What Is Theory

WHAT IS THEORY?
Theories have commonsencially been defined by Webster’s New Encyclopedic

Dictionary as plausible or scientifically acceptable general principles offered to explain a
phenomena.
Kerlinger(1973) defines a theory as “a set of inter-related constructs,definitions and
propositions that give a systematic view about phenomena” by specifying relations
among variables with the purpose of explaining and predicting such phenomena.
According to Severin and Tankard(1982), a theory “is a set of ideas of systematic

generalizations based on scientific observation(and) leading to further empirical
observation”.
Furthermore, Forcese and Richer (1973), is ” a model that has been tested” meaning that
its concepts have been operationalized and the relationship among the variables
verified. They also added that a theory ” consists of a set of propotions that are
interrelated, a proposition taken to mean a verified statement of relationship between
variables”.
Also, Folarin (1998) cites Wilbur Schramm’s (1963) definition of theory as a “crap
detector” which enables us to separate scientific statements from unscientific ones.
Babbie (1986:37), defines a theory as “a systematic explanation for the observed facts
and laws that relate to a particular aspect of life…” Adding that a theory must contain
“the elements of concept, variables and statements”
In the field of Communication , theories are however postulated to discover the effects,
influence , effectiveness and efficacy of mass medicated messages on individual and by
extension the society.
Clearly, therefore, communication theory is “a set of ideas which provides an

explanation for communication phenomena”. (Daramola , 2003)
MUTUALITY OF RESEARCH AND THEORY

Theory provides logical support while research are closely related through scientific
method.
Social theory and social research are mutual, in the sense that they both use the
systematic and scientific methods. Another point is fact that they exist in the origin of
each other. A well-researched subject forms a theory; and a theory can also spring up
from a hypothesis that begins a research.
Theory and research are interwoven and work hand in hand. One cannot do without the
other. The existence of one depends on the other.
FUNCTIONS OF THEORIES
A theory has basic functions that it performs. These are:
* Theories help in describing, predicting and explaining a phenomenon.
* Theories help to link facts together. Without theories, facts will stand isolated and
fragmented.
* It serves as a ‘crap detector’ which enables us to seperate scientific statements from

unscientific ones.
WHY WE STUDY THEORIES.

* To help us manage reality;
* To enable us put facts in perspective;
* To gain intellectual satisfaction;
* To help us predict what will happen;
* To help us measure any scientific endeavour, research, report and experiment etcetera.
* It trains the mind to think in an abstract and analytical fashion.
* It serves as a channel through which an accepted body of knowledge is communicated
* While a specific theory may not provide solutions to a problem, the analyticak process
that it entails enables us to think scientifically.
ORIGIN OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORIES.

Mass Communication Theories are a set of theories about communication processes
generated from a sender and delivered simultaneously to a mass of receivers through
transmitting devices (media).
Mass Communication Theories have taken a large portion of media studies since the
birth of mass media. Denis McQuail attempted to classify mass communication and
media effects theories, distinguishing 4 main phases.
FOUR PHASES OF MASS COMMUNICATION. HISTORY

The first phase starts with origin of mass media, and continue during all 1930s. This
period is characterized by passive audiences and powerful media, with strong and direct
effects on individuals. Mass communication is mainly aimed at people’s behaviors
manipulation. Main theories of this phase are: Propaganda and Hypodermic Needle
Theory.
The second phase, which goes from the 1940s to the 1960s, in a more optimistic
perspective starts considering the limitations of mass communication. Media are not so
powerful, because audiences are resistant to their messages. Resistance is based upon
psychological individual traits and a crucial role is played by social context and Opinion
Leaders. In this period proliferate many mass communication theories such: Persuasion
Theory, Two Steps Flow Model, Laswell’s 5 W’s Model, and the Limited Effects Theory.
During the third phase, going from 1970 to 1980, there is a general step backward to
the first phase with some relevant differences. Media are again considered very
powerful, but their effects are no longer immediate and impacting the short run of an
individual; mass communication is seen as a long run influencer able to shape an
individual competences, knowledge, values and beliefs. Most important theories of this
phase are: Play Theory, Uses and Gratifications Theory, Spiral of Silence, and Agenda
Setting Theory.
The fourth phase started in the 1980s, and is characterized by active audiences who
are able to mitigate media effects on individuals’ behaviors. McQuail defined this last,
and current phase, with the term “Negotiated Influence”. Media take the role of a social
constructivist tool, meaning that their aim is to raise up consciousness in individuals as
media programs are negotiated by individuals themselves with their expressed
preferences. People have the power to choose what information and how they want it to
be delivered. There is a tendency to reconsider Lazarsfeld’s perspective, as suggested in
1992 by Wolf, as far as it concerns the weight of personal relationships on individuals’
values, beliefs and behaviors. Social influence is not dictated by media, but goes through
media and especially new media but is driven by social contexts. A strong example of
this new concept are online social networks. Most relevant theories of this period are:
Cultivation Theory and Dependence Theory.
PARADIGM SHIFTS IN MASS COMMUNICATION THEORIES
Paradigm shift in mass communication refers to a world view or groups of beliefs that
researchers adopt to look at issues concerning mass communication. It is a
transformation from one organizing theoretical perspective to another In the words of
Thomas Kuhnn in his book titled ‘The structure of scientific revolution”, he argues that
scientific advancement is not evolutionary, but rather is a series of peaceful interludes;
punctuated by intellectually violent revolutions and in those revolutions, one conceptual
world view is replaced ny another.
Though paradigm shifts require rejection of one view of reality in favour of a radically
new order, most of these theories are not entirely new, but they were built om existing
ones. They are for the most part updated versions of old ones.
Shift therefore occur when it becomes increasingly difficult for one paradigm to answer
all the questions posed by changes in society due to new technologies and increase in
knowledge and understanding. The paradigm shift in the history of mass
communication are as follow:
* The All Powerful Media Paradigm

This perspective was the dominant paradigm in the Mass Society Era, when print was
the dominant medium. It originated in the nineteen century. People believd that the
media were all powerful and the messages were likened to a bullet released at an
audience member, which has immediate and direct impact on the audience.
The media were considered to have the power to profoundly shape people’s perceptions
of the social world and to manipulate their actions in subtle gut highly effective ways.
(M’bayo, 2005:22)
However, this era was characterized.by two dominant perspectives; one that argued for
the positive effects of the All Powerful Media and the other which branded their effects
as negative. Scholars challenged this theory, arguing that it has no scientific basis, but
they contended that no single theory could encompass the wide varieties. Of effects.
Attributed to the media by the mass society theorists nor could any paradigm provide
adequate. Explanation for all observations. The all powerful media theory eventually
collapsed. Under its own weight (Baran 1999: 319), ushering in the Limited Effects
Paradigm.
* The Limited Effects Paradigm

This era is believed to have emerged in 1938, When an Actor/Director Orsen Welles
pulled an Halloween joke that creatures from Mars had invaded earth. This made about
1 million Americans to flee their home. Some scholars thought that it is because if the All
Powerful Media theory but lazersfeld and his colleagues conducted a research which
shows that, another 5 million Americans remained undisturbed.
Further investigation revealed that media audiences have one or more psychologicak
traits that made them especially susceptible to media influence: Fatalism, Phobic
personality, Emotional insecurity and lack of self-confidence.
Lazarsfeld and his colleagues were able to proof that the limtation was due to individual
differences such as intelligence and educational levels, social categories such as religion
and political affiliations ans personal relationships such as friends and family. They
argued that media were no longer feared as instruments of political oppression and
manipulation because the public itself was viewed as very resistant to persuasion and
extremist manipulation.
The theories that emerged from these systematic and scientific studies of media effects
are now called the limited effects theories which include, the Two-Step Flow Theory
which states that messages pass from the media through opinion leaders to opinion
followers, the Uses and Gratifications Theory, the Diffusion of Innovations Theory,
among others. Lazarsfeld and his colleague provided evidence that media rarely and
indirectly influence individuals.
During the 2nd world war, Carl hovland, an expert in attitude change led the team to
measure the effectiveness of these new media campaigns and he produced some of the
century’s most influential work like:
Attitude Change Theory, Dissonance Theory, Klapper’s reinforcement Theory and a host
of others
This perspective dominated the 50’s, 60’s and 70’s and its influence echoes even today.
* Moderate Effects Paradigm

Owing to the shortcomings of the mass society theory was inadequate in explaining
media impact, so was the limited effect perspective which could not explain changes in
society and mass communication. But when television joined radio, everything changed
because everyone has almost equal opportunity to consume media content firsthand and
the “no effect” verdict was revisited.
The study carried by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw on the 1968 American
Presidential Election showed that the media were quite powerful in setting agenda for
the public. This led to the development of the Agenda Setting Theory which posits that
the mass media predetermined what issues are regarded as important at any givem
time. (Jeffres 1997:15). (Folarin 2003:68) said that Agenda Setting Theory does not
ascribe to the media the power to determine what people actually think, but it does
ascribe to them the power to determine what to think about (Folarin 2003: 68).
* The Powerful Media Revisited

With the birth of television and new technologies such as cable, VCR, Satellite and
computer networks, and now the internet, mediating factors such as church, family and
school began to lose their traditional socializing role for many people. It has become
increasingly difficult to ignore the media and their increasing influence especially in the
areas of socialization, perception of social reality and knowledge of public and political
issues due to Agenda Setting by the. Mass media, acquisition of cognitive and motor
skills, and satisfaction of individual needs for entertainment diversion. (Baran
1999:330). Noelle Neuman presented the power of the media in her article “Return to
the consept of Mass media” and her Spiral of Silence theory. Spiral of science theory is a
public opinion. Theory which posits that the mass media are the most readily available
source for assessing the prevailing public opinion climate and whatever view
predominates in the media will tend to be magnified in the subsequent stages of
personal opinion formation and expression. Neuman argues that truly certain parts of
the society can make their opinion knwon and thus have greater influence over public
policy, consequently, the news media are a prominent source of information about
public opinion and even a formulator, are quite powerful. This belief lead to the creation
of the following theories which are:
* Dependency Theory by Melvin Defluer and Sandra Ball Rokeach.

* George Gerbner’s Cultivation Analysis
* Çritical Çultural Theory
* Emerging Media
As a result of the new technologies and their applications appear to have set the stage
for a Paradigm change. Marshall McLuhan in this theory of Technological Determinism
states that we are living in a new age of technology that has never being experienced
before and these new media are changing the way people think, act and feel and that this
current technological environment will be seen as a major turning point in the history of
communication.
Luhan argues that it is the medium itself that alters human perception and affects
human consciousness because electronic technology has become extension of our
senses. This is why the radio and telephone are extensions of our ears, Television and
Computer extends the eyes. This in turn leads to the saying that “the medium is the
message”
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WHAT IS THEORY?

Theories have commonsencially been defined by Webster’s New Encyclopedic

According to Severin and Tankard(1982), a theory “is a set of ideas of systematic

Clearly, therefore, communication theory is “a set of ideas which provides an

MUTUALITY OF RESEARCH AND THEORY

* Theories help in describing, predicting and explaining a phenomenon.

* It serves as a ‘crap detector’ which enables us to seperate scientific statements from

WHY WE STUDY THEORIES.

* To enable us put facts in perspective;

* To gain intellectual satisfaction;

* To help us predict what will happen;

* It trains the mind to think in an abstract and analytical fashion.

* It serves as a channel through which an accepted body of knowledge is communicated

ORIGIN OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORIES.

FOUR PHASES OF MASS COMMUNICATION. HISTORY

* The All Powerful Media Paradigm

* The Limited Effects Paradigm

* Moderate Effects Paradigm

* The Powerful Media Revisited

* Dependency Theory by Melvin Defluer and Sandra Ball Rokeach.

* Çritical Çultural Theory

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