Data Structures & Algorithms

About the Tutorial

Data Structures are the programmatic way of storing data so that data can be used
efficiently. Almost every enterprise application uses various types of data structures in one
or the other way.

This tutorial will give you a great understanding on Data Structures needed to
understand the complexity of enterprise level applications and need of algorithms,
and data structures.

Audience
This tutorial is designed for Computer Science graduates as well as Software Professionals
who are willing to learn data structures and algorithm programming in simple and easy
steps.

After completing this tutorial you will be at intermediate level of expertise from where you
can take yourself to higher level of expertise.

Prerequisites
Before proceeding with this tutorial, you should have a basic understanding of C
programming language, text editor, and execution of programs, etc.

Copyright and Disclaimer

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 Data Structures & Algorithms

Compile & Execute Online

For most of the examples given in this tutorial you will find Try it option, so just make use
of this option to execute your programs on the spot and enjoy your learning.

Try the following example using the Try it option available at the top right corner of the
following sample code box −

#include <stdio.h>

int main(){
/* My first program in C */
printf("Hello, World! \n");

return 0;
}

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 Data Structures & Algorithms

Table of Contents
About the Tutorial ............................................................................................................................................ i
Audience........................................................................................................................................................... i
Prerequisites..................................................................................................................................................... i
Copyright and Disclaimer .............................................................................................................................i
Compile & Execute Online ............................................................................................................................... ii
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................................... iii

BASICS.........................................................................................................................................1

1. Overview .................................................................................................................................................2
Characteristics of a Data Structure.................................................................................................................. 2
Need for Data Structure .................................................................................................................................. 2
Execution Time Cases ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Basic Terminology ........................................................................................................................................... 3

2. Environment Setup ..................................................................................................................................4

Try it Option Online ......................................................................................................................................... 4
Local Environment Setup................................................................................................................................. 4
Installation on UNIX/Linux............................................................................................................................... 5
Installation on Mac OS..................................................................................................................................... 5
Installation on Windows.................................................................................................................................. 6

ALGORITHM................................................................................................................................7

3. Algorithms ─ Basics ...................................................................................................................................8

Characteristics of an Algorithm ....................................................................................................................... 8
How to Write an Algorithm? ........................................................................................................................... 9
Algorithm Analysis......................................................................................................................................... 10
Algorithm Complexity.................................................................................................................................... 11
Space Complexity .......................................................................................................................................... 11
Time Complexity ............................................................................................................................................ 11

4. Asymptotic Analysis...............................................................................................................................12
Asymptotic Notations .................................................................................................................................... 12
Common Asymptotic Notations .................................................................................................................... 15

5. Greedy Algorithms .................................................................................................................................16

Counting Coins............................................................................................................................................... 16

6. Divide & Conquer....................................................................................................................................18

Divide/Break .................................................................................................................................................. 18
Conquer/Solve ............................................................................................................................................... 18
Merge/Combine ............................................................................................................................................ 19

7. Dynamic Programming............................................................................................................................20

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DATA STRUCTURES ...................................................................................................................21

8. Basic Concepts .......................................................................................................................................22

Data Definition .............................................................................................................................................. 22
Data Object.................................................................................................................................................... 22
Data Type....................................................................................................................................................... 22
Basic Operations............................................................................................................................................ 23

9. Arrays ....................................................................................................................................................24
Array Representation .................................................................................................................................... 24
Basic Operations............................................................................................................................................ 25
Insertion Operation ....................................................................................................................................... 25
Array Insertions ............................................................................................................................................. 27
Insertion at the Beginning of an Array .......................................................................................................... 28
Insertion at the Given Index of an Array ....................................................................................................... 30
Insertion After the Given Index of an Array .................................................................................................. 32
Insertion Before the Given Index of an Array................................................................................................ 34
Deletion Operation ........................................................................................................................................ 36
Search Operation........................................................................................................................................... 37
Update Operation.......................................................................................................................................... 39

LINKED LIST...............................................................................................................................41

10. Linked List ─ Basics..................................................................................................................................42

Linked List Representation ............................................................................................................................ 42
Types of Linked List ....................................................................................................................................... 42
Basic Operations............................................................................................................................................ 43
Insertion Operation ....................................................................................................................................... 43
Deletion Operation ........................................................................................................................................ 44
Reverse Operation......................................................................................................................................... 45
Linked List Program in C ................................................................................................................................ 46

11. Doubly Linked List...................................................................................................................................55

Doubly Linked List Representation ................................................................................................................ 55
Basic Operations............................................................................................................................................ 55
Insertion Operation ....................................................................................................................................... 56
Deletion Operation ........................................................................................................................................ 57
Insertion at the End of an Operation............................................................................................................. 57
Doubly Linked List Program in C .................................................................................................................... 58

12. Circular Linked List ..................................................................................................................................67

Singly Linked List as Circular .......................................................................................................................... 67
Doubly Linked List as Circular ........................................................................................................................ 67
Basic Operations............................................................................................................................................ 67
Insertion Operation ....................................................................................................................................... 68
Deletion Operation ........................................................................................................................................ 68
Display List Operation.................................................................................................................................... 69
Circular Linked List Program in C ................................................................................................................... 69

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STACK & QUEUE........................................................................................................................74

13. Stack ......................................................................................................................................................75

Stack Representation..................................................................................................................................... 75
Basic Operations............................................................................................................................................ 76
peek()............................................................................................................................................................. 76
isfull()............................................................................................................................................................. 77
isempty()........................................................................................................................................................ 77
Push Operation.............................................................................................................................................. 78
Pop Operation ............................................................................................................................................... 79
Stack Program in C......................................................................................................................................... 81

14. Expression Parsing ..................................................................................................................................84

Infix Notation................................................................................................................................................. 84
Prefix Notation .............................................................................................................................................. 84
Postfix Notation............................................................................................................................................. 84
Parsing Expressions ....................................................................................................................................... 85
Postfix Evaluation Algorithm ......................................................................................................................... 86
Expression Parsing Using Stack...................................................................................................................... 86

15. Queue .....................................................................................................................................................92

Queue Representation .................................................................................................................................. 92
Basic Operations............................................................................................................................................ 92
peek()............................................................................................................................................................. 93
isfull()............................................................................................................................................................. 93
isempty()........................................................................................................................................................ 94
Enqueue Operation ....................................................................................................................................... 95
Dequeue Operation ....................................................................................................................................... 96
Queue Program in C ...................................................................................................................................... 98

SEARCHING TECHNIQUES........................................................................................................102

16. Linear Search .......................................................................................................................................103

Linear Search Program in C ......................................................................................................................... 104

17. Binary Search ........................................................................................................................................107

How Binary Search Works? ......................................................................................................................... 107
Binary Search Program in C ......................................................................................................................... 110

18. Interpolation Search .............................................................................................................................113

Positioning in Binary Search ........................................................................................................................ 113
Position Probing in Interpolation Search..................................................................................................... 114
Interpolation Search Program in C .............................................................................................................. 116

19. Hash Table ............................................................................................................................................118

Hashing ........................................................................................................................................................ 118
Linear Probing.............................................................................................................................................. 119
Basic Operations.......................................................................................................................................... 120
Data Item ..................................................................................................................................................... 120

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Hash Method ............................................................................................................................................... 120

Search Operation......................................................................................................................................... 120
Insert Operation .......................................................................................................................................... 121
Delete Operation ......................................................................................................................................... 122
Hash Table Program in C ............................................................................................................................. 123

SORTING TECHNIQUES............................................................................................................128

20. Sorting Algorithm..................................................................................................................................129

In-place Sorting and Not-in-place Sorting ................................................................................................... 129
Stable and Not Stable Sorting...................................................................................................................... 129
Adaptive and Non-Adaptive Sorting Algorithm ........................................................................................... 130
Important Terms.......................................................................................................................................... 130

21. Bubble Sort Algorithm ..........................................................................................................................132

How Bubble Sort Works?............................................................................................................................. 132
Bubble Sort Program in C ............................................................................................................................ 136

22. Insertion Sort ........................................................................................................................................140

How Insertion Sort Works? ......................................................................................................................... 140
Insertion Sort Program in C ......................................................................................................................... 143

23. Selection Sort........................................................................................................................................147

How Selection Sort Works? ......................................................................................................................... 147
Selection Sort Program in C ......................................................................................................................... 150

24. Merge Sort Algorithm ...........................................................................................................................153

How Merge Sort Works? ............................................................................................................................. 153
Merge Sort Program in C ............................................................................................................................. 156

25. Shell Sort ..............................................................................................................................................158

How Shell Sort Works? ................................................................................................................................ 158
Shell Sort Program in C ................................................................................................................................ 162

26. Quick Sort .............................................................................................................................................166

Partition in Quick Sort ................................................................................................................................. 166
Quick Sort Pivot Algorithm .......................................................................................................................... 166
Quick Sort Pivot Pseudocode ...................................................................................................................... 167
Quick Sort Algorithm ................................................................................................................................... 167
Quick Sort Pseudocode................................................................................................................................ 168
Quick Sort Program in C .............................................................................................................................. 168

GRAPH DATA STRUCTURE .......................................................................................................172

27. Graphs ..................................................................................................................................................173

Graph Data Structure .................................................................................................................................. 173
Basic Operations.......................................................................................................................................... 175

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28. Depth First Traversal............................................................................................................................176

Depth First Traversal in C ............................................................................................................................ 179

29. Breadth First Traversal.........................................................................................................................184

Breadth First Traversal in C ......................................................................................................................... 186

TREE DATA STRUCTURE ..........................................................................................................192

30. Tree ......................................................................................................................................................193

Important Terms.......................................................................................................................................... 193
Binary Search Tree Representation ............................................................................................................. 194
Tree Node .................................................................................................................................................... 194
BST Basic Operations ................................................................................................................................... 195
Insert Operation .......................................................................................................................................... 195
Search Operation......................................................................................................................................... 197
Tree Traversal in C ....................................................................................................................................... 198

31. Tree Traversal .......................................................................................................................................204

In-order Traversal ........................................................................................................................................ 204
Pre-order Traversal...................................................................................................................................... 205
Post-order Traversal .................................................................................................................................... 206
Tree Traversal in C ....................................................................................................................................... 207

32. Binary Search Tree ................................................................................................................................213

Representation ............................................................................................................................................ 213
Basic Operations.......................................................................................................................................... 214
Node ............................................................................................................................................................ 214
Search Operation......................................................................................................................................... 214
Insert Operation .......................................................................................................................................... 215

33. AVL Trees .............................................................................................................................................217

AVL Rotations .............................................................................................................................................. 218

34. Spanning Tree .......................................................................................................................................222

General Properties of Spanning Tree .......................................................................................................... 222
Mathematical Properties of Spanning Tree................................................................................................. 223
Application of Spanning Tree ...................................................................................................................... 223
Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)................................................................................................................... 223
Minimum Spanning-Tree Algorithm ............................................................................................................ 223
Kruskal's Spanning Tree Algorithm .............................................................................................................. 224
Prim's Spanning Tree Algorithm .................................................................................................................. 227

35. Heaps....................................................................................................................................................231
Max Heap Construction Algorithm .............................................................................................................. 232
Max Heap Deletion Algorithm ..................................................................................................................... 233

RECURSION .............................................................................................................................234

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36. Recursion ─ Basics.................................................................................................................................235

Properties .................................................................................................................................................... 235
Implementation ........................................................................................................................................... 236
Analysis of Recursion ................................................................................................................................... 236
Time Complexity .......................................................................................................................................... 236
Space Complexity ........................................................................................................................................ 237

37. Tower of Hanoi .....................................................................................................................................238

Rules ............................................................................................................................................................ 238
Algorithm..................................................................................................................................................... 242
Tower of Hanoi in C ..................................................................................................................................... 245

38. Fibonacci Series ....................................................................................................................................249

Fibonacci Iterative Algorithm ...................................................................................................................... 250
Fibonacci Interactive Program in C.............................................................................................................. 250
Fibonacci Recursive Algorithm .................................................................................................................... 252
Fibonacci Recursive Program in C................................................................................................................ 252

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 Data Structures & Algorithms

Basics

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 1. Overview

Data Structure is a systematic way to organize data in order to use it efficiently. Following
terms are the foundation terms of a data structure.

 Interface − Each data structure has an interface. Interface represents the set of
operations that a data structure supports. An interface only provides the list of
supported operations, type of parameters they can accept and return type of these
operations.

 Implementation − Implementation provides the internal representation of a

data structure. Implementation also provides the definition of the algorithms used
in the operations of the data structure.

Characteristics of a Data Structure

 Correctness − Data structure implementation should implement its interface
correctly.

 Time Complexity − Running time or the execution time of operations of data

structure must be as small as possible.

 Space Complexity − Memory usage of a data structure operation should be as

little as possible.

Need for Data Structure

As applications are getting complex and data rich, there are three common problems that
applications face now-a-days.

 Data Search − Consider an inventory of 1 million(10 6) items of a store. If the

application is to search an item, it has to search an item in 1 million(106) items
every time slowing down the search. As data grows, search will become slower.

 Processor Speed − Processor speed although being very high, falls limited if the
data grows to billion records.

 Multiple Requests − As thousands of users can search data simultaneously on a

web server, even the fast server fails while searching the data.

To solve the above-mentioned problems, data structures come to rescue. Data can be
organized in a data structure in such a way that all items may not be required to be
searched, and the required data can be searched almost instantly.

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 Data Structures & Algorithms

Execution Time Cases

There are three cases which are usually used to compare various data structure's execution
time in a relative manner.

 Worst Case − This is the scenario where a particular data structure operation
takes maximum time it can take. If an operation's worst case time is ƒ(n) then
this operation will not take more than ƒ(n) time, where ƒ(n) represents function
of n.

 Average Case − This is the scenario depicting the average execution time of an
operation of a data structure. If an operation takes ƒ(n) time in execution, then
m operations will take mƒ(n) time.

 Best Case − This is the scenario depicting the least possible execution time of an
operation of a data structure. If an operation takes ƒ(n) time in execution, then
the actual operation may take time as the random number which would be
maximum as ƒ(n).

Basic Terminology
 Data − Data are values or set of values.

 Data Item − Data item refers to single unit of values.

 Group Items − Data items that are divided into sub items are called as Group
Items.

 Elementary Items − Data items that cannot be divided are called as Elementary
Items.

 Attribute and Entity − An entity is that which contains certain attributes or

properties, which may be assigned values.

 Entity Set − Entities of similar attributes form an entity set.

 Field − Field is a single elementary unit of information representing an attribute

of an entity.

 Record − Record is a collection of field values of a given entity.

 File − File is a collection of records of the entities in a given entity set.

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 2. Environment Setup

Tryit Option Online

You really do not need to set up your own environment to start learning C programming
language. Reason is very simple, we already have set up C Programming environment
online, so that you can compile and execute all the available examples online at the same
time when you are doing your theory work. This gives you confidence in what you are
reading and to check the result with different options. Feel free to modify any example
and execute it online.

Try the following example using the Try it option available at the top right corner of the
sample code box −

#include <stdio.h>

int main(){
/* My first program in C */
printf("Hello, World! \n");

return 0;
}

For most of the examples given in this tutorial, you will find Try it option, so just make
use of it and enjoy your learning.

Local Environment Setup

If you are still willing to set up your environment for C programming language, you
need the following two tools available on your computer, (a) Text Editor and (b) The C
Compiler.

Text Editor
This will be used to type your program. Examples of few editors include Windows Notepad,
OS Edit command, Brief, Epsilon, EMACS, and vim or vi.

The name and the version of the text editor can vary on different operating systems. For
example, Notepad will be used on Windows, and vim or vi can be used on Windows as well
as Linux or UNIX.

The files you create with your editor are called source files and contain program source
code. The source files for C programs are typically named with the extension ".c".

Before starting your programming, make sure you have one text editor in place and you
have enough experience to write a computer program, save it in a file, compile it, and
finally execute it.

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 Data Structures & Algorithms

The C Compiler
The source code written in the source file is the human readable source for your program.
It needs to be "compiled", to turn into machine language so that your CPU can actually
execute the program as per the given instructions.

This C programming language compiler will be used to compile your source code into a
final executable program. We assume you have the basic knowledge about a programming
language compiler.

Most frequently used and free available compiler is GNU C/C++ compiler. Otherwise, you
can have compilers either from HP or Solaris if you have respective Operating Systems
(OS).

The following section guides you on how to install GNU C/C++ compiler on various OS.
We are mentioning C/C++ together because GNU GCC compiler works for both C and C++
programming languages.

Installation on UNIX/Linux
If you are using Linux or UNIX, then check whether GCC is installed on your system by
entering the following command from the command line −

$ gcc -v

If you have GNU compiler installed on your machine, then it should print a message such
as the following −

Using built-in specs.

Target: i386-redhat-linux
Configured with: ../configure --prefix=/usr .......
Thread model: posix
gcc version 4.1.2 20080704 (Red Hat 4.1.2-46)

If GCC is not installed, then you will have to install it yourself using the detailed instructions
available at http://gcc.gnu.org/install/

This tutorial has been written based on Linux and all the given examples have been
compiled on Cent OS flavor of Linux system.

Installation on Mac OS
If you use Mac OS X, the easiest way to obtain GCC is to download the Xcode development
environment from Apple's website and follow the simple installation instructions. Once you
have Xcode setup, you will be able to use GNU compiler for C/C++.

Xcode is currently available at developer.apple.com/technologies/tools/

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 Data Structures & Algorithms

Installation on Windows
To install GCC on Windows, you need to install MinGW. To install MinGW, go to the MinGW
homepage, www.mingw.org, and follow the link to the MinGW download page. Download
the latest version of the MinGW installation program, which should be named MinGW-
<version>.exe.

While installing MinWG, at a minimum, you must install gcc-core, gcc-g++, binutils, and
the MinGW runtime, but you may wish to install more.

Add the bin subdirectory of your MinGW installation to your PATH environment variable,
so that you can specify these tools on the command line by their simple names.

When the installation is complete, you will be able to run gcc, g++, ar, ranlib, dlltool, and
several other GNU tools from the Windows command line.

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 Data Structures & Algorithms

Algorithm

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 3. Algorithms ─ Basics

Algorithm is a step-by-step procedure, which defines a set of instructions to be executed

in a certain order to get the desired output. Algorithms are generally created independent
of underlying languages, i.e. an algorithm can be implemented in more than one
programming language.

From the data structure point of view, following are some important categories of
algorithms −

 Search − Algorithm to search an item in a data structure.

 Sort − Algorithm to sort items in a certain order.

 Insert − Algorithm to insert item in a data structure.

 Update − Algorithm to update an existing item in a data structure.

 Delete − Algorithm to delete an existing item from a data structure.

Characteristics of an Algorithm
Not all procedures can be called an algorithm. An algorithm should have the following
characteristics −

 Unambiguous − Algorithm should be clear and unambiguous. Each of its steps

(or phases), and their inputs/outputs should be clear and must lead to only one
meaning.

 Input − An algorithm should have 0 or more well-defined inputs.

 Output − An algorithm should have 1 or more well-defined outputs, and should

match the desired output.

 Finiteness − Algorithms must terminate after a finite number of steps.

 Feasibility − Should be feasible with the available resources.

 Independent − An algorithm should have step-by-step directions, which should

be independent of any programming code.

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 Data Structures & Algorithms

How to Write an Algorithm?

There are no well-defined standards for writing algorithms. Rather, it is problem

and resource dependent. Algorithms are never written to support a particular
programming code.

As we know that all programming languages share basic code constructs like
loops (do, for, while), flow-control (if-else), etc. These common constructs can be used
to write an algorithm.

We write algorithms in a step-by-step manner, but it is not always the case. Algorithm
writing is a process and is executed after the problem domain is well-defined. That is,
we should know the problem domain, for which we are designing a solution.

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