Two PDF

IMPACT ENERGY ABSORPTION ANALYSIS
OF DIFFERENT THIN-WALLED TUBES

WITH AND WITHOUT REINFORCEMENT
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER FOR THE

DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES
2014
SHUO LU
The School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering

List of Contents
List of Contents
List of Contents ................................................................................................................. 2

Figure List ......................................................................................................................... 6
Table List ......................................................................................................................... 13
Abstract ........................................................................................................................... 14
Declaration ...................................................................................................................... 15
Copyright Statement ....................................................................................................... 16
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 1 ......................................................................................................................... 18
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 18
1.1 Background of the thesis .................................................................................... 18
1.2 Objectives of the thesis ...................................................................................... 23
1.3 Contributions to knowledge ............................................................................... 24
1.4 Outline of the thesis ........................................................................................... 25
Chapter 2 ......................................................................................................................... 28
Literature review ............................................................................................................. 28
2.1 Introduction to thin-walled energy absorbing structures ................................... 28
2.2 Introduction to thin-walled metal tubes under axial loads ................................. 33
2.2.1 Axial collapse modes ............................................................................... 33
2.2.2 Main variables in impact analysis ............................................................ 35
2.3 Theoretical models ............................................................................................. 37
2.3.1 Theoretical prediction for the single circular tube ................................... 39
2.3.1.1 Alexander model ........................................................................... 40
2.3.1.2 Abramowicz model ....................................................................... 42
2.3.1.3 Wierzbicki model .......................................................................... 44
2.3.1.4 Singace model ............................................................................... 48
2.3.1.5 Theoretical model for the diamond mode ..................................... 49
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List of Contents
2.3.2 Theoretical prediction for the single square tube ..................................... 51

2.3.3 Generalized folding mechanisms ............................................................. 52
2.3.4 Theoretical prediction for multi-cell thin-walled tubes ........................... 56
2.4 Summary ............................................................................................................ 61
Chapter 3 ......................................................................................................................... 63
Experimental study of the collapse behaviour of thin-walled metal tubes under axial
loads ................................................................................................................................ 63
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 63
3.2 Experimental detail ............................................................................................ 64
3.2.1 Test procedure .......................................................................................... 64
3.2.2 Material properties ................................................................................... 66
3.2.3 Static test .................................................................................................. 69
3.2.3.1 Experimental results ...................................................................... 69
3.2.3.2 A typical crushing process ............................................................. 78
3.2.4 Dynamic test ............................................................................................ 86
3.2.4.1 Experimental results ...................................................................... 86
3.3 Summary ............................................................................................................ 90
Chapter 4 ......................................................................................................................... 92
Numerical simulation of the collapse behaviour of single-cell thin-walled metal tubes
under axial loads ............................................................................................................. 92
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 92
4.2 Material properties under dynamic loading conditions...................................... 94
4.2.1 Background .............................................................................................. 94
4.2.2 Cowper-Symonds model .......................................................................... 95
4.3 Crash energy absorption characteristics of single thin-walled tubes ................. 97
4.3.1 Typical collapse characteristics of single thin-walled tubes .................... 97
4.3.2 Modelling details and some considerations ............................................. 99
4.3.2.1 Modelling details ........................................................................... 99
3
List of Contents
4.3.2.2 Modelling considerations for impact simulation......................... 101

4.3.3 Comparison of experiment and simulation results ................................. 105
4.3.4 Effect of cross sections of tubes ............................................................. 108
4.3.5 Effect of geometry of circular section tubes .......................................... 109
4.3.6 Effect of impact mass and initial impact velocity .................................. 115
4.4 Summary .......................................................................................................... 121
Chapter 5 ....................................................................................................................... 122
The trigger systems of thin-walled tubes under axial loading ...................................... 122
5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 122
5.2 Experimental study .......................................................................................... 123
5.2.1 Test procedure ....................................................................................... 124
5.2.2 First test: A thin-walled tube with holes on the tube wall ..................... 125
5.2.2.1 Experimental results for the specimen AA1, B1, B2 and B3 ..... 126
5.2.2.2 Experimental results for the specimen AA1, B1, D1, D2 and D3
................................................................................................................................ 129
5.2.2.3 Experimental results for the specimen AA1, B1, C1, C2 and C3
................................................................................................................................ 131
5.2.3 Second test: A thin-walled tube with the taper on the tube wall ........... 135
5.2.4 Third test: A thin-walled tube with the circumferential groove on the tube
wall ....................................................................................................... 137
5.3 Summary .......................................................................................................... 142
Chapter 6 ....................................................................................................................... 144
Numerical simulation of the collapse behaviour of multi-cell thin-walled metal tubes
under axial loads ........................................................................................................... 144
6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 144
6.2 Crash energy absorption characteristics of multi-cell circular section tubes ... 146
6.2.1 Modelling details.................................................................................... 146
6.2.2 A comparative study of single and multi-cell tubes ............................... 147
4
List of Contents
6.2.3 Effect of angle of internal ribs ............................................................... 151

6.2.4 Effect of the number of radial & circumferential cells .......................... 153
6.3 Crash energy absorption characteristic of multi-cell square section tubes ...... 155
6.3.1 Effect of the number of rectangular/square cells................................... 155
6.3.2 Effect of section geometry .................................................................... 157
6.3.3 Effect of reinforcement for square tubes ............................................... 160
6.3.4 Transition condition between progressive and global buckling ............ 162
6.4 A new design of impact energy absorber ......................................................... 164
6.5 Summary .......................................................................................................... 169
Chapter 7 ....................................................................................................................... 171
General discussion and conclusions .............................................................................. 171
7.1 General discussion ........................................................................................... 171
7.2 Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 173
7.3 Future works .................................................................................................... 174
References ..................................................................................................................... 177
5
Figure List
Figure List
Fig 1.1 The design of different energy absorbers............................................................ 19

Fig 2.1 Different axial collapse modes of thin-walled tubes under axial loads .............. 34
Fig 2.2 A typical load-displacement curve of thin-walled tube under axial loads .......... 35
Fig 2.3 Theoretical model for symmetric crushing mode by Alexander......................... 40
Fig 2.4 Effective crushing distance ................................................................................. 43
Fig 2.5 Undeformed, partially deformed and fully crushed individual superfolding
element ................................................................................................................... 46
Fig 2.6 Basic requirements of a transition zone .............................................................. 47
Fig 2.7 Deformation stages of transition zone model ..................................................... 47
Fig 2.8 The definition of the eccentricity factor m ......................................................... 49
Fig 2.9 Basic collapse elements of collapse square tube ................................................ 51
Fig 2.10 The super folding element mechanism ............................................................. 54
Fig 2.11 Extensional elements and bending hinge lines ................................................. 57
Fig 2.12 The division of the multi-cell section ............................................................... 58
Fig 2.13 Variation of cross section of multi-cell tubes.................................................... 60
Fig 3.1 Instron (Model 4507) 200 kN hydraulic testing machine ................................... 65
Fig 3.2 Drop-hammer rig ................................................................................................ 66
Fig 3.3 Geometry and dimensions of material test specimens ........................................ 67
Fig 3.4 Gripping devices and strain measurement .......................................................... 68
Fig 3.5 The stress-strain curve for annealed aluminium alloy A6082 ............................ 69
Fig 3.6 The load-displacement curve and the deformed profile of the specimen A1 ..... 70
Fig 3.10 The load-displacement curve and the deformed profile of the specimen A7 ... 72
6
Figure List
Fig 3.11 The load-displacement curve and the deformed profile of the specimen A8 .......
................................................................................................................................ 72
Fig 3.12 The load-displacement curve and the deformed profile of the specimen A11......
..................................................................................................................................... 72
Fig 3.13 The load-displacement curve and the deformed profile of the specimen A12 .....
................................................................................................................................ 73
................................................................................................................................ 73
................................................................................................................................ 73
................................................................................................................................ 74
................................................................................................................................ 74
Fig 3.18 The load-displacement curve and the deformed profile of the specimen G5 .......
................................................................................................................................ 74
Fig 3.19 The load-displacement curve and the deformed profile of the specimen AA1 ....
................................................................................................................................ 75
Fig 3.20 Force ratio versus D/t ratio ............................................................................... 76
Fig 3.21 Comparison of theoretical prediction and the experimental results ................. 77
Fig 3.22 The relation between the structural effectiveness and the D/t ratio .................. 77
Fig 3.23 The relation between the solidity ratio and the D/t ratio .................................. 78
Fig 3.24 The load-displacement curve and the final deformed profile for H1 ............... 79
7
Figure List
Fig 3.30 The photos of the crushing process and the corresponding load-displacement
curve ....................................................................................................................... 82
Fig 3.31 The local plastic deformation of the wall end edge .......................................... 83
Fig 3.32 The geometrical definition of eccentricity factor m ......................................... 85
Fig 3.33 Comparison between the static and dynamic test for A1 and the deformed
profile ..................................................................................................................... 86
profile ..................................................................................................................... 87
profile ..................................................................................................................... 87
profile ..................................................................................................................... 87
profile ..................................................................................................................... 88
profile ..................................................................................................................... 88
profile ..................................................................................................................... 88
profile ..................................................................................................................... 89
profile ................................................................................................................... 89
Fig 4.1 Stress-strain data at various strain rates of mild steel ......................................... 95
Fig 4.2 Strain-rate sensitivity by Cowper-Symonds equation for aluminium alloy and
mild steel ................................................................................................................ 96
Fig 4.3 Axial crushing behaviour of the thin-walled circular tube ................................. 98
Fig 4.4 Stress-strain curves with different plastic definitions ....................................... 100
Fig 4.5 Force-deflection curves of models with different plastic definitions ............... 101
8
Figure List
Fig 4.6 Deformed shapes of the tube with different mesh designs ............................... 103
Fig 4.7 Load-time history of the tube with different mesh sizes .................................. 103
Fig 4.8 Deformation shapes of the tube model with different friction coefficients ...... 104
Fig 4.9 Load-time history of the tube model with different friction coefficients ......... 104
Fig 4.10 Deformation shapes of tubes with different friction coefficients ................... 104
Fig 4.11 Force history for different friction coefficients............................................... 105
Fig 4.12 Comparison between the simulation and dynamic test for A1 ....................... 106
Fig 4.17 Comparison between the simulation and dynamic test for A12 ..................... 107
Fig 4.18 Deformed shapes of tubes with different cross section profiles ..................... 108
Fig 4.19 Load-time histories of tubes with different cross section profiles .................. 108
Fig 4.20 Load-displacement curves of tubes with different tube wall thicknesses ....... 110
Fig 4.21 Specified energy absorption for different D/t and L/D ................................... 111
Fig 4.22 Mode classification chart for the circular tube ............................................... 113
Fig 4.23 Diamond modes with circumferential lobes for different D/t ratios ............... 114
Fig 4.24 Idealized type І and type Π structures .......................................................... 115
Fig 4.25 Deformation shape of single thin-walled tube crushed using impactors of
different impact mass m ....................................................................................... 116
Fig 4.26 Force histories for different impact mass m ................................................... 117
Fig 4.27 Variation of impact energy absorbed (SEA) with initial kinetic energy (IKE).....
.............................................................................................................................. 118
Fig 4.28 Deformation shapes for different impact velocities ........................................ 119
Fig 4.29 Load-time curves for different impact velocities ............................................ 119
Fig 4.30 Variation of impact energy absorbed (SEA) with initial kinetic energy (IKE) ...
.............................................................................................................................. 119
9
Figure List
Fig 4.31 Load-displacement curves for same IKE and different mass and velocity..... 120
Fig 5.1 All the specimens in the test ............................................................................. 124
Fig 5.2 Geometries of the tubes with holes ................................................................... 125
Fig 5.3 Test results for specimen AA1, B1, B2 and B3 ................................................ 127
Fig 5.4 The crushing process of the specimen B2 ........................................................ 128
Fig 5.5 Test results for specimen B1, D1, D2 and D3................................................... 130
Fig 5.6 The crushing process of the specimen D2 ........................................................ 131
Fig 5.7 Test results for specimen B1, C1, C2 and C3 ................................................... 133
Fig 5.8 The crushing process of the specimen C2 ........................................................ 134
Fig 5.9 Test results for specimen F1, F2, F3, F4 and F5 ............................................... 136
Fig 5.10 The crushing process of the specimen F4 ....................................................... 137
Fig 5.11 Test results for specimen H7, E1, E2 and E3 .................................................. 138
Fig 5.12 The crushing process of the specimen E2....................................................... 140
Fig 5.13 Comparison of test & simulation results of specimen E1............................... 140
Fig 5.16 The crushing process of the specimen E2 ....................................................... 142
Fig 6.1 Different cross-section profiles of multi-cell tubes .......................................... 145
Fig 6.2 Deformation shapes of tubes with or without internal reinforcements............. 148
Fig 6.3 Load-time histories of single tube with and without internal reinforcements ........
.............................................................................................................................. 148
Fig 6.4 SEA of the single tubes with and without internal webs for different D/t ratios
.............................................................................................................................. 149
Fig 6.5 Deformation shapes of double coaxial tubes with or without internal
reinforcements ...................................................................................................... 150
Fig 6.6 Load-time histories of double tubes with and without internal reinforcements .....
.............................................................................................................................. 150
Fig 6.7 SEA of the double tubes with and without internal webs for different D/t ratios
10
Figure List
.............................................................................................................................. 150
Fig 6.8 Deformation shapes of different angle ribs....................................................... 151
Fig 6.9 Load-time histories with different neighbouring angle ribs ............................. 152
Fig 6.10 Deformation shapes of different angle ribs..................................................... 152
Fig 6.11 Load-time histories of tubes with different neighbouring angle ribs .............. 153
Fig 6.12 Multi-cell tubes with different number of radial & circumferential cells....... 154
Fig 6.13 Load-time histories of multi-cell tubes with different number of radial &
circumferential cells ............................................................................................. 154
Fig 6.14 Deformation shapes of multi-cell tubes with different number of cells ......... 156
Fig 6.15 Load-time histories of multi-cell tubes with different number of cells .......... 156
Fig 6.16 Energy absorbed by tubes with different number of cells .............................. 157
Fig 6.17 Cross-section profiles of square multi-cell tubes with different number of cells
.............................................................................................................................. 158
Fig 6.18 SEA of tubes with different number of the cells ............................................. 159
Fig 6.19 Deformation shapes of tubes with corner reinforcements .............................. 160
Fig 6.20 Load-time histories of tubes different cross-section profiles.......................... 161
Fig 6.21 Mean crushing force of tubes with different cross-section profiles................ 162
Fig 6.22 The critical length of global buckling of single and multi-cell tubes ............. 163
Fig 6.23 Load-time histories of single tubes with different lengths h .......................... 164
Fig 6.24 Load-time histories of multi-cell tubes with different lengths h .................... 164
Fig 6.25 Coaxial tubes with and without triggers ......................................................... 165
Fig 6.26 Effect of trigger on the initial peak force ........................................................ 165
Fig 6.27 Coaxial tubes with different inner tube lengths h ........................................... 166
Fig 6.28 Effect of the length h of the inner tube on the force history ........................... 166
Fig 6.29 Comparing tubes with and without trigger ..................................................... 167
Fig 6.30 Comparing the effect of trigger ...................................................................... 167
Fig 6.31 Coaxial tubes with internal ribs and circumferential dent trigger .................. 168
Fig 6.32 Force history of coaxial tubes with internal ribs and circumferential dent
11
Figure List
trigger ................................................................................................................... 169
12
Table List
Table List
Table 2.1 List of theoretical models ................................................................................ 55

Table 3.1 The experimental data from the static tests ..................................................... 70
Table 3.2 The experimental results from the static tests ................................................. 70
Table 3.3 Measured geometrical results for all the specimens........................................ 85
Table 3.4 The experimental results from the dynamic tests ............................................ 86
Table 3.5 Comparison between static and dynamic tests ................................................ 89
Table 4.1 Physical properties for different materials ............................................................ 96
Table 4.2 Model data for dynamic simulation on circular tubes .......................................... 111
Table 4.3 Dimensions, Velocities and Energies of Impactor ............................................... 116
Table 5.1 Experimental data for the first test ................................................................ 126
Table 5.2 Experimental data for the second test ........................................................... 135
Table 5.3 Experimental data for the third test ............................................................... 139
Table 6.1 Geometrical dimensions of the double coaxial tube ..................................... 165
13
Abstract
Abstract
For an ideal impact energy absorber, the initial peak force should be low and the
average crushing force should be high. Also, a long stroke and a stable force history are
expected. The thin-walled tube under axial loads is a kind of energy absorber that can
produce controlled progressive collapse during a crash. It is a promising collapse
mechanism for energy absorption with demonstrated success in industry. But the
conventional thin-walled tubes still have high initial peak force and force fluctuations
during a crushing process. To help to achieve a better energy absorbing structure, a
research work has been carried out in this thesis.
The aim of the present research is to achieve an improved understanding of the crushing
behaviour of thin-walled tubes under axial loads. In the study, the entire crushing
process, including the initial stage of collapse, its localization and the subsequent
progressive folding has been carefully investigated by experiment. The relation between
the localized plastic deformation and the corresponding crushing force is built by
comparing the cross section of series of specimens and their load-displacement curves,
which give a deep insight of the collapse mechanism of circular thin-walled tube under
axial loads. Then some trigger systems are proposed, which is proved to be a good way
to reduce the initial peak force and influence the collapse behaviour. To achieve higher
energy absorbing efficiency, the multi-cell thin-walled tube has been investigated.
Finally, based on the analysis in this study, a new multi-cell profile which is composed
of coaxial tubes with different lengths and dented grooves is proposed. The new design
is proved to be a good energy absorber with low initial peak force and very high energy
absorption efficiency.
Keywords: specific energy absorption, average crushing force, initial peak force
14
Declaration
Declaration
No portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an
application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or other
institute of learning.
Signed: _____________________________
Shuo Lu
15
Copyright Statement
Copyright Statement
1. Copyright in text of this thesis rests with the Author. Copies (by any process) either
in full, or of extracts, may be made only in accordance with instructions given by
the Author and lodged in the John Rylands University Library of Manchester.
Details may be obtained from the Librarian. This page must form part of any such
copies made. Further copies (by any process) of copies made in accordance with
such instructions may not be made without the permission (in writing) of the
Author.
2. The ownership of any intellectual property rights which may be described in this
thesis is vested in the University of Manchester, subject to any prior agreement to
the contrary, and may not be made available for use by third parties without the
written permission of the University, which will prescribe the terms and conditions
of any such agreement.
3. Further information on the conditions under which disclosures and exploitation may
take place is available from the Head of School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil
Engineering.
16
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
I would like first of all to thank my parents, my sister and my wife for supporting me in
whatever I chose to do in my life.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. S Olutunde Oyadiji,

for the guidance and continual support throughout my PhD study.
Special thanks to Professor Derek Jackson and Ms Laibing Pang at the University of
Manchester for their encouragement and guidance.
Thanks are also due to my colleagues and friends for their support and those happy
leisure times we spent together.
Finally I would like to acknowledge our technicians, Mr Bill Storey, Mr Phil Oakes, Mr
David Mortimer, Mr Steve Burley and Mr Ross W Holmes, for their kindly assistance
with the experimental preparation.
17
Chapter 1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Energy absorption capability of the structure is one important aspect in modern

structural design, which has many applications in engineering, in particular, in the
design of various kinds of energy-absorbing devices to minimize human injuries while
collision is occurred in transportation systems. Even for the structure with no purpose
on energy absorption, it also needs to meet integrity requirements for the sake of safety.
Within all these energy absorbing structures, thin-walled metal tubes subjected to axial
loads are the most employed structural elements due to their high efficient energy
absorption characteristics, low costs and easy to manufacture.
Clearly, it is important to understand the actual collapse behavior of the thin-walled tube
to ensure the structure can dissipate the kinetic energy in a controlled, effective energy
absorbing mode. It is the main objective of this study to identify and understand the
main factors that influence the collapse behavior of thin-walled metal tubes under axial
loads and examine the role of each factor played in the crushing process.
This chapter begins with the introduction of some background knowledge related to
energy absorption and structural crashworthiness. Then the objectives and the
contributions of the thesis are presented. Finally, a brief description of the thesis
structure is given.
1.1 Background of the thesis
In this thesis, the work was mainly concentrated on structural crashworthiness analysis
18
Chapter 1
of thin-walled metal tubes with various cross sections, which have been widely
employed in engineering as energy absorbing devices. In the design of energy absorbing
devices, there are a wide range options, mainly based on their applications. Fig 1.1
shows some designs of energy absorbers, which normally can be seen in the real life.
These energy-absorbing devices have different energy absorbing characteristics and can
dissipate kinetic energy in a wide variety of ways like plastic deformation, friction and
fracture.
(a) (b)
Fig 1.1 The design of different energy absorbers
(a): the bumper of the car (b): the structure in the helmet
In all these kinds of devices, thin-walled metal tubes are most popular adapted in the
design of energy absorbing structures, especially in transportation vehicles, because of
their efficient energy absorbing characteristics under axial crushing loads.
For thin-walled metal tubes, their energy absorption capacity will mainly depend on the
amounts of plastic deformation which takes place during the axial crash. Because metal
materials can absorb a large amount of kinetics energy in the course of large plastic
deformation, structures whose function is to absorb mechanical energy in the event of a
19
Chapter 1
dynamic collision or accident are commonly constructed of ductile metal. With regard
to the loading condition, basically tubes can be subjected to lateral compression or axial
compression. The lateral compression modes can produce the relatively low force-long
stroke deformation characteristics. When subjected to an axial load, these tubes can
collapse either in symmetrical buckles or in non-symmetric patterns. These kinds of
collapse modes are expected to provide a relatively long stroke and a fairly stable
reaction force throughout the entire crushing process, which makes them inherently
suitable for use in the design of energy absorbing devices.
In this study, structural crashworthiness of thin-walled metal tubes is the main concern.
The term crashworthiness refers to the ability of a structure to protect its occupants or
contents during an impact. Considering a car accident, the less the injury suffered by the
occupants, and the less the damage to the total vehicle, the better is the crashworthiness
of the vehicle. From the viewpoint of crashworthiness, the topic seeks to improve the
collision resistance of structural systems by sacrificing the structure to absorb collision
energy and, thereby, to protect the passengers or cargo. In the case of passengers, it is
required that a survivable volume remains and the decelerations and forces are limited
so that they remain at survivable levels for specified accident scenario [1].
Generally speaking, the essence of crashworthiness is energy management and the

control of crash deceleration pulses. In order to better understand this essence, let’s
review how to assess crashworthiness in practice. To assess crashworthiness, several
criteria are used, which include the human tolerance to deceleration experienced by the
vehicle during an impact, the deformation patterns of the vehicle structure, and the
probability of injury predicted by human body models.
Human injury tolerance to impact varies with size, age, sex, and specific conditions.
The main injuries include head injuries, spinal injuries and chest injuries. Among them,
20
Chapter 1
head injuries are responsible for a significant loss of life and serious injuries in
transportation accidents.
According to European New Car Assessment Programme (Euro NCAP) [106], the
tolerance level of head injuries is the limitation of the acceleration, with a value of 80g
(standard gravity acceleration) over a time period of more than 3 ms that should not be
exceeded. In order to explain the relation between the acceleration and the injury level,
several criteria have been developed. Gadd Severity Index (GSI) was defined as [52]:
T
SI = ∫0 A2.5
V dt (1.1)
where Av is the dimensionless acceleration av ⁄g, av is the average head acceleration

which may vary throughout the loading pulse.
Another criterion HIC (Head Injury Criteria) is also used on a worldwide basis to assess
safety of vehicles in crash test.
T 2.5
HIC = (T2 − T1 ) �∫T 2 AV dt/(T2 − T1 )� (1.2)
1
where any time interval T2 − T1 is selected to maximise the right-hand side of equation
1.2. This means that the HIC includes the effects of head acceleration and the duration
of the acceleration. HIC can be recast the form as:
HIC = V2 a1.5 ⁄g 2.5 (1.3)
which shows the relation between the Head Injury criterion and the impact velocity and
acceleration. HIC ≥ 1000 is considered as life threatening.
The influence of pulse length and the shape of deceleration curve also play an important
role in the severity of injury. Agaram [107] investigated the phenomenon and pointed
out that for different shapes of deceleration curves with the same level deceleration, the
21
Chapter 1
relevant HIC calculated can have different values and lead to different occupant
responses. The severity of damage is higher if the larger the value of the deceleration
and the longer the deceleration lasts.
Over the past decades, many research efforts have been made to understand the collapse
behaviour of thin-walled metal tubes under static or dynamic axial loading. The early
researches mainly focus on the theoretical and experimental studies. The first study on
this topic began fifties years ago by Alexander [2]. He proposed a simple, kinematically
admissible collapse mechanism, which formed the basis of the crush calculations. Since
then, many improvements and extensions have been made to his approach. More
realistic folding mechanisms were formulated by researchers. Through these theoretical
studies, a good understanding of the collapse mechanism was achieved. Even today,
with the availability of highly sophisticated numerical methods and advanced
experimental techniques, simplified models still provide valuable assistance with the
interpretation of experimental results and for preliminary design purposes. Experimental
studies were also carried out by some researchers over the years. These tests examined
various designs of thin-walled structures with different materials and loading conditions
and help to give a sound understanding of impact phenomena in relation to different
applications.
Furthermore, in recent years, with the development of finite element method and also
due to the availability of increased computing power, numerical simulations were
played a more important role in impact analysis by many researchers.
Although a lot of studies have been conducted by various researchers, the problem
remains challenging. The deformation history is complex; it involves large plastic
deformations including load reversals, sharp radii of curvature, contact and other
challenges. There seems to be a consensus that much more can be done to lessen the
22
Chapter 1
potential danger of impact accidents and improve the energy absorption capability of the
structures.
1.2 Objectives of the thesis
The main purpose of this thesis is to grasp the complex crushing behavior of thin-walled
ductile metal tubes under axial loading by experimental study and simulation. Based on
the understanding of the collapse behavior, the new structures and trigger systems can
be developed and make it possible to better predict and control the collapse process,
improve the stabilization and achieve higher energy absorbing capability.
In this thesis, a series of experiments were firstly carried out, in which all the relevant
variables are examined. In the experiments the tube diameter, thickness were varied to
establish trends of the effect of these variables on the results. In addition, several models
are evaluated by comparing their predictions to the experimental results.
Through this study, a clear picture of the collapse behaviour of these structures should
be achieved, which is vital for the design of energy absorbers. The main factors which
affect the energy absorption characteristics will be decided and systematically analyzed
for all these structures in a wide data range.
In this thesis, based on the analyses, ideal energy absorbers are expected to be designed.
Firstly, an ideal energy absorber should provide high mean crushing force, which means
higher energy absorbing capability. Secondly, to minimize the injury and damage, the
initial peak force should be eliminated and the crushing force should be kept as stable
and smooth as possible, thereby, the deceleration during the crash can be below some
critical values. For example, in the case of a car accident, the soft crush of sheet metal
produces low deceleration pulses in the vehicle. The structural member of the frame
creates more deceleration. The series of deceleration pulses first affect the vehicle, the
23
Chapter 1
interior components, and then the occupants. The more severe and abrupt the
deceleration, the more severe the possible injures. In a collision, slowing down the
deceleration by even a few tenths of a second can create a drastic reduction in the force
involved.
To achieve these goals, a new design of energy absorbers is proposed and analyzed.
This new energy absorber eliminates the drawbacks of the existing energy absorbers and
provides some valuable instructions to engineering design. Also, several methods of
reducing the initial peak forces have been examined.
1.3 Contributions to knowledge
There are several new contributions in the work reported in this thesis, which improve
the understanding of the crushing behaviour of thin-walled tube and give useful
instructions for engineering designs. A brief summary of these contributions is given as
follow.
(1) A very careful experimental study has been carried out to examine how the localized
plastic folds form and develop during the crushing process. The relationship
between the localized plastic deformation and the corresponding crushing force has
been checked in detail. The knowledge obtained can be very useful for the research
in collapse mechanism of thin-walled structures.
(2) In previous investigations [3,4,5], the important geometrical factor, namely the ratio
of diameter/thickness (D/t), generally ranges between 4 and 150. In this study, the
range of this dimensionless parameter is extended beyond those reported and
reaches to 500. Therefore, a more rigorous assessment for the dynamic progressive
axial buckling of circular thin-walled tubes has been achieved, and it gives useful
24
Chapter 1
instructions for the further experimental studies.
(3) A thoroughly investigation of multi-cell tubes is presented in chapter 6. Several new

cross-section profiles of multi-cell tubes are proposed and analyzed. An important
conclusion has been drawn from the analyses, namely: the high energy absorption
capability of multi-cell tubes is mainly determined by the ratio of the longer side
width of each cell to the tube wall thickness, while the number of the cells in the
multi-cell tube has only minor effect on specific energy absorption. The main
contribution is to improve the stability of the structure. This is different from the
conclusions presented in the literature that the impact energy absorption increases
with the number of cells.
(4) Several new methods are proposed to reduce the initial peak force, which include
drilling some holes on the tube wall, the circumferential dented trigger on the tube
wall and a taper on the end of the tube. These trigger designs are proved to be an
effective way to reduce the initial peak force and can seriously affect the crushing
behaviour.
(5) A new design of impact energy absorber, which is based on the investigation in this
thesis, has been proposed. The design is a multi-cell circular tube which is
composed of different number of circular coaxial tubes and supporting ribs. The
height of each tube is different and there are circumferential dented triggers on each
tube. Comparing with the conventional thin-walled tube, this new design can
provide very stable reaction force and high energy absorption capability.
Furthermore, the initial peak force completely disappears in the reaction force.
1.4 Outline of the thesis
This thesis consists of seven chapters. A brief description of its outline is given as
25
Chapter 1
follows.
Chapter 1 provides some background about structural crashworthiness and indentifies

the contributions and objectives of this research before describing the structure of the
thesis.
Chapter 2 briefly reviews the state-of-the-art of knowledge on structural

crashworthiness and summaries the available literature on the plastic collapse behaviour
of thin-walled tubes subject to axial loadings.
Chapter 3 investigates the crushing behavior of thin-walled circular tubes

experimentally. The influences of geometrical properties on the collapse modes are
examined. The plastic deformation in the local folding area is carefully investigated.
The static and dynamic tests are compared to reveal the effect of different loading
conditions.
Chapter 4 numerically investigated the main factors involved in energy absorption of

the single thin-walled metal tube when subjected to axial impact loads and demonstrates
how the different geometrical parameters, material properties and loading conditions
can affect the impact process and energy absorption capability.
Chapter 5 presents an experimental study to examine the development of the first peak
force and introduces different trigger systems to reduce the first peak force and check
how the triggers can affect the energy absorption characteristic of the thin-walled tube.
Chapter 6 systematically analyses the crash behaviour of multi-cell thin-walled metal

tubes under axial impact. The research demonstrates why higher energy absorption
capability of the multi-cell thin-walled tubes can be achieved. In the last part, a new
26
Chapter 1
multi-cell structural design has been proposed and examined.
Chapter 7 summarizes the work presented in the thesis and then presents the
conclusions which have been drawn from the study. Finally, some topics for future
research are suggested.
27
Chapter 2
CHAPTER 2
Literature review
As an efficient energy absorbing structure, thin-walled metal tubes are widely studied
by researchers over the years. This chapter is intended to provide a comprehensive
review of the investigations to date on the collapse mechanism of thin-walled tubes
under axial loading.
This chapter begins with a brief introduction to thin-walled energy absorbing structures
in Section 2.1, which includes various types of energy absorption structures and the
related research work. The definitions of terms and variables used later in the thesis are
also introduced. Section 2.2 reviews the main research on the crushing behavior of
thin-walled tubes under axial loads and Section 2.3 explains all the main theoretical
models on the circular thin-walled tube and the square tube. Section 2.4 summarizes the
key points in this chapter.
2.1 Introduction to thin-walled energy absorbing structures
In practice, there are different kinds of energy absorbers which can apply in various
situations based on their applications, such as in nuclear engineering [6], vehicle design
[7,8], collision protection for highway safety [9,10]. Basically, an energy absorber is a
device that converts kinetic energy into some other form of energy. The requirements of
energy absorbers are usually to achieve high energy absorption with less mass, while
keeping the reaction force low enough to minimize the injury and damage to people and
cargo. As a good energy absorber, it is also expected to provide a relatively long stroke
and a fairly stable reaction force throughout the entire crushing process.
28
Chapter 2
According to their energy absorbing characteristics, energy absorbers can be divided

into two types. The first type absorbs kinetic energy in a reversible way, like
spring-based vehicle suspensions, which can be used repeatedly for a long term
[11,12,13]. The second type is aimed at absorbing the majority of the kinetic energy of
impact within the device itself in an irreversible manner. This type of energy absorbers
are normally one-shot items, i.e., once crushed, they are discarded and replaced. By
sacrificing itself, this kind of energy absorber ensures that human injuries and
equipment damage are minimized and are widely applied in aerospace and automotive
engineering. A typical example of this kind of energy absorber is the front bumper using
in the car.
Thin-walled metal tubes with various cross section profiles belong to the second type of
energy absorbers, which are extensively employed as energy absorbing structures in
industry due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, low cost, and excellent energy
absorption capability. For example, they are used in automobile bodies, and as aircraft
fuselages and ship hulls. Over the past three decades, enormous efforts have been made
by industry and university researchers to understand the mechanisms of structural
collapse in axial crushing of thin-walled metal tubes. In the work reported in this thesis,
circular thin-walled metal tubes have been chosen as the basic structure to study their
collapse mechanism and energy absorption characteristics of the folding process.
Thin-walled metal tubes can have different geometry profiles, such as circular and
square thin-walled tubes, hat-type cross-section tubes, corrugated tubes, frusta and
tapered tubes. Many researchers have made great effects to examine all these energy
absorbing structures.
The circular and squared thin-walled tubes are most popular studied by researchers.
Johnson et al. [14,15] reviewed and identified the dominant collapse modes of simple
29
Chapter 2
structural elements in their review papers. Andrews et al. [3] pointed out that the
collapse mode is governed by the geometrical properties and investigated the effect of
the tube length to wall thickness (L/t) and the D/t ratios on the mode of collapse. The
experimental observations show that the thicker tube normally collapses in a concertina
mode, whereas the relatively thinner tube tends to buckle in a diamond mode.
Abramowicz et al. [16,17,18] conducted a series of detailed experimental study to
characterize the various collapse modes of circular and square thin-walled steel tube.
They observed that reasonable agreement existed between the experimental results and
the predictions of average crush loads based on their theoretical model.
Gupta et al. [19] performed an axial compression test on thin-walled aluminum and
mild steel circular tubes in both annealed and as received conditions and combined all
their results and developed an empirical model for determining the load history.
Experimental studies have also been carried out by Galib [20] and Guillow [21] at
different test conditions.
The effect of heat treatment on the mode of collapse of axially crushed tubes has also
been studied. Such a phenomenon has been experimentally studied by Reddy and Zhang
[22] who concluded that the removal of strain hardening not only changes the mode of
deformation but, in some cases, causes an overall loss of stability of the crushed tubes.
The other geometry profiles were also studied by different researchers. Kim et al. [23]
investigated various ways of reinforcing the hat-type cross-section to address the design
aspects of a front side rail structure of an automobile body. White [24,25] also
investigated the crushing beahviour of hat-type thin-walled section theoretically and
experimentally. Mamalis et al. [26,27] carried out experimental studies on the collapse
behaviour of thin-walled circular cylinders and frusta under axial compression and give
a basis of comparison between the cylinder and the frusta. EI-Sobky [28] also
30
Chapter 2
conducted similar experimental study. The crushing behavior of corrugated tubes was
examined by Singace et al. [29]. The studies concluded that corrugated tubes would be a
favorable choice, if an energy absorption device is expected to achieve a controlled
behavior. Tapered thin-walled metal inverbuckle energy absorbing tubes were
investigated by Chirwa [30]. In his study, the tapered tube with various external
loadings and boundary conditions was studied. In particular, the influence of tapered
dimension was explored. An approximate theoretical prediction is compared with the
experimental results and shows good agreement.
In order to improve the energy absorbing capability of the thin-walled metal tube, some
other materials can be filled in the structures, such as polyurethane foam, metal foam,
concrete and wood.
The earlier work on foam-filled tubes is focused on steel tubes filled with polyurethane
foam fillers. The first attempt to understand the force-deformation response of foams
goes back to work done by Shaw and Sata [31]. They identified the well-known
three-region stress–strain curve characteristics of foams: a linear elasticity at small
strains, a long distinct plateau region with almost constant stress, and a final
densification region at very large strains (60-90% nominal strain). The long plateau
region makes the aluminum foam an ideal material for energy absorption. Reid [32]
examined the tubes both empty and filled with polyurethane foam of various densities
and point out that filling the tubes with foam is found to improve their crush strength
not only because of its own strength but also through an interaction with the enveloping
tube sheet which transforms the deformation mode from a non-compact to a compact
form. Some theoretical models are proposed to explain and quantify the interaction
between the foam and the sheet metal tubes. Abramowicz et al. [33] extended the
analytical basic folding mechanism approach to account for the polymeric foams.
However, Thornton et al. [34] summarized the effect of polyurethane foam by
31
Chapter 2
concluding that even though a considerable increase of collapse load was achieved,
thickening of the tube wall was still more weight efficient than polyurethane foam
filling.
Metal foam filler is a new and promising cellular material developed in recent years.
Gibson and Ashby [35,36] give a comprehensive review of various properties of metal
foam. The main contribution to the available well-organized database of experimental
results for statically and dynamically axially loaded foam-filled tubes can be attributed
to the comprehensive work done by Hanssen et al. [37,38]. In addition, some useful
design formulas have been introduced for practical application based on the
experimental results. The axial crushing of aluminium foam-filled tubes has been
studied by Seitzberger et al. [39,40] with emphasis on the experiment. Various
cross-sections were considered in their studies, including square, hexagonal, octagonal
and bitubal arrangements of these cross-sections. They reported that considerable mass
efficiency improvements with respect to energy absorption were obtained by the foam
filling, particularly the bitubal arrangements.
Tubes filled with concrete were examined by Tao [41] and Chen [42] and prove that the
concrete filler can greatly enhance the buckling loads and energy absorption capability.
The collapse behavior of tubes filled with wood was investigated by Reddy [43]
experimentally and theoretically. Experiments show that the mode of elastic buckling is
changed by the presence of the wood filler. And their energy absorbing capacity shows a
considerable enhancement. The theoretical model proposed also shows good agreement
with the experimental results in mean loads and the fold length. Sandwich plate is
another widely used structure as energy absorbers. Many research work have been
conducted by various researchers [44,45].
Some research works on tubes under axial crushing are related to various loading
32
Chapter 2
conditions. Some of the most well-known arrangements involve, axial crushing of tubes,
oblique loading of tubes[46], transverse loading [47], lateral crushing of tubes [48] and
tube inversion[49]. Each energy absorber system has its own characteristics. The kinetic
energy can be absorbed by plastic bending, stretching and tearing [50,51]. All of these
contributed towards a better understanding of the modes of failure and the energy
dissipation patterns during impact in such structures.
In this thesis, thin-walled metal tubes are the main structures to be reviewed and studied
as widely used energy absorbers. In the following sections, the available information in
the literature on the plastic collapse behaviour of thin-walled tubes subject to axial
loading is summarized. It is arranged broadly in chronological order.
2.2 Introduction to thin-walled metal tubes under axial loads
2.2.1 Axial collapse modes
In this thesis, the study mainly focuses on the crushing behaviour of the thin-walled
metal tubes under axial loads. A thin-walled metal tube, when subjected to a large axial
impact load, may undergo different deformation modes, i.e. symmetrical mode,
asymmetrical mode, mixed mode and global buckling [3], as shown in Fig 2.1.
 The symmetrical mode is often known as the concertina (ring) mode.

 The asymmetrical mode is referred to as diamond mode.
 The mixed mode: in this mode, the tube starts to deform in the concertina mode
but then revert to the diamond mode as collapse progresses.
 Euler (global) buckling mode is an inefficient mode of energy absorption with

potentially catastrophic consequences and needs to be avoided in crashworthiness
applications.
33
Chapter 2
concertina mode (symmetrical mode) mix mode
diamond mode (asymmetrical mode) Euler-type buckling
Fig 2.1 Different axial collapse modes of thin-walled tubes under axial loads
The axial crushing force related to the concertina and diamond collapse modes exhibits
similar characteristics as that reported by Johnson and Reid [14]. Andrews [3] pointed
out that the concertina mode shows slightly higher specific energy absorption than the
diamond mode. This is most probably due to the greater degree of plastic deformation in
the concertina mode. The diamond mode is characterized by a number of lobes, which
can vary from three to nine for most practical tubes. A typical load-displacement curve
of thin-walled tube axial collapse is shown in Fig 2.2. When a thin-walled circular tube
under axial loads is fully crushed, its crushing process usually consists of three stages.
First, the axial crushing force reaches the initial peak to overcome the initial resistance
of the tube. Second, the force is followed by a sharp drop and then fluctuations about a
mean load during the crushing progresses. These fluctuations are a result of formation
34
Chapter 2
of the successive plastic folding, the amplitude of fluctuations being sometimes as high
as 50 % of the mean load. A stroke of about 70-75 % can be obtained at a steady mean
load. Third, the force increases rapidly with relatively small increase of crushing.
Second stage
First stage Third stage
Fig 2.2 A typical load-displacement curve of thin-walled tube under axial loads
The matter of which modes dominate the collapse process depends primarily on the
section geometry i.e. ratios of the dimensions of the tube, namely length, diameter and
thickness. The collapse modes can affect the energy absorption of the structures. The
following section will introduce the closed-form solutions for the concertina mode and
the diamond mode separately.
2.2.2 Main variables in impact analysis
Many parameters have been introduced in impact analysis to evaluate the

energy-absorbing characteristics and efficiencies of the structures. These parameters
express the characteristics of energy absorbers in terms of their mass, volume, and other
important properties. The main parameters included in this study are listed below:
 average crush force

 initial peak force
35
Chapter 2
 structural effectiveness
 solidity ratio
 specific energy absorption (SEA)
Average crush force, Pm is one of the most significant parameters for quantifying the
behaviour of axially compressed tubes. It is defined as the initial kinetic energy divided
by final reduction in axial length. Pm is usually divided by the plastic moment M to
produce a ratio Pm ⁄M. When calculating the plastic moment, M, researchers have used
various measures for the flow stress.
Initial peak force is an important parameter in the design of an energy absorber, since
the maximum force level is associated with safety. The initial peak force should be kept
below a certain level when designing an energy absorber even if the absorber can absorb
the required energy.
There are two dimensionless parameters included in this study. The first one is structural
effectiveness, which is defined as µ = Pm ⁄Aσu where Pm is the average crush force
and 𝜎𝑢 is the ultimate tensile stress. Structural effectiveness is a ratio between the
average crushing force and the force required to sustain plastic deformation at a
particular strain, which is used to describe how much the structure can contribute the
energy absorption [52]. Many researchers assess the crushing force by using the
normalized force Pm/M. Comparing these two parameters, structural effectiveness µ
not only include the ratio between the crushing force and the material strength, but also
include the cross-section area of the structure, which reflects the strength of the
structure. Therefore, structural effectiveness µ is an important variable to represent the
energy absorbing capability of the structure.
The second dimensionless parameter is called the relative density, or solidity ratio,
36
Chapter 2
which is defined as δ = A⁄A1 , where A = 2πRh is the cross sectional area of the
thin-walled tube and A1 = πR2 is the cross sectional area which is enclosed by the
cross section.
Specific energy absorption, SEA (defined as Energy absorbed divided by the weight of
the structure) is a parameter used in connection with energy absorption capability. The
area under the load-deflection curve for a structure is a measure of the energy absorbed
by a structure for a particular direction of application of the force [53].
Energy Absorbed
SEA =
Weight of Structure
2.3 Theoretical models
In all these thin-walled energy absorbing structures, circular and square thin-walled
metal tubes are most widely used geometry profile. The theoretical analysis on this kind
of tube has been carried out by researchers for over five decades. Several important
theoretical models are proposed by researchers. Alexander (1960) [2] and Pugsley
[54,55] were the first investigators to analyze the collapse behaviour of the thin-walled
tube. Alexander presents a theoretical model of the crushing process of thin-walled
metal tubes deforming in a concertina mode, while Pugsley develops a theoretical
model for the tubes with the diamond mode. Their theoretical work was based on the
final deformed shape of the crushed tubes without considering the effect of the loading
paths. Since then, a number of authors have contributed to the problem of thin-walled
structures and many improvements and extensions have been made to their models.
Andronicou et al. [56] modified the model by Alexander and considered the interaction
between axial bending and circumferential stress resultants for the formation of the first
hinge. In his study, the plastic bending moment and the distance between plastic hinges
37
Chapter 2
become dependent on the axial force.
A more realistic radially outward folding mechanism was formulated by Abramowicz et

al. [16,17]. They proposed an improved model by introducing curvature in the
deforming fold length. They also introduced the important concept of effective crushing
distance and included the effective crushing distance and material strain rate effects into
the crushing model.
Grzebieta [57] proposed a collapse mechanism model for axi-symmetric mode, which
was a modification of Alexander’s. In his model, a fold consisted of three equal length,
the two curved regions are separated by a straight region where each region is one-third
of the fold leg length.
Wierzbicki et al. [58] modified Alexander’s solution and replaced stationary plastic
hinges with moving hinges. This led to a realistic deformed shape and improved
prediction of the mean crushing force. They pointed out that the crushing process
features a stiffening phase of the tube resistance which follows the softening phase
during the formation of each buckle. In their later work [59], they pointed out some
inaccurate assumptions made by Alexander and introduced some new concepts related
to the crushing process, which are the super folding element, the transition zone model
and the eccentricity factor (m). Using these concepts, the model captures several
important features in the crushing process.
In the analysis produced by Wierzbicki, the eccentricity factor m relating the inward and
outward parts of the folds was an arbitrary value. Singace et al. [60] re-examined the
problem and verified the value of the eccentricity factor m. In another paper [61], they
investigate the effect of the tube material and its D/t ratio on the value of m and showed
that m is slightly sensitive to the strain hardening characteristics of the compressed tube
38
Chapter 2
material. Singace [62] also extended his research on the eccentricity factor m to the
diamond mode and concluded that the value of m is independent of the tube geometric
ratios and material properties.
Furthermore, some excellent reviews of the research work on the collapse behaviour of
the thin-walled tube have been given by Jones [63], Johnson [14], Alghamdi[64], Olabi
[65]and Reid [66]. In addition, several important books related to structural impact are
published, such as Crashworthiness of Vehicles by Johnson et al. [67], Structural
Crashworthiness by Jones et al. [68], Structural Impact and Crashworthiness edited by
Davies et al. [69], Structural Failure by Wierzbicki et al. [70], Structural
Crashworthiness and Failure by Jones et al. [71], Structural Impact by Jones [52],
Energy absorption of structures and materials by Lu et al. [53], Introduction to Impact
Engineering by Macaulay [72], Engineering Plasticity by Johnson [73], Metal Forming
and Impact Mechanics edited by Reid [74], Impact on Composite Structures by Abrate
[75], Impact Strength of Materials by Johnson [76]. These papers and books help to
bring together the understanding of the collapse mechanism of the energy absorbing
structures.
2.3.1 Theoretical prediction for the single circular tube
In all these theoretical models, four models proposed by Alexander, Abramowicz,

Wierzbicki and Singace will be discussed below in detail, which can help to understand
the main works done by the researchers. These four models represent the main
development of the model of the thin-walled tube. In this process, several new concepts
are presented. More details of these models are explained below.
39
Chapter 2
2.3.1.1 Alexander model
It was Alexander [2] in 1960 who firstly developed a theoretical analysis for the axial
crushing of a thin-walled cylindrical tube subjected to a static axial load. In his model,
Alexander assumed the tube collapses in the form of a concertina mode with
straight-side convolutions, which are facilitated by a kinematic mechanism with three
circumferential plastic hinges, as illustrated in Fig 2.3.
The external work done to achieve this concertina mode is determined, which can be
divided into two parts, namely the bending at three stationary plastic hinges (extensional
deformation) and the circumferential stretching of the metal between the hinges
(inextensional deformation). It transpires that the extensional deformations, though
highly localized, dissipate at least one-third of the total energy.
Fig. 2.3 Theoretical model for symmetric crushing mode by Alexander [2]
As shown in Fig 2.3, during an increment dθ of the angle θ, the increment of work
done for bending at the three joints is
40
Chapter 2
dWb = 2M ∙ π2R ∙ dθ + 2M ∙ π(2R + 2Hsinθ) ∙ dθ (2.1)
The von Mises yield condition is used to generate the fully plastic bending moment.
The collapse moment M will be �2⁄√3�(σ0 t 2 /4), where σ0 is the flow stress. Then,
θ increasing from 0 to π⁄2, the total work done is
π
π 2
Wb = 2M ∙ π2R ∙ + 2M ∙ � π(2R + 2Hsinθ) ∙ dθ
2 0
= 2√3σ0 t 2 ∙ π(πR + H) (2.2)
The increment of work done in stretching the metal between the hinges will be
dWs = 2πσ0 H2 tdθcosθ
The integrated stretching work done is
Ws = 2πσ0 H2 t (2.3)
From the energy balance view, the external work has to be dissipated by the bending
work and the stretching work. The corresponding mean crushing forces are determined
by equating the external work to the mean collapse force multiplied by the distance
through which one complete folding form. Consequently
Pm ∙ 2H = Wb + Ws (2.4)
where Pm is the mean crushing force over a complete collapse of the fold. Thus the
following theoretical equation is obtained for normalized average crush force:
Pm 2R
= 20.73� + 6.283 (2.5)
M t
41
Chapter 2
The plastic half-wavelength, H is determined by minimizing this expression as follows:
H t
= 1.905� (2.6)
R 2R
Although simple, this model seems to include the underlying physical processes
involved. It provided the basis for many further developments.
2.3.1.2 The Abramowicz model
In Alexander’s model, some simplifications are introduced, for example, the deforming
tube wall between the plastic hinges is assumed to be the straight line. But this
assumption does not agree with the experimental observations. Experiments show that
the final shape of the fold is the curved surface. Alexander’s model also assumes that
the material is rigid, perfectly plastic. These assumptions simplify the theoretical
analysis, but result in some inaccuracy. In an attempt to produce a more realistic fold, an
improved model was presented by Abramowicz and Jones [16,17]. They conducted
axial compression tests on a range of thin-walled circular and square steel tubes and
introduced two new concepts into the crushing model, which are the effective crushing
distance and material strain rate effects.
The effective crushing distance is the first important concept introduced. Abramowicz
examined the effective crushing distance of crushing process, using two arcs joined
together to represent the deformed tube wall, as shown in Fig 2.4, where a fold
consisted of two equal segments of length H, curved in opposite directions and the
material had finite thickness. It was recognized that the deforming tube wall bends in
the meridian direction instead of the straight line between the plastic hinges. This leads
to an effective crush length which is smaller than 2H. Consequently, a slightly higher
42
Chapter 2
average force is obtained. As seen in Fig 2.4, an effective crushing distance is
δe = 2H − 2Xm − t (2.7)
where from Abramovicz [77] Xm =0.28(H/2). Thus,
δe = 1.72H − t (2.8)
Fig 2.4 Effective crushing distance [77]
An alternative estimate of the mean crushing load Pm , which takes more realistic
account of the mode of deformation, is given as:
2R 0.5
Pm 20.97( ) +11.90
= h
(2.9)
Mo 0.86−0.568(h/2R)0.5
The second concept introduced to the model is material strain rate effects. Under
dynamic loading conditions, there are two factors which are not included in the static
collapse. They are the inertia effect and the strain rate effect. Jones [52] points out that
the inertia forces in the wall of a tube can affect the mode of deformation under rapid
43
Chapter 2
acceleration, but it doesn’t play an important role during the dynamic progressive
buckling of tubes struck by masses having M>>m and with low velocities. When the
influence of inertia effects of the tube becomes important in a practical problem, with
larger axial impact velocities, then the phenomenon is known as dynamic plastic
buckling, which is related to more complex mechanism. Therefore, in the study, if the
velocity is limited to 10 m/s, the influence of inertia forces can be ignored.
However, in the dynamic progressive buckling analysis, although inertia effects may be
ignored, the influence of material strain rate sensitivity must be retained for many
materials, especially for the strain-rate dependent materials. In mild steel, for example,
its value may be larger than the quasi-static value by a factor of about 2 at strain-rates
which commonly occur in practice in the collision of vehicles. Hence, Abramovicz
modifies the plastic flow stress in his model, in order to cater for the enhancement of the
flow stress with strain rate, which is given as:
2R 1⁄3.91
Pm 20.97( h )0.5 +11.90 0.25𝑉
=� � �1 + � 0.5 � � (2.10)
Mo 0.86−0.568(h/2R)0.5 6844𝑅�0.86−0.568ℎ⁄2𝑅 �
In the model, the first section includes the effective crushing distance and the second
section represents the material strain-rate effect by using Cowper-Symonds constitutive
equation.
2.3.1.3 Wierzbicki model
In Alexander and Abramowicz’s models, the region between the plastic hinges was
assumed to move either completely outwards or completely inwards. But the
experiments have shown that the wall of an axisymmetric deformed tube will be laid
down partly to the inside and partly to the outside of the tube. The concept of the ratio
of the outward part of the folding length to the total folding length was introduced by
44
Chapter 2
Wierzbicki et al. [59]. It is known as the eccentricity factor and denoted by m.
Wierzbicki et al. introduced the new model for the symmetric collapse mechanism
which allows for both inwards and outwards radial displacement. In addition, by
considering energy rate equations, Wierzbicki et al. develop equations for not only
determining average crush load but also a representative load–deflection history.
Wierzbicki also pointed out that Alexander’s model was based on some assumption that
one fold goes through the entire crushing process before the next one begins to deform.
But he reckoned that these assumptions were inaccurate based on actual observations. In
order to better explain the crushing process, Wierzbicki introduced three new concepts:
1. The super folding element (SE)
2. The transition zone model
3. The eccentricity factor (m)
Using these concepts, the model captures with great realism several effects. These
include description of a softening, followed by a stiffening phase, alternating lower and
higher peaks and a reduced crush distance.
Super Folding Element
The Super Folding Element is a representative element of the crushed zone from which
the entire deformed tube can be assembled by translation, rotation and mirror reflection.
Fig 2.5 shows a basic super folding element, which is isolated from the tube by two
horizontal cuts and developed as a basic folding wavelength. Then the active zone of
plastic deformation can be represented by two super folding elements.
45
Chapter 2
Fig 2.5 Undeformed, partially deformed and fully crushed individual superfolding element [59]
Transition zone model
Transition zone is a region between the crushed part of the tube and the undeformed part,
which is composed of two super folding elements. Wierzbicki use this zone to precisely
represent the crushing process.
Fig 2.6 illustrates the basic requirements of the transition zone of plastic deformation. It
is assumed that the crushed part of the tube is composed of alternating, densely packed
circles. The undeformed part of the tube is straight. The point A of the already crushed
tube must be connected with point B of the undeformed zone. Point A is assumed to
move vertically with a constant velocity to simulate the crushing process. Point B is
stationary until a new contact between the lobes occurs.
Fig 2.7 demonstrates the crushing process of the two-element model. Note that after
element 1 is completely crushed so that touching occurs, the transition zone shifts
downward by one SE and the process is repeated with participating elements 2 and 3.
The two element transition zone is relatively simple and represents the geometry of
actual columns quite closely.
46
Chapter 2
Fig 2.6 Basic requirements of a transition zone [59]
Fig 2.7 Deformation stages of transition zone model [59]
Eccentricity factor (m)
The concept eccentricity factor is firstly introduced by Wierzbicki based on the

experimental observations and theoretical analysis. He pointed out that an
axisymmetrically deformed tube will fold partly to the inside and partly to the outside of
the original radius of the tube. This geometric eccentricity feature can be described by a
factor, m, which is defined as the outward portion over the whole folding length. The
introduction of the eccentricity factor, m, in the analysis leads to the successful
47
Chapter 2
qualitative reproduction of many of the features characterizing the physical behaviour of

tubes folding in a concertina mode.
Wierzbicki’s model captures several features of the crushing processing which were
unaccounted for in all previous computational models of progressive folding. Then the
formula for the normalized mean crushing force can be recast into the form:
Pm 8π π2 R
= H+ (2.11)
M t H
The formula for the wavelength is
H π t t
=� � = 0.886� (2.12)
R 4 2R 2R
Wierzbicki’s new model captures several important factors which show very good
agreement with experimental results.
2.3.1.4 Singace model
In Wierzbicki’s model, the value of the eccentricity factor m is arbitrary and

indeterminate, which withheld further clarification of the critical inclination angles of
the folding elements corresponding to inward and outward folds. Singace [60] take a
further step, based on Wierzbicki’s model, to verify that the value of the eccentricity
factor m. The analysis also introduce the critical angles α0 , and β0 , which
characterizes the critical position for the next fold and corresponds to the formation of
the outward and the inward parts of the folds, as shown in Fig 2.8.
48
Chapter 2
Fig 2.8 The definition of the eccentricity factor m [60]
In the first phase of collapse, the eccentricity factor, m, is related to the critical angle α0 ,
as follows :
cosα0 = m
During the second phase of folding the eccentricity is defined as n = 1 - m and the radii
of the plastic hinges are not equal to those in the first phase. Similarly to the first phase,
the eccentricity factor, n, is related to the critical angle β0 as follows:
cosβ0 = 1 − m = n
Singace et al. [61] attempted to verify the theoretical values of m and the relevant values
of the critical angles α0 and β0 by experiments. The theoretical value of m is equal to
0.65.
2.3.1.5 Theoretical model for the diamond mode
Theoretical models for the diamond mode are more complex and less successful than
those for the ring (concertina) mode. Pugsley and Macaulay [54,55] were among the
first researchers to consider the asymmetric folding mode, their study being largely
49
Chapter 2
empirical. They proposed the normalized mean crushing force:
Pm 2R
= 0.326 � � + 217.7 (2.13)
M t
where the coefficients are selected to agree with some experimental test results on
stainless steel and soft aluminum cylindrical shells.
Johnson et al. [78] attempted to develop a theory for the asymmetric mode based on the
actual geometry of folding, with the tube material at the mid-surface being considered
inextensional. Wierzbicki [79] further modified the model and gave the approximate
expression
Pm 2R 1/3
= 62.88 � � (2.14)
M t
and obtained good agreement with experimental results.
Abramowicz et al. [17] pointed out that the diamond mode has different multiple lobes
for different D/t ratio and they give the equation as
Pm 2R 1/2
= A1 � � + A2 (2.15)
M t
Coefficients A1 and constants A2 can are associated with the number of lobes N
respectively. For example, it may be shown that the coefficients (A1) in Equation (19)
are 21.07, 20.61, 20.40 and 20.30 with associated constants (A2) 32.66, 60.70, 96.72
and 140.74 when N=3, 4, 5 and 6, respectively. The difficulty with theoretical equations
developed for asymmetric mode collapse is they require a knowledge of the number of
lobes, N, for a given D/t ratio. It must also be noted, however, that a successful model
needs to take into consideration the large deflection theory and the strain hardening
effect.
50
Chapter 2
2.3.2 Theoretical prediction for the single square tube
Compared with the circular tubes, the crushing behavior of square tubes is more
complex. For a square tube, there are five different collapse modes which might occur
during axial compression. They are the symmetric mode, the asymmetric mixed
collapse mode A, the asymmetric mixed collapse mode B, the extensional collapse
mode and the global buckling mode. Abramowicz et al. [17] have identified two basic
collapse elements (Type I and Type II) which have been used to study the dynamic
progressive buckling of square tubes, as shown in Fig. 2.9.
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.9 Basic collapse elements of collapse square tube [80]
(a) Type I (b) Type II
The symmetric collapse mode consists of four type I elements. The asymmetric mixed
deformation mode A consists of two layers with a total initial height 4H and six type I
and two type II basic folding elements. The asymmetric mixed deformation mode B
consists of two layers with a total initial height 4H and seven type I and one type II
basic folding elements. The extensional collapse mode consists of one layer with four
type II elements. The extensional collapse mode governs the progressive behavior of
thick square columns. The mean collapse force for extensional behaviour is
considerably larger than that associated with the other three collapse modes.
51
Chapter 2
For a square column with the symmetric mode of deformation, the normalised mean
crushing load is
Pm c 1/3
= 52.22 � � (2.16)
M h
for asymmetric mixed collapse modes A and B, respectively, the normalised mean
crushing load are
Pm c 1/3 c 2/3
= 43.61 � � + 3.79 � � + 2.6 (mode A) (2.17)
M h h
Pm c 1/3 c 2/3
= 46.16 � � + 2.14 � � + 1.3 (mode B) (2.18)
M h h
For a square column with an extensional collapse mode, the normalised mean crushing
load is
Pm c 1/2
= 36.83 � � + 10.39 (2.19)
M h
2.3.3 Generalized folding mechanisms
A basic folding mechanism was developed by Wierzbicki and Abramowicz [79,80,81]

for predicting crushing behavior of thin-walled tubes with an arbitrary central angle,
which combines the features of the two super-folding elements. The mechanism
considered a model with the "elements in a series" in which the quasi-inextensional
mode persists during the first phase of deformation up to the intermediate configuration
whereupon the extensional mode takes control of the crushing process.
The super folding element consists of four trapezoidal elements which are connected by
two horizontal cylindrical surfaces and two inclined conical surfaces. The central region
52
Chapter 2
bounded by four moving circular arcs must form a section of a toroidal surface, as
shown in Fig 2.10. This deformation mode will be called a basic folding mechanism.
The initial geometry of the super folding element is defined by the height 2H, total
width C, which is the length of the segments AB and BC, and the angle 2φ0 between
two adjacent plates. The current geometry is described either by the crushing distance 𝛿
or the angle of rotation of the side panels 𝛼 or the horizontal displacements of the point
B.
The plastic folding of the element involves four different deformation mechanisms.
These are (referring to Fig 2.10 c, below):
 Bending along stationary and moving hinge lines.

 Rolling deformations.
 Deformation of a ‘floating’ toroidal surface.
 Opening of conical surfaces.
Wierzbicki pointed out that two-thirds of the plastic energy is always dissipated through
inextensional deformations at stationary and moving plastic hinge lines. The extensional
deformations, confined to the small fraction of the total area of the shell, are responsible
for the remaining one-third of the dissipated energy.
(a) (b)
53
Chapter 2
(c)
Fig 2.10 The super folding element mechanism [80]
a: consistent collapse mechanism, b: geometry of the basic folding mechanism,
c: four different deformation mechanisms
Using the super folding element method, they calculated the mean crushing force Pm as
Pm = 9.56σ0 b1/3 t 5/3 (2.20)
where σ0 denotes the flow stress of the material, b the sectional width and t the wall
thickness. Abramowicz later changed the constant 9.56 to 13.06. The half wavelength H
for the folding deformation can be calculated by
H = 1.276b 2/3 t1/3 (2.21)
A list of closed-form solutions of the progressive crushing of thin-walled tubes by

various researchers are summarized, below in Table 2.1.
54
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 List of theoretical models
Alexander (1960)
Pm 2R
= 20.73� + 6.283
M t
H t
= 1.905�
R 2R
Johnson (1972)
Pm
= 2√3π(R⁄t)(H⁄R) + 2π(R⁄t)(H⁄R)2 /√3 + 2π2 (R⁄H) + 2π
M
H 1/2
= ��πt⁄√3R�(1 + 2(H⁄R)/3)−1 �
R
Abramowicz and Jones δe = 2H − 2Xm − t

(1984)
Pm 2R
= 20.79� + 11.9
M t
H t
= 1.76�
R 2R
Wierzbicki and Abramowicz Pm 8π π2 R

= H+
M t H
(1992)
H π t t
= � 4 �2R = 0.886�2R
R
Singace (1995) Pm R
= 31.49� t + 5.632
M
Pugsley (1979) Pm 2R
= 0.326 � t � + 217.7 (diamond mode)
M
Wierzbicki (1983) Pm 2R 1/3

= 62.88 � t � (diamond mode)
M
Abramowicz and Jones Pm 2R 1/2

= A1 � t � + A2 (diamond mode)
(1986) M
The theoretical analysis outlined here was developed for the thin-walled tubes subjected
to a static axial load. In the case of the dynamic progressive buckling of thin-walled
tubes, although inertia effects may be neglected, the influence of material strain rate
sensitivity must be considered for many materials [82]. Thus, if a tube is made from a
55
Chapter 2
strain-rate sensitive material, then it is necessary to modify the plastic flow stress in the
equation in order to cater for the enhancement of the flow stress with strain rate.
2.3.4 Theoretical prediction for multi-cell thin-walled tubes
While single thin-walled tubes have still been addressed by various authors, new
structures, such as multi-cell tubes, composite thin-walled tubes and foam filled tubes,
are becoming the focus of many researchers in recent years. A number of authors have
contributed to these topics.
High weight efficient energy absorption is one of the major objectives in impact
structure design. As a relatively new class of sectional configuration, multi-cell
thin-walled tubes exhibit exceptionally high capacity of energy absorption, which have
recently drawn increasing attention in the research community and automotive industry.
But due to the complexity of the problem, only a limited literature exists on such
structures.
In the Super Folding Element method [80], Wierzbicki and Abramowicz pointed out the
number of angle elements on the cross section of a tube decides, to a large extent, the
efficiency of energy absorption. It is therefore desirable to design thin-walled multi-cell
tubes for weight efficient energy absorption.
Chen and Nardini [83] carried out experimental studies on the axial crushing behavior
of single-hat and double-hat absorbers with an internal flange sections, and found that
the latter improves the Specific Energy Absorption (SEA, energy absorption per unit
structural mass) by about 20% compared to the former.
56
Chapter 2
Fig 2.11 Extensional elements and bending hinge lines [83]
Chen and Wierzbicki [84] adopted a simplified approach to derive the analytical
solution for mean crushing force of multi-cell sections. Rather than building a model
consisting of trapezoidal, toroidal, conical and cylindrical surfaces with moving hinge
lines, they proposed a basic folding element consisting of 3 extensional triangular
elements and 3 stationary hinge lines, as shown on Fig 2.11. The crushing force can also
be divided into three parts: the average crushing force of empty column, the internal
web and the interaction effect between them.
The membrane energy Wm dissipated during one wavelength crushing can be evaluated
by integrating the extensional and compression area (shaded area in Fig. 2.11)
Wm = 2M ∙ H2 /t (2.22)
The bending energy Wb was calculated by summing up the energy dissipation at

stationary hinge lines. For each flange, three horizontal stationary hinge lines are
developed. Then
Wb = 2π ∙ M ∙ L (2.23)
where L denotes the total length of all flanges. Assuming that the effective crush
distance is about 70-75% of the wavelength, the mean crushing force Pm can then be
57
Chapter 2
obtained
Pm 4 H L
= � +π � (2.24)
M 3 t H
The wavelength H can be determined by the stationary condition of the mean crushing
force ∂Pm ⁄∂H = 0, which leads to
πLt
H=� (2.25)
N
where N is the number of contributed flanges.
Chen and Wierzbicki [84] pointed out that the double-cell section is more efficient than
single section, but the triple-cell section proved to be no better than the double-cell
section. Zhang and Cheng [85] then developed a theoretical solution to the square
multi-cell columns by dividing the section into three basic components.
The membrane energy Wm was derived by integrating the extensional and

compressional areas of three basic components: the corner part, the crisscross part and
the T-shaped part, as shown in Fig 2.12.
Fig 2.12 The division of the multi-cell section [85]
58
Chapter 2
1. The corner part

After deformation, three membrane elements (one in extension and two in compression)
were developed for each flange. The membrane energy dissipated by the corner part
during one wavelength crushing was:
Wc = 4M ∙ H2 /t (2.26)
2. The crisscross part

The deformation mode of the crisscross part is much more complicated than the
cornerpart. The membrane energy dissipated by the crisscross part during one
wavelength crushing was:
Wc = 16M ∙ H2 /t (2.27)
3. The T-shape part

The shape of the membrane element of T-shaped part is the same as crisscross part. For
all three flanges, two flanges were in compression and another one was unaffected. The
membrane energy dissipated by the T-shaped part during one wavelength crushing was:
Wc = 8M ∙ H2 /t (2.28)
The whole energy dissipated by membrane deformation is
Wc = (4NC + 16NO + 8NT )M ∙ H2 /t (2.29)
where NC, NO and NT denote the number of corner, crisscross and T-shape patterns in
the cross section, respectively; As shown in Fig 2.12, NC, NO and NT are 4, 9 and 12,
respectively, for a 4_4 multi-cell section.
Applying the stationary condition ∂Pm ⁄∂H = 0, the mean crushing force was given as
59
Chapter 2
2 2(NC +4NO +2NT )πL

Pm = M� (2.30)
η t
where H is the half-length of a single fold, Pm denotes the average crushing force,ηis
the effective crush distance factor.
Kim [86] also derived the analytical solution for the mean crushing force of a multi-cell
profiles with four square elements at the corner. He pointed out that the severe
deformation of combined bending and membrane deformation takes place near the
corners of the column. Then the idea of adding a further folding element to the corner
part of a cross section was proposed. As shown in Fig 2.13, the square corner and the
circular corner elements were added to the conventional tube.
Square corner Circular corner
Fig 2.13 Variation of cross section of multi-cell tubes [86]
Compared with the conventional square and circular profiles, the SEA of the new
multi-cell structures are reported as increasing by 190% and 165% for the square corner
tube and circular tube, respectively.
These solutions show increased energy absorption efficiency when thin-walled single
tube was divided into multi-cell tube, which means that multi-cell tubes are more
attractive than single tubes. However, due to the complexity of theoretical analysis, how
60
Chapter 2
to design the cross-section profiles for better energy absorption efficiency is still a
matter which needs to be analyzed.
2.4 Summary
In this chapter, the investigations to date on the collapse mechanism of thin-walled tube
under axial impact are reviewed. It is intended to give a clear, comprehensive scenario
of the collapse behaviour of thin-walled tubes under axial impact, which provides a
good basis for the further analysis in the later chapters.
The review firstly introduces various designs of energy absorbing structures and the
related research work and then introduces the collapse behavior of the thin-walled tube
in axial loading and the various theoretical models of single thin-walled circular tubes.
Wherever possible, the various contributors to the research in this field are cited and the
particular methodologies and the conclusions drawn from their work are described and
evaluated.
Through this review, several key points about the collapse mechanism of the thin-walled
structures are illustrated, which are presented as follows.
1. The progressive buckling collapse of the thin-walled tube is an efficient energy

absorption mechanism, while the Eular buckling is the deformation mode that
should be avoided in the engineering design.
2. The mean crushing force is an important parameter to evaluate the energy

absorption capability of the thin-walled structures. To achieve high energy
absorption, the mean crushing force of the energy absorbers should has a high value.
3. The energy absorbed in the crushing process is mainly decided by the plastic
61
Chapter 2
deformation of the metal shell, which includes bending at plastic hinges and
circumferential stretching of the metal between the hinges. The energy absorbers
which can produce more local buckling normally have higher energy absorption
capability.
62
Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Experimental study of the collapse behavior of the thin-walled
metal tube under axial loads
To understand how the thin-walled metal tubes behave under axial crushing load, an
experimental study of the collapse behaviour of circular thin-walled metal tubes was
carried out in this chapter. The main objective of this experiment was to capture the
main features of the crushing behaviour and study the energy absorption characteristics
of circular thin-walled metal tubes under axial static and dynamic loads and compare
the experimental results with existing theoretical predictions.
3.1 Introduction
As introduced in the last chapter, thin-walled metal tubes under axial loads will collapse
in different modes due to various parameters such as geometrical shapes, material
properties, boundary and loading conditions. By controlling these parameters, energy
absorption capability of the structure can be improved. To achieve the target, we need to
understand the main feature of the collapse process of the structure and how the
crushing energy is absorbed. From the viewpoints of structural crashworthiness, a
favourable energy absorption structure should be collapsed in a predicted and controlled
manner and provide a fairly stable reaction force throughout the entire crushing process.
Therefore, it is vital to conduct an experimental study to investigate all these
characteristics of thin-walled metal tubes.
In this chapter, a series of axial crushing tests on aluminium alloy circular thin-walled
tubes have been conducted and compared with various theoretical predictions and
empirical relations. The main objectives of this experiment are:
63
Chapter 3
• Understanding how the localized plastic fold forms and develops during the
axial collapse
• Comparing the experimental results with existing theoretical predictions to

validate these models.
• Comparing the static and dynamic behaviour of circular thin-walled tubes.
3.2 Experimental detail
This experiment study is composed of two parts, the static test and the dynamic test.
The quasi-static test was carried out in order to understand how the localized plastic fold
forms and develops during the axial collapse and study the relationship between the
localized plastic deformation and the corresponding crushing force. Also, the difference
between the dynamic and static behaviour has been investigated. In this section, a
detailed description is given of the experimental facility and test procedure, with the
intention of providing an understanding of the measurements involved and the
background needed.
3.2.1 Test procedure
The tube specimens were cut from commercially available aluminium alloy tubes with
circular cross sections. The end surfaces need to be perpendicular to the longitudinal
axes of the specimens. The dimensions of all the test specimens are presented in Table
3.1. There are over 14 different tubes examined, with non-dimensional ratios D/t from 8
to 70, L/D from 1.5 to 8. The sizes of the tested tubes were as received from the
manufacturer.
The static tests were carried out by using an Instron (Model 4507) hydraulic testing
machine, with 200 kN capacity, as seen in Fig 3.1. A flat steel-plate was fitted to the
moving cross-head of the test machine. This plate was parallel to the base plate of the
64
Chapter 3
test machine. Prior to the start of each experiment, the specimen was placed between the
parallel plates of the test machine, in a position perpendicular to the base plate, and was
held in place with a small axial compressive load of about 20 to 30 N.
Axial loading was applied by a cross-head moving at a preselected speed 6 mm/min,

which produced an average strain rate of the order of 10-3/s in the plastic deformation
zones. The data acquisition rate is set as 5 pts/sec. This slow loading is of a quasi-static
nature and variations of deformation rate within this range had no influence on any
aspects of the tube crushing.
Fig 3.1 Instron (Model 4507) 200 kN hydraulic testing machine
The dynamic tests were performed on specimens on a drop-hammer rig, as seen in Fig
3.2. The specimens were struck by rigid masses weighed at 150 kg and at impact
velocities up to 9.4 m/s. A flat cylindrical head was made from mild steel. The
specimens simply rested on the base of the drop-hammer rig, with the longitudinal axis
perpendicular to the base surface.
65
Chapter 3
The impact force was measured directly by a Load cell, which was fixed to the base
plate. A laser sensor was fixed on the test rig to measure the axial shortening of the
impacted tube. The impact test data acquisition and measurement system used in this
study is a 32 channel Nicolet DAQ system. To meet all crash test requirements, the
DAQ system records impact at a sampling frequency of 200 kHz. The ADC resolution
is set as 10 bits. The total duration of the recording (sweep time) is set as 5
microseconds * 10000 = 50 milliseconds. In order to filter the high frequency noise
from the test rig vibration, the cut-off frequency is set at 100 kHz.
The initial impact energies are achieved by selecting different impact mass and height.
In the test rig, the heights are chosen 1 and 4.5 meters, which mean the velocities of the
impact mass are 4.43 and 9.4 m/s, respectively.
Fig 3.2 Drop-hammer rig
3.2.2 Material properties
The aluminium alloys used in the tests were made up of alloy A6082 temper T6. All the
specimens have been annealed before the test to get higher deformation levels. The
66
Chapter 3
procedure of anneal is that the specimens were heated to temperature 270o C and held
there for 40 minutes to relieve stresses in the metal, then the specimens were cooled
down slowly in the furnace.
The engineering tensile stress–strain curves of the material were found by standard
tensile testing. The tensile testing was conducted using an Instron 200 kN hydraulic
testing machine. Three material samples were tested. Because the large-diameter tube in
the test cannot be tested in full section, longitudinal tension test specimens were cut
from the sidewalls of the test tubes parallel to the direction of extrusion. The samples
were machined to the proper dimensions required for the test, according to ASTM
standards E8 [87], as shown in Fig 3.3. Through the test, the yield strength, ultimate
strength and elongation can be determined.
(a)
(b)
Fig 3.3 Geometry and dimensions of material test specimens
(a) The specimen for material test (b) the dimensions of the specimen
67
Chapter 3
During the test, the reduced gage section ensured that the highest stresses occurred
within the gage and not near the grips of the Instron load frame, preventing strain and
fracture of the specimen near or in the grips. Fig 3.4(a) shows the self-adjusting grips
having a surface contour corresponding to the curvature of the tube, which ensure the
reduced section not to subject any deformation or cold work. Extensometers were used
and verified to include the strains corresponding to the yield strength and elongation at
fracture, as shown in Fig 3.4(b).
Fig 3.5 shows the measured engineering stress–strain curve, where the yield stress
(0.2% proof stress) of 266 MN/m-2 and an ultimate stress of 282 MN/m-2 were obtained
from the test conducted at a strain rate of 10-4 s-1.
(a)
(b)
Fig 3.4 Gripping devices and strain measurement

(a) Self-adjusting grips (b) Extensometers
68
Chapter 3
Fig 3.5 The stress-strain curve for annealed aluminium alloy A6082
In this study, the effect of strain rate on the mechanical properties of the aluminium
alloy is almost negligible. In contrast to various other ductile metals, such as the steel,
aluminium alloys exhibit much less 'strain-rate sensitivity. Jone [52] gave a clear
explanation of the strain rate of different metal materials in his book. McGregor [88]
conducted a detailed study on the aluminium alloy structure performance and pointed
out that the strain-rate sensitivity of the aluminium alloy was very small in comparison
with the steel.
3.2.3 Static test
The static test was conducted for the purpose of observing the whole crushing process
and understanding how the localized plastic fold forms and develops during the axial
collapse and study the relationship between the localized plastic deformation and the
corresponding crushing force and also study any relationship between the dynamic and
static behaviour.
3.2.3.1 Experimental results
A summary of the experimental data and experimental results from the static tests on the
circular tubes is presented in Table 3.1 & 3.2.
69
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 The experimental data from the static tests
Specimen L t D D/t L/D M A A1

No. (mm) (mm) (mm) (kg) (mm2) (mm2)
A1 101.6 1.6 50.8 31.75 2 0.07 255.3 2026.8
A2 101.6 3.25 50.8 15.63 2 0.14 518.7 2026.8
A4 152.4 1.6 76.2 47.63 2 0.16 383 4560.4
A5 152.4 3.25 76.2 23.45 2 0.32 778 4560.4
A7 203.2 1.6 101.6 63.5 2 0.28 510.7 8107.3
A8 203.2 3.25 101.6 31.26 2 0.57 1037.4 8107.3
A11 203.2 1.6 50.8 31.75 4 0.14 255.3 2026.8
A12 203.2 3.25 50.8 15.63 4 0.28 518.7 2026.8
A14 304.8 1.6 76.2 47.63 4 0.21 255.3 2026.8
A15 304.8 3.25 76.2 23.45 4 0.64 778 4560.4
A18 304.8 1.6 50.8 31.75 6 0.32 383 4560.4
A20 406.4 1.6 50.8 31.75 8 0.28 255.3 2026.8
AA1 150 2.0 50.8 25.4 2.95 0.1 255.3 2026.8
G5 100 3 50.8 16.9 1.97 0.13 478.8 2026.8
Table 3.2 The experimental results from the static tests
Specimen Structural Solid ratio δf Fmean Fmax Fratio

No. effectiveness µ δ (mm) (KN) (KN)
A1 0.342 0.126 66.5 24.6 46.2 1.87
A2 0.345 0.256 66.5 50.4 71.6 1.42
A4 0.221 0.084 116.0 23.9 57.5 2.40
A5 0.359 0.171 99.6 78.7 135.9 1.73
A7 0.158 0.063 148.9 22.8 57.7 2.54
A8 0.260 0.128 149.0 76.2 158.2 2.08
A11 0.342 0.126 146.5 24.6 47.1 1.91
A12 0.355 0.256 89.6 51.9 72.9 1.41
A14 0.236 0.084 232.4 25.5 58.8 2.31
A15 0.367 0.171 228.2 80.5 139.8 1.74
A18 0.337 0.126 224.0 24.3 45.4 1.87
A20 0.0639 0.126 329.0 4.6 44.8 9.63
AA1 0.457 0.126 106 41.1 64.8 1.58
G5 0.393 0.118 75.5 51.7 69.6 1.53
Fig 3.6 The load-displacement curve and the deformed profile of the specimen A1
70
Chapter 3
71
Chapter 3
72
Chapter 3
73
Chapter 3
Fig 3.18 The load-displacement curve and the deformed profile of the specimen G5
74
Chapter 3
Fig 3.19 The load-displacement curve and the deformed profile of the specimen AA1
Fig 3.6 - 3.19 show the load-displacement curves of all the tested specimens, together
with the final deformed profiles. As can be seen, certain tubes exhibit the concertina
mode, while some other tubes develop the concertina mode firstly, and then transfer to
the diamond mode. For the tube A20, a global buckling occurs at the early stage and the
average crushing force is only 4.6 kN, which is over five time lower than the other tubes
with the same cross section. It proves that the global buckling is an inefficient mode of
energy absorption with potentially catastrophic consequences and needs to be avoided
in crashworthiness applications.
Fig 3.6 illustrates the load–displacement curve of the tested tubes A1 (D/t = 31.75 and
L/D = 2), which is deformed in the concertina mode. When the specimen was fully
compressed, five folds were formed. The first fold was formed at the top end of the tube.
Each pair of peak in the load-displacement curve was associated with the development
of one full fold cycle. The load-displacement curve oscillates about a mean load. A
stroke of about 75 % can be obtained at a steady mean load. The first peak force of A1
was measured to be 46.2 kN, which is 87% larger than the value of the average crushing
force and about 21% higher than the other peak forces. For most specimens, the first
peak force is larger than the other peak forces. This is due to the fact that for the
formation of the first peak, the structure is free of all deformations, while the formation
of the next one will be influenced by the deformations already formed during the last
fold; so the other peaks will be, due to this fact, lower than the first one, because the
second lobe is already initiated.
75
Chapter 3
Fig 3.20 shows the relation between the D/t ratio and the Fratio for all the specimens. It
can be seen that the force ratios increase with the D/t ratio. It means that as the tube wall
is thinner, the initial peak force will be much higher than the average crushing force.
For the specimen A1, A11 and A18, which have the same cross-section and different
length, the average crushing forces are almost same. For all the other tubes with the
same cross-section area, like A2, A12 and G5, A4 and A14, A5 and A15, the average
crushing forces are also very close. It indicates that if the collapse mode is same, the
length of the tube has not effect on the crushing force.
Fig 3.20 Force ratio versus D/t ratio
Comparing the specimen A1, A4 and A7, they have the same thickness and different
diameters. From A1 to A7, their diameters are 50.8 mm, 76.2 mm and 101.6 mm
respectively, and their wall cross-section areas are increasing from 255.3 mm2 to 510.7
mm2. But their average crushing forces are almost same. It means that from A1 to A7,
their energy absorbing efficiency drop. The structural effectiveness of these three
specimens are 0.342, 0.221 and 0.158, respectively. It indicates that the dimensionless
parameter structural effectiveness can effectively capture the energy absorbing
characteristics.
Fig 3.21 presents the comparison of the experimental results and some theoretical
predictions. The equation 3.1 is proposed in by Mamalis and Johnson [26] and the
76
Chapter 3
equation 3.2 is proposed in reference [89] by Thornton. The equation 1 has a better
agreement with the experimental result than the equation 2. There is quite considerable
scatter in the experimental results which is probably due to different factors, such as the
initial imperfection of the tested tube, different material properties and the different test
arrangement.
𝜇 = 7𝛿/(4 + 𝛿) + 0.07 (3.1)
𝜇 = 2𝛿 0.7 (3.2)
Fig 3.22 presents the relation between the D/t ratio and the structural effectiveness.
Although there are some scatters, it can be seen that as the D/t ratio increases, the
structural effectiveness will reduce, which means that the energy absorption capability
decreases.
(2)
(1)
Fig 3.21 Comparison of theoretical prediction and the experimental results
Fig 3.22 The relation between the structural effectiveness and the D/t ratio
77
Chapter 3
Fig 3.23 The relation between the solidity ratio and the D/t ratio
Fig 3.23 shows the relation between the D/t ratio and the solidity ratio. When the D/t
ratio increases, the solidity ratio will drop. It is easy to understand that as the tube wall
is thinner, the value of the solidity ratio will be smaller.
3.2.3.2 A typical crushing process
This section will investigate the correspondence between the changing geometry of the
collapsing tube and the resulting crushing force in some detail, mainly based on the
experimental observations, which will help to understand the collapse mechanism of the
thin-walled tube.
Understanding the process of formation of the crushing folds is crucial. In order to

understand how the localized plastic fold forms and develops during the axial collapse
and study the relationship between the localized plastic deformation and the
corresponding crushing force, the crushing process of the specimen H1 to H6 have been
presented to describe the typical crushing behaviour. These specimens (H1 to H6) with
the same geometries have been crushed and stopped at the different crushing stages in a
sequence. Then the deformed tubes were cut into two halves and the surfaces of the cut
were polished and photographed. From these sectioned tube, the localized plastic folds
can be studied in some detail. All the geometric characteristics of the folds are carefully
measured.
78
Chapter 3
Fig 3.24 - 3.29 show the load-displacement curves of all the specimens H1 to H6,
together with the final deformed profiles. The specimen H1 to H6 has the same
geometry (D/t = 25.4 and L/D = 1.97). All the tubes are 150 mm in length and 3 mm in
thickness. The outside diameter of all the tubes is 76.2 mm. When the specimen was
fully compressed, four folds were formed. The first fold was formed at the top end of
the tube. Each pair of peak in the load-displacement curve was associated with the
development of one full fold cycle.
Fig 3.24 The load-displacement curve and the final deformed profile for H1
79
Chapter 3
80
Chapter 3
Fig 3.30 shows a sequence of photographs of the crushing stage which correspond to the
points on the load-displacement curve marked with the numbers. The crushing process
can be divided into two distinct stages: the initial stage and the post-buckling stage.
Based on these photographs and curves, the detailed folding process will be examined
below.
(a)
(b)
81
Chapter 3
(1) (15)
(9) (12)
(5)
(11) (14)
(7)
(3)
(4) (8) (13)

(10)
(6)
(2)
(c)
Fig 3.30 The photos of the crushing process and the corresponding load-displacement curve
(a) The cross-section view (b) The front view (c) Load-displacement curve
Initial stage of folding process
In the initial stages of crushing, it is observed that the first fold will always form at one
of the two ends of the tube with a radially outward buckle. The tube wall tends to move
radially outwards. Initially, the tube behaves as if its edges are fixed because of the
square end faces and the friction between the surfaces in contact. The response is elastic.
As loads rise, radially inward forces are generated by the expansion of the radially
outward moving parts of the tube. When these forces are large enough to overcome the
friction force between the tube end surface and the plate, the edge region undergoes
radially inward movements and the tube begin to develop the first local fold, which
corresponds to the first maximum load at point (1). In this pre-failure phase the load is
increasing up to the point of maximum strength; but little change in the deformed shape
of the tube occurs and the strains remain small.
From this point on a dramatic change in collapse mode occurs. The end of the tube
slides inwards from its initial position until it is nearly flat, lying partly to the outside
and partly to the inside of the tube. The final deformed shape of the tube edge is shown
in Fig 3.31 It can be seen that the end surface of the tube will develop severe plastic
82
Chapter 3
deformation in one side of the edge, changing the profile from square surface to round
surface, which help to absorb some kinetic energy.
Severe plastic deformation
Fig 3.31 The local plastic deformation of the wall end edge
From point (1), the load will continues to drop until the upper wall of this buckle comes
into contact with the rigid supporting plate at point (2), collapse is temporarily halted
causing the small stress peak corresponding to point (3), as shown in Fig 3.30. Then, the
collapse continues with the formation of an inward fold. Collapse is halted when the
inner walls come into contact at point (4). The first fold is completely formed at this
point.
Postbuckling stage of folding process
When the first fold complete, the next fold start to develop. The load rises to a new local
maximum which occurs at point (5) when a new outward fold starts to form and the load
will drop again. The first half of the new folding is completed by point (6) when the
outer knee formed comes into contact with the first fold. Then the load increases once
more to point (7) when the inward fold starts to form and the load drop again. At point
(8), the inward fold is fully formed and a folding cycle is completed.
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Chapter 3
The formation of the first fold is different from the post-buckling stage. The form of the
first fold experiences elastic compression. The buckling needs to overcome the elastic
resistance. The later plastic buckling can develop from the shape of the inward fold,
which make the buckling start easily. That explains why the initial peak is larger than
the other peak forces. Also, it can be observed that the value of m is a little bigger for
the first fold.
The third and fourth folding period is similar to the second one. The two stress peaks
and valleys are at about the same levels and their extent is also approximately the same.
By the fifth cycle the lower stress peak has almost disappeared. This tendency for
distortion after 3–5 cycles was observed in most of the experiments. Only the specimen
A7 and A8 keep the two peaks throughout the crushing process, which have the largest
diameter in all the specimens.
Comparing the cross section of all the specimens and their corresponding load-
displacement curves, it was found that the lower stress peak is related to the formation
of the inward fold. If the inward fold form more difficultly, this lower stress peak may
be not drop and keep rising. For most of tubes, after a 3-5 cycles, the folds stack up,
which cause the inward fold force is close to the elastic buckling force. Then the
reaction force will not drop and keep rising. And the inward fold and outward fold will
form simultaneously. For the tube with high D/t ratio and large diameter, this effect is
small and the lower stress peak will disappear after more folds are formed, as seen in
the specimen A7 and A8.
In Chapter 2, Wierzbicki’s model [59] predicts the lower and higher peak by using the
transfer zone model and corresponds very closely to our experimental observation. But
in his model, the lower peak values are related to the eccentricity parameter m, which is
not right, according to our experimental observation. It has been observed that the value
of m is about 0.62 for most of the tubes, but the ratios of higher peak and lower peak are
very different for these tubes. According to our experimental observation, the lower and
higher peak in the model should be related to geometry variables, like the D/t ratio and
the tube diameter.
84
Chapter 3
m1(Ro-Ri)
tinner
touter
m(Ro-Ri)
Fig 3.32 The geometrical definition of eccentricity factor m
The value of m has also been investigated. The definition of m is shown in Fig 3.32. In
Singace’s paper [60,61,62], the theoretical value of m is equal to 0.65, which is slightly
higher than the measured values in this test. All the measured values are listed in Table
3.3. The average measured value is about 0.62. Furthermore, the value m1 in the first
fold is larger than the value of other folds, which may be due to the different between
the initial folding process and the post-buckling folding process.
Table 3.3 Measured geometrical results for all the specimens
Specimen t D m m1 𝑡𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

No. (mm) (mm) (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚)
A1 1.6 50.8 0.60 0.71 2.4 2.0
A2 3.25 50.8 0.61 0.72 4.8 4.0
A4 1.6 76.2 0.59 0.70 2.3 1.9
A5 3.25 76.2 0.62 0.72 4.7 3.8
A7 1.6 101.6 0.63 0.72 2.2 1.9
A8 3.25 101.6 0.62 0.71 4.6 3.7
A11 1.6 50.8 0.62 0.72 2.4 2.0
A12 3.25 50.8 0.60 0.69 4.7 3.7
A14 1.6 76.2 0.61 0.72 2.3 1.8
A15 3.25 76.2 0.62 0.72 4.7 3.8
A18 1.6 50.8 0.62 0.71 2.4 1.9
A20 1.6 50.8 0.62 0.70 2.4 2.0
AA1 2 50.8 0.62 0.72 2.3 1.9
G5 3 50.8 0.61 0.71 4.7 3.9
H7 3 76.2 0.62 0.72 4.6 3.7
Another interesting feature is that the inner thickness of each fold is larger than the
corresponding values of the outer one. After each experiment, the deformed inner and
85
Chapter 3
outer thickness of the folds was measured. The thickness at the inner fold is about 35%
larger than that of the outer fold.
3.2.4 Dynamic test
A series of impact tests have been carried out on the test rig introduced above. In this
test, the velocities of the impact mass are 4.43 and 9.4 m/s, respectively. All the
specimens tested have the same geometry as the one using in the static test, in order to
compare the collapse behaviour of the thin-walled tube under static and dynamic
loading condition.
3.2.4.1 Experimental results
A summary of the experimental results from the dynamic tests on the circular tubes is
presented in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 The experimental results from the dynamic tests
Specimen Structural Solid ratio δf Fmean Fmax Fratio

No. effectiveness µ δ (mm) (kN) (kN) (kN)
A1 1.08 0.126 63.1 24.9 47.4 1.91
A2 1.05 0.256 26.9 48.7 77.3 1.59
A4 0.76 0.084 127.4 26.1 68.2 2.61
A7 0.55 0.063 173.1 25.1 69.6 2.78
A8 0.77 0.128 52.3 72.1 167.6 2.32
A11 1.15 0.126 61.2 26.3 49.9 1.89
A12 1.13 0.256 87.9 52.5 74.8 1.42
A15 1.12 0.171 79.6 78.1 146.3 1.87
A20 1.12 0.126 176.4 25.6 49.4 1.91
Fig 3.33 Comparison between the static and dynamic test for A1 and the deformed profile
86
Chapter 3
87
Chapter 3
88
Chapter 3
Table 3.5 Comparison between static and dynamic tests
Specimen Fmean Fmean Increase of Fmax Fmax Increase of

No. (static test) (dynamic test) Fmean (static test) (dynamic test) Fmax
(kN) (kN) (%) (kN) (kN) (%)
A1 24.6 24.9 1.2 46.2 47.4 2.6
A2 49.4 49.7 0.6 71.6 77.3 8.0
A4 23.9 26.1 9.2 57.5 68.2 18.6
A7 22.8 25.1 10.0 57.7 69.6 20.6
A8 76.2 77.1 1.2 156.2 167.6 7.4
A11 24.6 25.3 2.8 47.1 49.9 5.9
A12 51.9 52.5 1.2 72.9 74.8 2.6
A15 80.5 78.1 -3.0 139.8 146.3 4.6
A20 4.6 25.6 457 44.8 49.4 10.3
89
Chapter 3
Fig 3.33 - 3.41 show the load-displacement curves of all the dynamically tested
specimens, together with their final deformed profiles. The load-displacement curve of
the corresponding static test is also plotted in the same figure. There are high frequency
contents on the load-displacement curves, which were assumed to be associated with the
vibration of the test rig.
The collapse modes of deformation are generally the same as in the static tests. The only
difference occurs at specimens A7 and A20. In the static test, A7 is crushed in a
concertina mode throughout the process. While in the dynamic test, it firstly develops
three concertina folds, then transfer to the diamond mode. For the specimen A20, in the
static test, it develops a global buckling from the early stage. Therefore, it doesn’t
provide much resist force. But in the dynamic test, it firstly develops some folds with
the concertina mode and the diamond mode at both end of the tube. Then it begins to
develop a global buckling.
A comparison is made between the static crushing loads and the dynamic experimental
results, as shown in Table 3.5. It is observed that there is no significant increase in the
force-displacement curves at these two different loading conditions. For the specimens
A1, A2 and A11, which were crushed at the velocity of 4.43 m/s, the increase of the
crushing force is only about 1-2%. For all the other specimens, which were crushed at
the velocity of 9.4 m/s, the increase of the velocity is about 1-10 %. The experimental
results exhibit some scatter which is possibly caused by the initial geometric
imperfection and experimental conditions. The comparison proves that the aluminium
alloy is a strain-rate insensitivity material. Therefore, in the numerical analysis, the
material strain rate effect can be ignored in the definition of the material properties.
3.3 Summary
In this chapter, an experimental study was carried out to study the crush behaviour of
the thin-walled metal tube statically and dynamically. The entire crushing process,
including the initial stage of collapse, its localization and the subsequent progressive
folding, were investigated. The experimental results include the careful measurements
90
Chapter 3
of the geometric characteristics of the folds and the crushing response. Analytical
models were used to compare their predictions to the experimental results. The
following conclusions can be drawn from the study:
1. A typical steady-state folding period involves two load peaks and valleys
associated with buckling and self-contact of the walls inside and out. Under the
testing conditions used, it was found that after a few cycles the steady-state
folding reverted to a single load peak and valley. This phenomenon is due to the
way the folds stacked up, which results in the inward fold more difficult to form.
Then the lower peak force will not drop and the inward fold and outward fold
will form simultaneously.
2. The relation between the localized plastic deformation and the corresponding
crushing force is built by comparing the cross section of series of specimens and
their load-displacement curves, which give a deep insight of the collapse
mechanism of circular thin-walled tube under axial loads.
3. The relation between the energy absorption capability and the geometrical
properties was discussed. Some interesting conclusions are drawn, for example,
the structural effectiveness of the thin-walled tube will fall with the rising D/t
ratios.
4. The static and dynamic crushing behaviour have been compared. The load-
displacement curves are very close. It demonstrates that the aluminium alloy is
strain-rate insensitivity material. Therefore, in the numerical analysis, the
material strain rate effect can be ignored in the definition of the material
properties.
91
Chapter 4
Chapter 4
Numerical simulation of the collapse behaviour of single-cell
thin-walled metal tubes under axial loads
The single thin-walled metal tube has been widely adopted as the energy absorber by
industry because of its efficient energy absorption characteristics and its low cost.
Furthermore, many complex engineering systems consist largely of this simple
structural component. Therefore, a full understanding of its collapse behaviour is
important for revealing the dynamic behaviour of a much more complex system. In this
chapter, numerical investigations of the single thin-walled circular metal tube under
axial impact were carried out by using the nonlinear explicit finite element codes
ABAQUS/Explicit.
4.1 Introduction
The achievement of the desired energy absorption capability is a major concern in the
design of real energy absorbing devices. Even for a structure which is not designed for
energy absorption, its energy crashworthiness also needs to be considered, in case some
accidents occur. A good energy absorption device should include low initial peak force,
high average crushing force and high specific energy absorption (SEA). To achieve
these, the main factors that can affect energy absorption must be analyzed. The energy
absorption that accompanies structural collapse is mainly affected by three factors:
1. Material properties
2. Structural geometry
3. Loading condition
92
Chapter 4
Material properties under dynamic loading condition are an important factor which
affects structural energy absorption capability. The strength of the material is directly
related to the resistance capability of the structure. Also, the heat treatment of the
material affects the crushing behaviour seriously. Moreover, as the strain rates increase,
many materials show an increase in their yield strength which is known as material
strain rate sensitivity [90]. Therefore, a good understanding of the mechanical properties
of materials under dynamic loading conditions is vital to predict the response of
structures under such dynamic loading condition.
The selection of geometrical parameters, such as the ratio of diameter to thickness (D/t)
and length to diameter (L/D) and the cross section profile, is another important aspect in
determining the energy absorption efficiency of the structural design. They not only
decide the different collapse modes, but also affect the average crush force and
maximum crush force.
The mode of deformation of the structure under dynamic loading depends strongly on
the impact velocity. This may be significantly different from quasi-static collapse. In
addition, the velocity sensitivity will also vary for different types and sizes of structure.
Therefore, it is necessary to access the velocity effects in structural collapse.
A lot of researches related to single thin-walled tube have been carried out in recent
years by various authors [91,92]. However, the complexity of the problem causes the
knowledge in this subject still scattered and further researches is needed. The aim of the
work reported in this chapter was to investigate the collapse behaviour of the single
thin-walled metal tube under axial impact and demonstrate how material properties,
section geometry and loading parameters can affect the collapse process and improve
energy absorption capability. Firstly, the strain rate sensitivity behaviour of materials is
discussed. Then, a series of numerical simulations are reported which were conducted to
investigate the effects of geometrical parameters and then develop a collapse mode
classification chart which predicted the mode of collapse for the range of given D/t and
L/D combinations. Thirdly, effects of the mass and impact velocity of the impactor are
discussed.
93
Chapter 4
4.2 Material properties under dynamic loading conditions
4.2.1 Background
The early research on the crushing behaviour of the thin-walled tube was static analysis
[93]. Because the energies involved in the tube collapse are much greater than the
maximum amount of elastic energy which could be absorbed by the tube, the plastic
properties of materials become important in impact analysis. Thus, the rigid-plastic
approximation [94] is an appropriate idealization for the material characteristics and this
assumption has simplified the theoretical analyses greatly.
In fact, impact is really a dynamic process. When materials are subjected to dynamic
loading conditions following high velocity impact, a wide range of strains and strain
rates will be experienced. The dynamic plastic collapse of energy-absorbing structures
is more difficult to understand than the corresponding quasi-static collapse, on account
of two effects which can be described as the "strain-rate factor" and the "inertia factor"
respectively [95,96].
Jones [52] systematically discussed the material properties under dynamic loading
conditions and summarized the following rules:
1. The material properties will change under the dynamic load
2. Different materials have different sensitivity
The strain rates are an essential consideration in solving practical engineering problems.
Jones [8] gives the definition of average axial strain rate in a bar as:
ε̇ = ε⁄t = (δ⁄L)⁄t = V⁄t (4.1)
where δ is the final deflection, L is the length of the bar, which is generated in a bar
when neglecting any stress wave effects. This effect becomes important in many
materials when the strain rates range between 10 and 100 per second, which are
characteristic values for high-energy dynamic events. Fig 4.1 shows the stress-strain
94
Chapter 4
curves for different strain-rates of mild steel [97]. This indicates that the plastic flow
stress corresponding to a strain rate of 55 s-1 is approximately double the static flow
stress. Therefore, it is important to include the strain rate dependence when the steel is
defined in the model.
Fig 4.1 Stress-strain data at various strain rates of mild steel [97]
There are different constitutive equations to describe the strain-rate-sensitive behaviour

of materials. The empirical Cowper-Symonds uniaxial constitutive equation and
Johnson Cook constitutive equation [98,99,100] are commonly used to assess material
strain rate effects in structures analysis and are included in ABAQUS material
modelling.
4.2.2 Cowper-Symonds model
Cowper-Symonds constitutive equation is widely used to describe strain rate sensitivity

effects in structures and is defined as
q
σd
o
ε̇ = D � − 1� (4.2)
σo
95
Chapter 4
where σo is the static flow stress, σdo is the dynamic flow stress at a uniaxial plastic
strain rate; ε̇ is the current strain rate and D and q are constants for a particular material.
A description of the material properties is given in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Physical properties for different materials
Material Density Elastic modulus Poisson’s ratio 0.2% proof UTS D q

3
(kg/m ) (GPa) stress (MPa) (MPa)
Mild steel 7800 209 0.3 220 370 40.4 5
Aluminium 2700 70 0.33 266 282 6500 4

(AA6082-T6)
Aluminium 2700 70 0.33 180 212 6500 4
(AA6060-T5)
High values of D imply low strain rate sensitivity. Fig 4.2 shows the relationship
between non-dimensional flow stress and strain rate for aluminium alloy and mild steel
defined by Cowper-Symonds equation. It is interesting to note that the dynamic flow
stress of mild steel is doubled at a strain rate of 40 s-1, while the dynamic flow stress of
aluminium alloy only increases by 20%. Doubling the flow stress of aluminium alloy
needs a strain rate of 6500 s-1. It is evident that the plastic behaviour of mild steel is
highly sensitive to strain rate. But the aluminium alloys are insensitive to strain rate.
Fig 4.2 Strain-rate sensitivity by Cowper-Symonds equation for aluminium alloy and mild steel
96
Chapter 4
4.3 Crash energy absorption characteristics of single thin-walled tubes
It has been stated that the thin-walled metal tube is widely used as the energy absorber.
For example, the thin-walled tubes with closed hat and rectangular cross-sections are
utilized as automobile body structures. Therefore, a full understanding of the collapse
behaviour of the thin-walled metal tube is important for building safer structures and
also in evaluating existing ones.
4.3.1 Typical collapse characteristics of single thin-walled tubes
As mentioned earlier, the thin-walled circular metal tube, when subjected to an axial
force, may develop different modes of collapse, i.e. axisymmetrical mode, non-
symmetrical mode, mixed mode or global buckling. Which deformation modes occur in
the crushing process depends primarily on the section geometry.
The typical force–displacement curves of thin-walled tubes under axial crushing are
shown in Fig 4.3(a). The axial force reaches an initial peak force, followed by a sharp
drop and then exhibits a repeated pattern. The initial peak force is governed by initial
elastic-plastic buckling and each pair of repeated peaks is associated with the
development of one full wrinkle or buckle. Usually, the buckles develop sequentially
from one end of the tube so that the phenomenon is known as progressive crushing.
If a thin-walled tube is subjected to a sufficiently severe dynamic axial load, then

structural inertia effects produce the phenomenon of dynamic plastic buckling. In this
circumstance, the deformed shape of the structure will wrinkle over the entire length
when buckled dynamically, unlike the dynamic progressive buckling case with buckling
confined to one end.
The value of the first peak is larger than the value of the other peaks. This is due to the
fact that for the formation of the first peak, the structure is free of all deformations, the
deformations already formed during this fold influence the formation of the next one by
producing a local bending at the plastic hinges level; so due to this the other peaks will
97
Chapter 4
be, lower than the first one. The global buckling takes place when the length of the tube
increases to a specific value. This is a collapse mode which should be avoided in the
engineering design, because the crushing force can drop suddenly when the global
buckling takes place, which is quite dangerous in practice, as shown in Fig 4.3(b).
(a)
(b)
Fig 4.3 Axial crushing behaviour of the thin-walled circular tube
Johnson and Reid [14] identified the dominant modes of deformation in their paper and
pointed out that it depends on geometrical parameters such as the ratios of
diameter/thickness (D/t) and length/diameter (L/D) and also on material properties.
98
Chapter 4
Andrews [3] then conducted a comprehensive series of tests on annealed aluminium

alloy tubes to investigate the relation between deformation modes and structural
geometry and developed a classified chart for collapse modes. Although many
researchers surveyed the effect of the structural geometry, a wider range of geometry
and materials need to be considered systematically.
4.3.2 Modelling details and some considerations
4.3.2.1 Modelling details
In the work reported in this chapter, a series of numerical simulations of axial impact on
tubes were conducted by using the explicit dynamics FE code ABAQUS/Explicit [101].
The full section of tube wall was modelled using shell elements S4R with five
integration points through the thickness. The striker is applied as a solid body with an
initial velocity. Clamped boundary conditions were applied at the bottom of the column.
The contact between the tube and striker was defined using general contact. In
ABAQUS/Explicit this allows very simple definitions of contact with very few
restrictions on the types of surfaces involved. During progressive formation of plastic
folds, using a self-contact interface prevented interpenetration between two folds.
The range of impact velocities covered are similar to those in many practical structural
crashworthiness problems for which transverse inertia does not influence the buckling
mode. For example, the velocity of 10 m/s is equal to a car driving at a speed of 23
miles per hour. Then the velocity between 10 and 30 m/s is the practical driving speeds
required in most of the driving regulations.
Aluminium alloy AA 6082 T6 was adapted as the material of the metal tube wall. The
constitutive behaviour of aluminium alloy was based on the Cowper-Symonds elastic-
plastic material model, which is appropriate for modelling moderate-rate impacts
involving metals [102]. The elastic properties and the Cowper-Symonds material
parameters for the elastic-plastic behaviour are the same as in Table 4.1, which is the
data generated from the material test in Chapter 3.
99
Chapter 4
When defining plasticity data in ABAQUS, true stress and true strain must be used.
ABAQUS requires these values to interpret the data correctly. The first piece of data
given defines the initial yield stress of the material and, therefore, the plastic strain
value should be zero. ABAQUS approximates the smooth stress-strain behaviour of the
material with a series of straight lines joining the given data points. Any number of
points can be used to approximate the actual material behaviour; therefore, it is possible
to use a very close approximation of the actual material behaviour.
According to the shape of the stress-strain curve, a yield point is not easily defined for
aluminium alloys, then an offset yield point is set at 0.2% strain. And because the post-
yield hardening is almost linear for aluminium alloys, two data points (yield stress and
ultimate tensile stress) are used to define the plasticity behaviour, which is thought that
can properly approximate the actual material behaviour, as seen in Fig 4.4. In order to
verify this plastic definition, two models are compared, as shown in Fig 4.5. These two
models have same geometries and loading conditions and the only difference is the
plastic definition. One model uses two data points (offset yield stress and UTS), the
other model uses 10 test data points. It can be seen that the load-deflection curves are
almost same. Therefore, it proves that the plastic definition of two data points is a
proper definition in our simulation.
Fig 4.4 Stress-strain curves with different plastic definitions
100
Chapter 4
Fig 4.5 Force-deflection curves of models with different plastic definitions
Furthermore, ABAQUS interpolates linearly between the data points and assumes that
the response is constant outside the range defined by the input data, when the stress in
the material reaches the last data point, the material will deform continuously until the
stress is reduced below this value [101].
4.3.2.2 Modelling considerations for impact simulation
FEA is a useful and powerful method for structural analysis and design, provided that an
accurate and reliable finite element model is obtained, especially for dynamic analysis.
The structural impact process is a high speed dynamic event which has some special
characteristics. Firstly, the load is applied rapidly and is very severe and the response of
the structure changes rapidly. Accurate tracking of stress waves through the plate is
important for capturing the dynamic response. Secondly, the structures have large
deformation and involve complex contact interaction. Thirdly, the stiffness of the
structure changes drastically as the loads are applied and the plastic properties must be
defined for the materials.
All of these characteristics are complex nonlinear problems and the predicted dynamic
response can be very sensitive to the modelling. Therefore, modelling the impact event
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Chapter 4
is a big challenge and must be conducted carefully and the results need to be validated.
The following section summaries some important considerations in modelling the
impact process.
(1) Material definition
When defining plasticity data in ABAQUS, true stress and true strain should be used.
Quite often material test data are supplied using values of nominal stress and strain. In
such situations, the expressions presented below should be used to convert the plastic
material data from nominal stress/strain values to true stress/strain values. The
relationship between the true strain and the nominal strain:
εtrue = ln(1 + εnorm ) (4.4)
σtrue = σnorm (1 + εnorm ) (4.5)
There is a paucity of adequate experimental data on the strain rate sensitive properties of
materials with large strains which develops during the crushing of thin-walled tubes and
other structural members. This is an area which requires further study since most data
generated in the past is for small strains.
(2) Mesh refinement
It is important to use a sufficiently refined mesh to ensure that the results from the
simulation are adequate, especially in the dynamic impact analysis. It is good practice
to perform a mesh convergence study, simulating the same problem with a finer mesh
and comparing the results.
A mesh refinement study has been carried out by analyzing the thin-walled crash using
five different mesh densities. The deformed contours used for different mesh sizes are
indicated on Fig 4.6 and the force histories are shown in Fig 4.7. The mesh sizes are
0.0075, 0.005, 0.004, 0.003, 0.0025 mm respectively.
It can be seen that the deformation modes and force histories are different by choosing
the different mesh size. The tube with course mesh deforms in diamond mode, but the
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Chapter 4
tube with refined mesh deforms in ring mode. That means the simulation for thin-walled
tube crash is sensitive to the mesh design. Therefore, it is important to choose the right
mesh size for models to achieve the accuracy results.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e)
Fig 4.6 Deformed shapes of the tube with different mesh designs
Fig 4.7 Load-time history of the tube with different mesh sizes
(3) Contact definition
Contact simulations in Abaqus/Explicit can utilize either the general contact algorithm
or the contact pair algorithm. When surfaces are in contact, they usually transmit shear
as well as normal forces across their interface. Thus, the analysis may need to consider
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frictional forces, which resist the relative sliding of the surfaces. Often the friction
coefficient at the initiation of slipping from a sticking condition is different from the
friction coefficient during established sliding. The former is typically referred to as the
static friction coefficient, and the latter is referred to as the kinetic friction coefficient.
In Abaqus an exponential decay law is available to model the transition between static
and kinetic friction.
(a) µ = 0 (b) µ = 0.15
Fig 4.8 Deformation shapes of the tube model with different friction coefficients
Fig 4.9 Load-time history of the tube model with different friction coefficients
(a) µ = 0 (b) µ = 0.15
Fig 4.10 Deformation shapes of tubes with different friction coefficients (a) µ=0, (b) µ=0.15
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Chapter 4
Fig 4.11 Force history for different friction coefficients (a) 𝛍 =0, (b) 𝛍 =0.15
Figs 4.8 and 4.9 show deformed shapes and force history for the same model with
different friction coefficient µ = 0 and µ = 0.15. It can be seen that although the initial
peak forces are the same, the force history is different for different friction coefficients.
Figs 4.10 and 4.11 show another model with different friction coefficient µ = 0 and µ =
0.15. The first model deforms in mix mode and the second model deforms in diamond
mode.
The force history in Fig 4.9 and Fig 4.11 show that the friction coefficients have more
effect on the diamond mode than the ring mode. It can be explained that there are more
self-contact occurred for the diamond mode. It means that friction coefficients have
effect on the simulation results and the effect is different for tubes with different
geometries. Therefore, when a model is built, the friction coefficient chosen must be
close to that in the real application.
4.3.3 Comparison of experiment and simulation results
In order to guarantee that the simulation can accurately predict the response, the
simulated results are directly compared with the dynamic test results. Fig 4.12 – 4.17
105
Chapter 4
show the load-displacement curves of the dynamical test specimens and the
corresponding simulation result, together with their final deformed profiles.
Fig 4.12 Comparison between the simulation and dynamic test for A1
106
Chapter 4
It can be seen from the curves that the onset of collapse agrees very well with the
107
Chapter 4
experiment results. The difference for the two results is the wavelength of the later folds
and the collapse mode for some specimens, as can be seen in specimen A4 and A12. But
for all the specimens, the initial peak force and the average crushing force can be
correctly predicted. Since the simulation results correlate well with the dynamic test
results, it can be useful for evaluating energy absorption in the following study.
4.3.4 Effect of cross sections of tubes
Various cross sections of tubes can influence the energy absorption capability to some
extent, because the collapse modes are different for different cross section of tube. The
cross sections investigated in this work are triangular, square and circular as shown
below.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 4.18 Deformed shapes of tubes with different cross section profiles
Fig 4.19 Load-time histories of tubes with different cross section profiles
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Chapter 4
Figs 4.18 and 4.19 show the deformation shapes of the three different cross section
profiles (triangular, square and circular) and their force histories. The mass and the
height of the tubes are the same. It can be seen that the deformation modes and the
crushing forces are different. The circular-section tube has the largest mean crushing
force and the triangular-section tube has the smallest one. This demonstrates that the
cross section profile has effects on the crushing process and the energy absorption
capability of the tube. In the subsequent investigations carried out, the circular-section
tube and multi-cell tubes based on the circular-section tube are analysed systematically.
4.3.5 Effect of geometry of circular section tubes
One of the most important factors that control the tube performance is the section
geometry. The geometrical parameters of thin-walled circular tubes include thickness,
diameter and length which will affect the energy absorption capability of the structure.
In order to study the effect of geometrical parameters, a series of simulations were
performed as listed in Table 4.2.
(1) Effect of the tube wall thickness
Firstly, the effect of thickness will be discussed here. Conventionally, thickness increase
is considered a method to improve impact resistance. But the thickness increase isn’t
unlimited, because thickness also relate to the maximum peak force, which must be
below some level. To verify the effect of thickness, a series of models were built and
run. In these simulations, the weight of the tubes was kept constant at 0.55 kg, the initial
impact velocity was at 10 m/s, and the initial impact energy was equal to for all these
models. The variables were the wall thickness and the diameter of the tube.
It is very clear from the simulation results in Figs 4.20 that energy absorption capability
of the tube increase for the thicker tubes, because the weight of all the tubes in this
simulation are same and the mean crushing force is higher for the tube with the thicker
wall. And energy absorption capability will improve as the mean crushing force
increases. So this is an advantage for energy absorption. But the initial peak force also
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Chapter 4
increases with the thickness. Since the maximum force level is associated with safety,
the peak force should be kept below a certain level for an absorber even if it can absorb
the required energy. Therefore, the thickness of the tube should be controlled in a
reasonable range to guarantee a limited peak force and enough energy absorption
capability.
Fig 4.20 Load-displacement curves of tubes with different tube wall thicknesses
(2) Effect of Diameter-to-Thickness ratio
In impact analysis, many variables contribute to the response of complex structures

subjected to dynamic loads which produce large deformations and inelastic material
behaviour. Thickness is not the only factor that can affect the energy absorption.
Diameter and length of the tube also affect the deformation mode. It transpires that
dimensionless groups of variables are a better choice to represent the structural response.
Therefore, the ratios of diameter to thickness (D/t) and length to diameter (L/D) are
used to investigate the effect of the geometrical parameters. The selection of these
geometrical parameters is an important aspect of determining the energy absorption
efficiency of the structural design.
To investigate the relation between the energy absorption capability and the ratio of
diameter to thickness (D/t), a series of simulations were carried out. Research in the past
on circular tubes has generally concentrated on tubes with D/t ratios between 4 and 65.
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Chapter 4
This is common industrial practice. In order to have a broader picture, it was decided to
extend the range of research up to approximately D/t = 500. The ranges of nominal tube
sizes considered were listed in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Model data for dynamic simulation on circular tubes
Model No. Constant Variable

Model 1 Diameter=0.05m Thickness: 0.000625m
Length=0.2m 0.000833m
0.00125m
0.0025m
Model 2 Thickness=0.0005m Diameter: 0.0125m
Length=0.2m 0.025m
0.0375m
0.05m
Model 3 Length=0.2m Wall thickness t: 0.0002 m- 0.01 m
Diameter D: 0.01 m - 0.1 m
L/D ratio range: 2 to 20
D/t ratio range:10 to 500.
Fig 4.21 Specified energy absorption for different D/t and L/D
Fig 4.21 shows the relationship between the SEA and the D/t ratio, where the impact
velocity was kept constant at 10 m/s and the ratio of D/t range from 10 to 500 and the
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Chapter 4
ratio of L/D range from 4 to 16. It can be seen that as the D/t ratio decreases, SEA
increases. It means that the low D/t ratio can improves the energy absorption capability
of the thin-walled tube.
(3) Mode classification
Model 3 also investigated the L/D ratio effects. The results in Fig 4.21 show that the
ratio of L/D does not affect SEA, but can affect the collapse modes of the tube. In order
to get a clear picture on how the geometry parameters affect the collapse process,
models with different range of L/D and D/t ratios were built in Model 3. Then a mode
classification chart related to the ratios was produced.
A mode classification chart is produced from the simulation results for aluminium thin-
walled tubes, as shown in Fig 4.22. The range of D/t considered is D/t = 10 - 500.
Collapse modes are observed for L/D = 2 - 20. This chart is divided up into areas which
correspond to the different modes of collapse. Note that a logarithmic scale is used for
D/t on the chart in order to cover the wider range of D/t values considered.
The blue dashed lines in Fig 4.22 represent the transition zone of the collapse modes. It
indicates that the different collapse modes are not only related to the D/t ratios, but are
also related to L/D ratios. The figure shows that when L/D = 2 the tube will deform in
ring mode for D/t < 50 but it will deform with mixed mode for D/t > 50. When 4 < L/D
< 8, the deformation modes are the ring mode and the mix mode type for low D/t ratio
and Euler buckling occurs when D/t ratio reaches some limiting value. When 10 < L/D
< 14, the deformation changes to the mix mode for D/t < 100 and the Euler buckling
will occur for D/t > 100. As the L/D ratio reaches 18, the collapse mode starts with the
mixed mode and the Euler critical buckling mode occurs when the D/t ≥ 90.
It can be summarized broadly from the chart that the effective collapse modes occur
when D/t < 100. For D/t > 100 and L/D > 8, the Euler buckling occurs. For L/D < 10,
the tube is more stable and the Euler buckling only occurs at D/t > 150. Therefore, in
the engineering design, the selected D/t ratio should be less than 100 and the L/D ratio
should be less than 8.
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Chapter 4
Fig 4.22 Mode classification chart for the circular tube
The influence of D/t and L/D ratios on the collapse modes has also been investigated by
various researchers. Abramowicz and Jone [16,18] proposed their model based on the
experimental study. Their experiments show that thicker tubes with D/t less than 80
deform in concertina mode, while those with larger values of D/t deform in diamond
mode. Andrews et al. [3] present modes of deformation and load-compression curves of
circular tubes of D/t = 4 – 62.5; L/D = 0.17 – 8.75 and reveal that the concertina mode
occurs in tubes of D/t varying from 10 to 62.5 and the maximum value of L/D being
about 5 -6. The red line in Fig 4.22 shows the transition zone from Andrews’ experiment,
where the deformation changes from the concertina mode to diamond mode or mix
mode.
Comparing our simulation results to their experimental results, the transition zones are
quite different, especially for the global buckling. Several factors can contribute to this
difference. Firstly, the extent of work hardening during manufacture and subsequent
annealing has a big influence on the collapse mode. Secondly, the process of
manufacturing by the extrusion of aluminium leads to geometric imperfections, which
can affect the deformation mode and the mean crushing force. The geometric
imperfection can induce the global buckling to occur much early than the simulation.
Another interesting phenomenon observed in the simulation is the diamond mode which
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Chapter 4
has multiple corners (or lobes). It was observed that for tubes with an increasing D/t
ratio, the number of circumferential lobes also increased from 3 up to 5 or 6, as seen in
Fig 4.23. At high values of D/t (>200), the number of lobes often varied (in one case
erratically between 3, 4 and 5 lobes). The number of lobes, N, was not always an
integer—for example, in some cases it was observed that a relatively stable pattern was
with 3.5 lobes in a spiralling arrangement. In other cases the lobes were simply
incompletely formed.
For all tubes within the range simulated, the concertina collapse mode absorbs more
energy per unit length of tube than other modes. The diamond mode and mix mode
absorb slightly less energy than the concertina mode. This is because the energy
absorption mainly depends on the amount of plastic deformation which takes place
under axial loading. When the tube length is greater than the critical length for the given
tube, it deforms in the global buckling mode, which is an inefficient mode of energy
absorption. The resistant force of this mode will fall sharply and needs to be avoided in
crashworthiness designs.
(a) 3 lobes (b) 3.5 lobes (c) 4 lobes
(d) 5 lobes (e) 6 lobes
Fig 4.23 Diamond modes with circumferential lobes for different D/t ratios
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Chapter 4
4.3.6 Effect of impact mass and initial impact velocity
The collapse process under axial impact is significantly different from quasi-static
collapse. Karagiozova [103,104,105] demonstrated that the inertia characteristics of the
tube, together with the material properties, determine particular patterns of the axial
stress wave propagation, thus, causing either dynamic plastic or dynamic progressive
buckling to develop during the initial phase of the shell response.
Calladine [95,96] pointed out there are two types of structures as shown in Fig 4.24.
Type I has a relatively "flat topped" static load-deflection curve, while type II has a
"steeply falling" curve. The deformation of type II specimens is much more sensitive to
impact velocity than that of type I specimens. The typical load-deflection curve for thin-
walled tubes belongs to the type II structure. This means the thin-walled metal tubes are
sensitive to impact velocity. Therefore, it is important to examine the effect of mass and
initial impact velocity. In order to assess these effects, a series of simulations were
performed. The thin-walled tube of 50 mm diameter, 100 mm length and 4 mm
thickness is used in the simulation. The weight of the tube is 0.49 kg. The description of
the impactor is given in Table 4.3.
(a) (b)
Fig 4.24 Idealized type І and type Π structures [95]
(a) Load deflection (b) energy deflection curves
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Chapter 4
Table 4.3 Dimensions, Velocities and Energies of Impactors
Model Series Velocity Mass Side Height Initial Energy

( m/s) (kg) length (m) kinetic absorbed
(m) energy (J) (J)
D1_1 10 15.6 0.2 0.05 780 780
D1_2 10 31.2 0.2 0.1 1560 1560
D1_3 10 62.4 0.2 0.2 3120 2432
D1_4 10 124.8 0.2 0.4 6240 2954
D1 D1_5 10 249.6 0.2 0.8 12480 3281
D1_6 10 499.2 0.2 1.6 24960 3398
D1_7 10 748.8 0.2 2.4 37440 3439
D1_8 10 2246.4 0.35 2.4 112320 3458
D1_9 10 3993.6 0.46 2.4 199680 3476
D2_1 5 249.6 0.2 0.8 3120 2311
D2_2 10 249.6 0.2 0.8 12480 3281
D2 D2_2 20 249.6 0.2 0.8 49920 3950
D2_3 30 249.6 0.2 0.8 112320 3979
D2_4 40 249.6 0.2 0.8 199680 4207
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig 4.25 Deformation shape of single thin-walled tube crushed using impactors of different
impact mass m
(a) m = 31.2 kg (b) m = 124.8 kg (c) m = 249.6 kg (d) m = 3993.6 kg
The effect of the masses is firstly investigated. Fig 4.25 shows the deformation shapes
of the single thin-walled tube crushed by impactors with different masses. Fig 4.26
shows the results for Model D1, where the impact velocity was kept constant at 10 m/s.
The masses chosen range from 15.6 kg to 3993.6 kg, which include masses for which
the tube was not fully crushed and the mass for which the tube was fully crushed. Thus
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Chapter 4
the complete effect of crushing masses can be covered. The geometries of the impactors
are listed in Table 4.3.
(a)
(b)
Fig 4.26 Force histories for different impact mass m
It should be noted that the masses of the impactors are stated to one decimal place
because they are based on the selected geometrical dimensions. It can be seen that there
is slight increase in energy absorbed when the mass of the impactor is increased from
62.4 to 3993.6 kg. For the masses 15.6 kg and 31.2 kg, all the kinetic energy are
absorbed in the crushing process and the single tube can not be fully crushed by the
impactor. The mass chosen in the analyses should be large enough to produce the full
crushing.
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Chapter 4
Fig 4.27 Variation of impact energy absorbed (SEA) with initial kinetic energy (IKE)
Fig 4.27 shows the variation of the specific energy absorbed (SEA) with the initial
kinetic energy (IKE) for Model D1. The figure shows that the SEA is linearly
proportional to the IKE up to a value of IKE of about 2500 J. Above this energy, the
SEA begins to diminish in value and eventually levels out approximately as IKE
increases. The value of IKE of 2500 J at which the SEA begins to depart from linearity
indicates the maximum IKE required to completely crush the model D1 tube. For an
impact velocity of 10 m/s, the corresponding impactor mass required is 62.4 kg.
Therefore, the use of this mass at a velocity of 10 m/s will ensure that the tube is
completely crushed. When the impactor mass is increased beyond 62.4 kg, the IKE is
correspondingly increased, the tube is fully crushed but the SEA is only slightly
increased. In fact, this slight increase in SEA is due to an increased axial deformation of
the tube as a result of increased impact energy when the mass of the impactor is
increased.
Effect of impact velocity is investigated secondly. Figs 4.28 and 4.29 show the results
from model D2. In this case, the mass was kept constant at 249.6 kg, while the impact
velocity was varied in the range 5–40 m/s. It was observed that as the impact velocity
increases, the impact energy absorbed increases slightly. These results also reveal that
when the initial impact velocity is increased, the initial peak force and each
postbuckling peak force increased and the deformation modes are also different. Fig
4.30 shows the variation of the specific energy absorbed (SEA) with the initial kinetic
energy (IKE) for Model D2.
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Chapter 4
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig 4.28 Deformation shapes for different impact velocities
Fig 4.29 Load-time curves for different impact velocities
Fig 4.30 Variation of impact energy absorbed (IEA) with initial kinetic energy (IKE)
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Chapter 4
Fig 4.31 Load-displacement curves for same IKE and different mass and velocity
Figure 4.31 shows a comparison of the force history of a single thin-walled tube model
D1 and D2 crushed by impactors of different masses, velocities and initial kinetic
energies. In case (c), the tube was crushed by an impactor of 2246.4 kg at an impact
velocity of 10 m/s. The initial kinetic energy was 112 kJ. In case (a), the tube was
crushed with the same IKE of 112 kJ but by a mass of 249.6 kg at an impact velocity of
30 m/s. In case (d), the tube was crushed by an impactor of 3993.6 kg at an impact
velocity of 10 m/s, which gives an IKE of 199.7 kJ. In case (b), the tube was crushed
with the same IKE of 199.7 kJ but with a mass of 249.6 kg and an impact velocity of 40
m/s.
The force histories show that for the same IKE, the initial peak force and mean crushing
force are higher when a higher impact velocity is used. Also, the secondary peaks,
which are due to the folding of the tube during the deformation process, are much
sharper and higher in magnitude at the higher impact velocity. This means that higher
impact velocity can cause more damage in the crushing process because of the higher
peak forces. For case (c) and (d), their force histories are almost same, which
demonstrates that when impactor mass are much larger than the mass of the tube, the
initial effect can be ignored.
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Chapter 4
4.4 Summary
In this chapter an investigation of the collapse behaviour of single-cell thin-walled metal

tube using finite element method has been reported. The numerical analysis presented
here has explored the effect of critical parameters on the energy absorption capability,
including material properties, section geometry and loading conditions, which govern
the collapse behaviour for circular thin-walled metal tube subjected to dynamic axial
loads.
The study is intended to gain a clear understanding of the effects of these factors on the
energy absorption capability of this structure. Of three main factors, the section
geometry is the most important factor to control the collapse behaviour of the tube. The
geometry parameters include the thickness of the tube wall, the diameter of the tube and
the length of the tube. It is demonstrated that the thicker tube wall can achieve higher
specific energy absorption. However, to decide the deformation modes of the tube, its
length and the diameter must also be considered. Using dimensionless parameters such
as L/D (length/diameter) and D/t (diameter/thickness) ratios is a suitable choice and can
reveal much extra information.
In this study, the ratio of diameter to thickness is confirmed to be the most important
factors to affect the energy absorption efficiency. The range of tubes considered was D/t
=10 – 500 and L/D = 2 - 20. A collapse mode classification chart for A6082-T6
aluminium tubes has been produced.
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Chapter 5
Chapter 5
The trigger systems of thin-walled tubes under axial loading
In this chapter, attempts are made to reduce the initial peak force and improve energy
absorption characteristics of thin-walled tubes by artificially introducing various types
of triggering systems. In the study, quasi-static compression tests were carried out to
investigate the energy absorption characteristics of the tubes with different trigger
designs. By properly introducing a trigger system on the tube wall, the initial peak force
can be effectively reduced. Also the collapse behaviour of the structure can be predicted
and controlled.
5.1 Introduction
Reducing the initial peak force is one of the most important considerations in the design
of an energy absorber, since the maximum force level is associated with safety. The
initial peak force should be kept below a certain force level for an energy absorber even
if it can absorb the required energy.
The impact behaviour of thin-walled tube under axial loading condition consists of two
stages, the initial compression stage and the subsequent post-buckling stage with large
strains and deformations. In chapter 3, the initial stage of the crushing was carefully
investigated. It demonstrates that the initial peak force is closely related to the initial
compression process. From the viewpoint of energy absorption, the initial compression
process is less important, but the initial peak force is governed by this initial
elastic-plastic buckling process. In this early stage, the energy is converted firstly to
elastic strain energy in the un-deformed tube. Then, at a specific force limit point,
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Chapter 5
plastic buckling occurs in some local region, where is normally near the end of the tube.
From this point on the energy is mainly dissipated by plastic deformation of the tube
wall metal. Therefore if the elastic compression can be passed quickly or avoided, the
initial peak force will be decreased effectively. This is the reason why a trigger system
can effectively eliminate the initial peak force.
In chapter 3, it is observed that the value of the initial peak force is larger than the value
of the other peaks. This is due to the fact that for the formation of the first peak force,
the thin-walled tube is free of all deformations. But for all the other peak forces, the
deformations have already formed during the last fold, which influence the formation of
the next one by producing a local bending at the plastic hinges level. Introducing a
trigger to the tube is similar to this process. By introducing some kind of dents or
removing some materials from the tube wall, the plastic buckling can be induced at very
early stage. Therefore the elastic compression which causes the initial peak force can be
passed very quickly or avoided.
In this chapter, three different trigger designs are introduced, including the holes or
dented grooves on the tube wall and the taper at the end of the tube, which are expected
to affect the crushing process and make it possible to reduce the initial peak force and
control the collapse mode.
5.2 Experimental study
A series of axial crushing tests on thin-walled tubes with different trigger designs are
carried out in this section. Three trigger designs are proposed, which include holes on
the tube wall, the circumferential indented groove on the tube wall and the taper on the
end of the tube. In the test, 19 different tubes are tested, as seen in Fig 5.1. The detailed
experimental procedure is introduced below.
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Chapter 5
Fig 5.1 All the specimens in the test
5.2.1 Test procedure
The tube specimens were cut from commercially available aluminium alloy tubes with
circular cross sections. The dimensions of the test specimens are presented in Table 5.1.
The end surfaces of each tube need to be perpendicular to the longitudinal axes of the
specimens. All the tests are conducted on an Instron 200 kN hydraulic testing machine.
A flat steel-plate was fitted to the moving cross-head of the test machine and was
parallel to the base plate of the test machine.
Prior to the start of each experiment, the specimen was placed between the parallel
plates of the test machine, in a position perpendicular to the base plate, and was held in
place with a small axial compressive load of about 20 to 30 N. Axial loading was
applied by a cross-head moving at preselected speeds 6 mm/min, which produced an
average strain rate of the order of 10-3/s in the plastic deformation zones.
The aluminium alloys used in the tests were made up of alloy A6082 temper T6. All the
specimens have been annealed before the test to get higher deformation levels. The
procedure of anneal is that the specimens were heated to temperature 270o C and held
there for 40 minutes to relieve stresses in the metal, then the specimens were cooled
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Chapter 5
down slowly in the furnace. The engineering tensile stress–strain curves of the material
were found by standard tensile testing, which is same as the test in Chapter 3.
5.2.2 First test: A thin-walled tube with holes on the tube wall
The first proposed trigger design is to introduce some holes on the tube wall with
different number, size and locations. The main purpose to add these holes on the tube
wall is to reduce the initial peak force and control the collapse mode by inducing folds
occurring at the specific location.
b
c
Fig 5.2 Geometries of the tubes with holes
Depending on the size and location of the holes, a total of nine triggered configurations
were defined, as shown in Fig 5.2 and Table 5.1, where L, D, b, c and R denote the key
dimensions. All the tubes are 150 mm in length and 2 mm in thickness. The outside
diameter of all the tubes is 50.8 mm. The only difference among all the specimens is the
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Chapter 5
size of the holes and their position on the tube wall. The tube without the hole is
referred to as specimen AA1, working as the reference. In specimens B1 to B3, four
holes are introduced near the top end with different diameters 6, 8 and 14 mm. The
distance between the hole center to the top end of the tube is 20 mm. In models C1 to
C3, 4 to 6 layer holes are drilled on the tube wall at even intervals. The holes on each
layer are same with the holes on the tube B1. In models D1 to D3, the holes are located
at different heights. The diameter of the hole is also same with the tube B1. The
experimental data are listed in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Experimental data for the first test
No. L t D Volume Mass Ea δf Fmean Pfirst SEA

3
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm ) (kg) (kJ) (mm) (kN) (kN) (kJ/KN)
AA1 150 2.0 50.8 37095.9 0.1002 3.98 106 41.1 65.7 39.7368
B1 150 2.0 50.8 36914.6 0.0997 3.60 106 36.0 55.6 36.1194
B2 150 2.0 50.8 36590.6 0.0988 3.45 106 32.7 46.8 34.9209
B3 150 2.0 50.8 36100.4 0.0975 3.55 106 31.9 39.3 36.4211
C1 150 2.0 50.8 36370.8 0.0982 3.46 106 36.0 56.8 35.2338
C2 150 2.0 50.8 36189.5 0.0977 3.63 106 37.6 57.0 37.1501
C3 150 2.0 50.8 36008.2 0.0972 3.35 106 35.5 57.6 34.4572
D1 150 2.0 50.8 36914.6 0.0997 4.05 106 39.5 57.2 40.6343
D2 150 2.0 50.8 36914.6 0.0997 3.97 106 38.8 56.6 39.8317
D3 150 2.0 50.8 36914.6 0.0997 3.75 106 36.7 55.0 37.6244
5.2.2.1 Experimental results for the specimen AA1, B1, B2 and B3
Fig 5.3 shows the load–displacement curves of the specimens AA1, B1, B2 and B3,
together with the un-deformed shapes and the final deformed profiles. The purpose of
these four tests is to examine how the size of the hole can influence on the collapse
behavior of the tube.
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Chapter 5
D
b
R
AA1 B1 B2 B3
(a)
(b)
Fig 5.3 Test results for specimen AA1, B1, B2 and B3

(a) Un-deformed and deformed tube profiles (b) Load-displacement curve
Model AA1 collapses in the concertina mode and forms seven plastic folds. But the
specimens B1, B2 and B3 collapse in the diamond mode from the beginning of the
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crushing, being quite different from specimen AA1. Fig 5.4 shows a series of photos of
the specimen B2 to exhibit the crushing process of the tube. Clearly, it is the holes that
induce the formation of the folds and cause the tube to collapse in the diamond mode.
For all the tubes with the holes, the first plastic hinges are always formed at the location
of the holes. It is also observed that there are some ductile tearing on the hole region,
which may be caused by the severe plastic deformation in the local area.
Fig 5.4 The crushing process of the specimen B2
Comparisons in the mass, the initial peak force, energy absorption and SEA are
summarized in Table 5.1. It can be seen that the specimen AA1 has the highest initial
peak force. For the specimen B1 to B3, the initial peak forces reduce in a sequence,
according the diameter of the holes. The larger is the diameter, the more is the reduction.
It is understandable that the plastic fold develops at the hole, the larger the hole is, the
less material left to carry the crushing load. Considering the absorbed energy and SEA,
the specimen AA1 has the highest value of SEA. For the tubes with the holes, their SEA
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Chapter 5
all decreases slightly. The specimen B2 has the largest reduction in SEA (12%). This
test demonstrates that the initial peak force can be effectively removed by drilling some
holes on the tube wall and the value of this force can be controlled by changing the
diameter of the holes. But the energy absorbing capability of the tube will be sacrifice a
little bit.
5.2.2.2 Experimental results for the specimen AA1, B1, D1, D2 and D3
Fig 5.5 shows the load–displacement curves of the specimens AA1, B1, D1, D2 and D3,
these five tests is to examine how the position of the hole affects the collapse behavior
of the thin-walled tube.
For the tube B1, D1, D2 and D3, the only difference is the position of the hole on the
tube wall. From the deformed profiles of these five tubes, it can be seen that the hole
position on the tube wall has a big effect on the collapse mode. For the specimen D3, it
collapses in the concertina mode and forms six and half plastic folds. While for the
specimen D1 and D2, they absorb energy mainly by the axial splitting, other than
develop concertina or diamond modes. Fig 5.6 shows a series of photos of the specimen
C2 to exhibit the crushing process of the tube. Plastic hinges are initially formed at the
hole position, and continue to develop gradually axial splitting. The splitting involves
the plastic bending and ductile tearing, which is more complicated energy absorbing
mechanisms and absorbs energy in a long stroke and with an almost constant load.
Comparing the initial peak force and SEA, D1 and D2 are slight higher in energy
absorption efficiency than the specimen AA1. The increases of SEA are 2.27% and
0.25%, respectively. The initial peak forces are same for the specimen B1, D1, D2 and
D3, which are lower than the specimen AA1. It means that the position of the hole has
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not effect on the initial peak force, which is only influenced by the size of the hole.
Furthermore, the test also demonstrates that tube splitting is an effective way to absorb
energy.
D
b R
B1 D1 D2 D3
(a)
(b)
Fig 5.5 Test results for specimen B1, D1, D2 and D3

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Fig 5.6 The crushing process of the specimen D2
5.2.2.3 Experimental results for the specimen AA1, B1, C1, C2 and C3
In order to further investigate the influence of the holes on the tube wall, a series of
tubes with more holes on the wall have been tested. Fig 5.7 shows the
load–displacement curves of the specimens AA1, B1, C1, C2 and C3, together with the
un-deformed shapes and the final deformed profiles. The purpose of these five tests is to
examine how to control the collapse behavior of the thin-walled tube by adding
different layer holes.
For the tubes B1, C1, C2 and C3, they have different layer holes on the tube wall. In
each layer, there are 4 identical holes evenly positioned on the tube wall. All the holes
on the tube wall have the same diameter 6 mm. For the specimens C1, C2 and C3, the
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collapse process involves the severe plastic deformation and tearing and splitting of the
tube wall. Fig 5.8 shows a series of photos of the specimen C2 to exhibit the crushing
process of the tube, which can help to understand the collapse behavior of this kind of
tubes.
It can be seen from the test that the plastic hinges are initially formed at the center line
of one layer holes, as shown in Fig 5.8 (2), and then the plastic hinges on one side of
holes begin to move downwards the center line, while the other hinges move
symmetrically above the center line on the opposite side of the holes, as can be seen in
Fig 5.8 (3-4).
The hole between the two plastic hinges is crushed to form a line and the angle between
the line and the horizontal plane increases gradually from 0 degree to 90 degree. When
the angle reach about 30 degree, axial splitting occurs in the middle point of the line and
continues to develop until the new plastic hinges forms in another layer and develops
gradually another axial splitting.
Comparing the initial peak force and SEA, the specimen C1, C2 and C3 are slight lower
in energy absorption efficiency than the specimen AA1. Their SEA are 11.3%, 6.5% and
13.1% lower than that of AA1, respectively. The initial peak forces are same for the
specimen C1, C2 and C3, which are lower than the specimen AA1. It demonstrates
again that the collapse behavior can be seriously affected by drilling some holes on the
tube wall.
Normally, the initial peak force can be effectively reduced. How much forces can be
reduced will mainly depend on the size of the holes, but not depend on the numbers of
holes on the tube wall, because the initial peak force is mainly related to the first
buckling occurred and all the other holes will only affect the collapse behaviour in the
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later stage. The collapse behavior can be totally different by adding these holes. The
tube wall not only can develop the localized plastic deformation, but also can generate
some ductile splitting, based on the location of the holes.
b
c
AA1 B1 C1 C2 C3
(a)
(b)
Fig 5.7 Test results for specimen B1, C1, C2 and C3

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(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
(7) (8) (9) (10)
Fig 5.8 The crushing process of the specimen C2
Through the experimental study, it shows that this trigger design can effectively reduce
the initial peak force and affect the collapse behaviour of the thin-walled tube. The
initial peak force mainly depends on the size of the trigger, but isn’t affected by
locations of the trigger. But triggers will weak the strength of the tube. The bigger
trigger size means the loss of energy absorption capability. The effect to the collapse
mode mainly bases on the position of the trigger. By controlling the position of the
trigger, the collapse mode can be fully different. The energy absorption capability can
be improved in some specific positions. Therefore, by choosing the trigger with the
right size and position, an energy absorbing structure with higher energy absorbing
capability and lower initial peak force can be achieved.
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5.2.3 Second test: A thin-walled tube with the taper on the tube wall
In this section, the tapered tube were introduced and investigated, which is another
proposed design of the trigger system. A total of four tapered configurations were
defined as shown in Fig 5.9 and Table 5.2, depending on dimensions of the taper. All the
tubes are 100 mm in length and 3 mm in thickness. The outside diameter of all the tubes
is 50.8 mm. The only difference among these specimens is the dimensions of the taper
on one end of the tube. The tube without the taper is referred to as specimen F5. The
purpose of these five tests is to examine how the dimensions of the taper can affect the
collapse behavior of the thin-walled tube. Fig 5.9 shows the load–displacement curves
of the specimens F1 to F5, together with the un-deformed shapes and the final deformed
profiles. It can be seen that the initial peak forces of all the tapered tubes are reduced
considerably than that of specimen AA1. This is mainly due to the folding deformation
is easily induced by the thinner tube wall. In this early stage of the crushing, the energy
is converted firstly to elastic strain energy in the un-deformed tube. Then, at the limiting
point, buckling occurs in some local place. When the initial contact area is smaller, the
resist force provided by the elastic compression will be reduced. Comparing the
specimen F1, F2 and F3, when the values of b are 1.25, 1.5 and 2, the corresponding
first peak forces are decreasing 61.5%, 48.1% and 35.9%, respectively. It demonstrates
that the initial peak force can be reduced by decreasing the initial contact area.
Table 5.2 Experimental data for the second test
No. a b Volume Mass Ea δf Fmean Pfirst Reduction SEA

(mm) (mm) (mm3) (kg) (mm) (kN) (kN) of Pfirst (kJ/KN)
F1 30 2 42688.0 0.1153 3.46 67.5 41.1 44.6 35.9% 30.0197
F2 25 1.25 41639.5 0.1124 2.87 67.5 32.9 26.8 61.5% 25.5278
F3 30 1.5 41530.3 0.1121 3.04 67.5 36.2 36.1 48.1% 27.1110
F4 40 1.5 40356.9 0.1090 3.00 67.5 34.8 34.2 50.9% 27.5321
F5 0 3 45050.4 0.1216 3.48 67.5 52.3 69.6 0% 28.6099
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Chapter 5
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5
(a)
(b)
Fig 5.9 Test results for specimen F1, F2, F3, F4 and F5
In terms of the absorbed energy and SEA, the specimen F1 is more effective in energy
absorption than the un-tapered tube F5. While the SEA of the specimen F2, F3 and F4
are lower slightly than that of the specimen F5. Comparing to their final deformation
profiles, the specimen F1 and F5 both collapse in a concertina mode, while the
specimen F1 forms three and half folds and F5 form three folds. When a fixed length
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Chapter 5
tube can form more folds, it means it develops more plastic deformation and absorbs
more energy. For the specimen F2, F3 and F4, they collapse in a diamond mode. Fig
5.10 shows a series of photos of the specimen F4 to exhibit the crushing process of the
tube, which can help to understand the collapse behavior in this kind of tubes. Therefore,
it can be concluded that the energy absorption capability of the tapered tube is related to
the deformation mode and the initial peak force is decided by the initial contact area of
the end surface.
Fig 5.10 The crushing process of the specimen F4
5.2.4 Third test: A thin-walled tube with the circumferential groove on the tube
wall
In this section, circumferential indentation triggers were introduced and investigated,

which is the third proposed design of the trigger system. The indentation is
manufactured by cutting a groove on the tube wall. Three different triggered
configurations were defined as shown in Fig 5.11 and Table 5.3, where a is 3.5 mm, R is
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5 mm, the value of b depends on the location of the groove. All the tubes are 150 mm in
length and 3 mm in thickness. The outside diameter of all the tubes is 76.2 mm. The
only difference among all the specimens is the location of the groove on the tube wall.
The tube without the groove is referred to as specimen H7.
R b
H7 E1 E2 E3
(a)
(b)
Fig 5.11 Test results for specimen H7, E1, E2 and E3

Fig 5.11 shows the load–displacement curves of the specimens H7, E1, E2 and E3,
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Chapter 5
these four tests is to examine how the position of the groove affecting the collapse
behavior of the tube.
In terms of the initial peak force and SEA, it can be seen that the initial peak forces of
the specimen E1, E2 and E3 are reduced by 22.3%, 24.2% and 23.9% respectively,
comparing to the specimen H7. This is mainly due to the folding deformation is easily
induced by the groove. The value of the initial peak force for these three specimens are
almost same, which means that the position of the groove have no effect on the initial
peak force. The specimen E1, E2 and E3 are slight lower in energy absorption efficiency
than the specimen H7. Their SEA are 2.87%, 11.92% and 2.34% lower than that of H7,
respectively. The difference in SEA reduction may due to the different collapse modes
of these specimens.
Table 5.3 Experimental data for the third test
No L t D b Volume Mass Ea δf Fmean First peak SEA

. (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm3) (kg) () (mm) (kN) force (kN) (kJ/kN)
H6 150 3 76.2 0 103484 0.2794 9.54 106 97.8 149.7 34.1438
E1 150 3 76.2 20 101744 0.2747 9.11 106 86.4 116.3 33.1624
E2 150 3 76.2 75 101744 0.2747 8.26 106 78.6 113.4 30.0682
E3 150 3 76.2 130 101744 0.2747 9.16 106 86.6 113.9 33.3444
Fig 5.12 shows a series of photos of the specimen E2 to exhibit the crushing process of
the tube. It can be seen that the first fold occurs just below the groove, which is a
concertina mode. The second fold develops above the groove and the collapse mode
change to a diamond mode. Then the third fold is formed below the first fold in a
concertina mode. For the specimen E1 and E3, their first folds are both in a concertina
mode and occur just near the groove. But E1 develops a concertina mode in the later
stage, while E3 develops a diamond mode.
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Chapter 5
Fig 5.12 The crushing process of the specimen E2
To further investigate the influence of the circumferential indented groove on the tube
wall, a comparison between the experimental results and FE simulation results is carried
out. The FE models are built based on the geometries of tested tubes. Fig 5.13 – 5.15
show the load-displacement curves of the test specimens E1, E2, E3 and the
corresponding simulation results, together with their final deformed profiles in the tests
and simulations.
Fig 5.13 Comparison of test & simulation results of specimen E1
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Chapter 5
Generally speaking, the test results in Fig 5.13 – 5.15 show agreement with the
simulation results. It means that the simulation can be effective method for the trigger
analysis. However, if we compare these three figures, it can be seen that the test results
for specimen E2 and E3 show more different than the specimen E1. Considering the
final deformation profiles, E1 deforming in concertina mode and E2, E3 deforming in
diamond mode, we can tell that the diamond mode is more sensitive to the geometries.
If a diamond mode is induced by the trigger, a small geometry imperfection or
difference can results in more difference in force history and collapse behaviour.
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Chapter 5
Fig 5.16 The crushing process of the specimen E2
In order to better compare the test and the simulation, Fig 5.16 shows a series of frames
of the simulation results of the specimen E2, which can be compared with the test
results shown in Fig 5.12. The comparison shows the general collapse processes are
quite close, but the deformed shapes during the crash are slightly different, which
explain the different force-deflection curves in Fig 5.14.
5.3 Summary
In this chapter, an experimental study has been carried out to examine how a trigger
system can influence the collapse behaviour of the thin-walled tube. Three different
trigger designs were proposed, which include holes on the tube wall, the circumferential
indented groove on the tube wall and the taper on the end of the tube. The following
conclusions can be drawn from the study:
All the trigger designs can effectively reduce the initial peak force and affect the
collapse behaviour of the thin-walled tube. How the trigger design affect these features
will directly relate to the geometrical properties. For the tube with holes, the initial peak
force mainly depends on the diameter of the hole, but isn’t affected by locations of the
hole. The bigger the hole is, the lower is the initial peak force. But the strength of the
structure will be sacrificed. The energy absorbing capability will be reduced slightly.
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Furthermore, the hole in different positions can result in the totally different collapse
mode. In some case, material splitting occurs. The initial material failure always takes
place at the hole. For the tube with dented groove, the first fold always occurs near the
groove. The next fold can be a concertina model or a diamond mode, mainly depending
on the position of the groove. For the tapered tube, the initial peak force can be
controlled by the dimensions of the taper. When the initial contact area is smaller, the
initial peak force will be lower. The collapse mode can also be different due to the
different taper dimensions. Generally speaking, the trigger is an effective way to reduce
the initial peak force, but slightly sacrifice the energy absorption capability. The bigger
trigger size means the loss of energy absorption capability. The collapse behavior of the
tube is quite sensitive to the trigger position. But the trigger position doesn’t affect the
initial peak force. By controlling the position of the trigger, the collapse mode can be
fully different. The energy absorption capability can be improved in some specific
position. Therefore, if properly choose the trigger size and the position, a thin-walled
energy absorbing structure with higher energy absorbing capability and lower initial
peak force can be achieved.
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Chapter 6
Numerical simulation of the collapse behaviour of multi-cell
thin-walled metal tubes under axial loads
To improve the energy absorption efficiency of single thin-walled tubes, one simple and
effective approach is to divide the cross-sectional area of conventional tubes into
multiple cells. Such multi-cell tubes are different from foam and honeycomb structures
that are currently used by industry and they have the potential to be more efficient as
impact energy absorbers. However, because the collapse behaviour of the multi-cell
thin-walled tube under axial crash conditions is more complex than that of the single
thin-walled tube, this structure has not been widely studied by researchers. In order to
better understand their energy absorption capability, numerical studies of the axial
crushing behaviour of the multi-cell thin-walled metal tubes have been performed and
are reported in this chapter. In addition, a new design of the energy absorption structure
based on the multi-cell tube is proposed in the later part.
6.1 Introduction
For thin-walled tubes, there are various ways of improving high specific energy
absorption, such as increasing the tube wall thickness, using new materials, putting
fillers into the structures and adding internal support ribs to form a multi-cell
cross-section. These methods have all been widely adopted by industry. In this chapter,
the focus is on the study of the multi-cell thin-walled tube.
The multi-cell thin-walled tube is a kind of structure that is composed of several single
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tubes which are connected by supporting ribs by different methods. Fig 6.1 shows some
profiles of multi-cell tubes, which will be discussed and compared in this chapter. It
should be noted that all these profiles are specific to this thesis; they are not found in
any published literature. Moreover, the conventional method of making the multi-cell
thin-walled tube is using spot-welding or bonding to connect the sheet metal. In recent
years, with the development of new technologies, almost any arbitrary shaped
cross-sections can be produced by the extrusion process. Such developments have
enabled multi-cell thin-walled structures to become increasingly popular as means of
absorbing kinetic energy following a crash.
Fig 6.1 Different cross-section profiles of multi-cell tubes
Despite being used by industry, the conventional multi-cell cross-section profiles have
not been optimized in terms of crash energy absorption and weight efficiency. The aim
of the work reported in this chapter is to investigate the crash behaviour of the multi-cell
thin-walled metal tubes and compare the various factors which can be used to achieve
high energy absorption efficiency.
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Chapter 6
6.2 Crash energy absorption characteristics of multi-cell circular
section tubes
For a multi-cell thin-walled metal tube, it can be understood that the crushing force may
consist of two parts: the average crushing force of the empty tube and the interaction
effect between the side wall and the internal supporting ribs. The collapse modes of
empty columns can be changed drastically by introducing internal ribs. Because the
energy absorption depends mainly on how severe plastic deformation is, this can to
some extent explain the much higher energy absorption efficiency of multi-cell tubes
than the single tube.
In this chapter, in order to investigate how the multi-cell tube can improve energy
absorption capability, various multi-cell cross-sections are considered in the analysis
and a series of numerical investigations which were conducted are reported. In the
analyses, a comparison of the single and the multi-cell tubes was considered firstly and
the effect of the number of cells is examined. Then the effects of section geometry are
discussed. Thirdly, the effect of the cross-section profiles in the multi-cell tube is
studied. Finally, a new structural design was proposed to achieve the optimal energy
absorption.
6.2.1 Modelling details
The structures considered in this study are thin-walled multi-cell tubes with various
cross-sections. The full section of tube wall was modelled using shell elements S4R
with five integration points through the thickness. The loading condition is a striker of
mass 62.4 kg crashing the tube at an initial speed of 10m/s. The mass 62.4 kg can
guarantee the tube to be fully crushed. Clamped boundary conditions are applied at the
bottom of the column. Aluminium alloy AA 6082 T6 was adapted as the material of the
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Chapter 6
metal tube wall. The material parameters for the elastic-plastic behaviour are the same
as in Table 4.1.
In this study, in order to compare the specific energy absorption conveniently, the
weights of all the structures are kept the same. The geometrical parameters include wall
thickness, diameter and the side length of each cell.
6.2.2 A comparative study of single and multi-cell tubes
Several factors can affect the energy absorption of the multi-cell tube, such as the
number of cells and the cross-section profiles in the tube. The following section will
examine the effect of these factors.
Firstly, comparison is made between a single tube and a multi-cell tube which consists
of a same single tube with internal ribs. The thickness of the single circular tube is
1.25mm. To maintain the same weight of tube, the thickness of the multi-cell tube is 0.
764 mm. The original and deformed shapes and the crushing force responses are shown
in Fig 6.2 and 6.3, respectively.
For the single tube without internal ribs, the force history curve fluctuates after the
initial peak force. For the tube with internal ribs, the peak force is the same as that of the
single tube, but the load history is much flatter than the single tube and the specific
energy absorption increases slightly. For the example shown in Fig 6.3, the SEA of the
multi-cell tube with 4 ribs is greater than the SEA of the single tube by about 5%.
Because both tubes are equal in weight and length, the contact areas between the tube
and the impactor are the same. This means that the initial peak force does not relate to
the cross-section profile, but is related to the contact area between the impactor; the tube
and the internal rib helps to reduce the oscillation and to make the local buckling more
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Chapter 6
efficient.
In order to further understand the effect of the internal ribs, a series of simulations with
different D/t ratios were carried out. Fig 6.4 shows the SEA of the single tubes and the
multi-cell tubes with different D/t ratios. It can be seen that the single tubes with
internal ribs can increase SEA by 5-10% depending on the D/t ratios compared to the
single tubes without supporting ribs.
(a) (b)
Fig 6.2 Deformation shapes of tubes with or without internal reinforcements
(a) Single tube without internal ribs (b) Single tube with internal ribs
a b
Fig 6.3 Load-time histories of single tube with and without internal reinforcements
(a) Single tube without internal ribs (b) Single tube with internal ribs
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Chapter 6
Fig 6.4 SEA of the single tubes with and without internal webs for different D/t ratios
Figs 6.5 and 6.6 show further comparisons between double coaxial multi-cell tubes with
and without internal ribs. It can be seen that the initial peak forces for both tubes remain
the same but the mean crush force is much higher for the tubes with ribs. Fig 6.7
compares the SEA of the double coaxial multi-cell tubes with and without internal ribs
which have different D/t ratios. It can be seen that the tubes with internal ribs can
increase SEA by 20-30% depending on the D/t ratios. It illustrates that the double
coaxial tube with internal ribs has higher specific energy absorption than single-cell
tubes with and without ribs.
It is also observed from Fig 6.3 and Fig 6.5 that the deformation modes are different for
the tubes with and without ribs. There are more local buckling produced on the tube
with internal ribs. The severe deformation of combined bending and membrane
deformation also occurs for the tube with the internal supporting ribs. This can be
explained that the internal ribs cause interaction between the tube walls and the internal
ribs; they also cause more severe local buckling and hence, absorb more energy.
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Chapter 6
(a) (b)
Fig 6.5 Deformation shapes of double coaxial tubes with or without internal reinforcements
a b
Fig 6.6 Load-time histories of double tubes with and without internal reinforcements
Fig 6.7 SEA of the double tubes with and without internal webs for different D/t ratios
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Chapter 6
Fig 6.7 shows the SEA of the tubes with and without internal ribs with different D/t
ratios. It can be seen that the tubes with internal ribs can increase SEA by 20-30%
depending on the D/t ratios compared to the single tubes without supporting ribs.
6.2.3 Effect of angle of internal ribs
The angle between neighbouring ribs seems to affect crushing energy absorption. Three
different internal rib design comprising 3, 4 and 6 ribs where the angles between
neighbouring ribs are 60o, 90o, 120o, are compared in Figure 6.8. The figure also shows
the predicted deformed shapes of the three rib designs after they were subjected to
impact loading. The weight of these rib designs are kept the same in order to compare
the the energy absorption capability easily. The ribs were analyzed with their axis
aligned with the axis of the impact mass of 62.4 kg. One end of each rib was fixed while
the other end was subjected to impact loading. The velocity of the impact mass at the
time of impact was 10 m/s. General contact was assumed between the impacting face of
the mass and the ribs.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 6.8 Deformation shapes of different angle ribs
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Chapter 6
Fig 6.9 Load-time histories with different neighbouring angle ribs
In Fig 6.9, three rib designs are compared. Clearly, the average crushing forces are
similar for different angle elements. However, as the neighbouring angle decrease,
which means more local buckling is involved in the crushing, the force curves become
smoother and stable. This means that changing the angle of neighbouring ribs can not
improve energy absorption efficiency, but can help improve the stability of the
structures.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 6.10 Deformation shapes of different angle ribs
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Chapter 6
Fig 6.11 Load-time histories of tubes with different neighbouring angle ribs
Figs 6.10 and 6.11 further compare the models that include the 3 rib design inside the
single thin-walled tube. The weights of new models are still the same. It can be seen that
the force histories are quite similar. It means that the angle of the ribs in the structures
only has very small effect on the energy absorption capability of the structure.
6.2.4 Effect of the number of radial & circumferential cells
In order to investigate the effect of the number of cells in thin-walled circular-section

tubes, a series of models with different number of coaxial tubes were studied, as
illustrated in Fig 6.12. Five of the models had 4 circumferential ribs while the sixth
model had 8 circumferential ribs. The diameter range of the cross-section of the tubes is
10-50 mm, and the length of the tubes is 200 mm. The weight of all the multi-cell tubes
was kept the same; the thickness of the tubes ranges from 0.56 mm to 3.12 mm.
It can be seen from Fig 6.13 that the 5 coaxial tubes with 8 ribs can produce highest
crushing force and the force curve is very smooth. The single tube has the lowest
crushing force. It means that, in a fixed space, the number of cells in the tube cross
section determines, to a large extent, the efficiency of the energy absorption, but it does
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Chapter 6
not affect the initial peak force. It helps to explain why a thin-walled tube with multiple
cells is an efficient energy absorber. It seems that the mean crushing force of the tubes
tends to a certain limit as the number of cells is increased.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
Fig 6.12 Multi-cell tubes with different number of radial & circumferential cells
Fig 6.13 Load-time histories of multi-cell tubes with different number of radial &
circumferential cells
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Chapter 6
6.3 Crash energy absorption characteristic of multi-cell square section
tubes
The geometrical effect is clearly an important factor to decide the energy absorption
capability of a thin-walled tube. In order to further investigate the geometrical effect,
the rectangular/square tubes are adopted as the models to analysis the effect. Compared
to the circular tube, the rectangular/square can give fixed ratios of different dimensions,
which can give a better understanding of the geometrical effect.
6.3.1 Effect of the number of rectangular/square cells
The analysis above shows that the double coaxial tube with internal ribs has better
energy absorption capability than the single tube with internal ribs. It means that the
number of the cells can affect energy absorption capability. In order to explore this
effect, a series of models of square tubes are built and compared, as shown in Fig 6.14.
The weight and the size of all the tubes are kept the same.
Fig 6.14 shows the deformation shapes of the tubes with different number of cells and
their crushing forces are shown in Fig 6.15. Fig 6.16 shows the energy absorbed during
the crush. It can be seen that as the number of the cells increases, the initial peak force
drops slightly, but the mean crushing force increases. The tube with 16 cells doubles the
mean crushing force of the single tube.
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Chapter 6
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
Fig 6.14 Deformation shapes of multi-cell tubes with different number of cells
Fig 6.15 Load-time histories of multi-cell tubes with different number of cells
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Chapter 6
Fig 6.16 Energy absorbed by tubes with different number of cells
Comparing the crushing process of the tubes with different cells, it is noted that the tube
with more cells can produce much more smooth force curve than single tube. It is also
observed that the length of the longer side of a cell determines, to some extent, the
deformation shape of the tube and the mean crushing force. For example, for the tubes
with 4 cells and 8 cells, as seen in Fig 6.14 (c) and (d), the longer side of each cell is the
same and the mean forces of the 8 cell tube is only slightly higher than that of the 4 cell
tube. But for the tubes with 8 cells and 16 cells, the length of each of the cell of the 16
cell tube is half of the longer side of the cells of the 8 cell tube. Therefore, the tube with
16 cells has much higher mean crushing force than the tube with 8 cells. It also can be
explain from the deformation shapes of the tube. For the tube with 16 cells, there are
more local buckling produced than the tube with 8 cells and these buckling are smaller
in size. Normally, the less length of the buckling, the more resistance force produced by
the buckling. Therefore, the tube with more cells can has higher energy absorption
capability.
6.3.2 Effect of section geometry
As mentioned above, the multi-cell thin-walled tube can achieve higher energy
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Chapter 6
absorption efficiency than the single tube for the same spatial volume and the same
weight. As the number of the cells in the tube increases, the energy absorption capability
can be improved. The possible reason for that may be related to the ratio of the side
length to the thickness (B/t) each cell of the multi-cell tube. Chapter 4 confirms that the
ratio of diameter to thickness (D/t) is the main geometrical parameter to affect the SEA
for single-cell thin-walled tubes.
In order to illustrate the geometrical profiles can improve the energy absorption
capability, a series of simulations are carried out, which include the models with
different number of square cell components as shown in Fig 6.17. The thickness and the
length of each cell are the same, which means the B/t ratios (side length/thickness) are
the same for these tubes. Fig 6.18 plots the SEA for single-cell tubes and multi-cell
tubes with different B/t ratios and different number of cells. The B/t ratios are chosen
between 10 and 30. The number of the cells ranges from 1 to 12.
Fig 6.17 Cross-section profiles of square multi-cell tubes with different number of cells
It can be seen from Fig 6.18 that for the multi-cell thin-walled tube, if the B/t ratios are
the same, the SEA only increases slightly as the number of cells increases. For example,
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Chapter 6
the SEA of the tube with 12 cells increases by 10% more than that of the single tube of
the same B/t ratio. But when the B/t ratio decreases, the SEA increases evidently. For
example, compared with the 12 cell tube with B/t = 30, there is an increase in SEA of up
to 200% for the 12 cell tube with B/t = 10. This demonstrates that the B/t ratio
significantly affects the SEA.
Therefore, the main reason that the multi-cell tube can produce higher SEA than
single-cell tube in the same volume of space is that multi-cell tubes can produce lower
ratios of B/t than the single tube. The number of the cells in the multi-cell tube is a
minor reason to improve the energy absorption efficiency. This conclusion is different
from some explanation by other researchers, who think it is the number of the cells
determines the energy absorption capability of the multi-cell tube.
Fig 6.18 SEA of tubes with different number of the cells
It can be understood that more metal materials in the multi-cell tube is involved in the
local plastic buckling deformation in comparison with the single-cell tube. The local
plastic buckling deformation, to a large extent, decides the energy absorption capability
of the structures. This is the main reason why the multi-cell tube produces higher energy
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Chapter 6
6.3.3 Effect of reinforcement for square tubes
An important aspect in structural design is choosing an optimal cross-section profile. As

mentioned in chapter 2, in single thin-walled metal tubes, the energy is mainly
dissipated by membrane deformation and bending deformation along the bending hinge
line during the tube crushing process. It means that the energy absorbed depends mainly
on two factors, which are how much material is involved in the plastic buckling
deformation and how severely these plastic deformations are. Commonly, it is observed
that the severe deformation of combined bending and membrane deformation takes
place near the corners of a square tube. Then it is natural to consider adding more
materials to the corner part to absorb more crash energy. Therefore, the idea of adding
ribs to the corner parts of a cross section is proposed.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Fig 6.19 Deformation shapes of tubes with corner reinforcements
Fig 6.19 shows the cross-section profiles of the square tubes with supporting ribs at the
corners. Fig 6.19(a) shows the original empty square tube in which the side length is 50
mm. Fig 6.19 (b) to (e) show several square tubes where internal supporting ribs are
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Chapter 6
added to the corners of the square tube. The variable B represents the distance from the
corner to the joint point between the rib and the tube wall, which ranges from 3 mm to
25 mm in the models. The thickness of the tubes changes from 1.46 mm to 2.5 mm, to
guarantee that the weight of the structures is kept the same.
It is observed from the simulation results that the more severe deformation happens in
the corner of the tube with supporting ribs and the folding length decreases. It means the
tube with supporting ribs in the corner can absorb more crash energy and improve the
energy absorption efficiency. Fig 6.20 shows the force history of the tubes with and
without supporting ribs. The mean crushing force for the tube without supporting ribs is
clearly lower than that for other tubes with supporting ribs. For those tubes with
supporting ribs, as the position of the supporting ribs moves from the corner to the
centre of the tube, the mean force increases firstly, then the mean force begins to
decrease at a particular value of B.
(e) (c) (d)
(a) (b)
Fig 6.20 Load-time histories of tubes different cross-section profiles
It means that the location of the ribs can affect the energy absorption capability and that
161
Chapter 6
there is an optimal profile existing. In order to further examine the effect of these corner
ribs, more models with different ratios of width to thickness were built to find out the
optimal position of the supporting ribs added to the tube.
Fig 6.21 compares the mean crushing force of the tubes with different rib positions and
B/t ratios. It show that the mean crushing force increases as the ribs location gets closer
to the corners at first. But when the distance reaches a specific value, the mean crushing
force of the tubes starts to fall. It means that there is an optimal position for best energy
Fig 6.21 Mean crushing force of tubes with different cross-section profiles
6.3.4 Transition condition between progressive and global buckling
In Chapter 4, it is demonstrated that the highest SEA can be achieved as the ratio of D/t
is about 10 for the single tube. Lower than this value, progressive buckling will not
occur. Then global buckling may occur or the initial peak force may be too high. For the
multi-cell tube, the transition condition between progressive buckling and global
buckling also needs to be considered and compared with the single-cell tube.
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Chapter 6
The global buckling is an inefficient collapse mode which should be avoided in the
structural design. There is a critical tube length which is related to the initiation of the
global buckling of the tube. Figs 6.22 to 6.24 show the collapse shape and force
histories for the single tube and the multi-cell tube with same width and thickness. The
critical length for the single-cell tube with B/t = 40 for which the global buckling
happens is 230 mm. For the multi-cell tube, the critical length is 110 mm. It can be seen
that the single tube has a longer length for global buckling than the multi-cell tube. Figs
6.22 to 6.24 demonstrate that the multi-cell tube has a higher structural energy
absorption capability than a single tube of the same mass. However, the stability of the
multi-cell tube is less than that of the single tube.
Fig 6.22 The critical length of global buckling of single and multi-cell tubes
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Chapter 6
Fig 6.23 Load-time histories of single tubes with different lengths h
Fig 6.24 Load-time histories of multi-cell tubes with different lengths h
6.4 A new design of impact energy absorber
A new design of the energy absorber is proposed in this section, based on the analysis
presented above. The basic component is composed of two coaxial circular tubes with
different diameters and lengths. The tubes are connected by the supporting ribs, as show
in Fig 6.25. The procedures of the new design are introduced as follows.
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Chapter 6
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 6.25 Coaxial tubes with and without triggers

(a) without trigger (b) with one trigger (c) with two triggers
Fig 6.26 Effect of trigger on the initial peak force
For the double coaxial tubes, adding a circumferential trigger to the large diameter tube
will effectively decrease the initial peak force as compared to the undented tube.
However, the initial peak force, produced by the small diameter tube, still exists. In
order to further reduce this peak force, another circumferential trigger can be introduced
to the small diameter tube, which reduces the initial peak force further in this new
design, as shown in Fig 6.26.
Table 6.1 Geometrical dimensions of the double coaxial tube
Models a b c d e
houter (mm) 100 100 100 100 100
hinner (mm) 100 95 85 75 65
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Chapter 6
In order to control the force-displacement curve and further decrease the initial peak
force. A new approach is introduced, namely, adjusting the length of the small diameter
tube. Fig 6.27 shows double coaxial tube structures, in which the two tubes are
connected by internal rib and the large diameter tube is slightly higher than the tube of
small diameter. The lengths of the tubes are listed in Table 6.1. Thus, because only the
tube with the large diameter produces the contact force, the initial force will decrease.
As the crash process continues, the contact area increase gradually, then the contact
force will increase gradually.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Fig 6.27 Coaxial tubes with different inner tube lengths h
(a) h = 100 mm, (b) h = 95 mm, (c) h = 85 mm, (d) h = 75 mm, (e) h = 65 mm
Fig 6.28 Effect of the length h of the inner tube on the force history
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Chapter 6
The graphs in Fig 6.28 show the effect of the different height of the inner tubes. In the
model, the height of the thinner tube will change from 0.065m to 0.095m. This will
affect the position of the second peak force, which occurs when the striker starts to
make contact with the inner tube. By controlling the height of the thinner tube, the
load-deflection curve can be adjusted to desired shape.
(a) (b)
Fig 6.29 Comparing tubes with and without trigger
Fig 6.30 Comparing the effect of trigger
If a circumferential dent trigger is added to the inner tube, as shown in Fig 6.29, the
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Chapter 6
second peak force also can be effectively eliminated. Then the desired load-deflection
curve can be achieved. Comparisons are made between arrangements with and without
a circumferential dent trigger on the inner tube, as shown in Fig 6.30. The force
deflection curve is almost ideal for energy absorption. The force increases gradually to a
certain value when impact occurs and on reaching this value, it will remain almost
constant throughout the crash process.
Comparing the double coaxial tubes and triple coaxial tubes and fourth coaxial tubes, as
shown in Figs 6.31 and 6.32, the fourth coaxial section showed the highest specific
energy absorption, and the double-cell section is more efficient than the single tube.
Comparing the crushing force between the fourth coaxial section and the single tube, the
SEA increases up to 200%. But as the ratio D/t larger than 150, the mean force
decreases to very low level and can not provide enough energy absorption capability.
Therefore, achieving highest specific energy absorption must involve considering
several factors.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 6.31 Coaxial tubes with internal ribs and circumferential dent trigger
(a) double coaxial tube, (b) triple coaxial tube, (c) quadruple coaxial tube
This new concentric tube structure design includes concentric tubes of different heights
(with circumferential dent trigger), connected by internal webs. The advantage of the
new structure is that the contact force will gradually increase to a stable value in a
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Chapter 6
controlled way. The initial peak force almost disappears. And the axial force only
fluctuates slightly.
Fig 6.32 Force history of coaxial tubes with internal ribs and circumferential dent trigger
(a) double coaxial tube, (b) triple coaxial tube, (c) quadruple coaxial tube
6.5 Summary
The crushing behaviour of multi-cell thin-walled metal tubes has been studied and the
results obtained have been described and discussed in this Chapter. Several conclusions
can be drawn from the analysis.
Firstly, the energy absorption efficiency can be greatly improved by introducing internal
ribs to the tubes. The severe plastic deformation in the local buckling is responsible for
the higher energy absorption. The B/t ratio is the key factor that decides the energy
absorption efficiency. The number of cells of a multi-cell tube only slightly affects the
efficiency of the energy absorption, and it does not affect the initial peak force. But in a
fixed space, the number of cells in the tube cross section determines, to a large extent,
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Chapter 6
the efficiency of the energy absorption.
Secondly, when adding supporting ribs to the corner of the tube, the energy absorption
capability can be effectively improved and there is an optimal position to add the
supporting ribs to achieve best energy absorption.
Thirdly, changing the angle of neighbouring ribs does not improve the energy
absorption efficiency, but can help the stability of the structure.
Fourthly, for the same length of single and multi-cell tube, the global buckling will
firstly occur on the multi-cell tube. The stability of single thin-walled tube decreases
when adding internal ribs inside the tube.
A new energy absorption structure is proposed. By choosing different cross-section

profiles connected by internal webs, different heights of tubes and circumferential dent
triggers, an optimal energy absorption structure, which has low initial peak force and
higher specific energy absorption, can be achieved.
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Chapter 7
CHAPTER 7
General discussion and conclusions
This chapter is intended to draw a brief and clear picture for the whole study and
summarize all of the work done in this thesis. Firstly, a general discussion is given to
summarize all the models examined in this study. Secondly, the main conclusions drawn
from this study are listed. Finally, some recommendations for future work are
suggested.
7.1 General discussion
There are three main objectives in this thesis. The first objective is to investigate the
relation between the localized plastic folding deformation and the corresponding
crushing force and give a deep insight of the collapse mechanism of circular thin-walled
tube under axial loads. The second objective is to investigate how to reduce the initial
peak force and control the collapse beahviour by introducing trigger designs in the
thin-walled metal tube. The third objective is to propose a new structural design which
is based on the analysis given in this thesis, to achieve high energy absorption
efficiency.
The thin-walled tubes examined in this study involve the single circular thin-walled
tube and the multi-cell thin-walled tube. The single thin-walled circular metal tube is the
main structure to be investigated because it is widely used as the basic components of
impact energy absorbers by industry and most theoretical analysis is based on this
geometry profile. Also, its profile is relatively simple and can help to understand the
collapse behaviour in the research.
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Chapter 7
The collapse behaviour of a single thin-walled tube, when subjected to an axial impact
load, is normally characterized by a lot of progressive buckling folds which are
considered to be the most efficient energy absorption modes. These deformation modes
can be symmetric or asymmetric, depending primarily on the section geometry.
The study is intended to gain a clear understanding of the effects the section geometry.
The geometry parameters include the thickness of the tube wall, the diameter of the tube
and the length of the tube. It is demonstrated that the thicker tube wall can achieve
higher specific energy absorption. However, to determine the deformation modes of the
tube, its length and the diameter must also be considered. Using dimensionless
parameters like L/D (length/diameter) and D/t (diameter/thickness) is a suitable choice
and can reveal much extra information. In this study, the ratio of diameter to thickness is
confirmed to be the most important factor to affect the energy absorption efficiency.
Furthermore, the effect of material properties, impact velocity and the mass of
impactors are also investigated in some detail and several important conclusions are
drawn from the analyses.
To achieve higher energy absorption efficiency, multi-cell thin-walled tubes are

proposed and examined. It is demonstrated that the severe plastic deformation in the
local area affects the energy absorbed. The multi-cell thin-walled tube can cause more
material to be involved in the plastic deformation, produce more severe local plastic
buckling, and achieve even higher energy absorption efficiency. The interaction effects
between the tube walls contribute a lot to the structural strength and deformation mode.
In comparison to the single tube, the specific energy absorption can increase extensively,
depending on the profiles of the tube.
The third objective of the thesis is to propose a new structural design. In the study, the
new design is a multi-cell coaxial tube with different tube length, which can effectively
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Chapter 7
reduce the initial peak force and produce high energy absorption efficiency.
Moreover, in order to reduce the initial peak force, three trigger systems are suggested
in our study. These trigger systems can effectively keep the initial peak force below a
certain level and improve the system safety. These triggers can also change the collapse
mode and affect the energy absorption characteristics of the thin-walled tube.
7.2 Conclusions
The main conclusions of the thesis are summarized in this section.
Chapter 3 investigates the entire crushing process, including the initial stage of collapse,
its localization and the subsequent progressive folding. The experimental results include
the careful measurements of the geometric characteristics of the folds and the crushing
response. The relation between the localized plastic deformation and the corresponding
crushing force is built by comparing the cross section of series of specimens and their
load-displacement curves, which give a deep insight of the collapse mechanism of
circular thin-walled tube under axial loads. Each peak force in the load-displacement
curve has been related to the corresponding fold shape. The relation between the energy
absorption capability and the geometrical properties has also been examined.
Furthermore, the static and dynamic behaviour has been found very similar, which
prove that the aluminium alloy is strain-rate insensitivity material.
Chapter 4 focuses on the crushing behaviour of the single thin-walled circular metal
tube. It is demonstrated the effect of the section geometry. A mode classification chart is
established, which describe the relation between the deformation mode and the
geometry parameters. The ratio of diameter to thickness is proved to be the most
important factor to determine the deformation modes. It demonstrates that the higher
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Chapter 7
impact velocity can cause more damage because of the higher peak forces in the
crushing process.
Chapter 5 proposes three different trigger designs, which include holes on the tube wall,
the circumferential indented groove on the tube wall and the taper on the end of the tube.
All the trigger designs can effectively reduce the initial peak force and affect the
collapse behaviour of the thin-walled tube. The experimental study shows that the initial
peak force mainly depends on the size of the trigger, but isn’t affected by locations of
the trigger. But trigger will weak the strength. The bigger trigger size means the loss of
energy absorption capability. The trigger also can affect the collapse mode, mainly
based on the position of the trigger. By controlling the collapse mode, the energy
absorption capability can be improved. Therefore, by choosing the trigger with the right
size and position, an energy absorbing structure with higher energy absorbing capability
and lower initial peak force can be achieved.
Chapter 6 thoroughly investigates the crushing behaviour of the multi-cell thin-walled

tube. The main factors examined include the number of the cell and section geometry. It
is demonstrated that the ratio of the side width of the cell to the thickness (B/t) is the
main factor to determine the energy absorption capability of multi-cell thin-walled tube.
The number of the cells in the multi-cell tube only can slightly affect the specific energy
absorption. This study also proves that single thin-walled tube has better stability than
multi-cell thin-walled tube. A new multi-cell profile which is composed of coaxial tubes
with different lengths is proposed, which can improves energy absorption capability
evidently.
7.3 Future works
The study presented in this thesis is mainly based on the experiment and numerical
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Chapter 7
simulation. One main merit of numerical methods is that the range of data chosen can
be wide. Many extreme conditions, which are difficult to be achieved in the
experimental condition, can be tested by numerical method. Therefore, many results can
give useful instructions for the experimental study. In the future work, if more
experimental study based on this numerical analysis can be conducted, it can help to
improve the reliability of this study, which still needs to be refined and developed
further.
Structural failure like ductile tearing isn’t included in the present study. However, the
tearing and splitting of the thin-walled metal tube in the collapse process commonly
occurs in practice. Therefore, the assessment of the amount of energy dissipated by
ductile tearing is an important research topic for the future research, especially in
numerical study.
While metal structures were still investigated by various researchers, in recently years,
different kinds of new materials, such as functional gradient materials and
fiber-reinforced composites, are becoming the focus of many authors. These kinds of
materials absorb kinetic energy by various mechanisms and exhibit great energy
absorption characteristics. Furthermore, with the development of new manufacturing
technologies in the present day, the costs of manufacturing are reduced dramatically,
which make the applications of these new materials in industry possible. However, the
research on these new materials, although gain much attention, many understandings are
still limited. Therefore, it is necessary to do more in-depth study to better understand the
energy absorption characteristics of these new materials, experimentally and
theoretically.
Another interesting and open question in structural crashworthiness is how to maximize

the capability of the energy absorption of structures. Although optimal works was
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Chapter 7
carried out in the thesis, it is only limited to some comparative study. To achieve the
most weight-efficient design of crush members, structural optimization technique
should be employed, with the help of the clear physical understanding of the crushing
mechanics of thin-walled tubes. However, limited effort has been devoted so far to the
design optimization of crashworthiness criteria despite its great practical importance. So
it would be interesting and helpful to apply the structural optimization to improve the
design of the energy absorption devices.
176
Reference
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IMPACT ENERGY ABSORPTION ANALYSIS

OF DIFFERENT THIN-WALLED TUBES

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER FOR THE

The School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering

List of Contents ................................................................................................................. 2

2.3.2 Theoretical prediction for the single square tube ..................................... 51

4.3.2.2 Modelling considerations for impact simulation......................... 101

6.2.3 Effect of angle of internal ribs ............................................................... 151

Fig 1.1 The design of different energy absorbers............................................................ 19

trigger ................................................................................................................... 169

Table 2.1 List of theoretical models ................................................................................ 55

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. S Olutunde Oyadiji,

Energy absorption capability of the structure is one important aspect in modern

1.1 Background of the thesis

Fig 1.1 The design of different energy absorbers

Generally speaking, the essence of crashworthiness is energy management and the

where Av is the dimensionless acceleration av ⁄g, av is the average head acceleration

HIC = V2 a1.5 ⁄g 2.5 (1.3)

1.2 Objectives of the thesis

1.3 Contributions to knowledge

instructions for the further experimental studies.

(3) A thoroughly investigation of multi-cell tubes is presented in chapter 6. Several new

1.4 Outline of the thesis

Chapter 1 provides some background about structural crashworthiness and indentifies

Chapter 2 briefly reviews the state-of-the-art of knowledge on structural

Chapter 3 investigates the crushing behavior of thin-walled circular tubes

Chapter 4 numerically investigated the main factors involved in energy absorption of

Chapter 6 systematically analyses the crash behaviour of multi-cell thin-walled metal

multi-cell structural design has been proposed and examined.

2.1 Introduction to thin-walled energy absorbing structures

According to their energy absorbing characteristics, energy absorbers can be divided

2.2 Introduction to thin-walled metal tubes under axial loads

2.2.1 Axial collapse modes

 The symmetrical mode is often known as the concertina (ring) mode.

 Euler (global) buckling mode is an inefficient mode of energy absorption with

concertina mode (symmetrical mode) mix mode

diamond mode (asymmetrical mode) Euler-type buckling

2.2.2 Main variables in impact analysis

Many parameters have been introduced in impact analysis to evaluate the

 average crush force

2.3 Theoretical models

become dependent on the axial force.

A more realistic radially outward folding mechanism was formulated by Abramowicz et

2.3.1 Theoretical prediction for the single circular tube

In all these theoretical models, four models proposed by Alexander, Abramowicz,

2.3.1.1 Alexander model

dWb = 2M ∙ π2R ∙ dθ + 2M ∙ π(2R + 2Hsinθ) ∙ dθ (2.1)

θ increasing from 0 to π⁄2, the total work done is

= 2√3σ0 t 2 ∙ π(πR + H) (2.2)

dWs = 2πσ0 H2 tdθcosθ

The integrated stretching work done is

The plastic half-wavelength, H is determined by minimizing this expression as follows:

2.3.1.2 The Abramowicz model

average force is obtained. As seen in Fig 2.4, an effective crushing distance is

where from Abramovicz [77] Xm =0.28(H/2). Thus,

Fig 2.4 Effective crushing distance [77]

2.3.1.3 Wierzbicki model

Wierzbicki et al. [59]. It is known as the eccentricity factor and denoted by m.

1. The super folding element (SE)