J l. A fully urili:ttd block. Nitro Nobd. Nonel Usen úuMk.

lniliation systems 223
Conntttion or a Or-tonator and a Ncw Conncccor

rn"'holc:
•
SU.Sfe Conn«.tOJ
[>-----
Double C4IV\ICCklr
[>..---- - < ] lnitiation Point
f igure 8.32, Symbols uS«< in die Nonc:l de1igm, in figllrd 8J 1 lltld 8J2. Nitto Nobcl, N()n(l Vsets Guidc.
1 a su 1
1
1
J
1
1
1
""~
f igure 8.31. A zig-zag oonnec:tioo pancm with <JnC oonneaor pc:r holc:. Niuo Nobd. Nond Usm Guide.
current and initiation for a given cap is termed tbe •Jag-timt'. As shown in Figure 8.38 thc
amount of time required 10 heat !he bridge wire depends upon thc applicd curren t. With
higher cwrent levels, !he time is reduced. There is a ceruún critica! level of curren! below
which tbere is linle or no tempcraturc incrcasc. lf thc- applicd cum:.nt is just abovc thc·
critica! level an appreeiable amount of time may be required before !he critica! tempera-
rute is rcachcd and tbc cap iniliatcs. ln such cases, largc variaúons in initiation times may
result with caps ofthe same delay. Excessive cwrents on 1he othcr hand may cause arcing
and thereby failures of delay caps. Sorne recommendations regarding mínimum firing cur-
rc:nts an: givcn in Tablc 8.7.
224 8/asting prínciplesfor Ofl"n pil mining: General design concepts
4 3 3 3 3 4
1 , 4 4
J
1 6 , ,
1
..,
1
~. 1 6 6 6 6 1
Fi¡urt 8.34. A dtc·la& connec:ckm paatem V~iLh ruUy utillzcd comccton. Nitro NobeJ, Nonel Uscrs Guidc.
f igure 8.35. Nonel dcsi.gn for wide bcndlc:s with cnd connection. Nitro Nobc-1, NonellJscn Guide.
Tabk 8.6. Reeommc:nded fir.;t ptriod in 1hc round (NitrO Nobcl. Nand uses auide).
Mnim-.n couplcd lcngtb ofNONEL Milliscoonds rcquin:d for lbe Rcconwncndcd fitSl puiod
tubing on the ~face. mcucs ~re surfaoe initiation in round
Up co I.SO
150-200
200-250
""'"
75-100
100.125
J
4
>
250-300 JlS.J$0 6
cte. etc
"'"
lnüiation systems 225
' ' ' ' ' '

6 •
• •
•' '• '
• _'_ .'
, '•
'.
'
-'
Figure-8.36. Noncl ddign ror wide bdldtd v.·ith ttnter conncclion. Nitro Nobel, Nont.l Usc:rs Guide.
a. Constructioo of an Elearic Fu.whcad
oonduetiog wires
rwopm¡t plu&
-...........
nroptcnc-slcnc-
rusc:hcad
debl)' dm'ICI'It
F~ S.37. An electric:
--
primm¡chqc
blastlng cap. ICI, Firin8 Electrically.

ptlmlng ehq.e
base chargc
Sincc lhc elcc::tric currcnt travcls witb the speed of light in the tead wires. no time delay
is inuoduc:ed in thc syotem by varying lcad lc:ngths. Withoul spc<ial dclays in thc systcrn,
all of the boles would be initiated at the same time. Delays are created in the caps by in-
scrting various lengths of compound.\ between the resistive element and the ignition
cbarge which bum at a g.iven rate. Thc heat gcnerated by thc rcsistivc clemcnt causes thc
dclay portion to begin burning. When the bum front reaches the ignition charge. detona-
tion begins. There are two series of ddays
226 Bla.tling principle.t ji1r (Jpt:n pit mining: General design concepLt
2.0
S
1
C.-ve of Minimum L:ag Times
"u~ LO \
~ ..._
o.S
)O Fi¡urt 8.38. Cumnl ft:r$UIS la¡ time plot for an ckctric

blastin¡ e~p. ICI, Hundbook orBIItsliag Tables.
Tabk 8.7. Rccommcndcd minimum (tring cum::nu. Austin PO\II·dcr Company.

Typc Citc:uil Rc:comrnMdcd firing curren!
oc AC
SingkCap O.S amp 0.5 amp
Single sm..~ I.S amp 2.0 amp
Paratk:l Series I.S a:mpo'$efic:;s 1.0 ampl"~ioc$
Parv..Uc:l 1.0 .-npla p (min) 1.0 amp"CCIp (mi~:~. )
10.0 ""'""""'(mil<) LO.O ampsf~p (ma'()
- Millisecond delay series,

- llalf seeond delay series.
Thc relationship between delay number and thc delay time varíes among manufacturers.
A~ a general rule the delay between delay numbers in the millisecond series, is 25 ms. In
the hAif second series lhe inlerval is 500 ms. Tables 8.8 and 8.9 presenl Jypical delay
numbcrs and intcrvals for thc two series.
'Jñe use of the tenn 'nominar has been used in the tables to describe the delay times
sincc thc lruc dclay is vcry dcpendcnt upon thc qualiry control excrcisc:d in the man ufac~
turing process. Small variation.~ in the characteristics of the delay material can lead to a
spread in actual delay times around thc nominal valuc. Table 8.10 shows thc rcsults ofa
testing series cooducted by Winzer et al. ( 1979) on caps from four manufacrurers. The
caps from manufacturcrs 1, 2 and 3 wcrc from tbcir ms dclay series. Thc caps from rnanu~
facturer 4 wen: noo-electric (dewnating cord type) ms delays. To arrive at a sratistically
representative data base, 30 initiators of ea.ch delay period were tested. The rated times.
the mcasured mean times (.\') plus 1he standard deviation (S) havc been given. As can be
scen there ís considerable dcviation from the nominal times (7) givcn by lhe manufac.-
lnitíatlon syJtems 227
Tabk: 8.8. Millisccond ddayscrics, A~in PowdcY Company.
DdayNo Nominal delay time (ms) Oc:lay No NomiBII cklay time (ms)
1 25 16 400
2 so 17 425
3 15 IS 450
4 100 19 41S
S 125 20 500
6 ISO 21 550
7 I1S 22 600
g 200 2:l 650
9 22S 24 700
10 250 2S 750
11 275 26 800
12 300 27 850
13 325 ¡g 900
14 3SO 29 950
IS 375 3() 1000
1·nbk 8.9. 1-lalf 51X00d del<~y series. Austin P~'der Company.
Oclay No NuminaJ IJday time (rM)

o o
1 soo
2 1000
3 ISOO
4 2000
S 2500
6 3()00
1 3500
g 4000
9 4500
10 5000
11 ssoo
12 6000
turer, furthennore. the scatter around the mean flring li.tne increa~" with an increase in lhe
delay period. Over the past fcw ycar.;, thc spread has hcen considerably reduced. Ba-
jpayee & Mainiero (1990) performed a similar series of tests on the electric detonators
from two manufacturcrs. Twenty detonators of each delay period were tcsted. The results
are presented in Tablc 8. 11 . As can be soco, thc standard dcviation is independent of the
period and of the order of 4 ms. Baj payee & Mainerol ( 1990) also calculated values of thc
•winzcr lndex' (Win7..cr ct aL. 1979) which is a meas:urc of lhc like lihood of dctonalcml in
two .succcss.ivc pcriods ovcrlapping. This indcx is defincd as
W• TH- TL (S.3)
2 2
(SH +SL )'"
whcrc W-= Wínzcr indcx, TH = average delay time for a group of detonators of a given
delay period (.sccs), TL = average dclay time for a g.roup of detonators of the next lower
period (secs), SH ~ standard deviation of the group com:sponding to TH (sccs), SL ~
standard dcviation ofthe group corresponding to TL (secs}.
228 8/asting principies for open pil mining: General design concepts
Tablc 8.10. Firing times f01t milliscoond dday caps (Wirucr ct aL, 1979).
M anufllá~o~n:r A Mlmufoctuttr 8 Moour.trun:rC Manufacturc:r O
Pcriod T (ms) ;¡ S T(ms) ;¡ S T(ms} x S T(ms} ;¡ S
o S S NA 12 12 NA 1 1 NA
1 25 27.9 4.4 25 28.6 4.0 8 5.1 1.4 25 38.8 1.8
2 50 51.1 6.2 50 50.8 5.9 25 25.3 4.4 50 S9.S 9.4
3 15 86.2 4.2 75 62.7 4.9 50 48.6 5.3 75 81.9 1.4
4 100 111.7 5.6 100 911.5 7. 1 75 n .o 11.8 100 110.3 3.2
5 m 140.4 7,8 130 138.7 4J 100 100.1 5.1 m 135.8 2.9
6 150 17J.4 6.0 170 178.5 9.4 125 135..8 6.2 150 1685 5.1
7 115 185.1 5.9 205 202.5 6.1 150 154.5 5.7 175 168.9 7.8
8 200 18}.4 9.6 240 253.9 19.6 175 Ul6.3 1.5 200 234.] 5.8
9 250 279.2 9.6 280 326.9 22.3 200 217... 1.5 250 255.1 3.9
10 lOO )07.0 11.7 320 324.3 18.0 250 272.0 11.5 300 •86.5 23.8
11 350 362.4 34.4 )60 382.9 55.9 300 318.5 145 350 356.0 4.7
ll 400 •t28.1 19.8 400 401.5 34.2 350 382.1 20.1 400 <03.5 6.4
13 450 440.8 18.9 450 496.8 21.2 400 441.6 17.1 450 466.7 12.1
14 500 523.7 24.0 500 506.9 25.5 450 452. 1 17.9 500 506.6 7.6
15 600 649.0 Sl.8 550 697.11 50.1 500 '56 ... 243
16 700 735.3 46.3 600 797.8 48.0 550 569.1 17.9
17 800 913.0 56. 1 700 1144.6 73.6 650 708.5 29.5
18 900 992.3 6$.1 900 1050.8 101.4 150 81>.2 36.2
19 1000 1166.0 60.7 1200 1366.1 112.1 875 911.1 :16.6
Tabk &.11 . •'lring accuracy of cklon3l01'5. Bajpay~ &. MainlttS, 1990.

1. Manufaclurct 1
flt-Jiod T(ms) ;¡ S siO\'I'CSl (ms) fastesa (ms) 100 SIX ('A) Wi~fndcx
1 24.69 3.l2 29.00 18,,, 0 13.04 2.47

2
3
"
50
75
4},41
10.45
6.86
5.88
51.90
78.35
31..85
56.10
15.80
8.35
2.99
2.69
4 100 95.26 7.12 115.60 85.40 1.41 .l12
S 125 120.26 3,68 126.60 112.00 3.06 4.82
•7 ISO
175
146.33
171.37
) .97
454
153.60
176.20
140.20
166.60
1.71
1,47
5.53
5.83
8 200 195.13 2.99 20).40 190.00 1.53 6.22
9 225 219.85 l.SCJ 224.80 216.20 1.18 6.08
lO 250 246.38 3.SI 254.40 239.80 1.42 4.36
11 275 272.33 4.81 284.00 26S.20 1.77 3.37
12 300 294.51 4.49 305.40 287.80 1.52 5.84
..
13
15
325
350
375
32'7.67
34:3.83
370.53
3.48
3.65
B l
331.00
350.00
384.50
319.80
338.50
359.00
1.06
1.06
1.49
3.20
4.04
4.95
16 400 403.05 3.59 409.SO 396.00 0.89 5.96
17 <25 435.88 4. 18 442.00 426.50 0.96 3.49
18 450 453.13 2.69 457.00 448.50 O.S9 4.20
19 475 481.Sl 6.18 505.50 473.50 1.18 3.82
20 500 S23.20 9.00 517.00 503.50 1.72
lnitiation S)tStems 229
·r~&blc 8. 11. Cootirtut:d.
2. Manufactlltt'r 2
Pcriod T (ms) X S slo\\'CSI (ms) filSttSI (ms) 100 Slll (%) Wlnzer lndel!:
1 lS 26.95 0.37 28.6.S 2S.SS 3.2:1 11.1C)
2 so ~0 .66 1.01 S2JO 49.0l 2.1 1 9.49
J 15 69.n 1.10 7'2.95 66.20 2.44 9.54
•
S
100
m
92.26
119.69
1.64
2.40
CJS.40
12·UO
11&.40
I I.S.90
1.78
2.01
9.44
U4
6 ISO 157.88 ).)1 165.30 151.20 2.10 2.80
7 17S 176.18 5.63 188.80 164.20 3.20 3.18
8 200 194.87 1.61 199.00 192.40 0.86 9.58
9 225 220.51 1.09 224.40 217.60 0.95 9.08
10 250 247,4Q 2.11 l.SJ.•O 244.00 0,85 6.Jl
11 m 273.53 3.54 279.00 263.00 1.29 5.05
12 JOO 299.23 3.56 308.80 292.80 1.22 8.40
1J Jl5 J42,37 J.60 J.SI.SO 336.011 l.OS 1.31
14 350 358.06 5.77 370.60 349.8() 1.61 4.24
15 315 385.80 3.09 391.00 380.00 0.80 155
16 400 44UI3 3.64 42$.50 416.50 0.86 4.12
17 4lS 444,43 4.11 4S2 ..SO 4J7.SO 0.92 2.24
18 4SO .a$7.18 3.91 464..sO 4.SO.OO 0.86 5.69
19 47S 4JI8.3S 3.82 496.00 483J)() 0.78 5.11
20 soo SIS.9(1 2.86 .S20..SO S 11..50 o.ss
A Win7.er value less lhan 3 indicates signif'kant probability of overlap between adja·
cent delay periods. As can be seen from Table 8. 11, with only a few cxccptions, thc W
values are comiderably greatc:r thao 3. This suggests thal, in general, thc: probability is low
for order reversal when using detonators of adjacent nwnber.
The type of cap and 1he delay number is markcd on the base of the cap. For cxample an
H foUowcd by a S mcans No. S Half S<:cond Dclay (Fig. 8.39). The R:>islllnce of the cap
depends upon the lcngth and type of 1he legwire as well as the 1ype oflhc cap. Sorne typi·
cal values art given in Tables 8.12 and 8. 13. The resistance uf fusehead-. without lead
wires is batwccn 0.9 and 1.6 ohms. Thcrc: are thrcc diffcrcnt typcs of wircs uscd to com·
plcte thc: blasting circuh (this ís synonymous with the trunklines and downlines ofthe deto-
nating cord circuit). These are
-Les wiR:>.
- Connecting wires.
- Blasting cableslfiring linelleadwire.
Table 8.14 presents nominal resistance vatues for copper wire. The wirc uscd in co nncct·
ing up thc roond varics with thc application
- 2S A WG is uscd for light duty
- 2.3 A WG (twin twistcd) is: used for exrendinglead wires down thc blasthole
- 21 A WG (twin duplcx) is uscd for ruggcd and abrasivc duty
Thc blasting cableo selcctcd vary with 1hc
- Type of duty,
- Distance from the power source,
Hidden page
lnUiatlon system.s 23 1
Tabl.e 8.14. Nomii'IAJ resísuna: of c:opper wirc.
Gau,ge No Cllw!WIOOO ft
4 O.lS
6 0.40
8 0.63
10 1.0
12 1.6
14 2.S
16 4.0
18 6.4
lO 10
ll 16
23 18
25 26
SERIES
wires
Fi¡ure 8.40. A scrics (:()flncxtioo. Oick ct al.• 1993.
The s1raigh1 parallel circuil (Figure 8.41b) has also bccn givcn for comparison. The selec-
tion depends upon the 1ype of power $0urcc, lhc numbcr of dclays to be sbot, etc. Thc un·
derlying principie however in all cases is to providc· thc rcquircd cum:n1 to thc caps. The
power sourccs uscd consist of
- Twist 1ype blasting machines
- Rack bar 1ype blasting machines
- Conden.ser discharge blasting machines
- Power lioe sources
The dctailcd cireuit calculations may be found in any good Bla.,.ers' Handbook (Oupon~
CIL). Very efficient and reliable condcnscr dischargc blasting machines have become av.
ailable in the last few year.;. They have their own power pack integratcd into the machine.
lt develops sufficient ampcragc so that complicatcd parallel circuits are seldom neccssary.
Using simple parallel-series circuits any oumber of series can be fired at any one time. lf
many boles are involvcd it is advisable to include a balanced numbc.r ofholcs pcr series.
Figure 8.42 shows the thrcc step proccss for making a primer unic using an electric
blasling cap and a cast primer. The primer itself contains a cap sensitive reg.ion near the
cap well. Figure 8.43 shows thc prcfcrred method of primer assembly u.~ing cap sensitive
232 8/asling prlnclpleJfor open pil mlnlng: General de.fign ccncepl.<r
c:k:ctric
a. PAAAU.€L SF.:RIF.S ...__ blt:Still¡
/ '''"
======:::::
fíñna 11ne
connc:cting
'-----' ........ bus"'"'
,....,~
.... 1'-:: blesting
-
c:lewic
conncc:cins
b. PARALLEL wín-
\. l.
flrlns Hne
t t
:\ lea wift:S
fi¡u~ &.41. Pwallel and ~llel..serki oonnmlons. DI~ ~ aL, 1993.
cartridges over four inches in diameter. The procedure is as follows (Dupont Dlasters•
Handbook, 1977):
l. Puncha hole in lhe side approximalely 10 inehes from lhe lower cnd oflhe cartridgc.
2. lnsen lhe cap as far as it can be pusbed by lhe fmger into lhe canridge. Tite cap
should be near the center of the cartridge and pointing in the direction of the main charge.
3. 'lltrow' two halfhitches arowJd tbe canridges one above and one below lhe cap, !be
suppon the charge weight during loading and to hole lhe cap in position.
lltis type of arrangement would be used for priming bulk loaded ANFO, Aluminized-
ANFO, watcrgels and emulsions. During chargíng and stcmming the lead wírcs sbould be
held under light tension along one side of the blasthole to avoid abrading the insulation.
lltere are a number of advantages (Oupont Blastel$' Handbook, 1977) when using electric
detonators.
lnitifltion systems 233
.••.-· •'
' .....
••• • •••
..........' ''
: Fj::
··~:·
..:.. .....
'•
~.
~:::
. ........
'
•¡;:.. '
:S' ' '
.:~:·
::•'·~"·..
::t¡:
:;.::: : ~ ~
:;~
.· ,,........
:~~:: :
.. ...•
·~~ :::
' "' .. .
::-": ~:
...... . ', ..
·:·~
• ji~. ' '
'
.......... !{'" : ~: $ $
...... .. .
..·= :: ' '
....... ''
'
....
· ~: :
:·~. '
~. .
:'
.
·~:.'
!~· : :
..... :
. t: . . '
.. :~~: : :
Figure 8.42. Auaching an eloctric bLastin& capto a Ctit pritMr. OuPotlt 8 135lc:I'S H:andboot. 1977.
fia:urc: 8.4). Attxbin¡ .. dcctric btutíng tiiP toa caruidge. OuPont Olasacn Handbook,
1977.
l. Since electricity travels at the speed of ligh~ all holes are ig~~ited simultaneously.
Once thc clcctric currau has beco introduc:cd it is virtually im.possible lO have a cucoff
from Oyrock or a shift in fonnation causing legwire breakage. The caps an: initiated be·
fore sucb damage can occur.
2. It givcs a greater degree of control over the ftring time and tbe point of detonation
than is possible with the other mcthods. With an electric dctoruuor the explosivo column
can be ínitiated at the bottorn of the horehole thereby prolonging gas confinement for
more effic.ient utilization of the explosive force and better blasting action on the burden.
3. The blasting circuits may be checked right up to the time of firing.
234 8/tUting prlnciplesfor open pil minlng: General de.tign oom:epls
4. No darnagc is done lo thc cxplosivc column vía thc lcad wires (as, for cxample, by
dctonating cord).
S. There is no noise associatcd with thc initiation lines.
6. Through the use of sequential blasting machines, a wide rang.e of delays are avail·
able. Delays are inlroduced in the eleotrical circuíts only by those associaled with the caps
themselves and tbrough extemal means such as the blaúing machi_ne.
Thc mojor disadvantagc (Dupont Blasters' Handbook, 1977 and AECI, 1986a, b and
1989) dcals with safcty conccms rcg¡¡rding sourccs of extntncous electricity
l. Stnty curren~
2. Static clectricity,
3. Electrical storms,
4. Radio frequency (RF) energy,
S. Blasting near high voltage power lines.
that may tind their way into an clcc-tóc blasting circuit.
'Stray current' applies generally lo electrical currents which Oow through lhe eanh or
from electrically operated equipment to earth. Sources of stray current are usually neart>y
machinery, and powcrlincs. 11 finds its way into a blasting circuit the same way that fiñng
current lcaks out, i.e. lhrough
- Spliccs not insuJatcd from carth.

- Bare spocs in legwire, connecting wire or firing line-.
Thus legwire shunts should be lefl inwcl jusi as long as possible and nu electrically pnw-
ered equipment should be operated closer than 15m (50 fl) from the blasting cireuit. Static
clcctricity can come from a vañcty of sourccs. A main one in blasting operations is the
build up of static clcclric:ity with tbe pas.y¡gc of ANFO mixtures through an insulat~ non
conducting loading hose in a pneumatic loading system. Caps have special slatic protec-
tion to handlc thís pmblem. Extremely large amounts of clcctrical cnergy are relcased by
a lightning stroke. The poweñul eleclric fie lds that are characteristic of thunderstom:J.S
rcprescnt a hazard to any material capablc of bcing dctonated. No positivc protection
against detonation by lighuring tw: becn developed. and hence no activity with explosives
should be conducted during th. ~proach or progress of an electrical storm. Fnnm a prac-
lical standpoint the possibility or a premature explosion due to RF energy is cxtrcmcly
remou:. Tbere are publishcd tablcs which indicate safe distance to both mobile and fixed
radiofTV transmitters.
When blasting near high voltage power lines. one must consider both huning thc power
line and vice versa. There are four factors that must be cvaluatcd regarding thc ctfect of
the power linc on the blasting circuit. Thcsc are
l. Capacitive coupling.
2. lnductive couplin.g.
3. Stray current,
4. Lead/circuit wires thtow over the power line by the blasl
The le<:hniques for checkinglavoiding these problems are found in blasting manual.s., e.g.
Duponl Blastcrs Handbook (1977). 1fnormal safcty precautions are takcn and intclligcnce
injected in the loading proc:edure, danger to all personnel can be minimi.zed.
lnitiation S)'$1ems 235
8.6.5 Electronic blasring CQP$
lntroduction
Over the years, the manufacturers of pyrotcchnic delays havc invcstcd in manufacturing.
proccss, and chcmical improvements in order to achieve the highest leve! of precision and
accuracy possible. Significanl iroprovemcnts h.ave becn realittd.. howevcr, evcn lhe most
precise pyrotechnic delay compositions in a detonator are subject to variability of differ-
ent kinds (Watson, 1997):
l. Oetonator delay COmpositions Can Shift over time due lO lhe chemiStry Of fuel and
oxidizers in the mix.
2. Oelays may shift cithcr up or down dcpcnding on the chcmistry.
3. Tempcrature at time or use or storage may affect delay pe-rfonn1111ce.
4. Humidity and storage conditions may atTcct performance.
S. PotcntialloiiO lol variabilíty of dolay perinds.
This variability is often described by the so--caUed coefficient of variation (CV) which ex-
presses tbe standard deviation as a percentage ofthe mean. lt is defined as
Cl'{%) • 100 ~ (8.5)
X
whcre CV = cocftleient ofvariation (o/•). X=mean., S = standard deviation.
l_n geoerat "cap scatter' with chemical delay compositions may have CY values ra.ttging
from lcss than 1 pereenl up to 2 or 3 percent Evcn though this variability may be insig-
nificant for some blast designs. it may be quite limiting to others. As indicated by WalSon
( 1997), it is only through the use of electronic delay technology that dctonator timing prc-
ci,ion can be clim.inated a.. a blast performance variable.
Worsley & Tyler (19&3) in their paper entitled
'The Dew./opmenl Concept ofthe lntegrated Ciret1il Elecrric Detonator '
presented at the 9th Conference on Explosi••es and Blasting Technique sponsored by lhc
Society of Explosivos Engineers in 1983 were the first 10 describe how electronic delay
detonators might be applied in mining applications. Sincc that lime, a grcat de-al of dc-vc-1·
opment work has becn carricd out by a number of companics and the rcsulting detona·
torslsystems are just now slowly being introduced into the marketplace. At the time ofthis
writing ( 1998), the unit cost ofthe detonators is still severaltimes lhal ofpyrotecltnic dc-
lays. Whcn thc possibitity of clcctronic dclay dctonators first arosc, it was anticipatcd
lhat. by analogy wilh the renowned economies of scale as.~iated with other electronic
systcms such as incxpensive quanz watchcs. thcy would cventually carry low price tags.
However, after sorne years of actual dcvelopment. the magnitude of the problem has now
becn fully roalized andas Cunningharn & Iones (1995) hove poinled out lhc initial anal-
og_y to the quanz walch WilS highly mislcading sincc:
l. When a wrist watch malfitnctions, it docsn't blow one's arm off. Furthermore, if it
just stops, one does not have to contend with a ton of primed, but inaccessiblc, high ex·
plosive.
2. A watch is not thrown into a blasthole and subjected to significant static and dy-
namic sln::sscs. lct alonc thc oftcn extreme voltages of eleclro-ntagneric pulse.
3. A watch has a seff.contained banery - il does not have to be pt)wered ahrough hun-
drcds of mcters of cable laid across rough terrain.
236 Blasting principie~ for open pit mining: General desígn concepls
4. A watch is passive - it just displays time. h does not have to pass numerous mes-
sagcs back and forward befare unleashing sufficient energy to finely fragment thousands
oftons ofrock.
They concludc that •with the wiring. connections and rigorous quality requirements.
lhc cost of any clectronic initiation system wiU not be: lowcr than compcting pyrotcchnic
systems. no matter what lhe volumes. Since pyrotechnic blasti:ng systems: are uocmcum-
bcrcd by thcsc considerations and have thc cdge in lcrms of cost, robustncss and simplic-
ity of use, it is importan! to identify whot uniquely justiJies the development and imple-
mcntation of clcctronic delay dctonators'.
Quite simply, the potential user must cvaluatc thc bencfits such as:
1. lncrea~ timing preeision
2. Essentially unlimited number of intervals
3. Safety against unintended initiation
4. ProgJ8111!tting of dclay times aftcr placemcnt in thc holc
5. The po:tSibility for pure computer transfa- of the firing plans frvm a central or port-
able computcr to thc firing machine and furtber to the blasting caps.
to be gained from the use of such detonators again.\t the associated costs.
Prior to presenting some de&ails rcgarding elec:tronic detonators and thcir assoc:iated
systenu it is well to explore in more detail the possible reasons for considering their use.
Heilig & McKcnzie ( 1988) performed an extensivo study of cap scauer using pyrotechnic
delays. The first taSk was to determine thc sample size required to oblain a reliablc esti·
mate of lhe mean and the standard deviation for the firing times from a single batc:h. Fig~
ure 8.44 shows thc variarion in samplc mean as lhe samplc size increascs from 1 to 100. By
testing a relatively small number of detonators (< 30, it is possible to obtain a result which
with 95% probability diffen by less than 1% from the true mean. figure 8.45 shows the
nonnal distribution in delay times that one might expect if one were to test a Iatge number
of c:aps havíog thc same dday number (500 ms in thís case) from thc samc maoufacturcd
batch. The distribotion is normal and its shape can be specified by the mean and the stan-
dard dcviatioo. As indicatcd carlier, lhc standard dcviation is ftequcntly cxpn:ssc:d as a
pereentage ofthe mean througlt the use ofthe coefficient ofvariability.
t•.-------------------------,
J-!! )
••
!
.!! 2
:§
-'
j F lg~ 8...44. Pc:n:e:nt.age m1>r In
~ cktcrmining lhc mor in the mean

for incrt"aSing samplc sitt {95%
~ 0o
':--~--!;20,.--~--:..,'::--~-60+:-~--:80'::--'-~,00 ~ lievd). 1-tcilig & McKtn·
Sarnpk Si:r.t: 7,'e (19U).
Hidden page
238 Bla.sling principle.sfor open pit mining: General desígn concept.v
Probability Ocnsity
!\
.11(\
'
:. .: ,• n· lndh·idwd butch
f\ f\ j . " ' disvibutiortS
• , .. A \
! ll \ j ! ),:!! \
l l\ ii\\
i: ,\¡t \1 1:, .;, , ,! ,\
1 ' '1 ' 1 1''•
1 1' \ ·'·'
1 \' ' \' ~
!:\Ji\\\
J/ , ¡__ .,\ ·i , 1 ~ \\
Oadi.C~
dc:lay time
r-f001inal
ddaydmc:-
Ff&urt 8.46. Oeb y scati.C:r within NlchC$
and bawceo batches. lkilia &:. Mc:Kcn-
t.ic (1988).
lk~ot firing dmc-diAtlbuliOO'I
/\
:\/"'\
¡ .A.. '.\
' 1 '
/ i \ \
:i .¡· \. \.
! 1 \ \
1
/ 11 \\ \\
1 ' \ '
/ / _,./ soosso '.......
' ·........
Pigun: K.47. 'rím.: di~ni.Mk.Jn$ (or two
adj¡u:cnc perJod dc:b)· CII!PS· 1-lcili¡ &
McKcnz.ic (19311).
l'lowever as pointed out by Larsson el a.l. ( 1988) the totaJ number of available intervals
with pyrotechnic caps (Tablc 8.1S) is limilcd today. Hcncc, onc may face thc problem of
having to limit blaM size. This problcm does not exist for t lcclronic detonators due lo thc
very low scauer in observed delay times. Thus one application for which the use of preci-
sion delays should bt.: cons idertd is for large blasts wherc tlring o rder must be maintained.
In smoothwall blasting, the holes in the smoolhwall row should be initiated at as nearly
the srune time as possible to achieve the bcst rcsults (Svftrd, 1993). Evcn when care is
lnitiation S)l$tem!i 239
1aken to assure that all caps come from thc samc batch and thercby minimi:zc the scattcr
for a given delay_, much beuer results have been obscrvcd when convcntional dclays havc
bcen replaced by eleclronic delays.
As has been discus:sed earlier, there is a sequence- of different eventc¡ ac¡sociated with
bla.<ting a single hole in a bench. These are shown diag¡ammatically (Atlas Powder Com-
pnny, 19&6) in Figure 8.48. A certain amount oftime is aso;ociated with the initiation nnd the
complction of cach cvcnl With thc ncw precision opportunities olfered through the use of
TubJc 8.15. Available COti\'Cfll)onal pyrok(:hnk: ddays (Lllt1son et aL, 1988).
Scric:..'i Pttiod numbc:r Numbet of deJa)' peri<>ds lnterval (mt) Oelny time (ma)
MS 1·20 20 25 25-500
24, 28, )2, 36
40,44 and 4S 7 100 60()..1200
I..P
s6. 64, n
1·12
~md ao •
12
200
soo
1400·2000
SOO-<iOOO
Vs = 10 tO 1500 IVsee
Sternming Ejccúon
Profik
2·80msec
Surface Urlil\ina
Profik
2.(,() """'
Material = l. imcstone Explosiv~ = ANFO (40')

vP = 1.s.ooo ftls« voo. 13,000 ftlc.c
p • 2.3 g/CC Uok Oil. • s•
Ave, Bt1rdcn = 1, .
Figu~ 8.48. A summary oft~ c:vents ;~nd thdr limin.g duñQg a bl~. Atlas Po~·ckr Compooy. 1987,
240 Blasting principies for open pit mining: General design concepls
cloctronic detonating delays the engineer can now consider how groups of holes or even
portions of single hales should be initiated to encourage or discourage different rypes of in-
lefaetions. Through su<:h timing eonuols one should be able 10 aceomplish ccrtain vcry spe·
ci6c objectives such as increased fragmentation, lncreased throw, decreased ground vibra-
úon, etc. This is the opponunity area whieh is lightly explored at present and offen the
possibility for major blasting improvement. Even given a significanúy higher oost per deto-
nation uni~ itlakes only a n:latively small improvemcnl lOjustil)' lhe additional oosts. Wilh the
widespread availabilily oflhis new tool on the hori2on, il is up 10 blasl designen lO show how
thc highcr unit dctonator costs can be translated inlo overaH production savings.
Electrical energy source (Nitro Nobel AB)

Outwardly, lhe Nitro Nobel AB eleelrOnie detonator (Larsson eral. 1988, Svlird 1992,
1993) looks like a conventional electric one. lt has the same dirnensions and is equipped
with cwo lead wires. The detonators are marked with Period Numbers between 1 and 2SO.
On lhc insidc, as shown diagr.unmatically in Figure 8.49, it is quite different. In principie,
the detonator consists of an electronie delay unit in combination with an instantancous
detonator. An integrated circuit, a so-called 'chip' (4), constitutes the heart ofthe detona·
tor, whkh also contains a capacitar (S) for cnergy storagc., and scparate safcly circuits (6)
on the input side (towards the lead wires) in order to protect against various forms of
eleetric overload. The chip itself also has interna! safery cin:uits on thc inputs. The fuse
head (3) for the initiarion of lhe primary charge (2) is specially developed 10 provide a
short initiation time with a mínimum ofscattcr.
Figure 8.49. Thc Nitro Nobcl elcclronic deeonat.or. Pcmon, 1992. Anonymoi&S, 199)L
Copynghted rT'-:ttenal
fnilialion sysle.ms 241
The Period Numbers indicate the order in which the detonations will oe:eur rather than
the delay time. Each detonator has its own time reference but tbe final delay time. is de-
tcnnined in cooperation with the blasting machinc just beforc initiation.
Typicul charactcristics for thc ck-ctronic dctonator includc;
- lnitially has no inhiation cnergy ofits own
- Cannol be brought to dctonatc without a unique actívation code
- Receives its initiation cnergy and activation code from the blasting machine
- fs cquippcd with ovcr-vohagc protcction. Small cxcess loads are dissipatcd via inter-
na! safety circuits. liigher voltages (> 1000 V) are limited by means of a spark-gap. Large
excess loads will bum a fuse in the detonator which incapacitates it, without making it
dctonatc.
- An initiation system which operares at low volta,ges (< 50 V) which is a great ad-
vantage considering the risk of current Jeakage.
Thc blasting machine (Fig. 8.50) which constitutes thc central unit of thc initiation
system supplies the. detonators with energy and de.termines the delay time to be· allocated
10 each Pcriod Number. Since it is micro-computer controlled, it's mode of operation can
be altcrcd with various control programs, whHe it can be unifonnly dcsigned from a hard·
ware poim of view. The controls tOr the initiation of the round are designed as con\'en-
Copynghted r1atenal
242 Blá$ting principies for open pil miníng: General design et>ncepts
tionally a.• possible. In tlle usual way tllere is a charging butt01l and a firing button. A
panel witll lamps indicales what is happening and gives tlle go-ahead signal when the
round is ready to be fired. lf any errors are detected tlley are indicated on the panel and
the blasting machine rcscts thc systcm. Thc time infonnation is storcd in a special time
memory in the unit. Time allocation ro the detonators is carried out by uniquely codcd
signals to eliminate any possibility of en-or. The detonators do not react to any other code
than the one from tbe blasting machi.ne and the ri.s.k for unintentional initi.at:ion because of
spurious sign.aJs from other energy sources is thus eliminated. The blasting machjne auto-
matically perfonns an opcration status control. This is done automatically by thc machine.
The ready signal for firing is given only aJler approved result oftlli• che<:;k.
To fully utilize the advantages of the electronic detonator, the 'advanced' system is
chara~teri1.ed by:
- Shortest time between two adjacent period numbers (• the intervallime) is 1 ms.
- Longest delay is 6.25 secs.
- A detonator with a lower period number cannot be g.iven a longer delay lime lhan a
dt.1onator with a higher period numbcr.
- Detonators witb dHTerent period numbers eannot be closer 10 each otller (mcasured in
miiHseconds) than the difference in dte numbers. For example the interval between No. 10
aod No. 20 mu.~t be at lea~tt 1Oms.
- Maximum number of detonators co1mected to eacb blasting machine is about 500.
Many different number combinations can be uscd to achievc the desired delay times for a
particular round. In practice this means that the user, for most rounds. only needs a suffi-
cicnt number of diffcrcnt pcriod numbcrs in stock and not certain tixed numbers as today.
The preparatory work for a blasting operation includes thc detcnnination of delay times
for cach blastbole in tlle round and tlle charging of the holes with detonator.; witb suitably
choscn pcriod numbc:rs. Thc blasting machinc$ mc:roory is thcn programmcd with thc ncc-
essary time infonnation adapted to the peñod nwnbers chosen. This can be carried out
with a oomputer Of via a spccial programming unit eonnccted to the blasting machine.
The round is connected (Fig. 8.51) in parallel witb arbitrary polarity. The detonators
are connected via a terminal block to a two-wire bus cable using special pliers. The bus
cable is connected to the blasting ntachine via a tenninal box and a flfing cable.
Thc modc of opcration during blasting, and tlle interaction betwcen tbc blasting machine
and the detonators are shown in a simplified way in f'igure 8.52. lñe handling includes
Computtriu:d
OWdn¡ Mac:hinc:
l~i¡ure 8.5 1. Electronic dctol\lltOr c:ircuil, ~n d aL, 19S8.
lnltlai/Qn •>>~<nu 243
Ot.ASTINO fi.\Al'1-i1NE
SUPPI..Y
POWER
Sdfchcd
N
STOP
~ CHARGE
CAPACITOR
\tlt!a¡C: ched:
lnclica«c fllufl
STOP
~~timinc
·~ ~
lndia&k
"RilADY"
·~ N~
"'""""'?v
Oday
1
l)f:T()NA.110N
e pyr rtcd ratc fl 1

244 Blmling principies fi>r apen pil mining: General dt!..vign concepts
t\vo manual opcrations and tbc cxact time for thc blast is dctcrmincd by the opcrator.
Apart from that. everything is carried out automatically. The operation can be interupted.
howevcr, at any time until the tiring s igna! has becn scnt lo thc detonalors. Aftc.r that, tbc
detonators are released from the signalling system and will detonate with high üme-
accuracy.
Electricol energy source (JCI)

The material ineludcd in this seet.ion has been largely extracted from Cunningbam, 1994a.
h and Cunningham & Iones, 1995. ICI's EX.EX 1000 system shown diagrammatically in
figure 8.53, which was commissioned for p(Oduction blasting in Novembcr 1993, has
been used for a number of full-scale production blasts in open cast coal, ring blasting and
quanying. The system is buiJt around a fuJLy prognunmable electronic delay detonaJor with
tube dinlensions only slightly greater than nonnal. The charac1eristics of the detonator are:
- Every detonator is programmed remotely in the hole.just pñor to blasting
- Any detonator in thc hook-up can be allocated any dclay from zcro to 1S scconds in
1 ms steps.
- 'lñcy are ex1rcmely robust. both physically and clectronically. and havc various safc.
guards against accidental firing.
The detonalOf downline consists of a strong six core cable~ ted rrom a downline con-
nector block (DCon). The OCon is connected by means of a crimping tool to the harness
line. a fivc-core ribbon cable ftom thc blast progr.unmer. Up to 250 detonators can be tired
on each harness. of wh.ich f'our can be driven by one programnter. The programmers can
be linked together to expand the number of delays a\•ailable for a blast.
Circuit break.> and leakage must be detected as early as possible during deployment of
the detonators.. Test equipment which is incapable of prematurely firing any detonator.
cven if the safety intcrlocks in thc system fail, has beco devcloped. and is uscd to check
the intcgrily of detonator units a.~ loading proceeds.
The blast prograrnmer which addresses each of the detonators individuaJly through
hamesse:s serves duee functions:
- Testing for circuü iotegrity and detonator condition,
- Programming of thc dclays, cithcr dircctly using thc kcypad, or by mcans of a PC
computcr,
- Activating the blast by charging lhe capacitors and sending the firing signal.
Color coded keys serve to prevent the programmer from being LL~ for firing purposes
during the testin.g and programming cycle) 1111d passwords are used to prcvent the unau-
lhori7.ed use of'the equipment
Thc blast commandcr is the graphics-drivcn timing software-. Nonnally run on a notc-
book computer it is down-loaded to the blast programmer once all is appruved. h is key to
lhe cffcctive cxploitation of lhc clcctronic dctonators. EsscntiaUy, thc blasting eng.ineer
defines thc bla!n layout and then allocates delays to the boles. The pattem is checked by
simulating the blast and timing contours can be generatcd to examine movement trends.
Following a blast, lhc printout pmvides a record ofthe positions of all botes and dc.lays used.
The advant.ages ofthe system are:
l. Because delays are not programmed until the blast was hooked up, the mcn on thc
job do not need lO concem themselves with details of sequence in a physically arduous
situation, but only with thc routing of thc hamcss.
Blast commander
software - =
- '- Blast
programmer
1 Ttming 1
t ~~~~~y t . .f____~
Queries,
8asthole Commands
Layout
Harness
Fequired
8asting lndividually S"
Fesults Programmable
Detonators
-
"'
¡¡·
g·
oo {O -14999 ms) ~
TI
'<
~
~
cO. Figure 8.5}. Thc: EXEX 1000 blast initiation S)'Stc:m. CunningJ!am, 1994. ..,
...
::r
"'
~
3
*"'
"'·
246 8/asting principle.t fbr open piJ mining: General de.sign concepts
2. The decision on timing can be taken with a holistic view of the blasthole layout,
k:nowing that all the boles shown are, in fact, in place.
3. There is no need to be concemed with pn:malun: cut-offs sincc aU dctonators are
initiated priOf to the tirst one firing.
Atlhe time of publication, an improved systern, lhc EXEX 2000, has jusi beco intro-
duced.
Shock Tube Energy Source

The mateñal included in this section has beco hugely extracted from WatsOn, 1997. Tbe
DIG!DET N electronic delonator developed by The Ensign-Bickford Company and shown
diagrammatically in Figure 8.54 utilizcs a standard shock tubc lead as the 'input' signa!.
The tube is seale<l in an intemal isolation cup molded from ser:ni-conductive plastic to
protect the unit from static discharges or other spuriou:s electrical energy. The shock tube
signa! is transfonned into an eleetrical pulse lhrough lhe use of lhree pñneipol compo-
nents: a small e,,plosive charge (booster) coupled lo o highly effieienl piezo-cenunic
ciernen! (generntor) and an clcctrical energy storngc ccll (capoeilor). ThJs cncrgy gcncra-
tion and storagc mcchanism is described in United States Put·ent S, 173, 569. Severa! othcr
patents relaled 10 this device are pending.
U pon receipt of a (thennal) signal from sorne c::ncrgetic triU:lSmission line such ws a
shock tube, lhe small explosive charge in lhe booster detonotor fires. Tbis activates lhe
piczo-c::eramic deviccJ which in tum causes cWTCnt to Oow through thc sn~ering diode to
charge the storage capacitor. A voltage regulator provides a substanlially constant volt-
age source to the oscillator to control the frequency of tbc osciUator. Upon initial appH·
cation ofthe input voltage. a 'power·on resct' circuit prcloads thc countcr. Once tbc volt·
oge on lhe storage capacitar has increased bcyond a lhreshold setting. lhe counter bcgins
decrementing upon each input pulse from the oscillator. As the oounter digita.lly decre·
mcnts past zero, thc output to thc firing switch is activated and all remaining encrgy in
the slorage cap::tcitor is dumped to the igniter. The end resuh is an electronic delay deto-.
nator that can be initiated. by noncleclric mcans..
Figure 8.55 shows a block diagram of the elec:tronic delay circuit. The intemal elec·
tronics a:re rendered immune from radio frequency and other electric field energy sou:rces
by the metallic cap shell. The shell completely s.u.n'ounds the electronic elements, creat-
ing a Faraday cagc tbat rcquircs the ficld strength to be ·zero at all point.s in the shcll. This
effect has been confinned through extensive testing. including testing 10 MlL.STD 461 -
0 which has dcmonstratcd the unit's non-suscept.ibility to ínitiat.ion ftom c:r<trcmcly high
clec::tric Hcld dcnsity environmenL~.
Laborotory ond field testing indicatcs lhat lhe systcm (both surfacc and in-holc units)
maintains a +/- onc milli.second range when used in a typicaJ blast design pauem. fig-
ure 8.56 indicates lhe level ofvoriability over a somple of delay rnnges. Table 8.16 shows
f'iring times from an actual blast.
lnili.alion systems 247
-1
1
Fiñng
_ / S witch
Main Storagc ""1" ' Rq¡vl- Powcr-on

ic c:in:uits Rcsct cin."Uit
.J.. Capacitor
~ ,. ........
-'-
1.snltcr
0-KilllllOI (~
c:íreuit Coume<
Fi.gun: tl.SS. Bb.:k dia¡nm or the Oicidet decoiUitor C-ircuit. Wat..w n, 1997.
Tlming Scaucr (416 val ~)

1
• •• • •
_j
0.8 1
¡
w
0 .6
0.4
•
• ••
•
••
t
~
0.2
•
.Q o
~2
T
200 400 600 800
.!~ ..0.4
-o.6
..0.8
-1 t
Nominal Time (ms)
Tablo 8.16. Aclual firing times from a blast v;t!Cfl using OIGIOET TM detOIUitOtS ( Wat.son, 1997).
f iring time (ms)
Plamed Actual Variac.ion
soo 500.125 0.125
S3S S)$.12$ 0. 12$
.,
570 571 1.0
60S 60S.S7S 0~1$
640 641 1.0
67S..S o.s
710 109.81$ ..0.12$
560 S60.625 0.62$
595 595.375 0.375
630 629.?5 -0.250
665 665.5 0.500
700 700.7S 0.7SO
135 134.ll75 ..0. 125
710 770 o.o
248 Blatllng principle.t for open pll mining: General design t;()ncepls
Tnbk 8.17. P~liminary product spe.:.ifiej~lionl! for tbe l)lúl0€i 1"' (Walson. 1997).
Ptlysical dimensions Standard 2.5'", 2.7". 3.5'"' x 02%'"' OD aluminum slteUwitb vari~
ab&e len¡th !lhod: tuhc tcad.
Oelay principie: t'actory programmed
Range of dela.y dm(-1 3ms to IO.()()(}mJ
Storag.: and operadng tcmpendurc· tan~ -.65 •F lO U0°F
lmp;tet scnshJvity same as Primadct detol\lltor
Shodr; scnsitivity same as Primadc:t dctol\tlt«
Vibt'ation resUtanoe f'as.<lCS M JL~STD 810C Method 514.2; MIIA'I'O )31 Tew 119
K.f.t rtsi:~~.t~ncc Mll.rS·ro 461-0 RSI03 (200 Vlm from 14 kHtzto 18 GUtt:)
ESI) througb llhod; tubc 30,000 vohs al IOOpF
No electtonic te.~ting or bla~ting c.ircuit pmtocol. olher than thc book:up and inspcttion
procedurcs currently uscd for standard blast iniliation are required. There are no blasting
machines, programming interfaces, data inpul, or electrical connections of any typc. T rain-
ing is limited to that needed for conventional nonelectric initiation systems. Unlike otllcr
elecrronic systcms, these detonators can be used in c<Jmbinatioo with cxisrin.g s hock n1be
or deronating cord products as required.
The shock tube's lead length must be considcrcd whcn hooking up the system. The
detonator timing is pn>grammed at the lime of manufaclurc and is prcciscly matchcd to
thc lcngth of tbc tubc. Thc unir's delay time is calculated from the end of the s hock tubc:.
For example, a lWenty fOot (20') 1000 ms detonator would havc a díffc..-rent programmcd
time dclay than a sixty foot (60') 1000 ms dclay. Both units, though, would shoot pre-
cisely at 1000 ms whc:n fircd from the end of the shoc.k tubc. Thc actuaJ firing time would
change ifthe point ofinitiation is varied from the end of the shoc-k tube. Since shock tubc
det<>nate5 at approxinultely 1980 mettt>/second (6500 IVscc), a 1000 ms dclay would de-
crease incrementa.Uy in time by 1 ms for cvery 6.S ll change in thc initiation point from
thc cnd of thc tubc. Givcn adcquatc lcngth of tubing. this featurc would provide a limited
amount of ' tunabilily' or nexibifity for delay rimes.
Safety, reliability. and •user.f'riendly Precision' were the th.ree primary design spccifi·
cations. Thc other product spc.-ci tications are givcn in Tablc 8. 17. The first DIGIOI~T TM
detonators were shot by Tbe Ensign-Bickford Company in late 1995 and tcsting has con-
ünucd through 1996 and 1997. A sccond gcncration design of this technology is planned
for foe.ld use in 1998.
8.6.6 The non-pri»~ary-explo.•ivc detonator (NPED)

The material includcd in this scction has beco larg.cly cxU'acted from Anonymous ( 1992),
and l·lolmbcrg ( 1994, 1997). Today, most detonators with pyrotcchnic dclays are con-
structcd as shown in Figure 8.57a. The electñc detonator is equipped with a bridge wire
which.. when electrically heated. sclS a fusc: head on tire. This, in tum, ignites the delay
charge. Wben tlle delay charge has been consumed, a small charge of primary explosivc
placcd betwecn the pyrotcchnic dclay and thc sccondary cxplosive base cltarge is ignited.
The prittlaty explosive transforms the relatively slow chcmical combustion of thc dclay
clcmcnt into a dctonation of thc sccondary cxplosive.
Primary explosives gc:nerally consist of single molcculcs which (a) allows them to de-
composc very quickly when initiated and (b) gives them the ability. when ignited, to tran..
lnillall'on S)tSICm& 249
Lcg Wird
. siCC'\'C
Scalin¡ sJcevt:
Cñmo
• Shell
Fusc Hcad
t:- f:lec;troslat ic Shell
Sbit ld
Delay elcmc:nt
........
Dclay Chutge
Delay<lw¡< < '
p'rimarv E.llolosM
PETN chatgc
Base
(secoJnoary c;cposi ~) ,__
ll Conven1iMal Elea rle 8t31S1Mt¡ Cap b. NPED Blasting Cap
f igun: 8.57. Comparison or a oonvc;ntional c&cccri<: bhllt1ina, cup wilh thc NP€0 bfas1ing cap. Anonymous, 1992.
sit from buming to deton.ation over distances as srnall as a fraction of a millimetcr even
under atmospheric conditions. A few milligrams is enough to achieve detooation. Thesc
properties make priroary explo5ives very suitable for use in the initiaiion proccss. On the
other hand. thelr extreme sensirivity to hcat, fric,tion and impac.t make tbem risky to han-
die. Sorne common cxamples of prímary explosives are men:ury fulminaoe (HgC,N1 0 2),
Jc:ad soyphnale (PbC6 H,N30 0 ), lc:ad azide (PbN6 ), 3l1d silver azide (AgN 3),
Secondary cxplosives are much le:ss sensitive to initiation than are primary explosivcs
and can often bum under atmospheric pressure conditions without any transit from dcOa-
graoioo oo detonation. Two examples of sccondary cxplosives are PETN (C, H,(N03) 4)
and hexogcn!RDX (C3 H6 N3(N01) ,).
The basic coneepl for the new detonator shown diagrammatically in Figure 8.57b is ohe
replaccment ofthc primary explosive (as used in tbe conventional cap) with a secondary
explosive which. in this ca.~. is Pf:.TN. The idea comes from China and is described in
US Paocnl 4, 727,808. Thc ncw cap which has been developed by Nioro Nobel AB is com·
patible wioh moso of the usual lc:ad sysoems such as None l.
The exterior of the new detonator appears exactJy the same as a traditional cap. Thc
interior. however. has been extensively modificd. As can be sccn, the sensitive primary
cx.plosivc, lcad azide. has been replaced by an initiation element consisting of a stecl
shell, a scaling cup, PETN charges and a deJay charge. Through carcl\olly designed den-
sity and quality variations in thc PETN. thc combustion front accelerates as it moves
along the initiacion element. By tbe time the front reaches the base charge, the initial de~
nagraoion process has changed lo 1\oll detonaoion. This phcnomcna ís called OOT (Oe-
flagration to Oetonation Transition).
250 8/astlng principies for open pil minlng: General design concepts
An interesting description (Anonymous. 1992a) of the differences between the con-

vc-ntional and thc NPED conccpts is:
'A conwmtional blasting cap can be lilceneó 10 a gasoline engine where a spark p/ug
(primary exp/osi•,.) i.t used to ignite the fueUalr mixture. The NPED blasting cap can be
likeneá lo a diese/ engine where the fue.Vair mixture requires only high compres.sion to be
ignit~d. This rompression is achiew!d in the lnltial/on elemenJ •.
This cap has signi tieant safety and cnvironmental advantages over more convcntional
caps containing lead azide. The new non-prirnaty explosive detonator is much less sensi-
tivc to diffcrcnt cxtcmaJ slimuli than tbc conventional one which means that a higher de-
gree of safel)' is introduced in all operations
- Manufacturing,
- Transportal.ion,
- Storage,
-Use.
Anotber benefit with the new detonator is that due to the eliro_ination ofthe lead az:.ide, the
amoun\ of lead discharged from each cap into thc environment is rcducc:d by about SO%.
In the future even the lead containing delay element constituents will be replaced by with
4
on<.'S without lcad.
8.6.7 Magnadet Detonarors

As dcscribcd in Scction 8.6.3. when electric detonators are uscd to initiarc an cxplosivc
charge, the cap ls gcnerally first in.~ into a primer and lhen the cap plus primer are in-
scr1ed into the holc. Thc cnds ofthe lcg wires are kepttwisted togcthcr (sbor1ed) until just
prior co blasting at which time they are connected into the blasting c:.ircuit. Because or
electricaJ oontinuity of the circuit (circuit wires. legwires, cap bridge wire) it can be che-
c.k ed both during hook-up and prio r to firing.The bridge wire usc:d to ignítc thc match in
the cap is of small diameter and high resi~tance. When current is applied to the circuir.. the
wirc hcats up. This ignitcs thc match which causes thc dclay substance in the cap to bcgin
to bum. etc. With this type of circuit arrangement there is always the chance, albeit ve:ry
small, th.atcxtnmc:ous clectricity in thc fono of:
l. Stray electricíl)',
2. Static clcctricity,
3. Radio frequency energy,
4. Lightning,
may be accidently introduced into the circuit and set-offpan or all ofthe blast.
As introduce<! by Atlas Powdcr Company in thc earty 1980s, the basic idea bebind the
Magnadct detonator was to ck:ctrically isolatc thc cap lcgwircs from thc circuit wircs and
thereby Jargcly eliminat.e this dangcr. In this scccion. the description of lhe Magnadct dero-
nator as extracted from the paper by Kremer ( 1991) will be presented.
Thc transfcr of clcctrical cncrgy from thc blasting circuit to thc detonator lcgwircs oc~
curs through a mini-transfonner attached during manufacture at the ends of the legwires.
The detonator legwires are wrapped three times around an iron toroid (tbe mini tram 4 4
fonncr) in such a way th.at they always remain campteU>ly shunted and isolated. Thc
toroid itsetfis housed in a plastic connector (Fíg. 8.58).
lnitiation systems 25 1
~ Prolc:c;eor Cap
Toroid
l~u
l!1f-- 1.o.c. CU~nc:ctor
Twift Le¡ Wlm~

( 12' •• so· long)
/
:ff
'"
-
tONG tEAO MAGNADI!f ASSEMBI.V Figln 8.58. Tht: long lc:ad
Mognadel """"'"Y·
The detonator consists of a standard, hig.hly accurate delay detonator with a heavy. low
resistance bridgc:wirdmatch as.sembly shie-ldc:d against low firing currents.
The detonators are con.nected into the primary blasting circuit by simply passing a sin·
glc #1 8 AWG coppcr wire ohrough each oflhe toroids (fig. 8.59). This single pass results
in the creation of a 3:1 turn transfonner. An AC eum::nt (rather than a direct currc:nt) is
induced into thc dctonator' lcgwircs from the primary blasting circuit. The primary circuit.
in tum.. is wired into a blasting machine or onto the terminal board of a sequenti.al blasting
machinc. To succcssfully firc Magnadcts, thc blasting machinc must be spccilllly dcsigncd
to gencr8le a high fn:qucncy ( 10 to 30kHz) alto:rnating currcnt.
Because the detonator legwires are electric:ally isolated from the primary bla.~tting cir-
cui~ thc possibility of prcmaturc ignition from cxtrancous clcctricity has bccn grcatly re..
duccd. The nature of lhe protcction will now be bricfly discusscd. Due to tbc transfonncr
coupling beN>·cen the lcgwircs and thc primary blas.ting circuit. thc c.hancc. of prcmaturc
ignitíon from stray OC current cntcring lhc primary bla.>1ing circuit has bcen climinato:d.
Typical AC pawer which is found around mining opcrations (SO or 60 Hz) will not aiJcct
Magnadets since lhey can only be activated by AC currents in lhe high frequency (1 O to
30 kHz) band. Stray c.urrcnts will not cntcr tbe dctonator legwin:s themsclvcs since they
are always shunted and in.,ulated.
Wilh regard to static electricity, lhe heavy, low resistance bridgewire plus lhe high
voltage static discharge procection built into lhc matcb ignition systcm providcs a grcat
252 8/asrlng prindp/esfi}r open plt mbting: General design concepi.'S
1RAWG l nsui:Ucd Copper Witt
, ./
·M 113R*f Asscmblies
degree or protection. The deton.ators lhemselves can withstand a static discharge dovm 11
non-isolated legwire of at least 1.0 Joule at 10 Kv and still not firc. Static encrgy dis-
charged into the primary hla.uing circuit present!l even less of a h.al.ard.
Radio frequency (RF) energy presents a vcry minimal hazard for conventional electric
detonator-5. This huard is even less for Magnadeb. Although the potcntíal for RF energy
to be induccd into lhe primary blasting circuit loop does exist, for lhis energy to be even a
thcorctical hazard it must be transmiHcd at 25 MHz or below. The induccd current. if any.
would be reduced hy 113 dueto the 3:1 trao...~fonner winding. To ftre the detonator's igni-
tion system. the rcsultant currcnt would still have to be high cnough to overcome the low
resistance bridgewire.
Of all convcntional elcctric dctonators, thc transfonncr coupling offcrs thc highcst dc-
gree of prorection against the dangers of lightning.. l·lowever, as with any ignition system,
dcctric or non-clectric, all personnel must be evacuated from the blast are-a during the ap-
proach of a lightning stonn.
Although, as originally conccived, the system had many benefots, it also had sorne draw-
backs which limited its application. f'irst. the detonators were manufactured with maximum
leg wire lengchs of SO ft. Secondly, t~ numbcr of available intcrval numbers restrictcd
lheir use 10 smaller shots. Thirdly, altbough !he primary blasting circuit could be cheekcd
for continuity, the detonator legwire portion could not. finally, only straight dclay pcriod
sequences euuld be fired since no sequentjaJ üming maehine was available-.
Thcse have now bcen ovcrcomc with thc introduction of thc Mini·Magnadct. h is a
standard Magnadel delonator with 5 cm (2 inch) long legwires aHached 10 1he toroid
(Fig. 8.60). As shown in figure 8.61, a sliding delay primer can be made by simply plac-
ing thc dctonator into thc approprlatc well of any standard cast booster and positíonin.g
the toroid over the 'through tunnel' using a plastic 'nail'. One leg of 1he 18 A WG copper
wire downlinc is then passed through the primer lunne-1and the primer is lowered into che
lniJiation &ystems 253
1'Clmldal 1'raM(ormrt Corc
1-- -- 'r t e& Wires----1
l>i:tolllllor Sbdl
figure 8.60. The mlni·Mag:nadct a'l·

sc:mbly.
Prinwy Circui1 Wirc

Fi¡urc 8 .6 1. The primer •S)embly usin¡ lhe
m in.i~bgnadel.
254 8/asting principies for open pil mining: General de:sign concepts
Primar)• Circuit Wirc
Slentming
Primtr 12
lh:plosivc Colunm
Primer NI
Figure 8.62. Magn$!kt circuil wilhin a
blasttlok.
hole. The wcigtu of thc primer will thc primer aod the circuit wirc to che bolc bol·
CBlT)'
tom (see Figure 8.62). Any subsequent primers ncedcd to load the blaslhole are made up
in the samc manner and simply slide down one of lhe primary dreuit wíres. Tbe prin:wy
circuit wiring now bccomcs thc downline and can be checked for continuity with any
standard blasting galvanometer. h is now possible lO load any dcpth blastholc with as
many primers as dcsired with only onc circuit wire running down and back up lhe hole
(Fig. 8.62). All boles are lhen wired into series by connecting all the prímary circuit
do~n_lines using a standard wirc splicc (fig. 8.63). Tbc primary circuit is then wired into
the Magnader blasting machine which generates a high frequency. ahemating currenl.
With the intrOduccion of the Mini-Magnadet and scqucnlial blast:ing machine the ex-
plosive user can now tire large bench blasts sequentially. Thc total systcm is vcry casy
and quick to load. and downlines can be checkcd for continuity. The system is al$(> highly
resistant ro premature ignition from extraneOus eleclricity hazards.
8. 7 BLAST SEQUENCING
8.7.1 lntroductlon
Oelayed detonation ofholes within a shot is desirable for three reasons (Gulf Explosivcs,
1975):
lnillalfon .fYJiems 255
Figure &.61. Magnadd s:uñacceooncction.
l . I.ncreased fragmentation,
2. Controlled displacement of broken mue:k,
3. Dccrcascd vibratioo from blasting.
Thc delays can be inscrted into the system tbrough (a) the trunkline, (b) the downlines. or
(e) tbrough a combination of(a) and {b). Thcre are three major trunklíne systcms availablc
- Electric.
- Detoruuing cord,
- Nooel_,
thc characteristics of which bavc becn discusscd in Scction 8.6. Each of these haos an as-
sociated transmission velocity.
Systc:m Tnmsmission Velooil}'

E~ric ~doru¡t'll 410,000 km'Stt.
Daonatifl& coro YOD 7000 mi5C'C.
Noncl YOD 2000 .........
Each of tbese systems could fire a scqucnce of boles without introducing additíonal de-
lays by using instantaneous (zero dclay) caps at thc holc collar. Dclays. if desircd, could
be introduccxl into thc downlinc poníon of thc circ,uit On thc: olher hand. s:urfacc dclays
ofvarious kinds may be íntroduced ioto these surface systems. For all three systems, caps
tenninating thc trunklinc system at the hole oollars may have buitt-in dclays. Del:ays at
otber poinl$ in tbe system may also be introduced. The techniques used are:
Eleetñe Seq~.~md.al b~ (electronlc dclay' of tap series)

Oe~tina cord Delay caps (dceon;al.in¡: cooneclor'S)
""""' l)eiJ;y taps (dc:tonating QJIIltlCC:I.OQ)
256 BlasJing principiesfi>r open pit mining: General design concepl.t
Thc diffcrcnt dclay numbcrs (times) hove alrcady becn discusscd. Thc use of surfacc de-
lays introduced either automalically (dueto the finite transmission velocities) or on pur-
pose must be carcfully cvaJuated. Rock movement (tlyrock. heave, ventlng) may produce
disruptions in thc círcuíts. The rcsult is cutoffi and mlsflred boles.
One way of minímiz.ing this danger ís tbrougb tbe use of down hole delays. Therc are
three types of downline systems
- Electric,
- Detonatíng cord,
- Noncl.
for thc clec-tric and Nonel downline systems tbe delay is assoc-iated with the delay cap be-
ing uscd. lnitiation would oocur at the location of the primer. Thc cncrgy associatcd with
the downUne itself is insunicient for initiating the explosive column. The detonating cord
downlinc is associatcd with thrco typcs of delays. lf the dctonating cord has suffidenl
strength. the column of explosive may be side initiated. lnitiation would begin ar the top
of thc column with thc detonation procceding downward. lf thc cord is of insufficicnt
strength to initiate the column of explosive but able 10 iniliare primers, tben the inil.iaüon
woutd' cx:c,ur at the primer locations bcginning with tbc first onc mct by lhe cord. lf thc
cord is of ins.ufficient strength to initiate the prlmers. then tbe cord terminales in a cap. A
dclay clement may be included in lhis cap wbich is inscrtc<l in a primer and the initiation
point would be tbere. For the strong (high energy) detonating cord system thc downhole
delay would be very small. For tbe weak (low cncrgy) detonating cord system, tbe cap
dc-lay would be similar 10 the othcr down hale systems.
Thcre are a numbcr of tnmkJioc-downline oombinat.ions which can be fonncd (Tab-
lc 8.18) and thcrcfon: tbe diffcrent possibilitic:s for creating dclays are multiplicd.
ll is sometimes desirable to have hale bottom initiaticm and to lhen cany this initiation
signal to other parts of the column othcr than simply vin the cotwnn ítscff. One example is
wben decked chargcs an: uscd (Fig. 8.64).1n Ibis case an electric cap plus primer is placed
at the desired location in the hale. A llne ofhigh strength detonating cord then canies the
signa! up the column to pri.mers located in the decks.
In summary. thcrc are a grcat numbcr of ways in which holc scqucncing may be ac-
complished.
8. 7.2 Timing comideralions

In previous chapters a general intrOduction to tbe blast fragmentation process has been
presented. A certain amount oftime is required for tbe dift'erent events to occur. Because
of the importance of timing to succc:ssful blasting, a simple example illustrating thc prin-
cipies ha.• been íncluded. lt wíll be assumed tbat
Table 8.18. Camblnadons of trunkllne and downllne:.

Tnri:line Oownline clowic cktona1in¡ cord Nonet
Elcxtric X X X
~ingeord X X
X
""'"' X
lniliaJion systems 2S7
' Drctonating Cord

Oeck Chatgo
Primer
Stcmmi
Elecllk ~'nli~ ~
.
Stcmming l. ··,.,
' f.'i¡urc: 8 .64. Electric bl:ntina cap inítiaw

Elmric Cap and Primer wilh ckttw~lin» ('!()f'd up·linc.
- Rock typc is granite

- Wave velocity (e) = 3000 mlsec.
- Vertical bench face
- Hole diameter D = 0.129 m (9•)
- Beneh height ~ 12 m
- Burden (8) = 250 = 6 m
- Subdrill = 0.38 = 2 m
- Stemming • 0.18 • 4 m
- Holc spacing = 1.158= 6.9 m
- Explosive • ANFO
- Explosive detonation velocity .,. 4000 m/sec.
- Dc:tonating cord downline
- Dctonating cord detonation velocity = 7000 m/sec.
- Primer located at the bench toe elevation
- No downholc dclay
-Crack propagalion vclocily = 0.38c = 1140 m/scc
- Gas streaming velocity ;::~ 1000 mlsec.
The ba."iic geomeuy is shown in Figure 8.65.
Summarized below are the time requiremcnts for the various events.
l. Time for lhe initiation instruetíon.'!i to go f.rom the ~uñacc (collar of the boreholc) to
thc primer
12m
t· " =
M" 7000 mi SCC = 1.71 msec
2. Time for thc subdrill c:olumn to detonate
2m
t ,= =O.S mscc
~ 4000 m/sec
3. Time for the above grade column to detonate
t ., . 8m • 2.0 msec
f a 4000 m/ sec
4. Time for the shock wave to travel to the bench toe
258 8/astlng priuciples for ope11 pil mining: General de$ign concepts
6m
• •
-,.-
~ 4m .
>.
f- '--
12m
... .
'
~
Cap
... '- ]!:----
¡.:..~
• . ov• Figun:, 8.6S. Oiagrammadc n.-prTSC:ntation of
lhc diffctct~t tii'IICS in't'Oivcd in a btast.
6m
t,= 2.0 mscc
3000 misec
5. Time ror lhe shock wave lO lmvel fi'om lhe lOp or lhe explosives column lO lhe holc
collar
4m
l e= = 1.3 msec
3000 m/sec
6. Time for the radial cracks to travel outward from the explosive column to the (verti-
cal) free surfacc.
t~(shortcsl path) =
6m = 5.3 msec
1140 rulsec
16.7 m
1ro (l38'angle) 2 1140 misec = 14.6 msec
7. Time for the explosive gac:e.li to reach the vertical free surt3ce
6m
r,,(shortcstpalh)= misec =6mscc
1000
16.7 m
r,..( 138' angle) = misec = 16.7 m.'lec
1000
8. Time after detonarion begins for spalling to begin at the hole collar
l,po~!ütz • 1~2 + le.= 3.3 msec
9. Time after dctonation bcgins lo fonn a cratcr at thc holc collar (assuming radial
cmcking [tom lhe lop or lhe charge)
4m
' "~(shonest path) • 2.0+ = 5.5 msec
1140 mi sec
112m
r,.( l38'angle) ~ 2.0+ = 11.8 msec
1140 mi see
lniliatüm sy:stem.t 259
1O. Time aftcr dctonatiou for the gases to rcach thc vertical surface
4m
r.,(shortcst path) = 2.0 + = 6 mscc
1000 mlsec
11.2 m
t,.(l38° angle) =2.0+ 13.2 m.scc
1000 mi sec
11 . Assuming that the burden moves at 15 m/sec, the time required for it lo movc
100 mm (4 ins)
0.10 m
tu)(l • ;;; 6.7 msec
l S mlsec
Tbc 100 mm crack is considcrcd sufficicnt to prcvcnl thc shock. wavc: from thc ncxt holc
from be.ing disturbed. This detbrmarion is aJso sufficient ro disrupt the surtl\ce cord lines.
12. Thc maximum suñace time dclay (dctonati.ng cord + dclay) and yct avoid a cut off
between holes in the same row is
tMQK= t,,;, + 1111 + t 1oo = 1.7 + 13.2 + 6.7 = 21.6 mscc
Since the hole spacing is 6.9 m, this amounts toa time delay per meter of
21.6 l1l8CC
r-.= 3. 13 rruim
6.9 m
This is in agrecmcnt witb thc ruJc..of·thumb for surface delay initiation which stalcs that
'Sutface initlation de/ay time Jhould not exceed 1 mslfoot ofJpocing be:tween the /toles. '
13. The minimum desired surface time delay between rows ofholes.
tDd">' rt:l r~J; + t 100 ""' 16.7 + 6. 7 • 23.4 msec
Ex:presscd in tcrms of mctcrs of burdcn this bccomcs
23.4 msec
t!T1It'!l = m = 3.9 msecl m
6
Thc rule-of·thumb from Langefor. & KihlstrGm ( 1963) is that for hest frngmentaúon the
delay time bctwcen rows is givcn by
t • Kvr B (8.8)
whcre Kor • c:onstant • 3 to 5 mslm, 8 .. burden (m), t • delay time (msec:).
GulfExplosivcs (1975) has suggested that for
- 230 to 380 mm diameter bla.,lholes
and
- 5urfacc delay systerns the optimum dclay time usually varics from
l . 8 mslmeter of etTective butden for
- Long stcmming columns,
-l..ow powder factors - 0.25 kg/m3,
- Sofi. highly fissured Slrala of low density to
2. 4 ms/meter for
- Shon collllJ'S,
- High powdcr factors - 0.60 kgtml ,
260 Blasting principies for Opelt pit mining: General design concepls
- Dense, hard, massive rocks.

lf sufficicnt time (dclay) is not provided between holes there will be no place for the muck
to movc. This wiU result in:
- Hard, high bottom,
- Excessive toe on the ne.xt shot,
- A grea1 dcal of raggcd cralcring and attendanl flyrock in the uppcr n:gioo of lhc horc·
hole.
The long delay times between boles pose problems only when using suñace delays.
One way of overcoming this is through a combination of long pcriod downhole dc:lays
and shon period surface delays.
Thc bouom-holc dclay placed in cach holc is sclcctcd so that the dcsircd nwnbcr of
hole< are energized hefore the firs1 hole de1ona1es. The surface delays are selecled 10 pro-
vide lhe desired rock breakage. A.'!Sume for exlln)ple 1ha11he 4 holes shown in Figure 8.66
aro to be blastcd with a 2S mscc dclay pcriod bctwccn thc hales. Thcrc is to be no chanoc
of surface c-utaff. To accomplish lhis all hale.~ are to be energi:t.ed befare lhe lirst hale
dctonatcs. Thc bottom holc - surfacc boJe dclay system (assuming no cap timing dcvia-
rion) is sbown. The time difference between when Cap 1 and Cap 4 are ioitiated is
Time diiT = 112 + t:o + t,. + 3 (Surface Delay) • 3 ms + 3 (25 ms) • 78 ms
The mínimum boltom hole delay should he 78 msec. To accounl forcap scauer, a 100 msec
bottom hole delay has been selected. The placing ofthis delay at thc bottom of cach holc
is easy for lhose doing the charging sinee it is the same delay number in each holc. The
surfacc dclays are thcn addcd during thc final dc·up. To allow as much flcxíbility in thc
surfacc tic up as possiblc, thc initial bottom holc delay should be largc.
Through thc ycars~ thc amount of lime dt:lay desircd lO provide the best fragmcntation
has changcd. Tnday, lhe conslanl Kor in lhe Langefors Formula (8.1) has heen incrcascd
to 3 to 5 ms/ft afburden. This is an increase by about a factor of3 fron1 that originally pro·
posed. The longer total detay times are achieved lhrough a combination of surfacc delays
and in-hole delays.
lnitia1ion roim
• '" ...,
6 = 25ms ó. = 2Sms 6 = 25ms
}
'
Holt 1 Holc2 Hole 3 Holc: 4
' ' '
'
'
. . '
1::. • 100 ms 1::. • IOOms ó. "" l00ms
t-( gun: 8.66. Combtnarion ó( in· hale 111nd surt'acc ddays.
lniliation systams 261
8.8 INITIATION EXAMPLE
There are a large number of factors to be considered when dec.iding upon the sequencing
or holcs:
- Typc of frag.mentat.ion desired,
- Suñacc or in·holc dclay~
- Firiog direction1
- Shape or muck pilelloading equipment,
- Numbcr of detays available.
- Typc oftrunklinc sysaem,
- Env·ironmental conslrnint~ (ground vibrationlair bla.~t. etc.).
ln sorne cases a ma.'\:imum dclay time is spccificd to avoid cutoffs bctwccn holcs. ln othcr
cases the minimum amount of lime between hole.s or rows o( holes to achie\·e the best
fragmentation may control. Envíronmc:ntal constraints may determine thc maximum num-
ber ofholes whieh can be shot on the same delay.
l'n Chapter S a blast design example was begun in which a round (fig. 8.67) involving
four rows of holes was to be shot. Each row conlains 6 boles. Herc thc cxample will be
eontinued to arrive atan initiation scheme. lt will be assumed that
- Thcre are no en\'ironmcntal rcstrktions on the numbcr of holes to be shotldclay,
- Oeum.at_ing cord tru.nk lines wilh surface delays will be used,
- The tiring direction will be as detennined using a VI design.
- To avoid cutoiTs a mliXimum suñace dclay of3.3 ms/m ( 1 ms/ft) can be uscd,
- To minimize a misfircd round, lhere should be 2 dctonating cord routcs to cach holc,
- A minimum numbcr of detays are to be used.
Thc dctonating cord hookup is shown in f'igurc 8.68. Detonating c:ord of strcngth 5 glm is
sclectcd. As can be sec:n, thc eiTectivc burdcn (BJ is less than thc drilled burden (8)
8 9.S
B.•7i •7i • 6.7 m
Thc effective spacing on the othcr hand increases to
s, = s.fi = 9.SJ2 = 13.4 m
Using lhc effcctivc burdcn dimension of 8 11 = 6.7 m onc finds that thc ma.ximum rccom~
mended surface delay belween rows is
• ' 1 : • :
--t-+u • ,
- +-.. --, ·-·
9. ~m
• :
-
--+-+-+-•
1 , Sjl l m:
-•:---,-
,
··• · · + -T ---- · ···-
--+ •
-_. __ _._+ .......
' ' 1 1 1
17l>nT>7W?tV1n
•·igurt' 8.67. Bench round drilkd in a sqWltt' patte'm.
262 8/asting principies for open plt míning: General design concepls
(a) lnidmion Poin•
' '
(b) 1nitiation Point
' '
, ' x • Dc:lay
>:
' ',
Figu~ 8.68, Bc:t~~ round shot in a VI pattc:m,
Dclay = 6.7 m x 3.3 ms/m = 22 ms

A standard Pcriod 1 millisecond dclay from sorne suppliers is
0 1e JO m.-;
For others it would be

0 1 = 25ms
Both are somcwhat greater than desired although the 25 ms delay could probably be suc·
cessfuHy used. To providc at least somc movemcnt of tbc: row in front prior to the ncxt
row ftting requires a time delay of betvt.·een 3 to 5 mslm of burden. Thus the minimum
time delay betw<eo rows from a fragmenwion viewpoint is oftbe order of magnitud<: of
r.... = 20to 33 ms
In thcory, only onc dclay number (25 ms) would be requircd for thc round. Howcvcr with
so many boles invoh•ed, the last boles to fire could be quite heavily choked (due to the
dccrcasing free forward movcmenl with row oumbcr) using sucb a delay. lftoday's dclay
reeommendations of3 to 5 ms/f\ of burden are usc<1 instead one finds that the desired time
dclay is
T(dcsi111ble) = 65 to 11 Oms
bctwccn rows. This cannot be accomplishcd with surface dclays aJone. The rcader is en·
couraged to m.ake a design using a combi_n.ation of available suñace and in-hale delays.
Each hale has a primaoord downlinc which wiU be tied into thc trunklinc. Tíed lo lhc
hottom of the downline L< a cast 1 lb (454 grn) primer. The downline has a strength of
lniliarion sys1ems 263
10 glm. This is strong enough to initiate the primer but weak enough so that the explosivo
column is not initiated by the cord itself. The cast primer is locatcd at tOO toe elcvation
(see Fig. 8.69).
One imponant concem is the safety of neighboring structurcs. Tbere are severa] proce-
dures which can he uscd to determine whcther the sizc of the charge shot per delay (W)
and thc distancc from thc blast (D) are compatible with the structures. These are discussed
in detail in Chapter 9.
Howcvcr, onc of thc lcchniqucs, based upon the use of scaled diwmcc (O,).
D e ( -R
• w
)"2 (8.9)
wherc W = maximum amount of cxplosive (lbs) shot wlthin an 8 ms time interval, R •

distaoce Of thc Shot !O the Slrueture (fi), Ds e scaled distante (Mb 11Z). will be briefly pre·
sented in order to complete the example. The limits on Ds are dcpcndcnt upon thc dis-
tance Das shown in Table 8.19.
lf thc actual scalcd distance excecds the allowable scaled distance then no dan1age
would be e xpected. In the case of this exarnple an important structure is localcd 6000 ft
from thc blast. Thc qucstion is whcthcr thc blast as dcsign<:d (four holc:sidelay) can be shot
without damaging the slructure. The amowtt ofexplosive shot per delay is
W = 4 X 1049 kg = 4196 kg = 9230 lbs
Since the distance is 6000 ft, the acrual scaled dislanec Ds is
Ds = 600019230 112 = 62.41
This is greater than thc allowable
Ds allowable = 60
for this distance and hence the blast should be saJe from a ground vibrarion viewpoint.
Trunldlnt
Pñming Fi¡ure 8.69. Ctou-S«tkln showing 1hc c:hatging

and initUIIing design.
Tablc 8.19. Allowabk scakd-di~ v-ersus distante from lhc shot.

Ol$1ance Dv (A) Allowabk sca!cd dísunoc
0-300 lO
)00-5000 55
> SOOO 60
264 8/asting principies for open pit mining: General design concepu
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AECI E;(p&Qsivc:s 111d Ctu:mic;als Limikd, 1980;.. Ekctric;: bbst.ing.; scrio-in-p:amllcl c,irc;:uits (Pan 1). f.xpio~iW!S
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undc>rKf'(>f4nd c"'OI nrlni~tg. USBM Rl8888.
Bajpayce. T.S. &. R.J. Mainero 1990. Flri~ 8CQilliC)' or C'lcc:uic dt:con:aton.. Proutdl~ 161h Amura/ Coofor·
t!rlC* an E'.xplw.ñ'C's und Birnlilfg Tedutlqw. SEE. pp. 89-102.
6:111.. MJ. & R. Wau. 1982. Fidd cxperience wilh ncw mdboch of shocflring. PnxT.alings <iftk 8th C<mforc>.nn
on úpl(J.Ji'~' and 8/aJIUtg T«Jmiq11~ SF.f:. pp. 169·17$.
Bhushan. V~ C.J. Kooya 4 S . Lukovic 1986. Effca o( dctonatillg c:ord downlinc on expl~iv-e cncrg)· relcase,
Proc.'t'Nl'W-'J oftlte 12th C<Htforence on E.tplrut\on QJtC/ BiAJJing Techn.lque (Min.i-S)i~p). SEE. pp. 41-S5.
Hidden page
266 8/astíng principlesfor open pit mlning: General de.tign t:oncepts
Ens.ign..Bickford Comp;any 1981. Noncl Pñm.Jdet: H,O. Nortel Primadct Sf$lc:m,l'cchni~l Bu.llctin.
Ensign-Bic:kford Company 1984. Pr~MtJcord H~. 59 pp.
l~:si.gn..O id:ford Comp¡ll)' 1990. M$ C~'H~n~X'IQ,. scñcs-f'rimal.lct.Tedmical Bulletin.
G.n'Si¡~t-Oid:ford Comp.¡ny 1991. rrod.:t tmd 8/au IJaign (i~tk.
f~caslc:r, J. M. 19n. N~ ck\'dopmc:nts in surface blast iniliation S)'lltcms-- Nond noiK lc::ss tnm.kJirte dclays and
Noncl kad-in. Proe«th'IJ$1 oftM Jrd CtJnf01t Exp/OJI\'e'$ and Blastlng Tt•c·A SEE. pp. 183-187.
Florín. 11. 1988. A nrw type of nonck-ctric: dc:tonatar. Pf'OCfttilngs oftlte Uth CDnforem.~ M &p/tMiwt.r ond
/Jia.rting Ttte#miqll~. SEE. pp. 389-396.
(Jra)', (!;. 1976. Cu...m1k:d sequen1lal bl.titin¡. Prt.x: o/lht: 2nd Ctmf01t &plruha and 8/tuting Tedmiqw.. SU
pp. 341-354
GKgg, W.B.• Jr. 1994. ACCUBLAST ddonatOt-a nc:w era of ¡ftcisioa in all-elcctron.ic ddonators. Pt·ounll"ft'J
oftlte 5th Hish-Tech SemliW' o" 8/(.l:llln,g T~ltnology. ltut~trJentotlon llnd Explosi\-'C's tfpp/itulion.f. N&.·
Ori&nn.•. IAuUialtO (July 9--1<4). l:lllslina Analylli.s lnlematk>ctal. fnc.. PP· 3J-6S.
úulf Ex.plosivcs. 197$, Programming Your Bla$t With Gul(l!xp&osi\U , 2J pp.
~l agan. 'I'.N. 1974, Opdmum priming Systc:tm ror ammonium niltatc: - fuc:l oiltypc QplosiYC:S. Prot:<'ediftg$.
Sm1Jhern anrl C~riJI'(J/ (}toN"#ISlaml C~ oftite AwiMAl Portvflle. Vlc:tOI'la. tfaatrolla. luly. pp. 283-
291.
Hagan, T.N. 19'75. lnitiation scquc:nce: Vital ckmcnt or op«~ pil blast dcstgra. Design Methods in Rock o\tc-
d!llllÍCll (C.FaithutSl &. S.l. Crouch, ccb) ~dinss nf11K 16th llS SympQ.ri""' Dn kod Mítdtanh. lo(¡,...
MapQ/1$, MIM.ASCE, 1917. pp. 345-355.
Hagan, T.N. 1917a Optimllfl'l initiation, priming and booslcring syst.ems. Cbapccr 3 in tfKJti"QIIan MIMI'(l/ F(llllt·
datiun 's 'Dril/tt1fl tMJ 8/c.Uiin,g T«hnolbgy' Cc wN. Addo.tde. May. 44 pp.
Uagan, T .N. 1977b. EfTccu of dday til:ning on bkudng tcchniques. Chaptcr 7 in tfwrt~lian MIMrtJ Founrla-
tioo ·s ·f),.illi~f8 und Blwti~tg TecluffJlwzy' Cour;~'e. AJe/oide, May. 37 pp.
Ha¡p~n, 1'.N. 1977c:. Oood deby ti.ming·prcm¡ubi~ Clf ~tffteknt ~ b&as:ts. Proc. A141ralar. lt~.rJ. Afin. Mrtall.,
(263): 47-54.
1'1~, ·r.N. 1919. A«ur.ul! dday tlming and cuto!T.~. ~ 10 in lhe wori.1/rQp pnxudi"JP for 'l,¡¡uttna of
RocA Propcrdes Ql1 /)r11ling and BW:tli:ng' Adelu;dt!, 2:5-29 Junc. Auslnllian Mineral f.'oundlltion. II'C. (lp.
2$6.273.
Hagan. T.N. Safoty Md E.jfid~~y In Q110rry Bla-stiltg MafiW~I. ICI Australia ()pcnltions Pty. Ltd Eltplosives Di-
Yi.sion. Forcoursc Man:h 26-28 in Sydney.
Hagan, T.N. &t J.K. Me~ttr 198J. Safc and Effidcnt Blasting in Opcn Pit Mines. Mat~ual writtcn for thc e;~
givcn lll Kllf1';lll:ha, AuStnlia 2J...lS No,·cmbcr. ICI Auostrulia ()pcntioos ~.l.td. ~plosi\·es Oi'Vi.sion.
Uangtt, C.A. 1994. Non-dcaric scqucn1ial blasting f()t' opc:n pil min~ applicalion. Exp/oJiv.n Eltgillft'rlng.
12(1): 9. 10. 16-20.
Hcilig, J.H & C.K. MtKcn.dc 1988. Delay ''lriability - thc mcasUf'CITICot,. analysis aoo impl.kation on rod:
blasdng. Prtx.'t't!fling;~'. úpltw't'C'$ÚI .Ul.rli~t:g Worksltop. Ald/MM. Md~. t'k~lu, Nov . Pfl. 3J...38.
I.Jtn:.ulc$ lncotp()f'lUCd 1969. &p/fUil~s Tedmict~l /)aJu , Saftcy F'use;.
Hcrcuk:s IO(!()rpC)r.Ued 1972. lfen:~~lt:S J;xp/t4hoes f:trgi.Mu ·s Cukk.
l'lcn:uks lncorponatcd Cnp foa.r; PIOMing thc ,fen·~.,firing drcuii.
Hcrcuk:s lncorpor;ued Cap foa.J..· Uslng thr biA..<riing ~Ier.
1-lcn:uk s lnQOfl.'M)nlted OJp foas; R«QnuM.ndet/jiring circuits,
1-lcn:uks l n~rporntcd Cop f acts: llow o.n tl«ll'k tklay et.tp.fonctiotU.
Hcn:uks lncorporatcd Cap Facts- Planning thc Firing Cin:uil BuUctin ECF-109.
1-lercuks lttcorpotflled 1982. Hcr\:::udlct Nonckttric Dclay Blasli~ Systcm. Sales Broebu.tc 200.29SA.
Holmbctg. R.. 1992. Nitro Nobd's BCW ncm-prilt'laty c-xplosi"e detooator. Procudbtgs. Flrst lltt~rlklliontll Cott-
ertttc fllusting <."'onfoi'DtCc (E.K. W.uri~ttn & J. S.;.ilndd(t, cd:i). Cupenh.¡cn. O.Snish F~o:dcnli(Jn or e xplo--
si"c tn¡inetñna. JIP· SI·S6.
Holmbc:sg. R. 1994, Roc;k bliSiin¡ in u simple and mock:m way. Spcin¡nytt (Nitro Nobcl). No. J. Octobcr, pp,
10..1l. l.n Swcdish.
Holmbctg. R. 1997. Erwi.roruncntal aspcets rqvding lhe use oriniti.al:ing sys1ms and e.KplosiYC:S. ~;,IP
from lhl! 81a.ning C()iftmittee S DÍ$t:VS.ti()n Muting. $t()Ctholm. Matth 11, pp. !63· 169. In S"''edish,
1-lolm.bcr'¡. R. 1998. Pri'VIIIe communicatíon.
Uoplcr. R. B. 1975. 1'hc llen.:uckt systcm of inltiacion. PIV)(.Vedilfgs Q[ t/N 1st CQr¡for~ on &p/CIM<e$ tmJ
Bl,utl"8 T«-Miqw, SEE.. pp.ll1· 129.
Hidden page
268 Blasting prb1ciplesjor open pil mining: General design concepls
g, ·:lrd. J. 199201. Thc JlCIS$lbilitics with :~~ecu~t~ dl!l:ay lim~-.o:~ - rcsulls <~fll()m~ fidd tesiS usin¡ ckctrunlc blastin&
caps. Pl'()(;ft'din:p. 4th Jligh-Tech ~minar; 8Jm.ti"'J T«hlfQ/ogy. lnJin41ft~nto#oo and f~pl<ni~ lfpplk.o·
tMu. Blasting Analysls lntcmationaJ,Inc. Nash"i.lk. Ta1n. Ju:ne 20-25.
S"Htd, J. 1992b. The fl0$$ibilitlcs whh accuratc dtlay limes - the n...."<WII$ of some fte&d Mlti eond\lc:c~ wi1h d«:·
tronic; detOrnJU)fl, l.«ture pn:W!tcd al/~ Nim' Nolwl Blasting Cor¡fu~."rU!ff G&dxwg-Ki~l. January 15-16. In
S"''edi.sh.
S,•!ltd, J. 1992c. Th~!o possibiUtics with acc:uratt deJay times - thc results o( somc f.c&d ICSl$ eOO(hl'"'~o.-d with cke·
lronÍ(; d~l,nat.ors. Prot:ftdings ofllw 4th lligh•T«h &-mlnor on 8/osting Teclmt)/ogy, ln..ft~m"'Jftllion ami
Explosh'f'S Applk:«Kw. Olasting Anoi)'.SiJ lntcmational.lnc. Nashville. Tmnmcc. Junc l0-15.
S\'llrd. J. 1993. Possibilitil:s wi.tllaccurate dc:l,.y tim~ ~·"P oj 4th lnt• .s)·mo. M Ruck f'Nif;PN.'ltlatlolt by
Bfas:Jng ·• PRACiBLAST-4. H.~P. Rossmanith. editor. Vicn111. AuMria S-8 july. A.A. I.Jolkcma, Rottctdam. pp.
71-7ft
'f:an.iey, 1) .0. 1979. The Dul'ullt St:qutntial blasaing $)'$11-'m. CIM BuJI«in. 12 (July): 80-1 15.
T:xll5C)', 1),0. 1980. A dday s~.:quO'ICin¡ bb$lln¡, s)'St.m). PrrJ~ings of1M 61h Ctuifj:I'UIO! on &plo,,i\'t~, u_n d
81Miing T«hl'l/qut!. SJ.'l.'. pp. J•S·37S.
Tdkr. A E. 1972. Axial primirtg improl'CS ANII-' 0 blasling. Roct PI"'tiilctJ. 75(4): 76-78, IOS-107.
1'rdeaven, T. 1991. Pracdcll_ l IIJ!plicatians and blti4 d~o.'Si&f'$ wilh nMdeettic init!OOon S}'$1Citl3. Pro~diJtf!·'·
Thini lligh· Tt'Ch ~mlnitr on IJJtuting Tt!dmt.Jogy, lmtru•~ntoJitffl Md F.xpltuh'Q App/k'Wi()flJ.. Ol:tSain¡
AnolysiJ lntematiooal. In~. San /)l~o. Can f. Junc 2·7.
Trclenven, 1', 191)-4, Non ei\!'Clt.ri<: $lMICI¡ tubi:: ffiitbltlon sysa~ ócby pau~-.n1 app-Jkatjorl.." & hook·urs.l'roc:~o"é!d•
ings o/IM Jth lfigh·T«h &minar"" 8/a5-ting 1'«hnnlogy, lnrmnn~nt(l!i()n ond /!,xpi(}:J.;~'C6 Applications,
Net<J Ori«NU. ~lfkmtl (luly 9--14). Blasei~ Annlysis lntcmational. lnc. pp. W1-112i.
WatSOO, J.T. 1997. A New GenC18lioo ofShock Tube Octonators.. PI'Q(~er/fngs. Seventh 1/lg¡,..ft•t:lt S~lnt~r ún
Sto~e-oftA~ArL Blcntt'lg Teffltrolqgy. lnwttmt-l'llatlon t1Jttl F.J:p/QJI''tf Applbtlons. OI<~SCing Analysis lntcr•
nat.ion.<~l,lr)C. Orlando. Florida, Jul}' 28-Au&USI 1, 1997.
Win!.!er. S. R. 1978. 1'hc lirina lim~ of ms dclny bi:~Stirtg ~o.-:aps and thd r cfftd an bl:asting pcrfunnanoe. Rt7)(}r-t 10
1~ NSf·: Mcrtln Mar-if'JUJ lnbormor-k.r, Jun..:.
Winzcr. S.R., Furth, W & A. Rittcr 1979. lniti¡tOf firing timc:3 and thci.r rcl¡tiooship 10 blasci~ pcrfonnanc;.:..
Pr-(J(JN•tlllfgJ. 10111 US SympoJI~m 0t1 Roe! Mec.l~ank.t• .411$tilt. Tcxa~ Junc 4.(). pp. 461-470.
WOtSCy, P.N. & W. 1') h.•, 19g). Tht dcvclopment oonttpt or the integrated dcctrooic detonator. Procf!f!dlnf,S oj
t~ 9th C()lff~rtn« M Üp/t'-1ives Md HlwJing TcdtnlqiM!. St.t. JIP· 489·496.
CHAPTER 9
Environmental effects
9.1 OROUNO MOTION
9.1. 1 lntroduction
Blasts, if not propcrly dcsigned. may rcsull in ground motions of sufficient intensity to
dama¡¡e
- Mine plant and Sln.l<:tures,
- Ncighboring structures outside ofthc mine pennit arca.
Ovcr thc ycars a numbcr of d.esign guidclincs have emerged relating ground motion to
structural damagc. Comprchcnsivc rcgulations in tbis rcgard havc beco dc\'clopcd by thc
US Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE). These are pre-
scntcd in this scction togethcr with cxplanatory marcrial as to how one might best comply
with the regulations. In preparing this section lhe author has drawn heavily upon the Bla.rt-
ing Guidance Manual (Roscntbal & Morlock, 1987) pul out by tbc OSMRE.
The regulwions are ba.<ed upon tbe peak ponicle velocity (PPV) produccd during blast-
ing. (n ccrtain cases, peak particlc accclcration (PI'A) and peak particle displacemem
(PPO) are of overriding imponance. Computer manufaetun:rs commonly restrict the PPA
and owncrs oflarge generators place limits on the displacement (AUCI, 1982). A conver-
sion nomogram for tbis purposc is given in Figure 9. 1. Knowing thc prcdominant frcqucncy
ofvibration and one ofthc three quantities:
- Acccleration (a},
- Vclocity (v),
- Oisplacemcnt (d}
one can easily obtain the othcr two.
Table 9. 1 lists a series of blasting factors and their influcncc cm ground vibralion con-
trol. Of thcsc, lhc thrcc primary variables affecting ground morion at any particular s itc
are:
- Distance from the bla~t 10 thc position of intercst
- Explosivc chargc wcight per dclay period
- Frequency of vlbration
269
270 Blasting principies jOr open pit mining: General desígn concepts
o•
f V d
1000 "' mm!• ••
1~
10,000
1000 <
100
....
lO
100
""
'"
O. l .
0 .01 1- 0.01
10
..,. 0.1
G«>l
O.o:IOI
l:¡¡u~ 9. 1. Nomovwn $ho~A'irtg rd:adonship bdw'-"C.tt
0.01 t;eqiiCncy, palk partich: ll(l()Ckration ~loc:iC)' nnd &m·

0 .000.01
' Jllitlotde (Af.CI. 1982).
Tabk 9.1. Faccon "'ilkh inOucntt ground motion (Roseothal & Morlock, 1981).
Varillbks within lhe l.'()nttul ofmtne l n flul.'tl~ on iJOOnd molion

opcratllr.4 SiSJ"~iflcooc Moderatcl)' sign!Ocant l11$ignilk:ltlt
1. Cbargc wcigbt pc:r delay X
2. [klay i.nlctval X
3. Gurdc:n ~nd spacln¡ X
4. Skmmlng (i:!nultlnl) X
S. St.emming (typc:) X
6. Chargc lc:ngth and di¡metc:r X
7. Ang,k. o fbord\ole X
8. Oirc:c:tion of initiatioo X
9. Cl\artc ··••ci.&Jtt pc:r blast X
10. Cbargc dcpt:h X
11. ~ \ '$. Covtr«S pritnacotd X
l l . (Jgr¡c (;(lnfancmeÑ X
Vañabks not in tht cenero! o f mine
opc:mtors
1. General suñacc. tcrrain X
2. Typc and dq'llh of overburdcn X
3. " 'ind lWid "''caah..'f cllncfilioiU X
E"nvb'onmental cffects 27 1
The regulatíoos and tbe desígtlimonítoring procedures needed for complyíng with the
regulatíons go together and they will be discussed that way in this section. The four pro-
cedures are
l. Maximwn pcak-particle velocity limit
2. Scaled distance cquation
3. Modified scaled distance equation
4. Bla.\ting leve! chart
Each will be described sepanuely.
AH of thc procedures are bascd upon Limiting thc peak particle velocity at the structure
of importancc. However, the amount of sile c:valuation and monitoring time and expense
involved in meeting the crlteña vary considerably between the four. The possibilities for
both long and short term savings in thc overall blasting prograrns also vary considerably.
9.1.2 Maximum peaJe parlicle \>elocily limíl

Using this procedure the maximum ground vibmtion shall nol e.xce.!d the l imil~ given in
Table 9.2 at the location of any dwelling. public building. scbool, church, or conununity
or institutional building outsidc thc pcrmit arca. In additi~ aU struc,tures in tbc vicinity
ofthe blasün.g area. such as water towers, pipelines and other utilities. tunnels, da.ms, im-
powtdments, and underground mines shall be protccted from damage by establishment of
maximum allowable limit on the ground vibration. The particle velocity shaU be recorded
in three mutually perpendicular directions (Fig. 9.2). The planes of motion are nomuilly
considered to be (AECI, 1982).
l. Longitudinal (sometimcs called radial). The hoñzomal motion in a dircct Hnc to-.
wards the blast is measured.
2. Transverse (tangential). The horizontal motion at 90° to the radial directíon is nteaSltrod.
3. Vertical. Tbc vertical motion is measurcd.
Tllt!lc 9.2. Ptal:. p:utide \'Ciocity limili u a tW\ction of dislanoc from the hlascing si~e(ROSMihaJ .t Morkd, 1981).
f)i$tllncc (0) from the bl aMin¡ sicc (fect) M.ximum o~llowablc peak J»rtÍCic veJoci¡y (V_.)
foc ground vibr.&lion (ini:~C~;)
Oto 300 1.25
30110 sooo 1.00
500 1and beyond 0.7S
Ven leal
Longiltadinal (mdill)
- To blast area
F'ig:W"C 9.2. Defini1Mm o( tbc vertical, long.ilUdin:.llttnd lrMS·
Trans"Ycrsc (tangential) verse vibnltion din:ccions (AECI, 1982).
272 Bltuting principle.t for open pil mining: General design c.oncepts
Thc maximum allowablc ¡x:ak particlc vclocity applics to each of thc thrcc mcasuremcnts.
Note that 1t is not nece:.ssary to develop a vecror sum resultant ve-loc.ity.
A seismogroph record !\haJJ be provided for each bla<t. The monitoring equipment re-
quircd is rclativcly simple sincc onJy pcaks nccd to be rccordcd. No frcqu(.:ncy contcnt is
required. lf the peak particle vclocities are below those gjvcn in Tablc 9.2. liten thc blast
should be in compliance with the regulations. To be able to design such a blast one needs
s.ome procedures and guidelines. These are provided under the following two procedures;
'Scalcd-Disumce' and 'Modified Scaled Distanoe'.
9.1 ..3 Scoled-distance equa/ion

'lñe scalcd-distancc equation
W=( ~J (9.1)
whcrc W = thc maximum wcight of explosivcs (lbs). D = distancc (fect} from thc blasting
sitc 10 the nearest protected structure, Ds e the scaled-distance factor, may be used 10 de-
termine the allowable charge-weight of explosives to be detonated in any 8-milliseoond
pcriod without scismic monitoring. Thc scaled-distance factors which are to be applicd
withour scismic moniloring are given in Table 9.3. Thcsc vaJucs are intendcd for general
use andas a resuh must be conser.-ati\'e. In many cases thcy are very conservati\•e.
To illll~trate this assume that a sensitive structure is located at a distance of 1000 ft
f.rom a forthcoming blast. Using Table 9.3 thc pcrmitted scaled-distancc factor is SS. Thus
thc 101aJ amount of cxplosivc which can be shot within an 8 msec period is
w-(~J =('~~0 )' = 330 lbs
Actual measurements made at thc site suggest that the velocity attenuation fonnula (see
Scction 9.1.4) is
V = 160(Ds)'' ~ (9.2 )
For the distance of 1000 fi, the pennitted particle velocity (Table 9.2) is LO in sec. Sul>-
stituting thi..11 into Equation (9.2) one finds thal lhe site specific sca.led distance t3.clor is
Ds s 24 (9.3)
Thw the amount of e.plosive which could be shot per delay and still satisfy lite velocity
limi&s L~i
w~ 1000)' = 1736 lbs

(24
Table C,.J. Sta.l~.:d-dlssanc..: f8Ciors 10 be appl"=d withoot scismic monítoring (Roscnthal & Morlod:. 1987),
Discantt (D) fron'l tht blasting sitc (Ft) Scalcd-di5tlnoe factor
0 to l OO so
30 1 10 5000 SS
500 1 at~d bcyond 6S
Environmentol eifects 273
Tablc: 9.4. Maximum amount of explosiveldday as a function or distancc trom tbc bl~ and thc sc:lsmic-dimnce
f-=cor.
Aetll21dimtl« Maximum nmount of cxplosh·c (lbl) per 9 m.sec ar &f'Cilk:t dday

frum blw (R) ~ - so ~ - ss ~ · 6s
(0.300') (301'-5000') ( > 50011
50 1.0
75 2.)
100 4.0
llO 9.0
lOO 16.0
250 25.0
300 36.0
)50 40
400 53
500 8J
600 119
700 161
800 212
900 168
1000 331
2000 l:l22
3000 2975
4000 5290
sooo 8265
6000 8521
10,000 23,700
Thc diffenmce bc:tween 330 and 1736 lbs/delay obviously has a major impact upon blast
desig¡¡.
The advan1age of cboosing lhe scaled-disJance equation approacb for blasl design is lhal
it is simple. No mcasurcments necd to be made. Otte simply sub.\titules the appropriate
values in10 lhe scaled disJance fonnula. The disadvanlagcs are lhat lhc dcsig¡¡ tcnds to be
very conservative and since no monitoring is done nothing is leantcd in a quantitative way
to improve lünher blasts. Table 9.4 presents lhe maximum amoun1 of explosive (lb5)
which can be shot per 9 m!OC!C or greater delay as a function ofdisumce and scaled distanoc.
9 .1 .4 Modified sca/ed-distanct< equation

Many ycar.; of c:J<pericncc have shown that the peak particle vejocity is related 10 the
scaled distanee by thc relationship
V=H(Ds)-11 (9.4)
where V ~ peak particle velocity (in. /sec), H ~ particle velocity (inlsec) for Ds = 1.0,
Ds = scaled dL<Janee (Mb 11l), ll = conslaltt.
This is somctimcs callcd an aucnuation equation sincc thc value of exponent fS is posi·
tive. Tbc valucs of H and Pare highly sile spec.:ific. H can range from as low as 20 up to
1000 or more. Thc exponmt Bwill gencrally lic in the range of l .l tO 2.4. The anenuation
formula which describes (approximately) 1he values used in the rcgulations (Table 9.5) is
V = 4273 Ds-l..or.
274 Bla.rting principle.'l for open p/1 minlng: General de.sfgn concepu
The high value of H (H = 4273) makes it very conservatíve patticularly at close range
(small values of D5 ).
The regulations allow the mine operator to develop and use a site specific fonn of the
scaJed distance equation. For the operator this means obtaining values of H and Ji for the
sitc in qucstion. The regulation.s state that the modified factors selec,ted shaJI be such that
the particle velocity will not (at the 95-percent contidence leve!) exceed the maximum
allowable peak particlc vclocity given in Tablc 9.2. To be able to demonstrate this to thc
rtgulatory authorities~ a set of data
l . Peak particlc vclocity (V_¡,
2. Oistance (D) from the measuring site to the blast (ft),
3. Maxímum amount (lbs) ofexplosíve (W) pcr shot wíthín an 8 msec delay,
must be collected from a series of blasts. The data should
-Be collccted over as wide a range of scaled distances as possible.
- Be spread evenly over this range.
Thcsc data must be collccted at as low a scaled-d istanee as it is hoped will be authoriz.OO
and preferably lower than this. Each of these components (YIOW#' D and W) must be deter-
mined with care. The threc ground motion componcnts are to be scparately mcasurc:d and
that yielding the peak patticle velocity ts LL(Ied ln the calculation. For each b l a.~t D and W
are represented by a single numbcr, thc scaled distancc. D5 • Hencc from each bla.st onc
oblains a data pair (V, Ds>·
Since therc is a high confidcncc levcl (9S%) imposcd. thc results must be collccl<.-d
trom a relatively large señes ofblasts. The OSMRE indícates that 30 pairs ís acceptable if
the data are good.
Figure 9.3 shows the type of record that would be obtaíned. As can be seen
V • 1.S mmlscc
W = 15 kg
Table 9.5. Peak pa:nJele \'Ckx:hy and sdsmk-dist.anct factor comparison (Roscmhal &. MOt'loc:t, 1987).
V(il\l'scc:) o,
1.2S so
1.0 SS
0.75 6S
Figu~ 9.3. Typical thart rcoordc:r outp\lt frorn a bi~Sl (AECI, 1982}.
EnYironmenla/ effecls 215
1000
V =ll( WD'-' ) ' ' :_,.\

. , /WD'-' )"' "
f"'
;:•oo o
i
, 50
~
" 20 Sdcacd limilifl@l o
"ll vlllue for V '
.!! 10
'
l:i¡;ure 9.4. Exampk of log-log pb o f l)('lk

partide v~locit)' 3pimu S~.'llled distM~
(AECI. 1982).
D=40m
Thc dala pair uscd in the calculation (AECI. 1982) is then
40
Ds "" , -= 10.33
15 12
V = 7.5 mnVsec
1f one takcs log¡¡rithms of hoth sides of Equation (9.4), one oboain.•
log v ~ logH - JllogD5 (9.5)
Substituting
y= log Y
x • logD5
a • logH
b = -Jl
into E.quation (9.,5) one finds that il is t)fthe form
y =a +bx (9.6)
This mcans that thc V and Ds data should plo t as a stra.ight line on log-log graph papc:r.
Thc s l()pc or thc linc i,s cqual to -fJ and H is the velocity interuc:pl at Ds = l . Scvcn pairs
of data havc becn plotted in f'igure 9.4. A curve is pasliA!d thro ugh thc points using least
squares regres..~ion analy.si.s. The 'bc.st fil' valucs of H and p are obtained as well a~ an in-
dicalion of thc 'goodncss of fit' in the fonn of a coeffici<.-nt of dctcrminalion (r 2), Thc
276 Blasling principlesfor open pit mining: Gel'leral design concepls
valuc of r' should not be less thao O.7. Thc staodard dcviation uscd in cstablishing thc con-
fidcncc lcvcl is not lik.cly to be undcr about 0.2. h should nol be grerucr than about 0.5.
For a given data se~ the design curve is moved with respect to the data so that the 95%
contidence level is achieved. lf the standard deviation becomes too large, thc H variable
of thc attcnuation fonnula increasts to the point that thc 9So/o confid~c leve) will only
be anainablc at large scaJcd distances- those approaching the allowable non-süe specific
scaled distances. Once the curve has been developed. the line representing the maximum
allowcd particlc vclocity is drawn. in this case it is 1.0 iolscc and the scalcd d:i.stanoe read
{D/JV112). One can also use the auenuation equation directly
D )-1.60
Y • 9oo ( w111 (9.7)
to find the same result. 'Jñis cquation can now be uscd without thc nccd for monitoring
cach blast. lt should however be checked periodically to make sure tbat nothing h"'
changed al the site or in the bla~ting procedures being followed. The advantage of choos·
ing this option is that a blasting crilcrion fitting thc sitc is dcvc.lopcd. In the proccss of de·
veloping the cquation. a considerable amouot of' infonnation regarding the site and the
bla~ting practices are obtained.. lniti.al expense is incurred for the moniroring. however
further round by round monitoring. although des-irablc, is not requircd.
9. 1.5 8/astir~g·leve/ chart
ln thc fourth option thc blasting·lcvcl chart shown in Figwc 9.S may be used to determine
the maximum allowable grotu:~d vibration if the predominant frequency is known. As can
be scen, for frcquencics grcater than 30Hz thc maximum allowablc particlc vclocity jumps
to 2 inlsec. This is bascd upon lhc fact that structures (buildings) h.ave low natura] fn:-
10.0 , -- - - , . -- - , - - - . - - . . , . - - - - , 10.0
f
-:: 2.0
~u
2 ino'SeC
~...:.;='-i 2.0
I.S
5 1.0
c. l.O
:l1 0.9 o.75 in/Se-: 0 ,9
.. 0.7 0.7
• 0.6 0 .6
~ 0.5 0.5
~ 0.4 0.4
g 0.3 0.3
·¡¡ ••
~ 0.2 11 0,2
figu~ 9..S. OSMRE peak patti·
tic: \'Cioticy \'Cai.G vilnlcioo rrc-
o.t 'L----"".,_---,,~.~-,20~-=3~o---:-:'
,oo.o· ' q ueney limlts (Rosen1hal &
Olast Vibration f'rnq~rnc)' (Uz) Morlcxk. 1987).
Environmenlal effecls 217
quencies of vibrotion and are most vulnerable 10 low frequency (lcss than 1O Hz) ground
waves. Tbey are relatively insensitive to frequencies in exeess of 40 hertz (AECI, 1982).
ln practice onc must fi rst conduct a series or test blasts at thc site such as describcd in
option 3. llowever. in addition to simply tinding the peak panicle velocity one must also
colléCl rrequerlcy daca. Jnstn.unems are availablc ror doing this (Fig. 9.6 shows one such
Figure 9.6. T)'pkal bla.sa moni-

«Pñ q¡ $)'$1Cm (M:IthtSQn, 1<}%).
Copynghted r1atenal
278 Blustíng principies for open pit mining: General design concepts
.,,_.,.u ••••n•
. .ft . , . , . .
"•~o~~u• ,..,
li'. .T . .. 1
-n • • - •uu
•11 e_",,_ • •·-• ,.., .. •• • nt • - • • ·•
\..,------------·
,_,,.,.., .......,_
--------
.
-.:n1c. • e.w ••• -
'
l-UIOII ....... • 1 . . . ,..,_
•
lfti. .U IUI ..... . - r f l ft1ftlftl . .11\ IIIIUI
f igure 9 .7. Exampk ofthc: n:cords produocd from a monitoted blast (RoscnthnJ &. Morlock., 1987).
instrument). The type of output from the instrument is shown in Figure 9.7. The outpul is
of thc samc formal as spc:cificd in thc regulations and thc allowablc curve is superim~
posed. Curves like this would be generated for different scaled distan<:es. The highest
valuc of Ds still in compliancc could be used for dcsign. To be able to use this approach..
seismographic record$ including both partiele veloeity and vibration ftcq uenc..-y lcvels
muse be providcd for each blast. Thc mcthod uscd for dctcrmining thc prcdominant fte.
quency must be approved by the regulatory authority.
Therc are a numbcr of advantagcs with this option. When blasting e lose to structurcs the
prcdominant frequenc ies tend 10 be higher. hence a higher ch.arge weight per delay would
be allowed th.an with thc othcr options. A maxímum amount of infonnalion is collected
from each bla.st. Hence the possibilities for improving blasting would be high (knowing
what was right or wrong with the blast). These type of records provide maximum protec-
tion whcn discussing possible complaints lfom the neighbors. The di$ildvantages are that
they re<juire relatively expensive ínstrumentation. tmined users and the monitoring of
each blas1.
9. 1.6 Ground motion effects contained wilhin the mine sife

As indicated, the regulations are based upon p3rticle velocities which are wcll within dam.
agc limits. When dealing with thc mines own structures.. a dilfcrenttypc or·damagc cri·
Environmenral effecrs 219
lerion' may be imposed than for struciUreS belonging to others. llauer & Brennan ( 1979)
bave compiled peal< particle velocity-scaled distance dala from a large number of open pit
and strip mine blasts. A representativo sample of 1500 rccordings from differcnt. mines is
shown in Figure 9.8. On these, an upper limil líne has becn superimposcd. The OSMRE
values usiog Table 9.S bave been superimposed as well. lllis provides sorne idea of the
buih·in conservati..vn contained in the regulations. Table 9.6 indicates peak particle ve-
locity thresholds al whicb certain 1ypes of damage startto occur. These limits which have
been superimposed on the upper limit plot offigure 9.9 provide a useful set of guidelines
for making a quick evaluation ofpotentiaJ damage to mine structures. lfhairline cracking.
for example, is deemed not to he a prohlem, then a certain scaled distance value might be
selec.ted for blasl design which is significantJy lower than those given in the regulations.
from Figure 9.9 lhc scalcd distancc undcr poor conditions for wbich hairlinc crack.s in
plastcr may be cxpcctcd to oocur ís about 13. Depcnding upon thc distancc, thc colll>
sponding OSMRE value to he selected ranges from 50 to 65. A.'ISuming that the blast is
SQO ft (rom a ocrtain mi:nc structurt (thc managcl'5 house, f<M" example) use of Ds = 13
would suggest that
w~
(0soo)' • 1479 lbs
could he shol per delay. Using the scale fac1or of55 which is the OSMRE value appropri-
ate for this distance one would obtain
W= soo)' • 83 lbs
(SS
10.0
•••
¡, ~
••• ~ ·... ~
j 1.0
. .·
-"'
• os . ....:(:~ ...
'
'·
:·:.. ,..::
~ 0 .20
.!:!
.' . ..... ..:·.. .
~..
•
.l! 0.10 .. . :::. ·::·
. . ...
~ .os .. : ::: · ~~. ..
.. . ...
~
.ITl .'..~:'(}:
.... .. ....::...·:
'
.01 . ; . ·.·;-:·:·. Fi¡ure 9.8. C11mpUa1ion of peak

partlelc \'dOCily vctliUS sc:aiOO~
. ..
"'" S 11) 20 SO 100 lOO SOO 1000
distmcc fOr a lar¡c number ~r sur-
tace mines (DJuer & Brcnnan,
' Saled Oi~aooc. I:WW'~ tftftlb/JKriOd)'JJ 1979).
280 Blastíng principies for open pit mining: General design G'Oncep¡,
Tabk 9.6. T~ of damagc rt'latcd to lhc peak pattick vdocity in thc ground ""'l\'CS f'rom blas.ts (Bauer el Bn:n-
nan, 1979).
Typc o ( SU\IC'UR Peak p11r1ide veloclty threshold
111 wbich damagc: ~IU1s (inlscc)
Rigid l)' IDOUIItc:d mcn.:ury switchcs TñpOut 0 .1-0.S (H.as strong fn:q~nc)' dc--
pc:ndencc-)
I-IW$C$ PJ11.1ter Cr.k:king 2
Cancrttt blOCk a~ in a l"'lt\'' h.:.u$C Cracb iR Blocts 8
Cascd dñU flotes.. rcsaining walls on loo5e ground 1-loriloo!al oR"'SCI IS
Mochaokal cquipmcm-pumps, QXI\prusors Shalb misalicned 40(0eyood 10 infsec major <bm-
II$C !ita1tS.. sucb as possibk
ct~Cking ofccmenc block)
Crackrd p00s. 60
building twb:ted
and dl"ortcd
so
0.1
PIT BUIST UPPER LIMIT UNE
2 S 10 SO 100
S.:.le~ Dís<ance. DIW" [IV(Iblperiodl:-;1
Figun: 9.9. Da~ limits .su)X'ñmposed on lhc: peak par~idc veiCM:-itr·SCIIkd d iJtaooe ""ve (Oauer & UrciV!a!\,
1919).
Hidden page
Hidden page
Environmental effect& 283
where P = pn:ssure (kPa), W = mass of e<plosives (kg). O = distance from the expl<>-
sive (m).
Thc airblast overprcssure for confmed blasthole may be estimated using
P= 3.3( w"'
o )-u (9.12)
Tablc 9.9 pn:sents sorne air ovcrpres.sun: values wbich when inserted into Equations (9. 11 )
and (9.12) could be uscd for cvaluating thc proper scalcd distancc. The USBM rccom-
mended safc limit is 3.5 kPa. To avoíd disturbance to people the prcssure should be less
than 0.05 kPa (P < 0.05 kPa). Table 9. 10 summari:res the factors which intluence airblasl
Thc following are stcps which can be taken to minimizo airblast (AECI, 1981)
l. Ensure proper confinement oflhe explosive charges by:
- The use of an adequate lenglh of collar stemming, prcferably of coarse angular
material. Experience has shown that a minimum length of 30 holc diamccers is nccded
to control airblast.
- Not underburdening lhe frnnt rnw of holes.
- Not ovcrburdcning boles. thus pn:vcnting blown-.out shots.
- Ensuring proper timing to avoid blown-out shots caused by holes tiring out of se-
quence.
- Providin.g 300 mm of s.andlsoil cover over detonating cord surfacc Jines. Expcri-
ment'l have shown that this reduces the acoustic energy transmitted to the atrnos-
phere by 26 dB.
- The use of pop-holes in place of lay-on charges wbere secondary blasting unavoid-
ablc.
- The elimination ofdetonating cord in secondary blasting.
2. Where possible, change to mechanical breakíng (drop balls, pneumatic breakers etc.)
in lieu of secondary blasting.
3. Limit thc maximum cxplosivcs chargc pcr dclay.
4. Use noiseless trunklines in tbose siwations calling for a non..:lectric surface delay
system.
Tablc 9.8 Cbart;c mass vmus dbtancc: f01 unc:onfined c~(AECI . 1981).
Chat¡e ..... (k¡) Diolanoc(ml

o • 320 W113 o .. 600 w•.o
2' 936 I UC
l<) 1179 2210
15 1349 2Sl0
100 1485 2'm
ll<) 1100 3188
200 1871 )j()9
300 2142 4017
400 2JS8 «21
soo 2!<0 4762
1000 3200 6000
2000 4032 7l60
5000 S472 10.260
284 Blasling principiesJo,. open pil mining: General design conccpls
~t
8-
N ~
8 ~
~
u
e
"'8
"'~ '"'
~
u ~
8:S.
. l
~
f;¡.
~
~
"',"
·""
~
Copynghted r1atenal
Environmenlal effects 285
Table 9.9. EACte of airove~re on Slruc:twes (Nidlolts c:t al,. 1971).

Ai_t overpn.-ssutc (kPa)
Oisbc:s aOO loose wi~· m de 0.2
Poorfy rl11ed wil'llow pane$ muy bmlk
AU windi.M'S fail 14 '
USOM recommmded $(e limit J.S
Tabl.: 9.10. Factors which ínRucnc~ airblast {Ro$o=ntllsl & Morlod:. 198"7).
VWblc:s within the conln)l lnl1uent:C QnO"Crprc:Uure
of mine opc:tutors Signicanc Moderuu:ly signiticant lnsi.gni flc.ant
l. C'hargc weight pc:r delay X
2. Oday intcrval X
J. &wden at~d spacirtg X
4. Stemmillg (amounl) X
S. S1emmin.g (lypc) X
6. Cltatge ICIIgth .00 diam~trr X
1. Angk ofborcbok X
8. Oi.rttdon of initiation X
9. Ch31"ge: wc:lgtlt pet bla<i:t
10. CNu¡< d""h X
11. Rllft oc c:ovcn:d dct.omding c:otd X
12. Ctmr¡e a~nl1nemcnt X
Variables noe in control o( mine: opc:r.atoo

l. Oenenal .sllrface tc:rrain
2. Type and dcpth of O\•trbutdcn
3. Wind aOO weather cooditkms '
'
S. Where possibte. direct the blast away from residentiaJ ateas. lt has been shown that
a 5 to 10 dB dilference in airblast levcls can be expectcd betwecn the front and the back
of lhe bla.•t
6. Avoid blasting when wind is blowing towards a critica! area. Strong wind is the
most important weather factor influencing airblast propagation and can incn:a~ the air-
blast levcl by over 20 dB.
7. Avoid blasling in lhe eatly morning and late aftemoon if a tcmpcraturc inversion in
thc atmosphcre is present. Such conditions cause air waves 10 be refracted back to earth
and focussing etTe<:IS can increase lhe airbiasllevcl by JO dB.
8. Minimize frequency ofhlasting.
9. Time thc blasting to coincide with pcriods ofhigh ambient noise.
9.3 FLYROCK
f lyrock can be a very dangerous side etTec1 ofbench biasling. The borehole wilh ios buih·
in rock bollom and ios soemming plug, n:sembles a highly chaq¡cd pressun: vcssel. As de·
signed the explosive gases are to cxpend lheir energy in a more or less controlled fashion
by gcncrating and propag¡lling craci<S in the surrounding rock. Only in lite last soages of
gas expansion L~ lhe burden released and the remaining pressurc uscd to hcave the rock.
286 8/mting principies for open pit mining: General design cancept.\·
- Figure 9.ll. ldeallz:ed fmn1 from a MCk bla$ti:na

situa1ion.
80d
~
~60d
t:.
j,Od
~
20d
.•
Od.~~.~.2~~.~~~Q7.-L-.~.•~~.~.•~ Fi¡ure 9.12. Maliimum thro""' as a fuJWiion of
-;roe <~a<g< (l.w>dbo<¡. 19111).
Spec:l.fie Chat¡e (k¡lm')
Figure 9. 11 shows thc idealizcd situation in which tbc stcmming rcmains intact~ thc bur·
den is unifonn, and only a small part of the total explosive energy goe:s into heave and
throw, Sorne vcry limjtcd fi~ld studics reportcd by Lundborg (1973, 1974, 1981) and Lund-
borg et al. ( 1975) suggest that for gtanite the maximum throw (L) a.< a function of the hole
diamctcr (d) and spccific chargc is as shown in figuro 9. 12. Whcn the spccific chargc (q) is
q$0.2 kg!m'
therc is no lhrow. For other valucs of q the maximum throw is exprcsscd by
L= 143d(q-0.2) (9.13)
whcn: d = holc diam<1cr (ins), q = spccific chargc (kg/m3), L = maximum throw (m).
A typical specific charge in bench blasting is 0.6 kg/m3 • In this case the maximum throw
expression becomes
L=S1d
For a 10 inch bote diameter the maximum expected throw would be
L = S70m
There are a numbcr of ditTerent situations in which the actual conditions depart marlcedly
from the ideal. Figure 9. 13 shows l\\'0 such condition.~.
Environmentuleffects 287
f""'"'
-
9.1l. T•-o ~ ladilt& to
Q)10d<I~J" al.. 191S~
m-
- 1'he explosive extends too h.i,gh in the holc so that cra.tcring to tbc uppcr surfacc: oc·
curs.
- An írregular face brings the expiMívt column &oo e: lose lO tbc frtt f:.tee n:sulting in
cratering.
The lack of confincmcnl oiTcred by bolh of lhese situations provides a weak link fo.-
thc llll" to cxploit. The rock plu¡¡ involved is pushed out in an early stage of the gas ex-
pansion proces.s llnd the expanslon C11Cf'KY is expended in propclling a rclaúvely small vol·
ume ofrock al high velocity. Hcnec thelhrow distance can be very gteat.
Figure 9.14 íllustratcs lhc case whcre the toe distante through poor drill alignmcnt, dc-
sign. etc., is much grenter thun desircd. ·n1c burdcn ls not brokcn [n.o(: by thc blast and the
explosive gases ven1 out through dte fract·urcd rock ncnr thc collar. Figw-c 9.15 shows the
situation in muhiplc row blasting whcn: thc dmc del ay bc.:twccn rows tO lOO short to allow
adcquatc rclief bcforc the next row detomU(.<s. The effcctive burden on thc latter rows is
much larger than tl\a1 which cnn be reasonably dis placed by 1hc gas pres.sure. As a result
thc stcmrning is cjcctcd and/or thc: collar region craters.
fn t~ll of thesc sitwuions it is the cratcring typc oft'Oilure (Fig. 9.16) which is tbe most
dangerous from a Oyrock viewpoinl. lf tht weakcst link in the system is the columo of
stemming and not thc collar rack. this can be cjcetcd muc:h likc a projcctile from a cannoo
baJTel. Lundborg ( 1973) hu made a series of cornpulcr simuhuions in which he ex:amined
max.lmum lhrow and boulder si7..e as a function ofhole diameter. He found that for granhe
with a spccific gravity of 2.6. thc rclationships for the maximwn throw (L) involving
+
nx:ks of diameter an:
L_ o 26()d'U) (9.14)
• • O.J d :n (9.15)
- . d • holediamc:<cr(ins~ +•bou.lder diamdcr (m).
Thus for a 10 ineh diamettt bor<hole the boukler size would be
+ • 0.1 (10)213 • 0.47m
ednate
288 Blusting principlesfor open pit mining: Genero/ design concepts
Figure 9.14. F!yrod: from che 1.'1Ul

n:gíon.
f ig.ure 9. 15. Jnadequate rclier pro-

vftkd by prn;cding mwll.
' ', '

/ '
'' ''
'' /
'
' ',
'' Figun: 9.16. Oiagrammatic: rcpm;cocation of ctatering
' ( l uDdborg ct al, Hol mbetg. 197.5).
and the corresponding maximum throw is

L_ (m) = 260 (lO)'"= 1208 m (9.16)
The resu1ts for a range of ho1e si:res (Fig. 9. 17) suggest that very latge areas must be
cvac-uated in Ofder lO avoid accidents. Cratering give:s much more throw than simple
benching. lñerefore efforts such as proper stenuning. timing. etc-.• must be made to avoid
thC$e cratering effects. Tbe OSMRE regu1ations (Rosenthal & Mor1ock, 1987) on Oyrock
state that
Environmental ejfects 289
J-lolc diarnckr
(indu:s)
0,0 1 0.1 10
Bolddc:r Si:lc (m)
tiaurc 9, 17. 1"he rMXimum lhrow versus bouldcr altc rtb1Í()n.1hip for vaóous hofe diameters (L~ 1971).
'Fiyrock travelling in the air 01' along the ground sha/1 no1be cast from the blasting sile·
1. More than one-halfthe ditlance 10 the nearesl dwelling or other occupied .Jiructure,
2. Beyond the oreo ofaccess control for 1he giwm blast.
J. Beycmd the permú boumklry. '
The problem obviously becomes that of esti.mating lhe maximum throw distance. The equa-
tions of Lundborg et al. ( 1975) provide one approaeh allhough lhe """'' for thcm is weak
and the range ofhole diameters limited.
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e y •gnt8d 11a 1 11
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Siskind, 0.1:-:.., Suehura. V.J.• Stas& M.S. &: J.W. Kopp 1980. Swcturo tcSpoo.~. and ~by sitblau fro•n
surfac~: mínin¡;.. (J$8M RJ IJ48J.
Sis:kind, D.G. 19$0, l>1~< 10 resickndal Slroctu:res (rom suñacx: mine bla:níng. Pn::prinl No, 80-J6Z. Papc::r pre·
sc:ntcd 81 thc SME-Al ME FaJI M~ing and Exhibit Min1~is. Minn Octobcr 22-24. 17pp.
Siskind, O.E. and J. W, Kopp L981. Blasting cffcccs oo Appaladlian Walcr Wclls. USBM IC <lll JS. Pr«-ctdinp.
Sw-.foc'e Mine Bicntlng Ta·Mology Tratufor SI!MIIt/JI', Apri1 1S. pp. 96-102.
Su¡gg, M.S. & O.E. Si~ind 1987. Effccts of bla.~t vibradon an costrue~ icm m3(crial eracting in rc$1dcntial ~IIUC·
tures. USOM IC 9135. Prot:ffdings. Suif«e Min1 81Miing TechmJiog¡ T~r $('.minar. April 1S. pp, 32·
4$.
Stnthur;a. V.J., Siskind, D.E. &. A.J. l:inglc:r 1981. Airblasc in5trumc:nunion and mcasun::mc:n.l t«<lniques for sur·
facc mine blasling. USBM RJ 8)08.
91utcr'5 lllll'ldtlook, 6th edilion. 1968. C~~r~adilm ln,dujtries Lirnitcd, E,.¡phJlih'C!i OivisioA, MuriU'eal, Qucbl.-c,
c.....,..
Si.skind, 1),(:¡, & M.S. SlaQ IWI7. Ula.~dn¡ ' 'ibnuían m~n:ment11 ne&r llttuaurcs USUM IC 91 JS. Pmc«Jif1P.
Sw-j(l(.'f! Mi'* Blcutilfg Ta'lmol.t~IO' Trt»~Yfor Semi~Htr, April 1$. pp. 46-SO.
Vlbra·Tcd! E"Jincc:rs, lnc. Ex11".1Cts frum Offi" uf ~rfltt:.e Mi.nín¡ R.cdam~tion and l:nforocmenl Ulustin¡
Gumncc M~ual.
Walkcr, S .• P.A. Young &. P.M. Oavc:y 1982, l)rc\~klo¡.ncñ( o( response spcctm 1C:ChRiqucs for predi~ion o(
stn.JCl\ltaJ dama;gc from op::n-pi1 blasting vibtations. TrDn$, llfStn, J.tir~. /lktall (Scc:t A Mln lndustry), 91
(April): AS5·A62.
Wclls. J. 1997. Secuñ_n¡ the blast are:a - llllw far is moll&ft? f:.xp!osña F.ngilW!fflng. 14( 1): 38-40,
Whedc:r. R.M. 199-1. Analydng and intaptrl.ÍnQb l:tSt vibratklrn data ush-a oc:w wlndow9·ballcd Sóftwarc (~ 1).
Pmt:ettdilf'NS ofthe 5th Hig/r..T«h .Vmi~~t~r on Bltnli1f8 T«lumiDI{Y. bulrwrN!FitOiitm r.wl &plrub-e:J App/i·
cation..,, A'cw OriNM. /AMi.,iana (July 9-14). l~la~.in¡ Anal)'liÍS l_nle:mlltiéwql. l~. pp. 11 ~ 11 62.
Whcekr. R..M. IW4. f.,•lllwatin¡ óc:bly cffect3 on ¡round vibrationS witb $irnuhatcd vibntion Ylo":rVc(~ (1"111 11).
!+~~ oj1M 51/t High-Tech Sem/lf(lf' on Blcutittg Tí!Ciflf{)logy, fltSlnilrtelffOIIofl 111'1(/ Explrutw•.t AppU-
taiiti#U. "'-· OriNIU, Lmd:~kuw (July 9- 14). OlasúQg Analysis lRtcmatiooal, lnc. pp.. 1163- 1203.
Wow-sley. P.N. 1986. Undcn.tandin,g vibrations from rnultiho~ blasts us.ing shorl dday pcriods. &ploJ/\'t$ Elfgi-
"",.;ng. 3(6): 2S-2&.
CHAPTER 10
Perimeter blasting
10.1 !NTRODUCTION
One of the characteristics of an explosive deronat.ing in a borehole i.~ that the shock wave
portion of the energy is tmnsmittcd away from the hole wall in a \ 'Cty non--discriminating
fashion. Spedtically th.is means that the shock energy travels outward away from the hale
into the surrounding roe-k mass independent of directioo. F'or standard production appli·
cations lhis is generally of no oonsequence lll1d. in fac~ may be desirah!e since the objec-
civc is to produce a ccrtain fragmcntation of the host rock as incxpcnsivcly as possiblc.
Break.age behind the hole is somelimes regarded as •free muck'. Thi.~ non-discrimination
c:haracleristic does, howcver, become a problem when blasting in the vicinily of the pil
pe.rimeter. What is considered ' free muck' in lhc context of production blasting now be-
comes ' back-break' which can havc very cxpensive consequences.
ldcally one wnuld like tt) be able to achievc thc situation shown in Figure 10.1 where.
after production blasting, lhe extent of the blast damage (FID} found running along the
be:nch contour is linlc or non cxistcnl. On t.hc production sidc (shown to thc right in thc
Figures) ofthe blastholcs (dcnoted as Region 1) il is dcsircd to have a vcry high degree of
fhlgmentation to minimize the costs of loading, hauling and crushing. On thc pit wall side
ofthcsc boles (Rcgion 11), the objective is to produce zero or very mínimum rock distur~
bance. In lhis way !he designed optimum bench geometry (bench facc anglc, bench widlh,
cte.) can be achicved.
In reality lhere is a blast damage tTansilion (BDT) zonc betwccn lhcsc zoncs of ma.xi·
mum dcstruction and z.ero or minimwn disturbancc (Fig. 10.2). In practicc, thc actual posi-
tion ofthc final wall often does not lie at the position ofzero disrurbance but rather sorne·
where withi_n the-transition rone. Tite width of thc transition wnc dcpends largcly on the
care taken in perimccer blasting. As the blast datnage transition zone increases in size. the
resulting slope ung.les become Oatter with the ovemll resuh being highcr stripping ra-
tios/ore losses.
Figure 10.3 shows lhe final pit limits based upon three different perimeter blasting sce·
narios. Wilh careful perimeter blasting (Case A), lhe final slope is made up of a series of
douhle benchcs (30 m high) wilh a dcsign facc: anglo of 70° scparated by catch beoches
10m wide. The overall slope angle is
a=ss•
293
294 8/osting principies for open pit mining: General design concepts
c.Jst (e)
' 1 BD 1
1
'
1
u· • • ' coc (1)
1
1'
''
1'
1
1
11• • •
'1'' 11
ll e
JI
••
'11'
•1•
• .1
11. • •
"
ll· • • F~ 10.1. Pl.an \'ioew $bo\oll·in¡ ideal bll$ dJ~cmne (UO).
e 1 J.. ce¡
• '
1
'
1
1
1• •
1
: toe (1)
1
1
1
¡. .¡• • BDT • 1
1
1
'' 11 1 '• •
1
1
1
• ' 1
1
1
''' •• •1
• 1
1' 1 l. • •
'' 1'
1
'1' fl¡ure 10.2. Plan vicw showirtg actual blast damage 1:011e
1 /. • • ' (90~
'\
·~a¡
Figure 10.3. Effcct orvaryin¡ dqvcc3 qfblast ~ ()CI ovc:tall $lopc anglc:.
Perimeter blasting 295
lf duc to poor pcrimcter blasting, thc facc angle is 63° in~te-ad (Ca.;;.c B}. then the slope
anglc drops as is shown to
9 = 53°
The unplanned wa~Ue included between these two sJopes must now be removed.
Catch benches are included in the slopc dcsign to contain roc:k which ravcls off of the
sloPQ. For pOor blasting conditions wider benches will be required for two reasons.
l. There will be more malerial needing 10 be trapped.
2. The dC$ign width wiU bave- lo be larger lhan the required width sincc the crest of thc
calch bench may ravel.
Assume for example that the required width is 15m instcad of 10m. Thc ovcrall slopc
angle (Case C) lhen becomes
9 = 48.5"
This slope has also been superimposed on Figuro 10.3. As can be seco, lhe as-planoed and
as-buill pit outlines are quite different. The material included between tbe two must be
removed. The associ.ated rock removal costs must be compared to those associatcd with
thc as-planned dcsign incorporaling spccial drilliog and blasling prtx:edures. lo addilion
to the obvious costs associated with extra Sltipping one must also consider the costs re~
lalcd to
- Safety,
- Extra clcanup,
- Scaling,
- Reinforcement.
l...atge amounts of loose bench face rock may result in haza.rdous working conditions both
for pcrsonnel and machines. Remedial measures such as
- Scaling large mas
- Use of wire mesh, bolts or o1her ty(l<'l of artificial suppon
are expensive and difficult to implement
In the blasting fli'OCCSS, roe k damagc is produced in thret ways.
- Creation of new cracks around thc borehole by high detonation pressurcs.
- Creation and extension of cracks remote fi'om the blasthole by explosion generated
strainlshock waves.
- Extcnsion of cracks around thc borcholc by thc static strain ficld crcatcd by thc gas
pressure.
Whcn considcring ways of rcducing unwantcd cracking bchind thc holcs, thcsc three
efTects will have to be addressed. 'There are four ditierenr possibilities presented from ex~
plosive theory.
l. The length of thc longcst radial cracks emanating from thc holc. as discusscd in
Chaplcr 4 dcpends upon lhe borchole prcssurc. lf lhis prcssurc is reduced, lhc lcoglh of
!he cracks would similarly be reduced.
2. The length of !he cncks has also be<:n shown to be fli'Oponional lo the radius of the
blasthole. With a reduction in borehole diameter. the darnage zone behind the hole would
be reduced.
3. Thc fonnation of new cracks right around !he borehole dcpcnds upon high dctona-
tion prcSbwcs. A rcduction in dctonation pressurc would reduce cracking.
296 8/a.sting principlesfor open pit mining: General de.tign ''Oncepts
1·- - - "' ·1
""""""".,.."""'-~ - - - - - - - - -~
\1 Umi1or
Production Hoks
Ctutioos Blasting Zonc \

Flrnd Wtall \
1
Figure 10.4. Tratl!ition zonc bccwcro lhc producóon ZOI'Ic=-and perimctcr.
4. The pr=nce of pn:-<Oxisting cracks at high angles to those being creatcdlcxtcndcd

by the blast, causes the running cracks to be tenninated. Thus the creation of such 11 crack
line prior to blasting is a way of limiting damage-. The amplítude ofthe shock wavc gener·
ated by tbe explosion can be rnarkedly attenuated by thc crcation of a crack (prc·split or
line-drilled) line in back ofthe blast.lfthe crack is wide enough, no shock energy wil.l pass.
Kttowing how cracks are fonned and extended during the blasting process is key to tbe
dcvclopmcnt of tcchniqucs for pn:vcntinglminimizing the-ir growth. ln pcrimctcr control
blasting. the first step is to keep the powerful energy released by the production holes suf·
ficiently far away (PL) frorn the finallirnits to avoid damagc (Fig. 10.4). The second step
is to design the blast rounds within the cautious blasring zone so that the rock is broken
but the final wall proteeted. The types of teehniqUC$/procedun:s one would consider includA:
- Use of lc..'SS powerful explosivcs
- Decreasing hole diameters
- Reduclion in burden and spacing
- Use of small djameter charges in the lllf8er holes (de ~couplcd chargcs)
- Oecking of e.'plosives
- Crcation (pre-splitting) of artificial cracks to Hmit extcnt of thc mdial cracking and
shock wave ttano;missjon
- Speeial dclay procedurcs (instantaneous shooting).
This chapter will begin with a brief discussion of the use of decoupling and decking to
alter th.c fonn of the energy output from an explosive. This will be followe-d by a discus-
sion of four techniques
- Lino drilling
- I'Je.split blasting
- Smoothwall blasting
- Tri m blasting
uscd tu preventlminimize unwanted damage. The chapter concludes with a detailed pre.~
entation of severaJ design procedures which can be used to assist in the design of perime-
ter blasl<.
10.2 TAILORING THE ENERGY OF EXPLOS!VES
The conccpt of decoupled charges is an i:mportant one in the prevention of unwanted blast
damage. lt is therefon: coven:d in sorne detail in a chapter of its own, Chapter 17. In this
scction a bricf overvicw is presenced.
Perimeter blosting 291
a. f ully Coupled Clwgc- b, [k..Coupkd a,~e
txp~os~,-e Air G¡p
l&j~~
' '.,¡.11"'~ Uole W•ll l'l()le W11ll
Explosive
Figure IO..S. WaJI pruc..:e1ion usin.g de-couplod eh¡w¡es,
Explosive and borehole are said to befully t:<Jupled ifthe explosive complete! y fills the
cross·scctional arca (Fig. 10.5a). An cxamplc of lhis is the nonnal bulk loading of bias·
tholcs with ANFO. A de-coup/ed chargc is onc in which an annulus (Figure 10.5b) cxists
between the wall of the chargc and thc waU of the hole. Thc annulus bclwcen the charge
and thc borcholc in this case is assumcd fiUcd with air. lñc coupling ratio (CR) is defined
a.<
( 10.1)
where De= diamcccr of cx-plosivc, Dl'l = diarnctcr ofthc holc.

An example in bench bla.~tíng wouJd be the installation of 127 mm (5") diameter plas·
tic (PVC) tubes in 251 mm (9 In ) or 311 mm ( 12 1/4") blastholcs and then filling the
tubes with explosive.
In these cases the couplíng ratios would become, respectively
(a) 25 1 mm holcs
127
CR = = 0.51
25 1
(b) 311 mm boles
127
CR = = 0.41
311
Thc rcason for de-coupling the charge is to reduce the amplitude ofthe shock wave gen·
erated in the rock mass and the magnitude of the gas pre$Sure applied to the waH of thc
holc waH. Thc basic expression (10.2) for the adiabatic expansion ofthe gas from a deto--
nating cylindrical charge in a bore hole is
P,V,1 = P,,v.' (10.2)
whcrc P11 = gas prcssurc at thc diamctcr of thc chargc, V_.= charge volume/unit lcngth of
borchole, Ph = gas pressurc at lhc waH of thc borcholc, V11 = holc volumc/unil lcngth of
borehole, y = ratio ofthe specitic heats 0\'t r the pressure range from Pt to P1r.
Since the hole and charge volumes per unit lengLh of bon:holc urt: cxpressed by. re·
spcc.tivcly
V =rtD; ( 10.3a)
• 4
and
(10.3b)
298 Bla.sting principies for open plt mlnlng: General deslgn concepts
Tablc l O. l. Dcpcndcnc:C' or t:hc bon:holc:: wall pn::ssu~ on the wupltng m1io.
Charge diamcttt (mm) CR Bordlole ~·all prcssurc (MPa)
100 1 llOO
90 0.9 1900
80 O.R 1<00
70 0.1 1000
60 0.6 660
lO O.l 410
40 0.4 230
30 03 110
¡o 0.2 40
the.n
P.
~
=(P.)'
1},
=(D·)>r
v.
=(CR)'"' (10.4)
As indicated earlier lhe outward pressure P~ at the wall of an explosive is given approxi·
mately by
P,= O.I25p(VOD)' (10.5)
whcrc p = dcnsily (kglm'), VOD = dctonatíon velocity (km/sec), P, = pressun: (MPa).
The pressure at the wall ofthe borehole is then
P• • P, (CR)>l (10.6)
Table 10.1 shows the calculation ofborehole wall pressure for a dynamite explosive
p s 1390 kgtm!
VOD = 3800 mis (50 mm diamctcr)
ofvarious diamctcrs in a 100 mm diamctcr holc. lt has bcen assumcd for thc sakc of thc
cxamplc that the VOO is independent of chargc diamcter and confincment and that
y = 2.0
over the entire expansion range although as is discussed in Chapters 3. 11 and 17 this is a
gross simplitication. Using thc rule that the wall pressure should be less than the dynamic
oompressive strength (DCS) of the rock, for g1311ite with a DCS of 300 MPa one would
choose a CR ofbctwcen 0.4 and 0.5.
lt should be noted that when using explosives of low detonation velooity (for example
ANFO), the shock wavc gcnerated in tbe air in thc annulus can havc a highcr vclocity
than the VOD o.n.d thereby precede the detonation fronl travelling in lhe explosive. This
high prcssure can increase the density of the ANFO in thc column to above 1.25 gm/cm3
thereby dead-pre$Sing it. Hence the detonation will stop. As a result more energetic (higher
VOD) explosivos are oftcn uscd.
Sphc-rical charges may be treated in the same way. Equaüon (10.2) remains the same
but expressions (IO.Ja) and ( 10.3b) bccome respcctively
V = ttD: ( 10.7a)
' 6
and
rr.D'
Vh=--• (10.7b)
6
The expression for the prcssure rntio becomes
P, =(P,. )' =(o.

P.. ~
D, )"' =(CR)
37
(1 0.8)
A rcocnl ficld s1udy (Jinncrol & Ni lss01~ 1998) in which vcry de1ailcd peak panicle ve-
loeily (PPV) measuremeniS were made al various dis1ances from fully eoupled and de-
coupled charges suggesiS lhOI free gas e.'pansion lo lhe wall of lhe borehole as classically
assumed is ool com:ct. The measured PPV valucs wcre signifocanlly higher lhal would be
predicted using hole wall pres..~ures based on the use of Equation ( 10.6) and y values ap-
propriatc for thc cxpa.nsion rnngc·. A bcst fit of tlH: experimental rcsult su.ggcstcd thal
ys l
rather that 1.7, for example. One explanation can be found by examining the behavior of
thc air gap dircctly aftcr chargc dctonation. In thc dcvclopmcnt of Equations ( 10.6) and
( 10.8) Íl is assumed lha1 lhe air gap is fully defonnable and 1he P"""""" conlaincd in lhc
cylindricol fonn of the charge simply changc::s shape to fill the new container. ln going so.
thc pressurc drops to thc valucs dctennincd by y for thc gas ovcr thc uppropriatc prcssurc
range. lf, on the other hand, one would consider the air gap to be rigid instead of fully de·
fonnable, thcn thc problcm can be likencd to the application of a radial pressurc (the cx-
plosion pressure) on the inside wall of a cylindrical bote of radius re in a rack mass of in·
finite extent. The air gap, at least momentarily, becomes an extension of the surrounding
I'()Ck. From elasticity theory. the radial pressure at any radius r from the center of the cy-
lindrical hole can be expresscd as
o,= P.(';)' ( 10.9)
r
For l.hc spcdal case whcre r = '"' Equation (1 0.9) can be rewriucn in equivalent fonn as
P, =P..(~: (10.1 0)
C01nparing Equalions (10.10) and ( 10.6) one can sce lhal if lhc air beha,<es in a rigid
manner directly after the explosion, then lhe pressure that would be applie<l tt) the hole
wall is lhal givcn by Equalion (10.6) wilh y= l. Thc conclusion is lhal lhc 1 value lradi·
lionally used in de-coupting cquations actually rcfcrs to the behaviour of thc annulus be·
tween the e.xplosive charge and the hole wall and not to the explosive gas. That this i.~
truc, is evidcnccd by thc chango in bchaviour of dccoupled charges in water.filled hotes
and when the de-coupled charge lies along thc side of a blasthole as opposed 10 being
centralized. 1t is quite conunon to find y vatues in the published literature (Atchisc>n e.t al.
( 1964) and Chiappclla (1982), Caldcr & Baucr (1983)) dcaling wilh dc-coupling of lhc
order of'
y- 1.2
Hidden page
10.3 SPECIAL DAMAGE CONTROL TECHNIQUES
10.3.1 lntroduclion
In the introduction lo Ibis cbaptcr lhe concepl of a hlast damage transition zone (BOl)
was prcscntcd wilb respect lo the production holes. As the pit expands outward, thc BDT
follows aJong automarically unless sorne spccial mcasurc.s are taken such as line drilling
or prc~splitting. Thcse are two of tbe technique.f\ which will be discussed in this scc-tion.
To facilitate this discussion on damagc control tcchniqucs, consider the BDT shown dia-
grammatically in Figure 10.7 for a fully-charged 9-718" diarnctcr holc. lt is convcnicnt to
subdi\ridc thc BDT into thrce zon~ based upon lhe level of damage. The e.xtent o( each
rone is characteri:zed by a radius from thc ccntcr of thc production chargc. The zone.,.,
their extent (as expressed in tcnms of the holc diametcr D) and the eonesponding PPY
values resulting whe.n u.f\ing ANFO in medium strength rock are asswncd to be as follows:
~zonc Extcnt PPV (mlscc)

Cru$h~o:d {Rt) 4-lo60 20
Ft3Cturtd (R¡) 12-+150 5
lnRuc:n<:cd (R1) so~6oo 1.5
These zones havc lx.'1:n drawn on Figure 10.8 for a blast containing 2 rows of production
blast holcs (9-7/8" diameter). As seen.. il is a square panen1 with 5 boles in cach row. a
burden of20' and spacing of20'. In lhis examplc it h~~> heen assumed for simplicity that
R • 50 • 4ft
'
R¡ =l20 e l0ft
R, = 55 D=45 n
Atler blasting, the situation is shown in Figure 10.9. ln the BDT 7.one there exists a
crushcd and a fractured tone surrounding each produc.tion hole. Although the crushcd
1..0ne a~ well as a smaJI portion ofthe fractured zonc may havc bec:n loaded out along with
lhe rock from production rows 1 and 2, here the roc.k will be as.~umed 10 still be in place.
The zonc lying bctwc:cn the fracture zone and the boundary of lhe BDT consists of an in~
ner portian which has bccn infiucnced by both rows of blastholes (to a disronce of about
25') and an outer pon ion (20' in e:xtent) influenced by jusl one row of production holes.
UOl'
Fnctured 7.onc
Rt• 10'
J1igu..e 10.7. Uill81'dfl\made rt{ln:s..-ru:Won of the OOT

sunwnding a MIy c:ha1"3t--d OOic.
302 Bla.Hing principlesfor open pit mining: General de.tign concept.t
o. 20'
Row l
n .. 20'
Rowo•. •
Figure 10.8. The BDT for 1""0 row production blas1.
- - ·- - ·- · -· - · -·
20' Once lnftaJCnced
Lll1T ... 45'
15' 'l'wioe lntlucnccd
1o· rt11tt~
Cru.o;hcd
Figure: 10.9. l ñc 001' aAcr biJislin¡ thc two proch1ction IV\'f5.
1'hus dcp<:nding upon where onc selec1s lhe positjon ofthe final pitlimit wilhin thc BDT,
onc has an existing dcgrcc of pre+damagc cvcn if no runher dama.gc is induc<.-d. during thc
rcmaining excavation. ln the cxamplcs that follow thc final pit limit will be sch..-ctcd at thc
BDT limit.
10.3.2 Line Drilling

linc drilling, a.s thc name implies. invol ves lhe drilling of c.losely spaced boles along the
limit of the excavalion. This is sh0\.\11 with respect to the example case in Figure 10.1O.
Thc obj<..-ct is to crcatc an artificial plane of weakness which serves to limit thc ex.tcnt of
1he frac.Iure-and influence 1..ones from both lhe production boles and any buffer (helper)
holcs placed between the final production row and thc pcrimctcr. Gcncrally. thcsc linc·
drilled holes are not charged with explosive but, if charged, it is with detanating cord ara
highly decouplcd chargc. The purpose for lightly charging the holcs is lo dcstroy the in·
tcgrily of the rock web. As can be appreeiated, close drilling control is essential for the
mcthod 10 succecd. The holes must be drillcd so that thcy all lie in onc planc carrespond·
ing with thc dip afthc final pit wall. Somc recommendations for hole spacing as provided
in 1he CANMET Pit Slope ManWJI·Citaptcr 7: Perimcter Blasting ( 1977) are includcd in
Table 10.2. To get hale spacing one muhiplies the values in thc tablc by lhc holc diamctcr
expressed in the same units. When line drilling 6.. diamcter hales in capper ore. the hale
spacing (c-e) should be 12".
Perimcter blasting 303
Planntd f'IBII Pit Pcrimctt-r
t.inc Drinincca:o·•xa:r:o:o o. e•• ,,,,,, • ,,,,,,, ,,,, (OCXX) - - - .
=~:::~.-- ---------- i~----- -------

f~un:d
EdStil'lg faoc
F~ 10.10. Linc drilling posilioocd Ilion¡ thc pbnned final pcrimC"tcr.
Tabk: 10.2. JioCCo1"5 for ddcnninin¡ holc ~-paclng (CANMET, 1971).

rwor
"""''""'
Tacroite 2-0
~ ....
Asbeslos ore
2-S
4.0
In the example there is 45 ft wide zone berv.·ccn hale row 2 and the perimete.r . To e.x-
cavate this rock one might considcr using another row of product.ion holes at nonnaJ bor-
den and spacing and then one or two rows of smaller diameter buffer boles. As indicated
by CANMET ( 1977) for Une drilling to be most effective
- 1t must be used in conjunction with a buffer row
- The main excavation charges should be 1 to 3 rows from thc pit limit.
Of thc four methods discussed i.n this section. line drilling produces the best final sur·
face - a smooth. clean face with no backbrcak or crcst fracture. However because of its
bigh drilling cost. thc mcthod has not bcc:n commonly used in ope.n pit work.
10.3.3 Pre-split blasting

As indicated, line dri.lling is the most effeclive method for crcating a smooth and undam-
aged Hnal rock wall. However the dritling costs are such that the tcchnique can only be
considered under vcry spccial circumslances today. The pre-splining technique also in-
volve. the CIITeful drilling of relatively elosely spaeed parallel boles aloog thc fina l pe-
rimeter (Figure 10.11). Now however the boles are lightly charged and shot instantane-
ously. The objcctivc is to gcneratc a line of cracks c<>nnecting the boles. In this way. it is
intcnded. to achieve nc:arly lhe same efltcu
- Tcnnina.tc thc growth ofthe radial crac.k$
- Act as a barricr to the shock wavc:
- Provide an escape routc for thc cxplosivc gases.
as with line drilling but at a significantly lower cosl Obviously to be or any "'"' the pre-
split line must be created prior to the blasting of any hales lying closcr than 1-BDT dis-
tanee away.
The explanations for cxactly how thc cracks belwcen holes (Figure 10.12) are fonned
have varied OVf.."f thc ycars. As has beco discusscd earlier, when an explosive is detonated,
a shock wave moves away from the borehole. This wavc has two componenls. The radial
304 8/DJiing princíp/e.rfor open p/1 mining: General design <'Oncepls
componcnt is compressivc and pushcs thc rock radially outward as it travcls along. Thc
langc:nlial componen! is tensile and ittends 10 strttcb the rock as it moves away from thc
holc-. Thc outward velocity of the cracks gcnerated by thc tangential component is slower
than that ofthe wave itself. lfthe adjacent holes are detonated at precise/y the same time,
thcn thc surrounding rtgions will be inlluc:nced by the waves ftom both hok:s. Tbt radial
(compressive) wave component from bole 1 (figure 10.13) will tend to close crack.• try-
ing to grow in the dircction nonnal to the borchole line away from hole 2. The tangential
(tcnsilc) wave componcnt from holc 1 will encouragc thc- growth of cmcks from hole 2
along the borehole line. The wave from bole 2 has the same effect on the cracks radiating
from holc 1, Thc highly crackcd zonc bctwec:n thc holes bccomes thc patb of lcast rcsis 4
tance for the g.a.11 pressure to escape and also encourages crack growth in this direction.
Thc holcs must be rtlatively close together for thls interaction to occur. Since thc holcs
are located far away from a free surface the reflected (tensile) radial eomponent has little
effect.
for true prc-split blasting, all ofthe boles must be iníri.atcd at thc: 'sanlC time• and thc
charge should extend along the fuJI length of the hole. There is sometimes confusion
rcgarding what is meant by the m1uircment thaclhc boles are shot at the 'same time'. To
Pre-Spl.it Une
• • Cum:nt Bcnc:h Crest
·-'
Magnlfi«t Atea/"-- J • • V
' lknch Toc
Final Oench Crc:st

• • 1'
• • 1 '
''
• • 1'
'
'
Figure 10. 11. A swe·splilline posiliolled alon¡ thc pi~ final pcrimctcr.
f M;;i;:;d-A-;;------------------------:
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
1 '
-------------------------------~
Figure 1O.ll. ldcali.l'!cd prc-spl.it fraaurc PIUem (AECI, 1978b),
---------------------------------
1
1 Mugnil'ied A~
1
1
1
1 1 1
1
1 1
1 Crucl: /C'.!:!'<lro.,:blnliibiled 1
1 2 By tlote 1
1
1
o.,.,,~ ~d
uv '"~"'-' From Hales
1 """2
,1 ________________________________ ,
1
Figure 10.1 l. Crack growth inhibitcd zoocs (AECI, 1978b).
demous trale this, consider the following example. In an ope:n pil mine assume that pre-
Split holes 1SO mm (6") in diametcr have bcen selccted and a spacing-hole diamct.er ratio
of 10:1 is appropriatc·. Thus thc ccnter..ccnler bote spacing wouJd be 1.5 m (S ft). Assum·
ing thlll lhc longitudinal wavc vclocity in thc rock is 3000 m/scc (10,000 ftlsccond) the
tirne rcquired far the wave to travel the 1.5 m between hales is
15
t = -- = 0.5 msec
3000
Thus for thc wavcs from Holcs 1 and 2 to intcract in thc rcgion bctwccn thc boles, thc
dcln_y time would have to be le$S than 0.5 mscc. Becausc of the sprcad in dclay times cven
when using higb precision caps, such precision is highly unlikely. To achieve near 'si-
tuultanoous' initiation ofsuch pre-split hales today ane often uses detonating cord down
l in~ and side initiation. Electronic caps whic:h are in tbe proc:ess ofbeing introduced pos-
sibly could satisfy this rcquiremcnt.
Because this close timing req,uirement is seldom rcalized in practice, this dassic:al ex-
pl:anariou of presplitting may not. in fact. be correcl The holes most probably do nat
d ctouate within tbc time windO\\o' nccdcd to havc active stress ltfOl.'e intcrac.tion with the
growlng cracks. Favorably oriented cracks (those exteoding aJang the hale line) lnitiated
by adjoccnt boles will be extended by thc tcnsilc componcnt of thc wavc from thc odjo-
ccnt hole. Thc part of the lheoretical proccss that would noc be realized is lhc retardation
of radial cracks in adjacent boles extending in directions normal to the hale llne. H'owever
with lbe creation of a crack path between two ndjacc:nt boles thc gases would prefcn:n-
tiaHy Oow in this direction as opposed to opcning cracks oricntcd in other dircctions. The
wédging due to the gas would extend the cracks. Since the ga.c; prc:s..c¡ure i_n the hole actc;
over a considerably longer time than does the wave. the timing of adjacent hales may not
m all be as criticol as sugg<$ted by classical theory. Tbe m0$1 desirable situation would be
ror the holes lo be shot close enough Wgelher in lime so that the adjacent ones are still
pressurized by gas (figure 10.14). Their cooperation now provides a force orientcd nar-
mal to the hale line. This compleles the split and lhe g.a.<~es are released.
306 Blas1ing princlplesfor open pil mining: General design concepls
The gas prcssurc should be high enough lO encourage the growth of tensile cracks but
low enough to prevent compressive failure (crushing) around the hole. The CANMET Pit
Slope Manual ( 1977) suggests the following design relationship
ls P,. + T ( 10.11)
D T
whcrc: Pw • pressure at the borehole waJI (MPa), T= rock tensile strength (MPa), D = hale
diamcter (m), S = spacing (m).
A first approximation for the value of the dynamic tensile strength is tak<11 from Ta-
ble 10.3.
As an cxample considcr pre-split blasting in a rock with the following dynamie
s:U'ength values
- Comprcssivc strcngth = 40,000 psi (280 MPa)
- Tensile strength = 2500 psi ( 17 MPa)
Thc prc-split is to be done using a continuous oolumn or 1-1/4 (32 mm) cartridgcs of an
cxplosivc with an explosion pressurc of 450.000 psi. The hole diameter is 4"'. 11 is as-
sumed that the effective dynamic expansion factor which applícs for thc air gap bctwccn
the cxplosive and the hole wall is 1.2. The question is what hole spacing should be used..
The explosive pres.sure applied to thc wall is
Pw= 27,450 psi (190 MPa)
------------------------·------ ·--;
1
1
L - - -----------------------·--·------~
fi¡_u~ 10.14. Crack otcnsion by gas pressutc. ( AECI, 1918b).
1'abk lO.l. O,.namioc tcnsilc: sucngth ofroek (CANMET. 1977).
Rock lype l)yn:unic Tel'l.\ik Slrt"Jih

(psi) (Mpil)
TuC()flilc: 2500-6000 17-41
C()JlpCI"on: 4000 27
Asbcsi.Oe:l c.lf'e' 700 S
Limcstone 1000-2000 7-14
Perimetcr blasting 307
ROW 01: 4• OlAMETE-R

I'RE·SPUT flotES
I S~ OfA.l'lUFfER ROW
TOHOAD = •OO~gm
910 10m STEMMINO
NORMAl.
I'ROillJC"nON
RL.AS1l N"G,
/ 7..5 m STEMMING
1
•
RNAt 2m
FACI~
-L....
- 1--
I.Sm - i -L
2.Sm
¡- ---~~···
figure 11). 15, PrOOua;oo dcsign with prc.-spliuing (8aue.r.l982).
which is bclow thc dynamic comprcssive strcngth ofthc roc.k. Using Equation ( 10. 11) one
finds that the spadng S is
S • 47.8 ins ~ 4.0 ft (1.2 m)
lfthe rock wert highly jointcd. its dynamic compm;sive strength would be lowcr, perhaps
in the 20,000 psi (140 MPa) range. To a"oid backbreak, a lower boreholc pressure and
hence closer spacing would be used.
Figure 10.15 sbow• a pre-split blast design (Bauer, 1982) where a row of 102 mm di-
amctcr pre.split holes havc been used togethcr with 381 mm diameter productionlbutTer
holcs. Thc prc-split linc may be fired prior to tbc drilling of !he produetion holes or just
prior ( 100 10 150 msec) to firing the production holes. Table 10.4 provide:s recommenda·
308 8/asting principies for <,pen pit mining: General desígn concepts
Blastholc Owgc Sugacsttd <:31'Ctid&e 81aslhole

diamdc:t (mm) lood(l<p) dlamctet (mm) ' paci11¡ (m)
7S 0.4.5 22" 0.75
90 0.6S 2S" 0.90
100 0.80 29' 1.00
115 1.10 32" 1.10
m 1.30 38• 1.2<>
ISO l.SS 4S 1.45
200 3.30 ss• l.SS
230 4.SO -6S' 2.00
2SO l.:IO so 2. 1.5
270 6.10 80 2~S
310 7.80 so• 2,40
• Continuous tulumn e~.
Plonfll:d Final Pi1Perimetcr

""'·split Line o-<:X>-O~<>-<Xl~<HHKl>-0-<>-0'-<>-0<> - -r-
- _ _once•·n~ncod ____ 1 g¡s~'i;..,______ _
Twice ln.Ouenccd 1 BOT • 4S'
f taduttd
Exist.ing Facc
tions IOr the chatge density and spacing in prespUuing.. lt should be remembered that
structures such as bedding planes, jo ints and schistosity as well as the insitu stress stale
affect the pre-splitting results.
Just because a pre· split linc has bccn creatcd docs not mean that carc docs not have to
be takcn rcgarding the dcsign of thc blasting pa«em used bctwccn tbc final production
row and thc BDT. Quite the co ntrary is truc. The crack linc bctwecn the holcs is often
quite narrow and can be closc:d by the waves gc-ncratcd by higbly charged holes in thc
near vicinity. Although dampcd, thc wavcs may stiU have enough remaining energy to in·
du~ cracking bcyond thc pn."-splil fine.
r:igure 10.16 shows a pre-split line added. to the example inttoduced earlie-r in the sec-
tion. An additioual production row of holes may be shot with thc resuh that lbc prc,.split
line limits the zone ofinfluence toa distance of25 ft. The remaining rack is blasred using
smallcr diametcr hales wilh closer spacing and smallcr charges. The final row of holes is
placed so thar their a.'t.wc:iated fracrure zone j ust extends to the pre. split line-.
10.3.4 Smoothwoll Blasting

In smoothwall bJasting, as opposed to line drilling and pn::-.splitting, the final pit perimetcr
lies in the zone of influence from the final row of productlon boles. This is shown dia-
Perimeler blastlflg 309
grammatically in Figure 10.17. Since lhe final row ofholes lies in the intluenced zone~
sorne minor crest fracturing or backbreak may result but the amount of damage is much
lcss Iban would be prodU<cd by tho main prodU<:tion blast if no control blasting was uscd.
Thcn: are- fivc genera] rules {Hugun & Mcn;tr, 1983) foUowcd in the dcsign oC dtc smoo1h~
wall row
- The burden, spacing and charge concentration oC lhc smoo1hwall linc of boles are
selected so that the cxtent of the assoeiated inflU<Dce region does not excecd that of the
production boles. The hole size tbr the smoothwall and buffer row hole$ may be the same
as in thc production round with thc rcquircd rcduction in influcnce zonc dimcnsion occur~
ring through pattcm adjustmcnts and dccoupling or smallcr diametcr boles may be uscd
with or without decoupling.
- The hale spacing is less than the burden. Often the relationship
S
8 = 0.8 (10.12)
is uscd (Figuro 10.1 8)

- The hales in the smoothwall row are shot on the same delay with detonating cord
downlincs to assun: as simultaneous detonation as possible.
- The delay time between tbe helper row (that adjacentto the smoothwall row) and the
smoothwaH row should be chosen so that the smoothwalt boles can shoot toa free race.
- All of the smoothwall and buffer row holes are shot together with the main produc.
tion round.
Prod\Jetion Row
¡ u...
. /~~-.-- . .1
t; a radJus or dam.
.lf. ;¿l
•/
1
/
l()lte .....
- - --..
0
.... .
"
\
J
P~uction J-lok-s
\
\
:
\
' ... ~
'\'
., . ...., , /'
Smoochwall Row • ~ e ~/
t-•igure 10.17. Peripllcry prot~ion
t --- using smooth,.•all b lasting ( Uoltrt-
ButlCrRow
bcrg and Perssoo. 1978).
S •0.8 B
.u Frtt Faoc Produocd
í by thc l)utfer Row
•
•
Figure 10.1S, Smoothwnll bbSiing gt'OOletry.
J IO 8/astlng principie> for open pil minlng: General de>ign concepls
The first rule is required to simply salisfy the gentle blasting criteria tha.t succeeding
boles should not extcnd thc damagc beyond what has aln:ady bcen done. Rules 2, 3 and
4 are based upon thc rack brcaking cffccl whic.h is to be creatcd by thc smoothwall
holcs. With sirnultaneuus detonation, as discussed undcr Section 10.3.2, the radial
cracks created will extend pretetentially along the hale line. The ga~es stream into this
line of least resistance as opposed to extending the other cracks (those both towards
and away from lhc free Cace). Bccausc the spacing is rclativcly small, this conncction
occurs rather quickly. The sustained gas pressure from the line ofholes heaves the bor-
den forward with rclativcly littlc twisting and distortion. As a rcsuh, smooth waU
blasüng can produce a relative.ty coarse f:ragmentation. lf the delay timing betwee-n the
helper and the smoothwall rows is too short, the gas pressure will remaln Jonger in the
smoothwall line with the possibilily that emcks will be extended beyond the inOue-nce
limit The explosive is chosen such that high detonation pressures (a.nd hence rock
fracturing) are avoidcd. Once thc srnoothwall row has been designed. then one contin·
ucs with the design inward toward thc production row. This procedure is dcscribed in
sorne detail in Section 10.4. Rule 5 leads to considerably less complicated blasring than
thc othcr thrcc tcchniqucs. Today, it is muc.h more commoo to use smooth \\o'all blasting
nuher than pre-splitting, tOr example. in opcn pit nU.ning operations because of
- less drilling
- l.,ess complicatcd blasting
Figure 10.19 sbows an cxamplc of a bcnch blast dcsign lnvolving smoothwalling (Baucr.
1982). As can be scen in Figure 10.20, thc dcsign din:ction is from tl>e expccted boundary
of influcncc from thc production holes and works toward thc facc. Thc outcr smoothwaU
row is placed so that the lirnit of its ioOuence 1.one corresponds with thal from the pro-
duction boles.
' ·'"' 1•
r
1 , .) ...
¡ ,..
,. '•
••
'•
p ¡~......-a""T'-f-1-'~.
! ¡ ! : :
~!
1 . ¡ ¡ : ! ¡
... ~ i •
• f ... 1.111
' 101~1 ' 11
•'
~ :
'
Fig11n: 10,19a. Scctioo vicw or tflc smootflv;aUdcsi¡n (Oauc:r, 1982),
-=t·~--OM.~W~---
-- -l~.: -----SR!.~'~'!!!'¿..'!!!.~- ----- -- .J_
o o o¡ o o o o o o o o r
ll.!!J U"' 7m ~!l~l " '"'
o t - ol- fo - -o - Bt'ffOllt()'ll,' -
'·~ ·
-¡-o- o o o
'• : ._j
'j_ lm
o - ¡-- o 0 ~ 1 ..
WHti!lli!I!!C!IJ¡Iliilt'lliatJij[A '(hh I(Uif \ij~]iij(\§3( ltllli)AP'It

\\J\1.1. TIUM RI.AU
figure 10.19b. Plan \'lew of an actual smoollrwall dcsign (Bauer, 1982).
Oulcr Smooch.,.'llll Row
tJcloq.na F~
Figun:: 10.20. Sln()()th ""aiii'QW superimposcd on thc-n:amplc design.
10.3.5 Trim blasting

Trim blasting, as thc namc implics, involves uimming away some of the fractured and in-
flucnccd roek from the pit perimeter after the production blast has been sbot and clcancd
up. The trimming may be accomplishcd using onc or scvcral rows of blast boles depend-
3 12 8/a.rling prlncíplesft)r t){>tn pít mining: General duign concepl$
~·~~-- -----
,__ t~
··--· ···--·
rnc:-:t,.. SS? • •
r-------
............-. ............ •.•.
-FWsa r,¡. aow
...- ····-··
m·t·=-·-. ,......_ . ..,.,._.••...r.,... !
BOT-4J'
ús...Mll
Tebl( 10.$, Ret:Ofluncndcd thqe Joads 1111d blasl ~ rcw trim btMtlniJ (H~pn 4 Mm:cr. 1911).
Ollt..oUhole (;tuu¡e S.""'ed .....w¡. IUulhole Ounkn (m)

dlamcter (n1t11) '""" (~¡Vm) diam~(mm) -'•atm)
15 0.50 22' 1.15 us
9(1 0.70 w I.JS 1.80
100 0.85 29' 1.50 2.00
liS 1.05 J:l" 1.70 2.20
I2S 1.20 l8' 1.10 2.40
ISO
:!00 '·"'
1.75
uo
SS
SS'
2.20
1.10
2.10
}.70
2)0 SS' uo (.20
2)0 l .7S f!O :1.60 4.60
270
)10
• COIIIiftUOUJ cotWM ct.¡c
....
4.U 80
90'
:1.90
4..0
s.oo
uo
ing on whrn: in ohe ODT zooe it is de$ired lhatlhe final m:st should rall. The dfsign pro-
ceis. difTc:rs from lhc smoothwall technique in tha1 thc layou1 bcgíns al tbc actual pit pe·
rime: ter and worlu outward toward the desired final pi1 limh rother than vice versa. Th_is is
shown diogronunali<:ally Ln f'igure 10.2 1 with respect to thc: design cxamplc. Sorne rules
for sclccting the butden. spacing and chargc concentmtion M n ft.mc:tion of holc diameter
are prc5c-nted in 'fable 10.5. As in alt other typcs ofpcrimetcr control, accurate drilling is
impon.unt. To nchicve thc best rcsults, thc holc:s shou.ld be drilled al lhe linal pit slopc an-
gle. Th..: l>orcholes are drilled in a Une aJong the planned cxc:ava1ion Umits, Jooded li_gtuty,
and biL<Iod 10 rcmovc lhc undfsirod material. As notcd earlicr. a roducod explosivo load
ean be obuíncd in various ways. The use orlow dcnsity, bulk·loadod explosivcs in larger
díametcr boles such as deseribod in Chaptc:t 7 is onc ""'Y of improvina lhc C<lOIIOillics of
lhc mcthod.
10.4 PERIMETER CONTROL DESIGN APPROAC.. ES
10.4.1 lntroductlon
ru wos di""u""'d in Chaptcr 9. studies over !he yean have shown lhat blast damage 10
surfoce and u.nderground structures due to blasting can be related to particle velocity. A1-
though this has now changed, for many years the limiting paniclc vclocily bclow whicb
y ognt~ 11a 111

Perimeter hla!fmg 313
no damag.e was expected to occur was 2 inlscc. Tbc dcsign tcchniques discusscd in this
section take the same approach regarding the damage lo the rock mass. Tcchniqucs are prc-
senled for calculating thc particle vclocily al any givcn poinl surrounding a charge. Com-
parison to a particlc vcloc;ity bascd damagc critcria wiU thcn yicld thc cxlcnt of damagc.
Obviously the proccss also works in reverse. One can specify tbe maximum extent of
damage and then calculate the timit cbarge.
10.4.2 TheSwedishopproach
The 6rsl su:p in lhe process of evaluating the extent of rock damage is to calculate the
particle velocity. Figure 10.22 is a díagrammatic representation of a hench with !he (R. Z)
coordinate system oriented as shown. The overall charge length L is divided into a series
ofsmaller pieces each having a length tJ.z (Fig. 10.23). Since lhe charge ha$ a weight per
unit length of q, the length tJ.z represents a weight
W=qtJ.z (10.13)
where q a linear charge concentration (kglm), tJ.z ~ incremental charge l..,gth (m).
The general equation for the particlc velocity as a function ofthe chargc wc-ight (W) and
thc distance (R) from the center ofa spberical charge (see Cltapter 12) may be expressed as
(10. 14)
where K. (1, Ji =- constants for a given site and explosive, R =radial distance from the ob-
servation point (r., z.) to the cenler (r, z) of the incremental charge.
R =[(r-r0 }'+(z-z.)'J'n (10.15)
This applies lo a concentrated charge the length (tJ.z) of which is small compared to the
distance R. In dilfercnoial form Equaoion 10.14 beoomcs
dV = K(qdz)" (10.16)
R'
Fi.¡utt 10.22. Nomenclatu~ used r...- S111-edistl dcsi¡n (Holmba¡ & Pemon, 1 978~
314 Bla.ding principies for open pil mining: General de$ign concepts
R------------------,
W =q.óz
(0, Z,)
z
Fisu~ 10.23. Oivision orthedtarge in10 inatmenttl e~
Substituting F.quation ( 10.1S) into f.quation (10.16) onc finds that

dV = K (q dz)" ~
+ (z - z.,) 2 ]~''
2
2
[<r-r0 )
( 10.17)
•K[ (<r - r(.l qd z

)2 + (z - Zo )2fl2a
)"
To find the rotal effect at the observation position (r..., z.)~ one m.us.l sum up lhe indi\"Kiual
eiTects over the entire charge length. This can be done in two diiTcrent ways. The first is
to calculate the contributions aniving at the point of interest from eaeh of the increments.
These contriburions do not arrivc at thc samc time and hcncc this would nccd to be taken
into account Funhennore since lhey arrive from difTerent directions one would need to
rcsolve thc total incremental contribution into dircctional componcnts and thcn sum. Two
simplifications would be to
- Ncglcct lhc diffcrenccs in thc times of arrival of thc difTcrcnt incremcntaJ chargcs at
the poin1 of interest.
- Use lhc peak amplitudc coming from cach incremcnt without rcgard to thc arrival di-
rcction.
Perímeter blasting 3 15
In this way one would calculate thc maxirnum possible amplitude at the point. This is
the approach tAI<en by Holmbcrg & l'cmon ( 1978). By doing this the total oontribution of
the incremental charges can be obtained by simply integratin¡ Equation ( 10.17} over the
charge length. As can be $CC11 from Figure 10.22, thc top ofthc charsc is at
r 1 • T(boctom ofthe s.tcmming)
and the boctom is at
., = H + J(bouom ofthe subdrill)
1ntegrating Equation ( t O. 17) yields
V•K[ q Hrr [<r -r )

2 +
dt
(r - z. J' jlíl•
]" (10.18)
0
This can be <>'llluated numerically for any aiven SCt of a and ji valucs. A spccial case of
Equation (10.14) is
(10.19)
the US<: ofwhieh wus disetwed in Chapter 9 with regard to ground mocion. In comparing
Equations (10.14) and (1 0.19) ít is scen that they""' identical ror the specialcasc when
a 11
D (10.20)
2
Equation ( 10.18) then heeoones
V- K q j
II • J dt
..----,.:!!---
]"
""' (10.2 1)
- [ r !<• -•.>' + (•-=.>']
wbich can be cvallUitod dírectly to yield
V• K{~[tan-'( /1 + ~- '• ) - 100-o( T:'• )]·}o ( 10.22a)

'"o rru r t ¡,
The angles corresponding lo lhc arctan function are cxpresscd in radians. h will be as--
sumed tbat the chargc is locatcd along the • axis, thus r • O. Equation ( 10.22a) becoones
( 10.22b)
For hard bedrock (granitc. for examplc), ltolmberg & Persson ( 1978) sugg.,.t that
K • 0.7
a • 0.7
11• I.S
can be US<:d u sundMd \-alues. Th<sc Vlllues ,...,.. substituted into F.quation (10.18) and
the cquation intcgr:tted numerically to produce the cun·es shown in Figure 10.24. The
316 Bla.rling principie.• for open pit mining: General design ct>ncepu
)OOQ,--,--.--.--.--.--.--.--.--.-,
R
" " "' " " " " ' '-1
0 ol-_.--~1o~::~2o~:;;;3~o;;~~~~;Js·o
f igure: 10.24. Peak partkle ve-
loc:i1y \ 'Cf'SUS distancc and liDCat
- """""llllian (llolmbog &
Dis.tance (m) Pemon, 1978).
velocilies are !hose expected along lhe hori2ootalline drawn lhrough lhe 1op of lhe 15 m
long charge (Fig. 1025). These are nollhe maximum velocilies generaled by lhe explo-
sion. They would be expecled 10 occur along lbe line corresponding 10 lhe mid-hcigh1 of
the charge
Z=T+U2
sincc in this approach the entire chargc lcngtb has been a.ssumed to detonate instantane-
ously and no resolution ofthe particle velocities in the differenl directions has bccn done.
The four curves in Figure 10.24 correspond approximalely 10 lhe following hole di-
arnelers (D) when filled wilh ANFO at 0.80-0.82 glcm'.
D(m) q (l<glm)
0.102 6.8
0.140 ll
0.230 )4
o.;so 7l
Figure 10.26 shows a cross section lhrough thc bench wilb lhc iso-velocily (cqual-
velocily) lines superimposed. Thls is for lhe ca<e when q • 34 kglm and L = 15 m.
The next step in the process is to detenninc thc magnitudc of thc particlc vclocity which
produces significan rock 'damage•. Studies have been made over many years in relating
particle velocity lo darnage of structures. The darnage has becn found lo be relaled lo lbe
building construction, the nature of the underlying nwerial and the particle vetocity. The
safe-limits for a few ca.~ are given in Table 10.6. The probtem is to detennine thc "safc-
limits' for rock in-situ. From extensometcr measurements in nearby unloaded drillholes
and core drilling before and after blasting Holmberg and Peruon (1 978) found lhat lhc
safe-limil for hard bedrock was in lbe rango of O. 7 10 1.0 misec. The 'darnage' consisled
Perimeter b/asting 317
r,
R
r
T
(fcro 1'}
--+--------- -- Z=T + t.n¡
-+- - ---
(r.- Zl
-t l! ~
11
------ - E ---,
z
Figure 10.25. Gc«neuy uscd in developing thc curves in Figure 10.24.
K = 0.7
' K • 1.4
o ......,..,
S/ í \1 \
1
1
1
1
''\
1 1
u, 1
r r
S 1 1
~
' 10 1
20
,1,
.._.,., ""' /
1
/
'
1
"" S
--- _ ....""l.s,. , /
~~
--- ---
~
mt'SC'(;
JO .......¿
3
'
-10 -S o S
Olst..,..(m)
10 u 20
Figutt 10..26. 1»-velocity GOI'Itours (Pcr.oon, 1990).
of lhe cxpansion of ex:isting joints and the fonnation of minute ncw crack.s. 1bcse •dama
age' threshold limits have been superimposed on Figure 10.27. For simplicity here it will
be assumed that the leve! ís 1 rnlsec (Fig. 10.28).
To demonstrate one simple application of !he Ctm'es foc blast design near !he final pit
perimcter. consider the following example:
Explosive • ANFO (0.82 g/cm>)
Production holes (D) = 350 mm
'Buffer' holeo a 230 mm
318 Blasting principie$ jbr open pit mining: General dc$ign concepts
..
1'able 11).6. ~r~. limh:s.. ~low ~1tidl no llama¡c ~ould be expccacd (l la¡an & MCtCet ( 191t.1).
Particle Velodty
i!\1'~-e mrnfsec
l'listucic:al buiWin¡$. mo~UJ~nCniS and buiktings af spedal sl¡nifleance. 0.08 2
Houscs and IO'A' risc:- rcsidentiaJ buiWings.
Comnw::n:.ial and iOOustrial buildings oc Mrudura ofrelnron:cd concf'Cle or ~eeL
o.• 10
2S
ISm
12
6.8
0 ol-~--~~o~::~2~o=:;;;ro~~~~~;;;j~
l:i¡.ure 10.21. Peak J!W1iclc ve•
IOCity \ 'ct'5US disunce CUI'\'Cll
wlth the <bm113e 7.one wpc:rim·
OkcW~ee (m) po~~~:d.
.....................
R
IS m
12
.>!
6.8
·~
.. 1000
Fi¡urt 10.28. l'eek pwticlc V C·

loci ty \'O"SUS d istaooe CIJI'\'CS
uscd in die Simple problcm,
Perimeler blasting 319
"Trim' holes .... 102 mm

Bench height = 1S m
Layout Puramctcrs:
K6 • 25
K1 = 0.1
KJ=0.3
Ks = 1.0 (Squarc Pattcm)
A vert.ical bench face will be assumed to simplify lhe discussion.
In Srep 1. the production. buffer and trim patlcms are calc:ulated.
1. Production Ponem
8 = 25 (0.350) " 9 m
s ~ 9m
T = 6m
J • Jm
q = 7Skglm
2. Buffer Panern
8 = 2.5 (0.230) " 6 m
S • 6m
T '"" 4m
J=2m
q= 34 kgfm
3. Trim Pottern
8 • 15 (0. 102) • 2.5 m
S =2.5 m
f e 2m
J=lm
q =6.8 kgfm
In Step 2, lhe present and final pit contours are drawn on lhe section (Fig. 10.29) for each
bench. To CUI the rock to tbe desired limits, thc trim boles havo beco placed on tbe ftnal
' '
Fimd Slopc Crest
Cl.fn:nt Crc:st
f// 1 • / - ,..
~ ~
E•"" ol Damogt ?§á
:·~
/A
1
11
1
•
~
~~
15 m
-¡ :Lt - ---j---1-- -- -- -- +~""'"'"

6Jm Om 7.5m 14m 32 m
Fi¡.ure 10.29. An inidal design.
320 Blasling principies for open pil mining: Genero/ de.sign concept5
contour line. The cxpected 'damagc limit' beyond this line (lmlsec) is shown on Fig·
ure l0.29. lt extends 6.5 m into the final pit wall. The closest approacb ofthe ' buffer' and
prndw:tion boles should be oucb that lhey do not cause damage beyond lhís líne (furlher
than 6.5 m ínto thc final wall). From Figure 10.28 onc can see that the respective limiting
radii art
Buffer boles: R = 14m
Prnduction boles: R e 20.5 m.
Theír closest approach posítions 10 tite final oudíne are shown in Figure 10.29.
Buffer= 14.0-6.5 = 7.5 m
Production = 20.5 - 6.5 = 14 m
ln Step J, the lirst atternpl ata blasting pattem ís drawn (Fig. 1030). As can be sren, there
would be 2 production boles (P., P2) followcd by 1 line ofbuffcr boles (8 1) followcd by 2
rows oftrim boles (T1, T,).
Howcver. this dcsign ha." been based upon a eonstant powder factor (K8 = constanl)
being maintained througltout. As the bunden on the boles is neduccd tltey fall within the
wnc i~flucnccd (damaged) by tite previous boles. A ftrst approximation to tite maximum
extenl of this •major' damage zone will be the burden. This has been ploned on Fig·
urc 10.31 for tite final production hole P 2 together with tite proposcd position of buffer
hole 8 1 with its ex:pected major damage zone 8 1' . As can be seen. 8 1 lies weU withln the
damage zone ofthe final prnduction hole. Therc are three adjustments to the pattern which
could be considered to take advantage ofthis.
l. The explosive in hole 8 1 could be significantly reduced while maintaining the wne
bundcn and apacing.
2. The burdenlspacing could be increosed wbile oruúoruúning tite same charge.
3. Thc amount of explosivc could be reduccd somewhat wbile increasing the btuden
and spacing.
Option 2 cannol be considered since the bote would be moved closer to the final pit
limit. The damage zooe would then extend funher into the wall. Option 1 is not of real
intcrtSt sincc it is dcsirablc, if possible, to elimina~.e the high.est: cost items. thc boles. Thus
it ís Option 3 which is chosen.
Perimeter blasling 321
l$m
'
6.S1n
-- - -~-- --O
figu~- 10.31. Oomlap of damagc tones from lhc produc:tion and buffer rows.
fin:al Slopc Cma
15m
'
6.S:m (m m 1 m 2.1 m J21J\
---"- - - - --- --_-_::::--- ~-;:::--- L.---' ;:..-~-"""""""""""'
Subdrill
Fl&ure 10.32. MocUfted bias~ dalgn.
The best basis for a design change would be 10 know how much the rock was damaged
by thc prcvious blasting. Thc new value of K8 would be used to calculate values for 8 and
S. Today such information is lacking and one resons 10 a guided cut-and-try approach.
From a practica! viewpoint one would like 10 change the pattem so that there would be
only one row of bulfer boles and onc row of trim holcs.
Assume that the appropriate adjusted value is K1 ~ 35 for a loading density of 34 kg/m.
This mcans that the powdcr factor is about cut in half.
B = 35 (0.230)= 8 m
S = 8m
The new row ofbuffer boles is shown in figure 10.32. lt now líes 6 m from the desired
pit limit. The damage zone from Figure 10.28 is 14m and it extends oul$ide ofthat pro-
duced by the production blasting. To protect the remaining roek the chargelm must be re-
duced. The rcquired value ofr0
r.=6m+6.Sm= 12.Sm
322 Blasting principies for open piJ mining; General design concepls
Using Figure 10.28, a maximum chargc conccntrntion of about 26 kglm is found which
now aiJects tbe choice of tbe burden. A burden of 7 m, a spaeing uf 9 m and a charge
density of JO kglm is about in balance. Thus tl1e pattem would be staggered with respect
to the production blast (sueh as is shown in Figure lOJ3) to give a bcttcr distribution of
the explosive. The ponion rem.aining to be blasted has a width of 7 m. As can be seen.
this falls zone falls completely within the damage zonc produced by tl1e buffer boles and a
ponion was affected by the production row as well. Thercfore two ruws oftrim boles. the
first row with a 4 m burden and the second with a 3 m burden would be used. The spacing
would be at 4.5 m to confonn to tbc regular pattcm (Fig. 10.34).
Obviously thcrc is oonsidcmblc flcxibility in thc dcsign. Thc damage produced by over·
lapping fragmentation pattems combined witb tbe natural j ointing and tbe digging llbility
of the loader may require only a single row of trim boles. The basic princ.ipfe of main·
taining a da.r.nage zone within that produced by the tñm holes remains. The leehniques for
creating the reduced chargelvarious charge concentrations were discus.'Sed in Section 10.2.
Damagc to thc crcst of thc bcnch bclow duc to thc subdrilling is important to considcr.
As the burden is reduced the arnount of subdrill dueto the geometry effect is reduced natu·
rally. For the trim boles no subdrill should be used. The burdcn should be reduccd and all
of the previous tock removed (no buffer rock) so that the gasses can push the rock with-
oul extending cracks into lhc desircd fmal wall. The subdrilling from both the Last row of
the production boles and the buffer row should be kepl away from the crest of the under-
lying bench. Thc tria! dcsig¡t bascd upon use of thc principies is shown in Figure 10.35.
As indicated, tbe curves given in Figure 10.2.S are for the spec.ial case
V(mlscc) =0.70 (w•·

R ')
1
_, ( 10.23)
1
1m
, •
1
9m
1
9m
' 1 1
• • rE
1
f '
1 m
'
1
1
'
'3+ '
19m 1
1 1
1
' c~t
1 1 1
f 1 1 '
/
1
f • )
•
1
1 •
1
1
1
1
•
1
>
B, P, P, Figuro 10.33. Plan vkwoflhe produclioo and buffer rows.
Hidden page
324 8/asting principies for open pil mining: General de.tign (.'Oncepls
V(m/sec) =0.8 1( W R112 ) "'·" (10.24a)
where R = distance (m), W• charge weighl (kg), or
.
V (m/sec) = 31.9 ( wR>n ) "'·" (10.24b)
where R • distance (1\), W = charge weight (lbs).

As can be sC<:n, Equation ( 10.24a) is somewhat different from tlult used by Holmberg &
Persson ( 1978) in the development of their curves. In comparing it ro Equation 10.23 it is
sccn that now
K = 0.81
13 = 1.51
a • Jli2 • 0.755
For Ibis special case (a ~ ll/2), the particle velocity can be calculated using Equa-
t.ion ( 10.19b)
To dcrnonslralc thc calculation, 3 rathcr typical bcnch geomctry will be used (Fig. 10.36).
Le!
( 10.25)
Substituting the values for H, J and T from Figure 10.36 into Equation (10.2S) yields
,. 8
·1 -r-
' '
~
~
0.78
1 1
~
- '- ! -:- ~ t .6 a
~
~
1.28 ~
/.
<
0.3 B
,_ .' -
f i¡.urt 10.)6, 6endt ¡eomeuy ll$led in lhe devclopnenl or lso-vdocity lioes.
Perimeter b/a.,·ting 325
F=J~t-68+~~38 -z, )- ~t·7~ -Z0

0 )} (10.26)
Wben the values for z , and ' " are expressed in tenns of burden B. the factor F (Equa.
tion 10.26) can be tabulated for easy general application. For the case whcn
z. = 0.08
then
F -•(1.68+038 - 0.08) _1(0.78 -0.08)
= tan 058 - tan 058
= ran-•(058
198 0 78
· )- tan- •( · ) = 75.26'- 54.46• = 2o.s•
058
The value ofF must be expressed in radians rather than degrees hence
F = 20.8'(....!..) = 0.363 radians

180
Thus for thc point
(0.58, 0.08)
the value for F is
F = 0.363 mdians
Gcoroetrically the angles involved are sbown as in Figure 10.37. The matrix of (r,, z,)
points uscd for this cxamplc are shown in Figure 10.38 and thc corrcsponding F valucs
for thc:sc locations are givcn in Tablc· 1O.7.
(O.! B, 0.0 8)
(0.0 B. 0.7 B)
7$.46"
-'-- - ·'!' (0.0 B. 1.9 B)
Figurt 10.37. Orawing for lhc sampk eatculalion.
326 8/ostlng principlesfor open pit minlng: General deJign concepts
2~ B l .OB 1.5 B 1.0 8 0.59 0.0 8 Holc Collar

/ VA
R
'
0.) lB Mid-stnnming
0.'1<) B Topofc:tl~-
1.1lB Mid~:lbo~
'
1.) OB Mid~ hci¡fll
I ,CiO o Toe dcvacion ~VV\YV\VI\W 1\5 ,.,.
1.90
" Chalg<ll«"""
z
Figure 10.38. Mlllrb: ()( c:alruiMion point'l.
Tablc: 10. 7. Valuc:s of thc raaor F (ElCprc:s.sed in Radiaos) tbr the Sampk Bcndl Geometty.
'• '•O.SB I.OB 1.58 l .OB l. lB

o OJ6l 0.476 0.466 0.41 o.m
O.lSB 0.648 0.661 0.513 OABó 0.4 16
0.708 1.176 0.876 0.675 o. ~ 0.«8
I.ISB 1.716 1.066 o.m O.SSQ 0.470
1,308 1.152 I.OSI 0.761 O.SSl O.A71
1.6U 1.604 1.024 0.74 0.572 0.46j
1.9U 1.176 0.876 0.67.S O.S40 0.448
To continue lhe example it will be assumed tbat !he hole diameter is 270 mm ( 10-5/8•)
and ANFO is the explosive (p = 800 kg/m3 ). Using !he Ash formulas (K8 = 25), the bur-
denis
8 = 25 (0.270) s 7 m
and lhe charge dcnsity q is
>'
q (kg/m) = " (0.270 (800) = 45.8 kglm
4
The velocity at point (0.58. 0.08) is
V a 0.8 1
[
45 8
· x 0.363
0.5(7) l
o.m
= 2.63m/sec
ln a com:sponding way. the vclocit:ics corrcsponding lO the other pointS in the matrix can
be calculated. The results are given in Table 10.8. These can now be plotted such as
shown in Figure 10.39 and lhe iso velocity contours added. At thc free surfacc (z. = 0),
Perimeter bla:rting 327
·rabie. 10.&. Pllltide vtloclti~ ( mmfs-.oc) aa lhedlffrrcnt matñx loc.-ations.
'• '•
o.su 1.00 I.SU 2.0 0 2JB
o 2630 1910 1)84 !OJO 802
OJSB 4()6ll 2447 1618 liSO 864
0.700 6380 3021 li30 1245 913
I.ISB 8486 3510 1992 1314 947
1..300 862 1 3S48 2004 1319 949
1.608 8065 )40l 1962 1)00 9l9
I!XJB 6380 }{)l7 18JO ll4.S 913
2.5 8 2.0 9 1.5 B l.OB O.S R 0.00 HoleCoUar

...
wn¡ llM?
~.,
R
1000 1910" 2630
r
0.3lU
j 11$0
.'718 l44y 4063
Mid·stcmm ing
1'op of~har¡c .
0.70 11
913 1245 1830 3027 6)80
1 1
1.1lB ~
1.30 u~
1.60 8
r
Lf9
1314
1319
1992
_,
)510
JS48
,\
8436
8621
M1d-duw¡e abovc t
Mid-cfla:rge '-cight
Toe clc,·ation ~
-~39 1)00 1962 8065
fl
Char¡e BotuJm
1.90 B 913 124S 18l0 3027 63110
Figutt 10.39. Cootour ptot oftbe paniefe veloe:itks.
thc damaging particlc vclocity will be expec:tcd to be less than deeper in thc rock mass
wherc thc rock is conflllCd. If onc uses a limiting critcrion of 1000 mmlscc thcn damagc
toa distance of2 B bchind the hla-.;t would be ob!iervcd. In this case it would be
Damage Zone = 2 x 7 m • 14m
Figure 10.40 is a plot of thc partidc vclocity at thc clevation of thc top of thc c:harge and
al the cluuge mid·heig)ll as a funclion ofthe distance (R) from the chatge. This should be
compared lO Figure 10.27 ofHolmberg & Pen;..wn ( 1978). Thcir curve is for z. = T which
is located directly al the 1op of the charge.
This type of simulalion has been perfonned for a nwnber of ditTcrcnl chargc oonfigu·
rations, and the distance of2B 10 2.58 for the exlenl of damage (using the 1000 mm!scc
crilcrion) seems lo be relalively constanl. Thus as a rough rule of thumb, the produclion
blasts should be stopped at 3B from thc final profilc. lnsidc this zone, careful blasting
should be planned.
Since the Hotmberg·Persson approach is so widely used loday, it is considered worth-
while, prior lo conlinuing. lo provide sorne additional background regarding its develop-
328 8/aJtlng principleJfor open pil mining: General de.tlgn ~"'ncepts
IOr----r----r----r----r----r----- ,
8
q • 45.8 kglm
1
1
~
1 Mid-dwg<
\
\
\
' •,
Topofchargc.......::
2
0 o~--~.~~~.--~.~~~.~~7~--~
, ,$ 7. 1 .S 14. 1 .S
Oisllln«-(m)
Figuro 10.40. Variati0t1 o f 1bc peak pcutide ve:lo<:ity with dis.tancc fot mid-dwgc and top-of-dlarge elcvatioos.
ment As indicated earlier, the basic equation relating tbe peak particle velocity to the
chargc wcight ( W) and thc dislancc (R) from thc mcasuromcnt poínt to tbc chargc is
W"
V = K-¡¡r;
wbere a. /J. K = site specific constants.. W = char¡e weight (kg). R = distancc (m). V =
peak particle velocity (mmlsec).
As a fttSt approximation for application. Holmberg·Persson have suggested the use of
K=700
a = 0.7
p~ 1.5
The basis for this selection of vaJues is the extensive suite of field measurements con·
duetcd by thc USBM over the year.; and rqx>rtcd in Bulletin 656 8/tuting l'ibrations and
Thelr Effects on Stn.cture3 by Nicholls et al. (1971). In their study a total of 171 blasts
wcre recordcd at 26 sites. The blast size r""'cd from 70 to 180,550 lbs explosivo and thc
charge per delay rangcd from 25 to 19,6251bs. The rock types includcd
- Limestone
- Dolomite
- Diorite
- Diabasc
- Basalt
- Sericite
- Schist
- Trap Rock
- Granite
Perimeter blo.sling 329
- Gneiss
- Sand.!itone.
Thc hole d.iamclcrs ranged from 3• to 9•, the bench height< from low to 215 1\, charge
lcngths from 10ft to 200ft~ and mcasuring distanccs from sorne IO's offcet up lo several
thousand feet. Thc ••plosives used were those normally used at the quarries. Thus e•plo-
sivc lypc: varicd both within and among quarrics and could not be cootroUcd. Thc bl.asts
included both miJI.isecond delayed Md instantaneous. The method of initiation varied. for
the different blasts and sites the Bureau measured the peak particlc vclocity using vclocity
gagcs. NomtaUy thrcc gagcs wcrc mounted at cach mcasuring point and oricntcd to rcg~
istcr the radial~ vertical and transvcrsc particlc veloc.itics. For each of tbe blasts the Bu~
reau ptoned the peak panicte velocity vetSus distance but eventually decided to use a
scaled distance. The rea.'IO!ling behind lhJs is descrihed below (Nicholls et al. 1971).
'The method oj scaling distance by lhe square root of lhe cltarge weight per de/ay as
detennined empirical/y Js a s.atisfactory procet.1ure for rcmovlng the effect of chargc
weight on the amplitude ofpeak particle velocity. Other inveslfgators havc suggesled that
cube root scaling be u.sed, bectJuse it can be supported by dimen.rional ana/ysis. Cube root
scallng can he derú:edfrom dimensional analysls 1/a spherical c.harge is assumed or ifa
eylindrical charge is as.sumed whose heighl changes in a :rpecífied manner wilh a change
in radiu.r. Taking the L"a.re of a sphere. a change in radlus re.rult.v in a ''0/ume increa.~·e
proportíonalto the change in rodiu& cubed. Weight is usual/y substiluted for volume. The
relation.rhips rcsu/1 in cubc roor scaling. Blasting, m general/y conducted. docs no1 pro·
vide a :rcoled experiment, Charges are usuaJ/y cylindrical. The height ofthe face or deplh
of lifi are usual/y faed. nterefore, lhe charge length ís con.rlant. Charge size is varied by
changing hole diameter or tite number of holcs. Thc [lXcd length of 1he charge prcse,s
problems in dimemiona/ analysis and prevents o complete solution. llowever, a change in
radius, while holding the length cmultmt results in o volume lncretue proportlonaJ 10 thc
radiu.s squared. Thi.s indicou:s that thc scaling should be done by the square root of thc
volume or weight ru· custornarily u.ted lt is lhe geometry involved, cylindril.:aJ charges.
and the mamrer in which charge size is changed. by clumging thc diametcr or number of
hole:r which re.y.u/ls ln square rool scaling being more applicab/e tha.n cube roo1 scaling lo
most bla.sting operations. The Bureau data, ifanal)'%ed using cubc root scaling. dCH!s n01
.rhow a reducticm ;, the spread of the data which would occur if cube root scaling were
more appropriarc. In Sltmmary. thc emplrical rcsults anda consldertJJion ofthe geomctry
in.cluding lhe procedure uscd to change charge sizc, and dimensional analysis indicate
that data ofthe type from mo.sl blasting should be scaJ~d by lhe :rquare root ofthe charge
weight per de/ay. '
In thc appendices to Bulletin 656 the Bureau has included
- Drawings of che tield test geometry.
- Shot and loadiug data,
- The tield resulls including scaled distance and peak particlc velocily in the radial,
vertical and lransvcrse direc,tions for cach test si te and each blast.
Hcncc ic is possiblc for the incerested reader to reanalyze tbe data as dcsircd. h is im·
portanl to note that in these teSIS
- The peak particlc vcloc:ily is the maximwn value regardless of whcrc i1 occurrcd
during 1he rec.-ording.
330 8 /asting principlesjor open pil mining: General de:sign concepts
- Thc shot•IO·gagc distancc was dctennincd by mcasuring the distancc from each gage
to the center oflhe blaslhole having the maximum charge wcight pcr delay.
- The scaled dislance is lite dislanee rrom lite blast·to-gage divided by lite square root
ofthc maximum charge wcight per delay. for instantaneous blasts thc total cbargc weight
was uscd.
Lundberg el al. (1978) uscd thc USBM data base in developing lite constants used in
their propagation equation. They read L363 value:s of lite peak vertical panicle velocity
togethcr with thc associated chargc weights and distances into a computer program and
calculatcd the best fot line. A plot or the result< togelher witb tbe superimposcd line is
shown in f'igurc 10.4 1. Thc resulting equation is
R )_,_,.
V = 730 ( IV"'' (10.27)
and tite valucs for K, a, and {J ltecome

K = 730
1000
100
-¡¡
~
g
t
~
~
10
2
••
l
;¡
¿:
0.1
ris.u~ 10.4 1. The, ,-cnk al peak

p:uticle \'docity as a func1ion ol
OI_ __,0.1----'---,.,.
O.OJ.L 0--,-1
,00
.,...---
, 000
~--' J(IWO.AJ bakd on tt11: US6M
RJW'U data (Luodborg et al.. 1978).
a = 1.54
{J a 0.66
The valuc of V calculatcd in this way is cxprcssed in mmfsec. f rom this equation as de-
veloped from the USBM data it is natural to simplify the constants to
K s 700
a = LS
{J =0.7
as uscd in thc Holmbcrg-Pcrsson appmach. H is not square-root scaling but nuhcr JY0.4l,
Lundborg ct al. (1978) also fit 1hc experimental data using squarc-root scaling. ln this
case the equation hecomes
R ) _,,.,
v = 323 ( w""" ( 10.28)
The corresponding values for K, a and /1 be<:omc

K = 323
a = 1.45
{J = 0.725
As was notcd carlicr, a major simplification occurs in thc cvaluation of the Holmberg-
PeTSSOn equat.ions if
a = 2/J
Such is thc case hcre. Howcvcr as can be sccn hcrc_. onc must be carcful whcn m.aking
such simplifteations sincc tbe valuc of K is markedly alft(..1td. In any case, the commonly
cited values for K. a and (1 are derived from a large data set of vertical panicle velocity
measurcments. Individual curves (and thc corrcsponding valucs of K, a and /J) for a givcn
site, rock type and blasting design can v:uy marl<edly from lhe 'best-fit' curve dcrivcd in
this way. The reader ls advised 10 go back and refer to lhe conditions under which thc to-
tal dola sct was dcveloped and possibly evcn go back to the original USBM dota.
To use the design curves one must know the values of PPV corresponding to various
levels of damage in the rock mass. Field experiments wcrc oonducted at thc Aitik mine in
Northem Sweden to obtain such value.s (l·lolmbc:rg & Krauland ( 1977), liolmberg &
Penson (1978). Pe,.son el al. ( 1977), Uolmberg (1983), Uolmberg (1997)). Thesc lests
and the resullS obtained \Vill now be brieOy revie\ved. The rock rruw in which the tests
werc conducted is represented by biotite gneiss and scricite schisr. lt has a wavc vclocity
of approxirnatcly 4000 mlscc. Thc main mincralization of cconomic intcn:st is disscmínatcd
chalcopyrite. Oold and silver (0.3 and 4 s'ton respectively) are e.xtnlCted from lhe coppcr
conccntmtc. figure 10.42 is a plan vicw sho\\1ng thc ponion of thc bcnch (Production
Blast 213) which scrved as the sitc IOr thc first test. ln this blast a tocal of96-2S 1 mm (9-
7/8' ) diameter production holes were shot aecording to the delay sequence sllown. There
wcrc 14 diffcrcnt delays uscd with thc time interval bctween each group ofdelaycd holt.-s
bcing 100 ms. Thc specification for thc drilling and charging plan is as follows:
bench height = 13·14 m
holc deplh z 16m
spadng = 10m
Hidden page
Perimeler bla.sli'ilg 333
13.2 m 13.1Jm
27.S2 21>.55 27,.30

A .
a
3.S
-
6.20 5.35
l.O gog<
"'""
s.s
l.O
'\ inítilttlon
Figure 10.43. S«lion showin.g lhc: position or thc I)(III'(:;SM procluction !\ole ;md the ¡nge boiC$ (Holmber¡: &
KraulaOO, 1971).
the vertical peak particle velocity was the Largest of thc thrcc componcnts. Thc peak ve·
locitics and accclcration.s as measw-ed wen::
Quanlity HokA HoleO

Oistanoc (m) 1},2 :n.o
AccdcmMln (g) 1020 37
Velocity ( mmlscc) IS20 693
The da<;hed lines labelled as l. 2 and 3 in Figure 10.42 represent core boles diamond
driiJcd bcforc the production blast The respective collar$ are denoted by the cin::les. Hole
1 (1 05 m long) and Hole 2 (90 m long) were drilled sub-horizontally lhroogh lhe round
and approKimately SO m into undisturbed roek. The collsrs of Holes 1 and 2 were sepa-
rated by about SO m along lhe bench front and were 1 m up from lhe bench floor. These
holes were oriented at right angles to the dominant joint systcms. Both holcs wcrc sur~
vcycd using an Eastman Whipstock camera. Hole 3 was drilled from the upper suñace
and about 30m bchind the Last production row at a dip of 50b. This anglc was chosen so
that the hole would cut the foliation dircc:tion at about right anglcs and yicld information
rcgarding damage at tbe same level as the produ(..1ion hole bouum. Due to hole caving
prohlems it could out be surveyed. Arter the blast. three holes (4. 5 and 6) were d iamond
drilJcd paraiJcl to and within l m of the respective holcs 1, 2 and 3 drillcd prior to blast-
ing. They were then surveyed. All of the boles except Hole 5 were drilled so lhat a core
32 mm in diametcr was obtained. for Holc 5 thc corc diametcr was 42 mm. All corcs
were loggcd wilh rcspccl to roek type and crack ftcqucncy. Thc logs rcvcalcd lhat lhcrc
wcrc two diffcrent rock types 1raversed
- pcgmatitc
- gneis.s in all transilion fonns
After logging of the diamond drilled holes. an analysis wa."i perfonned to determine how
far bchind thc last production row ncwly created cracks werc found to cxist . Becausc of
334 8/asting principies jor o¡xm pit mining; General design concepts
- the large natural variation in the number of crack$ over a shoner distance
- the etfect of core hole deviation on core fracturing
- the presence oftwo different rock types
it was decided 10 evaluate lhe cllJlnge in crru:k frequency before 1111d afler blasting based
on logging intet\•als of 5 m. The number (N 1) of core segmems hJJving length.' less !han
0. 1 m, lhe number (N2) wilh lcnglhs g=ter than 0.1 m, and lhc total nwnber of core
pieces were tabulated as shown in Table 10.9 for the eores from Boles 1 and 4.
The cores from Holes 3 and 6 beforc and aftcr blasting unfortunately showed so large
variations that il was imrxlSsible lt) detennine if any change in crack frequency occuned
during blasting. Holes 2 and 5 could not be used sincc they wcrc drillcd with different
holc diam.cters. An attempt was made to vary the standard lenglh based upon the core di-
amcter but that was not successful Thcrcforc thc damagc cvaluation was done bascd upon
thc results of Holcs 1 and 4. Figure 10.44 is a diagrammatic n:presentation of the ex-
pectcd rcsult. Thc bouom cnd of Hole 1 drilled prior 10 the production blast provides lhe
·undisturbed' base.line to which the core from Hole 4 is oompared. In examining the re·
sulrs in Table 10.9. it is seen that the fracturing is highcr in Holc 4 up through thc intcrval
15·20 m. For succccding intcrvals, the fracture frequency is basically 1he samc. lf one as-
sumes that no new ftacluri_ng ha."i occurred deeper than 20m along Hole 4. th.an due to the
fact thal Holcs 1 and 4 wm: drilled at 4S"' to the bench face this means that the new frac-
turing terminated at a distance of
20
damage 1.0ne • Ji = 14 m
Holmberg & Krauland ( 19n) using a semi-statistical approach indicate that
Tabk 10.9. 1'hc resuhs oflhe RQO dc:t:rnnin¡lions fot hoks 1 and 4. Aftcr I.Jolmber& an.J Kraulnl (1977).
HokNo. lntcrval (m) No. of picccs A \"'Cr'1ge R()O

NI N2 r< lcngth ( m)
0.0 ~ 5.0 11 IS 26 0. 19 0.84
4 34 1} 47 0.11 0.47
1 .5.0~ 10.0 17 19 36 0.14 0.82
4 45 15 60 0.08 0.51
1 10.0 ~ IS.O 25 20 45 0.11 0.73
4 39 18 57 0.09 O.Só
1 15.0 -t 20.0 30 16 % 0.11 0.68
•1 20.0 - t 2$.0
63
49
7
10
70
59
0.07
0.08
0.2Q
0.35
4 )8 14 52 0.10 0.54
lS.O - t 3<1.0 38 12 so 0.10 O.S7
4 27 18 4l 0.11 0.65
1 30.0 -t 35.0 22 16 38 O. U 0.68
4 26 17 43 0,12 0.64
1 3.5.0 ~ 40.0 28 17 45 0.11 0.6S
4 30 16 % 0.11 0.61
40.0 .. 45.1) 9 14 13 0.22 0.82
4 1S 17 32 0.16 0.76
1 4S.O -t SO.O 12 17 29 0.17 0.82
4 17 17 34 O.IS 0.74
,---------...,...,-..,--,.--"'l""-'"""':-"
'' '
GageA GagcB
X X
1-lole 4
' Hole 1
f ...aure o'""" Zon<

f"requrocy :
.!'--.Hole4
: .........
.
'
.....J!v... .
Prv.
! : ... _ _ ..
B
Oistaoce From 6cnch Faoc
Figun: 10.44. A thc:orelie~l &aten $tdk>n alon¡¡tb~: dlrmion ofllok 1 s;h(:r,l.•lns ~ e.xpec:tc:d frru.:t ure frcq~~ency
pñor to tbc blasüng (1-fok 1) and after blasting (Hok 4) (Hotmbcr¡: A Kruulu.nd. 1971).
'Wilh a pmbabilily of90%. the zone oj newfracturing terminotes within an imerval of

18.6 lo 44.9 m from the blast a/ong the /role length. Since the diDmond hole ís dr/1/ed at
45° to the bench face, thís nteans thaJ wilh 9frAí probahilily new fracluring termina/e$
wilhin thc inten-'01/3.2 10 J/ .9 m behind the last row ofholes. Ata distanceo/11.6 m be-
hind the round there is a JO% probahility that new fracturíng has occurred. Therc is a
5% probahllity thatthe new fractures I!Xtendfurther back than J 1. 9 m. ·
This interpretation of the extenl of new '[racturing• is. a.~ will be shown shonly, ex-
lremcly important when applying the dcsign curves ro ficld applications. Holmberg &
Pcrsson (1978} oonslructed the peak particle velocity versus distance curve for lhe test
situation shown in Figure 10.45 as.f\uming
q = 75kglm
K = 100
a = 1.5
{J = 0.7
The rneasured peak vertical panicle velocities and distances
PPV ( mmfKC)
1) .2 1520
27.0 69J
have beco superimposcd togethcr with a measurement madc during an earlier test. As can
he scen lhe rc:sulls are well deserihed by the curve.
In oonjunction with a perimeter blasting round a sccond set of PPV versus distance
measurcments were made. The test geometry is shown in Figure 10.46. In this case the
hole diameter was 171 mm (6-314 ins) and the explosive uscd was Rcolit 10 which is
somewhal wcaker than Rcolit A6. 1'hc propcrtics are
336 8/asting principlesfor Clpen pil minlng: General de$1gn concepts
~· r-----.------.-----.-----,------r---,
3.3_
12.S
Cakulated
•
·~.------t,.-----~,.------~J~.----~.~.------~so.--'
Dist.ance (m)
Figurt 10 .45. Thc calculatcd and the cxpttimcnUll \'alucs of peak particle ' 'dotity versus disUltlec fOf tite
250 mm thargc(Holmbcrg & Pcmoo, 1978).
A B $.45 12.98
o
6.0 6.0 6.0
Figurc 10.46. The te.':\& gl!:ltlmctf)' for 1t.c hllW usins tht 170 mm diamc:cc:r holt: (llolmbcr¡ & Pcmon, 1978).
typc == alumini:Ge<l TNT-bascd watergcl

q = 34kglm
dctonation velocity • 5000 m/sec (ideal)
density = I.S gfcm)
weight strength = 57% (wrt blasting gelatin)
Only mcnsurements ofthe venical component were made in the lhree holes using acce.Jer-
ometm. The follow ing d imcnsions apply:
Hole pair
(,...,.,.,..,,
Collar dl..s.tanee (rn) Gag_e-cxplosive distanoc (m)
(11190'" to charge axis)
A·B 6 .91 8.5
A.C 12.35 l.l.9
A·D 25J) 26.9
Thc maximum mcasurcd accclcrations and derivod vertical peak particlc velocities at thc
difl'eront gage locations an:
Q.lantl!)' Hofe.B Hok C HoleO

Oistat~tt (m) 8.l 13.9 26.9
A«eiC1111U~r~ (g) !031 30 3 29
PPV ("""""") 1442 l62 283
The calculated and the experimental values for the PPV as a function of lhe distancc
havc bccn ploUcd in Figure 10.47. Again as can be scen the agrccmcnt is good. No
diamond drilling was done before and after blasting as in the previous test.
In Figure 10.48 the damage zone of 22.5 m as sugge<ted by Nolmberg & Persson
(1978) has been added to thc PPV versus distance curve for thc 251 mm diamcter fully
charged hale. The intersection on the PPV axis occurs at about 700 mmlsec. lf one
would havc uscd thc 14 m distancc instead (as suggcstcd by thc direc-t obscrvations) as
opposed to the stati,stical approach, then one would establisb a damage critcria of about
1.4 m/scc. Assuming that the 14 m damag_e zone is representative one can see from
figure 10.42 that tbe inclined holes 3 and 6 actually lie, for the most part, in the zooe
of u.ndisturbed rock. Hence the observation of no obv'ious diffe:rence in fraeturing be-
fare and after blasting is logical. from thc Aitik test conducted with the 251 mm di-
ameter holes Nolmberg & Kruuland ( 1977) cooclude that 'possibly with the exccption
of the near vicinity {within about 2 m) of the charge the increase in the number of
2.0 . - - -..--- -- . - - - - . - - - - . - - - - ,---,
6.0
Ficld
Figun; 10.47. The calc:uhMcd and lhc, ~rimcnUll vatuc:s of peak partid~ vcloc:fly versus di~~:c for lhc
110mmehsrge(Hotmber¡& Persst'ln, 1978).
338 8/asting principies jiH' open plt mining: General deslgn ccncept~·
~Oir----,,----y----,-----,-----r-0
3.
R
l ~l
.700 ITifl\lsc¡;
1
1
1
22.5 m:
1
1
10 20 30 40
Uis:l..cc (m)
Figure: 10.48. 1'tle cx¡)\:timc:ntal ~onc: of d~ supt:rimposcd on lhc thoorctieal c:un·e fM thc 2SO mm di·
amccc:r hok.
cracks as a result of bfa.¡;ting is relatively little. The nu.mber of cracks increases by a

factor oftwo from 4 to 8 crac.ks per mcler up to 8 to 16 cracks per meter.' In conclu-
sion. it should be recalled that this c.ritical limít.. whethcr 700 m/s.ec or 1400 mm/sec.
corrcsponds to that poinc wherc an incrcasc in cracking bcgins to occur in thc rock
mass. Thc aclual Umils to be imposed will depcnd upon both t.he application and the
de.,ign.
lnstcad of standard proccdurc of calculaling the ''clocity al a particular point (r". z")
and then comparing this value with the critica! \•elocity to see whether the point líes in-
side o r o utside o f thc damagc zone, one can mu.nípulate Equation ( 10.22b)
so thatthc d istancc ' " corrcsponding to the "Titical partic:le vclocity (V.:-) can be detennined
directly. Tbe procedure has bcen demonstraled by Ouchtcrlony el al. ( 1993) in analyzing
thc data froro the Aspt; site. In tenn.~ of the quantilies :oohown in figure 10.49 the cha.rge
length (L) may be cxprcsscd as
L • H +J - T (1 0.29)
which can be rearranged to yicld
f/ + J • (. + T ( !OJO)
Assuming that 1hc clcvation of thc observarion point {z0 ) is located at the charge mid-
hcighl lhen
z.=T + L/2 (10.3 1)
Using f.quations ( 10.30} and ( 10.31). Equation (10.22b) may be wriucn as
( 10.32)
Perimeter bla.sting 339
B 1
R (0. 0)
. 1
,.' '
V
'
- ,- 1- .'
'
____
....,.(r.. ~
112
'
'
"
- -"· ~ '
U2 '
1'
." . '
-'-
z
f i¡un: 10.49. 1'he le<Jm.ell')' uSt.'CI in lh~: lllla_l)'S:is ot'(Oudl.tcrlony d al., 1993),
Since
lan -l(:!:.)- -l(_!:_)

2r.,
-1an
2rf}
Equa1ion ( 10.32) may be wriuen as
V • K{!!l_[lan- 1(_!:_)1}0 (10.33)

ro 2ro
But sincc
w
q• -
L
Equation ( 10.33) becomcs
2
V = K { W ltan-1(_!:_)])• (10.34)
Lr() 2r0
or
(10.35)
(10.36)
340 Bla.tting principies ji1r open pil mining;· General design CIJncept.t
Lclting
(10.37)
2r0
Equalion (10.36) becomc:s
V = K(.!._)" f" ~ ..!!._(JIY )" = K[~ r~ (10.38)

rtl 2 r., zo. Jwf
Rearranging Equation (10.38) one finds 1ha1
.!::. ~ c '• r~ - <Jw¡J~ ( 10.39)

K Jw¡ '•
or
Jw1 = <.!::. ¡'41 (10.40)
'• K
Equation ( 10.40) can be rewriltcn as
¡¡ . JWK
'· c.!::. >''P ( 10.41)
Dividing lhe numerator and the denominator of the right hand side of Equation ( 10.41) by
the charge length L one arrives al the equalion developed by Ouchlertony el al. (1993).
¡¡ = (')(~)(.!::.)'''
L ,fW K
(10.42)
Remembering tha1
tan -•e - L >

1- 2rD
L
2r.
1hen Equation ( 10.42) may be wriuen as
tan -•c- L >

¡--,-:2r'-'.'- . (• )(....!:....)(.!::. )''' (10.43)
L L .{W K
2r.
ll is seen that lhe desired quantily r 0 appears on both sides ofthe equation. Although there
are other ways of detennining r,. the graphical tec:hnique used by Ouchterlony et al.
( 1993) will be demonstraled here.
Todo this let
( 10.44)
and
Perimeter bla.tting 341
( 10.45)
2r.
The velocity is set equal to the critical velocity V, and all of the olher quaotitics with thc
except.ion ofr0 are known. The two curves for Y are then plotted as a function ofrJL. Thc
interscction point is wherc
-'oL =-'.:L
Knowing the ratio rt/L one can detennine the desired value of re by muJtiplying by thc
length /..
The process will be illustrated by way of a numerical exarnplc taken from the study by
Ouchtcrlony et al. ( 1993). A clwgc ofGurit 17 from Niero Nohcl AB was used in a 48 mm
diameter hole. The appropriale explosive propenie:s are:
Explosivo = Gurit 17
Oiameter • 17 mm
Density • 1000 kglm'
Length - 4.5 m
Weight slrength ofGurit 17 with respe<:tto Oynamex = 0.77
Tbe charges were used in a gray granlte/granodiorite with a grain size of 2·4 mm. Meas--
uremenLS of the peak partícle velocity were made at various distances from the charge
center. The results are plotted in Figure 10.50. Assuming that ~ • 2a., the appropriate
propogation equation has the fonn
V = K(_L)-i!
rw
1000
"~
5100
o
•
>•
o +
+
• •
10 • •
L---~--~~-~l~l~t~l~t~I~--~~~-L-L~
t .,~
2 S 10 20 SO Fig.un:: IO.SO. Sice scaling la-· ror 'he
rvrw lC$C rounds (Oudltcrtony ct: al.,1993).
342 8/aJting principies for opcn pif mining: General design concepls
Using a linear regressi<m approach the authors obtained thc expression
V = 4 1 1(~)""·"
.JW
which describes lhe average line through tbe poiniS. To be on lhe c<>nservative side the
intcrcept valuc was chosen to be 698 conesponding to the value of the nonnal intercept
(41 1) plus one standard devíation. The charge weight W is given by
w ~ 4.5 (0.017) ' <=)( 1000) n 1.021 4 kg
which when convened to the equivalent weight of Oynamex becomes
w0,• = 0.77 (1.0214) = 0.79 kg
In this ex.ample, the critica! velocity ha.~ becn as.~umed to be
V, = 800 mmiscc
Using lhese values Equation ( 10.44) can be wriuen as
)'= ( 4.5 )(800>'"'·"(·¡= 5.4 1( · ¡ (10.46)

.JW 698 L .JW /,
Sionilarly Equation (10.45) bccomes
Y•
....-· (~• )
_, 0.5
tan -
(10.47)
= "'' 1L
L 0.5
2r0 r0 / L
F'or thc ratio r./L = 0.2 one finds that
tan _,<-o.s ¡ -- tan_,<o.5J

- z tan _,<2.J')
'¡{ 0.2
This corresponds lo
e= 68.20° • 1.190 radians
Thc value for Yusing Equation ( 10.46) becomcs
5 41
y= ' (0.2) = 1.22
Jo.79
Using Equation (10.47) lhe value for Y is
r=J"'90 2.5 = 0.69

lfthe ratio r/L had been the common solution for thcse two cquations, thcn the Y valucs
would have bccn identical. Since they are not identical another ratio must be tried. Values
tOr the Y values appropriate for the two curves are now calculatcd for other r,/L ratios in
the same way. The rcsults are shown in Figure IO.SI. The two curves intcrscct al about
'• = 0.075
L
Perimeter b/asting 343
1.20
l.l
1.0
•••
y
0.6
••• ..1..- :
SofutiOft
. b,) 1t.c e<¡UMion: r.,'L • 0.015
0.2
Fipre IO.SI. ·nae graphic:ll !!Oiution 10

•• 1t1c d~c tooc
ct al., 1991).
~ua1M>n (0\ldwlc:rlony
The value of re is lherefore

' • = O.o? S (4.5 m) = 0.34 m
As was indicated earlier this procedurc is used lo detennine the extent of the damagc zonc
given the value of the critica! velocity. Since the Ouchterlony et al. ( 1993) approach is
based upon Lhe Holmberg·Persson equation which assumes infinile detonation velocity
and wavc vclocity and takes no account of thc arri\•al dircctions of thc elemental wavcs il
is s:ubj ec:t to lhe same limitations. Whereas Holrnberg·Persson cxpressed the velocity in
terms of the distance and evenrually superimposed the criticaJ velocity to obtain the dis.
tance. here the distancc is dttennined directly.
10.4.3 The /nspirarionapproach

In 1986, Savdy (1986) descrihed a procedure for designing blasts ncar the final pit wall.
ln princ.iplc it is rathcr similar to thc Swcdish approach. Thc importaot distinction is that
the cxplosivc column ís trcated as a single spberical chargc rathcr than as a distributcd
char8e and thus the calculated velocities would he different with 111e two approaches.
Howcvcr as long as onc is consistent in rclating observed damagc at a givcn sitc to thc·
calculated veloeities (using whatever method), a design procedure results. The steps fol-
lowed by Savely (1986) in this practical apptication to thc I.nspimtion Mine will be out-
lincd helow.
Step J. Particle vclocity·scaJcd distancc curve

The first stcp to tbe prcdiction of blast damagc is thc dcvelopmcnt of an cquation rclating
paniele velocity to the weight (W) of cxplo.sive bdng used and thc distancc (R) from the
center of the chargc to thc point of intcrcst. Such a rclationship is givcn bclow
V= K ( H' 112
R )-J ( 10.48)
where V particle velocity (inlsec), R = distante (fi), W = amount of e.plosive (lb$),

Q
K, B= constants.
344 8/asting principle.sfor open pil mining: General design concepts
lnitially thcrc were no site specific data available for K and ~· As a res:ult, the upper
and lower limiling curves prcscntcd by Oriard (1972, 1982) were applied (Fig. 10.52). Thc
cquations are
Lowcr limit
6
R )-"
V = 25 ( w"' ( 10.49)
Upper Hmit
6
R )-"
v = 225 ( w"' ( 10.50)
Table 10.10 is an atternptto relate observcd blast damagc with a limiting peak particle
vclocity. Blast damage observations were made at the mine when shooting a single bias·
tholel delay in porphyry. The following applied.
Hole diameter • 230 mm (9 ins) or 270 mm ( lO5/8 in)
Explosive = ANfO
Spacing • 7.5 m (25ft)
Burdcn = 4.5 m lo 6 m (15 lo 20 1\)
Explosivelhole • 400 kg (900 lbs)
Surfa<:e dclays = 17 ms or 25 ms.
At distances up to 40 to 50 1\ behind the hole, blast damage in the form of
SCALED DISIANCE (mlk&" l

.45 .<i()
10 250
,.,.i ~
>-
§
-
E
>-
25 !:::
-'
g
~ d>
.1 2.5
. L.,..,.,,...J.-'LJL.l..llill_ _L ..L.LJLLW.L:o.__J 25
011
S 10 50 100
SCAI.ED DISTANCE (Mho" l
Fi¡:u:re IO.S2. Vcloc:ity ''mus lK'aled dbaanoc nomograph u:sed b)' lnspirtllion (Sav-ely, 1986).
Perlmeter bla.ttlng 345
Tabl1: 10.10. Critaia for obM:rvabl.: blast dama¡t (Savely, 1986).
Li.miting peak panic:k vdocity

"""""'· (inhec)
Occl.1ion:a! fal ling of loosc roeks from Nodamagc. 12S S
beneh faces
P1111Rdly loosencd rock &11$ from faces I.Nt POSliblc darmaae. bus 400 15
\ll'tJUkl have rc:maincd in pl~C~C ifno1 blasled problably acceJQb-le
Portions of bcncb &ce fall, ~ rod: Minot blast d~. 63S 2S
f.álb, somc fractutlna In bmch k\·et.
B**hrcak clCttnd:i into &ot, cl't':Sl of > 6J.S > l.S
futllR' bcnehes hcavily lhleh.red,
noóccable if~Cf'USC' In fhM:um: lntenshy
on benc:h and in tac:e. loosc: nx:k bb.:ks
in race. ttatcring ncv bcnch toe, heavrd
around off.sct on strueture.
40-50 ft
1" •1
l'l¡.urc 10.$1. <:;eome~~y rc$Uhina in mea$Urcd

crest damage.
- Displaccmcnt along rock structurc,

- Ground hcave-,
- Ncw fractures.
was obscrved. This is shown diagrarnmatically ln Figure 10.53. Using the values
R, = damage linúl = 40 ft
W a explosive weighlldelay = 900 lbs
the scaled distance becomes
Ds =(;, )= 1333
Lacking velocity measurements, it was assumed that this co~1Kmds to 25 inlscc. A ve~
locity..scated distance curve wa._~ then constructed going through this point with a slopc
similar to lbe othcrs (Fig.. lO.S4). The equation of the resulting cun<e ís
V=40 ( -R- )·1.6 = .m/see (10.51a)

JYI/ 2
or
ooc( wt'l )
-·~
V=1 _.!!._ = mrnlsec ( 10.5 1b)
346 8/a..uing princlplesfor ápen pit mlning: General de:sign cont.~epls
SCALED DISTANCE (rnlkg')
~
íl
~ 1
'O'
~ ->-
t:
8.... g
....
w w
> >
S 10 SO tOO
SCALED DISTANCE (Mbs')
f igure IO..S4. Velodty ver$usscaled distancc re.lalÍOI'Iship wilh lheeslimalcd C:I.IJV'C supcrimposed (Savc:ly, 1986),
Slep 2. Dcsign curvts giving chargc wcighl/dclay as a function of distance from the charge
were plotted for lhe different limüing ve-locities using eithe,r or both equations. The resultS
are shown in Figure 10.55. In Ibis case a peak particlc vclocíty lcss than 381 mmlsec (15
in/sec) has been selec:ted for use at the final pit wall. The distance R substituted into the
cquation is that from thc centerline of lhc boreholc in question to thc planncd bench crcst.
This is consisten! with the way that the multiplying constant (40) in Equation (10. 51a)
was determined.
Step J. A tria! blast (shown in Figuro 10.56) was dcsigncd. lt was bascd largcly on cxpcri·
ence with regard to what is required to break the ground while staying within the limits of
Equation (10.5 1).
The h'im row was designed first. A total charge of225 lbs of ANFO situatcd in 3 dcclcs
was choscn pcr bote. Thc hotos hada spacing of 4.5 m (15 ft) or 112 that ofthc production
holes.. The horizontal distance from the hole to the future crest was 35 ft. hence thc cx-
pccted peak particle vclocity is
R 1 .,.. = 40 ( 35 1_,.. = t 0.3 m/sec
.
v = 40 ( --¡;;
w. 225 112
The di.st.aJ'Ice between dec.ks is 10 ft o r about 12 hole diamcters and the charges are roughly
in proportion to the easc ofbreaking. These boles were drilled wilh lhe production rig and
are 10 5/8 in (270 mm) in diamctcr and no subgrade drilling was done. Thc buff<-r holc:s
10<1()
2000 Blast Oamag,c
soo 200
NoOamas,e
wc:n: Laid out ata distancc of25 ft from thc trim boles on the same spacing (30ft) as that
of the production hole$. No subgrade drilling was done and the charge w·as increased to
700 lbs. Using thc: collar to crest distancc of 60 f\, thc expected peak particlc velocil'y is
1' = 40 (
60
,
)-1.6 = 10.8cnlscc
.
700 11
Finally the first row of production boles was located a distanoc of 30 ft. from thc buffer
boles. They havc thc following charactcristics
S~emming = 32 ft
Subdrill • 1O ft
Chargc Lcngth = 28 ft
Holc lcngth = 28 1\
ANFO (p a 0.84 glcm')
Total cbarge • 900 lbs
The expected cre<t peak particle velocity (PPV} is
Y • 40 (
90 )-1.6 = 7 .tnlsec
900112
As can he scen, thc expected hench face anglc was 68° and the expccted overbreak at thc
toe oflhe trim boles was 1Ofl. Limil of dig Oags werc set out for the shovcl on thc blasl\.-d
crest with these dimensions in mind. The observations made during and after blaollting were:
348 8/a.ding principie$ for ope.n píJ mining: General desigrt concepls
PLAN
0 o
1
9 m (30')
01 1
~J 4.5 m ( 15')
j0T ~0j_ J
·~
~'
t 7.5 m (25') E
.,
~01
~
~
~ 0 JI
~1
...] J
0 o
1
0 0 1
SECTION
~- 9m _ __,,_ 1.S m IO.Sm __+f DFL
--- rR------- cm_____
oo·¡ ·¡· -----{ • 1•__.. __
(25')
~
-
11 ~
l lm(50')
...oz • ~
..,..,
~
_j_
~ ~
e•
...oz
<
-
!
<
~ 8
e
;¡;
::
!0.
¡
-
~
o
~
~
Ji N
..
~
~
8 O'Subgodo O'Subglodo
3mSubgrade
(10')
- The prcsence of a hard to dig toe,

- Time consuming to charg.e the trim boles~
- Reduccd back break.
Step 4. A modified design was prepared to address the observed problems. By this time
the monitoring of a numbcr of actual production blasts had bccn complctcd (Tablc 10. 11).
A typical set ufrecords for onc site is shown in Figure 10.57.
Tabk 10. 11 . Rcsu1ts from a sc:rics of lcst blasts in quam rDOl'\ZOnitc potpflyry.
Numbcr Blast Scalcd Muimum Maximum Maximum Muimum

tr.ansvcrse vc:r~ieal
'"""· CÜ$11110C
{llfWO.!)
ltCI \'Ck>cily
(W>e<) ve1och)' vdotity
lonsJrudlna1
vdoc;hy
(in!S«:) (inlsoc) (irlfS«:)
1
2
6401
6406
S.o3
S.93
8.41
3.S3
2.9
1
6.8
2. !
•
2.6S
3 6408 8.52 1.4) 0.5 0.6 1.2
4 6410 3.1 SJ 1.2 42 3
S 6411 2.69 S.95 1.8 4.3 3.7
6 6411 3.47 IUI 3.111 8.7 6.2
1 6418 3 S.88 2.5 4.1 2.1
8 6420 2.77 9.79 2.1 s.s 1.1
9 6421 3.S2 4.89 1.1 2.7 3.7
10 6421> 4.08 6.S 2.4 u 4.7
11 6118 S.3 1.87 1 1.38 0.9
12 6m 6.41 0.96 0.3S 0.64 0.62
13 6$U 13.3 0.69 0.4 0.39 0.4
14 6S30 10.58 0.96 0.2 O. S 0.8
!S 6137 8.01 1.82 0.76 0.1 !.S
16 6547 Ul.ll 0.73 0. 16 0.48 O.S2
11 6549 14.98 0.62 0.2 0.3 O. SI
18 6166 10.06 ().S 1 021 0.36 0.29
19 6607 8.08 1.69 1 1.1 0.8
20 6618 11.7 0.45 0.11 0.24 0.36
21 6628 10.2 0.19 0.38 O.S2 0.4S
22 6647 7.71 1.41 0.39 0.74 1.13
23 6661 9.S OJ7 0.14 02 1 0.27
24 6662 9.51 0.66 0.18 0.4 0.49
2S 6672 7.3 1.74 0.68 1.6 0.01
26 6678 9.16 1.14 0.:14 0.75 0.66
27 6679 ll 3.48 0.68 1.31 3.1S
28 6688 6.4 1.62 0.8<) 1.14 0.7)
29 6691 7 4.)8 2.23 3.39 1.64
)0 6692 3.S 3.16 1.43 1.18 2.16
)1 673S 12.7 1 0.32 0.71 0.16
32 6714 lO. S I.S4 0.71 0.64 1.21
33 6113 SS.8 0.01 0.01 o o
34 6774 16.6 0.44 0.14 0.21 0.36
31 6613 15.31 1.28 0.68 0.88 0.64
36 6786 10 0.74 0.37 0.41 0.49
l7 6192 10.1 1.06 O.IS 0. 77 0.47
38 680) 10.8 0.82 0.26 0.74 0.23
39 681S 20.8 0.36 0.07 0.16 0.31
40 6811 9.8 1.34 0.27 O.S7 1.18
u o.os 0.04
"42 6822 0.03 0.01
..
4)
4S
6825
6833
6837
6843
13.3
IS.6
12.9
10.3
0.88
2.67
1. 1S
0.8
0.18
1.21
0.67
0.3
0.52
1.711
0.62
OJ4
0.41
1.58
0.7
O. SI
46 6864 8.4 o.?l 02 0.59 0.67
350 8/a:aing princtiJ/esfor open pil m,.ning: General design concepts
"· Blast Sketch
- - - -
·-- ·- _..,._
-·
- -·-
S<: II IS T
- .---::
Oda)' Time No.of WtPowdcr Wt ANFO ANFO Sh>pc: Scakd

llo'es Úlhc:r 1llan l:quiv. Oi.stoooec r>istllfloec
ANro Total WL
1 OMS 2 800 1100 195 6.89
2 25 MS 6 2400 2400 195 3.98
3 SOMS 10 39SO 3950 195 3. 10
• 15 MS
100
8
4
lOOO
1500
3000
1500
195
195
3.56
5.04
' MS
MS
MS
MS
MS
MS
Total: 30 - 11 .650 11 .650
Fig:1.11c: IO.S7. Typk :•l da1ll coHcdÍQn frt)m a tb1 blil$l (Savd y, 1986).
Perimeter blrutíng 35 1
OLA~1' MONITOR! NO
~ . ¡....
PIT 3& 3f. O O OATE &/t8j t 3 TIME ! : to OPERATORS A , ...., h!)
8LAS1 No.~lo
~.f
:!,!;IO:::__ _ _ R'OCK TYPf __!Ob,.,pf -- - - - PHOTOS _ _ _,.J"•' - - -
SEISMOGAAPH Sf'tt.wt.../i1lU~ VS - 12..0 0 GAIN ¡ .;.¡o = ./
, ,~ ,
Bl.A.ST C OOA.O. N, iS8 o E. IIS $'"0 El.EV. l f.i S"
ACCElEROMETER N, i tol,l.
.
' ' .' .. '
• : •1 ¡;
PEAK PARTICI..E VBLOCITY
INDIVIDUAL MAX NET MAX

TR.ACI: AMP (in) VELOCI'I'Y ¡;o/>cc:) TRACE AMP (in} VEL.OCITV (in /sec)
T ranS:\'etSC .12 1.2 .08 .8
Vcni cal .41 4.2 .30 3.0
Longitudinal .30 3.0 .30 3.0
Nct Vdocity 5.30 infso: 4.32 in/se<:
f'igun: 10.57. Cantinued.
Figure 10.58 shows a summary velocity-scaled distance figure for porphyry with the
46 data points. The best fit c-urve is
w"'
V= 31.88 ( R ) """ ( .on/sec) ( 10.52a)
R )-o.so
V = 8 10 ( w'" (mmisec) ( 10.52b)
With this information, a new set of design curves was prcpan:d (Fig. 10.59). Thc modi·
ficd dcsign as shown in Figure 10.60 was recommended to
- Provide more efficient c.harging by eliminating the lime consuming and labor intcn·
sive decking.
Hidden page
PlAN
0
T0 1
0
1
1.5 m (25') 1
~1 0T !1
l JI 4.5m(IS')
~1
~1
0 oj_
~
J1b
¡1
el ~,
~0 Fl• ~,
0
1 1
0 1 0
SECTION
TEMP. Dfl.
~ ~~J?:-_-__~0~;·¡·_- ~1---}-,.-
f igurt 10,60. The modified cksign (Savely, 1986).
- Eliminare the hard toe problem,

An increase in biBst dJunage (back break) was expected. The results were
- More back break. The overl>reak at the toe was 12 ft. The final bench face angle
was 75°.
- Poorer fragmenlation. Due to thc elimination of thc upper deck charges, larger rock
bloc:ks carne from the upper portíon ofthe blast.
- The position ofthe buffer row was bad because futun: bench cn:sts wc:n: hrokeo.
- Thc hard toe problem continucd.
3>t 8/asting prlnclplesfor open pil mlnlng: General deslgn concepts
I.U,------ - - -- - -- - - ,
/
¡,1
0.8 N&
~/ ~
!t J
<¡ ::t
...... ... .."lll'\"! ....... • .•• •• {-:'S
¡:
1:
80% REl..IABILITY 1
0.21--- -'===='----:{-1
1
/
---~
o.oo,!-....J'---:f;~-'---!<0~-'-"'""'~60:'::-1-u'-'-:!;so:---'
Faoe Angk (degtttS)
Figure 10.61. Di3lributM:wl ofthc (II()C anales with and wilhQul ui mmjna (Sa\·dy, 19S6).
Onc of the problems in this type of design invulves deciding how far frum the trim hole
posirion the actual bench face will break. A very limited evaluation suggested that under
the highly confincd condirions prescnt at the toe, thc: limiting particle velocily was of the
order of 75 inlsec ( 1900 romlsec). Al tbe ere$!, the first approximation for the limiting
velocity is 1000 mmlsec. (40 in/sec).
Thc reason for thc hard digging toe was that as shown in Figure 10.61, thc average
slope ang.le was not 63° as assumed by rather 70° for the untrimmed bench faces and 75°
tor !hose trimmed. In trying to rcach the flagged crcsts, the shnvcls werc digging unfrag·
mented material.
Step 5. The new design shown in Figure 10.62 was proposed.

- 'lñe designed distance from the toe ofthe trim hole was seleeted as 7ft. Wilh the 75•
face~ this gives a cresl dislancc of20 ft.
- The decks were reinsrated. Two Jarger deck.s rather than the 3 smaller ones used in
Dcsign 1 werc chosen.
- The buffer row was moved so chat it did not fall within the c:rest of the future under-
lying bcnch. The subgradc drilling was redueed.
The results of the blasting werc
- Thc hard toe was eliminated
- The hackbreak seemed to follow lhe design line closely
- The deck charging improvcd the distribution near thc wall and gave good fragmenta-
tion.
An important obscrvation was that better results werc ac:hieved when tbe buffer row
was blasted and loaded out prior 10 shooting the trim row. The maximum d istance from
thc temporary crcslto thc collar of thc trim holc shnuld tx: 15 fl (4.5 m).
The deck charges wcre shot as shown in Figure 10.63. When lhe produetion, butTcr and
trim rows were shot together even with delays between rows. the back break was worse.
Pl.AN
o o
~,
o
..
ll:j
o o o
1
SIK1'10N
TEMP. orL. OFI..
-- ~(JO') -r 9nl
-------- -----
6m :r·Um_,._ 6m
(20") ( 1$') 1 (20')
--- --- --}--,--
¡¡: Jl'
z
<d ~
.,.
o
~
z< -,.
~
IS m ($0')
-
~
§
Jl
~
JI
~
N
~
-
~ -
M
'
~
T
(IO'•IS"
.L
No Subw'ldc:
_j_
0..15 m Subgra(k
2m Sllbgnwk (0'-S')
(liT)
f'iJ'If'C 10.61. 'rhe final d~¡n (Sl"cty, 1986).
Step 6. The process is repeated in the different rock typeslstructures making up the pi l. At
lospiration therc are thrce major roe::k typcs with thcir charactcristics givcn in Tablc 10. 12.
The resulting velocity-scaJed distance cquations for the other rock types are given in Ta·
ble 10.13. The design limiting peak particle velocities are given in Table 10.14.
10.4.4 The CSM approach
The Swedish approach 10 perimete:r design is an extremely u.~ful one. There are however
a numbcr of problcms involvcd with thc dcvelopmcnt and use of cmpirical propagation
equ.arions ofthe fonn
v - K'""~~~' (10.53)
whcrc K = conslant. W = sourco charge weight, R = distancc from thc sourcc, a = cmpiri·
cally derennined constant, JI =empiricaJiy detennined comtant
356 8/asling prindple.s for ope:n pil mining: General desígn concepu
PLAN
¡¿.5-5.5 IJ!.J
~ r(IS'-18') - 1 1 1 1
--'-0-
4.5 m ( 15) MAX j
- 0- -0-
1 1
- <p- - <(- - 0-
1
+ SECTION
1 1 1
1 1 1
• • •
-
.
~
~
~
ISm(S!Y)
o () ... 1 ~ ... 3 ,<P"" 5 ,'f' ... 7 ,_,p«" 8 'l<f>
T
3 n1 ( 10)
1
,.~ ... 2
,~ ... 4
,,.~ ... 6 ,,., ... 8 'l.'f' ... 9 )~()
POI'plt)'ty - l-l:ard, brinle and intenscl)' fraaul't'd

- T)'pically the blastcd rock woukl ba'-c 80 petOC:nt ofrock fr~mu> lcss tluln $¡;m (2 in,)siu.
'fllc mnimum silc blodc would be aboo' JOto 60 c.:m ( 1 lo 2 1\),
- Batt bresd: is wn110lkd by joints and fsuhs
- In sorne arcas lhe porph)T)' can be loadcd by shO\"'Cis without blasting but blasting makcs l<*ling
rn!m- ~ffidau
Schisl - Variable in b~ and fracture it1tct1Sily
- MoM of thc sd\i:u 1s f~iau~d
- Tbc bl;ut.:.d rock tcn<b 10 be more cwrse than thc porpbrry. ·rypi.c.:ally 60 pc«lent is more oo;¡¡rsc
than S ¡;m (2 in,). Thc: maximum air.c is abolll 120 ¡;m (4 ft).
- Thc schist scc:ms 10 abscrb c:nc:rg)' but back t:Jruk is oftm c:lCl~i\•c. 11 foUows majcw structurt «
foiWioo.
- ls sencrally as.sodatcd with thc more ~ven: slope inslabilitics
f.Ja<,:;J~ .. Massivc nnd c;:ompctcnt
.. Usually ovcr SO pen:c:nt q t' th\! n>c.:k bk>c.:ks are p tcr than JO t:m ( 1 R) in diameter, Maximum
sizc block& an: J.OO ¡;m (lO ft).
- At hotesp~~Cin¡$ ~tcr thao 2Q t\ (6 m) llsr¡c blod:s wiU oc.:c.:ur und ~1')' blasting is re·
quired.
PerlmeJer bla.<tíng 351
,,.. N'lllflbef o(~ SJoo< ollao·

loe ltiJmion cune ...............
I'*'"Pf • 1,111">' tcalcd dbaMtt
)
~"'
Sdolot
Oocllo
..
<16
10
- I..SI
- 1.10
~
110
)91
22AO
(JJ)
(16)
!U )
l.imítina ptak p.nktc vclocity mm1stt (tM«)

Ob!iim'lllioo
....,.,,.,. Sclhl~l O.~;ilc
Orea!lloollol r11111na or~ mc:ks f'tum No d:11nage. 127 (l) SI (2) 6Jl (2S)
bl:ndl fl«s,
Pllrdally k>meiM!d MCk llalls fro.n faces Poss:ib'c dama¡c. 181 ( 15) 2S4 (101 ll?O (50)
Ú\111 wwkl hlve n:n•ln~ l" piRCc Ir bllt prob:¡bly
notbl~ acttptablc.
hrtlons ofbmc:h rke fll.ll,lou$c:tled. Mir'IUI' bl$ 6J! tl!) lit (IS) 190! (7>)
rotk r.ua. ltOfftC trudun: in bcnch kvc:l ~
I:Uclbttak tJIImm !n&o toe. cre.c of 8 .... - . . >ó3S (> 2S) >J.II ()' IS) > 1905 (>7S)
......................llyfl1l<tlJI<d.
notk:all;k lilw:~CIIk .. ~ irllcnsRy
Qft bcndl ... "' '--loolt rod blocfa
.. r.cc. ctiiiCrifll - bmch tor. heln"C'd

IJOUnd ..S oflkot • iilniiCIIft..
A fcw ofthcsc problems will be lisled bclow:

1. A number or Ocld tests must be run to dc1c:rminc tbc ntcded values for K. a. and ft
2. The uníts in whioh K is to be expressed are \1ariab1e. Whcn W • R • 1, 1hc unitS of K
are thosc orvcltlCily. For other values, the unitsof K depcnd upotl Cl and p.
3. As notcd by Holmbcrg and Pc:rsson (1979) whco onc gc,. closc to thc charge, thc
travel distunces ftom difTerent parts of the eharge lO the point o( interest nrc quite diffcr·
en l. They have shown one way ofhow this can be takcn into account. Thcir procedure in·
~ol~es wumíng tha1 thc contributions from thc diffen:nt elemental chargC3 mak.ing up the
total ehatgt: wrive atlhe point of interest at the same time. 1l1i.s is not true fOf cwo reasons:
a) thcrc i.s a finite detonation velocity along thc c:harge column. for an end initi·
atcd l m IOIIg explosivo colwnn havin¡¡ a VOD of SOOOmlsec tht time: dclay along
tht column is
b) The wavcs sencratcd by tht explosiV< tnovcl at thc 5pccd of IOW1d in thc me-
dium. Thus the longcr travcl patbs m:¡uirc a grcaJCT amount of time to tr:tversc than
do 1he shortcr paths.
A rclated problem is 1h111 the angle of appro:.ch of the W11.VC: frotn the elemental chargc: to
thc observntion point is nm taken into acoount. Jt s.hould be o vec1or addition ofthe arriv·
ing amplitudes and nol a s1raight addití(m,
C..opy hted mate al

358 8/a.<tlng principies for open pil mining: General design concepts
4. Thc use of total cxplosive wcight (W) or even thc charge concentration per unit
charge length (q) does not take into account certain special bul imponant condüions such
as decoupled charges.
S. In thc Swedish approach the particle velocities corresponding to the extent of the
damagc zonc musl be detcnnincd using thc same curves uscd evcntually for design. By
doing thís the problems described above are largely removed. There is a problem, how-
cvcr. if onc tries to break this chain and obtain the cñtical particle velocit.ies by sorne
other technique, for exarnple by laboratory lcsling.
To overcome thesc objcctions. a different approach is rtquircd. Thc onc dcscribcd herc
was developed atlhe Colorado Schonl of Mines (Huslnllid <1 al. 1992) atlhe end of lhc
1980s and hence the narnc CSM approach. A more dctailcd dcscñption of this and relalcd
approaches such as descrihed by Plewman and Statfield (1965), Startield ( 1966, 1967,
1968) and Harñcs (1983} are discusscd in detail in Chapler 16. The approach is buill on
the use of the expression for the particle velocity arising from the detonaticm ora spherical
chargc in an infinitc~ isotropic and homogcncoU1 mcdium as pn:scnted by r-·avreau ( 1969)
· • ' ' Pb2 e aPb . ajlt Pb ajlt

V(rJ) • e "'' ( - - 1
- - - Stn- +-cos--] (10.54)
ajlR jlpcR pcb pcR pcb
.:.2(~1_
-.:.2v~)p~c2_+~3~(1_-~v~W~P
1
a • 72(1-v) (10.55)
, _ 2pc2 - 3(1 - v)yP

(10.56)
ll - 2(1 - v)
where t ... time, p = rock density (kglmJ), e "" compressional wave velocity in rock
(m/sec), b • original spherical c.avity radius (m). P = cxplosion prcssurc (Pa). v = Pois·
sons ratio for the rock, y = ratio ofthe specific heats ofthe explosion gases, R • distance
ofthc obscrvarion poinl fiom thc·charge ccntcr (m), < = relatdcd time (scc) = t - (R - b)lc.
To use Equation (10.54) the following mu.•t hold:
2p c'>3(1-v)yP
which is uue for mosl rock·explosivc: combinations. for the interesled reader favreau
( 1969) has presentcd the appropríate equations for thc olher cases as well.
Most blasting operations today use cylindñcal charges and 10 apply chis propagation
equation. the cylindñcal charge ís ftrSt di\•ided into a scñes of elemcotal chargcs cach of
which will he modelled as a spherical eharge (Fig. 10.64). To have equivalen! volumes of
thc cxplosivc rcprcscntcd by the sphc~ thc radius of thc sphcrc is choscn such that thc
volume of the sphere is the volume of of the cylinder whose lenglh is the diamete.r of the
aphen: (Harñ<-s, 1983). By this proccdurc thc ovcralllength of the cylindñcal chargc and
the set of spheres remains lhe same. Thus if the radius ofthe sphere is b and the radius of
thc cylindcr is rro thcn
b a 1.22471, (10.57)
Thc paniclc vclocity produced al Poinl A (R = 5 m) by one splleñcal chargc of radius
b a 0.0503 m
will be considered.
Perimeter blo.sting 359
R
A
Figure 10.64. Simulatioo of a ~;~l indrical charge by

cqui\'ala'lt sphcres.
The rather typical expJosjve·hard.rock characteristics assumed are:

1:.xplosive
4
P=2360x lo'Pa
y • 1.67
Rock (granite)
p = 26JO kgtm>
e ~ 5550 misec
v e 0.451
From the particle velocity versus time curve shown in Figure 10.65, the peak velocity is
about 1.6 m/scc at rctardcd time z.cro, i.c. just wben the strain wave produeed by this
cbatge initially n:aches this poinl From the peak value, the velocity rapidly dies off he-
fore oscillating about zero. The initial pulse is ofvery short duration (about 16 microscc-
onds in this case). Thc duration is insensitive lO changes in R.
The distance (d} betwcx:n adjacent charge centers in this example is
d=2b=O.I06m
Assuming that the detonation velocity (VOD) of the explosive is 5500 m/sec, the lime
dclay (t./) hetwocn dctonations is
d
t.t = VOD = 0.1006/5500 = 18.3 x lo-' secs
Thc ovcrall peak particlc vclocity at Poinl A is obtaincd by summlng in time the ovcrall
contribut.ions from the single elemental chatge.•. Figures 10.66 and 10.67 show the effects
of s.uperimposing the partidc vclooitics from two adjaccnt sphcrical chargcs for 380 mm
and ISO mm diamctcr holes, rcspcctivcly. Thc samc cxplosivc·rock charncteristics used
above are assumcd and the d istance from thc cbargc center is S m. As can be seen, due to
the short duration of the peak velocity pulse and lhe relatively long time hetween arrivals
there is little overlap. The maximum peak particle velocity is that produccd by the elcmcnt
closest to the point of interest ( muh_iplc elemental eharges need not in this end initiation
examplc be considercd). Thc peak particle velocity occurs at
t =Oscc
360 8/asling prlnciplesfor open pll mlning: General design concepiS
1.6
¡
! 0,8
R = S m I'Mm thectnterOflhe t~
l:i< 0.4
- 0,4
-o.s_:.
o --'--::2'::'
o --'----;40~-'---!60~-'--csto,--'--,!
,oo
Rctaulc:cf Tinw: (Idee)
Figutt 10.65. Partick: \-c:locity as a foocdoo ol'f'!Wdcd time. lknnctt ( 1991a. b). liuwuUcf t.1 uL (1992),
IOr---------------------------------~
1
-
i:>
~ o
! -S
380 mm (I S in) Oiamctcr Holc
-·~,t~,--=
800
~-~~~-~.000
~-~~00~-.~~~-~.~~=--~ .. ••00
T¡mc(msec)
Figure 10.66. l:ffect of overtapping oo lhc pcuX paniclc \"CI<JCity-timc CUI'\'C f01 lile 380 mm ( 1S in) diamcter
holg. Dc:nnca ( 1991a. b), HUSI1\Itid rt aJ. (1992).
This means that

_f6
e pc>J = I ( 10.58)
and
. allt
sm-- = 0 (10.59)
pt.'b
Perime.te.r blasting 361
' 150mm (6 in) Dlsmctc:t Hoh:
3f-
fz
~
-ª'
..~·o /
"'5
~
_,f-
-loo 900 1000 1100 1200

Timl! (ms«:)
Figure 10.67. EO:cct or ovalappíng oo t1u:: pcat: partídc vc:klclly·lime ttne for die 1SO mm (6 in) di:wnc:tcY hob.
lkMcct (19911a. b). Hus.tNIJd a al (1992).
and
aAt
cos-"- = 1 ( 10.60)
pcb
Tbe particle velocity propagation equation (Equation 10.50) for thc sphcrical charges
simplifies to
V(pcak)= Pb ( 10.61)
. pcR
For cylindrical blastholcs this bccomes
V(pcak)= 1.2247 Pr ( I0. 62)
pcR
where r ~ radius ofthe cylindrical holc (m).
An cxamplc of lhc use of this predietor equation is shown in figure 10.68. which in·
eludes horehole diameters of 170 mm (6.75 ins) to 380 mm (15 ins) commonty found in
surfacc: mining opcratiOtU. The parameters which have been used are
P=2000 x 10•Pa
p = 2650 kglm'
e = 5500 m/sec
Thc:sc c.urvcs can be easily lntn.'ifOnned for other choices of parame1er valucs simply by
mulliplying by the appropriate scaling facoor (sce Eq. 10.61).
Tbc dcsign procedun.: involving these cutVes is exactly tbe same as has beco discusscd
by Holmberg & Persson (1979). ln the devclopmcnl ofthe curves thc pressure (P) tL<Cd is
approprialc for ANFO (and rclalcd explosives) whcn the hole diameters are complelcly
ftlled with explosive. There are many perimeter blasting situations whcn thc hale cros.s-
section i.s not completely filled with cxplosivc-. Thcsc can be easily iru::luded in the pro.
posed tcehnique.
Hidden page
Per;meter blasting 363
-30 -25 - 20 -15 -10 -s o S 10 IS 20 25 lO lS 40
10 10
S 5
o e.n"' o
-s -S
- 10 ().,..,..¡ - 10
g - 15 - 15
;;
-
' -20
- 2S
'
- 20
- 2S
-lO - J<l
- J5
' - JS
-40 -40
' ""
-45 -45
-JO - 2S - 20 - 1$ - 10 -s o S 10 15 20 lS JO JS 40
Distancc (rn)
Flg~n 10.69. lso-vcloc;ity ooo1o~n for a (ully clwgcd 380 mm diam~c:r hok. Bennea ( 1991a. b), Huscrulid cul.
(1992).
- lO - 2S - 20 - IS - 10 - S O S 10 IS 20 2S JO JS 40
10 10
S S
lknch
o o
-s /~ ~\ -s
·~
- lO l
~
Groond - 10
~ ' .,,
&: - 15 - 13
! -20 -20
-2S - 2S
-JO o'.....
_,
-45 -4S
..,.)() - 25 -lO - 15 - 10 - 5 O S 10 15 20 25 JO J5 40
~IOOI:(m)
Figure 10.70. lso-,·.eb:ity coruoun: for a dc~cd (ISO 1nm dlamttcr) dtatge i.n a 380 mm diamrter holc.
lkMcu ( 1991 a, b). HllWUUd d al. ( 1992).
364 Blasllng prlndples for open pil mlning: General de:u'gn concepts
The explosivc has thc following charactcristics

P ~ 2630 x JO' Pa
y: 1.67
In lhc firsl case (Fig. J0.69) lhc hoJc is filled wilh expJosive. In lhe second case (Fig. JO.70)
a ISO mm (6 i.n) diameter tube has bcen placcd in thc borchole and fillcd witb cxplosive.
Thc rock mass propcrties are assurned to be
p • 2360 kglm'
e • 5550 mlsec
As can be seen. there is a majar difference in lhe \'elocity proft.les. With the use of plastic
tubes, evcn large boles can produce ac~ptablc damage zones. Figure 1O. 71 shows a com·
parison between the peak particle veloc.ities as a function of R as ca1culat<.:d using thc
CSM and Swcdish approachcs for lhc fully-<:oupJcd case whcn
q = 6.8 kglm
p s:r. 2360 x 106 Pa
D = O.J02mm
p = 2630 kglm3
e = 5550 mlsec
Ata distance of R = 3.2 m. t.he two yidd the s.ame result. For di.o¡tances closer to thc chargc,
the Swedish approacb givc:s higbcr valucs probably duc to thc fact that the velocities from
all of lhe incremenllll chargcs are addcd lc>gelher. For dislanecs grcalcr lhal 3.2 m, lhc
CSM lcchniquc yicJds highcr values lhan lhe Swcdish approach due lo lhe diiTerenl pow-
ers of R ( 1/R versus 1/R 1·" ). lf the velocity limit of 1mlsec is selecred, the damage zone
radii are:
18r,------------------------------------------,
16
R(m)
Figure 10.71. Comp¡rison ofthc:: peak pankk \'C:klcity-radial disuln oorves. obtainc:d U;Sirtg the CSM and thc:
Swcd~ approachcs.
CSM approach: R • 1Om

Swcdish approach: R • 1 m
The favreau panicle velocity equation applies for waves travelling in an elastic mediwn.
This mcans that the decay in amplitude with distance travelled is simply due to geometri-
cal spreading.. Attenuation due to geometñcal spreading is due to a decrease in energy
density as the waves propagating from the explosion encounter larger volwnes of rock.
There are three main types of waves which may he genernted by a blast. These are b<Jdy
waves travelling within a semi infinite medium. body waves travelling along the suñace
and Raylcigh wavcs (Ewing. et al, 1957). Each type will attenuate in a different manner.
For a homogeneoui, isotropic. linear!y elastic medium.. the decrease in vibration velocity
amplítude wilh dlstance is given by
- !IR for body waves within a semi·infinite medium,
- IIR1 for b<Jdy wavcs lnlvelling along thc suñacc,
- 11R"-' for Raylcigh waves.
Since on lhe whole, rock masses are not homogeneous, isotrOpic, or c:Lastic, geomctrieal
sprcading docs not acommt for all ofthc attenuation seen in the particle velocity amplitude.
Energy looses may he attributed 10 maoy inelastic mechanisms (Ghosh & Daemen, 1983):
- Matrix inelasticity1
- Fluid flow,
- Oissipation in a fuHy suluratcd roc.k bccausc of thc rclativc motion of thc framc with
res:pecl to the fluid inclus'ions,
- Sheañng flow of thc fluid !ayer~
- Partial saturation cffectS,
- Enhanced intcrcrack flow,
- Stress induced diffusion ofabsorbed volatiles.
- Systerns undcrgoing phase changes,
- Scattering from small pores and large im:gularities.
- Sclcctive rcflcction from thin beds.
Barkan (1962) has suggcsted Iba! inelastic attenuation can be modelled by an experimen-
tal decay function of !he fonn
D¡ • e- IR (10.64)
wherc 1 = inelasticity coefficicnt.

lntroducing tbis factor, the peak particlc velocity cquation becomes
Pbe-1(~-&)
v 3.:=-=-- (10.65)
pcR
The quantity R - b has heen uscd instcad of R sincc al thc wall of the holc, R = b, the
inelastic attenuation must be zero.
The vahte of thc factor 1 can he detcnnincd by plotting thc quanlity V X R as a function
of(R - b) on sen1i-log paper. The slope oflhe curve is equalto !he coeffieient/. This pro-
ccd.urc is dcscribed in detail in Chaptcr 14.
App/icotion to tire A.itik Mine

The steepness of !he slopes which can he crcated and maintaincd al !he Aitik Mine in
Northern Swcden is of major imponance. Unwantcd blast damage results in Oatter hench
366 8/a.sting principie$ for open pil mining: General design c.-oncept.t
facc angle.s and the need to leave wider safety benche;. The overall ~lope angles are
thcrcby n..-duced and stripping n..-quiremcnts incrcascd. This translatcs into smallcr mine·
able reserves. a reduced mine lil'e and higher cosrs per ton. A number of ditTerent bl~ling
s tudics (sce for examplc Section 10.4.2) havc heen eonductcd at Aitik the objoctive of
which was to dcvclop bla.st dcslgn rules lcading to steeper final ovcraU slopcs. Sorne of
the published bla."\ting results have been reanalyzed using the present approach. In the ftr.n
test series thc cxplosive Rcolit A6 was u:scd in 250 mm diamctcr boles. Peak panicle ''e-
locity measurements were made ru distanee.< of 13.2, 27.0 and 49.0 m (rom the eharge.
·l'he followlng valucs are assumed to apply for the explosive:
Explosi\•e e R.eolit A6.
Pr.t • 1.45 g/cm 3
VOD = 4800 mlsec (in-hole measurement)
Pocr c 8360 MPa
P,= 4180 MPa
q = 74.2 kglm (holc diamctcr of2S 1 mm)
f"or the rock it is assumed that
p = 2.64 glcm'
e= 4000 mlsec
The measurcd (vertical) peak particle velocities made by Holmberg & Persson ( 1978b)
werc
Dist:.ancc (m) PPV(ml«<l

I J.l I.S20
l7.0 0.693
49.0 0. 130
Thcse are plottcd in Figure 10.72. Using Equation (10.65) onc finds that the predictcd
PPV versus scaled distance rclationship assuming no attcnuation is givcn by
6
= P,b = 4 180X10 b c J%! (10.66)
V- pcR (2640X4000)R R
The n:lationship betwecn b and the holc diametcr r is
b = 1.2247 r
and hence
b= 1.2247(0.2S I)/2=0. 1S4m
Equation ( 10.66) becomes
v_ . 2QE (10.67)
R
This tllt\•e has been superimposed upon Figure 10.72. As can be seco the predictcd valucs
of PPV assuming no ancnuation are considcrably higber lhan those measured. The theo.-
retical expression for PPV versus scaled distancc including thc attenuation tcrm
Perlmeter blasting 361
j()O
AIT IK MINE
200
Kolc Oiamttc:r = 250 mm
100
Pt:lk Pattitle
Veloc;ity 50
!"""")
20
10
s.o
lO
1.0
o.s
0.2
0.1 o
Oiscance(m)
Figun: 10.72. Thc: peak pattil:l< vdocity ~--ersus discuncc atr"Y~ for thc Aitik mine (2~0 mm diamctcr ~les).
Pttb _,, • •• , - 60.87 - I (R- 6)

V - -- --e
pcR
- -R-e (1 0.68)
was now applicd. Thc altenuation factor 'f was varied until lhe curve passed approxi·
rnately through the measured polnts. In this case the resulting valuc was found lo be
/ = 0.05/m
Thc prcdictive cxpn:ssion bccomcs
V = 60.87 . - O.Ol(R- 6) (10.69)
- R
lt is observed that the measurement at tbe distanoe of 13.2 m lics slightly bclow thc cun·c.
A sccond sct or cxpcrímc01s were pcrfonned using Roolit 10 in 171 mm diameter pro-
duction holcs. A summary ofthe important parameters are:
Explosive = Reolit 10
Pu • 1.45 glcrn3
VOD = 5000 mlsec (ideal)
= 4800 mlsec (eslimated ror in hole conditions)
Pocr= 5800 MPa
P,=2900MPa
q = 34.4 kglm (hole diameter or 171 mm)
368 Bla.stfng principies for open plt minlng: General de.tign concepl.t
Thc peak panJcle mcasurcmcnts made by Holmberg & Pcrssoo ( 1978b) rcvcalcd lhat
l>is~anee(m} PPV(ml«<l
1.442
O•.S6l
0.28J
Thcse are plottcd in Figure 10.73. Using Equation (10.65) one finds that lhe predicted
PPV versus scaled dlstanoc rclationship assuming no attcnuation is given by
V • P. b • 2900xto'b • 275.!!._ (10.70)

- pcR (2640)(4000)R R
Thc relatiooship betwcen b aod lhe bole diamcter r ís
b = 1.2247 T
and hencc
b= 1.2247(0.171)12 =0. 105 m
Equation ( 1O.70) becomes
28.84
v- =-R- (10.71)
This eurve has been supe:rimposed upon Figure 10.73. As can be seen the predicled values
of PPV assuming no attcnuation are considerably highcr than lhosc measurcd. Thc lhco-
retical ex.pression for PPV versus scaled distance including the attenuation temt
1000
lOO AITIK MINE

~k Partielc
Vc:loc;:hy 2()()
!"""'> 100 nok O*nc:•ct • 171 mm
~~.~--~,--~,~.--~,~~~~--u
~--~,~
. ---,~,
Oiii~Uee(m)
Fi&urc 10.73. Pt3k pankk vdocity \'Cf'SUS di:s&anee oorves for ~ Aitik MitiC' (171 mm d&am<:tcr boles).
Perimeter blosting 369
_ p,b -I( R-b) _ 28.84 -I( R- b) (IO.n)

V ---e - - -e
""" pcR R
was now applied. The attenuation factor ·r
was varied until the curve passcd approxi·
mately through the mcasured points. In this case the resulting value was also found to be
/;, 0.05/m
The prcdictivc exprcssion bccomcs
V ., 28.84 e~O.OS(R-b)
( 10.73)
- R
ll is observe<! that the measumncnt at the di~< uf 13.9 m lies below the predictcd
curve. The appropriate value in this case is
/ ~ 0.07/m
In continuing tbc analysis it will be assumed that 1 = 0.05 adequatcly describes both scts
of experimental n:sults.
In the ftrSt sel of experiments, that involving the 251 mm diameter prodw::tion holes,
disturbance asscssment was done by coring and through thc use of cxtensometers. Dam·
age is considered to have occurred when the number of crack.s measured after the shot i.s
gteater than before the shot. Holmberg & Persson (1978b) concluded that
- Thcre wcre great difficultics in dctermining ~ncw~ fractures in this joinlcd rock_.
- With the possible excep1ion ofthe zone within a t\.\'0 meter distance from the blasthole,
the number of cracks whích rcsull ftom the blasting is small,
- There were obvious diff'erenees before and after blasting in the 0-10 m 1.one,
- Thcrc is a 50% probability of damage extcnding to 22.S m from the hole,
- There is only a 5% probability lhat the damage extends beyond 32m.
One can then translalc thesc obscrvations into the following pnK"tical limils
Crusbed zonc = 2 m,
Fractured zone = 1O m.
Inlluenccd zone = 22.5 m.
When comparing these dimensions to the radius ofthe sphere 'b' (h • 0 .154 m) one finds
that
Crushed zone: Rlb = 13,
Fractured zone: Rlb • 65,
lnllueru:c:d zonc: Rlb = 146.
Vovk ct al. ( 1974) havc prcscnlcd thc results of a series of expcriments (a detailcd discus·
sion of these experiments is ineluded in Chapter 21) in wllich concenuated (spherical)
charges of TNT wcrc u..~ tn largc blocks of granite. limestone and concrete. Prior to
blasting, diamond drilling was done in the blocks. The nomber ofcores, their length and the
fis.\ure orientation was determined. After blasting the new fissure pattem was determined.
By comparing the fissure networks before and after blasting, the induced fracture pattem
could be dderrninc:d. The distance at which the corc yicld is cquallo that bcforc thc ex·
plosion is taken as lhe limit of fiss:ure propagation. The rock propenies are given in Ta-
ble 10.1 S. Aftcr blasting, tbe followíng tbrcc damage zone radii wcrc dctermined
- Crushing (R"),
370 Bla.uing principies for open pil mining: General design concepts
- Radial fissurcs (RJl),

- lnduced frnciUring (R¡.),
and thc ratios of these radii with the charge radius (b} fonned. The results are gjven in
Tablc 10.16.
In comparing the values determined from thc Holmberg & Pcrs.-;on (1978b) cxperi-
mcnts lo thc rcsults of thc Russian cxpcrimcnts for granite
Rlb (cru,hing) = 11 --+ 14
Rlb (radial fissures) = 25
Rlb ( induced ti'acturing) = 54 --+ 69
it is sccn that thc crushlng zoncs are similar in cxtent. The zone of induced fracturing
(Rw;.,ian) co=pon<ls approximately lo lhe Holmberg & Pe"""" fracturcd 1.000. The Rus-
sians did not llave a category corrcsponding to the influeoccd zone.
The different damage limits ha,,e been superimposed on Figure 10. 74. As can be seen,
the crushed zone at 2 m co~ponds toa peak panicle velocity of about 27.5 m/sec. Thc
ftactured zone at 10m corresponds toa wlue ofabout 3.7 m/scc. lfthe influcnccd zonc
extends to 22.5 m. the peak panicle velocity is about 0.9 m/sec.
However as was notcd in Section 10.4.2, the damagc assessmc."Dt holc was driiJcd at
about 45° to the direction of lhe blasted face. The corrected damage zone dimensions be-
come
Crushcd zonc e 1.4 m; Rlb = 9
Fractured 7.0ne • 7 m; Rlb "" 46
lnflucnccd zonc = 16m; Rlb = 104
lnstcad of, respcctively, 2 m, 10 m and 22.5 m. These new limits ha,~e been ploned on
Figure 10.75. Thc corresponding peak particle velocity límits are:
Table 10. 1S. Rock propc:n:io in lhc:: Russian blasting tests (VO\'k t1 aL. 1974).
RQCk type 0..."50'tpdoo Oc:nsil)' Wave \'docity Compressive Elasdc Pol.s.son's
strength modulus rnüo
(gmkm' l (mfsce) (MPa) (GPa)
Granitc:: gray·g:rc:c:n, 2.60 sno lS4 2'1.4 0.22
coarsc·graincd
I.Jmestonc shclly,
l't'CrystaiJ i:zcd
1.90 3120 • 2.2 O. JO
ConctCte 2.07 ~ 26 14.4 0.25
Tablc 10.16. Rcsults orthc Russillfl blasting t~s (Vovk ct al., 1974),
Rock Ch~ Crushing Radial fusufi.'S Jnduccd fracturillg

Wt (gm) Rudius(m) R•., (~:m) R•., lb Rfr (cm) R¡, lb Rfi (crn) RJllb
Concn=~c
Oranile
120
12<)
0.026'2
0.0262
26-).4
29·31 ,,.,.
10-13 63
68
24
25
2<)
l3S
140-180
52
54-69
L. imest!ln~: 201) 0 .0310 25 8 62 t20·UO 39-48
180 0.0298 21-:ui 9-12 72 24 134 4S
180 o.om 24-30 8· 10 63 21 108·180 l6-60
Perimeter b/asling 371
lOO AITIK MINE
200
100
Peak P.niele
Vdodry lO
(mlscc)
20
10
2.0
1,0
0,5
0.2
0. 1o
Oist:.ancc (m)
f:¡aun: 10.74. Peak p¡¡nk:k ve:IC!city '-trsus dist3:f~CC curves for lile Aillk Mine (2.SO mm dian'ltter hok:s).
500 AIT IK M INE
200
U~le Dl~cr • 2.SO mm
100
f'csk Pattlde
Vdocity 50
(mlsec)
20
10
>.0
2.0
1.0
Figure 10. 7S. Peak p.wti~;lc vdocity venus disumcc curves ror lhc Aitik Mine (lSO mm diame1cr hoks) wilh thc
dam:J#Iimi'lS added.
312 Blasling principie., for open plt mining: General design concepts
Crushed zonc = 40 m/scc

fractured zonc • 6 nv'sec
lnHuenced zonc = 1.7 m/sec
lf one now applies lhese samc limiiS lo lhe 171 mm diamctcr holc onc finds lhat (Fig. 1O.76)
Crushed zone • O.7 m
Fraclured zonc = 4 m
lnfluenced r.one = 1O m
Thcsc com:sponds to
Crushed zone: Rlb = 7
Fractured zone: R/b 38 =
lnfluenced zonc: Rlb • 96
There was, unfortunately, no diamond dtilling done and hence no pos.~ibility to continn
whetbcr these predictions are correct or nol. ln any case thc tcchniquc:, as dc:scribcd, ai-
)0\\I'S the simulation of a number of explosive combinations and blast geometries wilh the
possibility of identifying those which might improve slope condüions. 1ñe simplified ap-
plication of lhe CSM approach as discussed here does have sorne limitations. These are
discussed in some detail in Ch.apter 16.
1000
lOO AITIK MINE

Peak Pan ~l~
\'~loelry 200
(mi>c<)
,.
100
10
16mt o
··- -)
5.0 1 i'
'
.
1. o
2.0
1.0
-¡--B'i'-
u .arsc, ' .
.
1 t
.~;~--~~or----
' ......_ I =O.Oj
·~
o.s • 111 gli 11> ' .... . . /
........ &
¡:§ -·, ~ ~~~. ~ ....
O.:! .lf!. 2 ] ·2 --
IS 20 30
Oisllrn (m)
H¡urt 10.76, Peak p;vtiele \'docity 'fCI'$U~ d l$latliee eu.n·cs ror lhc Altik Mine (171 mm diatn«et hoks) with ~
<brnagc limits addcd.
Por/meter blu.rtlng J 13
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f._i_ne, ~. J).K. llotm~ & U.E. Clarit 1961. Prtsplit blasti:ng ~ lhc-Ni.ra Jl(IW~o.T pn,jcct. Tñe J.;xplo.s;...o fj,..
ginur. Muy-J-. pp. n-93.
raine, R.$., D.K. HCIImes 4 1-tE. Clarll.. ContJOIIin¡ overbrtak by prtSpliuin¡. 1961. Proc«dinp. lnt Symp. tm
Mining R'mvch (0.ll. Clark, ed.). Pcrpnur"~l"ress, New Yoct. pp. 1?9·209.
Pmsoo P.A .. Holmberg. R. & G. Pemon 1977. Thc: ¡cmlc blascin¡ ofslopcs in op::rl pits. Repon. OS 1976: 4,
Swcdisfl DcloAie Rcsearch f oundlltioon. 12 pp. In S'A'Cdisb.
PetSSOtl, P-A. 1990. Frugmentation mcchank:s. P~htgs. Tltlrd lnt. Symp. R~-:k F~111ation by BltMtútg
(FRAGBLAST ' 90). Brisbanc:, Austtalia. Aug 26-31 . pp. 101·108.
Ptakhot.ny1, P.l.• K.N. Tkaehut .t V.A. Oorovtkíi 1973. The ~tmls and fracture-fdds e~ by eontOIII' blastin(;
$<J11t!t Miniti!J Stknet!. 9; 648-499.
Plewman, R.P. 4l A.M. Sl3tf\ekl.. 196S. Thc efTect of linitc vdociti~ of ddonadc)n :md propoamiM on the strai.n
pubG in.dutlc:,J in 1\'ldc. by lln...-ar chargcs.. JSAIMM 6.5(0..:t.): 71-96.
Poner. 0 .0. 1971. A Role of Bordlok ~re: in Blasting.: Thc Fonnatkm ofCracb. PhD ThC$iS. Univ of
MinnQOOl. IS&pp.
Pt'Jr11!1', 0.0. & C:. Fairhunl 1971. A sructy of eraclt J!t(lp3ptlon ptl)duced by SU$tained botr:Mie pres~ in
bbstina. 0yllllm_ic R()(;k Meehuni...'s (0.6. Cla.t. ed.). ~irw uf the Jllh US Ro« ,f.fn:Jwtjc,, SY'fV'.
AIMI.', NY pp. 497·SIS.
R•.._ S . &. I),IJ, l>lw 1976. C()nlrolled bb:~tir:~¡ in ruck. CJWII\ 'IItÑm prQ~ls"# rn•icw. M;nJng lotaga:;ne. 134(1 ):
25-Jl.
R~. 8.8. &. T.E. Rickcns 1987. An improved .sca.lin:g procxdurc: for e lose-in bbl~1 mQiions. hocftd¡'niP <Q
tite /Jtlt COI'I/~~~« on E.tplo.sWu tmd Blasll,.g T«hniqw (Jrd Mini-SyMp.). SE.E. pp. 118-1}l.
Repin, N.Y. & l. A. hnachcv 1970. A l'nl:thod of dw:nnining !he dqlth ofthc tODC offrucl\lre oflhc salid 1\lct(
durio¡ bllS1ing opcn·dons. Sm•lel Minlng &kttre 6: 92-94.
ltC'Vcy. O.f. 1989. Cnntn>lkd bb.11ing i:n underground applkadom.. Ptepamt fúf Atlas Uruktgrow~d SCfninat.
Alla$ Pawdcs CC)tltpany. ppll.
Rcznit , Y.l. & I.M. Ko\'lcr 1983. ApproximR eampuwioo bd !he bouncbrla or Lhe erac:k·fottnadon :cone on
deton;J.ting 11 S)'$Ccm of similar explosivc c:tw¡c:s. $Qvit:f Mining Scimce 19: 49&·.502.
Rinehart. J.S. 1960. 0n t-"nadun:5 Causcd b)' Ex:plosions and lmJXK~,S. (lwur~rly oftite Cnlo.School ofMW.s.. vol
SS, no4.0ctiS.Spp.
Shcr, E.N. 197S. Esl;imatifl8 thc <::rushing ac:tion ofa Ion¡ dlar¡e in o briiUt mcdium. $4'1'iC'I Mining $ci~ 11 :
81·84.
Sicbcn, 11. & G. Raiu. 196S. Dcvelopmcnt of rock slopd in mcwnorphk I'CICb by CORtrolkd slope hoks. PI'I)-
C«dilfJP o/lhe 7th USS>"''' tJn Rnci: /.kdf.. Pem Swe Unl\'enity. 2 ~4 2-2j 2.
Sa'·ely, J.P. 1986.1X$ignine a fual blll.1llo impro~ stabili1y. Prc:prm No. 36·SO. P~ ae the SME AnnuaJ
Meeting in New Orteans. Louisiana Mar 2-6. 19pp.
Si~ind, O.E. & R.R Fumantl 1974. 8 1as.t1)fOdueC."d frac:llll'C$ in Lilhoniagranhc. USBM Rl 7901. 38pp.
Spivak. A.A 4 V.M. TJVe~kov ¡q74, OlllSCi.ne; in a sol id mcdium o(tbc rock 1ype. Snvict Arlltift8 Scic'nc:'c'. 10':
496-<99.
Staecy, F.O.• M.T. Gladwin, B. McKavanagh. A.T. ttooe • t.M. Hdlc 1975. Andutic damping ofacoustic
&nd 5Cismit pulses. G~31ool Surw;vs. 2: lll-1SI.
Scacey, P.F. 1994. Thc: impiiCt ofblasd.ng oo pie slope stability. Prt)(:ffl/lltJ:S oftlte 5th Hig/t-T«lt !kMiJIIN' on
8/uJiittg T«lt1WIDgy. /n:a~lflation and Explw;l<n Applh:aliOn.J. Ntw Or/eam, Lmd.tiano {July 9-14).
Blas.ting Analysis lntmwional, lnt. pp. S II·S21.
Stvficld.. A.M. 1966. Sllain wave 1heory in rock bltilirtg. Chapccr 21. P/'(1(_-c«<lnJf$ t( tM 8th US. Rod. M~
chanic,, $)~iuwf. Unív. or MíJmCSOOt. pp. S38·S4~.
Slarfield. A.M. 1967, Thc valuc of thcocy in blasaing dC$ign. Proc«dings. 18tlt Anmwl AlinU.g Sy,po#NM tmd
thlt401h AMI«ll ltkdlngDjtlte MlNte$01a$ec.~lon AOJE. Jan 16-18 Ouluth, Minncsoc.a pp. 197-202.
Scarfield. A.M.&. J.t.t. Puglicsc 1968. Cootprt:Ssioo wavt:S g<:ncratcd i.n roct by C)'lindrical cxpklosh·.c c:hangcs: A
compari~ bemttt1 a c:omp¡tcr mo«l and fidd meas.urc:menu. lnt. J. ofRod:. !tfeck anJ /oflra. Stl S(l ): 65-
77.
SICJliUlOV, Y.U. 1975. Muimum fmct~ tone in solid roct duc to c.xplosioo of two parallcl cylindrical dl.-g.:s.
Sovk-1 Mlnlng Sd~~ 11: 612-674.
Toowhc:v, G.S. 1976. A mathcmati~l-probabllistk mockl or bla."itlA dama¡e in fis.sun:d bloc:k-suucrurcd mt·
di·um. Sovilt ).(ining Se~. 1J: 651-6$6.
l'omncc, A.C., S.B. Riclw'dson & KT. Mox.on 1989. F1'118Jtlcatatioa oort(rollhtough die attc:t~uation or cxplo-
sívely produccd shoct w~wcs. Procttd1'1f19 of tlw 1Jth Cotlft_,.~fk"'e o" E.xplo~lws and 8/o.sllng T«hnique
{Stldfini-S)"VJ).SEE. pp.ISI-162.
Treaubov, B.O.• E.P. Tanan, Y,A.. &lq;ur 4 N .E. Trufakin 1982. E.xpcrimcnt.JI in\'e$tigation or & c:onuincd cx-
plosion of ckmgat:td c!tarzn. Soviet ltlbtl1f8 Scle.rac%. 18: 532·53.8..
Vovk, A.A., A.V. Mikhalyut & l. V. Bdíns:kll 1974. l)c.,.ek>pmcal of fracture Ulnell in rc'ld:' during camuufkt
blasting. Sh11let Mlning ScWN::L 10: 381-387.
Walsh. S.F. 1988. San Mlltl~.t~:l <hkk- Plt BW:Llng. Prqwlnt Numbu 88·107. l'rescm.:d a1 the SME Annll31
Meeting in Phoc:niA., 1\Z Jan 25·28. pp. 7.
WotSey, P.M. & Q. Chca 1986. The e!T.:c:t uf roc:k ~ oo pcrimele:r bl'"'in¡ and thc ' blasdbílity' o(rrnt$$ivc
roc:k. Pmc:-eediltJP <(tlw 12t.h C~ Qll Exp/(}.$hw:t Md Blasting T«lmiqw (Mini.s¡-mp). St:E:. pp. li S.
13 1.
Woney, P.N. & S. Qu 1917. Effea or joinc scpot'&tioo and filling OA ¡n..-spli1 blasting. Pf'OeffdlllgS oftM 1Jth
Confertt~~ce o" üplv~f~s and 8/tutlng T«<tnlq~« (Jrrl Mini•$)!11lp,J SEE. pp. 26-40.
Wqrth, 1.R. 1981. Perimetcr blasdn¡ &t Panil.lllD. P~lnp. H'twúltop O:>ws~ 15J/81. Drilllng and Blimlng
/11 Optn P/t$ OJtd Qwurl~s. Á.N.ftrolion Miltttral f'OfVIdalion, /Jrisbitne J() ;\far..J April. pp. 167· 1 9~.
Y~~n¡. R.. W.F. Bawdcn. S . 1'ak bí & P. Rocque 199}. An iotcgratc:d. techniq~~t ror vibrwtion mooitoring udjaoc:m
lO a ~ase hok. CJM Buildin, 86 (Ju)y·Au&U$1): 46·52.
Hidden page
lndex
Adi3bátic ~plll.~l\ 6!b6& Blast ck:iign Single row, design rule$

Aitlk mlnt: 3J'2-l3&. 166.3 7? Energy (:0\'ttag'e 122:.1y l.!ll.lli
Airblat.t 2111·285 FiiOI: $ha~ ln0ul!l'loe ~ Sil~ and sl'lape lJ.l....LlS.
l~l. rt;gullll1i01l.S 281·2.8:2 F"M:kt m(XId ln. l)la$t :<OIK' defutition, t-litf!lund
Minimization :t114-28S Flow $hect lo¡ic ll Vallcy !OJklf)6
0vefPI'CSSUR 281·285 lmpr<l\<(f1Kf1t clrclc l2. IJond'$Third l..aw 31.:.12
Rock pn:ssu~ pulse 282 lnitial dcsi.gn f'll)os 8CbS2 [kmd work indcx ~
Ait-dcddog 300 Rac~l»sed cx~mpk 82.::83. l)ouldcr lliZe, ma:dmum U6:.l.1.2.
A ir-gap bdta't'iot 199.100 Ratiooalc 1l:l!! Bubbl~ air/ gas 121
ANFO Ro.;k ~ructurc cO't<tt ~ l)uffo-, blastin¡ wllh !4S. 146
Chcmical rc.Kiioo 62 Sinl:ing C1A L.52.:l.62. llul~ $11"C11¡ph, t:epi<~Sive 68:62.
Effcc:t of wa4c:r 200 IJiiisthole tcnniJ'Oiogy 71-74 l}utden
F.ncr¡y rdcasc 62:63 ll.ld.22 Actual W
1:ue1 oil. beal of fl.lfmld;on UiS l\unkn ll A$ dtilkd l..li::.l.18.
Hetlt ofexplosion & W Spa¡;ing 13 Effi.'CIÍve l.2i.:.L28.
Ma.-..imum stn:ngth l6S. Stcmming ll
Powcr63 Subdrining 21 Cup•nd fuK 2 10-211
PrtSSure-volumc: cun·c ~ Olasting agcnts Cap SQLicr 221-n<J. 21"-' W
Propcn~ l.6i:.I 6Sl Bulk 161. !97 Ch~~t~e we¡gfu scaling
Tyl>" Dcfinition W C\lbe root v.s sq.uarc roo. 329-
Atutt'littizcd l6!W.l.l Typ.~ .lli!
lll:avy 18.8-193 Alurnintlcd ANI' O 169· Chcvron f*tcm. o¡xl\fcloscd
li&f!t llJ.:l.2S:
S...d'l<l l.6l..J..6Il ANFO ~
ll..l
=
Coc:ffi~icrll ol'vllfil.llion, aps l l i
As-drillcd. awllot rounds 12 S· l~mul sk>ns I..S.b1.8.& Critica! diametc:r U1
12! IICS\')' ANfO 188-192 Crosrlinkingagc:nts 178.1 g2
Ash dcsig.n standard$ 8l:S9. U¡tu ANFO 17' -17" Crus1ti11g vs C:\'ploslvc cnergy 36-
W.Wa sel~slurrit.'$ 174• 11
Oc:S»tmc:r ore la Ull CSM
8 iwabilt Mine 1 Ol:t.<Otio¡·IC'f"CI chan$ 276-279 Ai1ik Mtnc llfiPiiO tlon 36S-
Ol.astablll,y, lndc:x ~L!l Olast layout, ptdtmimary gu;t.k·· ill
OIIISM <famagc limits lincs 2l: !:U Appcoaeh to pcTimctcr dt:sign
Buildings 280. ll8 Olast round terminolc'l)' 1 ~129 lSS.'\72
Rock mass l}la.-.~ Al1mua11on t'aot! (lf1 3tú
CSM 161-JV Edge rcscr.aint 14 1-141 CylindriC'JI (horge n:-prescn~
lnspiration Coppc:r J4). Mullipk to'o'' ~ tioo lS!-159
ll1 Onc row and two row ll!bJO lncr.=:m~mtal wavc O\'t.TI~
RussW. l6Q.3M S..-qu~o.'tldng ptinc;iples 144- l6lW6l
Sw~s:h 3 16&11&.. 331·338 LI!l 150-'f"Cb:ity COO!Oun; l6J
379
380 lndex
PPV , ,, disaancc 362 Th~!o EtWgn-Riekford $)'Sietn f ragmcntatloct

Ss*l«ical .:blll)¡t·bascd PPV 2o4(J..24$ Case cxamplc:s
ill 'lñc IC1s)'Siem 244-246 Minnl.i:Jc ~
Cylindrical-sphc:rical charge Thc Nitro Nobei/D)'OO S)"S1C111 Nor\IW!ate Mining
equivale~ 1:L7:8. 2-40.244 Company 35-311. ~•·
Emulsicm~ •8'·'88 l!l
J}c¡.¡.J.p~ 166. lll. 208·210, IXIi_nirion Ull Quct!l.:e.Cartier ml_nc 44·
:w l!xumplcs l.&l 4l!
Dccked c~rses 2 1~ ;oo f onnublion!l Ul6 Enc:rgy 1\'C(uimn~'flt:s llb18.
l.'kcouplin&fCOlJC!fin& !11. 291- Propcnic:s w Kiek"s l.aw l2:3l
2!!9. Pn:ó.u:tion 187. 188 Rittiogcr':s Law ~
0cllagt8le, dcfinition 62 Scnsitization L86 Bond's Third Law l2=ll
Ocsign altcmatives, simulation S.ructu~ aaqM l!valuation l..8::i2
!!i,J!1. Energy C:O\'ctaBC- &L..J 22.1li Photographic l&:.l2.
l)a ign, • •ith res.pttt 10 I"'CCt Eltc:e·gy use 69:1!1. Crushct mooitoring 39:
)1tuelure 9l.JJll E:nvironmenul effecu 2 @.29? Sho,-el monitorios :12.:42.
J':h...'Uinate., dcfinition 62 Airblas.t 23J-28j lnJatmadoa Sf51Cn\S S2M
l):lonatin,¡ cord Flyrock 285.292 Opti.mum .u...&.&
Chanu:tc:ristic.s 211 -218 OrouncJ mocion ~ 1 PredÍlttion Ul8d.l9
Oarn~ to c:xplosive 192-193 Explosion prcssun:, «Jculatcd 6:1: Rc:quircmc:nl.S. flow sheet 29
208-210 Explosh•c ~)'SICJn:S 25=líl.
Ocad~ng 208-210 Encrgy, tailoring 22fi.3QO Systcm, cort<lq'lt 2i:ñl
Oesl¡n ~IoM 2.U E~ u.~ 69:10 Front row dcsitn 113. !34
Prottdures 21.J::2L8. Powtt62:6l
Rd ay c:onnec:tOr:S 2''·'' 4 l}ropcrties Gclllng atenu 1..1&.li2
Surfac:c dcla~ 2 11 -21 4 0etona1ion vdocity L&l (lq¡fu:ring Uí:.l1
Tracing 21'1Q..2 LO. lnOsmmability W
IA'tonation front. lnitiadon/ pro- Scnsili'o'h)' L6;l Ground motion
~lion ~ Srn:n¡th ~ 1.64 Ocsi!V' IIJlflrtlaChc:S 2ll·281
Occornatí()O pressun:, c:~lw lutcd ·ra.dc rum..:$ lM 6Wt ios·6e~d ehart 276·
6:3 Water rc:si~IJIIO: l.6l:J.M m
l)isc;bima Xl'i PrTSWre·volumc Cl.lf'(~S 6.3..68. Ma.dmum ~k pm1iclc
-=
l)bcontinui1ic!!, efl'ec:l on bl11$tin¡ ~plc».Í Ye1 \<cloeity limb 21L212
22illlJ Sourcc offr.t,wnenwtic"' en· ModiOCld stalal·d isl:lnc:.:
OiMWJCe, !QJed 262-26J. 271· l-quuticm 211·176
2.26 r.,;plo$iw $elecdon (~ON 16 3· Sl;ak'tl-d i$!4nc:c tq~.Wiion
Oñll panems l.ll:.J.22 l.Cú
Orills. chum l: l.hUj, l~ph)$iv¡: Mrcnglb 68-69, I.M EllCcl$ whhin a mi!)C sitc 278·
Al»olutc 69. 281
Elccuic initiaúon ?21. ? 34 Bulk 6&69. Fatt0f$ ?69.2JO
Advanugcstdisadvancagcs Rel31h·e 69:
211·23• Wdght6ia U•rdncss. Mob's scalc W
Cin:ults 230.231 Heat of txplosion ~ 6fl
l)d~ series ??(,??7 f':~c..: shapc, ittOuroce of Uid.:l9 Uetwy ANFO 188-193
l)clay times, firing acc:~.ncy ConCir\fe llY.l6 OclinÍ1ion 188· 189
n&J29 Con''<'" ' JS • 36 lníliation l.!l2...L!U
~on:wors, principie 225-226 C~lindrical Y! s~c:all))• Mixins ~
Win:Jeap resistaocc 2)().2J 1 ll8 SmütiZ!ed \ 'J unscn:ddtcd 12.1
El« tronic blasting c::aps Saw.cooth 13 S n6 Uighl:otnd VuJ k )' Copper. MWO
Bcncfit analysis 239-240 ••l>•rod: 21l5-2S9 applíatiCIO 1o 1. 106
Prcciston 6clay, background Cr.atC'ringcoDditions 287-2118 1-listuric¡l P'=I1P.'Ciivt ~
,,,,,.o Ma.imutn thmw ?86.2 89 Hok
Qua:rt:l w:Mdl C:llmpatÍSún l l i Rcgulation:s 288.289 diamCCc:t'. choi" 8D
Elc:c:tronk initl.1tion $)'SIC!Tt$ l:J5• fray:mcn~ si~. characrcri,tl.: 11().. sequcnci:ng I.J=b.L:I9.
lli 111 S:ptinging lil
Hat•Sp(lll ( 79 200
hrdex 381
Ideal gas law 6:b6i lso-velodty eontoors 111. J24- Perimder control design ~
lnftuenc~ atea. hol~ ll9 328
ln.niJC.'ncc radius.. hale 1.29.
"""'"" m-m
Thc CSM approodt 15~-J n
lnitial desAgn ~'Mios &:b82 K" det.ermination .82::2:! The lnspiration Copper ap-
lnitiatUI Kick' s l.aw lZ.:Jl proadl l41-15S
Example 261.26:3 Kllll'lct.~v cquatioo lQ8. Thc Swedish appmacll 313·
P2llcms W=l ~ ll2:.J..l2 Kuz:-Ram fqgmcnlalion modcl ll.l
PMitlon
l~d 204-208
= Perimctt'r oooli'OI tcdtniques, q»
c:illl l0! . 3 11
SOie 208-liO Lincrs, hok dimensions l!l1 l.ine-drillin¡ 301·30}
Top v& bouom ?OS-208 Pre·.split blasling JOl-108
lnitiatioo systcms I.2L268. M~ dctOillltOIS l.S0-254 Smoothwall blasti"8 lfl&ll l
Componc:nu Mes~bi. origin of name l Trim blasting J 11.:3 11
Boosacr 2D.~ Measurc-"fli)c.drilling 10 1. 106 Polystyf'CDC prills L.22.d.1!
Caps 12&:.!2l.? IMS4 Mtthlltlkal cffidcncy 68 Powdcr factor l l
De:layt 1.2& Mlc:tO-baJioons I.B.6. PPV-sealf!d di5Witt Ct1r'YCS 219-
Downlinc: 1.98 MinnliC Mine &Sl ¡81
Muhiplc: poilll priming Mola' S hardllCSS scalc U:U ~-split blasting 101.102
204 Prills, ammon.ium nitratt 165-166
Primet 1.22. 2Q1.20$ NoneVNand t)'pc: inÍii3don 218· Prtml:IS. sb-~: 1'\.'Qilmm(ncfalioi'IS
Pñming unit 2Q.I 225 l!ll. 1.2!1
Trookllnr W Cin::uits 22!1.221 Octottat:ion prusure.,cffec1 of
Encrgy ampUOeatioo ~ Pa11ems m .ns 20$.297
T,.. 2Uhlli Principie 21&-220 Oiame1u, cffect of 20S. ?O?
Cap and fu..¡e 210-211 Non-prim31'y'-.cxpl0$inl dctoaa- Priming
Oc:tonaring oord 211 -218 cor(NPED) 248-2 ~0 Booster 2fll
Non-el«:trk!Nontl typc Nol'lltshoft Minlng Company 3S· Comblnatioo 21ll
2 1S..224 .!S.~ Mullipk pOint 204
Elmric 2ll..ll4 ftl.ast_i"g mergy 52 Ruk.'l! 204
Electroaic 2.,1542411 Cost bted;down ~ Unit l!U
Drilli.nglbl~ing philoso¡:lly Productioo stndcg)', lhcn and now
"'"""""' 2l0-254
~oprltltJU'Y c:xplc~fv-t S6.ll ln.12
?48..150 Mining dctltils ~
lnspinll.ion Coppcr, Wod index .16.
PcñmetcY blasting approach
141-HS Pat1cms, defincd Radi,&J mcki~ !l7.:22.
Peak part.ick 'doc:ity- Squarc 1 25~ 1 26 Rcdox n:.actions 62
disr.anc:e curvc:s 144-)47 Saaw:n:d •25· 1' 6 Riuh~s l.aw l:Lll
Trialffinal des:lgtls l !8.1 5 s l"eak partido n:ladort$ Rock blastlng ~ncrgy
lroo mtnln~o Mlni'CSOia l:ll. 3S"' Actdoonioo '69. '10 PartltiQniJl3 62:.20.
1!.~ (>i.~pl.1tcc:mcnl 269~ 7 70 '-"< <í2
Orillina a'1d blascin¡ tLJ.B Velocity 269 278 ROtk darnagc
Early MiBnc:sota L2l Pcrimcec:r blasting ' 9'3-"377 Thrcshold limüs l l&..ltl.
H3Uiage l.2:.L! A ir-d«ki.ng JOO ill
Mc:lltbt lbngt 1·2 l)lrult llllma.¡c ~ ?91·296 U n'A'lmted Z9l.29fj
Mine: design fllCI.or5 ~ Cwch benchcs 225 Rosin-Rammkr rorm11la 1 Ul
Minntac mine: !i:.ll l'.>«kl~tg 300 Row, « ietnatkm Jll
NOI'th~ mine: !1.2:.12. J.'l.ttoupling Z9ftJOO Rurt-up di$lancc: 16.lil!l. 71\h1ft7
Ptoduction. statisdcs 1L20. Rl'!Ck dam~ C3uSt, n:duc• Run•up ll.mc 200
Ca~¡s J.i:2Q tinn 295 -296
Pri<d lU S~ ana)l: d~ptndent:~ 293- Salety rusc 2Ullll
Wlllt$ 19 226 Scalc:d-distancc applica.:ion 26l
Proclucrion Slr.ltcaY l0..2l SJX'('ial doamagc control tcch- Scalcd~iS~aMecqW!tion ' 72-??l
S.om shovcl U 1 ni.qucs lOJ-11 2 Modifw:d 211-)'M
1501flcnnal CXJ»IISioa !ti Tailoñng o(cx:plosivc mcrgy Scnsiti1JUM:wl.
296-300 Ernulslons l.86
382 lndex
WatcrgdgsJurrics U1 Ptoptnic:s 1.19 Sy$ltm$ upproadl. fragmc:n-

Sequendng,blast 144-149 2S4· Sm~itin~tion W tation 25:.12
26!1 Smoothwall blu.stin.g ~ l
Cutotfslli Spacing TaiJoñng expfos.h't: cncr'8.V 296·
Del~ 255-260 As-dtilk:d 1l. l2hl2B. 300
Oownlines 2SS.2 $6 ()e(med :u '!luce E's l1
,~ottci.JI"$ 260 dfcctivc l2.S::J.2S. Tracingl!Q.2Ul
ln_itiillion otampk 260-261 Spocif~ hcau., ratio 65 Trim blas.ting l l LlJ.2
·liming toosidc::rutions 256- Spocif~ a1ctgy l!I.:1S. Trud:s, bulk loadin!J
ló!l S1cmmin.g 2l ALANFO llJ
Timin.g cxamplc 2 56-?f,Q SubdriUin.g ll AliFO L6S.J.69
Trunklind ?S,J.?SS Surfae~ entr¡y lQ.J& fimulsion 120
Stngleldouble jaddng li Swedish perimc:tcr blo.st di:Sip Wa~crg.eVslurry I..&J.d82
Stnking euJ 313·34]
Oday paucm 1 {,(), t6? Aítik MhM: ficld tests ))1-JlS 'V ' !»>-1~ 12H 27
IA-$i¡n ~ C• kullllion, ahcmativc J)g.. Vc:locity of dctoMtion (V00)
l~i¡n nurnogr3Cih 157.158 :w Oefi nition 62
€ltllmpJ~ U6:.1.62. Ocsi.gn c~amplc l 12:.12.l Dlameter dcpcD!kDCe 162
Slunies l1!:.W 1!10·\·docity COnt(M.IrJ 311. Vibration dill.'CI.ions, ddi nc:d 2.2.1
C111cgoriC$ l 16 124;128
Criti~CRI d i.lmc:tcr
117. PPV caloulation :U:.l-317 Wattrgds 174·' 8'
Guiddines L!2d.ltl PPV limiu 118 Wei¡f!& :~&n:n¡lh, eKplo:~ive 6&62
Hoc-spot rormation U1 USBM ficld data 328-331 Wlnzer indcx 228
IJl.&fCdicnts l.l6dBD. Wt)ft;, t:."<JX&Il$1on 6l..6S
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C:>pynqhted matenal
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Hidden page
The invention of black powder, the firsl of the explosivas, is attribuled to the Chinese
in aboul the 4th cenlury. Broughl lo Europe by the Barbañans in the 13th century, its
firsl use in hard rock mining was reported in the early 17th cenlury. The invenlion of
dynamite by Alfred Nobel in 1867 opened up enormous new possibilities lo rthe mining
industry. Both black powder and dynamile were essenlial ingredients when the age of
large-scale open pit mining began at the end of he 19th century on the Mesabi Range
in Northem Minnesota. The well-fragemenled íron ore was loaded by sleam shovel
directly into traíns lo begin the long voyage to the eastern steel milis. Today the largest
of the world's open pil mines removes nearly one miltion lons of drilled and blasled rock
per day. With lhe deepest of lhese openings now approachíng 1000m, plans are being
made for pils nearly one mile in depth. In removing the rock, lhe walls of the opening
crealed in the earth's surface musl generally be as steep as possible and remain sta-
ble over many years. The challenge for lhe blasting/lragmenlation englneer is lo
remove the desired rock wilh lhe desired degree of lragmenlation as inexpensively as
possible while leaving lhe remaining rock, lhal forming the walls, in pristine conditions.
This ís. needtess lo say, a formidable task involving a delicate batanee of planning, pro-
duction and geomechanics inputs so lhal the overall fragmentalion plan is optimal.
Blasting Principies for Open Pil Mining is inlended lo assist the fragmentalion engineer
in meeting lhls challenge.
The book is designed lo serve as both a lextbook and a reference bool< describing the
principies involved in hard rock blasling as applied to surface excavalions, in general,
and open pil mines, in particular.
Blasling Principies for Open Pil Mining has been written in two parts and published in
two corresponding vOiumes. Yolume 1 entitled 'General Design Concepls' is intended
to introduce the reader to the basíc engineeñng concepls and the building blocks that
make up a blast design. Yolume 2 entiUed 'Theoretical Foundations' ls intended lo pro-
vide the reader additional depth and breadth for better understanding sorne of lhe fun-
damental concepts invOived in rock blasting. The material contained and the presenta·
tion form should make it of value lo practiclng minlng, civil, and construction engíneers
involved in surface rock excavation as well. The contained materlal should provide a
basís for engineers lo improve (a) their blasling operations as well as (b) their ability to
understand lhe conlenl and polentíal application of blasting papers appearing in lhe
lechnical literature.
The focus has been on presenling the principies involved in explosiva rock excavation
in as logícal and easíly understood way as possible. A large number of examples are
included to illuslrale the applícation of the principies.
ISBN 9054104589
Photograpll: Kennecott Utah Copper Corporation
ro¡:,: ngh miltenal

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Bl ASTING PRINCIPLES

FOR OPEN PIT MINING

Complete.., ohwovolumes: ISBN 905410458 9

0 1999 A. A. BaJ!o:.,.. Rottcrdoun

1.2 Mine design tac.tors 2

2 I H E ER AGMENTATION S Y SIEM ('()NCEI'T 24

2.2 Mine-mili fragmcntation systcms 25

1 EXPI OSI VES AS A SOl lRCF O E ERAGMENTATION ENERGV 62

4 PRE!.!MINARY BLAST DES!ON OII!DELINES 73

4.1 lntroduct joo 73

5 DRILLING PAITERNS ANO HOLE SEQUENC!NG 12 5

5.1 Blast round tcrminology 125

6 S!NKING C!IT DES!GN ]52

7 8111 .K BI .A$TING AGENIS ]63

7.5 Water gelslslurries 174

8 INITIATION SYSTEMS 198

9 ENYIRONMENTA!. EfFECTS 269

9 1 Ground mnljon 269

)O PERIMETER Bl ASTING 293

- Chapler l. An historicaJ perspce!ive

- Chaptcr 11. Fundamcntals of cxplosivcs

Ada." PO\'o'dc:r Company 1987. L:plwtl!d and Rod 8/m.tilt¡;.

lmportant Notice - P/ease Read

L2 MINE OESIGN FACTORS

1.3 ni E SrllAM SHOVEL

- Opcrnting thc jack braccs and blocking

Condi1ions Cyde tima {Sot(.)

i 'ablc 1. 1. 11m..: di~ribudon ((Ir ~ovct loading ( Van l)anll,."ltdd, 1913).

Actu:~l Sc»ding 40 lo 75%

Oigglng Condhkln$ Productioo ()''d3fshift)

T.able l.l, ~y tOnS~Mnption ~al-I n. yd3 .\110\'el (V•n ~mC'Ycld, 191)).

Hgurc 1 10 Steam sllo"C'I mining ar ore cVon Bnmf:'·dd, lql 3).

1.5 DRILLING ANO BLASTING

'l'abt~ J..S . Conlinued,

1.7 PRO D UCTI QN STRATEGY THEN ANO NOW

REFERENCES ANO BIBLIOORAPIW

The fragmentation system concept

2.2 MINE - MlLL FRAGMENTATJON SYSTEMS

(.()ADfN(j &; Toospon

INTf:RNAl. ENVIRONMENT f}M'F,ltNAt &NVIRON'Mf.

Efficicnl CMhlf'l8 SECONDAKY

Fi¡urc .2.6. Thc fra;gJhenlatioo tcQuitc:~t f\ow sheét.

2.3 THil f.NERGY REQUIRED IN FRAGMENTATION

(A) CO NT AOLLAB LE YAAIABLES

• HO LE OI.AMETEA • INITIATING SYSTEM

,., UNCO NTROLLA 8LE VA RI A IL.ES

• HO~t OIA"'tflR • l l'flTIA liNG $f $ T(Iol

• IU IIOf N tO $.1>AC11\10 ""'"0

Figu~ 2.9. Thc bla.u dcsign<valua·

wherc KR = the Rittinger constant.

Thc numbcr (Np) ofproduct particlcs is

Thc constant K8 i.s cxp~scd us ing Equation (2. 7b) as

For thc examplc.

W = IY:1 (-100 )11"- = 17( 100 6 11/ ·" =0.35 kWhlton

E,~ 850 cal/gm = 3556 Jouleslgm • 3.56 MJ/kg

2.4 FRAGMENTATION EVALUATION

A critical element in fragmentation system optimizulion is the developmcnt of practica)

e py•tgnted 'llale tal

- Crowd ltmalurc vofla,gc and cwrc:ru

y •gnt~ 11a 111

~ ____ _ Figure 4.:3. Oiayamm3lk ~~~rc