03 Reference Material HMT ME302 Steady Heat Conduction PDF

Heat and Mass Transfer
ME302
Steady Heat Conduction
Dr Ramjee Repaka
Disclaimer
• This is a reference material only and refer to the text books for
complete details
• Material has been taken from different sources and efforts have been
made to cite the relevant material
References: Cengel and Ghajar, HMT
Incropera and Dewitt, Principles of HMT
Objectives
• Understand the concept of thermal resistance and its limitations, and develop
thermal resistance networks for practical heat conduction problems
• Solve steady conduction problems that involve multilayer plane walls
• Develop an intuitive understanding of thermal contact resistance, and
circumstances under which it may be significant
• Identify applications in which insulation may actually increase heat transfer
• Analyze finned surfaces, and assess how efficiently and effectively fins
enhance heat transfer
Steady Heat Conduction in Plane Walls
The Fourier’s law for one-dimensional steady heat conduction through
the wall can be expressed as
Eq. (1)
where is the rate of conduction heat transfer and

A is the wall area are constant.
Thus dT/dx = constant, which means that the temperature through

the wall varies linearly with x. Under steady conditions, the
temperature distribution in a
plane wall is a straight line.
That is, the temperature distribution in the wall under steady conditions is a straight
line.
Eq. (2)
The rate of heat conduction through a plane wall is proportional to the average
thermal conductivity, the wall area, and the temperature difference, but is inversely
proportional to the wall thickness.
Thermal Resistance Concept
The heat conduction through a plane wall can be rearranged as
Eq. (3)
where Eq. (4)
is the thermal resistance of the wall against heat conduction or

Analogy between thermal and
simply the conduction resistance of the wall.
electrical resistance concepts.
Equation for heat transfer (Eq. (3)) is analogous to the relation for electric current flow I,
expressed as
Eq. (5)
where Re = L/e A is the electric resistance and V1 - V2 is the voltage difference across the
resistance (e is the electrical conductivity).
Thus, the rate of heat transfer through a layer corresponds to the electric current, the
thermal resistance corresponds to electrical resistance, and the temperature difference
corresponds to voltage difference across the layer.
Consider convection heat transfer from a solid surface of area As and temperature Ts to a
fluid whose temperature sufficiently far from the surface is T, with a convection heat
transfer coefficient h.
Newton’s law of cooling for convection heat transfer rate can be
rearranged as
Eq. (6)
where Eq. (7)
is the thermal resistance of the surface against heat convection,

Schematic for convection
or simply the convection resistance of the surface resistance at a surface.
Note: When the convection heat transfer coefficient is very large (h  ), the convection
resistance becomes zero and Ts  T.
That is, the surface offers no resistance to convection, and thus it does not slow down the
heat transfer process.
Example: Surfaces on which boiling/condensation occur

When the wall is surrounded by a gas, the radiation effects can be significant and may
need to be considered.
The rate of radiation heat transfer between a surface of emissivity  and area As at
temperature Ts and the surrounding surfaces at some average temperature Tsurr can be
expressed as
Eq. (8)
where Eq. (9)
is the thermal resistance of a surface against radiation, or the

radiation resistance, and
Eq. (10)
is the radiation heat transfer coefficient.
Notes: Both Ts and Tsurr must be in K in the evaluation of hrad.

hrad depends strongly on temperature while hconv usually does not.
A surface exposed to the surrounding air involves convection and radiation
simultaneously.
The total heat transfer at the surface is determined by adding (or subtracting, if in the
opposite direction) the radiation and convection components.
The convection and radiation resistances are parallel to each other and may cause some
complication in the thermal resistance network.
When Tsurr  T, the radiation effect can properly be accounted for by replacing h in the
convection resistance relation (Eq. (7)) by
Eq. (11)
where hcombined is the combined heat transfer coefficient.
Schematic for convection and

radiation resistances at a surface.
Thermal Resistance Network
Steady 1-D heat transfer through a plane wall of thickness L, area A, and thermal
conductivity k that is exposed to convection on both sides to fluids at temperatures T1 and
T2 with heat transfer coefficients h1 and h2, respectively.
Assuming T2 < T1, the variation of temperature will be as shown in the figure.
Note: The temperature varies linearly in the wall, and asymptotically approaches T1 and
T2 in the fluids as we move away from the wall.
The thermal resistance network for heat transfer through a plane wall subjected to convection on both sides, and the
electrical analogy.
Under steady conditions :
Eq. (12)
or
Eq. (13)
which can be rearranged as
Eq. (14)
Once the rate of heat transfer is calculated, Eq. (14) can also be used to determine the
intermediate temperatures T1 or T2.
Adding the numerators and denominators yields
Eq. (15)
where
Eq. (16)
Note: The heat transfer area A is constant for a plane wall, and the rate of heat transfer
through a wall separating two media is equal to the overall temperature difference (T1 -
T2) divided by the total thermal resistance between the media.
Also note that the thermal resistances are in series, and the equivalent thermal resistance
is determined by simply adding the individual resistances, just like the electrical
resistances connected in series.
The rate of steady heat transfer between two surfaces is equal to the temperature
difference divided by the total thermal resistance between those two surfaces.
Another observation that can be made from Eq. (15) is that the ratio of the temperature
drop to the thermal resistance across any layer is constant, and thus the temperature
drop across any layer is proportional to the thermal resistance of the layer.
The larger the resistance, the larger the temperature drop.

In fact, the equation can be rearranged as
Eq. (17)
which indicates that the temperature drop across any layer is equal to the rate of heat
transfer times the thermal resistance across that layer.
It is sometimes convenient to express heat transfer through

a medium in an analogous manner to Newton’s law of
cooling as
Eq. (18)
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient with the

The temperature drop across a layer is
unit W/m2·K. proportional to its thermal resistance
The surface temperature T1 of the wall can be determined by using the thermal resistance
concept as
Eq. (19)
Multilayer Plane Walls
Consider a plane wall that consists of two layers (such as a brick wall with a layer of
insulation).
The rate of steady heat transfer through this two-layer composite wall can be expressed
as
Eq. (20)
where Rtotal is the total thermal

resistance, expressed as
Eq. (21)
The subscripts 1 and 2 in the Rwall

relations above indicate the first and
the second layers, respectively.
The thermal resistance network for heat transfer through a

two-layer plane wall subjected to convection on both sides.
Multilayer Plane Walls
Once is known, an unknown surface temperature Tj at any surface or interface j can
be determined from
Eq. (22)
where Ti is a known temperature at location i and

Rtotal, i - j is the total thermal resistance between
locations i and j.
For the case shown in the figure, the interface

temperature T2 between the two walls can be
determined from
Eq. (23)
is obtained from Eq. (20) and T1 and T2

are available
The evaluation of the surface and interface temperatures
when T1 and T2 are given and is calculated
Numerical 1
Consider a 3-m-high, 5-m-wide, and 0.3-m-thick wall whose thermal conductivity is k =
0.9 W/m·K. On a certain day, the temperatures of the inner and the outer surfaces of the
wall are measured to be 16°C and 2°C, respectively. Determine the rate of heat loss
through the wall on that day.
Numerical 2
Consider a 0.8-m-high and 1.5-m-wide glass window with a thickness of 8 mm and a
thermal conductivity of k = 0.78 W/m·K. Determine the steady rate of heat transfer
through this glass window and the temperature of its inner surface for a day during
which the room is maintained at 20°C while the temperature of the outdoors is -10°C.
Take the heat transfer coefficients on the inner and outer surfaces of the window to be
h1 =10 W/m2·K and h2 = 40 W/m2·K, which includes the effects of radiation.
Numerical 3
Consider a 0.8-m-high and 1.5-m-wide double-pane window consisting of two 4-mm-
thick layers of glass (k = 0.78 W/m·K) separated by a 10-mm-wide stagnant air space (k =
0.026 W/m·K). Determine the steady rate of heat transfer through this double-pane
window and the temperature of its inner surface for a day during which the room is
maintained at 20°C while the temperature of the outdoors is -10°C. Take the convection
heat transfer coefficients on the inner and outer surfaces of the window to be h1 =10
W/m2·K and h2 = 40 W/m2·K, which includes the effects of radiation.
Thermal Contact Resistance
“Perfect contact” has been assumed in the analysis of heat conduction through
multilayer solids at the interface of two layers along with NO temperature drop at the
interface.
In reality, however, even flat surfaces that appear smooth to the eye turn out to be rather
rough when examined under a microscope, with numerous peaks and valleys.
A surface is microscopically rough no matter how smooth it appears to be.
An interface contains numerous air gaps of

varying sizes that act as insulation because
of the low thermal conductivity of air.
An interface offers some resistance to heat

transfer and this resistance for a unit interface
area is called the Thermal contact resistance, Rc
Rc is determined experimentally.
Temperature distribution and heat flow lines along
two solid plates pressed against each other for the
case of perfect and imperfect contact.
Consider heat transfer through two metal rods of cross-sectional area A that are pressed
against each other.
Heat transfer through the interface of these two rods is the sum of
• the heat transfers through the solid contact spots (solid-to-solid conduction) and
• the gaps (conduction and/or radiation across the gaps) in the noncontact areas (which
is a major contributor to heat transfer) and can be expressed as
Eq. (24)
It can also be expressed in an analogous manner to

Newton’s law of cooling as
Eq. (25)
where
• A is the apparent interface area (which is the same as
the cross-sectional area of the rods)
• Tinterface is the effective temperature difference at the
interface A typical experimental setup for the
determination of thermal contact resistance.
The quantity hc, which corresponds to the convection heat transfer coefficient, is called the
thermal contact conductance and is expressed as
Eq. (26)
Thermal contact resistance is

It is related to thermal contact resistance by the inverse of thermal contact
conductance.
Eq. (27)
Thermal contact resistance
Rc is the thermal contact resistance for a unit area decrease with decreasing
surface roughness and
The concept of thermal contact resistance serves as increasing interface pressure.
a better vehicle for explaining the effect of interface
on heat transfer.
Thermal contact resistance range:
The value of thermal contact resistance depends on 0.000005 and 0.0005 m2·K/W
the surface roughness
the material properties The corresponding range of
the temperature and pressure at the interface thermal contact conductance is
the type of fluid trapped at the interface
2000 to 200,000 W/m2·K.
Is the thermal contact resistance is significant?
This can be answered by comparing the magnitudes of the thermal resistances of the
layers with typical values of thermal contact resistance.
E.g.: The thermal resistance of a 1-cm-thick layer of an insulating material for a unit
surface area is
Eq. (28)
whereas for a 1-cm-thick layer of copper, it is
Eq. (29)
Thermal contact resistance is significant and can even dominate the heat transfer for
good heat conductors such as metals, but can be disregarded for poor heat conductors
such as insulations.
Thermal contact conductance for
The thermal contact resistance can be minimized by aluminum plates with different fluids at
applying a thermally conducting liquid called a thermal the interface for a surface roughness of
10 mm and interface pressure of 1 atm
grease on the surfaces before they are pressed against
each other.
E.g.: Silicon oil
This is commonly done when attaching electronic
components such as power transistors to heat sinks.
The thermal contact resistance can also be reduced by
replacing the air at the interface by a better conducting
gas such as helium or hydrogen
Another way to minimize the contact resistance is to insert a soft metallic foil such as tin,
silver, copper, nickel, or aluminum between the two surfaces.
Experimental studies show that the thermal contact resistance can be reduced by a factor
of up to 7 by a metallic foil at the interface.
For maximum effectiveness, the foils must be very thin.
Note: The thermal contact conductance is highest (and thus the contact resistance is
lowest) for soft metals with smooth surfaces at high pressure.
Effect of metallic coatings on thermal contact conductance

Thermal contact conductance of some metal surfaces in air
Numerical 4
The thermal contact conductance at the interface of two 1-cm-thick aluminum plates is
measured to be 11,000 W/m2·K. Determine the thickness of the aluminum plate whose
thermal resistance is equal to the thermal resistance of the interface between the plates.
Numerical 5
Four identical power transistors with aluminum casing are attached on one side of a 1-cm-thick 20-
cm 3 20-cm square copper plate (k = 386 W/m·K) by screws that exert an average pressure of 6 MPa.
The base area of each transistor is 8 cm2, and each transistor is placed at the center of a 10-cm  10-
cm quarter section of the plate. The interface roughness is estimated to be about 1.5 m. All
transistors are covered by a thick Plexiglas layer, which is a poor conductor of heat, and thus all the
heat generated at the junction of the transistor must be dissipated to the ambient at 20°C through
the back surface of the copper plate. The combined convection/radiation heat transfer coefficient at
the back surface can be taken to be 25 W/m2·K. If the case temperature of the transistor is not to
exceed 70°C, determine the maximum power each transistor can dissipate safely, and the
temperature jump at the case-plate interface.
Generalized Thermal Resistance Networks
The thermal resistance concept (or electrical analogy) can also be used to solve steady heat
transfer problems that involve parallel layers or combined series-parallel arrangements.
Approximate solutions can be obtained for two- or three-dimensional problems by
assuming one-dimensional heat transfer and using the thermal resistance network.
The thermal resistance network, which consists of two parallel resistances, can be
represented as shown in the figure.
Note: The total heat transfer is the sum of the heat transfers through each layer.
Eq. (30)
Utilizing electrical analogy,
Eq. (31)
where
Eq. (32)
since the resistances are in parallel.

Thermal resistance network for two parallel layers
Now consider the combined series-parallel arrangement shown in below figure.
The total rate of heat transfer through this composite system

can again be expressed as
Eq. (33)
where
Eq. (34)
and
Eq. (35) Thermal resistance network for combined

series-parallel arrangement
Once the individual thermal resistances are evaluated, the total resistance and the total
rate of heat transfer can easily be determined from the relations above.
The result obtained is somewhat approximate, since

the surfaces of the third layer are probably not isothermal
heat transfer between the first two layers is likely to occur
Assumptions commonly used in solving complex multidimensional heat transfer problems
by treating them as one-dimensional (say, in the x-direction) using the thermal resistance
network are
(1)
(1) any plane wall normal to the x-axis is isothermal (i.e.,

to assume the temperature to vary in the x-direction
only) and
(2) any plane parallel to the x-axis is adiabatic (i.e., to
assume heat transfer to occur in the x-direction only). (2)
These two assumptions resulted in different resistance networks, and thus different (but
usually close) values for the total thermal resistance and thus heat transfer.
In geometries in which heat transfer occurs Differences in Rtot increase with increasing
predominantly in one direction, either |kF - kG| as multidimensional effects
approach gives satisfactory results. become more significant.
Numerical 6
A 3-m-high and 5-m-wide wall consists of long 16-cm  22-cm cross section horizontal bricks (k =
0.72 W/m·K) separated by 3-cm-thick plaster layers (k = 0.22 W/m·K). There are also 2-cm-thick
plaster layers on each side of the brick and a 3-cm-thick rigid foam (k = 0.026 W/m·K) on the inner
side of the wall, as shown below. The indoor and the outdoor temperatures are 20°C and -10°C,
respectively, and the convection heat transfer coefficients on the inner and the outer sides are h1 =
10 W/m2·K and h2 = 25 W/m2·K, respectively. Assuming one-dimensional heat transfer and
disregarding radiation, determine the rate of heat transfer through the wall.
Heat Conduction In Cylinders And Spheres
Consider steady heat conduction through a hot-water pipe.
Heat is continuously lost to the outdoors through the wall of the
pipe.
The temperature gradient in the radial direction is relatively large.
Heat transfer through the pipe is steady when the fluid Heat is lost from a hot-water pipe
to the air outside in the radial
temperatures inside and outside the pipe remain constant. direction, and thus heat transfer
from a long pipe is one-
Thus heat transfer through the pipe can be modeled as steady and dimensional.
one-dimensional.
The temperature of the pipe depends on one direction only (the radial r-direction) can be
expressed as T = T(r).
This situation is approximated in practice in long cylindrical pipes and spherical containers.
Under steady conditions, heat transfer through the pipe must be constant, = constant.
Consider a long cylindrical layer (such as a circular pipe) of inner
radius r1, outer radius r2, length L, and average thermal
conductivity k.
Assumptions:
No heat generation in the layer
The thermal conductivity is constant.
1-D heat conduction through the cylindrical layer (T(r)). A long cylindrical pipe (or
spherical shell) with specified
inner and outer surface
Fourier’s law of heat conduction for heat transfer through the temperatures T1 and T2.
cylindrical layer can be expressed as
Eq. (36)
where A = 2rL is the heat transfer area at location r.

Note: A depends on r, and thus it varies in the direction of heat transfer.
Separating the variables in the above equation and integrating from r = r1, where T(r1)
= T1, to r = r2, where T(r2) = T2, gives
Eq. (37)
Substituting A = 2rL and performing the integrations give
Eq. (38)
since = constant.
A long cylindrical pipe (or

This equation can be rearranged as spherical shell) with specified
temperatures T1 and T2.
Eq. (39)
where
Eq. (40)
is the thermal resistance of the cylindrical layer against heat conduction (i.e., the
conduction resistance).
Consider a spherical layer of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2,
average thermal conductivity k and by taking A = 4r2 and
perform the integrations in Eq. (37).
The result can be expressed as
Eq. (41) A long cylindrical pipe (or

spherical shell) with specified
where temperatures T1 and T2.
Eq. (42)
is the thermal resistance of the spherical layer against heat conduction (i.e., the
conduction resistance).
Now consider steady one-dimensional heat transfer through a
cylindrical or spherical layer that is exposed to convection on
both sides to fluids at temperatures T1 and T 2 with heat
transfer coefficients h1 and h2, respectively, as shown in the
figure.
The rate of heat transfer under steady conditions can be

expressed as
The thermal resistance network for
a cylindrical (or spherical) shell
Eq. (43) subjected to convection from both
the inner and the outer sides.
where
Eq. (43)
for a cylindrical layer, and
Eq. (44)
for a spherical layer. A = 2rL for a cylindrical surface and

A = 4r2 for a spherical surface of radius r.
Multilayered Cylinders and Spheres
The steady heat transfer rate through the three-layered composite cylinder of length L
shown in the figure with convection on both sides can be expressed as
Eq. (45)
where Rtotal is the total thermal resistance, expressed as
Eq. (46)
where A1 = 2r1L and A4 = 2r4L.
The thermal resistance network for heat transfer through a three-

layered composite cylinder subjected to convection on both sides.
Numerical 7
A 3-m internal diameter spherical tank made of 2-cm-thick stainless steel (k = 15 W/m·K)
is used to store iced water at T∞1 = 0°C. The tank is located in a room whose temperature
is T∞2 = 22°C. The walls of the room are also at 22°C. The outer surface of the tank is black
and heat transfer between the outer surface of the tank and the surroundings is by
natural convection and radiation. The convection heat transfer coefficients at the inner
and the outer surfaces of the tank are h1 = 80 W/m2·K and h2 = 10 W/m2·K, respectively.
Determine (a) the rate of heat transfer to the iced water in the tank and (b) the amount
of ice at 0°C that melts during a 24-h period.
References
• Yunus A. Cengel and Afshin Ghajar, Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th edition, McGraw-
Hill Education (India) Private Limited, 2016.
• Frank P. Incropera and David P. Dewitt, Principles of Heat and Mass Transfer, 7th
edition, Wiley India Private Limited, 2012.
• J.P. Holman, Heat Transfer, 8th Edition, McGraw-Hill College, 1996.

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Heat and Mass Transfer

Steady Heat Conduction

where is the rate of conduction heat transfer and

Thus dT/dx = constant, which means that the temperature through

where Eq. (4)

is the thermal resistance of the wall against heat conduction or

where Eq. (7)

is the thermal resistance of the surface against heat convection,

Example: Surfaces on which boiling/condensation occur

where Eq. (9)

is the thermal resistance of a surface against radiation, or the

is the radiation heat transfer coefficient.

Notes: Both Ts and Tsurr must be in K in the evaluation of hrad.

where hcombined is the combined heat transfer coefficient.

Schematic for convection and

which can be rearranged as

The larger the resistance, the larger the temperature drop.

It is sometimes convenient to express heat transfer through

where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient with the

where Rtotal is the total thermal

The subscripts 1 and 2 in the Rwall

The thermal resistance network for heat transfer through a

where Ti is a known temperature at location i and

For the case shown in the figure, the interface

is obtained from Eq. (20) and T1 and T2

A surface is microscopically rough no matter how smooth it appears to be.

An interface contains numerous air gaps of

An interface offers some resistance to heat

It can also be expressed in an analogous manner to

Thermal contact resistance is

whereas for a 1-cm-thick layer of copper, it is

Effect of metallic coatings on thermal contact conductance

Utilizing electrical analogy,

since the resistances are in parallel.

The total rate of heat transfer through this composite system

Eq. (35) Thermal resistance network for combined

The result obtained is somewhat approximate, since

(1) any plane wall normal to the x-axis is isothermal (i.e.,

where A = 2rL is the heat transfer area at location r.

A long cylindrical pipe (or

Eq. (41) A long cylindrical pipe (or

The rate of heat transfer under steady conditions can be

for a cylindrical layer, and

for a spherical layer. A = 2rL for a cylindrical surface and

where Rtotal is the total thermal resistance, expressed as

where A1 = 2r1L and A4 = 2r4L.

The thermal resistance network for heat transfer through a three-

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