CHAPTER-V

FINANCIAL MARKETS IN INDIA

Financial markets in India comprise the money market Government

securities market, capital market, insurance market, and the foreign exchange
market. Recently, the derivatives market has also emerged 1 . With banks
having already been allowed to undertake insurance business, bane assurance
market has also emerged in a big way.

Till the early 1990s most of the financial markets were characterized
by controls over the pricing of financial assets, restrictions on flows or
transactions, barrier to entry, low liquidity and high transaction costs. These
characteristics came in the way of development of the markets and allocative
efficiently of resources channeled through them. From 1991 onward,
financial market reforms have emphasized the strengthening of the price
discovery process easing restrictions on transactions, reducing transaction
costs and enhancing systemic liquidity.

5.1 Classification of Financial Markets2

Financial markets are classified in different ways, which are given below:

1. On the Basis of Claim on Financial Assets.

2. On the Basis of Maturity of the claims.

3. On the basis of Existing claim or New Claim.

4. On the Basis of Domicile.

A. On the Basis of Claim on financial Assets: The claims traded in a

financial market may be for either a fixed amount or a residual amount. Based
on claim on financial assets, financial markets are following two types: Equity
market and Debt Market.

Equity Market3: Securities are conventionally divided into equities and debt
securities. Financial markets in which equity instruments are traded are

1
Dr Benson and Dr. s. Mohan, ― Financial Market and Financial services in India‖,
July 2012,p.1
2
Ibid.
 159

known as equity market. This market is also referred as the stock market. Two
types of securities are traded in an equity market namely equity shares and
preference shares. Preferred stock represents an equity claim that entitles the
investor to receive a fixed amount of dividend. An important distinction
between these two forms of equity securities lies in the degree to which they
may participate in any distribution of earnings and capital and the priority
given to each in the distribution of earnings.

Debt Market: Financial markets in which debt instruments are traded are
referred as debt market. Debt instruments represent contracts whereby one
party lends money to another on pre-determined terms and based on rate of
interest to be paid by the borrower to the lender, the periodicity of such
interest payment and the repayment of the principal amount borrowed. Debt
securities are normally issued for a fixed term and are redeemable by the
issuer at the end of that term. Debt securities include debentures, bonds,
deposits, notes or commercial papers. Debt market is also called fixed income
market. Generally, debt securities and preferred stock are classified as part of
the fixed income market. That sector of the stock market which does not
include preferred stock is called the common stock market.

B. On the Basis of Maturity of the Claims4: Another way of classifying

financial markets is on the basis of maturity/period of the claims. Based on
this, financial markets are following two types: Money market and Capital
market.

(a) Money Market: A financial market for short-term financial assets is

called the money market. It is a market for dealing in monetary assets of
shorts-term nature. The traditional cut off period for short term and long term
claim is one year. Financial asset with a maturity of one year or less than one
year is considered short term and therefore part of the money market. It is the
central wholesale market for short-term debt securities, or for the temporary
investment of large amount of short-term funds. Money market is a collective
name given to various firms and institutions that deal with various grades of

3
Ibid.
4
Ibid.
 160

near-money. It includes trade bills, promissory notes and government

securities. Money market instruments have the characteristics of quick
liquidity and minimum transaction cost.

The instruments in money markets are relatively risk-free and the

relationship between the lender and borrower is largely impersonal.
Borrowers in the money market are the central government, state
governments, local bodies, traders industrialists, farmers, exporters, importers
and the public. The money market comprises several sub-markets, which are
following5-

(i) Call Money Market: Call money means the amount borrowed and lent by
commercial banks for a very short period i.e. for one day to a maximum of
two weeks. It is also called as inter bank call money market, because the
participants in the call money market are mostly commercial banks. Call
money market is the core of the Indian money market, which supply short-
term funds. Call money market plays an important role in removing the
routine fluctuations in the reserve position of the individual banks and
improving the functioning of the banking system in the country.

(ii) Treasury Bill Market: For meeting its short-term financial commitments
government issues these bills. The treasury bills market is a market, which
deals in treasury bills issued by the Central Government for a short period of
not more than 365 days. It is a permanent source of funds for the government.
Regular treasury bills are sold to the banks and public, which are freely
transferable.

(iii) Commercial Bill Market: Commercial bills are important device for
providing short-term finance to the trade and industry. Commercial bill
market deals in commercial bills issued by the firms engaged in business.
These bills are generally issued for a period of three months. After
acceptance, the bill becomes a legal document. Such bills can be transferred
from one person to another by endorsement. The holder of the bill can
discount the bills in a commercial bank for cash.

5
Ibid.
 161

(iv) Certificate of Deposit Market: Certificate of deposit market deals with

the certificate of deposits issued by commercial banks. A certificate of deposit
is a document of title to a time deposit. The minimum amount of investment
should not be less than Rs. one lakh and in the multiples of 1 lakh thereafter.
The maturity period of CDs issued by banks should not be less than seven
days and not more than one year. They are freely transferable by endorsement
and delivery. Certificate of deposits provide greater flexibility to an investor
in the deployment of their short-term funds.

(v) Commercial Paper Market: Commercial paper refers to unsecured

promissory notes issued by credit worthy companies to borrow funds on a
short-term basis. Commercial papers will be issued in denominations of 5
lakh or multiples thereof. They are transferable by endorsement and delivery.
Maturity period of commercial paper lies between 7 days and 365 days.

(vi) Collateral Loan Market: This market deals with loans, which are backed
by collateral securities. Commercial banks provide short-term loan against
government securities, share and debentures of the government etc.

Capital Market: Capital market is a market that specializes in trading

long-term and relatively high-risk securities. A financial asset with a maturity
of more than one year is part of the capital market. It is a market for long-term
capital. The capital market provides long-term debt and equity finance for the
government and the corporate sector. Capital market comprises two segments
namely the new issue market and secondary market. The various constituents
of capital market are viz. equity market, dept market, government securities
market, mutual funds etc.

D. On the Basis of Domicile6: Another way of classifying financial markets is

on the basis of domicile. Based on domicile way of classifying financial
markets is on the basis of domicile. Based on domicile financial markets can
be divided into two viz. International Market and Domestic Market.

6
Ibid.
 162

(a) International Market 7 : International market is the markets were the

issuances of securities are offered simultaneously to investors of a number of
globalization, deregulation and liberalization of financial markets the
companies and the investors in any country seeking to raise funds are not
limited to the financial assets issued in their domestic market.

(b) Domestic Market 8 : Domestic market is that part of a nation‘s internal

market representing the mechanisms for issuing and trading securities of
entities domiciled within that nation. It is a market where issuers who are
domiciled in the country issue securities and where those securities are
subsequently traded. It is otherwise called national or internal market.
Domestic financial markets can be divided into different sub types like.

(i) Gilt-edged Market: It is a market for government and semi government

securities, which carries fixed interest rates. Major players in the gilt-edged
securities market in India are the Reserve Bank of India, State Bank of India,
private and public sector commercial banks, co-operative banks and financial
institutions.

(ii) Housing Finance Market: Housing finance market is characterized as a

mortgage market, which facilitates the extent of credit, to the housing sector.
National housing bank is an apex bank in the field of housing finance in India.
It is a wholly owned subsidiary of the RBI. The primary responsibility of the
bank is to promote and develop specialized housing finance institutions to
mobilize resources and extent credit for house building.

(iii) Foreign Exchange Market: Foreign exchange market or Forex-market

facilities the trading of foreign exchange. RBI is the regulatory authority for
foreign exchange business in India. The foreign exchange market in India
prior to the 1990s was characterized by strict regulations, restrictions on
external transactions, barriers to entry, low liquidity and high transaction
costs. Foreign exchange transactions were strictly regulated and controlled by
the Foreign Exchange Regulations Act (FERA), 1973. With the rupee

7
P.V. Kulkarni and S.P. Kulkarni, ― corporate Finance- Principle and Problem‖ (1992)
p-226
8
Ibid.
 163

becoming fully convertible on all current account transactions in August

1994, the risk-bearing capacity of banks increased and foreign exchange
trading volumes started rising.

This was supplemented by wide-ranging reforms undertaken by the Reserve

Bank of India (RBI) in conjunction with the reforms by the Government to
remove market distortions and strengthen the foreign exchange market. The
remove market distortions and strengthen the foreign exchange market. The
reform phase ensured with the Sodhani Committee (1994) which, in its report
submitted in 1995, made several recommendations to relax the regulations
with a view to vitalizing the foreign exchange market 9 . Foreign Exchange
Regulation Act (FERA) was replaced by the Foreign Exchange Management
Act (FEMA), 1999, in which the Reserve Bank of India delegated its powers
to authorized dealers to release foreign exchange for a variety of purposes10.
Capital account transactions were also liberalized in a systematic manner.

(iv) Futures Market11: Futures markets provide a way for business to manage
price risks. A futures contract is an agreement that requires a party to the
agreement to either buy or sell something at a designated future date at a
predetermined price. The basic economic function of futures market is to
provide an opportunity for market participants to hedge against the risk of
adverse price movements. Buyers can obtain protection against rising prices
and sellers can obtain protection against declining prices through futures
contracts. Futures contract can be either commodity futures or financial
futures. Commodity futures contract based on financial instruments or a
financial index are known as financial futures. Financial futures can be
classified as follows:

1. Stock index futures,

2. Interest rate futures,

3. Currency futures, and

9
www.vakilno.1.com visited on 26th April 2013 at 2 o clock
10
www.businessindia.com visited on 25th march 2014 at 2 o clock
11
Benson Kunjukunju and S. Mohan, ‗‘ Financial Market and Financial services in
India‖ July 2010 p-6
 164

4. Commodity futures etc.

5.2 Factors Affecting Financial Markets12

1. Actions of Investors: Actions of individuals, institutions and mutual

funds investors will instantly affect the prices of stocks, bonds, and futures
in the securities market.

2. Business Conditions: Business conditions also affect the financial

Market. Profits earned volume of sales and even the time of year all will
determine how much an investor wants to invest in stock.

3. Government Actions: The government makes all kinds of decisions

that affect both how much an individual stock may be worth (new
regulations on a business) and what sort of instruments people want to
buy. The government‘s interest rates, tax rates, trade policy and budget
deficits all have an impact on prices.

4. Economic Indicators: General trends that signal changes in the

economy are watched closely by investors to predict what is going to
happen next. Such indicators include the Gross National Product (GNP),
the inflation rate, the budget deficit and the unemployment rate. These
indicators point to changes in the way ordinary people spend their money
and how the economy is likely to perform.

5. International Events: Events around the world, such as changed in

currency values, trade barriers, wars, natural disasters, and changes in
governments will affect the price of securities, which ultimately influence
the amount of investment.

The capital market is represented by investment bankers, over the counter

market, SEBI etc.

5.3 Primary Market

Capital market consists of primary and secondary market. Primary

market is that part of the capital market that deals with the issuance of new
securities. Primary market is otherwise called as New Issue Market (NIM). In

12
Ibid.
 165

the primary market the securities are purchased directly from the issuer. This
is the market for new long-term or permanent capital. In other words, the
money raised from the primary market provides long-term capital to the
companies.

Primary market is a market which accelerates the process of capital

formation in a country‘s economy. Primary market provides opportunity to
corporate and the government to raise resources to meet their investment
requirements and to discharge their obligations. The companies use these
funds either for setting up of new businesses or to expand the existing ones.
At the same time, the funds collected through the primary capital market, are
also used for modernization of business. The securities are issued in the
primary market either at face value, or at a discount or premium. Companies
will issue the securities either in domestic market or in the international
market through American Depository Receipt (ADR) or Global Depository
Receipt (GDR) or External Commercial Borrowings (ECB) route.

5.3.1 Characteristics of Primary Market

Primary capital markets are those security market where the equity
and debt securities of corporations are offered to the investors for the first
time. Important features of primary market are the following.

1. Primary market is the market for new long term capital.

2. In a primary market, the securities are issued for the first time by the
company to investors.
3. In primary market securities are issued b the company directly to the
investors.
4. In primary market the company receives the money and issues new
security certificates to the investors.
5. In primary market it is difficult to accurately gauge the investor
demand for a new security until several days of trading have occurred.
6. Primary market does not include certain other sources of new long-
term external finance, such as loans from commercial banks and other
financial institutions.
 166

7. Primary issues are used by companies for setting up new business for
expanding or modernizing the existing business or for providing
permanent working capital.

5.4 Kinds of Issues

There are different ways for offering new issues in the primary capital market.
Primary issues made by Indian companies can be classified as follows:

1. Public Issue.
2. Rights Issue.
3. Bonus Issue.
4. Private Placement.

Public and rights issues involve a detailed procedure whereas private

placements or preferential issues and bonus issues are relatively simple.

5.4.1 Public Issue13

This is one of the important and commonly used methods for issuing
new issues in the primary capital market. When an existing company offers its
shares in the primary market, it is called public issue. It involves direct sale of
securities to the public for a fixed price. In this kind of issue, securities are
offered to the new investors for becoming part of shareholders family of the
issuer. If everybody can subscribe to the securities issued by a company, such
an issue is termed as a public issue. In terms of the Companies Act of 1956,
an issue becomes public if it is allotted to more than 50 persons. SEBI defined
public issue as ―an invitation by a company to public to subscribe to the
securities offered through a prospectus‖. Public issue can be further classified
into two:

1. Initial Public Offer (IPO).

2. Further Public Offer (FPO).

5.4.1.1 Initial Public Offer (IPO)

An IPO is referred simply an offering or flotation of issue of shares to

the public for the first time. Initial Public Offer is the selling of securities to

13
Ghosh, T.P., Company Law, Taxmann Allied Services (P.) Ltd., 1999 p-116
 167

the public in the primary market. When an unlisted company makes either a
fresh issue of securities or offers its existing securities for sale or both for the
first time to the public, it is called an Initial Public Offer (IPO).

The sale of securities can either be through book building or through

normal public issue. IPOs are made by companies going through a transitory
growth period or by privately owned companies looking to become publicly
traded. IPO paves the way for listing and trading of the issuer‘s securities in
the stock exchanges. Initial public offering can be risky investment. For the
individual investor, it is tough to predict the value of the shares on its initial
day of trading and in the near future since there is often little historical data
with which to analyze the company.

5.4.1.2 Further Public Offer (FPO)

When an already listed company makes either a fresh issue of

securities to the public or an offer for sale to the public it if called FPO
Further Public Offer (FPO) is otherwise called as Follow on Offer.

5.4.1.3 Rights Issue14

When a listed company which proposes to issue fresh securities to its

existing shareholders existing as on a particular dated fixed by the issuer (i.e.
record date), it is called as rights issue. The rights are offered in a particular
ratio to the number of securities held as on the record date. The route is best
suited for companies who would like to raise capital without diluting stake of
its existing shareholders.

5.4.1.4 Bonus Issue

When an issuer makes an issue of shares to its existing shareholders as

on a record date, without any consideration from them, it is called a bonus
issue. The shares are issued to the existing shareholders out of company‘s free
reserves or share premium account in a particular ratio to the number of
securities held on a record date.

14
Ibid.
 168

5.4.1.5 Private Placement

When a company offers its shares to a select group of persons not

exceeding 49, and which is neither a rights issue nor a public issue, it is called
a private placement. Often a combination of public issue and private
placement can be used by the companies for the issue of securities in the
primary market. Privately placed securities are often not publicly tradable and
may only be bought and sold by sophisticated qualified investors. As a result,
the secondary market is not liquid as in the case of a private issue. There are
SEBI guidelines, which regulate the private placement of securities by a
company.

Private placement is the fastest way for a company to raise equity

capital. Private placement can of two types viz. preferential allotment and
qualified institutional placement.

5.4.1.6 Issue of shares in the Primary Market

In India, the primary market is governed mainly by the provisions of

The Companies Act, 2013, which deals with issues, listing and allotment of
various types of securities. The Securities and Exchange Board of India
(SEBI) protect the interests of investors in securities, promote the
development of securities markets as well as regulate them.

SEBI issued the guidelines on primary issue of securities under

Section 11 of the Securities and Exchange Board of India Act of 1992. In
addition to the specific functions under the SEBI Act, the functions vested in
the government as per Securities Contracts Regulations Act (SCRA) of 1956
have also been delegated to the SEBI. The SEBI now enjoy full powers to
regulate the new issue market.

Disclosure and Investor Protection Guidelines of SEBI (2000) deals

with public issue, offer for sale and the rights issue by listed and unlisted
companies. SEBI framed its DIP guidelines in 1992. SEBI (Disclosure and
investor protection) guidelines 2000 are in short called DIP guidelines
The SEBI guidelines shall be applicable to all public issues by listed
and unlisted companies, all offers for sale and rights issues by listed
 169

companies whose equity share capital is listed, except in case of rights issues
where the aggregate value of securities offered does not exceed Rs 50 lakh.
Since 1992, in order to streamline the public issue process by the Indian
companies, SEBI has been issuing clarifications and amendments to these
guidelines as and when required.

5.5 Prospectus

A prospectus is an invitation to the public to subscribe to the shares and

debentures offered by a company. A public company can issue shares and
debentures through a prospectus. As per Section 2(70) of The Companies Act,
2013 a prospectus means 'any document described or issued as a prospectus and
includes any notice, circular, advertisement or other document inviting deposits
from the public or inviting offers from the public for the subscription or
purchase of any shares in or debentures of a body corporate'.

Prospectus is a document that must accompany the application forms of

all public issues of shares and debentures. Every prospectus has to comply with
the requirements of The Companies Act, 2013 (Section 26 to 30). A prospectus
is a legal document that institutions and businesses use to describe the securities
they are offering for participants and buyers. If any prospectus is issued in
contravention of Section 26 to 30 the company, and every person, who is
knowingly a party to the issue thereof, shall be punishable with fine which may
extend up to five thousand rupees.

Typically, a prospectus contains the terms and conditions of the issue,

along with the specific feature of the security, the purpose for which the issue is
made, the company's track record, the risk inherent in the project for which the
capital is being raised and so on.

5.5.1 Red Herring Prospectus (Section 32 of The Companies Act, 2013)

It is a draft prospectus, which is used in book building issues. A

prospectus which does not have details of either price or number of shares
being offered or the amount of issue is called red herring prospectus. II
contains all disclosures except the price and the number of shares offered. Red
 170

herring prospectus is used for testing the market reaction to the proposed
issue. Only on completion of the bidding process, the details of the final price
are included in the offer document. The document filed thereafter with the
Registrar of Company is called a prospectus.

5.5.2 Abridged Prospectus

According to Section 26 of The Companies Act, 2013, abridged

prospectus means a memorandum containing the salient features of fee
prospectus. The lead merchant banker shall ensure that a copy of the abridged
prospectus containing the salient features of the prospectus accompanies every
application form distributed by the issuer company or anyone else. The
application form may be stapled to form part of the abridged prospectus.
Alternatively, it may be a perforated part of the abridged prospectus. The
abridged prospectus shall not contain matters, which are extraneous to the
contents of the prospectus. Enough space shall be provided in the application
form to enable the investors to file in various details like name, address etc.
There are exceptions to Section 26 The Companies Act, 2013, which are
given below:

1. Where the offer is made in connection with the bona fide invitation to a
person to enter into an underwriting agreement with respect to the shares or
debentures.

2. Where me snares or debentures are not differed to the public.

3. Where the offer is made only to the existing members or debenture holders
of the company with or without a right to renounce.

4. Where the shares and debentures offered are in all respects uniform with
shares or debentures already issued and quoted on a recognized stock
exchange.

5.6 Book Building

Book building is a process of price discovery mechanism used by

corporate issuing securities. It is a mechanism used to discover the price of their
securities. Book building is a common practice in developed countries and has
recently been making inroads into emerging market as well, including India. As
 171

per the recommendations of Malegan Committee, SEBI introduced the option

of book building in public issue in October 1995. The option of book building
was initially available only to those companies when their proposed public
issue exceeded Rs. 100 crore. With effect from November 1996, the minimum
size of the issue has been removed and any company can make a public issue
through the book building process. However, issue of securities to the public
through a prospectus for 100 percent book building process shall be available to
a company only if their issue of capital shall be Rs. 25 crore and above.

Book building is a price discovery mechanism based on the bids

received at various prices from the investors, for which demand is assessed
and then the prices of the securities are discovered. In the case of normal
public issue, the price is known in advance to the investors and the demand is
known at the close of the issue. In the case of public issue through book
building, demand can be known at the end of everyday but price is known only
at the close of issue. Book building works o» die assumption that the
underwriting syndicate estimates demand and takes the allocation on their
books, before the sale to the investor who is a retail one.

Securities and Exchange Board of India defined Book building as "a

process undertaken prior to filing of prospectus with the Registrar of
Companies by which a demand for the securities proposed to be issued by a
body corporate is elicited and built up and the price for which such securities is
assessed for the determination of the quantum of such securities to be issued by
means of a notice, circular, advertisement, document or information
memoranda or offer document", the objective of book building is to find the
highest market clearing price.

The issuer company shall have an option of either reserving the

securities for firm allotment o issuing the securities through book building
process. The issue of securities through book building process shall be
separately identified as "placement portion category" in the prospectus. The
securities available to the public shall be separately identified as "net offer to
the public".
 172

5.7 Stock Invest Scheme

'Stock invest', a legal and non-negotiable instrument like a cheque, is

used to ensure that investors fund continue to earn interest till such time the
allotment is made by companies and they should not make undue advantage
at the cost of investors savings. Their money is not blocked while anticipating
the primary market issue. The Department of Company Affairs of
Government of India and RBI have recognized the 'stock invest' as on one of
the instruments by which the application money for subscription to shares,
debentures etc. may be paid.

5.8 Issue of Sweat Equity

Sweat equity means equity shares issued by the company to its

employees or directors at a discount or for consideration other than cash for
providing know-how or making available rights in the nature of intellectual
property rights or value additions. The SEBI (Issue of Sweat Equity)
Regulations, 2002 have been framed and the main provisions laid down for
issue of sweat equity are the following:

1. The issue of sweat equity shares is authorized by a special resolution

passed by the company in the general meeting. The resolution specifies the
number of shares, current market price, consideration, if any, and the class
or classes of directors or employees to whom such equity shares are to be
issued.

2. The sweat equity shares should be locked in for a period of three years.

3. The pricing of the sweat equity shares should be as per the formula
prescribed for that of preferential allotment.

4. Not less than one year has elapsed at the date of the issue since the date on
which the company was entitled to commence business.

5. The sweat equity shares of a company whose equity shares are listed on a
recognized stock exchange are issued in accordance with the regulations
made by the Securities and Exchange Board of India in this behalf.
 173

5.9 Employees Stock Option Scheme

Employee Stock Option Scheme (ESOS) means a scheme under which

company grants option to its employees to apply for shares of the company at
a predetermined price. It is a right but not an obligation granted to an
employee in pursuance of ESOS to apply for shares of the company.
Employee's stock option scheme is governed by SEBI (Employees stock
option scheme and employees stock purchase scheme) Guidelines of 1999.

5.10 Secondary Market

Capital market is a place that provides facilities for buying and selling
of financial assets such as shares and debentures. Capital market comprises
both primary and secondary market. The market for newly issued securities is
called primary market. Secondary market is the financial market for trading of
securities that have already been issued in an initial private or public offering.
The secondary market refers to the market where the securities issued in the
primary market are traded. In secondary market, the investor purchases an
asset from another investor rather than from the issuing company. In
secondary market previously issued securities and instruments are only bought
and sold and hence secondary market is otherwise called as aftermarket. Once
a newly issued share is listed on a stock exchange, investors and speculators
can easily trade on the exchange, as market makers provide bids and offers in
the new stock.

The key distinction between a primary market and a secondary market

is that in the primary market, the issuer of those securities receives money
directly from the investors. Rather, the existing issue changes hands in the
secondary market, and funds flow from the buyer of the asset to the seller15. In
the primary market, long term securities are offered to public for subscription
for the purpose of raising capital or fund. Whereas in secondary market, the
long term financial instruments which are used for raising capital are traded."

The primary as well as the secondary markets is dependent on each

other and changes in one market affect changes in the other. Compared to

15
Ibid
 174

primary market majority of the trading is done in the secondary market More
the number of companies make new issues in the primary market; the greater
will be the volume of trade in secondary market.

In the secondary market securities are sold by and transferred from

one investor or speculate to another. For a general investor, the secondary
market provides an efficient platform for trading of his securities. Since
secondary market provides it efficient platform for trading in securities, it
ensures high liquidity to the general investors. For the management of the
company, secondary market serves as a monitoring and controlling conduit by
facilitating value enhancing control activities and. aggregating information
through price discovery that guides management decisions.

Secondary market is vital to an efficient and modern capital market.

The stock exchange along with a host of other intermediaries provides the
necessary platform for trading in secondary market and for clearing and
settlement. Secondary market comprises equity markets and the debt markets.
Secondary market could be either auction or dealer market. While stock
exchange is part of an auction market, Over-the-Counter (OTC) is a part of the
dealer market. Only listed securities can be traded in secondary market.

5.10.1 Securities Dealt in the Secondary Market16

Following are the main financial instruments which are dealt in the
secondary market:

1. Equity Shares.

2. Preferred Stock/Preference shares.

3. Bonds.

4. Debentures.

5. Commercial papers.

6. Coupons.

7. Dated securities.

16
Majumdar, A.K., and Kapoor, G.K., Taxmann’s Company Law and Practice, 6th
Edn., Taxmann Allied Services (P.) Ltd., 2000 p-222
 175

8. Treasury Bills.

9. Government securities (G-Secs).

5.11 Listing of Securities

Listing means formal admission of a security into a public trading

system of a stock exchange. A security is said to be listed when they have
been included in the official list of the stock exchange for the purpose of
trading. The prime objective of admission to dealings cm the stock exchange
is to provide liquidity and marketability to securities and also to provide a
mechanism for effective management of trading. The securities listed in stock
exchanges may be of any public limited company, central or state government,
quasi-government and other corporations or financial institutions. To make a
security eligible to be listed in a stock exchange, the company shall be
obligatory to fulfil all the listing requirements specified in the Companies Act
of 1956. Besides the company is also compulsorily to discharge the listing
norms issued by SEBI from time to time and such other conditions,
requirements and norms that may in force from time to time and the bye-laws
and regulations of the exchange to make the security eligible to be listed and
for continuous listing on the exchange.

5.11.1 Acts and Regulations Governing Listing of Companies

A company intending to list its securities in stock exchange shall fulfil

all the basic requirements of listing stated in The Companies Act, 2013 and the
Securities Contracts (regulations) Act of 1956. The issuer company shall also
comply with all the conditions of listing stated both by SEBI and the concerned
stock exchange. The securities listed on the exchange at its discretion, as the
stock exchange has the right to include, suspend or remove from the list the
said securities at any time and for any reason, which it considers appropriate.
The companies desire to list their securities shall comply with all the relevant
provisions of listing stated in the following Acts, Rules, Regulations and
Guidelines.

 Indian Companies Act, 2013.

 Securities Contacts (Regulations) Act, 1956.
 176

 Securities Contacts (Regulations) Rule, 1957.

 SEBI Guidelines (Disclosure and Investor Protection), 2000.
 Rules, bye-laws and regulations of the stock exchange made by time to
time.

5.12 Listing Agreement17

The company should execute a listing agreement, in the prescribed form

with the stock exchange, prior to approval of the listing application of the
company. Listing agreement is of great importance and is executed under the
common seal of the company. Under this agreement, the company must give an
undertaking to the exchange that they will provide facilities for prompt
transfer, registration, sub-division and consolidation of securities and giving
proper notice of closure of transfer books and record dates.

The listing agreement specifies the terms and conditions of listing and
the disclosures that shall be made by a company on a continuous basis to the
exchange for dissemination of information to the market Any addition or
amendment to the provisions of the listing agreement, as may be prescribed by
SEBI and the stock exchange shall become applicable to the company as if
such addition or amendment was part of the listing agreement. In other words,
for listing of securities, companies are called upon to keep the stock exchange
fully informed of all corporate developments having a bearing on the market
price of shares like dividend, rights, bonus shares etc.

5.12.1 Trading Permission

As per SEBI Guidelines, an issuer company should complete the

formalities for trading at all the stock exchanges where the securities art: to be
listed within 7 working days of finalization of the basis of allotment." A
company should scrupulously adhere to the time limit specified in SEBI
(Disclosure and investor Protection) Guideline 2000 for allotment of all securities and
dispatch of allotment letters/share certificates/credit in depository accounts and
refund orders and for obtaining the listing permissions of all the exchanges
whose names are stated in its prospectus or offer document, [n the event of

17
www.Sebi.com visited on 26th Oct. 2013 at 3 P.M
 177

listing permission being denied to a company by any stock exchange where it

had applied for listing of its securities, the company cannot proceed with the
allotment of shares. However, the company may file an appeal before SEBI
under Section 22 of the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956

5.12.2 Central Listing Authority18

The Central Listing Authority (CLA) is set up to address the issue of

multiple listing of the same security and to bring about uniformity in the due
diligence exercise in scrutinizing all listing applications on any stock
exchanges. SEBI or any authority constitutes the Central Listing Authority
under the relevant law relation to listing or delisting and trading or suspension
of trading in securities of companies on a stock exchange.

The Central Listing Authority is constituted by SEBI and consists of a

President and not more than ten members, out of which at least four members
are representatives of the stock exchanges.

SEBI appoints the President and the members of central listing

authority. Persons having integrity, outstanding ability and drawn from
judiciary, lawyers, academicians and financial experts are generally appointed
as members.

The functions of Central Listing Authority as enumerated in SEBI

(Central Listing Authority) Regulations of 2003 include the following:

1. Processing the application submitted by any body corporate, mutual fund or

collective investment scheme for the letter of recommendation to get listed at
the stock exchange.

Before making an application for listing to any stock exchange, a body

corporate, mutual fund or collective investment scheme should obtain a letter
of recommendation for listing from the Central Listing Authority on an
application made on that behalf.

2.Making recommendations as to listing conditions.

18
www.vakilno.1.com visited on 27th Sept 2013 at 2 P.M
 178

3. Any other functions that may be specified from time to time by the SEBI.
Where the Central Listing Authority refuses to issue letter of recommendation
in accordance with the procedure laid down in the Regulations, the aggrieved
party may approach SEBI with in 10 days of receipt of such refusal and if
satisfied, SEBI may direct Central Listing Authority to issue a letter of
recommendation within 15 days of receipt of such representation.

If the exchange refuses listing to the body corporate, mutual fund or

collective Investment scheme, it may prefer an appeal to the Securities.
Appellate Tribunal as provided in the Securities Contracts (Regulations) Act,
1956.

The provisions, guidelines, norms and procedures governing the

listing or delisting and trading or suspension of trading in securities may be
stipulated by the Central Listing Authority and should be incorporated in the
bye-laws of the exchange and should be made applicable to the exchange.

Central Listing Authority should also set up a fund called the Central
Listing Authority Fund for any processing fees charged and received by the
authority

5.13 Delisting of Securities19

Delisting indicates removal of securities of a listed company from a

stock exchange. As a consequence of delisting, the securities of that company
would no longer be traded at that stock exchange. In the interest of orderly
market in securities or in the interest of trade or in the public interest, the
Governing Board or Managing Director or Relevant Authority has absolute
discretion to impose restrictions on trading in any security admitted to
dealings on the exchange 20 . During the operation of such restrictions, no
trading member shall, either on his own account or on account of his sub-
brokers or clients, enter into in any transaction in contravention of such
restrictions. SEBI Guidelines (Delisting of Securities), 2003 deals with the
delisting of companies securities.
19
Rahul Satyan, “ The Satyam Affair: Past, Present and Future‖ 2007 Indian Law
Journal, volume 2
20
Dr. C.S. Bansal, Corporate Governance Law Practice & Practice (Taxmann Allied
Services P.Ltd. 2005)
 179

A company may be allowed to get its securities de-listed from the

exchange, provided the provisions, guidelines, norms and procedures
governing the delisting and suspension of trading in securities that may be
stipulated by the SEBI or Central Listing Authority are duly complied with.
SEBI guidelines on delisting of securities from stock exchanges are applicable
only in the following three situations.

1. Voluntary delisting of securities.

2. Compulsory delisting of securities.

3. Liquidation or Merger.

Voluntary Delisting of Securities: Any promoter or acquirer desirous

of voluntarily delisting of securities of a company from all or some of the
exchanges shall fulfil the following conditions under the provisions of the SEBI
guidelines.

1. Prior approval of shareholders of the company by a special resolution

passed at its general body meeting.

2. Make a public announcement in the manner as provided in the

guidelines.

3. Make an application to the delisting exchange in the form specified by

the exchange.

4. Comply with such other additional conditions as may be specified by

the concerned stock exchanges from where securities are to be de-listed.

The SEBI guidelines (Delisting of Securities, 2003) provide the overall

framework for voluntary delisting by a promoter or acquirer through a process
referred to as "Reverse Book Building".

Under reverse book building process the promoter shall appoint

trading members for placing bids on the online electronic system Investors
may approach trading members for placing offers on the on-line electronic
system. The shareholders desirous of availing the exit opportunity shall deposit
the shares offered with the trading members prior to placement of orders.
Alternately, they may mark a pledge for the same to the trading member.
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The offer price has a floor price, which is average of 26 weeks average
of traded price quoted on the stock exchange where the shares of the company
are most frequently traded preceding 26 weeks from the date the public
announcement is made. There is no ceiling on the maximum price. For
occasionally traded securities, the offer price is as per Regulation 20 (5) of
SEBI (Substantial Acquisition and Takeover) Regulations.

The final offer price shall be determined as the price at which the
maximum number of shares has been offered. The promoter or acquirer shall
have the choice to accept the price. If the price is accepted, the acquirer shall
be required to accept all offers up to and including the final price. If the
quantity eligible for acquiring securities at the final price offered does not
result in public-shareholding falling below the required level of public holding
for continuous listing, the company shall remain listed. At the end of the book
building period, the merchant banker to the book building exercise shall
announce the final price and the acceptance (or not) of the price by the
promoter/acquirer.

The stock exchanges shall provide the infrastructure facility for display
of the price at the terminal of the trading members to enable the investors to
access the price on the screen to bring transparency to the delisting process.
The stock exchange shall also monitor the possibility of price manipulation and
keep under special watch the securities for which announcement for delisting
has been made.

5.13.1 Compulsory Delisting of Securities21

Permanent removal of securities of a listed company from a stock

exchange as a penalizing measure at the behest of the stock exchange for not
making submissions or complying with various requirements set out in the
listing agreement within the time frames prescribed. In connection with
compulsory de-listing of securities the stock exchanges have to adopt the
following criteria.

21
Goyal L.C., Prevention of oppression and mismanagement in companies, Delhi
Allied Book company( 1982)p-223
 181

The stock exchanges may delist companies which have been suspended
for a minimum period of six months for non-compliance with the listing
agreement.

The stock exchanges have to give adequate and wide public notice
through newspapers and also give a show cause notice to the company. The
exchange shall provide a period of 15 days within which representation may be
made to the exchange by any person who may be aggrieved by the proposed
delisting

Where the securities of the company are delisted by an exchange, the

promoter of the company should be liable to compensate the security holders
of the company by paying them the fair value of the securities held by them
and acquiring their securities, subject to their option to remain holders of the
company

Liquidation or Merger: If any issuer whose securities have been granted

admission to dealings on the exchange, be placed in final provisional
liquidation or is about to be merged into or amalgamated with another
company, the Governing Board or Managing Director or Relevant Authority
may withdraw the admission to dealings on the exchange granted to its
securities. The Relevant Authority may accept such evidence as it deems
sufficient as to such liquidation, merger or amalgamation. If the merger or
amalgamation fails to take place or if any company placed in provisional
liquidation be reinstated and an application be made by such company for
readmission of its securities to dealings on the exchange, the competent
authority shall have the power of considering and of approving, refusing or
deferring such application.

5.13.2 Re-admission to Dealings on the Exchange

The Governing Board or Managing Director or Relevant Authority

may readmit to dealings on the exchange the security of a company whose
admission to dealings had been previously withdrawn, on the fulfilment of
conditions, norms, guidelines or requirements as may be prescribed by the
Governing Board or Managing Director or Relevant Authority and or SEBI
 182

from time to time. At the expiration of the period of suspension, the

Governing Board or Managing Director or Relevant Authority may reinstate
the dealings in such security subject to such conditions, as it deems fit.

5.13.3 Advantages to Companies

 Listing of securities on a stock exchange offers many opportunities to

the companies. Following are the important advantages of listing:

 Listing enables companies to enjoy the confidence of the investing

public.

 It helps the company to raise future finance easily for financing new
projects, expansions, diversifications and for acquisitions.

 Listing increases a company's ability to raise capital through various

other routes like preferential issue, qualified institutional placement, ADRs,
GDRs, FCCBs etc,

 Listing improves the image or status of the company and thus it

provides value addition.

 Listing raises a company's public profile with customers, suppliers,

investors, financial institutions and the media. A listed company is
typically covered in analyst reports and may also be included in one or
more of indices of the stock exchanges.

 Listing facilitates nation-wide trading facility for a company's

securities.

 It facilitates companies to ascertain the market value of their shares.

 Listing provides price continuity for securities.

 Listed companies enjoy certain confessional rates of income tax.

5.13.4 Advantages to the Investors

 Listing provides ready marketability of securities.

 It ensures considerable liquidity to the investors.

 Listing ensures continuous liquidity to the investors.

 183

 Listing provides fair, efficient and transparent securities market to the

investors.

 Listing of securities on stock exchanges improves investor's awareness

and confidence on securities.

 Listing leads to better and timely disclosures and thus protects the
interest of the investors.

 It also provides a mechanism for effective management of trading

5.13.5 Disadvantages of Listing

 Once the securities are listed, the company is obligatory to discharge

various regulatory measures, bye-laws, circulars and other guidelines as
may be prescribed by the stock exchange and SEBI from time to time.

 Listing involves huge expenditure to the company.

 Companies have to fulfill a number of formalities for listing of

securities.

 Listed companies are required to submit and disclose vital information

to the stock exchanges from time to time.

5.13.6 Classification of Listed Securities

Listed securities are classified into two categories:

1. Cleared securities, and

2. Non-cleared securities.

Cleared Securities: Securities traded on carry over or forward trading basis

are called cleared securities. In these types of securities forward trading
facility is allowed through the clearing house of the stock exchange.

Non-cleared Securities: Those shares which are traded on cash basis are
called non-cleared securities. In these types of securities carry forward facility
is not provided. These securities are not included in cleared list of the stock
exchange. Non-cleared securities are called non-specified or cash securities or
Group B shares.
 184

5.14 Stock Broker

A broker is an agent of the investor. A stockbroker is a member of a

recognized stock exchange who transacts in securities. Stockbrokers are not
allowed to buy, self, or deal in securities, unless they hold a certificate granted
by SEBI. The stockbrokers and sub brokers regulations were issued by the
SEBI through a notification in October 1992 and it had the prior approval of the
Central Government

The Securities and Exchange Board of India (Stock brokers and sub
brokers) Rules, 1992 defined a stockbroker simply as "a member of a
recognized stock exchange" Therefore, a registered stockbroker is a member of
at least one of the recognized Indian stock exchanges. The application of a
stockbroker for grant of certificate is made through a stock exchange/s, of
which he is a member. The stock exchange on receipt of application from a
broker forwards it to the SEBI as early as possible i.e. not later than thirty days
from the date of its receipt. SEBI considers it and on being satisfied that the
stockbroker is eligible, it shall grant a certificate to the stockbroker and this
will be intimated to the stock exchange.

5.15 Sub-Broker

The Securities and Exchange Board of India (Stock brokers and sub-
brokers) Rules, 1992 defines a sub-broker as "any person, not being a member
of a stock exchange, who acts on behalf of a stockbroker as an agent, or
otherwise, to assist the investors in buying, selling, or dealing in securities
through such a stockbroker". Based on this definition, the sub-broker is either
a stockbroker's agent or an arranger for the investor. Thus, legally speaking, the
stockbroker as a principal will be responsible directly to the investor for
conduct of a sub-broker who acts as his or her agent. However, the market
practice is entirely different from this legally defined relationship. No sub-
broker is supposed to buy, sell, or deal in securities, without a certificate
granted by the SEBI. However, majority of the sub-brokers in India are not
registered with SEBI.
 185

5.16 Types of Members in Stock Exchange22

There are different types of members in a stock exchange, which are

given below:

5.16.1 Brokers

Brokers are commission agents or floor agents, who act as

intermediaries between buyers and sellers of securities. Brokers do not
purchase or sell securities on their behalf. They bring together the buyers and
sellers and help them in making a deal. Brokers charge a commission from
both the parties for their service. Brokers are experts in estimating trends of
price and can effectively advice their clients in getting a fruitful gain.
Stockbrokers are not allowed to buy, sell, or deal in securities, unless they hold
a certificate granted by SEBI.

5.16.2 Jobbers

Jobbers are also members of the stock exchange who do business only for
themselves. Jobbers as members of the stock exchange, deal in shares and
debentures as independent operators. A jobber is a market maker who gives
two-way quotes for a security at any point of time, a lower quotation for
buying and a higher quotation for selling of securities. The difference between
the two prices is termed as jobber's profit. Jobbers cannot deal on behalf of
public and are barred from taking commission. In India, there is no clear-cut
distinction between jobbers and brokers. Here a member can act as both a
broker and a jobber at the same time. Jobbers acted as market makers in the
London Stock Exchange. In India jobbers are also called taravaniwalas.

5.16.3 Market Makers

Market maker is the one who gives two way quotes for a security at
any point of time. Market maker provides liquidity to scrip. A market maker
would offer to do transaction on either side as chosen by the counter party at
the prices indicated by the market maker for the quantities offered. The market
maker assumes the price risk, the liquidity risk and the time risk. Price risk

22
Iyer, V.L., Taxmann‘s – SEBI Practice Manual, Taxmann Allied Services (P.) Ltd.,
1999
 186

means chat the market maker may not be able to cover his position at the same
or better price than the price at which he did the original transaction. Liquidity
risk means that he may not be able to liquidate his purchase position and may
have to take deliveries and vice versa. Time risk means that the market maker
may have to hold the inventory for an unknown period of time and lose the
interest on his investments

5.16.4 Taravaniwala

They are special category of members of the Bombay Stock

Exchange. The taravaniwala may be a jobber who specializes in stocks
located at the same trading post. When a jobber gives two way quotes and
does the transaction, the difference he gets between these two ways spread is
called Tarvani and the trader is called Tarvanivala. They make transactions on
their own behalf and may act as brokers on behalf of the public.

5.16.5 Badliwalas

Badliwalas are financiers in the stock exohan5c. They usually give

fully secured loans to the buyers and sellers for a short term period, say two or
three weeks. For granting credit facilities they charge a fee known as 'cantago'
or 'undabadala' or 'seedhabadala'.

5.17 Classification of Buyers and Sellers in a Stock Exchange23

The buyers and sellers in a stock exchange can be classified into two
broad categories:

1. Investors.

2. Speculators.

5.17.1 Investors

The investors buy the securities with a view to invest their savings in
profitable income earning securities. An Investor is interested in safety of his
investment. They generally retain the securities for a considerable length of
time with the objective of earning profit. They are assured of a profit in cash.
23
Cox, J. D., searching for the corporation voice in derivative suit litigation ;-A critique
of Zapata and the Ali project (1982) Duke L .J.1959 available on www.google.com
visited on 21st Sept. 2011
 187

5.17.2 Speculators

A speculator may buy securities in expectation of an immediate rise in

price of the securities. Speculation refers to the buying and selling of
securities with a hope to sell them at a profit, in future. Those who engage in
such activity are known as 'speculators'. Speculative transactions are made
with the purpose of earning quick money. They do not retain their holdings for
a long period. They buy the securities with the aim of selling them and not to
retain them. They are interested only in price difference. They are not genuine
investors.

If the expectation of speculator comes true, he sells the securities for a

higher price and snakes a profit. Similarly, a speculator may expect a price to
fail and sell securities at the current high price to buy again when prices
decline. He will make a profit if prices decline as expected. In reality, there is
no pure Speculator or an investor. Each investor is a speculator to some extent.
Similarly, every speculator is an investor, to some other extent. Hence, the
difference between die two is a matter of degree only.

5.17.2.1Types of Speculators

There are four types of speculators who are active on the stock
exchanges in India. They are known as Bull, Bear, Stag, and Lame Duck.
These names have been derived from the animal world to bring out the nature
and working of speculators. Bull and bear are the two classic market types
used to characterize the general direction of the market.

5.17.2.2 Bull

Bull is a speculator who expects a rise in prices of securities in the

future. In anticipation of price rise, he makes purchases of shares and other
securities with the intention to sell at higher prices in future. He makes money
when the share prices are rising. The speculator is called bull because the
behaviour of the speculator is very much similar to a bull. A bull tends to
throw his sufferer; up in the air. The bull speculator stimulates the price to rise,
lie is an optimistic speculator. A bull also called as Tejiwala.
 188

A bull market indicates generally rising stock prices high economic

growth and strong investor confidence in the economy. The bull market tends
to be associated with rising investor confidence and expectations of further
capita! gains. A key to successful investing during a bull market is to take
advantage of the rising prices. When the prices of shares rise, it is called a
bullish trend.

5.17.2.3 Bear

A bear market is a market condition that occurs when the prices of

shares decline or are about to decline. A bear is a speculator who expects a fall
in the prices of shares in future and sells securities at present with a view to
purchase them at lower prices in future. A bear does not have securities at
present but sells them at higher prices in anticipation that he will supply them
by purchasing at lower prices hi future. A bear speculator tends to force down
the price of securities. A bear is a pessimistic speculator If an investor is
bearish they are referred to as bear because they believe a particular company,
industry, sector or market in general is going to go down. A bear is also
known as a Mandiwala.

A bear market indicates felling stock prices, ban economic news, and
low investor confidence in the economy. The economy goes into recession
coupled with a rise in unemployment and inflation However, if the period of
declining prices is not long and is immediately followed by a period where
stock prices are on the increase, the trend is no longer considered as a bear
market but labelled, in financial terms, as a 'correction'. Trading in a bear
market is extremely difficult and risky for shareholders.

5.17.2.4 Stag

A stag is a cautious speculator in the stock exchange. A stag is an

investor who neither buys nor sells but applies for subscription to the new
issues, expecting that he can sell them at a premium. Stag is an investor who
buys the shares in the primary market from public issue in anticipation of rise
in prices on the listing of the shares on stock exchange. He selects those
 189

companies whose shares are in more demand and are likely to carry a premium.
He is also called as 'premium hunter'.

5.17.2.5 Lame Duck

When a bear speculator finds it difficult to fulfil his commitment, he is

said to be struggling like a lame duck. A bear speculator contracts to sell
securities at a later date. On the appointed time, he is not able to get the
securities, as the holders are not willing to part with them. In such situations,
he feels concerned. Moreover, the buyer is not willing to carry over the
transactions.

5.18 Clearing and Settlement Systems

Until the early 1990s, the trading and settlement infrastructure of the
Indian capital market was poor. Trading on all stock exchanges was through
open outcry, settlement systems were paper-based, and market intermediaries
were largely unregulated. By late 1990s the clearing and settlement
mechanism in Indian secondary market has witnessed significant changes and
several innovations. The notable changes include use of the state-of-art
information technology, emergence of a clearing corporation to assume
counterparty risk, shorter settlement cycle, dematerialization and electronic
transfer of securities, fine-tuned risk management system etc. Trading +2
rolling settlement has now been introduced for all securities. The regulators
have also prescribed elaborate margining and capital adequacy standards to
secure market integrity and protect the interests of investors.

Stock exchange is an entity which facilitates a platform for trading in

securities to its registered members called brokers. They transact business
primarily on behalf of their clients or investors. Clearing and settlement
activity constitutes the core part of the trading cycle. After the conformation of
a security deal, the broker who is involved in the transaction issues a contract
note to the investor which contains all the information about the transactions in
detail, at the end of the trade day. In response to the contract note issued by
broker, the investor has to settle his obligation by either paying money or
deliver the shares.
 190

The transactions in stock exchanges pass through three distinct phases, viz.
Trading, Clearing.

Settlement Financial market in India consist of Money Market,

Government securities market, capital market, insurance market and foreign
exchange market. The derivatives market has also emerged. Now a days
Banks are also allowed to undertake insurance business . Till the early 1990s
most of the financial markets were characterized by control over the financial
assets, restrictions on flows or transactions, barriers to entry, low liquidity and
high transaction costs. These characteristics came in the way of development
of markets and allocative efficiency resources channeled through them. From
1991 financial market reforms have emphasized the strengthening of the price
discovery process, easing restrictions on transactions, reducing transaction
costs and enhancing systemic liquidity.

5.19 Classes if Buyers

The securities of a corporation must be marketed so that fund raising

may be facilitated.. There are various classes of security buyer? who purchase
different types of securities. 'They may be classified as follows:

5.19.1 Institutional or Professional Buyers

They are familiar with the character of the securities they buy. These
include banks, investment trusts, insurance companies, special investment
buyers and others. These are in some way related to sellers of securities and are
obviously a little cautious about taking risks.

5.19.2 Bankers

Savings banks invest funds in Government and semi-Government

securities., whereas commercial banks invest in debentures, notes or any other
securities. They do not invest in speculative securities, for several restrict ions
have been placed upon their methods of investment. The practice governing the
relations between corporations and bankers is the designation of a particular
banking house as the latter's fiscal agent. Through which all the offerings of
the company are made. The fiscal agent, in return for this preferential
treatment, assumes a certain moral responsibility to finance the corporation,
 191

both in good and bad times. Company officials favour this method rather than
the method of competitive bidding because of the feeling of security for new
finances and refunding which this relationship gives them. They know that they
are ordinarily safe, and that the fiscal agent will take care of them to the limit of
his ability. At times, they may sell bonds at better prices by "shopping around"
among bankers; but the difference is small, and in bad weather, they have
often to pay through the nose.

5.19.3 Investment Bankers

The primary distribution of securities is generally performed by the

investment banker who is the middleman between the issuing corporation and
the investors seeking a return on their investment. An adequate investment
banking system is just as important to the health of the private enterprise
economy as an essential cog in the whole machinery of national economy.
Investment bankers may participate in the formation of capital for new and
established corporations by different methods,

Outright Purchase and Sale of Securities Offered by Issuing Corporation. This

outright purchase of securities is often known as underwriting. An investment
banker's profit is the difference between the price he pays for the securities and
the price for which he sells them, less the selling commission and other
expenses. The purchase price is either negotiated with the issuing corporation
or established by competitive bidding. An investment banker assures the
issuing corporation a definite price upon signing the purchase contract or
underwriting agreement, and bears the risk of distributing the securities to his
clients for profit. By dealing through investment bankers, the corporation is
relieved of the risk of discouraging buyers for the entire issue offered.
Moreover, the highly specialized function of securities distribution is entrusted
to a specialized agency like the investment banker.

5.19.4 Life Insurance Corporation

The Life Insurance Corporation is owned by policy-holders. They

collect annual premiums on insurance contracts. The sum total of the reserves
of life insurance contracts issued by the Life Insurance Corporation of India
 192

constitutes the source of funds available to the industry. The size of the funds
which are constantly available for investment makes the Life Insurance
Corporation an important factor in the securities investment market. The
investments are obviously regulated by certain laws.

5.19.5 General Insurance Companies

They do not have a large investment element in their contracts to

accelerate the expansion of their activities- Nevertheless, their assets, which
are substantial, are mainly in the form of investments.

5.19.6 Other Institutions

These include universities, hospitals, charitable trusts and

philanthropic organisations which have large amounts of funds which they
have to invest for long periods of time.

5.19.6.1 Investors

Individual investors include buyers of securities who in-1 vest their

own funds. They depend on investment income and do not want to incur any
risk. They desire to conserve their capital and appreciate it, if possible, and
aspire to a regular income on it. Their interest lies in the marketability of
securities, an assurance of a definite rate of income, and the safety of the
principal. They assume the minimum risk. Such investors buy debentures and
preferred stock. Securities are issued by the company having an established
business with an efficient management, assured profits and a conservative
distribution of profits to stockholders. If any of these characteristics are absent
from a business, its securities are not entitled to investment ranking, because
there is no guarantee to the investor that the income, on the basis of which he
buys the stock or a bond, will be permanent

5.19.6.2 Speculators

Speculators may be professional traders. They do not depend on

investment income, but expect a substantial capital appreciation. They prefer
to buy equity stock with a desire to benefit by trading on equity. A company
whose securities they select need not have an established record. Investors
desire to take advantage of growing market for the company's products. They
 193

do not mind accepting some losses even if their judgment goes wrong. They
believe in capital appreciation and accept oscillations in the prices of
securities. They prefer newly organised companies with good prospects. If
they successfully analyse the investment potential of their securities, they
stand to gain handsomely. However, if their analysis proves to be totally
wrong, they suffer disastrously and take heavy losses for their errors of
judgment. The characteristics of a speculative security are the exact opposite of
an investment. If a company is new, or if the efficiency of its management is
doubtful, or if it has not yet achieved profitable operations, or if, as happens in
rare instances, it has made profits and has, by the manipulation of its accounts,
segregated its large earnings from stockholders, or, finally, if it has paid out a
large percentage of profits so that it has to suspend dividends when earnings
decline, its stock must be recorded as speculative. The characteristic of
speculation is the fact that its value depends upon circumstances which cannot
be known because only the future can reveal them. An investment, on the
other hand, contains no "ifs" or "provides" or "beliefs." Its value is founded
upon certainty. The value of a speculative security is built upon the shifting
sands of probabilities and suppositions.

The stocks and bonds of established companies, where success is

certain, are purchased by investors; but speculative securities are bought by
speculators. The investor will not buy a security whose value is doubtful. He
demands the quality of safety in a stock or bond, before anything else. He
must be reasonably certain that his principal is safe, that he can, at any time in
the future, disregarding the occasional fluctuations in the market, sell his
stocks or bonds at or near the price he paid for them. If this assurance of safety
of principal and certainty of income can be given to him, he is satisfied with a
moderate return.

5.19.6.3 The Public

If the securities of a new corporation cannot be sold to a banker in

resale to the investors, they must be sold to the public. This is composed of
persons of moderate or small means who are willing to buy the shares of new
companies at low prices, trusting in the representatives of those who have
 194

stock to sell, that these stocks will pay large dividends and eventually increase
in value. The buyer has usually no knowledge of finance. He does not
understand the nature of an investment judgment. He has no skill in offsetting
advantages against disadvantages. For him a security is either good or bad.
There is no half-way point. Great care must, therefore, be exercised to give
him only the most simple and favourable information concerning a stock. The
public asks few questions except those on the standing of the officers and
directors of a new company, for naturally does not want to be robbed of the
amount of dividends which is promised to the stockholders,

5.19.6.4 Trader Buyers

Trader buyers dispose of securities on a retail scale. They correspond

to floor traders on the stock exchange. Trader buyers purchase such securities
as readily appeal to them. They include individuals whose tastes differ from
one person to another. There is, therefore, a considerable fluidity in security
purchase preferences so far as individual buyers are concerned. Few
individuals act on simple reasoning. Others act on their own prejudices and
are often reluctant to change their investment preference because of their
unfamiliarity with the scrip.

5.19.6.5 General Investment Buyers

This is a group of general investment buyers, including typical

individuals and business establishments. The individuals are typical because
they have accumulated funds which they do not like to use as a basis for
income. The list of securities for sale widens the market for all securities and
such individuals are stock-minded and pay their attention more to market
quotations than to any other considerations. Ordinarily, a sound, significant
background must be created to inspire their confidence. General investment
buyers also include business establishments which regard securities as
corporate investment.
 195

5.19.6.6 Promoters

Security may be sold by the promoter to his friends and relatives If

securities have a large sales potential, they may well be sold directly in the
open market

5.19.6.7 Employees

Corporations may encourage- their employees to buy their stock on

instalment basis under favourable conditions. The basic idea of selling stock
to employees is, that of fostering ? properly interest in the well-being. Some
managements have a real interest in the welfare of employees and wish them
to share in the fortunes of the company. There are two ways of selling stock to
employees. In the first case, employees are allowed to switch their holding, if
they so desire, to realise a profit. In another case, the companies sell the
employees a special issue whereby employees are prevented from switching
their holdings and will have to offer them back to the company for re-purchase
in case they wish to dispose of them. This method has been criticized on the
ground that it violates an elementary principle of diversification of risks, for
in a period of depression, the employee is likely to suffer both ways. There
may be a depreciation in the value of his stock. At the same time, he may have
to lose his job.

5.19.6.8 Customers

Customer ownership is a new device which is employed by public

utilities and industrial companies. Customers are allied with their concern by
making them stockholders. The idea of such involvement is to encourage the
customers to buy the products of the company and to boost its sales.
Customer owners have a property interest in the company, and are less likely
to agitate for lower rates and severe restrictions on the quality of the product.
The risk is that, if securities prove to be low grade ones, there is a possibility
that they will lose both the consumers' goodwill was well as the investment
market.
 196

5.19.6.9 Existing Stockholders

The corporation may sell its securities to the existing stockholders. It

does so particularly at the time of its expansion.

5.19.6.10 Business Corporation24

Business corporations, which can spare large sums of money, invest

funds in short-term securities. Some corporations have investments in
securities of subsidiary or affiliated companies with a view to acquiring
control. Often, they invest in the securities of their supplier or creditor
companies, and investments are made by marketing the securities of related
companies. The above groups of investors range from uninformed investors to
expert investors. The latter know the merits of their investments, whereas the
former may be ignorant about them. The public is often gullible and
succumbs to the false promises and gimmicks of the issuing corporations.
There is, therefore, a need for protective measures for innocent investors. If
the issuing corporation is guilty of fraudulent misrepresentation or
concealment of material facts from the investors, the investors have a right to
sue it and recover the damage caused to them- However, it is difficult to prove
the false representations of the corporations, and investors can ill-afford to
bear the expenses of litigation.

5.19.6.11 Intermediaries

It is possible for a reputed corporation to distribute directly its issue of

securities. Although this is economical, there are several considerations which
force it to present its securities in the market through intermediaries.

(i) A corporation may not be acquainted with the investment market and
is likely to be duped in the process of selling its securities.

(ii) When a corporation issues its securities directly, investors may

possibly feel that it lacks the support of institutional agencies, and cannot,
therefore, be 'rusted.

24
Brown, shareholder Derivative Litigation & special Litigation,91 yale C.J. 698 at
700n(1982) available on www.google.com
 197

(iii) The securities sold through reputed agencies attract investors easily.
Established agencies may be able to sell securities to a class of purchasers
who do not have any hope of getting a quick return. On the contrary, if the
corporation were to sell directly to investors, the latter may hope for quick
returns; and, if these hopes are belied, they may sell back the securities.

5.20 Derivatives Markets25

Derivatives are innovations that have redefined the financial services industry
and they have attained a very significant place in the capital markets. The
primary objectives of all investors are to maximize their returns and minimize
their risks. The Derivatives are contracts which originated from the need to
minimize risk. The word ‗derivative‘ originated from mathematics and refers
to a variable, which in turn has been derived from another variable.
Derivatives are so called because they have no value of their own.

Financial markets are, by nature, extremely volatile and hence the risk
factor is an important concern of financial agents. To reduce this risk, the
concept of derivatives was introduced. The term ―Derivative‖ indicates that it
has no independent value, i.e. its value is entirely ―derived‖ from the value of
an underlying asset. Values of derivatives are determined by the fluctuations
in the underlying assets. Derivatives are an alternative to investing directly in
assets without buying and holding to the asset itself. They also allow
investments in underlying and risks which cannot be purchased directly. A
derivatives is basically a bet.

Derivatives are specialized contracts which signify an agreement or an

option to buy or sell the underlying asset up to a certain time in the in the
future at a prear4anged price. The contract also has a fixed expiry period
mostly in the range of 3 to 12 months from the date of commencement of the
contract. The value of the contract depends on the expiry period and also in
the price of the underlying asset.

A derivative is defined as ―a contract between a buyer and a seller

entered into today regarding a transaction to be fulfilled at a future point in

25
www.baseindia.com visited on6th April 2013 at 2 p.m.
 198

time‖. Derivative is defined in another way as ―a contract embodied with a

right and or an obligation to make an exchange of financial asset from one
party to another party.‖ The term Derivative has been defined in the securities
Contracts (Regulations) Act of 1956. As per the Act derivative includes:

1. A security derived from a debt instrument share, loan, whether secured

or unsecured, risk instrument or contract for differences or any other form
of security.

2. A contract which derives its value form the prices, or index of prices,
of underlying securities.

 Derivatives are financial products.

 Derivative is derived from another financial instrument/contract called

the underlying.

 Derivative derives its value from the underlying assets.

5.20.1 Development of Derivatives Markets in India26

Derivatives have had a long presence in India. The commodity

derivative market has been functioning in India since the nineteenth century
with organized trading in cotton through the establishment of Cotton Trade
Association in 1857. Since then contracts on various other commodities have
also been introduced. Indian securities markets have indeed been waiting for
too long for derivatives trading to emerge. Derivative products initially
emerged as hedging devices against fluctuations in commodity prices and
commodity-linked derivatives remained the sole form of such products for
almost three hundred years.

While derivatives markets flourished in the developed world, Indian

markets remain deprived for financial derivatives up to the beginning of this
millennium. While the rest of the world progressed by leaps and bounds on
the derivatives front, Indian markets lagged behind. Financial derivatives
came to the spotlight in the post 1970 period due to the growing instability of
the financial markets.
26
Dr. Benson Kunjukuju and Dr. S. Mohan, ―Financial Market and services in India,‖
July 2012, p. 224-226.
 199

The first step towards introduction of derivatives trading in India was

the promulgation for the Securities Laws (Amendment) Ordinance, 1995,
which withdrew the prohibition on options in securities. The market for
derivatives, however, did not take off, as there was no regulatory framework
to govern trading of derivatives.

SEBI set up a 24 member committee under the Chairmanship of Dr.

L.C. Gupta on November 18, 1996 to develop an appropriate regulation
framework for derivations trading and to recommend a bye-law for
Regulation and Control of Trading and Settlement of Derivatives Contracts in
India. The committee submitted its report on March 17, 1998 prescribing
necessary pre-conditions for introduction of derivatives trading in India. It
recommended that derivatives should be declared as ‗securities‘ so that
regulatory framework applicable to trading of securities could also apply to
trading of derivatives. The Board of SEBI in its meeting held on May 11,
1998 accepted the recommendations of the Gupta committee and introduced
derivatives trading in India with Stock Index Futures.

SEBI also appointed another group in June 1998 under the

Chairmanship of Prof. J.R. Varma, to recommend measures for risk
containment, in derivatives market in India. The report, which was submitted
in October 1998, worked out the-operational details of margining system,
methodology for charging initial margins, broker net worth, deposit
requirement and real-time monitoring requirements.

However the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956 (SCRA)

needed amendment to include "derivatives" in the' definition of securities to
enable SEBI to introduce trading in derivatives. Thus the Securities Contract
Regulation Act was amended in December 1999 to include derivatives within
the ambit of securities' .and the regulatory framework was developed for
governing derivatives trading. The act also made it clear that derivatives shall
be legal and valid only if such contracts are traded on a recognized stock
exchange, thus —precluding-QTC derivatives; The.ban imposed on trading in
derivatives way back in 1969 under a notification issued by the Central
Government has been revoked.
 200

Thereafter, SEBI formulated the necessary regulations/bye-laws and

intimated the same to stock exchanges in the year 2000, and derivative trading
started in India at NSE in the same year and at BSE in the year 2001.
Derivative products-were introduced in a phased manner starting "With Index
Futures Contracts in June 2000. SEBI permitted the derivative segments of
two stock "exchanges, NSE and BSE, and their clearing house/corporation to
commence trading-and-settlement in approved derivatives contracts. The
derivatives trading on NSE commenced with S&P CNX Nifty Index futures
on June 12, 2000. The index futures and options contract on NSE are based on
S&P CNX Trading and I settlement in derivative contracts is done in
accordance with the rules, byelaws, and regulations of "the respective
exchanges and their clearing house/corporation and are duly approved by
SEBI and notified in the official gazette.

Index Options and Stock Options were introduced in June 2001 .and
July 2001 followed by Stock Futures in November 2001. Sectoral indices
were permitted for derivatives trading in December 2002. Interest Rate
Futures on notional bond and T-bill were introduced in June 2003. Exchange
traded interest rate futures on notional bond priced off on a basket of
Government Securities was permitted for trading in January 2004. Mini
derivative (F&O) contract on Index (SENSEX and Nifty) were permitted by
SEBI in December 2007. Longer tenure Index Options contracts and
Volatility Index commenced in January 2008. Further, Bond Index was
introduced in April 2008.

In addition to the above, during August 2008, SEBI Permitted

Exchange traded Currency Derivatives. Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs)
are permitted to trade in all exchange traded derivative products. National
Commodity & Derivatives Exchange Limited (NCDEX) started its operations
in December 2003, to provide a platform for commodities trading.

In recent years, markets for financial derivatives have grown

tremendously in terms of instruments available, their complexity and their
turnover. In the class of equity derivatives, futures and options on stock
indices have gained more popularity than on stocks, especially among
 201

institutional investors, who are major users of index-linked derivatives. Even

small investors find these instruments useful due to the high correlation of
popular indexes with various portfolios and ease of use. In terms of volume
and turnover, NSE is the largest derivatives exchange in India. Currently,, the
derivatives contracts have a maximum of three-months expiration cycles.
Three contracts are available for trading, with one month, 2 months and 3
months expiry.

5.20.2 Functions of Derivatives Markets27

1. They help in transferring risks from risk averse people to risk oriented
people.

2. Derivatives help in the discovery of future as well as current prices.

3. An important incidental benefit that flows from derivatives trading is

that it acts as catalyst for new entrepreneurial activity. Derivatives
attracted many bright, creative, well-educated people with an
entrepreneurial attitude. They often energize others to create new
businesses, new products and new employment opportunities, the benefit
of which are immense.

4. The underlying market witness higher trading volumes because of

participation by more players who would not otherwise participate for lack
of an arrangement of transfer risk.

5. They increase savings and investment in the long run.

6. In the absence of an organized derivatives market, speculators trade in

the activities of various participants become extremely difficult in this
kind of mixed market.

5.20.3 Types of Derivatives Markets28

There are two competing segments in the derivatives market, which

are given below:

1. Exchange Trade Derivatives Market

27
Ibid.
28
Ibid.
 202

2. Over the Counter Derivatives Market

5.20.3.1 Exchange Traded Derivatives Markets

Exchange traded derivatives (ETD) are those derivatives products that

are via specialized derivatives exchanges or other exchanges. A derivatives
exchange acts as an intermediary to all related transactions, and takes initial
margin from both sides of the trade to act as a guarantee. Exchange traded
derivatives are standardized contracts traded on the stock exchange. In the
Exchange Traded Derivatives Market (on-exchange) or Future Market,
exchange acts as the main party and by trading of derivatives, risk is actually
traded between two parties. One party who purchases future contract is said to
go "long" and the person who sells the future .contract is said to go "short".
The holder of the "long" position owns the future contract and earns profit
from it if the price of the underlying security goes up in the future. On the
contrary, holder of the "short" position is in a profitable position if the price
of the underlying security goes down, as he has already sold the future
contract. Therefore, when a new future contract is introduced, the total
position in the contract is zero as no one is holding that for short or long
periods.

5.20.3.2 Over the Counter Derivative Markets

Privately negotiated derivative contracts are called over-the-counter

(OTC) derivatives. Over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives are contracts that are
traded directly between two parties, without going through an exchange or
other intermediary. OTC derivatives are created by an agreement between two
individual counterparties. OTC derivatives cover a range from highly
standardized to tailor-made contracts with individualized terms regarding
underlying, contract size, maturity and other features. Products such as swaps,
forward rate agreements, and exotic options are usually traded in this way.
Both exchange-traded and OTC derivative contracts offer many benefits, the
former have rigid structures compared to others. The OTC derivative market
is the largest market for derivatives, and is unregulated.
 203

Most derivatives products are initially developed as OTC derivatives.

Once a product matures, exchanges "industrialize" it, creating a liquid market
for a standardized and refined form of the new derivatives product. The OTC
and exchange-traded derivatives then coexist side by side. The number of
OTC-traded derivatives is unlimited in principle as they are customized and
new contracts are created continuously.

Swaps, Options and Forward Contracts are traded in Over the Counter
Derivatives Market or OTC market. The main participants of OTC market are
the Investment Banks, Commercial Banks, Govt. Sponsored Enterprises and
Hedge 'Funds. The investment banks markets the derivatives through traders
to the clients like hedge funds and the rest.

5.20.3.3 Features of OTC Derivatives Markets29

The OTC derivatives market has the following features compared to

exchange-trade derivatives:

1. There are no formal rules for risk and burden sharing.

2. There are no formal limits on individual positions, leverage or

margining.

3. There are no formal rules or mechanisms for ensuring market stability

and integrity and for safeguarding the collective interests of market
participants.

4. The management of counter-party credit risk is decentralized and

located within individual institutions.

5. The OTC contracts are generally not regulated by a regulatory

authority and the exchange‘s self-regulatory organization.

5.21 Government Securities30

It is a tradable instrument issued by central government and state

government. It acknowledges the government‘s debt obligation. Such

29
Ibid
30
Ibid at p. 294.
 204

securities are short term (less than one year) or long term (more than one
Year)

According to Public Debt Act of 1994, government securities means a

security created and issued by the government for raising a public loan or any
other purpose as notified by the government.

Advantages of Government Securities31-

 Government Securities offer maximum safety. No default risk as the

Government Securities carry sovereign guarantee for payment of interest
and repayment of principal.
 Government Securities are available in a wide maturities from 91 days
to as long as 30 years to suit the requirement of investors.
 Government securities provide ample liquidity to the investors. It can
be easily sold in secondary market to meet cash requirement.
 The settlement system for trading in Government Securities, which is
based on Delivery Versus Payment (DvP), is a very simple, safe and
efficient system of settlement. The DvP mechanism ensures transfer of
securities by the seller of securities simultaneously with transfer of funds
from the buyer of the securities, mitigating the settlement risk.
 Lower volatility as compared to corporate bonds.
These are various type of securities dealt in financial market in India. The
various law regulating the financial market is-
 The Companies Act 2013.
 Securities Contract Regulation Act
 Security Exchange Board of India Act,1992
 Government Securities Act 2006
 Reserve Bank of India Act, 1935.

Every person is eligible to invest in Government securities. The biggest

investors of both central and state Government Securities are commercial
banks.

31
K.S. Ramasubramanian,‗‘ Issue of Sweat Equity Shares –Old Wine in a New
Bottle?’’ available at corporate law reporter.com.
 205

Financial market in India plays an important role for development of

country. Through Financial Market companies raises finance for its activities
by issuance of prospectus. Only public company can raise finance from
public. Till the early 1990s most of the financial markets were characterized
by controls over the pricing of financial assets, restrictions on flows or
transactions, barrier to entry, low liquidity and high transaction costs. These
characteristics came in the way of development of the markets and allocative
efficiently of resources channeled through them. From 1991 onward,
financial market reforms have emphasized the strengthening of the price
discovery process easing restrictions on transactions, reducing transaction
costs and enhancing systemic liquidity, Free pricing of financial assets,
greater transparency, regulatory and legal challenge, building of institutional
infrastructure , improvement in trading, clearing and settlement practices.

The money market has witnessed the emergence of a number of new

instruments such as commercial paper and certificate of deposit and derivative
products including forward rate agreements and interest rate swaps. Repo
operations, which were introduced in the early 1990s and later refined into a
liquidity adjustment facility, allow the RBI to modulate liquidity and transmit
interest rate signals to market on a daily basis.

The process of financial market development was buttressed by the

evolution of an active Government securities market after the government
borrowing programme was put through the auction process in 1992-93. The
development of a market for Government paper enabled the RBI to modulate
the monetization of the fiscal deficit.

The corporate debt market is not yet large to have a significant impact
on systematic stability. The Indian financial system is predominated by Bank
intermediation. Corporate in India have traditionally relied on borrowing from
bank and financial institutions. Equity financing has also been used during
periods of surging equity prices. The Corporate Bond markets, which was
reasonably vibrant in mid eighties has shrunk with respect to its alternative
sources of funding. The Lack of binding interest, low transparency and
absence of pricing of spreads against the benchmark are some of the other
 206

reasons. The opening up of capital account could see the growth of corporate
bond markets as there are may be demand from foreign investors seeking
exposure to high quality corporate debt.

The foreign exchange market deepened with the opening up of the

economy and the institutions of a market based exchange rates regime in the
early 1990s. Although there are occasional episodes of volatility in foreign
exchange market, these are swiftly controlled by appropriate policy measures

Financial instruments fall into two broad groups – (1) Direct instrument and
(2) derivatives Instruments. Direct Instrument in Capital market includes the
following-

1. Equity shares.

2. Preference shares

3. Debentures

The capital market consists of primary market and secondary market in which
trading in shares and other debentures are done. In term of trading and
settlement practices, risk management and infrastructure, capital market in
India is now comparable to the developed markets. Although stock market
have undergone a number of shocks and irregularities over the past decade,
they have over time, developed sophisticated institutional mechanisms by
harnessing modern technology. Even though the market design on the stock
markets have made major progress, there are continuing concern about the
speed and effectiveness with which fraudulent activities can be detected and
focused.

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