Mate
Mate
Mate
Most everyone agrees that effective mathematics teaching involves “meeting the students where they
are” and helping them build on what they know. But that is often easier said than done. In this
important new book for pre- and in-service teachers, early math experts Douglas Clements and
Julie Sarama show how “learning trajectories” help diagnose what mathematics a child knows. By
opening up new windows to seeing young children and the inherent delight and curiosity behind
their mathematical reasoning, learning trajectories ultimately make teaching more joyous. They
help teachers understand the varying level of knowledge and thinking of their classes and the
individuals within them as key in serving the needs of all children. In straightforward, no-nonsense
language, this book summarizes what is known about how children learn mathematics, and how to
build on what they know to realize more effective teaching practice. It will help teachers understand
the learning trajectories of early mathematics and become quintessential professionals.
Julie Sarama is an Associate Professor of Mathematics Education at the University at Buffalo, State
University of New York.
Studies in Mathematical Thinking and Learning
Alan H. Schoenfeld, Series Editor
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Clements, Douglas H.
Learning and teaching early math : the learning trajectories approach / Douglas H. Clements & Julie Sarama.
p. cm.—(Studies in mathematical thinking and learning)
1. Mathematics—Study and teaching (Early childhood) 2. Educational psychology. 3. Child development.
4. Curriculum planning. I. Sarama, Julie A. II. Title.
QA135.6.C58 2009
372.7—dc22
2008033304
ISBN 0-203-88338-1 Master e-book ISBN
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xiii
Notes 293
References 295
Index 317
vii
Preface
Everyone knows that effective teaching calls for “meeting the students where they are” and helping
them build on what they know. But that’s easier said than done. Which aspects of the mathematics
are important, which less so? How do we diagnose what a child knows? How do we build on that
knowledge—in what directions, and in what ways?
We believe that learning trajectories answer these questions and help teachers become more
effective professionals. Just as important, they open up windows to seeing young children and math
in new ways, making teaching more joyous, because the mathematical reasoning of children is
impressive and delightful.
Learning trajectories have three parts: a specific mathematical goal, a developmental path along
which children develop to reach that goal, and a set of instructional activities that help children
move along that path. So, teachers who understand learning trajectories understand the math, the
way children think and learn about math, and how to help children learn it better.
Learning trajectories connect research and practice. They connect children to math. They con-
nect teachers to children. They help teachers understand the level of knowledge and thinking
of their classes and the individuals in their classes as key in serving the needs of all children.
(Equity issues are important to us and to the nation. The entire book is designed to help you teach
all children, but equity concerns are discussed at length in Chapters 14, 15, and 16.) This book will
help you understand the learning trajectories of early mathematics and become a quintessential
professional.
Learning and teaching, of course, take place in a context. For the last decade we have had the
honor and advantage of working with several hundred early childhood teachers who have worked
with us creating new ideas for teaching and invited us into their classrooms to test these ideas
with the children in their charge. Next we wish to share with you a bit about this collaborative
work.
Background
In 1998, we began a four-year project funded by the National Science Foundation. The purpose of
Building Blocks—Foundations for Mathematical Thinking, Pre-Kindergarten to Grade 2: Research-
based Materials Development was to create and evaluate mathematics curricula for young children
based on a theoretically sound research and development framework. Based on theory and research
ix
x • Preface
on early childhood learning and teaching, we determined that Building Blocks’ basic approach
would be finding the mathematics in, and developing mathematics from, children’s activity. To do so,
all aspects of the Building Blocks project are based on learning trajectories. Teachers have found the
combination of that basic approach and learning trajectories to be powerful teaching tools.
More than a decade later, we are still finding new opportunities for exciting research and develop-
ment in early mathematics. Funding from the U.S. Department of Education’s Institute of
Education Sciences (IES) has allowed us to work closely with hundreds of teachers and thousands
of children over the past ten years. All these agencies and individuals have contributed ideas to these
books. In addition, these projects have increased our confidence that our approach, based on
learning trajectories and rigorous empirical testing at every step, can in turn make a contribution
to all educators in the field of early mathematics. The model for working with educators in all
positions, from teachers to administrators to trainers to researchers, has been developed with IES
funding to our TRIAD project, an acronym for Technology-enhanced, Research-based, Instruction,
Assessment, and professional Development.1
To teach children with different needs, and to teach effectively, make sure you read Chapters 14, 15,
and especially 16. Some readers may wish to read those chapters immediately following chapter 1!
Whichever way you choose, please know that the learning trajectories that describe children’s
learning and effective teaching for each topic are only part of the story—the other critical part
is found in those three chapters.
Across all the chapters, this is not a typical book of “cute teaching ideas.” We believe, however,
that it may be the most practical book you, as a teacher of early mathematics, could read. The many
teachers we have worked with claim that, once they understood the learning trajectories and ways to
implement them in their classrooms, they—and the children they teach—were changed forever.
Acknowledgments
1. Clements, D. H. & Sarama, J. Scaling Up TRIAD: Teaching Early Mathematics for Under-
standing with Trajectories and Technologies—Supplement. Awarded by the U.S. Department
of Education, IES (Institute of Education Sciences; as part of the Interagency Educational
Research Initiative, or IERI program, a combination of IES, NSF, and NIH).
2. Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., & Lee, J. Scaling Up TRIAD: Teaching Early Mathematics for
Understanding with Trajectories and Technologies. Awarded by the U.S. Department of
Education, IES (Institute of Education Sciences; as part of the Interagency Educational
Research Initiative, or IERI program, a combination of IES, NSF, and NIH).
3. Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., Klein, A., & Starkey, Prentice. Scaling Up the Implementation
of a Pre-Kindergarten Mathematics Curricula: Teaching for Understanding with Trajectories
and Technologies. Awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF, as part of the
Interagency Educational Research Initiative, or IERI program, a combination of NSF,
U.S. Dept. of Education IES, and NIH).
4. Starkey, Prentice, Sarama, J., Clements, D. H., & Klein, A. A Longitudinal Study of the
Effects of a Pre-Kindergarten Mathematics Curriculum on Low-Income Children’s
Mathematical Knowledge. Awarded by OERI, Department of Education as Preschool
Curriculum Evaluation Research (PCER) project.
5. Clements, D. H. Conference on Standards for Preschool and Kindergarten Mathematics
Education. Awarded by the ExxonMobil Foundation.
6. Clements, D. H., Watt, Daniel, Bjork, Elizabeth, & Lehrer, Richard. Technology-Enhanced
Learning of Geometry in Elementary Schools. Awarded by the National Science Foundation,
Elementary, Secondary, and Informal Science Education, Research on Educational Policy
and Practice.
7. Clements, D. H. Conference on Standards for Preschool and Kindergarten Mathematics
xiii
xiv • Acknowledgments
Appreciation to SRA/McGraw-Hill
The author and Publisher wish to express appreciation to SRA/McGraw-Hill for kindly giving
permission for the many screen shots provided by them for use throughout this title.
1
Young Children and Mathematics Learning
The snow was falling in Boston and preschool teacher Sarah Gardner’s
children were coming in slowly, one bus at a time. She had been doing
high-quality mathematics all year, but was still amazed at her chil-
dren’s keeping track of the situation: The children kept saying, “Now 11
are here and 7 absent. Now 13 are here and 5 absent. Now. . . .”
1
2 • Mathematics Learning
basis for this book’s learning trajectories. Learning trajectories help us answer several questions.
What objectives should we establish? Where do we start? How do we know where to go next? How
do we get there?
Learning trajectories have three parts: a mathematical goal, a developmental path along which
children develop to reach that goal, and a set of instructional activities, or tasks, matched to each of
the levels of thinking in that path that help children develop ever higher levels of thinking. Let’s
examine each of these three parts.
abilities begins when life begins. As we will see, young children have certain mathematical-like
competencies in number, spatial sense, and patterns from birth. However, young children’s ideas
and their interpretations of situations are uniquely different from those of adults. For this
reason, good early childhood teachers are careful not to assume that children “see” situations,
problems, or solutions as adults do. Instead, good teachers interpret what the child is doing and
thinking and attempt to see the situation from the child’s point of view. Similarly, when they
interact with the child, these teachers also consider the instructional tasks and their own actions
from the child’s point of view. This makes early childhood teaching both demanding and
rewarding.
Our learning trajectories provide simple labels and examples for each level of each develop-
mental progression. The “Developmental Progression” column in Table 1.1 describes three main
levels of thinking in the counting learning trajectory (this is just a sample of levels that actually have
other levels in between them—the full learning trajectory is described in Chapter 3). Under each
description is an example of children’s thinking and behavior for each level.
1–2 Chanter Verbal Chants “sing-song” or sometimes Repeated experience with the counting sequence
indistinguishable number words. in varied contexts.
Count for me.
“one, two-twee, four, sev-, en, ten”
3 Corresponder Keeps one-to-one correspondence Kitchen Counter Students click on objects one at
between counting words and objects (one word for a time while the numbers from one to ten are
each object), at least for small groups of objects laid counted aloud. For example, they click on pieces
in a line. of food and a bite is taken out of each as it is
counted.
Counts:
ⵧⵧⵧⵧ
“1, 2, 3, 4”
But may answer the question, “How many?” by
re-counting the objects or naming any number word.
Counter (10) Counts arrangements of objects to 10. Counting Towers (Up to 10) A day before read
May be able to write numerals to represent 1–10. Shape Space. Ask what shapes work well in which
part of a tower (e.g., would the “tip on the
May be able to tell the number just after or just
triangle” make it a good base?). Set up stations
before another number, but only by counting up
with different objects to stack. Encourage children
from 1.
to stack as many as they can, and count them to
Accurately counts a line of 9 blocks and says there are 9. see how many they stacked.
What comes after 4? “1, 2, 3, 4, 5. 5!”
Mathematics Learning • 5
the ideas and skills needed to achieve that level of thinking. That is, as teachers, we can use these
tasks to promote children’s growth from one level to the next. The last column of Table 1.1 provides
example tasks. (Again, the complete learning trajectory in Chapter 3 includes not only all the
developmental levels but several instructional tasks for each level.)
In summary, learning trajectories describe the goals of learning, the thinking and learning
processes of children at various levels, and the learning activities in which they might engage. People
often have several questions about learning trajectories. You may wish to read our responses to
those questions that interest you now and return to this section after you read more about specific
learning trajectories in the chapters that follow.
Does every trajectory represent just “one path”? In broad terms, there is one main developmental
path; however, for some topics, there are “subtrajectories”—strands within the topic. For example,
as previously stated, the counting learning trajectory in Chapter 3 includes both verbal and object
counting—they are related, but can develop somewhat independently. In some cases, the names
make this clear. For example, in Comparing and Ordering, some levels are about the “Comparer”
levels, and others about building a “mental number line.” Similarly, the related subtrajectories
of “Composition” and “Decomposition” are easy to distinguish. Sometimes, for clarification,
subtrajectories are indicated with a note in italics after the title. For example, in Shapes, “Parts” and
“Representing” are subtrajectories within the Shapes trajectory.
Other questions address how to use the learning trajectories.
How do these developmental levels support teaching and learning? The levels help teachers, as well
as curriculum developers, assess, teach, and sequence activities. Teachers who understand learning
trajectories (especially the developmental levels that are at their foundation) are more effective and
efficient. Through planned teaching and also by encouraging informal, incidental mathematics,
teachers help children learn at an appropriate and deep level.
There are ages in the charts. Should I plan to help children develop just the levels that correspond to
my children’s ages? No! The ages in the table are typical ages children develop these ideas. But these
are rough guides only—children differ widely. Furthermore, the ages are often lower bounds on
what children achieve without high-quality instruction. So, these are “starting levels” not goals. We
have found that children who are provided high-quality mathematics experiences are capable of
developing to levels one or more years beyond their peers.
Are the instructional tasks the only way to teach children to achieve higher levels of thinking?
No, there are many ways. In some cases, however, there is some research evidence that these are
especially effective ways. In other cases, they are simply illustrations of the kind of activity that
would be appropriate to reach that level of thinking. Further, teachers need to use a variety of
pedagogical strategies in teaching the content, presenting the tasks, guiding children in completing
them, and so forth.
Figure 1.1 The Building Blocks project was named because we wanted to use manipulatives like children’s building blocks (on and off
the computer) to help children develop mathematical and cognitive building blocks—the foundations for later learning (see http://
www.gse.buffalo.edu/org/buildingblocks/).
Final Words
Against this background, let us explore the learning trajectories in Chapters 2 through 12. Chapter 2
begins with the critical topic of number. When do children first understand number? How do they
do it? How can we help children’s initial ideas develop?
2
Quantity, Number, and Subitizing
Before you read farther, what do you make of this startling research finding? How in the world could
such a young child do this? At some intuitive level, this infant has recognized number, and a
change in number. When developed, and connected to verbal number names, this ability is called
subitizing—recognizing the numerosity of a group quickly, from the Latin “to arrive suddenly.” In
other words, people can see a small collection and almost instantly tell how many objects are in it.
Research shows that this is one of the main abilities very young children should develop. Children from
low-resource communities and those with special needs often lag in subitizing ability, harming their
mathematical development. This is why the first learning trajectory we discuss involves subitizing.
Types of Subitizing
When you “just see” how many objects in a very small collection, you are using perceptual subitizing
(Clements, 1999b). For example, you might see three dots on a die and say “three.” You perceive the
three dots intuitively and simultaneously.
How is it you can see an eight-dot domino and “just know” the total number, when evidence
indicates that this lies above the limits of perceptual subitizing? You are using conceptual
subitizing—seeing the parts and putting together the whole. That is, you might see each side of the
domino as composed of four individual dots and as “one four.” You see the domino as composed of
two groups of four and as “one eight.” All of this can happen quickly—it is still subitizing—and
often is not conscious.
Another categorization involves the different types of things people can subitize. Spatial patterns
such as those on dominoes are just one type. Other patterns are temporal and kinesthetic, including
finger patterns, rhythmic patterns, and spatial-auditory patterns. Creating and using these patterns
through conceptual subitizing helps children develop abstract number and arithmetic strategies.
For example, children use temporal patterns when counting on. “I knew there were three more so
9
10 • Quantity, Number, and Subitizing
I just said, nine . . . ten, eleven, twelve” (rhythmically gesturing three times, one “beat” with each
count). They use finger patterns to figure out addition problems. Children who cannot subitize
conceptually are handicapped in learning such arithmetic processes. Children who can may only
subitize small numbers at first. Such actions, however, can be “stepping stones” to the construction
of more sophisticated procedures with larger numbers.
did not even accurately imagine patterns, and their patterns were certainly not numerical. Such
insights are important in understanding and promoting children’s mathematical thinking.
Textbooks often present sets that discourage subitizing. Their pictures combine many inhibiting
factors, including complex embedding, different units with poor form (e.g., birds that are not
compact as opposed to squares), lack of symmetry, and irregular arrangements (Carper, 1942;
Dawson, 1953). Such complexity hinders conceptual subitizing, increases errors, and encourages
simple one-by-one counting.
Due to their curriculum, or perhaps their lack of knowledge of subitizing, teachers do not do
sufficient subitizing work. One study showed that children regressed in subitizing from the begin-
ning to the end of kindergarten (Wright, Stanger, Cowper, & Dyson, 1994).
Research provides guidelines for developmentally generative subitizing. Naming small groups
with numbers, before counting, helps children understand number words and their cardinal
meaning without having to shift between ordinal (counting items in order) and cardinal uses of
number words inherent in counting (cf. Fuson, 1992a). Briefly, such naming of small, subitized
groups can more quickly, simply, and directly provide a wide variety of examples and contrasting
counterexamples for number words and concepts (Baroody, Lai, & Mix, 2005). These can be used to
help infuse early counting with meaning (see Chapter 3 on counting).
Another benefit of number recognition and subitizing activities is that different arrangements
suggest different views of that number (Figure 2.1).
Many number activities can promote conceptual subitizing. Perhaps the most direct activity is
known as “Quickdraw” (Wheatley, 1996) or “Snapshots” (Clements & Sarama, 2003a). As an
example, tell children they have to quickly take a “snapshot” of how many they see—their minds
have to take a “fast picture.” Show them a collection of children for 2 seconds, and then cover it.
Then, ask children to construct a collection with the same number or say the number. At first, use
lines of objects, then rectangular shapes, and then dice arrangements with small numbers.
As children learn, use different arrangements and larger numbers.
There are many worthwhile variations of the “Snapshots” activity.
• Place various arrangements of dots on a large sheet of poster board. With students gathered
around you, point to one of the groups as students say its number as fast as possible. Rotate
the poster board on different sessions.
• Challenge students to say the number that is one (later, two) more than the number on the
quick image. They might also respond by showing a numeral card or writing the numeral. Or,
they can find the arrangement that matches the numeral you show.
• Encourage students to play any of these games as a free-time or station activity.
• Remember that patterns can also be temporal and kinesthetic, including rhythmic and
spatial-auditory patterns. A motivating subitizing and numeral writing activity involves
auditory rhythms. Scatter children around the room on the floor with individual chalkboards.
Walk around the room, then stop and make a number of sounds, such as ringing a bell three
times. Children should write the numeral 3 (or hold up three fingers) on their chalkboards
and hold it up.
Across many types of activities, from class discussions to textbooks, show children pictures of
numbers that encourage conceptual subitizing. Follow these guidelines to make groups to be
subitized: (a) groups should not be embedded in pictorial context; (b) simple forms such as
homogeneous groups of circles or squares (rather than pictures of animals or mixtures or any
shapes) should be used for the units; (c) regular arrangements should be emphasized (most
including symmetry, with linear arrangements for preschoolers and rectangular arrangements for
older students being easiest); and (d) good figure-ground contrast should be provided.
Encourage conceptual subitizing to help students advance to more sophisticated addition and
subtraction (see also Chapters 5 and 6). For example, a student may add by counting on one or two,
solving 4 + 2 by saying “4, 5, 6,” but be unable to count on five or more, as would be required to
solve 4 + 5 by counting “4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.” Counting on two, however, gives them a way to figure out
how counting on works. Later they can learn to count on with larger numbers, by developing their
conceptual subitizing or by learning different ways of “keeping track.” Eventually, students come to
recognize number patterns as both a whole (as a unit itself) and a composite of parts (individual
Figure 2.2 An early level of the activity “Snapshots” from Building Blocks. (a) Children are shown an arrangement of dots for 2 seconds;
(b) They are then asked to click on the corresponding numeral. They can “peek” for 2 more seconds if necessary; (c) They are given feedback
verbally and by seeing the dots again.
Quantity, Number, and Subitizing • 13
Figure 2.2b
Figure 2.2c
units). At this stage, a student is capable of viewing number and number patterns as units of units
(Steffe & Cobb, 1988). For example, students can repeatedly answer what number is “10 more” than
another number. “What is ten more than 23.” “33!” “Ten more?” “43!”
Pre-K
Number and Operations: Developing an understanding of whole numbers, including concepts of correspondence, counting, cardinal-
ity, and comparison
Children develop an understanding of the meanings of whole numbers and recognize the number of objects in small groups without
counting . . .
Kindergarten
Number and Operations: Representing, comparing, and ordering whole numbers and joining and separating sets
Children choose, combine, and apply effective strategies for answering quantitative questions, including quickly recognizing the number in
a small set . . .
Figure 2.3 Curriculum focal points (NCTM, 2006) emphasizing subitizing in the early years.1
heavily on experience. Children who receive high-quality education progress one or more years
beyond the “typical” ages in these learning trajectories.) Using the “Snapshots” activity described
above as one basic instructional task, the learning trajectory shows different number and arrange-
ments of dots that illustrate instructional tasks designed to promote that level thinking. Although
the activities in the learning trajectories presented in this book constitute a research-based core of
an early childhood curriculum, a complete curriculum includes more (e.g., relationships between
trajectories and many other considerations; for example, see Chapter 15).
As an extension, later primary grade students can improve numerical estimation with modifica-
tions of “Snapshots.” For example, show students arrangements that are too large to subitize
exactly. Encourage them to use subitizing in their estimation strategies. Emphasize that using good
strategies and being “close” is the goal, not getting the exact number. Begin with organized geo-
metric patterns, but include scrambled arrangements eventually. Encourage students, especially
those in higher grades, to build more sophisticated strategies: from guessing to counting as much as
possible and then guessing to comparing (“It was more than the previous one”) to grouping (“They
are spread about four in each place. I circled groups of four in my head and then counted six
groups. So, 24!”). Students do perform better, using more sophisticated strategies and frames of
reference, after engaging in such activities (Markovits & Hershkowitz, 1997). For these and for all
subitizing activities, stop frequently to allow students to share their strategies. If students do not
quickly develop more sophisticated strategies based on place value and arithmetic operations, estimation
activities may not be a good use of instructional time. “Guessing” is not mathematical thinking. (See
Ch. 4.)
Meeting special needs. Special populations deserve special attention to subitizing. Because con-
ceptual subitizing often depends on accurate enumeration skill, teachers should remedy deficiencies
in counting early (Baroody, 1986). Teachers should cultivate familiarity of regular patterns by
playing games that use number cubes or dominoes and avoid taking basic number competencies
such as subitizing for granted in special populations.
Pattern recognition of fives and tens frames, such as illustrated in Figure 2.4, can assist students
with mental handicaps and learning disabilities as they learn to recognize the five- and ten-frame
configuration for each number. “These arrangements . . . help a student first to recognize the
number and use the model in calculating sums. It is this image of the number that stays with
the student and becomes significant” (Flexer, 1989). Visual-kinesthetic finger patterns can similarly
help, especially with the critical number combinations that sum to ten.
Quantity, Number, and Subitizing • 15
0–1 Pre-Explicit Number Within the first year, dishabituates Besides providing a rich sensory, manipulative
to number, but does not have explicit, intentional environment, use of words such as “more” and actions
knowledge of number. For infants, this is first collections of adding objects directs attention to comparisons.
of rigid objects one.
1–2 Small Collection Namer Names groups of 1 to 2, Gesture to a small group of objects (1 or 2, later 3 when
sometimes 3. the children capable). Say, “There are two balls. Two!”
When the children are able, ask them how many there
Shown a pair of shoes, says, “Two shoes.”
are. This should be a natural part of interaction
throughout the day.
Name collections as “two.” Also include nonexamples as
well as examples, saying, for instance, “That’s not two.
That’s three!” Or, put out three groups of two and one
group of three and have the child find out “the one that
is not like the others.” Discuss why.
Make your own groups in canonically structured
arrangements, such as the following for 3, and see how
fast children can name them.
3 Maker of Small Collections Nonverbally makes a small Ask children to get the right number of crackers (etc.)
collection (no more than 4, usually 1–3) with the same for a small number of children.
number another collection (via mental model; i.e., not Lay out a small collection, say two blocks. Hide them.
necessarily by matching—for that process, see Compare Ask children to make a group that has the same number
Number). Might also be verbal. of blocks as your group has. After they have finished,
When shown a collection of 3, makes another collection show them your group and ask them if they got the same
of 3. number. Name the number.
Play
“Snapshots”
on or off the
computer
with
matching
items.
5 Perceptual Subitizer to 5 Instantly recognizes briefly Play “Snapshots” on or off the computer with
shown collections up to 5 and verbally names the number matching dots to numerals with groups up to
of items. and including 5.
Shown 5 objects briefly, says “five.”
Conceptual Subitizer to 5 Verbally labels all Use different arrangements of the various modifications
arrangements to about 5, when shown only briefly. of “Snapshots” to develop conceptual subitizing and
ideas about addition and subtraction. The goal is to
“5! Why? I saw 3 and 2 and so I said five.”
encourage students to “see the addends and the sum as
in ‘two olives and two olives make four olives’ ” (Fuson,
1992b, p. 248).
Quantity, Number, and Subitizing • 17
Conceptual Subitizer to 10 Verbally labels most briefly Play “Snapshots” on or off the computer with matching
shown arrangements to 6, then up to 10, using groups. dots to numerals. The computer version’s feedback
emphasizes that “three and four make seven.”
“In my mind, I made two groups of 3 and one more, so 7.”
6 Conceptual Subitizer to 20 Verbally labels structured Use fives and tens frame to help children visualize
arrangements up to 20, shown only briefly, using groups. addition combinations, but also move to mental
arithmetic.
“I saw three fives, so 5, 10, 15.”
7 Conceptual Subitizer with Place Value and Skip Play “Snapshots” on or off the computer with matching
Counting Verbally labels structured arrangements, dots to
shown only briefly, using groups, skip counting, and numerals.
place value.
“I saw groups of tens and twos, so 10, 20, 30, 40, 42, 44, 46
. . . 46!”
8 Conceptual Subitizer with Place Value and Play “Snapshots” with structured groups that support
Multiplication Verbally labels structured arrangements the use of increasingly sophisticated mental strategies
shown only briefly, using groups, multiplication, and and operations, such as asking children how many dots
place value. in the following picture.
“I saw groups of tens and threes,
so I thought, 5 tens is 50 and 4 threes
is 12, so 62 in all.”
18 • Quantity, Number, and Subitizing
Figure 2.4
Final Words
“Subitizing is a fundamental skill in the development of students’ understanding of number”
(Baroody, 1987, p. 115) and must be developed. However, it is not the only way to quantify groups.
Counting is ultimately a more general and powerful method, and we turn to this topic in Chapter 3.
3
Verbal and Object Counting
Before her fourth birthday, Abby was given five train engines. She walked in one day with three of
them. Her father said, “Where’s the other ones?” “I lost them,” she admitted. “How many are
missing?” he asked. “I have 1, 2, 3. So [pointing in the air] foooour, fiiiive . . . two are missing, four
and five. [pause] No! I want these to be [pointing at the three engines] one, three, and five. So, two
and four are missing. Still two missing, but they’re numbers two and four.”
Abby thought about counting and numbers—at least small numbers—abstractly. She could
assign 1, 2, and 3 to the three engines, or 1, 3, and 5! Moreover, she could count the numbers. That
is, she applied counting . . . to counting numbers! What are the ideas and skills that develop in such
sophisticated counting? What do most young children know about counting? What more could
they learn?
Figure 3.1 After an adult makes the bottom row of “candies,” and asks the child to give herself the same number, the child uses 1-to-1
correspondence.
19
20 • Verbal and Object Counting
Figure 3.2 The adult spreads his “candies” out and the child now states he has more.
The Piagetians believed that children needed to develop the “logic” that underlies conservation
of number before counting was meaningful. This logic consists of two types of knowledge. First was
hierarchical classification, such as knowing that, if there are 12 wooden beads, 8 blue and 4 red,
there are more wooden beads than blue beads. What does that have to do with number and
counting? To understand counting, Piagetians argued, children must understand that each number
includes those that came before such as in Figure 3.3.
The second type of logical knowledge is sequencing. Children have to both properly produce
number words in sequence and sequence the objects they count so that they count each object
exactly once (no easy task for young children faced with an unorganized group). Also, children have
to understand that each counting number is quantitatively one more than the one before as in
Figure 3.4.
Both these notions have much truth in them. Children must learn these ideas to understand
number well. However, children learn much about counting and number before they have mastered
these ideas. And, in fact, rather than requiring these ideas before counting is meaningful, counting
may help children make sense of the logical ideas. That is, counting can help develop knowledge of
classification and seriation (Clements, 1984).
Figure 3.3 The hierarchical inclusion of numbers (cardinality, or “how many” property).
Verbal Counting
Object Counting
As shown in Chapter 2, naming how many items are in small configurations of items requires
experiences in which the configurations are labeled with a number word by adults or older children
(“Here are two blocks”), which enable children to build meaning for number words such as telling
how many. The capstone of early numerical knowledge is connecting the counting of objects in a
collection to the number of objects in that collection. Initially, children may not know how many
objects there are in a collection after counting them. If asked how many are there, they typically
count again, as if the “how many?” question is a directive to count rather than a request for how
many items are in the collection. Children must learn that the last number word they say when
counting refers to how many items have been counted.
Thus, to count a set of objects, children must not only know verbal counting but also learn (a) to
coordinate verbal counting with objects by pointing to or moving the objects and (b) that the last
counting word names the cardinality of (“how many objects in”) the set. This process is illustrated
in Figure 3.5.
Such counting is basic in many ways. It is the method for quantifying groups larger than small
subitizable collections. It is the necessary building block for all further work with number.
22 • Verbal and Object Counting
Figure 3.5 Object counting including 1-to-1 correspondence and cardinality (“how many uses”).
Also, counting is the first and most basic and important algorithm. That is, most everything else in
number, algebra, and beyond depend in some way on counting. Why is it an algorithm—a word
usually used for ways to represent and process arithmetic with multidigit numbers (e.g., “column
addition”)? Because an algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that is guaranteed to solve a specific
category of problems. Counting is the first step-by-step procedure that children learn that solves
certain problems—determining how many elements are in a finite set.
The easiest type of collection for 3-year-olds to count has only a few objects arranged in a
straight line that can be touched as children proceed with their counting. Between 3 and 5 years
of age, children acquire more skill as they practice counting, and most become able to cope with
numerically larger collections.
There are many additional counting skills children need to learn. They need to produce a collec-
tion of a given number, that is, “count out” a group. To adults, that may seem to be no more difficult
than counting a collection. However, to produce 4, children have to keep track of the number word
they are on, and keep one-to-one correspondence, and compare the number word they said to the 4
with each count. Before they reach that level of competence, they often just keep going!
Next, children learn to count objects in different arrangements, keeping track of which they have
and have not yet counted. Eventually they learn to count collections without needing to touch or
move objects during the act of counting. Children also learn to quickly tell how many there are in a
collection if one is added or removed by counting up or down. Finally, children learn sophisticated
counting strategies, such as counting on or counting backward to solve arithmetic problems, which
we will describe in more detail in Chapter 4.
Zero
Five-year-old Dawn was changing the speed of moving objects on the computer screen by entering
commands. SETSPEED 100 made them go fast. SETSPEED 10 made them go slower. She tried speed
limits such as 55 and very slow speeds like 5 and 1. Suddenly, she excitedly called her friend and then
her teacher. Visitor Seymour Papert and the teacher were confused. What was exciting? Nothing was
happening.
They found out that “Nothing” was happening. Zero! She had entered SETSPEED 0 and the
object stopped. Dawn talked about that it was “moving,” but the speed was zero. Zero was a
number! Not “none” or “nothing” but a real number. Papert concluded that such discoveries lie at
the heart of learning mathematics. This story also reveals that zero is not an obvious concept. It was
invented by people far later than were the counting numbers. However, even children as young as
3 or 4 years of age can learn to use zero to represent the absence of objects.
Children think about zero in different ways and build special rules to account for this exceptional
number. The same attributes that make zero difficult may also make it serve children’s mathemat-
ical development. Zero may play a special role in children’s increasingly algebraic knowledge of
number. Because they have to be conscious of the rules for zero, such experiences may build a
foundation for the creation of generalized rules in the structures of arithmetic.
Verbal and Object Counting • 23
During dinner, a father asked his second grader what he had learned in school.
Son: I learned that if you multiply or divide by zero, the answer is always zero.
Dad: What would be the answer if you multiplied two by zero?
Son: Zero.
Dad: What if you divided two by zero?
Son: Zero.
Dad: What is two divided by two?
Son: One.
Dad: What is two divided by one? How many ones are there in two?
Son: Two.
Dad: What is two divided by one-half? How many halves are there in two?
Son: Four.
Dad: What is two divided by one-quarter?
Son: Eight.
Dad: What seems to be happening as we divide by numbers closer to zero?
Son: The answer is getting bigger.
Dad: What do you think about the idea that two divided by zero is zero?
Son: It’s not right. What is the answer?
Dad: It doesn’t look like there is an answer. What do you think?
Son: Daddy, wouldn’t the answer be infinity?
Dad: Where did you learn about infinity?
Son: From Buzz Lightyear.
(adapted from Gadanidis, Hoogland, Jarvis, & Scheffel, 2003)
Summary
Early numerical knowledge includes four interrelated aspects (as well as others): recognizing and
naming how many items of a small configuration (small number recognition and, when done
quickly, subitizing), learning the names and eventually ordered list of number words to ten and
beyond, enumerating objects (i.e., saying number words in correspondence with objects), and
understanding that the last number word said when counting refers to how many items have been
counted. Children learn these aspects, often separately through different kinds of experiences, but
gradually connect them during the preschool years (cf. Linnell & Fluck, 2001). For example, very
young children may learn to focus on the number in small groups and, separately, learn verbal
counting, while enumerating these and other groups (initially without accurate correspondence) as
a verbal string. As these abilities grow, they motivate the use of each, and become increasingly
interrelated, with recognition motivating verbal counting, as well as building subitizing ability that
supports object counting skills of correspondence and cardinality (Eimeren, MacMillan, & Ansari,
2007). Skilled object counting then motivates and supports more advanced perceptual and
conceptual subitizing abilities. Each of the aspects begins with the smallest numbers and
gradually includes larger numbers. In addition, each includes significant developmental levels.
For example, small number recognition moves from nonverbal recognition of one or two objects,
to quick recognition and discrimination of one to four objects, to conceptual subitizing of
larger (composed) groups. As children’s ability to subitize grows from perceptual to conceptual
patterns, so too does their ability to count and operate on collections grow from perceptual
to conceptual.
24 • Verbal and Object Counting
meanings for number words may be labels for small sets of subitized objects, even if they
counted the sets first (Fuson, 1992b; Steffe, Thompson, & Richards, 1982).
Use many ways to link counting objects to children’s recognition of the numbers in small
collections. One effective demonstration strategy emphasizes that counting tells “how many” (from
Clements & Sarama, 2007a): With four counters out of sight in your hand, ask children to help you
count to find out how many counters you have hidden in your hand. Remove one with the other
hand, placing it in front of the children so they see and focus on this one. Emphasize that the
counting number, one, tells how many there are. Repeat until you have counted out all four objects.
Display your now-empty hands. Ask children how many there were in all. Agree there are four; we
counted and there are four. Repeat with new objects and a new number; also, have the children do
the verbal counting with you. Notice that children hear each (ordinal) counting word as it is spoken
in enumeration while observing the corresponding collection containing that number of objects.
Another technique would be to ask children to count a collection they can subitize. Then add or
subtract an object and have the children count again.
Children can use perceptual subitizing, counting, and patterning abilities to develop conceptual
subitizing. This more advanced ability to quickly group and quantify sets in turn supports their
development of number sense and arithmetic abilities. A first grader explains the process for us.
Seeing a 3 by 3 pattern of dots, she says “nine” immediately. Asked how she did it, she replies,
“When I was about four years old, I was in nursery school. All I had to do was count. And so, I just
go like 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and I just knew it by heart and I kept on doing it when I was five too.
And then I kept knowing 9, you know. Exactly like this [she pointed to the array of nine dots]”
(Ginsburg, 1977, p. 16).
Object counting. Of course, children also need substantial experience counting along with others
and counting by themselves. Counting objects takes considerable practice to coordinate and can be
facilitated by having children touch objects as they count and by counting objects organized into a
row. However, children are also well prepared for such coordination, especially if rhythm is intro-
duced, although they must concentrate and try hard to achieve continuous coordination throughout
the whole counting effort. Such effort increases their accuracy substantially (Fuson, 1988), and
asking children to “slow down” and “try very hard to count just right” might be the first interven-
tion to use when you observe an error in counting. Parents and some teachers may discourage
pointing at objects, or assume that when children use correspondence in simple tasks, they do not
need help using it in more complex tasks (Linnell & Fluck, 2001). However, errors increase when the
indicating act is eye fixations and such errors may be internalized. Therefore, allow—and encourage
parents to allow—children to point to objects, and encourage it as another early intervention when
counting errors are observed (Fuson, 1988, 1992a; Linnell & Fluck, 2001). Encourage children with
special difficulties, such as learning disabilities, to work slowly and carefully and to move objects to
a new location (Baroody, 1996).
Cardinality is one of the most frequently neglected aspects of counting instruction, and its role
may not be appreciated explicitly by teachers or parents (Linnell & Fluck, 2001). Use the demonstra-
tion strategy above, which was designed to emphasize the ordinal–cardinal connection in several
ways. In addition, when observing children, teachers are often satisfied by accurate enumeration
and do not ask children “how many?” following enumeration. Use this question for assessment
and to help prompt children to make the count to cardinal transition. Seek to understand your
children’s conceptualizations and the benefits of discussing counting and its purposes and creating
opportunities for both adult- and child-generated situations that require counting.
To develop these concepts and skills, children need extensive experience in contexts where they
have to know “how many.” Parents may ask, “How many?”, but only as a request to enumerate,
not to address the count-to-cardinal transition (Fluck, 1995; Fluck & Henderson, 1996). Instead,
26 • Verbal and Object Counting
activities such as those in Table 3.1 emphasize the cardinal value of the counted collection. The
activities demand that the cardinality be known, and some of them hide the objects so the request to
tell “how many” cannot be misinterpreted as a request to recount the collection.
Ask children to get 3 crackers, get as many straws as children at their table, and so forth.
These situations emphasize awareness of plurality, a particular cardinal goal, and the activity
of counting. In this way, most counting tasks should emphasize the situation and goal and the
cardinal result of counting, not just the activity of counting (Steffe & Cobb, 1988, personal
communication).
One study indicated that collaborative counting, in which pairs of kindergartners counted 1 set
of materials, contributed to individual cognitive progress by allowing an expansion of the range and
sophistication of the children’s strategies, such as a heightened explicit awareness of the need to
keep track of one’s counting acts when counting items of a hidden collection (Wiegel, 1998).
An important feature of the tasks was that they were designed on research-based developmental
progressions of counting (Steffe & Cobb, 1988).
Sophian evaluated a curriculum, informed by her earlier research, designed to facilitate
children’s awareness of the units they are counting, because a sound understanding of units is a
conceptual basis for much later mathematics learning. Derived from a measurement perspective
(Davydov, 1975), the activities emphasized that the numerical result we obtain from counting or
other measurement operations will depend on our choice of a unit and that units of one kind can
be combined to form higher-order units or taken apart to form lower-order ones. Results were
statistically significant, but modest (Sophian, 2004b).
Research from the field (Baroody, 1996) and from the Building Blocks curriculum project
suggests the following teaching strategies are useful when children make errors. See Box 1.
Teaching zero. Education can make a difference in children’s learning of zero. For example, one
university preschool, compared to others, increased children’s development of idea about zero by
one full year (Wellman & Miller, 1986). Because situations and problems involving zero are often
solved differently by young children (Evans, 1983), specific use of the term “zero” and the symbol
“0,” connected to the development of the concept—discuss real-world knowledge of “nothing”—
should begin early. Activities might include counting backward to zero, naming collections
with zero (a time for the motivation of silliness, such as the number of elephants in the room),
subtracting concrete objects to produce such collections, and discussing zero as the smallest whole
number (non-negative integer). Eventually, such activities can lead to a simple generalized rule,
such as adding zero does not change the value, and an integration of their knowledge of zero with
knowledge of other numbers.
Language, numbers, and object counting. Subitizing and counting rely on careful and sustained
application of number words. Seeing multiple examples of the same number that differ in all
aspects except numerosity, and nonexamples, is particularly helpful (Baroody et al., 2006).
Similarly, using numerals (“1” or “4”) meaningfully helps children develop number concepts.
Children may begin to use written representations for number as early as 3 years of age or as late as
6 years, depending on the home and preschool environments (Baroody et al., 2005). Number and
numeral games such as “Tins” are motivating for children and emphasize representations of
number. A different number of objects is placed in each of 4 covered tins, which are scrambled. The
child has to find the tin with the number of objects the teacher states. Soon after introducing
the game, the teacher introduces a new feature: Children can write on sticky notes to help them-
selves find the correct tin (Hughes, 1986). Children can use iconic representations or, better,
numerals.
Indeed, several curricula use games of various types to develop counting abilities in young
children (see Chapter 15). Children as young as 3 years of age can successfully play such games
Verbal and Object Counting • 27
with peers after they have been introduced by an adult (Curtis, 2005). Instruction in counting and
numeral-naming can help children transfer their knowledge to other areas, such as addition and
subtraction, but may not transfer to other skills such as comparison (Malofeeva, Day, Saco, Young,
& Ciancio, 2004). Therefore, include “race” games and other activities in your counting learning
trajectory (see also Chapter 4).
Computer activities are another effective approach. After introducing numerals with games
similar to “Tins,” the Building Blocks computer activities often ask children to respond to questions
by clicking on a numeral (numerals are written on “cards” that initially have fives-and-tens frame
dot representations as well), or read a numeral to know what size collection to produce. Children
using these and other activities outperformed comparison groups that also were taught numerals
(Clements & Sarama, 2007c). For kindergartners and older children, use of Logo activities has
similar facilitative effect on use of numerals, including connecting them to quantitative concepts
(Clements, Battista, & Sarama, 2001; Clements & Meredith, 1993).
There are four pedagogically significant characteristics of these activities. First, the symbols
have a quantitative meaning that children understand, and they build upon verbal representations.
Second, children create their own representations initially. Third, the symbols are useful in the
context of the activity. Fourth, children can translate from the situation to the symbols and back
again.
Written numerals can play a valuable role in focusing children on representing and reflecting on
numbers. The use of symbols with understanding may have an impact on number concepts through
its role in providing a common cognitive model that facilitates communication about number,
especially between young children and older people, and possibly in becoming part of the child’s
cognitive model of number (Munn, 1998; however, note that Munn privileges written symbols,
de-emphasizing verbal words as symbols). However, children probably should have considerable
experience with concrete situations and verbal problem-solving with numerical operations, such as
adding and subtracting, before relying on symbols as the sole communicative tool. Slow, informal,
meaningful uses in pre-K are more effective than traditional school methods, which lead to pro-
cedural approaches with less quantitative meaning (Munn, 1998).
Therefore, help children explicitly connect verbal and written symbols to each other and to
sensory-concrete (see pp. 274–276 in Chap. 16) quantitative situations. Encourage them to use
numerals as symbols of situations and symbols for reasoning. The emphasis should always be on
thinking mathematically, using symbols to do so when appropriate.
Pre-K
Number and Operations: Developing an understanding of whole numbers, including concepts of correspondence, counting, cardinal-
ity, and comparison
Children develop an understanding of the meanings of whole numbers and recognize the number of objects in small groups . . . by counting—
the first and most basic mathematical algorithm. They understand that number words refer to quantity. They use one-to-one correspondence
. . . in counting objects to 10 and beyond. They understand that the last word that they state in counting tells, “how many,” they count to
determine number amounts and compare quantities (using language such as “more than” and “less than”) . . .
Kindergarten
Number and Operations: Representing, comparing, and ordering whole numbers and joining and separating sets
Children use numbers, including written numerals, to represent quantities and to solve quantitative problems, such as counting
objects in a set, creating a set with a given number of objects . . . They choose, combine, and apply effective strategies for answering
quantitative questions, including . . . counting and producing sets of given sizes, counting the number in combined sets, and counting
backward.
Grade 1
Number and Operations and Algebra: Developing understandings of addition and subtraction and strategies for basic addition
facts and related subtraction facts
Children develop strategies for adding and subtracting whole numbers on the basis of their earlier work with small numbers . . . Children
understand the connections between counting and the operations of addition and subtraction (e.g., adding 2 is the same as “counting on” 2).
Number and Operations: Developing an understanding of whole number relationships, including grouping in tens and ones
Children . . . understand the sequential order of the counting numbers and their relative magnitudes and represent numbers on a number
line.
Grade 2
Number and Operations and Algebra: Developing an understanding of the base-ten numeration system and place-value concepts
[Children’s] understanding of base-ten numeration includes ideas of counting in units and multiples of hundreds, tens, and
ones . . .
Children develop strategies for adding and subtracting whole numbers on the basis of their earlier work with small numbers . . . Children
understand the connections between counting and the operations of addition and subtraction (e.g., adding 2 is the same as “counting on” 2).
Number and Operations: Developing an understanding of whole number relationships, including grouping in tens and ones
Children . . . understand the sequential order of the counting numbers and their relative magnitudes and represent numbers on a number
line.
Figure 3.6 Curriculum focal points (NCTM, 2006) emphasizing counting in the early years.1
developmental progression and the instructional tasks. (Note that the ages in all the learning
trajectory tables are only approximate, especially because the age of acquisition usually depends
heavily on experience.)
30 • Verbal and Object Counting
1 Pre-Counter Verbal No verbal Associate number words with quantities (see the initial levels of the
counting. “Recognition of Number and Subitizing,” learning trajectory in Chapter 2)
and as components of the counting sequence.
Names some number words with no
sequence. Repeated experience with the counting sequence in varied contexts.
Chanter Verbal Chants “sing-song”
or sometimes indistinguishable
number words.
2 Reciter Verbal Verbally counts with Provide repeated, frequent experience with the counting sequence in varied
separate words, not necessarily in the contexts.
correct order above “five”.
Count and Race Students verbally count along with the computer (up to 50)
“one, two, three, four, five, seven.” by adding cars to a racetrack one at a time.
Puts objects, actions, and words in
many-to-one (age 1;8) or overly rigid
one-to-one (age 1; correspondence
(age 2:6).
Counts two objects “two, two, two.”
If knows more number words than
number of objects, rattles them off
quickly at the end. If more objects,
“recycles” number words (inflexible
list-exhaustion).
3 Reciter (10) Verbal Verbally counts to Count and Move Have all children count from 1–10 or an appropriate
ten, with some correspondence with number, making motions with each count. For example, say, “one” [touch
objects, but may either continue an head], “two” [touch shoulders], “three” [touch head], etc.
overly rigid correspondence,
or exhibit performance errors
(e.g., skipping, double-counting).
Producing, may give desired number.
“one [points to first], two [points to
second], three [starts to point], four
[finishes pointing, but is now still
pointing to third object], five, . . .
nine, ten, eleven, twelve, ‘firteen,’
fifteen . . .”
Corresponder Keeps one-to-one Count and Move also develops this competency.
correspondence between counting
Kitchen Counter Students click on objects one at a time while the numbers
words and objects (one word for each
from 1 to 10 are counted aloud. For example, they click on pieces of food
object), at least for small groups of
and a bite is taken out of each as it is counted.
objects laid in a line.
ⵧⵧⵧⵧ
“1, 2, 3, 4”
4 Counter (Small Numbers) Cubes in the Box Have the child count a small set of cubes. Put them in the
Accurately counts objects in a line to box and close the lid. Then ask the child how many cubes you are hiding. If
5 and answers the “how many” the child is ready, have him/her write the numeral. Dump them out and
question with the last number count together to check.
counted. When objects are visible,
Pizza Pizzazz 2 Students count
and especially with small numbers,
items up to 5, putting toppings
begins to understand cardinality.
on a pizza to match a target
ⵧⵧⵧⵧ amount.
“1, 2, 3, 4 . . . four!”
Which Color Is Missing? Assign each child in a small group a different color.
Have each choose 5 crayons of that color. Once they have checked each
other, have them put their crayons into the same large container. Then
choose one child to be the “sneaky mouse.” With everyone’s eyes closed, the
sneaky mouse secretly takes out one crayon and hides it. The other children
have to count their crayons to see which color the mouse hid.
Road Race Counting Game
Students identify number
amounts (from 1 through 5)
on a die (physical game board)
or dot frame (computer
version) and move forward a
corresponding number of
spaces on a game board.
Continued Overleaf
32 • Verbal and Object Counting
Counter (10) Counts arrangements Counting Towers (Up to 10) A day before read Shape Space. Ask what shapes
of objects to 10. May be able to write work well in which part of a tower (e.g., would the “tip on the triangle
numerals to represent 1–10. block” make it a good base?). Set up stations with different objects to stack.
Encourage children to stack as many as they can, and count them to see how
Accurately counts a line of 9 blocks
and says there are nine. many they stacked.
Or, read Anno’s counting book. Ask children if they ever count how many
blocks they can stack in a tower. Have children work at a station and build a
tower as high as they can. Ask them to estimate how many blocks are in their
tower. Count the blocks with them before they knock it down. Try to get a
larger number in the tower. Children then switch stations.
Counting Jar A counting jar holds a specified number of items for children
to count without touching the items. Use the same jar all year, changing its
small amount of items weekly. Have children spill out the items to count
them.
Build Stairs 1 Students add stairs
to a stair frame outline to reach
a target height.
Number Line Race Give children number lines of different colors. Player 1
rolls a die and asks the banker for that many counters. The banker gives that
number and Player 1 places the counters in order along her number line
while counting. She then moves her playing piece along the counters,
counting out loud again, until the piece is on the last counter. Eventually,
ask children who are closest to the goal, and how they know it.
Before and After Math Students identify and select numbers that come either
just before or right after a target number.
Producer (Small Numbers) Counts Count Motions While waiting during transitions, have children count how
out objects to 5. Recognizes that many times you jump or clap, or some other motion. Then have them do
counting is relevant to situations in those motions the same number of times. Initially, count the actions with
which a certain number must be children. Later, do the motions but model and explain how to count silently.
placed. Children who understand how many motions will stop, but others will
continue doing the motions.
Produces a group of 4 objects.
Continued Overleaf
34 • Verbal and Object Counting
Pizza/Cookie Game 1 Children play in pairs. Player One rolls a number cube,
and puts that many toppings (counters) on his/her plate. Player One asks
Player Two, “Am I right?” Player Two must agree that Player One is correct.
At that point, Player One moves the counters to the circular spaces for
toppings on his/her pizza. Players take turns until all the spaces on their
pizzas have toppings.
Party Time 3 Students place items on a tray (up to 10) to match target
numerals.
Counter and Producer (10+) Counting Towers (Beyond 10) (See basic directions above.) To allow children
Counts and counts out objects to count to 20 and beyond, have them make towers with other objects such
accurately to 10, then beyond as coins. Children build a tower as high as they can, placing more coins, but
(to about 30). Has explicit not straightening coins already in the tower. The goal is to estimate and then
understanding of cardinality count to find out how many coins are in your tallest tower. To count higher,
(how numbers tell how many). have children make pattern “walls.” They build a pattern block wall as long
Keeps track of objects that have as they can. This allows them to count to higher numbers.
and have not been counted, even
in different arrangements. Writes
or draws to represent 1 to 10
(then, 20, then 30).
Verbal and Object Counting • 35
Number Jump with Numerals Hold up a numeral card and have children first
say the numeral. Together, children do a motion you pick (such as jump, nod
head, or clap) that number of times. Repeat with different numerals. Be sure
and use 0 (zero).
Dino Shop 2 Students add dinosaurs to a box to match target numerals.
Mr. MixUp Counting Use an adult-like, somewhat goofy puppet, called “Mr.
MixUp.” Tell children Mr. MixUp frequently makes mistakes. Ask children
to help Mr. MixUp count. They listen to Mr. MixUp, catch his mistake,
correct him, and then count with him to help him “get it right.” Have Mr.
MixUp make mistakes such as the following, in approximately this
developmental order.
Verbal counting mistakes
Wrong order (1, 2, 3, 5, 4, 6)
Skipping numbers (. . . 12, 14, 16, 17)
Repeat numbers (. . . 4, 5, 6, 7, 7, 8)
Object counting mistakes
One-to-one mistakes
Skipping objects
Count-point: Saying one number word but pointing twice or vice versa (but
points are 1–1 with objects)
Point-object: Pointing once but indicating more than one object or pointing
more than once to one object (but counting words are 1–1 with pointing)
Cardinality/Last number mistakes
Saying the wrong number as the “final count” (e.g., counting three objects,
counting “1, 2, 3 [correctly, but then saying], there’s 4 there!”)
Keeping-track-of-what’s-been-counted mistakes
Double counting: “coming back” and counting an item again
Skipping objects when counting objects not in a line
Continued Overleaf
36 • Verbal and Object Counting
Memory Number 2: Count Cards to Numerals Students match cards with dot
arrays to cards with the corresponding numerals within the framework of a
“Concentration” card game, on and off computer.
Memory Number 3: Dots to Dots Students match cards with dots in frames to
cards with the same number of dots, unframed, within the framework of a
“Concentration” card game.
Counter Backward from 10 Verbal Count and Move—Forward and Backward Have all children count from 1–10
and Object or an appropriate number, making motions with each count, and then count
backward to zero. For example, they start in a crouch, then stand up bit by
Counts backward from 10 to 1,
verbally, or when removing objects bit as they count up to 10. Then they count backwards to zero (sitting all the
from a group. way down).
“10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1!” Blast Off! Children stand and count backward from 10 or an appropriate
number, crouching down a bit with each count. After reaching zero, they
jump up yelling, “Blast off!”
Countdown Crazy Students click digits in sequence to count down from 10 to 0.
6 Counter from N (N + 1, N − 1) One more! Counting on Have the children count two objects. Add one and
Verbal and Object Counts verbally ask, “How many now?” Have children count on to answer. (Count from 1 to
and with objects from numbers other check the first time or 2.) Add another and so on, until they have counted to
than 1 (but does not yet keep track 10. Start again with a different starting amount. When children are able,
of the number of counts). warn the children, “Watch out! I’m going to add more than 1 sometimes!”
and sometimes add 2, and eventually 3, to the group. If children seem to
Asked to “count from 5 to 8,” counts
“5, 6, 7, 8!” need assistance, have a puppet model the strategy; for example, “Hmmm,
there’s fooour, one more makes it five, and one more makes it six. Six,
Determines numbers just after or just that’s it!”
before immediately.
Verbal and Object Counting • 37
How Many in the Box Now? Have the children count objects as you place
Asked, “What comes just before 7?”
says, “Six!” them in a box. Ask, “How many are in the box now?” Add one, repeating the
question, then check the children’s responses by counting all the objects.
Repeat, checking occasionally. When children are ready, sometimes add
2 objects.
Variations: Place coins in a coffee can. Declare that a given number of objects is in
the can. Then have the children close their eyes and count on by listening as
additional objects are dropped in.
Repeat this type of counting activity in a variety of settings, adding more objects at
a time (starting with 0 to 3). Use story settings for the problems; for example,
sharks eating small fish (children can be “sharks” eating actual fish crackers at the
snack table), toy cars and trucks parking on a parking ramp, a superhero throwing
bandits in jail, etc.
I’m Thinking of a Number Using counting cards, chose and hide a secret
number. Tell children you hid a card with a number, and ask them to guess
which it is. When a child guesses correctly, excitedly reveal the card. Until
then, tell children whether a guess is more or less than the secret number. As
children become more comfortable, ask why they made their guess, such as
“I knew 4 was more than the secret number and 2 was less, so I guessed 3!”
Repeat, adding clues, such as your guess is 2 more than my number. Do this
activity during transitions.
X-Ray Vision 2 (see Chapter 4).
Build Stairs 2 Students identify
the appropriate stacks of unit
cubes to fill in a series of staircase
steps. (Foundational for
“Counting from N (N + 1,
N − 1)”) Build stairs with
connecting cubes first.
Continued Overleaf
38 • Verbal and Object Counting
Skip Counter by 10s to 100 Verbal School Supply Shop Students count objects by tens to reach a target number
and Object Skip counts by tens up to up to 100.
100 or beyond with understanding;
e.g., “sees” groups of 10 within a
quantity and count those groups by
10 (this relates to multiplication and
algebraic thinking; see Chapters 7
and 13).
“10, 20, 30 . . . 100.”
Counter to 100 Verbal Counts to 100. Count the Days of School. Each day of school, add a numeral to adding
Makes decade transitions (e.g., from machine tape, taped to the wall, which will eventually surround the
29 to 30) starting at any number. classroom. Count from 1 each day and then add that day’s numeral. Write
the multiples of 10 in red. Some days (e.g., on day 33), count just these red
“. . .78, 79. . .80, 81 . . .”
numerals—10, 20, 30 . . . and then continue with the final “ones”—31, 32,
Counter On Using Patterns Strategy 33. Count the red numbers two ways: “ten, twenty, thirty, forty . . .” and,
Keeps track of a few counting acts, sometimes, as “one ten, two tens, three tens, four tens.”
but only by using numerical pattern
How Many in the Box Now? (Main directions above.)
(spatial, auditory, or rhythmic).
Teacher Suggestion. Act incredulous, saying, “How do you know that? You can’t
“How much is 3 more than 5?” Child
even see them?” Have children explain.
feels 3 “beats” as counts, “5 . . . 6, 7, 8!”
Teaching Note. If they need help, suggest that children count and keep track using
their fingers.
Bright Idea Students are given a numeral and a frame with dots. They count
on from this numeral to identify the total amount, and then move forward a
corresponding number of spaces on a game board.
Skip Counter Verbal and Object Skip Counting Besides counting by tens, count groups of objects with skip
Counts by fives and twos with counting, such as pairs of shoes by twos, or number of fingers in the class by
understanding. fives.
Child counts objects, “2, 4, 6, 8 . . . 30.” Book Stacks Students “count on” (through one decade) from a given number
as they load books onto a cart.
Verbal and Object Counting • 39
Counter of Imagined Items: Strategy How Many Hidden? Hide some objects, tell the child how many are hidden,
Counts mental images of hidden and show other objects. Ask the child how many in all.
objects.
Asked, “There are 5 chips here and 5
under the napkin, how many in all?”
says fiiiiive . . . then points to the
napkin in 4 distinct points, [corners
of an imagined square] saying, “6, 7,
8, 9.”
Counter On Keeping Track Strategy Easy as Pie On a (any) game board, using numeral cubes, students add two
Keeps track of counting acts numerals to find a total number (sums of 1 through 10), and then move
numerically, first with objects, then forward a corresponding number of spaces on a game board. The game
by “counting counts.” Counts up 1 to encourages children to “count on” from the larger number (e.g., to add 3 +
4 more from a given number. 4, they would count “four . . . 5, 6, 7!”).
How many is 3 more than 6? “Six . . .
7 [puts up a finger], 8 [puts up
another finger], 9 [puts up third
finger]. 9.”
Continued Overleaf
40 • Verbal and Object Counting
Counter of Quantitative Units/Place How Many Eggs? Using plastic eggs that break into halves, show some whole
Value Understands the base-ten eggs and some halves and ask how many. Repeat in “play store” settings, with
numeration system and place-value different materials (e.g., crayons and broken crayons), and so forth.
concepts, including ideas of counting
in units and multiples of hundreds,
tens, and ones. When counting
groups of 10, can decompose into 10
ones if that is useful.
Understands value of a digit
according to the place of the digit
within a number.
Counts by tens and ones to determine.
Counter to 200 Verbal and Object Count the Days of School Extend the previous activity (p. 38).
Counts accurately to 200 and beyond,
recognizing the patterns of ones, tens,
and hundreds.
“After 159 comes 160 because after
5 tens comes 6 tens.”
7 Number Conserver Consistently The Tricky Fox Tell a story using stuffed animals. The fox is tricky, and tells
conserves number (i.e., believes the other animals that they should take the row of food with the most, but he
number has been unchanged) even in spreads one row out and not the other, actually more numerous, row. Ask
face of perceptual distractions such as children how to avoid being tricked.
spreading out objects of a collection.
Counts 2 rows that are laid out across
from each other and says they are the
same. Adult spreads out 1 row. Says,
“Both still have the same number,
one’s just longer.”
Verbal and Object Counting • 41
Counter Forward and Back Strategy (See Chapter 5 for most activities for this competence.)
Counts “counting words” (single
Math-O-Scope Students identify
sequence or skip counts) in either
numbers (representing values
direction. Recognizes that decades
that are 10 more, 10 less, 1 more,
sequence mirrors single-digit
or 1 less than a target number)
sequence.
within the hundreds chart to
What’s 4 less than 63? “62 is 1, 61 is 2, reveal a partially hidden
60 is 3, 59 is 4, so 59.” photograph.
What is 15 more than 28? “2 tens and
1 ten is 3 tens. 38, 39, 40, and there’s 3
more, 43.”
Final Words
Chapter 2 described subitizing and this chapter described counting. These are the main ways
children determine the number of a collection of objects. In many situations, they need to do more.
For example, they may wish to compare 2 numbers or sequence several numbers. This is the topic
we turn to in Chapter 4.
4
Comparing, Ordering, and Estimating
Jeremy and his sister Jacie were arguing about who had more dessert. “She has more!” declared
Jeremy. “I do not!” said Jacie, “we have the same.”
“No. See, I have one, two, three, four, and you have one, two, three, four, five.”
“Listen, Jeremy. One of my cookies broke in half. You can’t count each half. If you’re counting
pieces, I could break all yours in half, then you would have way more than me. Put the two halves
back together and count. One, two, three, four. Four! We have the same.”
Jacie went on to argue that she would prefer one whole cookie to the two broken halves anyway,
but that’s another story. Which “count”—Jeremy’s or Jacie’s—do you think was better, and why?
In what situations should you count separate things, and in what situations might that lead you
astray?
Chapter 2 introduced the notion that children possess or develop some ability to compare
amounts in the first year of life. However, comparing accurately in many situations can be
challenging, especially those in which people might think of either discrete quantities (countable
items) or continuous quantities (magnitudes that are divisible, such as amount of matter), as in
Jeremy’s and Jacie’s cookie debate. In this chapter, we discuss comparing, ordering, and estimating
discrete quantity (Chapters 11 and 12 discuss continuous quantity).
43
44 • Comparing, Ordering, and Estimating
Ordering Numbers
A female chimpanzee called Ai has learned to use Arabic numerals to represent numbers. She
can count from zero to nine items, which she demonstrates by touching the appropriate
number on a touch-sensitive monitor, and she can order the numbers from zero to nine in
sequence (Kawai & Matsuzawa, 2000).
Well, the ability to sequence numbers is certainly not too developmentally advanced for
preschoolers!
Relating ordering numbers to counting (see Chapter 3), we can see that if a and b are whole
numbers and b has more digits than a, then a < b. If a and b have the same number of digits,
then moving from the left, if for the first digit in which they do not agree, a’s digit < b’s digit, then
a < b (Wu, 2007).
The ability to use this type of reason develops over years. Children develop the ability to order
numbers by learning subitizing matching, and counting. For example, children can answer ques-
tions such as “which is more, 6 or 4?” only by age 4 or 5 years. Unlike middle-income children,
low-income 5- and 6-year-olds may be unable to tell which of two numbers, such as 6 or 8, is bigger,
or which number, 6 or 2, is closer to 5 (Griffin, Case, & Siegler, 1994). They may not have developed
the “mental number line” representation of numbers as well as their more advantaged peers. All
children must learn to reason that if the counts of two collections are 9 and 7, the collection with 9
has more because 9 comes later in the counting sequence than 7.
Finding out how many more (or fewer) there are in one collection than another is more
demanding than simply comparing two collections to find which has more. Children have to
understand that the number of elements in the collection with fewer items is contained in the
number of items in the collection with more items. That is, they have to mentally construct a “part”
of the larger collection (equivalent to the smaller collection) that is not visually present. They then
have to determine the “other part” or the larger collection and find out how many elements are in
this “left-over amount.”
Ordinal Numbers
Ordinal numbers, usually (but not necessarily) involving the words “first, second. . .” indicate
position in a series or ordering. As such, they have different features (e.g., their meaning is
connected to the series they describe). Most children in traditional curricula learn terms such as
“first,” “second,” and “last” early, but learn others only much later.
Estimation
An estimation is not merely a “guess”—it is at least a mathematically educated guess. Estimation is a
process of solving a problem that calls for a rough or tentative evaluation of a quantity. There are
many types of estimation, which—along with the common confusion between an estimates and
(often wild) “guesses”—has resulted in poor teaching of this skill. The most common types of
estimation discussed are measurement, numerosity, and computational estimation (Sowder, 1992a).
Measurement estimation will be addressed in Chapters 11 and 12. Computational estimation has
been most widely researched (see Chapter 6). Numerosity estimation often involves procedures
similar in ways to measurement and computational estimation procedures. To estimate the number
of people in a theater, for example, a person might take a sample area, count the people in it, and
multiply by an estimate of the number of such areas in the theater. Early numerosity estimation may
involve similar procedure (e.g., try to “picture 10” in a jar then count by tens), or even a straight-
forward single estimate based on benchmarks (10 “looks like this”; 50 “looks like that”) or merely
intuition. One more type of estimation is “number line estimation”; for example, the ability to place
numbers on a number line of arbitrary length, given that the ends are labeled (say, 0 to 100). Ability
to build such a mental structure appears particularly important for young children, so we begin
with this estimation type.
Figure 4.2 Children initially internally represent smaller numbers as “farther apart” than larger numbers.
low-income families reveals poorer understanding of numerical magnitudes than do the estimates
of preschoolers from higher-income families. So, facilitating the former children’s learning of
number line estimation is particularly important.
Estimation of Numerosities
Children’s can subitize (Chapter 2) and count (Chapter 3), so can they estimate the number of
objects in a collection? Surprisingly, not well. Children may need to learn such foundation skills
well, and build mental images of both numbers and “benchmark” collections (e.g., what “10
objects” looks like) to perform numerosity estimation accurately.
Comparing Numbers
Young children need to learn about the significance of the results of counting. To help them
generalize, provide a variety of meaningful tasks and situations in which counting is a relevant
strategy and inferences must be made. Prompt children to count in these comparing situations and
then verify that counting led to correct judgments.
Of course, children also have to realize how to use counting to compare the number in two
collections. They must be able to think, “I counted 6 circles and 5 squares, so there are more circles,
because 6 comes after 5 when we count.” To do this, children also must understand that
each counting number is quantitatively one more than the one before (recall the “Counter from
N (N + 1, N − 1)” level in Chapter 3, p. 36).
Language, even in supposedly “simple” situations, can be surprisingly complex but—used well—
supportive of learning. A 5-year-old was told she had 7¢ and asked what she could buy (Lansdell,
1999). Later, she used the phrase “one more”; that is, an item costing 8 cents was “one more” than
she had. Then, for an item costing one less cent, she said she had “one more less.” She thought she
could buy that item (for 6¢) with her 7¢. The teacher gave her the 7¢ to hold, and the girl talked
herself into thinking that it was OK, she could buy the item. Then the teacher introduced the term
change: “You’d have one penny left, wouldn’t you. One penny change. So that would be nice. . . .”
The teacher then asked about a 5¢ purchase, and the girl said, “I’d have two pennies change.”
The next day she confused this terminology, but not concept. The teacher corrected her use of
language, confirming her computational accuracy, but mirroring the correct language. Soon there-
after change was used to mean changing pennies to other coins. Impressively, the girl was still able to
use change correctly and with increased confidence.
The researcher claimed that the informal talk and language were the most important aspects
of these interactions, but the clarification or introduction of mathematical terminology is also
important (Lansdell, 1999). Many mathematical terms may be ambiguous, usually due to their
having non-mathematical meanings, and the teachers’ closed questions and direct statements
helped the child agree on specific new mathematical meanings. In addition, open questions helped
the teacher understand the child’s meanings and concepts.
Comparing, Ordering, and Estimating • 47
Thus, we teachers need to be aware of such potentially ambiguous words, introduce new words
and meanings after concepts are understood, and be careful and consistent in our use of the words.
To do this, we should observe children’s use of the words, build on the child’s own language, and
negotiate new meanings through practical experiences (Lansdell, 1999).
Estimation of Numerosities
Although some have claimed success in promoting numerosity estimation through activities, the
limited effects of others suggest caution in devoting much time to these activities in the earliest
years of school. Any time that is given, probably in the primary grades, might best follow several
guidelines. First, ensure that subitizing, counting, and especially number line estimation skills are
well developed. Subitizing skills should be developed at least for small numbers, and counting and
number line estimation skills should be developed at least up to the numbers to be estimated.
Second, help children develop and understand benchmarks well. Again, benchmarks might bene-
ficially be developed in number line estimation tasks initially, and then expanded to include images
of collections of objects of those sizes. Third, within a short instructional unit, expect development
to occur more within a level of the learning trajectory.
Pre-K
Number and Operations: Developing an understanding of whole numbers, including concepts of correspondence, counting, cardinal-
ity, and comparison
Children . . . use one-to-one correspondence to solve problems by matching sets and comparing number amounts . . . they count to determine
number amounts and compare quantities (using language such as “more than” and “less than”), and they order sets by the number of
objects in them.
Kindergarten
Number and Operations: Representing, comparing, and ordering whole numbers and joining and separating sets
Children use numbers, including written numerals, to represent quantities and to solve quantitative problems, such as comparing and
ordering sets or numerals.
Grade 1
Number and Operations: Developing an understanding of whole number relationships, including grouping in tens and ones
Children compare and order whole numbers (at least to 100) to develop an understanding of and solve problems involving the relative sizes of
these numbers. . . . They understand the sequential order of the counting numbers and their relative magnitudes and represent numbers on a
number line.
Grade 2
Number and Operations and Algebra: Developing an understanding of the base-ten numeration system and place-value concepts
Children develop an understanding of the base-ten numeration system and place-value concepts (at least to 1000). Their understanding of
base-ten numeration includes ideas of counting in units and multiples of hundreds, tens, and ones, as well as a grasp of number
relationships, which they demonstrate in a variety of ways, including comparing and ordering numbers.
Figure 4.3 Curriculum Focal Points (NCTM, 2006). Emphasizing comparing, ordering, and estimating numbers in the early years.
Comparing, Ordering, and Estimating • 49
Table 4.1 Learning Trajectory for Comparing, Ordering, and Estimating Numbers.
Age Developmental Progression Instructional Tasks
(years)
0–1 Many-to-One Corresponder Provide rich sensory, manipulative environments that include objects that
Comparing Puts objects, words, or provoke matching.
actions in one-to-one or many-to-
one correspondence or a mixture.
Puts several blocks in each muffin tin.
2 One-to-One Corresponder Provide objects that provoke precise one-to-one correspondences (e.g., egg
Comparing Puts objects in rigid one- carton and plastic eggs that fit exactly).
to-one correspondence (age 2;0).
Discuss the correspondences the child makes, or could make. “Does every
Uses words to include “more,” “less,”
doll have a block to sit on?”
or “same”
Puts one block in each muffin tin, but
is disturbed that some blocks left so
finds more tins to put every last block
in something.
Object Corresponder Provide knob or simple shape puzzles in which each shape is to be placed
Comparing Puts objects into one-to- inside a corresponding hole in the puzzle.
one correspondence, although may
Get Just Enough—Match Children get just enough of one group of objects to
not fully understand that this creates
match another group; e.g., a paintbrush for each paint container. At this
equal groups (age 2;8).
level, have the two groups next to each other to help children physically
Put a straw in each carton (doesn’t match one-to-one.
worry if extra straws are left), but
doesn’t necessarily know there are the Setting the Table Children set a table for dolls/toy animals, possibly in the
same numbers of straws and cartons. dramatic play area, using a real or pretend table. Children should set out just
enough paper (or toy) plates, cloth napkins, and plastic (or toy) silverware
for the dolls/toy animals. Talk with children to establish the idea that one-to-
one matching creates equal groups: if you know the number in one of the
groups, then you know the number in the other.
Perceptual Comparer Informal discussions of which is more.
Comparing Compares collections that
Pizza Pizzazz 1 Children choose the matching pizza.
are quite different in size (e.g., one is
at least twice the other).
Shown 10 blocks and 25 blocks,
points to the 25 as having more.
looking”). The items must be the Compare Snapshots asking children only to tell if it is the same number or
same. May compare the smallest not (see p. 51).
collections using number words
“two” and “three” (age 3;2), and
“three” and others (age 3;6). Can
transfer an ordering relation from
one pair of collections to another.
Identifies • • • and ••• as equal and
different from • • or • •
4 Nonverbal Comparer of Dissimilar Same as above, with dissimilar objects.
Items
Comparing Matches small, equal
collections, showing that they are the
same number.
Matches collections of 3 shells and 3
dots, then declares that they “have the
same number.”
Matching Comparer Ask children to determine whether there are the same number of spoons as
Comparing Compares groups of plates (and many other similar situations). Provide feedback as necessary.
1–6 by matching. Talk to them about how they knew “for sure” and how they figured it out.
Gives one toy bone to every dog and Party Time 1 Students practice one-to-one correspondence by matching
says there are the same number of party utensils to placemats.
dogs and bones.
Goldilocks and the Three Bears Read or tell Goldilocks and the Three Bears as a
flannel board story. Discuss the one-to-one correspondence of bears to other
things in the story. Ask: How many bowls are in the story? How many chairs?
How do you know? Then ask: Were there just enough beds for the bears?
How do you know?
Summarize that one-to-one match can create equal groups. That is, if you know
the number of bears in one group, then you know the number of beds in the other
group.
Tell children they can retell the story and match props later in center time.
Counting Comparer (Same Size)
Comparing
Accurate comparison via counting,
but only when objects are about the
same size and groups are small
(about 1–5).
Counts two piles of 5 blocks each, and
says they are the same.
Accurately counts two equal Compare Game For each pair of children playing, 2 or more sets of counting
collections, but when asked, says the cards (1–5) are needed. Teach children to mix the cards (e.g., by mixing
collection of larger blocks has more. them all up as they are face down), and then deal them evenly (one to the
first player, then one to the second player . . .), face down to both players.
Players simultaneously flip their top cards and compare to find out which is greater.
Player with the greater amount says, “I have more,” and takes the opponent’s cards.
If card amounts are equal, players each flip another card to determine a result.
The game is over when all cards have been played, and the “winner” is the player
with more cards.
Use cards with dot arrays and numerals at first, then just dot arrays. Start
with small numbers and slowly add larger numbers. Play the game on
computers as well, as below.
Compare Snapshots Secretly place three counters on a plate and five counters
on another plate. Using a dark cloth, cover the plate with five counters. Show
children both plates, one covered. Tell children to watch carefully and
quietly, keeping their hands in their laps, as you quickly reveal the covered
plate so they can compare it to the other plate. Uncover the plate for 2
seconds, and cover it again. Ask children: Do the plates have the same
number of counters? Because the answer is “no,” ask: Which plate has more?
Have children point or say the number on the plate. Which plate has fewer
counters? If needed, repeat the reveal. Uncover the plate indefinitely. Ask
children how many counters are on each plate. Confirm that five is more
than three because five comes after three when counting.
Mental Number Line to 5 Ask children who is older, a 2-year-old or a 3-year-old. Provide feedback as
Number Line Estimation Uses necessary. Ask them to explain how they know.
knowledge of counting number
Race Game: Board game with numbers 1 to 10 in consecutively numbered,
relationships to determine relative
linearly arranged, equal-size squares. Spin a “1” or a “2”. Move that many,
size and position when given
then say each number while you are moving your token.
perceptual support.
Continued Overleaf
52 • Comparing, Ordering, and Estimating
Get Just Enough—Count Children get just enough of one group of objects
to match another group; e.g., a scissors for each child at their table. At
this level, make sure they have to go across the room to get the scissors,
so they have to count. The same can be done with Setting the Table (see
above)—make sure counting is necessary.
Ordinal Counter Ordinal Number Ordinal Construction Company
Identifies and uses ordinal numbers Students learn ordinal positions
from “first” to “tenth.” (first through tenth) by moving
objects between the floors of
Can identify who is “third in line.”
a building.
Spatial Extent Estimator—Small/ The Estimating Jar Put objects in a clear plastic jar as you did for the
Big Numerosity Estimation Names a Counting Jar activity and secure the lid. Tell children it will now be an
“small number” (e.g., 1–4) for sets Estimating jar, and they will estimate how many items are in it, recording
that cover little space and a “big their estimates and their names on self-sticking notes to post by the jar. At
number” (10–20 or more; children the end of the week, spill the items out, count them, and compare the counts
classify numbers “little/big” to the estimates.
idiosyncratically, and this may change
with the size of the to-be-estimated
collection, or TBE).
Shown 9 objects spread out for 1
second and asked, “How many?,”
responds, “Fifty!”
Counting Comparer (10) Compare Game For each pair of children playing, 2 or more sets of counting
Comparing Compares with counting, (with dots and numerals, and, soon thereafter, just dots) cards (1–10) are
even when larger collection’s objects needed. Mix and deal cards evenly face down.
are smaller, up to 10. Players simultaneously flip their top cards and compare to find out which is
Accurately counts two collections of greater.
9 each, and says they have the same Player with the greater amount says, “I have more,” and takes the opponent’s
number, even if one collection has cards.
larger blocks. If card amounts are equal, players each flip another card to determine a result.
The game is over when all cards have been played.
Continued Overleaf
54 • Comparing, Ordering, and Estimating
Serial Orderer to 6+ Build Stairs Have children make “stairs” with connecting cubes. Encourage
Comparing/Ordering Orders them to count each step. Ask them to describe the numbers. Extensions:
numerals, and collection (small
Have someone hide one of the stairs and you figure out which one is hidden, then
numbers first). you insert it.
Given cards with 1 to 5 dots on them, Have them mix up the steps and
puts in order. put them back in order.
Orders lengths marked into units.
Given towers of cubes, puts in order, 1
to 10.
Order Cards Place Dot Cards 1–5 so they are left to right from the children’s
perspective. Ask children to describe the pattern. Tell children to keep
counting out loud, predicting the next number as you continue to lay out
the next Dot Card in the pattern. Explain that they will eventually put these
cards in order on their own at the Hands On Math Center.
Continued Overleaf
56 • Comparing, Ordering, and Estimating
Mental Number Line to 100 I’m Thinking of A Number (as above, but done verbally or with an “empty
Number Line Estimation Uses internal number line”—a line segment initially labeled only with 0 to 100, filled in
images and knowledge of number with each of the children’s estimates).
relationships, including ones
Rocket Blast 2 Students estimate the placement of a tick mark on a 1–100
embedded in tens, to determine
number line to the nearest whole number.
relative size and position.
Lots of Socks Students add two numerals to find total number amounts
Asked, “Which is closer to 45, 30 or
50?,” says, “45 is right next to 50, but (1 through 20), and then move forward a corresponding number of spaces
fives, but 30 isn’t.” on a game. Although this and the next activity mainly teach addition, the
movements on the (1 to 50, then 50 to 100) game board also helps build a
mental number line.
Comparing, Ordering, and Estimating • 57
Figure the Fact Students add numeric values from 1 through 10 to values
from 0 through 99, to reach a maximum total of 100. That is, if they are “on”
33 and get an 8, they have to enter 41 to proceed to that space, because the
spaces are not marked with numerals, at least until they move through them.
This is especially important in developing a mental number line.
Again, the activities in Chapter 6 dedicated to place value (pp. 89–90) and
those at the higher levels of the learning trajectories in that chapter develop
these abilities as well.
Scanning with Intuitive Estimate How Many In specifically designed instructional situations (e.g.,
Quantification Estimator a whole group lesson in which a large chart is covered with a number of
Numerosity Estimation dots) or other setting (e.g., noting a large flock of birds on the playground),
ask children to estimate the number. Discuss strategies, having someone
Shown 40 objects spread out for 1
second and asked, “How many?,” demonstrate each, then challenge children to apply them to new situations.
responds, “About thirty.”
8 Mental Number Line to 1000s I’m Thinking of A Number (as above, 0 to 1000)
Number Line Estimation Uses internal
Rocket Blast 3 Students estimate the placement of a tick mark on a 1–1000
images and knowledge of number
number line to the nearest whole number.
relationships, including place value,
to determine relative size and
position.
Asked, “Which is closer to 3500, 2000
or 7000?,” says, “70 is double 35, but
20 is only 15 from 35, so 20 hundreds,
2000, is closer.”
Benchmarks Estimator Estimate How Many (see above) Emphasize strategies at this level or the
Numerosity Estimation next.
Initially, a portion of the TBE is
counted; this is used as a benchmark
from which an estimate is made.
Later, scanning can be linked to
recalled benchmarks.
Continued Overleaf
58 • Comparing, Ordering, and Estimating
Composition Estimator Estimate How Many (see above) Emphasize strategies at this level.
Numerosity Estimation Initially for
regular arrangements, subitizing is
used to quantify a subset and
repeated addition or multiplication
used to produce an estimate. Later,
the process is extended to include
irregular arrangements. Finally, it
includes the ability to decompose or
partition the TBE into convenient
subset sizes, then recompose the
numerosity based on multiplication.
Shown 87 objects spread out and
asked for an estimate responds,
“That’s about 20—so, 20, 40, 60, 80.
Eighty!”
Final Words
In many situations, people wish to compare, order, or estimate the number of objects. Another
common type of situation involves putting collections—and the numbers of these collections—
together and taking them apart. These operations of arithmetic are the focus of Chapter 5.
5
Arithmetic
Early Addition and Subtraction and Counting Strategies
Alex is 5 years old. Her brother, Paul, is 3. Alex bounds into the kitchen and announces:
Alex: When Paul is 6, I’ll be 8; when Paul is 9, I’ll be 11; when Paul is 12, I’ll be 14 [she
continues until Paul is 18 and she is 20].
Father: My word! How on earth did you figure all that out?
Alex: It’s easy. You just go “three-FOUR-five” [saying the “four” very loudly, and clapping
hands at the same time, so that the result was very strongly rhythmical, and had a
soft-LOUD-soft pattern], you go “six-SEVEN [clap]-eight,” you go “nine-TEN [clap!]-
eleven” (Davis, 1984, p. 154).
Is this small, but remarkable, scene a glimpse at an exceptional child? Or is it an indication of the
potential all young children have to learn arithmetic? If so, how early could instruction start? How
early should it start?
59
60 • Addition and Subtraction
Across many studies, research suggests that children develop an initial explicit understanding of
addition and subtraction with small numbers by about 3 years of age. However, it is not until 4 years
of age that most children can solve addition problems involving even slightly larger numbers with
accuracy (Huttenlocher, Jordan, & Levine, 1994).
Most children do not solve larger-number problems without the support of concrete objects
until 5½ years of age. However, this is not so much a developmental, as an experiential, limitation.
With experience, preschoolers and kindergartners can learn “counting-all” and even beginning
“counting-on” strategies.
For example, this allows a mental addition strategy that simplifies some computations, such as: 4 + 4
+ 6 = 4 + (4 + 6) = 4 + 10 = 14.
Young children usually do not know these laws explicitly, but may use them intuitively (however,
some studies indicate that children do understand the concept of commutativity when using it in
counting strategies, Canobi, Reeve, & Pattison, 1998). Illustrating commutativity, think how odd it
would be if the number of toy vehicles you put in an empty toy box depended on whether you put
the trucks or the cars in first.
Subtraction does not follow these laws. Subtraction is defined mathematically as the inverse of
addition; that is, subtraction is the additive inverse −a for any a, such that a + −a = 0. Or, for 8 − 3, the
difference is the number that, when added to 3, results in 8. So, c − a = b means that b is the number
that satisfies a + b = c. Thus, although it seems cumbersome, one can think of (8 − 3) as ((5 + 3) − 3)
= 5 + (3 − 3) = 5 + 0 = 5. Or, since we know that subtraction and addition are inverses of each other,
saying
8−3=_
8 = 3 + _.
Subtraction can also be intuitively understood through counting: The difference 8 − 3 is the
whole number that results from counting backward 3 numbers starting at 8—8 . . . 7, 6, 5. That is,
asking “what is 8 − 3?” means the same as “what number added to 3 gives 8? And, we know that the
difference (8 − 3) is the whole number that results from counting backward 3 numbers starting at
8—8 . . . 7, 6, 5. This process is consistent with the “take away” notion of subtraction. All of these
notions are equivalent, and to us they seem natural. For students coming to grips with subtraction,
seeing them all as the “same thing” takes lots of time and practice.
Addition and subtraction can therefore be understood through counting, and that is one way
children come to learn more about these arithmetic operations (building on the foundations
discussed previously). This way of understanding arithmetic is the focus of this chapter.
Addition and Subtraction Problem Structures (and other factors that affect difficulty)
In most cases the larger the numbers, the more difficult the problem. This is so even for single-digit
problems, due to the frequency one has experienced the arithmetic computations and the strategies
one must use. For example, children use a more sophisticated strategy to solve subtraction com-
binations whose minuend (the “whole” from which a part is subtracted) are larger than 10 than for
those that are smaller than 10.
Beyond the size of the number, it is the type, or structure of the word problem that mainly
determines its difficulty. Type depends on the situation and the unknown. There are four different
situations, shown in the four rows of Table 5.1 The names in quotation marks are those considered
most useful in classroom discussions. For each of these categories, there are three quantities that
play different roles in the problem, any one of which could be the unknown. In some cases, such as
62 • Addition and Subtraction
Part–Part–Whole part (“partner”) unknown part (“partner”) unknown whole (“total”) unknown
(“Collection”)
Two parts make a whole,
but there is no action—
the situation is static.
Al has 10 balls. Some are Al has 10 balls; 4 are blue, the Al has 4 red balls and 6 blue
blue, 6 are red. rest are red. balls. How many balls does
he have in all?
How many are blue? How many are red?
Al had 7 balls. Barb has 2 “Won’t get” Al has 7 dogs and 5 Al has 5 marbles. Barb has 2
fewer balls than Al. How bones. How many dogs won’t more than Al. How many
many balls does Barb have? get a bone? balls does Barb have?
(More difficult language: Al has 6 balls. Barb has 4. How (More difficult language: “Al
“Al has 2 more than Barb.”) many more does Al have than has 2 balls less than Barb.”)
Barb?
(Also: How many fewer balls
does Barb have?)
the unknown parts of Part–Part–Whole problems, there is no real difference between the roles,
so this does not affect the difficulty of the problem. In others, such as the result unknown,
change unknown, or start unknown of Join problems, the differences in difficulty are large. Result
unknown problems are easy, change unknown problems are moderately difficult, and start
unknown are the most difficult. This is due in large part to the increasing difficulty children have in
modeling, or “act outing,” each type.
Addition and Subtraction • 63
Counting Strategies
Preschoolers, 3 and 4 years of age, were told stories in which they were asked, for example, to help
a baker. They were shown an array of goods, which they counted. Then the array was hidden, and
1, 2, or 3 more goods were added or subtracted. Children were asked to predict, and then count to
check. Even the 3-year-olds understood the difference between predicting and counting to check a
prediction. All were able to offer a number that resulted from an addition or subtraction that
was consistent with the principles that addition increases numerosity and subtraction decreases
numerosity. They made other reasonable predictions. Their counts were usually correct and the
answer was preferred to the prediction (Zur & Gelman, 2004).
Most initially use a counting-all procedure. As illustrated in Figure 5.2, given a situation of 5 + 2,
such children count out objects to form as set of 5 items, then count out 2 more items, and finally
count all those and—if they made no counting errors—report “7.” These children naturally use
such counting methods to solve story situations as long as they understand the language and
situation in the story.
After children develop such methods, they eventually curtail them. On their own, 4-year-olds
may start “counting-on”, solving the previous problem by counting, “Fiiiive . . . six seven. Seven!”
The elongated pronunciation may be substituting for counting the initial set one by one. It is as if
they counted a set of 5 items. Some children first use transitional strategies, such as the shortcut-sum
strategy, which is like counting-all strategy, but involves only one count; for example, to solve 4 + 3,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and answer 7.
Figure 5.2 Using the counting-all procedure to solve an addition problem (5 + 2).
64 • Addition and Subtraction
Children then move to the counting-on-from-larger strategy, which is preferred by most children
once they invent it. Presenting problems such as 2 + 23, where counting on saves the most work,
often prompts children to invent this strategy.
Thus, counting skills—especially sophisticated counting skills—play an important role in
developing competence with arithmetic. Counting easily and quickly predicts arithmetic com-
petence in kindergarten and later. Knowing the next number (see the level, “Counter from
N (N + 1, N − 1),” in Chapter 3) predicts arithmetic achievement and addition speed in grades 1
and 2.
Counting-on when increasing collections and the corresponding counting-back-from when
decreasing collections are powerful numerical strategies for children. However, they are only begin-
ning strategies. In the case where the amount of increase is unknown, children use counting-up-to
to find the unknown amount. If six items are increased so that there are now nine items, children
may find the amount of increase by counting, “Siiiix; 7, 8, 9. Three.” And if nine items are decreased
so that six remain, children may count from nine down to six to find the unknown decrease
(separate change unknown), as follows: “Nine; 8, 7, 6. Three.” However, counting backward,
especially more than three counts, is difficult for most children unless they have high-quality
instruction in this competence.
Instead, children in many parts of the world learn counting-up-to the total to solve a subtraction
situation because they realize that it is easier. For example, the story problem “8 apples on the table.
The children ate 5. How many now?” could be solved by thinking, “I took away 5 from those 8, so 6,
7, 8 (raising a finger with each count), that’s 3 more left in the 8.” When children fully realize that
they can find the amount of decrease (e.g., 9 − _ = 6) by putting the items back with the 6 and
counting from 6 up to 9, they establish that subtraction is the inversion of addition and can use
addition instead of subtraction. This understanding develops over several years, but may emerge in
the preschool years and can be used by kindergartners with good instruction.
Summary
Babies are sensitive to some situations that adults see as arithmetical. They may be using an innate
subitizing ability that is limited to very small numbers, such as 2 + 1. Or they may be individuating
Addition and Subtraction • 65
and tracking individual objects. In any case, they possess a far richer foundation for arithmetic than
traditional Piagetian accounts suggested.
Only years later can children solve problems with larger numbers (but not yet large; e.g., 3 + 2),
using concrete objects and subitizing and/or counting. Later again, children develop more sophisti-
cated counting and composition strategies as curtailments of these early solution strategies. That is,
children learn to count from a given number (rather than starting only from one), generate the
number before or after another number, and eventually embed one number sequence inside
another. They think about the number sequence, rather than just saying it (Fuson, 1992a). Such
reflection empowers counting to be an effective and efficient representational tool for problem-
solving. Thus, educators must study the processes children use as well as the problems they can
solve to understand both their strengths and limitations at various ages. Learning involves a
complex development of knowledge, understanding, and skill, usually involving the use of a mix of
strategies. More sophisticated strategies are learned, strategies are selected more effectively, and
speed and accuracy of executing these strategies increases (NMP, 2008).
Commutativity often develops without explicit teaching. Presenting tasks such as 3 + 5 near the
commuted problem 5 + 3, and doing so systematically and repeatedly, is useful.
Inversion. In a similar vein, children’s use of arithmetical principles, such as the inverse principle,
before formal schooling should be considered when planning curriculum and teaching. Once
kindergartners can verbally subitize small numbers and understand the additive and subtractive
identity principle, they can solve inversion problems using 1 (n + 1 − 1 = _?) and slowly work up
to 4. A useful teaching strategy is to first add or take away the same objects, discuss the inversion
principle, and then pose problems in which you add several objects, and take away the same
number, but not the same objects.
Invention or direct instruction? Some argue that children must invent their own arithmetic
strategies. Others claim that children making sense of mathematical relations is key, but the exact
teaching approach matters less. Our review of the research suggests the following:
• Challenge preschoolers to build subitizing, counting, and other competencies and then work
on arithmetic problems in concrete settings.
• Later, ask children to solve semi-concrete problems, in which children reason about hidden
but previously manipulated or viewed collections.
• Encourage children to invent their own strategies—with peers and with your active
guidance—discussing and explaining their strategies.
• Encourage children to adopt more sophisticated, beneficial strategies as soon as possible.
Representations
Forms of representation are important factors in young children’s arithmetic problem-solving.
Representations in curricula. Primary grade students tend to ignore decorative pictures and attend
to, but are not always helped by, pictures containing information required for solution of the
problem. Decorative pictures should be avoided. Students should be taught to use informational
pictures.
Students often ignore, or are confused by, number line representations as well. If number lines
are to be used to teach arithmetic, students should learn to move between number line and sym-
bolic representations. One study suggested that carefully guided peer tutoring on using the number
line to solve missing addend problems was successful and appreciated by both teachers and
the students, who were low-performing first graders. The tutors were taught to use a teaching
procedure, a shortened version of which follows.
There are other important specifics. First, the intervention only helped when peer tutors demon-
strated and guided use of the number line—the number line was not useful by itself. Also, the
accuracy of children who just solved missing addend problems decreased, indicating that practicing
errors is not helpful. Finally, there was some anecdotal evidence that it was important for peers
to give feedback to the students they were tutoring. Thus, present, typical instruction on use of
68 • Addition and Subtraction
down one side and some the other side of the mountain. They would draw dots in circles on each
side and then make different combinations. Their number sentences for this problem type started
with the total (e.g., 10 = 4 + 6) and would record all the combinations they could make (10 = 0 + 10;
10 = 1 + 9 . . .). Chapter 13 presents other research on children’s use of diagrams in problem-
solving.
to have the same number as A?” Eventually, ask students to rephrase questions, including changing
a “fewer” to a “more” statement. Further, although textbooks often model the use of subtraction
to solve comparison problems, more students think of comparisons using an unknown addend
count-on or add-on. Counting or adding on models the comparison situation because the two
addends (the small quantity and the difference quantity) are added on one side of the equation and
they then balance the large quantity which is written alone on the other side of the equation.
In summary, children benefit from instruction in two aspects of problems. First is understanding
situations, including understanding “what’s going on” in the contexts as well as the language used to
describe them. Second is understanding the mathematical structure, such as learning part–whole
relationships via fact families or solving missing addend problems such as _ + 3 − 8 − 2. Children
who are novices, poor performers, or who have cognitive impairments or learning difficulties, may
benefit particularly from situational training. More experienced and higher-performing children
may profit from mathematical training. Such mathematical training should be combined with help
transferring their part–whole knowledge to problem settings by including both in the same
instructional settings and discussing the similarities.
As a similar combination, specifically-designed story contexts can help students develop an
abstract understanding of part–whole problems. For example, one teacher told stories about a
grandfather who sent presents to his two grandchildren or, later, about the two children sending
presents to him. Another story was about children who live on two islands and travel by boat to
school. Children represented these with a part–part–whole board (similar to the part–part–whole
diagrams in Table 5.1).
• For the youngest children, use physical objects related to the problem (rather than structured
“math manipulatives”), which supports their use of informal knowledge to solve the
arithmetic problems.
• Begin instruction with children’s solution methods, ensuring initial semantic analysis of
problems, and build more sophisticated numerical and arithmetic strategies in tandem with
the development of conceptual understanding.
• Build multiple supporting concepts and skills. Subitizing is an important support to counting
strategies such as counting-on, and, as discussed in the following section, for small-number
composition/decomposition approaches to addition and subtraction. Simple counting
practice transfers to addition and subtraction, but counting skills should also include effort-
lessly counting forward and backward, counting in either direction starting with any number,
naming the number before or after another number, counting-on-using-patterns, counting-
on-keeping-track of the number of counts, and eventually embedded quantities within count-
ing sequences.
• Provide a variety of experiences, including children creating, using, sharing, and explaining
different strategies to help children develop their adaptive expertise with arithmetic.
• Avoid decorative pictures and illustrations, as they are ignored by (or confuse) children and
do not support problem-solving, but only add to the length of textbooks (NMP, 2008).
• Provide instruction on the use of representations, especially geometry/spatial/pictorial
representations.
• Ask children to explain and justify solutions rather than to “check” their work. Checking is
not helpful to most young children, but justification both builds concepts and procedures and
serves as a meaningful introduction to checking one’s work.
• Choose curricula that avoid the difficulties of too many U.S. textbooks; instruction should
mitigate any limitations of any curriculum used.
In summary, present children with a range of addition and subtraction types and encourage
them to invent, adapt, use, discuss, and explain a variety of solution strategies that are meaningful to
them. For example, most children can begin to do this even in pre-K, and most all can develop such
understandings and skills through the kindergarten and first grade years. Children at the level of
counting perceptual units may need to be encouraged to put two collections into one box and count
all the items to establish the act of uniting and quantifying the sum. Most children can quickly learn
to reprocess two collections and conceive of it as one quantifiable collection. They can then solve
problems with an increasingly diverse range of strategies. Having them add one or two more to a
collection encourages their awareness of increasing the number in a collection and encourages them
to connect their counting and adding schemes (similar for subtraction). Some children need to
re-count, but most, even in the pre-K year, can learn to count up with experience. In all cases, the
emphasis should be on children’s use of strategies that are meaningful to them. Approaches that
emphasize understanding, meaningfulness, patterns, relations, and invention of strategies, if
used consistently and patiently, also work with special needs children (Baroody, 1996). Informal
strategies such as knowing how to add 0 or 1 should be encouraged; research shows that, if
paced appropriately, children classified as learning-disabled can be taught to use such patterns and
strategies (see Chapters 15 and 16 for more on children with special needs). Additional specific
implications are woven into the following learning trajectories.
72 • Addition and Subtraction
Pre-K
Connection to the Focal Points Number and Operations: Children use meanings of numbers to create strategies for solving problems and
responding to practical situations.
Kindergarten
Focal Point Number and Operations: Representing, comparing, and ordering whole numbers and joining and separating sets
Children use numbers, including written numerals, to represent quantities and to solve quantitative problems, such as . . . modeling simple
joining and separating situations with objects. They choose, combine, and apply effective strategies for answering quantitative questions,
including . . . counting the number in combined sets and counting backward.
Grade 1
Focal Point Number and Operations and Algebra: Developing understandings of addition and subtraction and strategies for basic
addition facts and related subtraction facts
Children develop strategies for adding and subtracting whole numbers on the basis of their earlier work with small numbers. They use a
variety of models, including discrete objects, length-based models (e.g., lengths of connecting cubes), and number lines, to model “part–
whole,” “adding to,” “taking away from,” and “comparing” situations to develop an understanding of the meanings of addition and
subtraction and strategies to solve such arithmetic problems. Children understand the connections between counting and the operations of
addition and subtraction (e.g., adding 2 is the same as “counting-on” 2). They use properties of addition (commutativity and associativity) to
add whole numbers, and they create and use increasingly sophisticated strategies based on these properties (e.g., “making tens”) to solve
addition and subtraction problems involving basic facts. By comparing a variety of solution strategies, children relate addition and
subtraction as inverse operations.
Grade 2
Focal Point Number and Operations and Algebra: Developing quick recall of addition facts and related subtraction facts and fluency
with multidigit addition and subtraction
Children use their understanding of addition to develop quick recall of basic addition facts and related subtraction facts. They solve
arithmetic problems by applying their understanding of models of addition and subtraction (such as combining or separating sets or using
number lines), relationships and properties of number (such as place value), and properties of addition (commutativity and associativity).
Children develop, discuss, and use efficient, accurate, and generalizable methods to add and subtract multidigit whole numbers. They select
and apply appropriate methods to estimate sums and differences or calculate them mentally, depending on the context and numbers
involved. They develop fluency with efficient procedures, including standard algorithms, for adding and subtracting whole numbers,
understand why the procedures work (on the basis of place value and properties of operations), and use them to solve problems.
Connection to the Focal Points Number and Operations: Children use place value and properties of operations to create equivalent
representations of given numbers (such as 35 represented by 35 ones, 3 tens and 5 ones, or 2 tens and 15 ones) and to write, compare, and
order multidigit numbers. They use these ideas to compose and decompose multidigit numbers. Children add and subtract to solve a variety
of problems, including applications involving measurement, geometry, and data, as well as nonroutine problems. In preparation for grade 3,
they solve problems involving multiplicative situations, developing initial understandings of multiplication as repeated addition.
Table 5.2 Learning Trajectory for Addition and Subtraction (emphasizing counting strategies).
Age Developmental Progression Instructional Tasks
(years)
1 Pre-Explicit +/− Sensitivity to adding Besides providing rich sensory, manipulative environments, use of words
and subtracting perceptually such as “more” and actions of adding objects directs attention to
combined groups. No formal adding. comparisons and combinations.
Shows no signs of understanding
adding or subtracting.
2–3 Nonverbal +/− Adds and subtracts Nonverbal join result unknown or separate, result unknown (take-away), using
very small collections nonverbally. the smallest numbers. For example, children are shown 2 objects then 1
Shown 2 objects then 1 object going object going under a napkin, and then asked to show how many.
under a napkin, identifies or makes a
Pizza Pazzazz 4. Students add and subtract numbers up to totals of 3 (with
set of 3 objects to “match.”
objects shown, but then hidden), matching target amounts.
4 Small Number +/− Finds sums for Join result unknown or separate, result unknown (take-away) problems,
joining problems up to 3 + 2 by numbers < 5.
counting-all with objects. “You have 2 balls and get 1 more. How many in all?”
Asked, “You have 2 balls and get 1
Word Problems. Tell children to solve simple addition problems with toys
more. How many in all?” counts out
2, then counts out 1 more, then that represent the objects in the problems. Use totals up to 5.
counts all 3: “1, 2, 3, 3!.” Tell children you want to buy 3 toy triceratops and 2 toy tyrannosauruses. Ask how
many dinosaurs that is altogether.
Ask children how they got their answer and repeat with other problems.
Finger Word Problems. Tell children to solve simple addition problems with
their fingers. Use very small numbers. Children should place their hands in
their laps between each problem.
To solve the problems above, guide children in showing 3 fingers on one hand and
2 fingers on the other and reiterate: How many is that altogether?
Ask children how they got their answer and repeat with other problems.
4–5 Find Result +/− Finds sums for Word Problems. Children solving all the above problem types using
joining (you had 3 apples and get 3 manipulatives or their fingers to represent objects.
more, how many do you have in all?) For Separate, result unknown (take-away), “You have 5 balls and give 2 to Tom.
and part–part–whole (there are 6 How many do you have left?” Children might count out 5 balls, then take away 2,
girls and 5 boys on the playground, and then count remaining 3.
Continued Overleaf
74 • Addition and Subtraction
how many children were there in For Part–part–whole, whole unknown problems, they might solve “You have 2 red
all?) problems by direct modeling, balls and 3 blue balls. How many in all?”
counting-all, with objects. Note: In all teacher-directed activities, present commuted pairs one after the
Asked, “You have 2 red balls and 3 other: 5 + 3 then 3 + 5. With such experiences, most children learn to
blue balls. How many in all?” counts incorporate commutativity into their strategies. Also, encourage children
out 2 red, then counts out 3 blue, then who can to use the shortcut-sum strategy (to solve 5 + 3, “1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
counts all 5.
8 . . . 8!”) which serves as a transition to counting-on.
Solves take-away problems by Places Scenes (Addition)—Part–Part–Whole, Whole Unknown Problems.
separating with objects. Children play with toy on a background scene and combine groups. For
Asked, “You have 5 balls and give 2 to example, they might place 4 tyrannosaurus rexes and 5 apatosauruses on the
Tom. How many do you have left?” paper and then count all 9 to see how many dinosaurs they have in all.
counts out 5 balls, then takes away 2,
and then counts remaining 3.
Off the Tree. Students add 2 amounts of dots to identify their total number
value, and then move forward a corresponding number of spaces on a game
board, which is now marked with numerals.
Compare Game (Adding). For each pair of children, use two or more sets of
counting cards 1–10. Mix and deal cards evenly, face down.
Players simultaneously flip 2 cards to add and then compare which is greater. The
player with more says, “I have more!” and takes the opponent’s cards. If cards are
equal, each player flips another card to break the tie.
The game ends when all cards have been played, and the winner is the player with
more cards. Or, play this game without a winner by not allowing players to collect
cards.
Addition and Subtraction • 75
Find a Five. Children make groups of 1 to 5 beans then hide them under
cups. Then, they mix up the cups. In pairs, children try to find 2 cups that
equal 5. When ready, increase to a higher sum.
Make It N Adds on objects to “make Make it Right. Children solve problems such as, “This puppet has 4 balls but
one number into another,” without she should have 6. Make it 6.”
needing to count from “1.” Does not
Dinosaur Shop 4. Students start with x dinosaurs in a box and add y more to
(necessarily) represent how many
reach a total of z dinosaurs (up to 10).
were added (this is not a requirement
of this intermediate-difficulty
problem type) (Aubrey, 1997).
Asked, “This puppet has 4 balls but
she should have 6. Make it 6,” puts up
4 fingers on one hand, immediately
counts up from 4 while putting up 2
more fingers, saying, “5, 6.”
Pizza Pazzazz 5. Students add toppings to a pizza (up to 10) to make the
required amount.
Note that I’m Thinking of a Number in Chapter 3 helps develop the relevant
counting skills.
Find Change +/− Finds the missing Join Change Unknown problems such as, “You have 5 balls and then get some
addend (5 + _ = 7) by adding on more. Now you have 7 in all. How many did you get?” Children solve using
objects. balls of 2 colors.
Join-To—Count-All-Groups. Asked, Part–Part–Whole, Part Unknown. “There are 6 children on the playground.
“You have 5 balls and then get some
2 are boys and the rest are girls. How many are girls?”
more. Now you have 7 in all. How
many did you get?” counts out 5, then This problem type may be more difficult for most students, and not solvable
counts those 5 again starting at 1, independently until the next level because it requires keeping the added-on objects
Continued Overleaf
76 • Addition and Subtraction
then adds more, counting “6, 7,” then separate from the initial objects. Children might use fingers and finger patterns.
counts the balls added to find the They might use “adding-on” if they make one part first, or “separating-from” if
answer, 2. (Some children may use they count out 6, then remove 2, then count the remaining objects. With
their fingers, and attenuate the supportive phrasing and guidance, however, many children can learn to solve
counting by using finger patterns.) them. For example, using “boys and girls” in the above problem helps. So does
Separate-To—Count-All-Groups. saying “and the rest are.” Finally, saying the known sum first helps.
Asked, “Nita had 8 stickers. She gave
some to Carmen. Now she has 5
stickers. How many did she give to
Carmen?” counts 8 objects, separates
until 5 remain, counts those taken away.
Compares by matching in simple
situations.
Match—Count Rest. Asked, “Here are
6 dogs and 4 balls. If we give a ball to
each dog, how many dogs won’t get a
ball?” counts out 6 dogs, matches 4
balls to 4 of them, then counts the 2
dogs that have no ball.
5–6 Counting Strategies +/− Finds sums How Many Now? Have the children count objects as you place them in a box.
for joining (you had 8 apples and get Ask, “How many are in the box now?” Add 1, repeating the question, then
3 more . . .) and part–part–whole check the children’s responses by counting all the objects. Repeat, checking
(6 girls and 5 boys . . .) problems with occasionally. When children are ready, sometimes add 2, and eventually
finger patterns and/or by counting more objects.
on. Variations: Place coins in a coffee can. Declare that a given number of objects are
Counting-on. “How much is 4 and 3 in the can. Then have the children close their eyes and count on by listening as
more?” “Fourrrrr . . . five, six, seven additional objects are dropped in.
[uses rhythmic or finger pattern to
keep track]. Seven!” More Toppings. Children use cutout “pizzas” and brown disks for toppings.
Counting-up-to May solve missing The teacher asks them to put 5 toppings on their pizzas, and then asks how
addend (3 + _ = 7) or compare many they would have in all if they put on 3 more. They count on to answer,
problems by counting up; e.g., counts then actually put the toppings on to check.
“4, 5, 6, 7” while putting up fingers;
Double Compare. Students compare sums of cards to determine which sum
and then counts or recognizes the 4
fingers raised. is greater. Encourage children to use more sophisticated strategies, such as
counting-on.
Asked, “You have 6 balls. How many
more would you need to have 8?”
says, “Six, seven [puts up first finger],
eight [puts up second finger]. Two!”
Solve another problem. If the child counts the first set starting with one again,
interrupt them sooner and ask what number they will say when they get to the last
object in the first set. Emphasize it will be the same as the numeral card.
Point to first dot of set and say (e.g., for 5 + 2) “See, there are 5 here, so this one
(exaggerated jump from last object in the first set to first object in the second set)
gets the number six.
Repeat with new problems. If children need more assistance, interrupt their
counting of the first set with questions: “How many are here (first set)? So this (last
of first) gets what number? And what number for this one (first of second set)”?
Word Problems. Students solve word problems (totals to 10) off and on the
computer.
Turn Over Ten and Make Tens. See Chapter 6. Many children will, especially
at first, use counting strategies to solve the tasks in these games.
Bright Idea. Students are given a numeral and a frame with dots. They count
on from this numeral to identify the total amount, and then move forward a
corresponding number of spaces on a game board.
Continued Overleaf
78 • Addition and Subtraction
6 Part-Whole +/−: Has initial part– Separate Result Unknown. “You have 11 pencils balls and give 7 away. How
whole understanding. Solves all many do you still have?” Encourage children to use counting-down or,
previous problem types using flexible especially with the numbers in this example, counting-up, to determine the
strategies (may use some known difference. Discuss when each of these and other strategies would be most
combinations, such as 5 + 5 is 10). efficient. Also Join Change Unknown, Part–Part–Whole Part Unknown, and
Compare Difference Unknown (“Nita has 8 stickers. Carmen has 5 stickers.
Sometimes can do start unknown
How many more does Nita have than Carmen?”).
(_ + 6 = 11), but only by trial and
error. Barkley’s Bones. Students determine the missing addend in problems such as
Asked, “You had some balls. Then you 4 + _ = 7.
get 6 more. Now you have 11 balls.
How many did you start with?” lays
out 6, then 3 more, counts and gets 9.
Puts 1 more with the 3, . . . says 10,
then puts 1 more. Counts up from 6
to 11, then re-counts the group
added, and says, “Five!”
Hidden Objects. Hide 4 counters under the dark cloth and show students 7
counters. Tell them that 4 counters are hidden and challenge them to tell you
how many there are in all. Or, tell them that there are 11 in all and ask how
many are hidden. Have them discuss their solution strategies. Repeat with
different sums.
Eggcellent. Students use strategy to identify which 2 of 3 numbers, when
added together, will enable them to reach the final space on a game board in
the fewest number of moves. Often that means the sum of the largest 2
numbers, but sometimes other combinations allow you to hit a positive or
avoid a backward action space.
Addition and Subtraction • 79
6–7 Numbers-in-Numbers +/− Start Unknown Problems. “You have some balls, then you get 4 more balls,
Recognizes when a number is part of now you have 9. How many did you have to start with?”
a whole and can keep the part and
Flip the Cards. Take turns. Students roll 2 numeral cubes (1–6), add them,
whole in mind simultaneously; solves
and flip over numeral cards 1 to 12. Students can flip over any combination
start unknown (_ + 4 = 9) problems
of cards whose sum equals the cube sum. Students continue until they
with counting strategies.
cannot flip over any cards. Then, the sum of the cards still face up is
Asked, “You have some balls, then you recorded. The lowest final sum wins. Available commercially as Wake Up
get 4 more balls, now you have 9. How
Giants or Shut the Box.
many did you have to start with?”
Counts, putting up fingers, “Five, six, Guess My Rule. Tell the class that they have to guess your rule. Students give a
seven, eight, nine.” Looks at fingers, number (say 4), the teacher records:
and says, “Five!” 4 —> 8
Students might guess the rule is “doubling.” However, as the game
continues:
4 —> 8
10 —> 14
1 —> 5 . . .
The students then guess the rule is “add 4.” But they cannot say this. If they
think they know, they try to give the number to the right of the arrow. The
teacher records it if they are right. Only when (most) all of the students can
do this do they discuss the rule.
Function Machine. Students identify a math function (rule) by observing a
series of operations that apply a consistent addition or subtraction value
(+ 2, − 5, etc.).
7 Problem Solver +/− Solves all types All types of problem structures for single-digit problems.
of problems, with flexible strategies
(See Chapter 6 for multidigit problems.)
and known combinations.
Asked, “If I have 13 and you have 9,
how could we have the same
number?” says, “9 and 1 is 10, then 3
more to make 13. 1 and 3 is 4. I need 4
more!”
Final Words
In Chapters 2 and 3, we saw that children quantify groups with different processes, such as
subitizing and counting. They can also solve arithmetic tasks with different processes. This chapter
emphasized a counting-based approach to arithmetic. Chapter 6 describes a composition-based
approach. Children often use both, and even combine them, as has been suggested by the more
sophisticated strategies already described (e.g., Deriver +/−).
6
Arithmetic
Composition of Number, Place Value, and
Multidigit Addition and Subtraction
Do you think the teacher should have Emily use concrete objects? Or should she encourage children
such as Emily to use increasingly sophisticated arithmetic reasoning? For example, should she
help Emily decompose and recompose numbers, such as using “doubles-plus-one” (7 + 8 is solved
as 7 + 7 = 14, and 14 + 1 = 15). This chapter discusses three topics involving increasingly
sophisticated composition of number: arithmetic combinations (“facts”), place value, and multi-
digit addition and subtraction.
Composing Number
Composing and decomposing numbers is another approach to addition and subtraction, one that
is often used alongside with counting strategies, as the “doubles-plus-one” strategy illustrates.
Conceptual subitizing is an important case of composition of number (see Chapter 2).
81
82 • Composition, Place Value, and Multidigit Arithmetic
knowledge of arithmetic combinations. That is one reason we do not even use the term “fact”—
knowing an arithmetic combination well means far more than knowing a simple, isolated “fact.”
For example, children notice that the sum of n and 1 is simply the number after n in the counting
sequence, resulting in an integration of knowledge of combinations with the well-practiced count-
ing knowledge.
Research suggests that producing basic combinations is not just a simple “look-up” process.
Retrieval is an important part of the process, but many brain systems help. For example, systems
that involve working memory, executive (metacognitive) control, and even spatial “mental number
lines” support knowledge of arithmetic combinations. Further, for subtraction calculations, both
the region specializing in subtraction and that specializing in addition are activated. So, when
children really know 8 − 3 = 5, they also know that 3 + 5 = 8, 8 − 5 = 3, and so forth, and all these
“facts” are related.
Implications are that children need considerable practice, distributed across time. Also, because
counting strategies did not activate the same systems, we need to guide children to move to more
sophisticated composition strategies. Finally, practice should not be “meaningless drill” but should
occur in a context of making sense of the situation and the number relationships. Multiple
strategies help build that number sense, and children who are strong in calculations know and use
multiple strategies. If ever educators needed an argument against teaching “one correct procedure,”
this is it.
Flash card use didn’t hurt, but didn’t help either. Neither did extensive work on small sums. We
can see that memorization without understanding or strategies is a bad idea. Another bad idea is
presenting easier arithmetic problems far more frequently than harder problems. That’s what most
U.S. textbooks do. The opposite is the case in countries with higher mathematics achievement, such
as East Asian countries (NMP, 2008).
What does work? The California study found that some approaches were successful, such as using
thinking strategies. Such strategies include the following.
Conceptual subitizing: The earliest school addition. Teachers of children as young as 4 years can
use conceptual subitizing to develop composition-based ideas about addition and subtraction (see
Chapter 2). Such experience provides an early basis for addition, as students “see the addends and
the sum as in ‘two olives and two olives make four olives’ ” (Fuson, 1992b, p. 248). A benefit of
subitizing activities is that different arrangements suggest different views of that number. Children
can come to see all of the different number combinations for a given number by working with
84 • Composition, Place Value, and Multidigit Arithmetic
objects (e.g., 5 objects). Within a story context (e.g., animals in two different pens), children can
separate the 5 objects into different partners (4 and 1; 3 and 2). Similarly, on and off the computer,
children can make “number pictures”—as many different arrangements of a given number as
possible, with the subsets labeled, as in Figure 6.1 (Baratta-Lorton, 1976).
Commutativity and associativity. Teachers can do a lot to develop those understandings and skills
earlier and more dependably. Preschool and kindergarten teachers can pose problems that children
model with manipulatives, ensuring that a problem such as “3 and 2 more” is followed by “2 and
3 more.” Many games in which children separate sets of a given number in many different ways
and name the subsets may be particularly helpful. For example, children lay 4 cubes along their line
of sight and use a clear plastic sheet to “hide” 1 and then read “one and three.” They then hide 3 and
read “three and one” (Baratta-Lorton, 1976).
Ensure that children understand that the sum of 6 and 3 is 9 no matter what the order of the
addends. Many children will build these understandings and strategies for themselves. Others will if
the curriculum and teacher present problems in commuted pairs (6 + 7 and then, immediately after
7 + 6, as mentioned previously for small numbers). Still others may need explicit instruction on the
principle. Help children relate their physical understandings, based on equivalence of groups of
objects in various combinations and orders, to the manipulations of them that resulted in this
different arrangement, and then to explicit numerical generalizations. In any of these forms, such
instruction may help children develop more sophisticated strategies and thus relate their knowledge
of arithmetic principles and their problem-solving, which they often do not do. Especially fruitful
might be ensuring children understand that larger groups are additively composed of smaller
groups and using commutativity to learn to count on from a larger addend.
Whether they are subitizing or subitizing and counting, children as young as kindergarten age
benefit from finding all the decompositions for a number—all pairs of numbers “hiding inside”
other numbers. Listing them can help children see patterns and can illustrate a way of representing
equations that expands the traditional, limited, view of an equal sign as meaning “the answer comes
next” (Fuson, in press; Fuson & Abrahamson, in press):
6=0+6
6=1+5
Composition, Place Value, and Multidigit Arithmetic • 85
6=2+4
6=3+3
6=4+2
6=5+1
6=6+0
“Doubles” and the n + 1 rule. Special patterns can be useful and easy for children to see. One of
these involves “doubles” (3 + 3, 7 + 7), which can also allow access to combinations such as 7 + 8
(“doubles-plus-one”). Children can learn the doubles (e.g., 6 + 6 = 12) surprisingly easily. They
appear to develop doubles plus (or minus) one (7 + 8 = 7 + 7 + 1 = 14 + 1 = 15) on their own or
from brief discussions or practice on computer software. However, ensure that rules such as n + 1
(adding one to any number is simply the next counting word) are well established first.
Fives and tens frames. Another special pattern is the spatial one of fives and tens frames. These
encourage decomposition into fives and tens (e.g., 6 made as 5 + 1, 7 as 5 + 2), as illustrated in
Figure 6.2.
Break-Apart-to-Make-Ten (BAMT) strategy. Japanese students often proceed through the same
general developmental progression as U.S., and other researchers have identified moving from
counting-all, to counting-on, and to derived combinations and decomposing-composing strategies.
However, their learning trajectory at that point differs. They come together around a single power-
ful strategy—Break-Apart-to-Make-Ten (BAMT).
Before these lessons, children work on several related learning trajectories. They develop solid
knowledge of numerals and counting (i.e., move along the counting learning trajectory). This
includes the number structure for teen numbers as 10 + another number, which, as we learned,
is more straightforward in Asian languages (“thirteen” is “ten and three”). They learn to solve
addition and subtraction of numbers with totals less than 10 (i.e., Find Result +/− in the learning
trajectory in Chapter 5), often chunking numbers into 5 (e.g., 7 as 5-plus-2, as Fig. 6.2 illustrated).
With these levels of thinking established, children develop several levels of thinking within the
composition/decomposition developmental progression (what we call “composer to 4, then 5 . . .
up to Composer to 10 in the learning trajectory at the end of this chapter). For example, they work
on “break-apart partners” of numbers less than or equal to 10. They solve addition and subtraction
Figure 6.2 Fives and tens frames can help children decompose numbers and learn combinations.
86 • Composition, Place Value, and Multidigit Arithmetic
problems involving teen numbers using the 10s structure (10 + 2 = 12; 18 − 8 = 10), and addition
and subtraction with three addends using 10s (e.g., 4 + 6 + 3 = 10 + 3 = 13 and 15 − 5 − 9 = 10 −
9 = 1).
At this point the “break-apart-to-make-ten” (BAMT) strategy is developed. The entire process
(to fluency) follows four instructional phases. In Phase 1, teachers elicit, value, and discuss child-
invented strategies and encourage children to use these strategies to solve a variety of problems.
Supports to connect visual and symbolic representations of quantities are used extensively, and
curtailed and phased out as children learn. For example, in step 1, 9 counters (or fingers) and 4
counters are shown, then 1 moved from the 4 to make a group of 10. Next, the 3 left are highlighted.
Then children are reminded that the 9 and 1 made 10. Last, they see 10 counters and 3 counters and
think ten-three, or count on “ten-one, ten-two, ten-three.” Later, representational drawings serve
this role, in a sequence such as shown in Figure 6.3.
In Phase 2, teachers focus on mathematical properties and mathematically advantageous
methods, especially BAMT. In Phase 3, children gain fluency with the BAMT (or other) methods. In
Phase 4, distributed practice is used to increase retention and efficiency and to generalize the use of
the method in additional contexts and as a component of more complex methods.
Of the means of assistance in Tharp and Gallimore’s model (1988), the teacher used questioning
and cognitive restructuring extensively, and used feeding back, modeling, instructing, and
managing to a lesser extent. He also used an additional strategy, engaging and involving. Lessons
were based first on children’s ideas and contributions. All strategies were accepted and appreciated.
Students were expected to try to express their ideas and strategies as well as understand those of
others. Strategies were often named for the students who created them. Children then voted for the
“most useful” strategy; the majority liked the BAMT strategy.
In the following phase, the teacher reviewed different methods, compared the methods
mathematically, and voted on the easiest method. New problem types (e.g., adding to 8) are con-
nected to previously solved problems (adding to 9). The teacher also moved his conceptual
emphasis from the initial to later steps in the BAMT process (as illustrated in Fig. 6.3 below). For
homework, children reviewed that day’s work and previewed the work to come the following day,
supported by families.
In the third phase, children practiced the BAMT method to achieve fluency. “Practice” in
Japanese means “kneading” different ideas and experiences together to “learn.” Children do not just
drill but engage in whole group (choral responding), individual-within-whole-group, and
independent practice. In individual-within-whole-group practice, individual students answered,
but then asked the class, “Is it OK?” They shouted their response back. All practice emphasized
The line slants between the Four is separated into The ring shows how the Ten and 3 are shown
numbers, indicating that we two partners, 1 and 3. numbers combine to make 10. to add to 13.
need to find a partner for 9
to make 10.
Figure 6.3 Phases of instruction to teach the “Break-Apart-to-Make Tens” or BAMT strategy.
Composition, Place Value, and Multidigit Arithmetic • 87
conceptual links. “Kneading knowledge” to “learn” was always about fluency and understanding.
The fourth and final phase is delayed practice. This is not rote learning or rote practice but a clear,
high-quality use of the concepts of learning trajectories.
Combined strategies. Further, learning a variety of such strategies are good for children of all
ability levels. Further, although BAMT is a powerful strategy and more helpful than others for later
multidigit computation, it should not be the only strategy children learn. Therefore, doubles ± 1 and
other strategies are also worthwhile learning objectives.
Thus, good strategies should all work together, of course, to form adaptive expertise. For
example, see the activity in Chapter 2’s “Learning Trajectory for Recognition of Number and
Subitizing” for the level, Conceptual Subitizer to 20 (p. 17). Notice how the fives and tens frames are
used to give imagistic support for what is, basically, the BAMT strategy—all while encouraging
conceptual subitizing.
Children at risk. At several points in this book we argue that some children fail to make progress
in the learning trajectories in Chapter 5 and in this chapter. Here we emphasize that if children are
not making progress in grade 1, and especially grade 2, they need intensive interventions (see
Chapters 14, 15, and 16).
Achieving fluency. Research establishes several guidelines for helping children achieve fluency
with arithmetic combinations, that is, correct and accurate knowledge and concepts and strategies
that promote adaptive expertise.
1. Follow learning trajectories so that children develop the concepts and strategies of the domain
first. Understanding should precede practice.
2. Ensure practice is distributed, rather than massed. For example, rather than studying 4 + 7 for
30 seconds, it is better to study it once, then study another combination, then return to 4 + 7.
Further, practice on all combinations is best done in short but frequent sessions. For long-term
memory, a day or more should eventually separate these sessions.
3. Use drill and practice software that includes research-based strategies (see the companion
book).
4. Ensure practice continually develops relationships and strategic thinking. For example,
at least some practice should occur on all forms of all possible combinations. This may help
children understand properties, including commutativity, additive inverse, and equality, as well as
supporting students’ retrieval of basic combinations:
As an illustration, teachers make “math mountain” cards such as those in Figure 6.4 (Fuson &
Abrahamson, in press). Students cover any of the three numbers and show them to their partner,
who tells what number is covered.
This suggests that it is not just the arithmetic combinations that should be automatic. Students
should also be fluent with the related reasoning strategies. For example, the Building Blocks software
not only provides the drill problems following these guidelines but also presents each group of
combinations based on the strategy that is most helpful in a particular type of solution. As a specific
illustration, the software initially groups together all those combinations that yield nicely to the
BAMT strategy.
Summary. An important goal of early mathematics is students’ growth of flexible, fluent,
accurate knowledge of addition and subtraction combinations. Learning these combinations is
not only about rote memorization. Seeing and using patterns, and building relationships, can
free children’s cognitive resources to be used in other tasks. Children generalize the patterns
they learn and apply it to combinations that were not studied (Baroody & Tiilikainen, 2003).
Number combination instruction that focuses on encouraging children to look for patterns and
relations can generalize to problem-solving situations and can free attention and effort for other
tasks.
Science is facts; just as houses are made of stones, so is science made of facts; but a pile of
stones is not a house and a collection of facts is not necessarily science.
(Jules Henri Poincairé)
special grouping into tens, appears not to be related to counting skill. However, experience with
additive composition does appear to contribute to knowledge of grouping and place value.
Teachers often believe that their students understand place value because they can, for example,
put digits into “tens and ones charts.” However, ask these students what the “1” in “16” means and
they are as likely to say “one” (and mean 1 singleton) as they are to say “one ten.” This is one of
many tasks that illustrate the difference between children with little, and children with developing
or strong, knowledge of place value. Several classifications systems have been used to describe the
levels of thinking children develop from moving from little or no, to strong knowledge of place
value.
• Students who say only “one” have little or no knowledge of place value. They will usually
make a group of 16 objects to represent “16,” but they do not understand the place value of
the numeral.
• Students understand that “26” means a group of 20 cubes along with a group of 6 cubes, but
for “twenty-six” might write “206.”
• Students create a group of 26 cubes by counting two groups of 10 (10, 20), and then counting
up by ones (21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26).
• Students count “1 ten, 2 tens . . .” (or even “1, 2 tens”) and then count the ones as before.
• Students connect the number words (twenty-six), numerals (26), and quantities (26 cubes);
they understand that 546 is equal to 500 plus 40 plus 6, and can use a variety of strategies for
solving multidigit number problems.
Students may be at a higher level for small numbers (e.g., up to 100) than they are for numbers
with which they are less familiar (e.g., numbers to 1000). Students eventually need to understand
that 500 is equal to 5 times 100, 40 is equal to 4 times 10, and so forth. They need to know that all
adjacent places have the same exchange values: exchange 1 unit to the left for 10 units to the right
and vice versa.
Language and place value. As we saw previously, English has thirteen rather than “threeteen” or,
better, “ten-three”; twenty rather than “twoty” or, better, “two tens.” Other languages, such as
Chinese, in which 13 is read as “ten-and-three,” are more helpful to children. Also, neither “teen”
nor “ty” say ten, although they mean ten in different ways. The written numbers are clearer in their
pattern, but the written numerals are so succinct that they mislead children: a 52 looks like a 5 and
a 2 side by side, without suggesting fifty or five tens to the beginner. It is especially unfortunate
that the first two words following ten do not even feature the “teen” root at all. Instead, “eleven” and
“twelve” stem from Old English words meaning “one left” (after ten) and “two left.”
foundation for understanding place value. Following the counting, comparing, and addition learn-
ing trajectories in Chapters 3, 4, and 5 is consistent with these findings.
So, there are two complementary approaches to learning grouping and place value. The first
focuses directly on learning place value for numbers of a certain range (the teens, or numbers to
100). The second is using arithmetic problem-solving as a good context for the learning of place
value, which we discuss in the following section.
In the first approach, students work with place value ideas before arithmetic. For example, they
might play “banking” games in which they roll two number cubes and take that many pennies (or
play money single-dollar bills), but if they have 10 or more pennies, they have to trade 10 pennies
for a dime before their turn is over. The first one to get to 100 wins. There are many such activities.
Students could take an inventory of classroom supplies, count chairs for an assembly, get reading for
a party, or conduct a science experiment—in each, grouping items to be counted into tens and ones.
Similar games can involve throwing a ring or other object onto a target and accumulating scores or
any other similar activity.
In one project, students also represented tens and ones with cardboard or paper “penny stripes”
with ten pennies separated into two groups of five on the front and one dime on the back (base-ten
blocks were deemed too expensive). Eventually, students used drawings to solve problems. They
drew columns of ten circles or dots, counted them by tens and by ones, and then connected the
columns of ten by a 10-stick (or quick-ten). When they understood the 10-sticks as meaning ten
ones, they just drew the 10-sticks and ones. Tens and ones were drawn using 5-groups to minimize
errors and help students see the numbers at a glance. A space was left after the first five 10-sticks,
and five ones circles (or dots) were drawn horizontally and then the rest of the ones circles drawn
below these in a row.
During this work, the teacher called 78 “seventy-eight” but also “seven-tens, eight ones.” Some
children still viewed and operated on digits in a multidigit number as if they were singletons;
therefore, “secret code cards” were introduced such as have been used by many educators. They
were placed in front of each other to illustrate the place value system, as shown in Figure 6.5.
High-quality instruction often uses manipulatives or other objects to demonstrate and record
quantities. Further, such manipulatives are used consistently enough that they become tools for
thinking (see Chapter 16). They are discussed to explicate the place-value ideas. They are used to
solve problems, including arithmetic problems. Finally, they are replaced by symbols.
Conceptual knowledge, especially of the base-ten system, influences how students understand,
learn, and use algorithms. Recall that an algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that is guaranteed to
solve a specific category of problems. A computation algorithm is a cyclic algorithm that solves
computational problems, such as arithmetic problems, in a limited number of steps. Efficient,
accurate, multidigit computation methods use the decomposition of the numbers into their place
value quantities (they are “cyclic” because they then operate on one place, then the next . . .),
the commutative and associative properties in adding or subtracting like values, and, again, com-
position and decomposition whenever there are too many (when adding) or not enough (when
subtracting) of a given value. (Recall the discussion in “Arithmetic: Mathematical Definitions and
Properties,” Chapter 5, pp. 60–61.)
Strategies involving counting by tens and ones (see Chapter 3) can be altered along with
children’s developing understanding of numeration and place value to lead up to explicit multi-
digit addition and subtraction knowledge. Altering students’ increasingly sophisticated counting
strategies is a natural site for developing their understanding of place value in arithmetic. Rather
than count by tens and ones to find the sum of 38 and 47, children might decompose 38 into its tens
and ones and 47 into its tens and ones. This encourages the children to reason with ten as a unit like
the unit of one and compose the tens together into 7 tens, or 70. After composing the ones together
into 15 ones, they have transformed the sum into the sum of 70 and 15. To find this sum, the
children take a 10 from the 15 and give it to the 70, so the sum is 80 and 5 more, or 85. Strategies
such as this are modifications of counting strategies involving tens and ones just as certain strategies
for finding the sum of 8 and 7 (e.g., take 2 from 7 and give it to 8, then add 10 and 5) are
modifications of counting strategies involving only counting by ones.
To use such strategies, students need to conceptualize numbers both as wholes (as units in
themselves) and composites (of individual units). For example, students can repeatedly answer
what number is “10 more” than another number. “What is ten more than 23?” “33!” “Ten more?”
“43!”
This, then, is the second approach (mentioned previously) to moving along the developmental
progression for learning explicit place values, along with multidigit arithmetic. Like other develop-
mental progressions, the levels of understanding of place value are not absolute or lockstep.
Students might use a strategy based on a flexible combination of decomposition–composition
strategies and counting-based, or sequence, strategies when solving a horizontally-formatted
arithmetic problem, such as 148 + 473. For example, they might say, “100 and 400 is 500. And 70
and 30 is another hundred, so 600. Then 8, 9, 10, 11 . . . and the other 10 is 21. So, 621.”
However, these same students regress to an earlier level when solving problems in a vertical
format.
148
+473
511 (the student ignored the numbers that needed to be regrouped)
The vertical format can lead students to just think of each number as singles, even if they
understand place value in different contexts. The extensive historical work on “bugs” in algorithms
provides many additional examples, such as the following.
73
−47
34 (the student subtracted the smaller from the larger digit in each case)
92 • Composition, Place Value, and Multidigit Arithmetic
802
−47
665 (the student first ignored the zero “borrowing” from the 8 two times).
All these have several lessons for us. Teaching arithmetic is much more than teaching procedures.
It involves relationships, concepts, and strategies. Indeed, if taught conceptually, most students will
not make these types of errors. Also, teaching arithmetic does more than teach “computation”—it
lays the groundwork for much of future mathematics, including algebra.
to solve multidigit arithmetic problems before formal instruction on algorithms. That is, children’s
informal strategies may be the best starting points for developing both place value and multidigit
arithmetic concepts and skills. These strategies differ significantly from formal, paper-and-pencil
algorithms. For example, children prefer working right to left, whereas the formal algorithms work
left to right (Kamii & Dominick, 1997, 1998). The reason for this is not just that it encourages
children’s creative thinking—that is a remarkable finding of this area of research. As stated, one
group of researchers believes that algorithms harm students’ thinking. As another example, one
teacher gave her class only problems in which one addend ended with “99” or “98” (e.g., 366 + 199).
For most of the session, all the students used the standard algorithm. One student, who had not
been taught these algorithms in previous grades, said that he changed 366 + 199 to 365 + 200 and
then added to find 565. However, only three students adopted such methods—all the rest kept
“lining up the digits” and computing each of these problems digit by digit.
Kamii blamed standard algorithms for students’ reticence to think about problems. When the
teachers stopped teaching them the differences were called “astounding” (Kamii & Dominick,
1998). For example, they convinced teachers to stop teaching standard algorithms and rely only on
students’ thinking. In one year, correct answers on 6 + 53 + 185 went from 3 of 16 students, all of
whom used the standard algorithm, to only two using the standard algorithm (both incorrectly)
and 18 using their own strategies, with 15 of the 18 getting the correct answer.
Thus, Kamii is convinced that, at least for whole number addition and subtraction, algorithms
introduced early do more harm than good. But what, many ask, if children make mistakes? The
argument is that the logic of the mathematics in this case, with the reasoning of the students, is
adequate to self-correct any such errors. One second grade class was asked a challenging problem,
to add 107 and 117. A first group of students added from the right and got 2114. A second said 14
was two-digit and could not be written in the ones place; you should only write the 4 there, so the
answer is 214. A third group said the 1 in 14 should be written because it was more important so
answer was 211. The fourth group added the tens and said the answer was 224. Individual students
argued. The inventor of each approach defended it vigorously. At the end of the 45-minute period,
the only thing the class could agree on was that is was impossible to have four different correct
answers. (This is the point at which many teachers hearing the story worry the most—Isn’t it
unethical to send them home without the right answer?)
Over the next session, all students in this class constructed the “correct” algorithm. They made
mistakes, but were encouraged to defend their opinion until they were convinced that the pro-
cedures they had used were wrong. They learned by modifying their ideas, not just “accepting” a
new procedure.
These and similar studies support the notion that inventing one’s own procedures is usually a
good first phase. They also illustrate the approach, mentioned previously, of teaching place value in
the context of solving multidigit addition and subtraction problems (Fuson & Briars, 1990).
Is student invention necessary? Some contend that invention at this level is not the critical
feature. Rather, they argue for the importance of the sense-making in which students engage
whether or not they invent, adapt, or copy a method.
Sense-making is probably the essence; however, we believe the bulk of research indicates that
initial student invention develops multiple interconnecting concepts, skills, and problem-solving.
This does not mean that children must invent every procedure but that conceptual development,
adaptive reasoning, and skills are developed simultaneously and that initial student invention may
be a particularly effective way of achieving these goals. Finally, we believe that student invention is a
creative act of mathematical thinking that is valuable in its own right.
Mental procedures before algorithms. Many researchers believe that use of written algorithms is
introduced too soon and that a more beneficial approach is the initial use of mental computation.
94 • Composition, Place Value, and Multidigit Arithmetic
Kamii’s extensive writings and research, already discussed, exemplify this approach. Standard writ-
ten algorithms intentionally relieve the user of thinking about where to start, what place value to
assign to digits, and so forth. This is efficient for those who already understand, but often has negative
effects on initial learning. In comparison, mental strategies are derived from and support underlying
concepts. Conventionally taught students usually take a long time to master algorithms and often
never master them. Students learn better if mental computation is taught and performed before
written algorithms (and practiced throughout education), along with appropriate work with
concrete materials and drawings.
Such mental computation creates flexible thinkers. Inflexible students mostly use mental images
of standard paper-and-pencil algorithms. For 246 + 199, they compute as follows: 9 + 6 = 15, 15 =
1 ten and 5 ones; 9 + 4 + 1 = 14, 14 tens = 1 hundred and 4 tens; 1 + 2 + 1 = 4. Four hundreds; so,
445—and, frequently, they make errors.
Flexible students instead might compute as follows: 199 is close to 200; 246 + 200 = 446,
take away 1; 445. The flexible students also used strategies such as the following to compute
28 + 35:
Compensation and decomposition strategies aligned with base-ten blocks and other such
manipulatives, whereas the jump strategy is aligned with 100s charts or number lines (especially
the empty number line, discussed later in this chapter). For many students, the jump strategies are
more effective and accurate. For example, in subtraction, students using standard algorithms often
show the “smaller-from-larger” bug, as, for 42 − 25, giving the answer 23.
Games can give targeted practice with the jump strategy. For example, in The 11 Game, students
spin two spinners (partially unbent paper clips can be spun around a pencil point). If they get what
is illustrated in Figure 6.6, for example, they must subtract 11 from 19. They then can put one of
their counters on the result, 8 (which appears in two locations)—as long as one is open. Their goal
is to be the first to get four in a row (horizontal, vertical, or oblique). The emphasis on adding or
subtracting only 1 ten and 1 one helps children understand and establish a strong use of the jump
strategy. Many variations are, of course, possible, such as changing 11 to 37 or adding or subtract-
ing only multiples of 10.
In a similar vein, a buying-and-selling situation embodied in a modified game of lotto was
used successfully as a context to motivate and guide first graders in two-digit subtraction
(Kutscher, Linchevski, & Eisenman, 2002). Students transferred their knowledge to the classroom
context.
The Dutch more recently have promoted the use of the “empty number line” as a support for
the jump strategies. Use of this model has been reported as supporting more intelligent
arithmetical strategies. The number line is “empty” in that it is not a ruler with all numbers
marked but simply keeps the order of numbers and the size of “jumps” recorded, such as shown in
Figure 6.7.
Other researchers/developers believe that both the decomposition and jump strategies are
worthwhile, and neither has to be learned first (R. J. Wright, Stanger, Stafford, & Martland,
2006). The jump strategy is preferred as a mental arithmetic strategy, with the empty number line as
a recording, not a computational, device. That is, in their view, students should use the empty
number line to record what they have already done mentally, so it becomes a written representation
and a way to communicate their thinking to their peers and the teacher.
Students also create combinations of these strategies. For example, students might first
decompose a bit and then jump: 48 + 36—40 + 30 = 70; 70 + 8 = 78; 78 + 2 = 80; 80 + 4 = 84. They
might also use compensation or other transformational strategies, such as: 34 + 59 —> 34 + 60 − 1,
so 94 − 1 = 93 (R. J. Wright et al., 2006).
Do not just “do both strategies,” but also help students connect them. For example, the jump
strategy may de-emphasize decade structures but maintain number sense. Decomposition
strategies emphasize place value but often lead to errors. Using and connecting both, intentionally
addressing the mathematics they each develop, may be the most effective pedagogical approach.
Other spinner games can provide substantial and enjoyable practice with these strategies. For
example, “Spin Four” is similar to the “The 11 Game” except that the second spinner shows the
amount added or subtracted from the number spun on the first spinner. This can be done in many
ways. Figure 6.8 features subtraction with no regrouping. Other games can easily be constructed to
feature subtraction with regrouping, addition with and without regrouping, or a combination of
addition and subtraction.
“Four in a Row” is a similar game, but here each player has 12 chips of one color (“see through”
if possible). Each chooses two numerals in the square on the left, summing them and covering them
(just for this turn) with chips (see Figure 6.9). The player also covers the sum on the square on the
right (this chip stays). The first to make four in a row with his/her chips is the winner (from Kamii,
1989, who credits Wheatley and Cobb for this version; Kamii’s work includes many other games).
Before we leave this topic, we note that it may be inaccurate to say a child “uses” a “jump”
strategy when strategies are just barely forming (i.e., the youngest child). That is, they may not be
deliberately choosing and applying strategies but basing computations on their familiarity
with certain numbers relations. A second grader may add 39 + 6 by deciding to add one to 39,
then the “rest” of the 6 (i.e., 5) to the 40 to get 45, without conscientiously thinking—or even
knowing about, “jump strategies.” Such explicit knowledge and decision-making might emerge
from repeated experiences using number relationships. At first these are “theorems-in-action”
(Vergnaud, 1978) and are explicit strategies until the are redescribed. Instructionally, this would
imply that the initial goal is not so much to teach the strategies as to develop schemes of number
relationships and then use them to construct strategies, discussing these strategies to highlight the
mathematical principles involved.
Composition, Place Value, and Multidigit Arithmetic • 97
Which algorithms? There are many arguments about whether to teach the standard algorithms.
Too often, such arguments have generated more heat than light, for several reasons:
• There is no single standard algorithm. Many different ones have been used in the U.S. and
around the world (e.g., see algorithms a and b in Table 6.1). All of these are valid (Kilpatrick
et al., 2001).
• What are taken as different “standard” algorithms by teachers and lay people are often not
viewed as different by mathematicians, who believe they are all just simple modifications
(often in the way numbers are recorded) of general place-value based algorithms. That is,
the algorithms in Table 6.1 all subtract in same-place-value columns and compose/
decompose as necessary; they just do these processes and notate them in slightly different
ways.
Several modifications of the standard U.S. algorithm (Table 6.2) are useful (Fuson, in press).
For beginners, or those having difficulty, recording each addition showing its full place value, as in
Table 6.2, can develop their understanding and skill. Once this is attained, the accessible and
mathematically desirable algorithm shown in Table 6.2 is superior to the standard shown in Table
6.1a for several reasons. First, the numeral (e.g., “13”) is written with the digits close to each other,
maintaining for the children the origin of the “13.” Second, with students “adding from the top,”
the (usually larger) numerals are added first, freeing students’ memory from holding an altered
a. Decomposition—Traditional U.S.
4 4 31 4 31 4
1 1 1 1
456 45 6 45 6 4 5 6 4 5 6
−1 6 7 −1 6 7 −1 6 7 −1 6 7 −1 6 7
9 9 2 8 9
c. Accessible and mathematically desirable—a modification of the U.S. algorithm (Fuson, in press)
31 4 31 4
1
456 4 5 6 4 51 6
−1 6 7 −1 6 7 −1 6 7
2 8 9
numeral (which was added to the “carried” 1). Instead, the larger numerals are first added first, and
the easy-to-add “1” is added last.
Similarly, notice the subtraction algorithm back in Table 6.1c (compared to Table 6.1a, see p. 97).
Regrouping everywhere first helps students concentrate just on the need to regroup and the
regrouping itself. Once that has been completed, then the subtraction operations are performed one
after the other. Not having to “switch” between the two processes allows better focus on each one.
These “accessible and mathematically desirable algorithms,” are simple variations of the
standard U.S. algorithms. However, they can significantly help students build both skill and under-
standing (Fuson, in press).
a. Traditional U.S.
1 11 11
456 456 456 456
+167 +167 +167 +167
3 23 623
c. Accessible and mathematically desirable algorithm—a modification of the U.S. algorithm (Fuson, in press)
Add 6 + 7, enter “13” but Add 5 + 6 + 1 ten, enter “2” Add 4 + 1 + 1 hundreds.
with the 3 in the ones place in the tens place and the 1
and the 1 ten under the tens hundred under the
column. hundreds column.
Composition, Place Value, and Multidigit Arithmetic • 99
For any variation, base-ten manipulatives and drawing can support the learning of composition
and decomposition methods—especially in maintaining a connection between concepts and
procedures. Use of drawings is illustrated in Tables 6.2b and c. (Notice there are two basic differ-
ences between the two, the order in which values are grouped and the way they are grouped.)
Manipulatives or drawings help illustrate that different place value quantities need to be added
separately and that certain quantities need to be composed to make a unit of a higher place value.
Research shows that the key is teaching for meaning and understanding. Instruction that focuses
on flexible application of a variety of strategies helps students build robust concepts and pro-
cedures. They learn to adaptively fit their strategies to the characteristics of the problems. In
contrast, instruction that focuses only on routines results in students blindly following those
routines. Understanding the mathematics, and students’ thinking about mathematics, including the
varied strategies and algorithms they might use, helps students create and use adaptive calculations.
If students invent their own strategies first, they have fewer errors than students who were taught
algorithms from the start.
In summary, conceptually-based instruction supports mathematical proficiency. Teach con-
ceptual knowledge first, and alongside, procedural knowledge. Have students develop their own
methods first, the earlier in their educational lives the better. When standard algorithms are
developed, the modified algorithms we present here can help children build concepts and pro-
cedures simultaneously. On that note, let us turn to this chapter’s learning trajectories.
Learning Trajectory for Composing Number and Multidigit Addition and Subtraction
The importance of the goal of increasing children’s ability in these arithmetic abilities is clear. With
that goal, Table 6.3 provides the two additional components of the learning trajectory, the develop-
mental progression and the instructional tasks. There are three important notes on this learning
trajectory:
• Unlike other learning trajectories, Table 6.3 is split into two parts, first composing, and then
multidigit addition and subtraction. This was done to emphasize that the second part is a copy
of the developmental progression already included in the learning trajectory in Chapter 5,
enhanced with the instructional tasks from this chapter.
• Note that place value is fundamental to all number domains, so it is embedded in the
learning trajectories in Chapters 2, 3, 4, and 5, as well as this one. This chapter simply has the
most specific focus on place value.
• Recall again that the ages in all the learning trajectory tables are only approximate, especially
because the age of acquisition usually depends heavily on experience.
Table 6.3 Learning Trajectory for Composing Number and Multidigit Addition and Subtraction.
Age Developmental Progression Instructional Tasks
(years)
Composing Number
0–2 Pre-Part–Whole Recognizer Only Basic early childhood experiences are helpful, as described in previous
nonverbally recognizes parts and chapters.
wholes. Recognizes that sets can be
combined in different orders, but
may not explicitly recognize that
groups are additively composed of
smaller groups. Continued Overleaf
100 • Composition, Place Value, and Multidigit Arithmetic
3–4 Inexact Part–Whole Recognizer Experiences in learning trajectories from other chapters are appropriate to
Knows that a whole is bigger than developing these abilities. Especially relevant are subitizing (Chapter 2),
parts, but may not accurately counting (Chapters 3 and 5), comparing (Chapter 4), and sorting
quantify. (Intuitive knowledge of (Chapter 12).
commutativity, and, later,
associativity, with physical groups,
later in more abstract contexts,
including numbers.)
When shown 4 red blocks and 2 blue
blocks and asked how many there are
in all, names a “large number,” such
as 5 or 10.
4–5 Composer to 4, then 5 Knows Finger Games Ask children to make numbers with their fingers (hands
number combinations. Quickly should be placed in their laps between tasks). These sessions should be short
names parts of any whole, or the and fun, spread out as needed.
whole given the parts. Ask children to show 4 with their fingers. Tell your partner how you did it. Now in
Shown 4, then 1 is secretly hidden, a different way. Tell your partner.
and then is shown the 3 remaining, Now make 4 with the same number on each hand.
quickly says “1” is hidden.
Ask children to show 5 with their fingers and discuss responses. (Did they use one
hand only or two? Can they do it a different way? and so on).
Ask them to show another way to make 5, using both hands if they did not yet.
Repeat the above tasks, but “you can’t use thumbs.”
Challenge children by asking them to show 3 or 5 using the same number of
fingers on each hand. Discuss why it cannot be done.
Bunny Ears. In this modification, have children make the numbers as “bunny
ears”—holding their hands above their heads to make numbers 1–5 in
different ways.
Up and Down. In another session, ask children to show 4 on one hand. Ask
how many fingers are up and how many are down (all on one hand only).
Repeat with 0, 1, 2, 3, and 5 across several days.
Snap! (to 5) Agree on a number from 3 to 5. Make a train of that number of
connecting cubes, all of one color. Put them behind your back and snap off
some. Show the rest. Have students determine how many are behind your
back. Discuss their solution strategies.
Students work in pairs playing Snap!, taking turns making the connecting cube
train and snapping. Students should ask their partner to guess how many you
have, then show them to check.
Composer to 10 Knows number Finger Games Ask children to make numbers with their fingers (hands
combinations to totals of 10. should be placed in their laps between tasks).
Quickly names parts of any whole, Ask children to show 6 with their fingers. Tell your partner how you did it. Now in
or the whole given parts. Doubles a different way. Tell your partner.
to 20. Now make 6 with the same number on each hand. Repeat with other even numbers
“9 and 9 is 18.” (8, 10).
Ask children to show 7 with their fingers and discuss responses. Can they do it a
different way?
Repeat the above tasks, but “you can’t use thumbs.” (Can you make 10?)
Challenge children by asking them to show 3, 5, or 7 using the same number of
fingers on each hand. Discuss why it cannot be done.
Bunny ears. In this modification, have children make the numbers as “bunny
ears”—holding their hands above their heads to make numbers 6–10 in
different ways.
Up and down. Ask children to show 6. Ask how many fingers are up and how
many are down (all on one hand only). Repeat with all numbers 0 to 10
across many days.
Turn Over Ten. The goal is to accumulate the most pairs of cards that sum to
10. Provide each group of children with 3 collections of 0–10 cards.
10 cards are dealt to each player, who assembles them in one pile, face down.
The remaining cards are placed face down in a “pick-up pile” between the two
players. The top card of this pile is flipped over, face up.
Player 1 turns over his/her top card. If this card forms a sum of ten together with
the card in the pick-up pile, that player takes and keeps the pair. (Whenever the
card on top of the pick-up pile is used, a new one is turned over.)
If the sum of ten is not reached, the player places this top card next to the pick-up
pile, so that these cards can be seen and used by players in subsequent turns
(therefore, there may be a row of “discards” face up between the two players).
In either case (pair formed or card discarded) the turn passes to the next player,
who turns over his/her top card.
If any of the cards showing can be used to form a pair of ten, the player keeps that
pair.
If a player sees a pair of cards showing that form ten, he can choose that pair
during his/her turn instead of turning over the top card in his/her pile.
Turns alternate until each player has turned over all of his or her cards. The player
with the most pairs accumulated is the winner.
Make Tens. The goal is to make tens with all your cards and avoid being left
with the extra card. Provide each group of children a deck of cards made of 2
collections plus one other card of any number between 0 and 10 (this will
eventually be the “Old Maid” card that cannot make a 10). For example, use
one of the following:
Continued Overleaf
102 • Composition, Place Value, and Multidigit Arithmetic
1. Two collections of number cards 0–10 with dots and numerals, with one extra 5
card.
2. Collections of numeral (only) cards 0–10 with one extra 5 card.
Introduce this two-player game. All the cards are dealt out to both players.
Both players first form all possible pairs of 10 in their own hands and set these
pairs aside in their score pile. They keep the extras in their hand.
They take turns choosing (without looking) one card from the other player’s hand.
If they can use it to make 10, they place that pair in their score pile. If they cannot
use it, the card remains in their hand.
At the end of the game, one player will be left with the odd card.
Slap a Ten. The goal is to make tens with all your cards and be the first one
“out.” Provide each group of children a deck of cards made of 4 decks of 1–
10 cards.
Introduce this 2- to 4-player game.
Six cards are dealt out to each player. The remaining cards are placed in the
middle, face down.
One player turns the top card over. The other players quickly determine if they can
make a 10 with that and one card in their hand. If they can, they slap the card. The
player who slaps it first must use it to make a ten. If they cannot, they keep the card
and must take another card off the pile.
Players take turns turning over the top card.
The game ends when player goes “out” or the pile is gone. The player who went
“out” or the one with the fewest cards in their hand wins.
Modification: If children are having a problem trying to slap the card at the
same time . . .
If they can make a ten with the card shown, they slap their own card down. The
player who slapped it down first will ask “Is it 10?”
All players must agree that the two cards make 10.
7 Composer with Tens and Ones Note: All games above involving tens can be played with larger sums to extend
Understands 2-digit numbers as tens children’s knowledge of arithmetic combinations.
and ones; count with dimes and
Make the Sum. Six 1–10 decks of numeral cards are mixed and dealt out to
pennies; 2-digit addition with
players. Three number cubes are thrown by one player, who announces to
regrouping.
sum. All plays try to make this sum in as many ways as possible. The first
“17 and 36 is like 17 and 3, which is player to use up all her or his cards wins.
20, and 33, which is 53.”
Salute! With a deck of cards with the face cards removed, and Ace as 1, cards
are dealt to 2 of the 3 players (Kamii, 1989).
The two players sit facing each other with their cards face down. The third player
says, “Salute!” and the two players take the top card from their piles and hold them
on their foreheads so that the other two players can see them, but they cannot.
The third player announces the sum of the two cards. Each of the other players
tries to be the first to announce the value of their own cards. The person who is
first takes both cards. The winner is the person who collects the most cards.
Composing 10s and 1s. Show students connecting cubes—4 tens and 3
ones—for 2 seconds only (e.g., hidden under a cloth). Ask how many they
saw. Discuss how they knew. Repeat with new amounts.
Tell students you have a real challenge for them. Tell them there are 2 tens and 17
ones hidden. How many are there in all? Once they tell you, uncover them to check.
Place 4 blue tens, 1 red tens, and 4 red singles. Tell students you have 54 cubes in
all, and 14 are red. Ask them how many are blue.
From this point, the most important activities are included in the subitizing
learning trajectory. See Chapter 2, pp. 16–17, especially the levels Conceptual
Subitizer with Place Value and Skip Counting and Conceptual Subitizer
with Place Value and Multiplication.
Solves simple cases of multidigit Adding to a decade. Present problems such as 70 + 3 and 20 + 7. Use the
addition (and often subtraction) by same strategy as above as placing 2 tens and then 7 ones out. If students
incrementing tens and/or ones. need additional assistance, lay the ones out one at a time while counting
“What’s 20 + 34?” Student uses by ones. Note the result (“27 . . . that means 2 tens and 7 ones”) and
connecting cube to count up 20, 30, encourage students to solve another one a faster way. Repeat and fade as
40, 50 plus 4 is 54. above.
Adding and subtracting multiples of 10s off the decade. Present problems such
as 73 + 10 and 27 + 20. Use the same strategy as above, placing 7 tens and
3 ones out, then adding tens one (or more) at a time.
Adding and subtracting within decades. Present problems such as 2 + 3, then
22 + 3, then 72 + 3 and so forth (include 12 + 3 once the pattern is well
established). Repeat.
Math-O-Scope. Students identify numbers (representing values that are ten
more, ten less, one more, or one less than a target number) within the
hundreds chart to reveal a partially hidden photograph.
7 Problem Solver +/− Solves all types All types of problem structures for single-digit problems.
of problems, with flexible strategies
Adding across decades. Present problems that bridge decades, such as 77 + 3
and known combinations.
and 25 + 7. As above, use manipulatives and modeling as necessary, until
Asked, “If I have 13 and you have 9, children can solve this mentally, or with drawings such as the empty number
how could we have the same
line. Repeat and fade as above.
number?” says, “Nine and one is ten,
then three more to make 13. One and Figure the Fact. Students add numeric values from 1 through 10 to values
three is four. I need four more!” from 0 through 99, to reach a maximum total of 100. That is, if they are “on”
Multidigit may be solved by 33 and get an 8, they have to enter 41 to proceed to that space, because the
incrementing or combining tens and spaces are not marked with numerals, at least until they move through them.
ones (latter not used for join, change (See also Chapter 6.)
unknown).
“What’s 28 + 35?” Incrementer
thinks: 20 + 30 = 50; +8 = 58; 2 more
is 60, 3 more is 63.
Combining tens and ones: 20 + 30 =
50. 8 + 5 is like 8 plus 2 and 3 more,
so, it’s 13. 50 and 13 is 63.
again. Continue to add 1 to 3 tens and 1 to 9 ones each time until you are
close to 100. Then ask, “How many do we have in all? How many would we
need to reach 100?”
Use different manipulatives, such as imitation currency or coins.
Repeat and fade as above.
Adding and subtracting tens with the empty number line. Present addition
(and then subtraction) problems under an empty number line (see top
figure below) and have students “talk aloud” to solve the problem,
representing their thinking on the empty number line (see bottom
figure).
Adding tens and ones. Present addition problems under an empty number
line, as above.
Start with problems without regrouping such as 45 + 12, 27 + 31, and 51 + 35, then
move to . . .
Problems with regrouping, such as 49 + 23, 58 + 22, 38 + 26.
Problems that suggest transformations such as compensation (e.g., 57 + 19 —> 56
+ 20 or 57 + 20 − 1), such as 43 + 45 (44 + 44), 22 + 48, and so forth.
Allow students to use strategies that “work” for them, but encourage them to
move from counting singles to more sophisticated strategies.
Continued Overleaf
106 • Composition, Place Value, and Multidigit Arithmetic
7–8 Multidigit +/− Uses composition of Hidden 10s and 1s. Tell students you have hidden 56 red connecting cubes
tens and all previous strategies to and 21 blue cubes under a cloth. Ask them how many there are altogether.
solve multidigit +/− problems. Progress to problems with regrouping, such as 47 + 34.
Asked, “What’s 37 − 18?” says, “I take Move to problems with subtraction without (85 − 23), then with (51 − 28)
1 ten off the 3 tens; that’s 2 tens. I take regrouping.
7 off the 7. That’s 2 tens and zero . . .
20. I have one more to take off. That’s Spin Four. See p. 95 and Figure 6.7.
19.”
Four in a Row. See p. 95 and Figure 6.8. Variations are to make the game
Asked, “What’s 28 + 35?” thinks, 30 + Five in a Row and to use larger addends.
35 would be 65. But it’s 28, so it’s 2
less—63. Variation: Have 2 small squares, one with larger numerals, the other with smaller.
Students subtract.
Jumping to 100. Using numeral cubes, one with the numerals 1 to 6 and
other with 10, 20, 30, 10, 20, 30, two teams take turns throwing the cubes
and—starting at 0—adding that number to their position on an empty
number line. Whoever reaches or passes 100 first wins.
Variation: Jump down from 100 to 0.
Final Words
To this point, our discussions have emphasized number. Especially in early number, however, there
appeared to be a strong spatial component. For example, some studies suggest that children’s
earliest quantification is spatial at its core. Further, knowledge of space and shape is important for
its own sake. Spatial thinking is addressed in Chapter 7, and more specific geometric thinking in
Chapters 8 and 9.
7
Spatial Thinking
Before reading on, when you read the title of this chapter, what did you think “spatial thinking”
would involve? What ways do you “think spatially” in a typical week? Which of those might you
consider “mathematical”?
Spatial thinking is important because it is an essential human ability that contributes to
mathematical ability. However, the relationship between spatial thinking and mathematics is not
straightforward. Sometimes, “visual thinking” is “good” but sometimes it is not. For example, many
studies have shown that children with specific spatial abilities are more mathematically competent.
However, other research indicates that students who process mathematical information by verbal-
logical means outperform students who process information visually.
Also, limited imagery in mathematical thinking can cause difficulties. As we shall discuss in more
detail in Chapter 8, an idea can be too closely tied to a single image. For example, connecting the
idea of “triangles” to a single image such as an equilateral triangle with a horizontal base restricts
young children’s thinking.
Therefore, spatial ability is important in learning many topics of mathematics. The role it plays,
however, is elusive and, even in geometry, complex. Two major abilities are spatial orientation
and spatial visualization (A. J. Bishop, 1980; Harris, 1981; McGee, 1979). We first discuss spatial
orientation, which involves an extensive body of research, then spatial visualization and
imagery.
Spatial Orientation
Dennis the Menace is shown on a map where his family has driven. He looks aghast, and says,
“Two days? Just to go three inches?” (from Liben, 2008, p. 21)
Spatial orientation is knowing where you are and how to get around in the world; that is, under-
standing relationships between different positions in space, at first with respect to your own pos-
ition and your movement through it, and eventually from a more abstract perspective that includes
maps and coordinates. This essential competence is not only linked to mathematics knowledge but
also how we remember things.
107
108 • Spatial Thinking
Like number, spatial orientation has been postulated as a core domain with some abilities
present from birth. For example, infants focus their eyes on objects and then begin to follow moving
objects. Toddlers use geometric information about the overall shape of their environment to solve
location tasks. Again, as with number, such early competencies develop with experience, and socio-
cultural influences. What can young children understand and represent about spatial relationships
and navigation? When can they represent and ultimately mathematize this knowledge?
Spatial Thought
In their second year, children develop the critical capacity for symbolic thought. This supports many
types of mathematical knowledge, including explicit spatial knowledge. As one example, children
learn to take others’ perspectives in viewing objects. They learn to coordinate different viewpoints
on objects, but also use an external frame of reference (as in place learning) to work out different
viewpoints.
Spatial Thinking • 109
for children, then flips and turns. However, the direction of transformation may affect the relative
difficulty of turn and flip. Results depend on specific tasks, of course; even 4- to 5-year-olds can do
turns if they have simple tasks and cues, such as having a clear mark on the edge of a shape and no
“flipped” shape as a distractor.
Probably due to reading instruction, first graders discriminate between mirror-image reversals
(b vs. d) better than kindergartners. But they also treat orientation as a meaningful difference
between geometric shapes, which it is not. So, explicitly discuss when orientation is and is not
relevant to calling a shape “the same” in different contexts.
From research with people who are congenitally blind, we know that their imagery is in some
ways similar and some ways different from normally sighted people. For example, only sighted
people image objects of different size at different distances, so the image will not overflow a fixed
image space. They image objects at distances so that the objects subtend the same visual angle. Thus,
some aspects of visual imagery are visual, and not present in blind people’s images, but some
aspects of imagery may be evoked by multiple modalities (Arditi, Holtzman, & Kosslyn, 1988).
Types of images and mathematical problem-solving. There are different types of images, and they
range from helpful to harmful, depending on their nature and the way children use them. High-
achieving children build images with a conceptual and relational core. They are able to link different
experiences and abstract similarities. Low-achieving children’s images tended to be dominated by
surface features. Instruction might help them develop more sophisticated images.
• The schematic images of high-achieving children are thus more general and abstract. They
contain the spatial relationships relevant to a problem and thus support problem-solving
(Hegarty & Kozhevnikov, 1999).
• The pictorial images of low-achieving children do not aid problem-solving and actually can
impede success. They represent mainly the visual appearance of the objects or persons
described in a problem. Thus, just using pictures or diagrams, encouraging children to
“visualize” may not be at all useful. Instead, educators should help students develop and
use specific types of schematic images. The diagrams for arithmetic in Chapters 5 (e.g.,
Table 5.1) and 6 (e.g., Figures 6.3 and 6.7) illustrate that such images are useful in many
mathematics contexts.
object (“under the table that’s next to the door”), putting objects away, and finding the way back
home from an excursion. Rich language is important.
Children need specific instruction to learn about models and maps. School experiences are
limited and fail to connect map skills with other curriculum areas, including mathematics. Most
students do not become competent users of maps even beyond their early childhood years.
Research provides suggestions. Provide instruction on using maps that explicitly connects real-
world space and maps, including one-to-one connection between objects and icons on the map,
helps children understand maps—and symbols. Using oblique maps, on which tables are shown
with legs, helps preschoolers’ subsequent performance on plan (“bird’s-eye view”) maps. Telling
very young children that a model was the result of putting a room in a “shrinking machine” helped
them see the model as a symbolic representation of that space.
Informally, too, encourage children working with model toys to build maps of the room with
these toys. Children might use cutout shapes of a tree, swing set, and sandbox in the playground and
lay them out on a felt board as a simple map. These are good beginnings, but models and maps
should eventually move beyond overly simple iconic picture maps, and challenge children to use
geometric correspondences. Help children connect the abstract and sensory-concrete meanings of
map symbols (Clements, 1999a; see also Chapter 16 for a discussion of these terms).
Similarly, many of young children’s difficulties do not reflect misunderstanding about space
but the conflict between such sensory-concrete and abstract frames of reference. Guide children
to (a) develop abilities to build relationships among objects in space, (b) extend the size of
that space, (c) link primary and secondary meanings and uses of spatial information, (d) develop
mental rotation abilities, (e) go beyond “map skills” to engage in actual use of maps in local
environments (A. J. Bishop, 1983), and (f) develop an understanding of the mathematics of
maps.
Work with children to raise four mathematical questions: Direction—which way?, distance—
how far?, location—where?, and identification—what objects? To answer these questions, children
need to develop a variety of skills. Children must learn to deal with mapping processes of abstrac-
tion, generalization, and symbolization. Some map symbols are icons, such as an airplane for an
airport, but others are more abstract, such as circles for cities. Children might first build with
objects such as model buildings, then draw pictures of the objects’ arrangements, then use maps
that are “miniaturizations” and those that use abstract symbols. Some symbols may be beneficial
even to young children. Over-reliance on literal pictures and icons may hinder understanding of
maps, leading children to believe, for example, that certain actual roads are red (Downs, Liben, &
Daggs, 1988). Similarly, children need to develop more sophisticated ideas about direction and
location. Young children should master environmental directions, such as above, over, and behind.
They should develop navigation ideas, such as front, back, “going forward,” and turning. Older
children might represent these ideas in simple route maps within the classroom.
Children can develop navigation ideas, such as left, right, and front, and global directions such as
north, east, west, and south, from these beginnings. Perspective and direction are particularly
important regarding the alignment of the map with the world. Some children of any age will find it
difficult to use a map that is not so aligned. Also, they may need specific experiences with perspec-
tive. For example, challenge them to identify block structures from various viewpoints, matching
views of the same structure that are portrayed from different perspectives, or to find the viewpoint
from which a photograph was taken. Such experiences address such confusions of perspective
as preschoolers “seeing” windows and doors of buildings in vertical aerial photographs (Downs &
Liben, 1988). Introduce such situations gradually. Realistic Mathematics Education in geometry
makes extensive use of interesting spatial and map tasks (Gravemeijer, 1990), but, unfortunately,
research on the effects of this specific strand is lacking.
Spatial Thinking • 113
Primary grade students can approach map creation mathematically, learning to represent
position and direction. One third grade class moved from initial, intuitively-based drawings to the
use of polar coordinates (determining a position by an angle and a distance) in creating a map of
the playground (Lehrer & Pritchard, 2002). Walking encouraged characterization of length in a
direction and drawing the maps led students to render space. Students learned about the usefulness
of concepts such as origin, scale, and the relationship of multiple locations.
Combining physical movement, paper-and-pencil, and computer work can facilitate learning of
mathematics and map skills. Such spatial learning can be particularly meaningful because it can be
consistent with young children’s way of moving their bodies (Papert, 1980). For example, young
children can abstract and generalize directions and other map concepts working with the Logo
turtle. Giving the turtle directions such as forward 10 steps, right turn, forward 5 steps, they learn
orientation, direction, and perspective concepts, among others. For example, Figure 7.1 shows a
“scavenger hunt” activity in which children are given a list of items the turtle has to get. From the
center of the grid, they commanded the turtle to go forward 20 steps, then turn right 90 degrees,
then go forward 20 more steps—that’s where the car was. They have the car now, and will give the
turtle other commands to get other objects.
Walking paths and then recreating those paths on the computer help them abstract, generalize,
and symbolize their experiences navigating. For example, one kindergartner abstracted the
geometric notion of “path” saying, “A path is like the trail a bug leaves after it walks through purple
paint” (Clements et al., 2001). Logo can also control a floor turtle robot, which may have special
benefits for certain populations. For example, blind and partially sighted children using a
computer-guided floor turtle developed spatial concepts such as right and left and accurate facing
movements.
Many people believe that maps are “transparent”—that anyone can “see through” the map
immediately to the world that it represents. This is not true. Clear evidence for this is found in
children’s misinterpretations of maps. For example, some believe that a river is a road or that a
pictured road is not a road because “it’s too narrow for two cars to go on.”
Figure 7.1 The “Scavenger Hunt” activity from Turtle Math (Clements & Meredith, 1994).
114 • Spatial Thinking
Coordinates. Students should learn to understand and eventually quantify what grid labels
represent. To do so, they need to connect their counting acts to those quantities and to the labels.
They need to learn to mentally structure grids as two-dimensional spaces, demarcated and
measured with “conceptual rulers” (“mental number lines”—see Chapter 10). That is, they need to
understand coordinates as a way to organize 2D space by coordinating two perpendicular number
lines—every location is the place where measures along each of these two number lines meet.
Real-world contexts can be helpful in teaching coordinates initially, but mathematical goals and
perspectives should be clearly articulated throughout instruction and the contexts should be faded
from use as soon as students no longer need them (Sarama, Clements, Swaminathan, McMillen, &
González Gómez, 2003). Computer environments can additionally aid in developing children’s
ability and appreciation for the need for clear conceptions and precise work. Turning the coordinate
grid on and off can help children create a mental image of coordinates. Coordinate-based games on
computers, such as versions of “Battleship,” can help older children learning location ideas (Sarama
et al., 2003). When children enter a coordinate to move an object but it goes to a different location,
the feedback is natural, meaningful, non-evaluative, and so particularly helpful.
Indeed, Logo can help children learn both “path” (self-based systems based on ones own move-
ment and the routes one follows) and “coordinate” (external-based) concepts, as well as how to
differentiate between them. One way to move the Logo turtle is to give it commands such as
“forward 100” and “right 90.” This path perspective is distinct from coordinate commands, such
as “setpos [50 100]” (set the position to the coordinates (50, 100)). Figure 7.2 shows Monica’s layer
cake project. She is not only competent at using both path-based commands, including her “rect”
Monica chose the layer cake task as her project. She drew a plan on dot paper, as shown.
She wrote a rectangle procedure for the layers and the candles without any problems, counting the spaces on the dot paper to determine the
lengths and widths.
After drawing the bottom layer on the computer, she tried the commands jumpto [0 10] and jumpto [0 50], saying, “I’ve always had a
little problem with that.” She carefully counted by tens and figured out that she needed a jumpto [10 50].
Spatial Thinking • 115
At this point she switched the grid tool on, saying, “Now it’s gonna be hard.” She had planned jumpto [10 70], but seeing where the turtle
ended up, she changed the input to [10 80] and then to [20 80].
She entered her candle procedure. She looked back at her figure and decided that she did not like the way her candles were spread apart on
the paper and decided not to do it like in her drawing. She counted on from (20, 80), entered jumpto [40 80] then her candle procedure. The
teacher asked her if she could figure out the next jumpto from her commands without counting. She said that it would be jumpto [80 80],
probably adding 40 to her previous jumpto. But when she saw it, she changed the input to [70 80] and then to [60 80]. A final jumpto
[80 80] and candle completed the first cake.
She wasn’t satisfied with the location of her candles and wanted to move two over. She moved directly to the correct jumpto commands,
changing the inputs to [10 80] and [30 80]. Her confidence indicated that she understood the connection between each command and its
effect.
procedure but she shows understanding of the connection between each command and its graphic
effect, the effects of changing each coordinate, and the distinction between path and coordinate
commands. Monica initially struggled to differentiate between regions and lines, made erroneous,
perceptually-based judgments of path length, and interpreted two coordinate pairs as four separate
numbers. So, her work on the layer cake project represented a substantial mathematical advance.
This study also suggests cautions regarding some popular teaching strategies. For example,
phrases such as “over and up” and “the x-axis is the bottom,” which we recorded on numerous
occasions, do not generalize well to a four-quadrant grid. The “over and up” strategy also hinders
the integration of coordinates into a coordinate pair representing one point (Sarama et al., 2003).
these countries. For example, they use more visual representations and expect children to become
more competent in drawing.
So, we can and should do more. Use manipulatives such as unit blocks, puzzles, and tangrams—
intelligently (see Chapter 16). Encourage children to play with blocks and puzzles at school and
home. Encourage girls to play with “boys’ toys,” helping them to develop higher visual-spatial skills.
Use geometric “Snapshot” activities to build spatial visualization and imagery. Children see a
simple configuration on the overhead or chalk board for 2 seconds, then try to draw what they saw.
They then compare their drawings and discuss what they saw. In Figure 7.3, different children see
three triangles, “a sailboat sinking,” a square with two lines through it, and a “y in a box.” The
discussions are especially valuable in developing vocabulary and the ability to see things from other
points of view. Younger children can view combinations pattern blocks for 2 seconds and then
construct a copy with their own pattern blocks.
These also generate good discussions, emphasizing the properties of shapes. Such imagistic/mem-
ory tasks also engender interesting discussions revolving around “what I saw.” (Clements & Sarama,
2003a; Razel & Eylon, 1986, 1990; Wheatley, 1996; Yackel & Wheatley, 1990). Having children use
many different media to represent their memories and ideas with the “hundred languages of chil-
dren” (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 1993) will help them build spatial visualization and imagery.
Tactile kinesthetic tasks ask children to identify, name, and describe objects and shapes placed in
a “feely box” (Clements & Sarama, 2003a). In a similar vein, executing geometric motions on the
computer helped children as young as kindergartners learn these concepts (Clements et al., 2001).
Activities that involve motion geometry—slides, flips, and turns—whether doing puzzles (see
Chapter 9) or Logo, improve spatial perception. Constructing shapes from parts with multiple
media builds imagery as well as geometric concepts (see Chapter 8). Composing and decomposing
2D shapes and 3D shapes (e.g., block building) is so important that Chapter 9 is dedicated to these
processes.
Building spatial abilities early is effective and efficient. For example, grade 2 children benefitted
more than grade 4 children from lessons taught to develop spatial thinking (Owens, 1992). In
11 lessons, children described the similarities and differences of shapes, made shapes from other
shapes, made outlines using sticks, compared angles, made pentomino shapes and found their
symmetries. Those children outperformed a control group in a randomized field trial on a spatial
thinking test, with differences attributable to the grade 2 children. No difference was found between
groups that worked cooperatively or individually, with whole-class discussions. Nearly all inter-
actions that lead to heuristics about what to do or to conceptualizations were between the teacher
and the student, not between students (Owens, 1992). So, teach actively.
includes the goals in Figure 7.4. Goals for the primary grades feature specific geometric ideas
included in later chapters.
With those goals, Table 7.1 provides the two additional learning trajectory components, the
developmental progression and the instructional tasks for two learning trajectories for spatial
thinking: spatial orientation (maps and coordinates) and spatial visualization and imagery. The
learning trajectory for maps becomes increasingly connected to children’s development of spatial
structuring, the ability to organize space into two dimension, which is discussed in detail in
Chapter 12 (because it is just as critical for understanding area). The reader may notice that the
instructional tasks in this learning trajectory tend not to be specific activities, but global sugges-
tions. This difference reflects our belief that (a) there is as yet too little evidence on the specific role
of this learning trajectory in maths, (b) such activities may be conducted in other subject matter
Pre-K
Geometry: Geometry: Identifying shapes and describing spatial relationships
Children develop spatial reasoning by working from two perspectives on space as they examine the shapes of objects and inspect their
relative positions. They find shapes in their environments and describe them in their own words. They build pictures and designs by combining
two- and three-dimensional shapes, and they solve such problems as deciding which piece will fit into a space in a puzzle. They discuss the
relative positions of objects with vocabulary such as “above,” “below,” and “next to.”
Kindergarten
Geometry: Geometry: Describing shapes and space
Children interpret the physical world with geometric ideas (e.g., shape, orientation, spatial relations) and describe it with corresponding
vocabulary. They identify, name, and describe a variety of shapes, such as squares, triangles, circles, rectangles, (regular) hexagons, and
(isosceles) trapezoids presented in a variety of ways (e.g., with different sizes or orientations), as well as such three-dimensional shapes as
spheres, cubes, and cylinders. They use basic shapes and spatial reasoning to model objects in their environment and to construct more
complex shapes.
Grade 1
Geometry: Composing and decomposing geometric shapes
Children compose and decompose plane and solid figures (e.g., by putting two congruent isosceles triangles together to make a rhombus),
thus building an understanding of part–whole relationships as well as the properties of the original and composite shapes. As they combine
figures, they recognize them from different perspectives and orientations, describe their geometric attributes and properties, and determine
how they are alike and different, in the process developing a background for measurement and initial understandings of such properties as
congruence and symmetry.
Grade 2
Geometry Connection
Children estimate, measure, and compute lengths as they solve problems involving data, space, and movement through space. By composing
and decomposing two-dimensional shapes, intentionally substituting arrangements of smaller shapes for larger shapes or substituting larger
shapes for many smaller shapes, they use geometric knowledge and spatial reasoning to develop foundations for understanding area,
fractions, and proportions.
Grade 3
Geometry: Describing and analyzing properties of two-dimensional shapes
Students describe, analyze, compare, and classify two-dimensional shapes by their sides and angles and connect these attributes to
definitions of shapes. Students investigate, describe, and reason about decomposing, combining, and transforming polygons to make other
polygons. Through building, drawing, and analyzing two-dimensional shapes, students understand attributes and properties of two-
dimensional space and the use of those attributes and properties in solving problems, including applications involving congruence and
symmetry.
Figure 7.4 Curriculum focal points for geometry and spatial thinking (for Chapters 7, 8, and 9).
118 • Spatial Thinking
0–2 Landmark and Path User Uses a Provide a rich sensory, manipulative environment, and the freedom and
distance landmark to find an object encouragement to manipulate it and move through it. Infants who crawl
or location near it, if they have not more learn more about spatial relationships.
personally moved relative to the
Use spatial vocabulary to direct attention to spatial relations. Initially
landmark.
emphasize “in,” “on,” and “under,” along with such vertical directionality
Understands initial vocabulary of terms as “up” and “down.”
spatial relations and location.
2–3 Local-Self Framework User Uses Walk different routes and discuss the landmarks you see. Ask children to
distant landmarks to find objects or point to where different landmarks are at various points along the path.
location near them, even after they
Use spatial vocabulary to direct attention to spatial relations. Emphasize
have moved themselves relative to the
words of proximity, such as “beside” and “between.”
landmarks, if the target object is
specified ahead of time. Ask 3-year-olds to find an object shown a picture of its location.
Orient a horizontal or vertical line in Have children build with blocks to represent simple scenes and locations
space (Rosser, Horan, Mattson, &
(see Chapter 9 for much more on block building). If children are interested,
Mazzeo, 1984).
make a model of the classroom and point to a location in it that represents a
place where a “prize” is hidden in the actual classroom. Use the notion of a
“shrinking machine” to help them understand the model as a representation
of the classroom space.
4 Small Local Framework User Use spatial vocabulary to direct attention to spatial relations. Emphasize
Locates objects after movement, even words referring to frames of reference such as “in front of ” and “behind.”
if target is not specified ahead of Initiate the learning of “left” and “right.”
time. Searches a small area
Also encourage parents to avoid pointing or showing when possible, but
comprehensively, often using a
instead to give verbal directions (“it’s in the bag on the table”).
circular search pattern.
Extrapolates lines from positions on Have students pose verbal problems for each other, such as finding a
both axes and determines where they missing object (“under the table that’s next to the door”), putting objects
intersect if meaningful contexts. away, and finding the way back from an excursion.
During free time, challenge children to follow simple maps of the classroom
or playground to find secret “treasures” you have hidden. Interested children
can draw their own maps. Start with oblique maps (e.g., in which chairs
and tables are shown with legs).
Explore and discuss outdoor spaces, permitting children (both sexes) as
much freedom in self-directed movement as safely possible. Encourage
parents to do the same.
Walk different routes and discuss different paths, and which would be
shorter, which would be longer. Ask why one path is shorter.
Encourage children to build models of the room or playground with toys.
5 Local Framework User Locates Plan and discuss different routes, and which would be the best route to take
objects after movement (relates and why. Draw maps of routes, illustrating what will be “passed” or seen
several locations separately from own from different routes.
position), maintaining the overall
Use spatial vocabulary to direct attention to spatial relations. Emphasize all
shape of the arrangement of objects.
words listed previously, including the learning of “left” and “right.”
Represents objects’ positions relative
to landmarks (e.g., about halfway in Encourage children to make models of their classroom, using blocks or play
between two landmarks) and keeps furniture to represent objects in the classroom. Discuss which ones go “near
track of own location in open areas each other” and other spatial relationships.
or mazes. Some use coordinate labels
Maps of the playground: Children might use cutout shapes of a tree, swing
in simple situations.
set, and sandbox in the playground and lay them out on a felt board as a
simple map. They can discuss how moving an item in the schoolyard, such
Spatial Thinking • 119
as a table, would change the map of the yard. On the map, locate children
shown sitting in or near the tree, swing set, and sandbox. In scavenger hunts
on the playground, children can give and follow directions or clues.
Explore and discuss outdoor spaces, permitting children (both sexes) as
much freedom in self-directed movement as safely possible. Encourage
parents to do the same. (This recommendation extends through the
grades.)
Encourage children to mark a path from a table to the wastebasket with
masking tape. With the teacher’s help, children could draw a map of this
path (some teachers take photographs of the wastebasket and door and glue
these to a large sheet of paper). Items appearing alongside the path, such as a
table or easel, can be added to the map.
Logo Engage children in age-appropriate “turtle math” environments
(Clements & Meredith, 1994; Clements & Sarama, 1996). Have them tutor
each other in those environments.
Ask children to solve two-dimensional matrices (e.g., placing all objects
where colors are sorted into rows and shapes are sorted into columns) or use
of coordinates on maps.
6 Map User Locates objects using maps Use spatial vocabulary to direct attention to spatial relations. Emphasize
with pictorial cues. all words listed previously and the various interpretations of “left” and
Can extrapolate two coordinates, “right.”
understanding the integration of
Maps Continue the previous activities, but emphasize the four questions
them to one position, as well as use
(see p. 112): Direction—which way?, distance—how far?, location—
coordinate labels in simple situations.
where?, and identification—what objects? Notice the use of coordinates on
maps.
Challenge students to find their house or school in Internet-based aerial
photographs, once you have accessed that location on the computer.
Ask students to plan routes around the school using maps, then follow those
routes.
Logo Engage children in age-appropriate “turtle math” environments
(Clements & Meredith, 1994; Clements & Sarama, 1996). Have them tutor
each other in those environments.
Use coordinates in all applicable situations; for example, to label locations
(“pegs”) on geoboards as students build shapes.
7 Coordinate Plotter Reads and plots Ask students to draw simple sketch-maps of the area around their houses,
coordinates on maps. classroom, playground, or area around the school. Discuss differences
among representations of the same spaces. Present tasks in which maps must
be aligned with the space. Showing children several maps and models, and
explicitly comparing them using language and visual highlights, helps them
build representational understandings.
“Battleship”-type games are useful. Guide children in the following
competencies in all coordinate work.
• interpreting the grid structure’s components as line segments or lines rather
than regions
• appreciating the precision of location of the lines required, rather than treating
them as fuzzy boundaries or indicators of intervals
• learning to trace closely-packed vertical or horizontal lines that were not axes
• integrating two numbers into single coordinate
• conceptualizing labels as signs of location and distance ((a) to quantify what the
grid labels represent, (b) to connect their counting acts to those quantities and
Continued Overleaf
120 • Spatial Thinking
8+ Route Map Follower Follows a Engage students in practical map-using and map-making tasks similar to
simple route map, with more “find the treasure” in an environment with which children are familiar, then
accurate direction and distances. less familiar. Include coordinate maps. (See pp. 114–115: Lehrer, 2002.)
Framework User Uses general Logo Engage children in “turtle math” environments in which maps are
frameworks that include the observer translated to computer programs (Clements & Meredith, 1994; Clements &
and landmarks. May not use precise Sarama, 1996).
measurement even when that would
be helpful, unless guided to do so.
Can follow and create maps, even if
spatial relations are transformed.
4 Simple Turner Mentally turns object Make My Picture—Hidden Version Ask children to use building blocks
in easy tasks. or pattern blocks to duplicate a simple “picture” that they see for 5 to
Given a shape with the top marked 10 seconds and then is covered. (See also Geometry Snapshots in
with color, correctly identifies which Chapter 8.)
of three shapes it would look like if it
Ask children to show how a circular object should be rotated to make it
were turned “like this” (90° turn
demonstrated) before physically appear circular or elliptical. Work with shadows to make a rectangle appear
moving the shape. as a non-rectangular parallelogram (“rhomboid”) or vice versa.
Puzzles Have children solve jigsaw, pattern block, and simple tangram
puzzles and discuss how they are moving the shapes to make them fit (see
more in Chapter 8). Encourage parents to engage children in all types of
puzzles and talk to them as they solve the puzzles (especially girls).
Feely Boxes Use “feely boxes” to identify shapes by touch (see more in
Chapter 8).
Challenge children to turn a well-marked shape to align it with another,
congruent, shape.
Snapshots—Geometry Students copy a simple configuration of pattern
blocks shown for 2 seconds. (See Chapter 9 for more details.)
5 Beginning Slider, Flipper, Turner Feely Boxes Use “feely boxes” to identify a wide variety of shapes by touch
Uses the correct motions, but not (see more in Chapter 8).
always accurate in direction and
Tangram Puzzles Have children solve tangram puzzles and discuss how
amount.
they are moving the shapes to make them fit (see more in Chapter 8).
Knows a shape has to be flipped to
match another shape, but flips it in Geometry Snapshots 2 Shown
the wrong direction. a simple configuration of shapes
for just 2 seconds, students match
that configuration to four choices
from memory (imagery).
Spatial Thinking • 121
6 Slider, Flipper, Turner Performs Snapshots—Geometry Students draw one or more shapes shown for
slides and flips, often only horizontal 2 seconds.
and vertical, using manipulatives.
Geometry Snapshots 4 Students identify an image that matches one of four
Performs turns of 45, 90, and 180
moderately complex configurations from memory (imagery).
degrees.
Knows a shape must be turned 90° to
the right to fit into a puzzle.
7 Diagonal Mover Performs diagonal Geometry Snapshots 6 Students match geometric figures that differ on
slides and flips. angle measure from memory (imagery).
Knows a shape must be turned
flipped over an oblique line (45°
orientation) to fit into a puzzle.
8+ Mental Mover Predicts results of Pattern Block Puzzles and Tangram Puzzles Ask students how many of a
moving shapes using mental images. certain shape it would take to cover another shape (or configuration of
“If you turned this 120°, it would be shapes). Students predict, record their prediction, then try to to check.
just like this one.” (See Chapter 9 for more.)
areas (e.g., social studies), and (c) similarly, these activities are often best done informally, as part of
everyday activity.
However, these two learning trajectories represent only a small bit of the role of spatial thinking in
mathematics. We saw that spatial and structural thinking is critical in (visual) subitizing, counting
strategies, and arithmetic. Such spatial knowledge is central to geometry, measurement, patterning,
data presentation, and the other topics discussed in forthcoming chapters. Thus, attention to spatial
thinking should be woven throughout the curriculum and is explicitly included in the learning
trajectories in those chapters.
122 • Spatial Thinking
Final Words
Visual thinking is thinking that is tied down to limited, surface-level, visual ideas. Children can
learn to move beyond that kind of visual thinking as they learn to manipulate dynamic images, as
they enrich their store of images for shapes, and as they connect their spatial knowledge to verbal,
analytic knowledge. In this way, instruction discussed in the next two chapters, on shapes and
composing shapes, also makes a strong contribution to children’s spatial thinking.
8
Shape
One kindergartner impressed his teacher saying he knew that a shape (Figure 8.1a) was a triangle
because it had “three straight lines and three angles.” Later, however, she said Figure 8.1b was not a
triangle.
Did this kindergartner know triangles or not? What was driving her thinking about triangles, do you
think? In general, how should we as educators help children develop the mathematics of geometric
shape? Why should we?
Shape is a fundamental concept in cognitive development. For example, infants use mainly shape
to learn the names of objects. Shape is also a fundamental idea in geometry, but in other areas of
mathematics, too. Unfortunately, geometry is one of U.S. students’ weakest topics in mathematics.
Even in the preschool years, children in the U.S. know less about shape than children in other
countries. The good news is: They know enough to build upon, they can learn a lot quickly, and they
enjoy engaging with shapes.
123
124 • Shape
Relationships between shapes. The diagrams on p. 126 show the relationships between classes of
shapes. For example, all the shapes in Figure 8.2a are quadrilaterals. A proper subset of them are
parallelograms, all of which have two pairs of opposite parallel sides. Parallelograms in turn include
other subclasses. If all of a parallelogram’s sides are the same length, they are also called rhombuses. If
all of a parallelogram’s angles are the same, then they must all be right angles, and they are also called
rectangles. If both are true—if they are rhombuses and rectangles—they are also called squares.
Figure 8.2 Venn diagrams of relationships between quadrilaterals (a) and triangles (b).
are wide. No wonder so many children, even throughout elementary school, say that a square
turned is “not a square anymore, it’s a diamond” (Clements, Swaminathan, Hannibal, & Sarama,
1999; Lehrer, Jenkins, & Osana, 1998).
So, children tend only to see only typical forms of each shape—what we will call “exemplars”
(the shapes in Figure 8.3 are exemplars for each of four classes of shapes). They do not frequently
Shape • 127
Figure 8.3 Examples of two-dimensional figures that are closed and are symmetric, preferred by most people.
Figure 8.4 Exemplars, variants, palpable distractors, and difficult distractors for triangles.
see and discuss other examples of the shapes, what we will call “variants.” Nonexamples—usually
called “distractors” in assessments or instruction—are not members of that shape class. They are
called “palpable distractors” if they have little or no overall resemblance to the exemplars and
“difficult distractors” (for the children, we call them “foolers”) if they are highly visually similar to
exemplars but lack at least one defining attribute. Figure 8.4 illustrates these for triangles.
What visual prototypes and ideas do young children form about common shapes? Circles—
which only have one basic prototype, because they can only vary in size—are the easiest shape for
children to identify. From 92% of 4-year-olds to 99% of 6-year-olds accurately identify circles as
those shown in Figure 8.5 (Clements et al., 1999). Only a few of the youngest children chose the
ellipse and another curved shape (shapes 11 and 10). Most children described circles as “round,” if
they described them at all. Thus, the circle was easily recognized but relatively difficult to describe
for these children.
128 • Shape
Children also identified squares fairly well: 82%, 86%, and 91% for 4-, 5-, and 6-year-olds,
respectively. Younger children tended to mistakenly choose non-square rhombi (“diamonds” such
as shape 3 in Figure 8.6); however, they were no less accurate in classifying squares without
horizontal sides (shapes 5 and 11). This confusion—that turning a shape changes its name—can
last until age 8 if not well addressed educationally. Children are less likely misled by orientation (the
way a shape is “turned”) when manipulatives are used, or when they walk around large shapes
placed on the floor. Children are more likely to be accurate when their justifications for selection
were based on the shape’s defining attributes, such as the number and length of the sides.
Children were less accurate at recognizing triangles and rectangles. However, their scores were
not low; about 60% correct for triangles (Figure 8.7). Across the years from 4 to 6, children go
through a phase in which they accept many shapes as triangles, then another in which they
“tighten” their criteria to reject some distractors but also some examples. The children’s visual
prototype seems to be of an isosceles triangle. Especially when not exposed to high-quality geom-
etry education, they are misled by lack of symmetry or an aspect ratio—the ratio of height to
base—not near one (e.g., a “long, skinny” triangle, such as shape 11).
Young children tended to accept “long” parallelograms or right trapezoids (shapes 3, 6, 10,
and 14 in Figure 8.8) as rectangles. Thus, children’s visual prototype of a rectangle is a four-sided
figure with two long parallel sides and “close to” square corners.
Only a few children correctly identified the squares (shapes 2 and 7) as rectangles. Because they
have all the properties of rectangles, these squares should be chosen. This is upsetting to many
adults who have never been provided good geometry instruction themselves. But it is a good
opportunity to encourage children to think mathematically and logically—even when the wider
culture does not.
Although young children in this study were less accurate at recognizing triangles and rectangles,
their performance shows considerable knowledge, especially given the abstract nature of the test
and the variety of shapes employed. Depressingly, they learn very little from these early years to
sixth grade (see graphs in the companion book).
In their play, children showed interest and involvement with “pattern and shape” more
Figure 8.6 Student marks squares. Adapted from (Razel & Eylon, 1991).
Shape • 129
Figure 8.7 Student marks triangles. (Adapted from Burger & Shaughnessy, 1986 and Clements & Battista, 1991).
frequently than any of the six other categories. About 47% of these behaviors involved recognizing,
sorting, or naming shapes. They also develop in their ability to draw shapes (see the companion
book for details). Finally, children do far more than just name shapes; they are an important part of
much of children’s play. Of course, that play involves three-dimensional shapes.
3D Figures
As with 2D figures, children do not perform well in school-based tasks involving three-dimensional
shapes. The reason is much like that about plane figures. They refer to a variety of attributes, such as
“pointyness” and comparative size or slenderness that are often non-geometric or non-defining.
They use names for 2D shapes, probably indicating that they do not distinguish between two and
three dimensions. Learning only plane figures in textbooks during the early primary grades may
cause some initial difficulty in learning about solids.
Two related studies asked children to match solids with their nets (arrangements of 2D shapes
that “fold up into” the 3D shape). Kindergartners had reasonable success when the solids and nets
both were made from the same interlocking materials (Leeson, 1995). An advanced kindergartner
130 • Shape
Figure 8.8 Student marks rectangles. (Adapted from Burger & Shaughnessy, 1986 and Clements & Battista, 1991).
had more difficulty with drawings of the nets (Leeson, Stewart, & Wright, 1997), possibly because
he was unable to visualize the relationship with the more abstract materials.
cone A 3D shape that has one base that is a circle (actually a circular cone because other
curved shapes are possible bases) that is connected to a single point, the vertex that lies over the
base, creating a curved surface.
cube A special type of right prism whose faces are all squares.
Shape • 131
cylinder A 3D shape that has two identical (congruent) parallel bases that are circles (or
other shapes, usually curved) connected by a curved surface. (Most cylinders we deal with are
right cylinders, but, as with prisms, they can be oblique.)
prism A 3D shape that has two identical (congruent) parallel bases that are polygons (2D
shapes with straight sides), with corresponding sides of the bases connected with rectangles (in
a right prism, those we usually deal with—if the sides are connected with parallelograms, it is an
oblique prism).
pyramid A 3D shape that has one base that is a polygon that is connected to a single point,
the vertex that lies over the base, with triangles.
sphere A 3D shape is a “perfectly round ball;” that is, all the points a fixed distance from a
point called its center.
Shapes: 2D. Experiences and instruction play a large role in shaping children’s knowledge of geom-
etry. If the examples and nonexamples children experience are rigid, not including a variety of
variants of that shape class, their mental images and ideas about that shape will also be rigid and
limited. For example, many children learn to accept as triangles only isosceles triangles with a
132 • Shape
horizontal base, such as the “exemplars” in Figure 8.4. Others learn richer concepts, even at a young
age; for example, one of the youngest 3-year-olds scored higher than every 6-year-old on the shape
recognition tasks discussed previously.
This is important. Children’s ideas stabilize as early as 6 years of age. It is therefore critical
to provide better opportunities to learn about geometric figures to all children between 3 and 6 years
of age.
Of course, it is always important to get the language straight. Many 4-year-olds say that they
know triangles have “three points and three sides.” Half of these children, however, were not sure
what a “point” or “side” is (Clements et al., 1999)! As with the number word sequence, the English
language presents more challenges than others, such as East Asian languages. For example, in those
languages, every “quadrilateral” is called simply “four-side-shape.” An acute angle is simply a
“sharp angle.” Those teaching in English or Spanish need rich discussions.
Further, although appearances usually dominate children’s decisions, they are also learning and
sometimes using verbal knowledge. Using such verbal knowledge accurately takes time and can
initially appear as a regression. Children may initially say a square has “four sides the same and four
points.” Because they have yet to learn about perpendicularity, some accept any rhombus as a
square. Their own description convinces them even though they feel conflicted about the “look”
of this “new square.” With guidance, however, this conflict can be beneficial, as they come to
understand the properties of squares.
So, provide varied examples and nonexamples to help children understand attributes of shapes
that are mathematically relevant as well as those (orientation, size) that are not. Include “difficult
distractors” of triangles (e.g., Figure 8.4) and rectangles.
Doing this, you will be a welcome exception. U.S. educational practice usually does not reflect
these recommendations. Children often know as much about shapes entering school as their
geometry curriculum “teaches” them in the early grades. This is due to teachers and curriculum
writers’ assumptions that children in early childhood classrooms have little or no knowledge of
geometric figures. Further, teachers have had few experiences with geometry in their own education
or in their professional development. Thus, it is unsurprising that most classrooms exhibit limited
geometry instruction. One early study found that kindergarten children had a great deal of
knowledge about shapes and matching shapes before instruction began. Their teacher tended to
elicit and verify this prior knowledge but did not add content or develop new knowledge. That is,
about two-thirds of the interactions had children repeat what they already knew in a repetitious
format as in the following exchange:
Even worse, when they did say something, teachers often make incorrect statements saying,
for example, that every time you put two triangles together you get a square. Instruction does not
improve in the primary grades. Children actually stop counting the sides and angles of shapes to
differentiate one from another. Avoid these common poor practices. Learn more about geometry and
challenge children to learn more every year.
Families and the wider culture do not promote geometry learning either. On a geometry
assessment, 4-year-olds from America scored 55% compared to those from China at 84%.
Recall that story about the two triangles (Figure 8.1) at the beginning of this chapter.
This example illustrates the research finding on “concept images” that shows that certain visual
Shape • 133
prototypes can rule children’s thinking. That is, even when they know a definition, children’s ideas
of shapes are dominated by mental images of a “typical” shape.
To help children develop accurate, rich concept images, provide experiences of many different
examples of a type of shape. For example, Figure 8.9a shows a rich variety of triangles that would be
sure to generate discussion. Show nonexamples that, when compared to similar examples, help
focus attention on the critical attributes. For example, the nonexamples in Figure 8.9b are close to
the examples to their left, differing in just one attribute. Use such comparisons to focus on each
defining attribute of a triangle.
Mary Elaine Spitler’s study of Building Blocks reveals that children felt quite powerful knowing
and using definitions of triangles (Spitler, Sarama, & Clements, 2003). One preschooler said of the
second figure from the top in Figure 8.9a, “That’s not a triangle! It’s too skinny!” But his Building
Blocks friend responded, “I’m telling you, it is a triangle. It’s got three straight sides, see? One, two,
three! It doesn’t matter that I made it skinny.” Similar studies around the world confirm that
children can learn much more—at earlier ages.
Summary—Four guiding features. Children can learn richer concepts about shape if their
educational environment includes four features: varied examples and nonexamples, discussions
about shapes and their attributes, a wider variety of shape classes, and a broad array of geometric
tasks. First, ensure that children experience many different examples of a type of shape, so that they
do not form narrow ideas about any class of shapes. Use of prototypes may bootstrap initial
learning, but examples should become more diverse as soon as possible. Showing nonexamples and
comparing them to similar examples helps focus children’s attention on the critical attributes of
shapes and prompts discussion. This is especially important for classes that have more diverse
examples, such as triangles.
Figure 8.10 Using the Logo turtle to draw a rectangle in Turtle Math (Clements & Meredith, 1994).
Angle, parallelism, and perpendicularity. Angles are critical but often are not learned or taught
well. Children have many varied and often incorrect ideas about what angles are. To understand
angles, children must discriminate angles as critical parts of geometric figures, compare and match
angles, and construct and mentally represent the idea of turns, integrating this with angle measure.
These processes can begin in early childhood; for example, 5-year-olds can match angles. The long
developmental process of learning about turns and angles can begin informally in the early and
elementary classrooms, as children deal with corners of figures, comparing angle size, and turns.
Computer-based shape manipulation and navigation environments can help mathematize these
experiences. Especially important is understanding how turning one’s body relates to turning
shapes and turning along paths in navigation and learning to use numbers to quantify these turn
and angle situations. For example, even 4-year-olds learn to click on a shape to turn it and say,
“I need to turn it three times!” (Sarama, 2004, and Chapter 12).
Mitchelmore and his colleagues have proposed the following sequence of tasks. Begin by pro-
viding practical experiences with angles in various contexts, including corners, bends, turns,
openings, and slopes. The first examples for each should have two “arms of the angle” physically
present, such as in scissors, road junctions, a corner of a table. Corners are the most salient for
children and should be emphasized first. The other physical models can follow. Experience with
bending (e.g., a pipe cleaner) and turning (e.g., doorknobs, dials, doors) would be introduced last in
this early phase.
Then help children understand the angular relationships in each context by discussing the
common features of similar contexts, such as bends in lines or in paths on maps. Next, help students
bridge the different contexts by representing the common features of angles in each context. For
example, that they can be represented by two line segments (or rays) with a common endpoint.
Once turns are understood, use the dynamic notion of turning to begin measuring the size of the
angles.
always preface his remarks with an emphatic, “Look!” On one item, he was asked, “Pretend you are
talking on the telephone to someone who has never seen a triangle. What would you tell this person
to help them make a triangle?”
Andrew had done what mathematicians are so fond of doing. He had reduced the problem to
one that was already solved! At the end, he asked, “Will this test be on my report card? ‘Cause
I’m doing really good!” Throughout the interview, it was apparent that Andrew was sure of his
own reasoning and knowledge from his experience. Although Andrew is not typical of students
in our project, it is important to note that students such as Andrew may later become mathemat-
icians, scientists, and engineers. Andrew had been reflecting greatly on the ideas in the curric-
ulum and relished the opportunity to discuss them so that he could demonstrate the results of
his thought.
0–2 “Same Thing” Comparer Comparing Match and Name Shapes Sit in a circle with children. Using familiar
Compares real-world objects (prototypical) shapes from the Shape Sets in two colors, give each child a
(Vurpillot, 1976). shape from one Shape Set. Choose a shape from the other Shape Set, which
Says two pictures of houses are the is a different color, that exactly matches a child’s shape. Ask children to name
same or different. who has an exact match for your shape. After a correct response is given,
follow up by asking how the child knows his or her shape is a match. The
Shape Matcher—Identical child might offer to fit his or her shape on top of your shape to “prove” the
Comparing Matches familiar shapes match. Have children show their shapes to others seated near them, naming
(circle, square, typical triangle) with the shape whenever they can. Observe and assist as needed. Repeat once or
same size and orientation. twice. Afterward, tell children they will be able to explore and match shapes
later during Work Time.
Matches to .
—Sizes Matches familiar shapes with Mystery Pictures 1 Children build pictures by selecting shapes that match
different sizes. a series of target shapes. The skill children practice is matching, but the
program names each shape so shape names are introduced. Shapes are
familiar at this level.
Matches to
Matches to .
3 Shape Recognizer—Typical Circle Time! Have children sit in the best circle they can make. Show and
Classifying Recognizes and names name a large, flat circle, such as a hula hoop. As you trace the circle with your
typical circle, square, and, less often, a finger, discuss how it is perfectly round; it is a curved line that always curves
typical triangle. May physically rotate the same. Ask children to talk about circles they know, such as those found
shapes in atypical orientations to in toys, buildings, books, tri- or bicycles, and clothing. Distribute a variety of
mentally match them to a prototype. circles for children’s exploration—rolling, stacking, tracing, and so on. Have
children make circles with their fingers, hands, arms, and mouths. Review a
Names this a square . circle’s attributes: round and curves the same without breaks.
Some children correctly name Match and Name Shapes, above, includes the naming of these shapes. Do
different sizes, shapes, and this activity in small groups, as well as in whole groups.
orientations of rectangles, but also
call some shapes rectangles that look Mystery Pictures 2 Children build pictures by identifying shapes that are
rectangular but are not rectangles. named by the Building Blocks software program. (Mystery Pictures 1 is
appropriate before this activity, as it teaches the shape names.)
Names these shapes
“rectangles”
(including the
non-rectangular
parallelogram).
3–4 Shape Matcher—More Shapes Match and Name Shapes As above, but using a wider variety of shapes from
Comparing Matches a wider variety the Shape Sets in different orientations.
of shapes with same size and
Match Blocks Children match various block shapes to objects in the
orientation.
classroom. Have different block shapes in front of you with all the children
Continued Overleaf
138 • Shape
—Sizes and Orientations Matches a in a circle around you. Show one block, and ask children what things in
wider variety of shapes with different the classroom are the same shape. Talk children through any incorrect
sizes and orientations. responses, such as choosing something triangular but saying it has the shape
Matches these shapes. of a quarter circle.
Mystery Pictures 3 Children build pictures by selecting shapes that match
a series of target shapes. The skill children practice is matching, but the
program names each shape, so shape names are introduced. Shapes are more
—Combinations Matches varied and include new (less familiar) shapes at this level.
combinations of shapes to each
other.
Matches these shapes.
Memory Geometry
Place two sets of memory geometry cards face down, each in an array.
Players take turns exposing one card from each array.
Cards that do not match are replaced face down; cards that match are kept by that
player.
Players should name and describe the shapes together.
Use new shape cards that feature additional shapes from the Shape Set.
Feely Box (Match) Secretly hide a shape in the Feely Box (a decorated box
with a hole large enough to fit a child’s hand but not so large that you can
see into the box). Display five shapes, including the one that exactly matches
the one you hid. Have a child put his or her hand in the box to feel the shape;
that child should then point to the matching shape on display.
4 Shape Recognizer—Circles, Match and Name Shapes, above, includes the naming of these shapes.
Squares, and Triangles + Classifying
Circles and Cans Display several food cans, and discuss their shape (round)
Recognizes some less typical squares
with children. Shift focus to the bottom and top, collectively the bases, of
and triangles and may recognize
each can. Point out to children that these areas are circular; the edges are
some rectangles, but usually not
circles. Show the large sheets of paper on which you have traced the bases of
rhombuses (diamonds). Often
a few cans that vary substantially in size. Trace one or two other cans to show
doesn’t differentiate sides/corners.
children what you did, and then shuffle the papers and cans. Ask children to
Names these as match the cans to the traced circles. For children who are unsure of their
choice, have them place the can directly on the traced circle to check. Tell
children they can all have a turn matching circles and cans during free time
triangles .
and store the activity’s materials in a center for that purpose.
Is It or Not? (Circles) Draw a true circle on a surface where the entire class
can view it. Ask children to name it, and then tell why it is a circle. Draw an
ellipse (an oval) on the same surface. Ask children what it looks like, and
then ask them to tell why it is not a circle. Draw several other circles and
shapes that are not circles but could be mistaken for them, and discuss their
differences. Summarize by reviewing that a circle is perfectly round and
consists of a curved line that always curves the same.
Shape Show: Triangles Show and name a large, flat triangle. Walk your
fingers around its perimeter, describing and exaggerating your actions:
straaiiight side . . . turn, straaiiight side . . . turn, straaiiight side . . . stop. Ask
children how many sides the triangle has, and count the sides with them.
Shape • 139
Emphasize that a triangle’s sides and angles can be different sizes; what
matters is that its sides are straight and connected to make a closed shape
(no openings or gaps). Ask children what things they have at home that are
triangles. Show different examples of triangles. Have children draw triangles
in the air. If available, have children walk around a large triangle, such as one
marked with colored tape on the floor.
Part Comparer Comparing Says two Geometry Snapshots 1 Shown a shape for just 2 seconds, students match
shapes are the same after matching that to one of four multiple-choice selections.
one side on each (Beilin, 1984;
Beilin, Klein, & Whitehurst, 1982).
“These are the same”
(matching the
two sides).
Constructor of Shapes from Parts— Build Shapes/Straw Shapes includes the naming of these shapes. In a small
Looks Like Parts. Uses manipulatives group lesson with the teacher, children use plastic stirrers of various lengths
representing parts of shapes, such as to make shapes they know. Ensure that they build shapes with correct
sides, to make a shape that “looks attributes, such as all sides the same length and all right angles for squares.
like” a goal shape. May think of All stirrers should be “connected” (touching) at their endpoints. Discuss
angles as a corner (which is attributes as children build. If children need help, provide a model for them
“pointy”). to copy or a drawing on which to place stirrers. Can they choose the correct
Asked to make a triangle with sticks, amount and sizes of stirrers to make a given shape? If children excel,
creates the following. challenge them to get a shape “just right.” Can they place pieces with little
trial and error?
Straw Shapes: Triangles In a free-choice center, children use plastic stirrers
to make triangles and/or to create pictures and designs that include
triangles.
Some Attributes Comparer Match Shapes Children match the Shape Set shapes (i.e., find the yellow
Comparing Looks for differences in shape that is exactly the same size and shape as each of the blue shapes).
attributes, but may examine only part
of shape.
“These are the same” (indicating the
top halves of the shapes are
similar by laying them
on top of each other).
Continued Overleaf
140 • Shape
4–5 Shape Recognizer—All Rectangles Guess My Rule Tell children to watch carefully as you sort Shape Set shapes
Classifying Recognizes more rectangle into piles based on something that makes them alike.
sizes, shapes, and orientations of Ask children to silently guess your sorting rule, such as circles versus squares or
rectangles. four-sided shapes versus round.
Correctly names Sort shapes one at a time, continuing until there are at least two shapes in each pile.
these shapes
Signal “shhh,” and pick up a new shape. With a look of confusion, gesture to
“rectangles”.
children to encourage all of them to point quietly to which pile the shape belongs.
Place the shape in its pile.
After all shapes are sorted, ask children what they think the sorting rule is.
Repeat with other shapes and new rules.
Circles versus squares (same orientation).
Circles versus triangles.
Circles versus rectangles.
Triangles versus squares.
Triangles versus rectangles.
Etc.
Shape Show: Rectangles Show and name a large, flat rectangle. Walk your
fingers around its perimeter, describing and exaggerating your actions: short
straaiiight side . . . turn, long straaiiight side . . . turn, short straaiiight side
. . . turn, long straaiiight side . . . stop. Ask children how many sides the
rectangle has, and count the sides with them. Emphasize that opposite sides
of a rectangle are the same lengths, and all “turns” are right angles. To model
this, you may place a stirrer that is the same length as one pair of sides on top
of each of those sides, and repeat for the other pair of opposite sides. To
illustrate right angles, talk about the angle—like an uppercase L—in a
doorway. Make uppercase Ls with children using thumbs and index fingers.
Fit your L on the angles of the rectangle. Ask children what things they have
at home that are rectangles. Show different examples of rectangles. Have
children walk around a large, flat rectangle, such as a rug. Once seated, have
children draw rectangles in the air.
Shape Hunt: Rectangles As above p. 139, but involving rectangles.
Build Shapes / Straw Shapes As above p. 139, but involving rectangles.
Straw Shapes: Rectangles As above p. 139, but involving rectangles.
Shape Show: Squares Show and name a large, flat square. Walk your fingers
around its perimeter, describing and exaggerating your actions: straaiiight
side . . . turn, straaiiight side . . . turn, straaiiight side . . . turn, straaiiight side
. . . stop. Ask children how many sides the square has, and count the sides
with them. Review that all sides of a square are the same length, and all
Shape • 141
“turns” are right angles. To model this, you may place stirrers that are the
same length as each side on each side. Remind children about right angles
(uppercase Ls or the corner of a doorway). Make uppercase Ls with children
using thumbs and index fingers. Fit your L on the angles of the square. Ask
children what things they have at home that are squares. Show different
examples of squares. Have children walk around a large, flat square, such as a
floor tile. Once seated, have children draw squares in the air.
Is It or Not? As above p. 138, with rectangles or squares.
I Spy Beforehand, place various Shape Set shapes throughout the classroom
in plain view. Name the shape of something in the room. You may wish to
start with something easily recognizable, such as “three sides.” Have children
guess the item or shape you are thinking about. If able, have the child who
guessed correctly think of the next item or shape for you and the class to
guess. As a variation, try the properties version: describe a shape’s attributes
and see whether children can guess which item or shape you mean. This can
also be done with Shape Sets, actual objects in the room, and/or other shape
manipulative.
Side Recognizer Parts. Identifies Rectangles and Boxes Draw a large rectangle for the entire class to see, and
sides as distinct geometric objects. trace it, counting each side as you go. Challenge children to draw a rectangle
in the air as you count, reminding them that each side should be straight.
Show a variety of boxes to children, such as toothpaste, pasta, and cereal
boxes, and discuss their shape. Eventually focus on the faces of the boxes,
Asked what this shape is ,
which should mostly be rectangles. Talk about the sides and right angles. On
says it is a quadrilateral (or has four
large paper, place two boxes horizontally and trace their faces. Have children
sides) after counting each, running
finger along the length of each side. match the boxes to the traced rectangles. Trace more boxes and repeat. Help
children consider other box face shapes, such as triangles (candy and food
Most Attributes Comparer storage), octagons (hat and gift boxes), and circles/cylinders (toy and oats
Comparing Looks for differences in containers).
attributes, examining full shapes, but
may ignore some spatial Name Faces of Blocks During circle or free playtime, children name the
relationships. faces (sides) of different building blocks. Tell children which classroom items
are the same shape.
“These are the same.”
Feely Box (Describe) As above, but now children must describe the shape
without naming it, well enough that their peers can figure out the shape they
are describing. Have children explain how he or she figured out which shape.
They should describe the shape, emphasizing straightness of the sides and
the number of sides and angles.
Corner (Angle) Recognizer—Parts Shape Parts 1 Students use shape parts to construct a shape that matches
Recognizes angles as separate a target shape. They must place every component exactly, so it is a skill
geometric objects, at least in the that is actually at the Constructor of Shapes from Parts—Exact level,
limited context of “corners.” but some children can begin to benefit from such scaffolded computer work
Asked why is this a triangle, says, “It at this level.
has three angles” and counts them,
pointing clearly to each vertex (point
at the corner).
Continued Overleaf
142 • Shape
5 Shape Recognizer—More Shapes Shape Step Make shapes on the floor with masking or colored tape or chalk
Classifying Recognizes most familiar shapes outdoors. Tell children to step on a certain class of shapes (e.g.,
shapes and typical examples of other rhombuses) only. Have a group of five children step on the rhombuses. Ask
shapes, such as hexagon, rhombus the rest of the class to watch carefully to make sure the group steps on them
(diamond), and trapezoid. all. Whenever possible, ask children to explain why the shape they stepped
Correctly identifies and names on was the correct shape (“How do you know that was a rhombus?”). Repeat
all the following shapes the activity until all groups have stepped on shapes.
Mystery Pictures 4 Children build pictures by identifying a wide variety of
.
shapes that are named by the Building Blocks software program. This activity
includes the hexagon, rhombus (diamond), and trapezoid.
6 Shape Identifier Classifying Names Trapezoids and Rhombuses Show pattern block shapes, one after another,
most common shapes, including having children name each one. Focus especially on the rhombus and
rhombuses, without making mistakes trapezoid. Ask children what they could make with such shapes. Have
such as calling ovals circles. children describe the properties of the shapes. A trapezoid has one pair
Recognizes (at least) right angles, so of parallel sides; a rhombus has two pairs of parallel sides all the same
distinguishes between a rectangle and length.
a parallelogram without right angles.
Mr. MixUp (Shapes) Explain that children are going to help Mr. MixUp
Correctly names all the following name shapes. Remind children to stop Mr. MixUp right when he makes a
shapes
mistake to correct him. Using Shape Set shapes, have Mr. MixUp start by
confusing the names of a square and a rhombus. After children have
. identified the correct names, ask them to explain how their angles are
different (squares must have all right angles; rhombuses may have different
angles). Review that all rhombuses and squares, which are actually a special
kind of rhombus with all right angles, have four straight sides of equal
length. Repeat with a trapezoid, a hexagon, and any other shapes you would
like children to practice.
Geometry Snapshots 4 Students identify an image that matches one of four
moderately complex configurations from memory (imagery).
7 Angle Recognizer—More Contexts Geometry Snapshots 6 Students match geometric figures that differ on
Parts Can recognize and describe angle measure from memory (imagery).
contexts in which angle knowledge is
relevant, including corners (can
discuss “sharper” angles), crossings
(e.g., a scissors), and, later, bent
objects and bends (sometimes bends
in paths and slopes). Only later can
explicitly understand how angle
concepts relate to these contexts (e.g.,
initially may not think of bends in
roads as angles; may not be able to
add horizontal or vertical to complete
Mr. MixUp (Shapes) As above, confuse sides and corners; make sure
the angle in slope contexts; may even
children explain which is which.
see corners as more or less “sharp”
without representing the lines that
constitute them). Often does not
relate these contexts and may
represent only some features of
angles in each (e.g., oblique line for a
ramp in a slope context).
Continued Overleaf
144 • Shape
Parts of Shapes Identifier Classifying Shape Shop 1 Students identify shapes by their attributes or number of
Identifies shapes in terms of their parts (e.g., number of sides and angles).
components.
“No matter how skinny it looks, that’s
a triangle because it has three sides
and three angles.”
Constructor of Shapes from Parts— Build Shapes/Straw Shapes As above, but involving any of the shapes in the
Exact Representing. Uses Shape Set, or a verbally-named set of properties (e.g., make a shape that has
manipulatives representing parts of (a) two pairs of adjacent sides the same length or (b) all four sides the same
shapes, such as sides and angle length but no right angles).
“connectors,” to make a shape that is Give other challenges, such as: Can you make a triangle with any three of these
completely correct, based on straw (lengths)? (No, not if one straw is longer than the sum of the lengths of the
knowledge of components and other two.)
relationships. How many different shapes (classes) can you make with two pairs of straws the
Asked to make a triangle same length?
with sticks, creates
Shape Parts 2 Students use shape parts to construct a shape that matches a
the following .
target shape. They must place every component exactly.
8+ Angle Representer Parts. Represents Logo See Logo examples and suggestions in this and the previous chapter.
various angle contexts as two lines,
As the World Turns Have students estimate, then measure, and draw and
explicitly including the reference line
label different real-world angle measures, such as a door opening, a radio
(horizontal or vertical for slope; a
control turning, a doorknob, head turning, turning a faucet on, and so forth.
“line of sight” for turn contexts) and,
at least implicitly, the size of the angle
as the rotation between these lines
(may still maintain misconceptions
about angle measure, such as relating
angle size to the length of side’s
distance between endpoints and may
not apply these understandings to
multiple contexts).
Congruence Representer Comparing
Refers to geometric properties and
explains with transformations.
“These must be congruent, because
they have equal sides, all square
corners, and I can move them on top
of each other exactly.”
Shape Class Identifier Classifying Guess My Rule As above, with “rules” appropriate for this level, including all
Uses class membership (e.g., to sort), classes of shapes.
not explicitly based on properties.
Shape Step (Properties) As above, with students told a property rather than
“I put the triangles over here, and the a shape name and asked to justify that the shape they selected has that
quadrilaterals, including squares,
property.
rectangles, rhombuses, and trapezoids
over there.”
Shape Property Identifier Classifying Guess My Rule As above, with “rules” appropriate for this level, including
Uses properties explicitly. Can see the sorts such as “has a right angles vs. has no right angle” or “regular polygons
invariants in the changes of state or (closed shapes with all straight sides) vs. any other shapes, symmetrical vs.
shape, but maintaining the shapes’ non-symmetrical shapes, etc.”
properties.
I Spy As above, but giving properties such as “I spy a shape with four sides
“I put the shapes with opposite sides and with opposite sides the same length, but no right angles.”
parallel over here, and those with four
sides but not both pairs of sides Legends of the Lost Shape
parallel over there.” Students identify target shapes
using textual clues provided,
such as having certain angle sizes.
Continued Overleaf
146 • Shape
Property Class Identifier Classifying Mr. MixUp (Shapes) As above, but focus on class memberships and defining
Uses class membership for shapes properties (e.g., Mr. MixUp says that a rectangle has two pairs of equal and
(e.g., to sort or consider shapes parallel sides but [erroneously] “could not be a parallelogram because it’s a
“similar”) explicitly based on rectangle”).
properties, including angle measure.
Which Shape Could It Be? Slowly reveal a shape from behind a screen. At
Is aware of restrictions of
each “step,” ask children what class of shapes it could be and how certain
transformations and also of the
they are.
definitions and can integrate the two.
Sorts hierarchically, based on
properties.
“I put the equilateral triangles over
here, and scalene triangles over here.
The isosceles triangles are all these . . .
they included the equilaterals.”
Shape Parts 3 Students use shape parts to construct a shape that matches
a target shape, which is rotated, so the construction is at a different
orientation. They must place every component exactly. Depending on the
problem and the way it is approached, these activities can be useful at several
levels.
Shape Shop 3 Students identify shapes by their properties (number of, and
relationships between, sides and angles) with more properties named at
this level.
Angle Synthesizer Parts Combines Shape Parts 6 As above, but the student must use sides and angles
various meanings of angle (turn, (manipulable “corners”).
corner, slant), including angle
measure.
“This ramp is at a 45° angle to the
ground.”
Final Words
As this chapter showed, children can learn a considerable amount about several aspects of geo-
metric shapes. There is one more important competency, so important that we dedicate Chapter 9
to it: shape composition.
9
Composition and Decomposition of Shapes
What does Zachary show he knows about shapes and geometry? Zachary and his friends have been
working on the Building Blocks curriculum which emphasizes putting shapes together. Children
enjoy playing with puzzles and shapes, with challenges such as tangram puzzles provide. If such
experiences are organized into learning trajectories, they can benefit and enjoy these experiences
even more. Teachers report such experiences can change the way children see their world.
The ability to describe, use, and visualize the effects of composing and decomposing geometric
regions is important in and of itself. It also provides a foundation for understanding other areas
of mathematics, especially number and arithmetic, such as part–whole relationships, fractions, and
so forth.
In this chapter we examine three related topics. First, we discuss composition of three-
dimensional shapes in the restricted but important early childhood setting of building with blocks.
Second, we discuss composition and decomposition of two-dimensional shapes. Third, we discuss
disembedding of two-dimensional shapes, such as in embedded (hidden) figures problems.
Composition of 3D Shapes
Children initially build block structures one block at a time and only later explicitly put together
these 3D shapes to create new 3D shapes. In their first year, they pound, clap together, or slide the
blocks, or they use single blocks to represent an object, such as a house or vehicle. Children’s first
combinations are simple pairs. At about 1 year of age, they stack blocks then make a “road.” At
about 2 years, they place each successive block congruently on or next to the one previously placed
(see the companion book for more details and for illustrations). Around 2 to 3 years of age, children
149
150 • Composition and Decomposition of Shapes
begin to extend their building to two dimensions, covering to extend a plane in creating a floor or
wall. At 3 to 4 years of age, children regularly build vertical and horizontal components within a
building, even making a simple arch. At 4 years, they can use multiple spatial relations, extending in
multiple directions and with multiple points of contact among components, showing flexibility in
how they generate and integrate parts of the structure. A small number of children will build a
tower with all blocks; for example, by composing the triangular blocks to make rectangular blocks.
Although the available research on 3D is limited, it is consistent with the research on composing
2D shapes, to which we turn.
Disembedding 2D Shapes
Children develop over years in learning how to separate structures within embedded figures (see
illustrations and a description in the companion book)—that is, finding “hidden shapes” within
more complex diagrams. Few 4-year-olds could find embedded circles or squares embedded in
square structures, but many 5-year-olds were more likely to do so. Before 6 years of age,
what children perceive is organized in a rigid manner into basic structures. Children grow in the
flexibility of the perceptual organizations they can create. They eventually integrate parts and can
create and use “imaginary components.” Of course, we all know that embedded pictures can be very
complex, and can stump people of any age, who have to build them up piece by piece. The learning
trajectory puts this body of research into a developmental progression.
Composition and Decomposition of Shapes • 151
Composition of 3D Shapes
Block building has long been a staple of high-quality early childhood education (at least in theory).
It supports children’s learning of shape and shape composition ability, to say nothing of the general
reasoning that it may help develop. Amazingly, block building in preschool predicts mathematics
achievement in high school (although, like most research of this nature, this is “correlation, not
causation”). Block building also helps develop spatial skills. Research provides several other useful
guidelines, as follows:
• Have younger children build with or alongside older preschoolers; in that context, they
develop block-building skills more rapidly.
• Provide materials, facilitative peer relationships, and time to build, and also incorporate
planned, systematic block building into their curriculum. Children should have open
exploratory play and solve semi-structured and well-structured problems, with intentional
teaching provided for each.
• Understand and apply children’s developmental progressions in the levels of complexity of
block-building. More effective teachers provide verbal scaffolding for the children based on
those levels (e.g., “sometimes people use a block to join . . .”), but avoid directly assisting
children, or engaging in block building themselves.
• Understand full learning trajectories—that is, the goal, developmental progression, and
matched activities improve in block-building skill. Children of teachers who understand all
three improve more than control groups who receive an equivalent amount of block-building
experience during unstructured free-play sessions.
• Address equity. As with other types of spatial training, intentional instruction in block build-
ing may be more important for girls than boys.
Structured and sequenced block-blocking interventions will help provide boys and girls with
equitable, beneficial opportunities to learn about the structural properties of blocks and thus spatial
skills. For example, activities can be designed to encourage spatial and mathematical thinking and
sequenced to match developmental progressions. In one study, the first problem was to build an
enclosure with walls that were at least two blocks high and included an arch. This introduced the
problem of bridging, which involves balanced measurement, and estimation. The second problem
was to build more complex bridges, such as bridges with multiple arches and ramps or stairs at the
end. This introduced planning and seriation. The third problem was to build a complex tower with
at least two floors, or stories. Children were provided with cardboard ceilings, so they had to make
the walls fit the constraints of the cardboard’s dimensions.
Unit blocks also provide a window into the geometry of young children’s play. These blocks
allow children to explore a world where objects have predictable similarities and relationships.
Children create forms and structures that are based on mathematical relationships. For example,
children have to struggle with length relationships in finding a roof for a building. Length and
equivalence are involved in substituting two shorter blocks for one long block.
Children also consider height, area, and volume. The inventor of today’s unit blocks, Caroline
Pratt, tells a story of children making enough room for a horse to fit inside a stable. The teacher told
Diana that she could have the horse when she had made a stable for it. She and Elizabeth began to
build a small construction, but the horse did not fit. Diana had made a large stable with a low roof.
After several unsuccessful attempts to get the horse in, she removed the roof, added blocks to the
walls to make the roof higher, and replaced the roof. She then tried to put into words what she
152 • Composition and Decomposition of Shapes
had done. “Roof too small.” The teacher gave her new words, “high” and “low” and she gave a new
explanation to the other children.
Just building with blocks, children form important ideas. These intuitive ideas can be fostered by
teachers, such as Diana’s, who discuss these ideas with children, giving words to their actions. For
example, children can be helped to distinguish between different quantities such as height, area, and
volume. Three preschoolers made towers and argued about whose was the biggest. Their teacher
asked them if they meant whose was tallest (gesturing) or widest, or used the most blocks? The
children were surprised to find that the tallest tower did not have the most blocks.
In many situations, you help children see and discuss the similarities and differences among the
blocks they use and the structures they make. You can also pose challenges that will focus children’s
actions on these ideas. At the right time, you might challenge the children to do the following:
Pre-Composer (3D). Manipulates shapes as individuals, but This level is not an instructional goal level.
does not combine them to compose a larger shape. May pound,
clap together, or use slide blocks or single blocks to represent
an object, such as a house or truck.
1 Stacker. Shows use of the spatial relationship of “on” to stack
blocks, but choice of blocks is unsystematic.
Continued Overleaf
154 • Composition and Decomposition of Shapes
shape in the Building Blocks program (we borrowed heavily from the Agam program in designing
Building Blocks) led strong effects in this area—equivalent to benefits often found for individual
tutoring. In a follow-up, large-scale randomized field trial with 36 classrooms, the Building Blocks
curriculum made the most substantial gains compared to both a non-treatment and another pre-
school math curriculum, in shape composition (and several other topics). Especially because the
other curriculum also included shape composition activities, we believe that the greater gains
provided by the Building Blocks curriculum can be attributed to its explicit use of the sequenced
activities developed from, and the teachers’ knowledge of, the learning trajectory, to which we turn.
Learning Trajectories for the Composition and Decomposition of Geometric Shapes (2D)
Because the learning trajectories for the composition and decomposition of two-dimensional geo-
metric shapes are closely connected, we present them together, in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2 A Learning Trajectory for the Composition and Decomposition of 2D Shapes.
Age Developmental Progression Instructional Tasks
(years)
0–3 Pre-Composer Manipulates shapes These levels are not instructional goal levels. However, several preparatory
as individuals, but is unable to activities may orient 2- to 4-year-old children to the task, and move them
combine them to compose a larger toward the next levels that do represent (some) competence.
shape.
In “Shape Pictures,” children play with physical pattern blocks and Shape
Make a picture. Sets, often making simple pictures.
Recall that the “Mystery Pictures” series (see pp. 137–142) sets the foundation
for this learning trajectory and would be the first task for the following level.
Children only match or identify shapes, but the result of their work is a
picture made up of other shapes—a demonstration of composition.
4 Piece Assembler Makes pictures in In the first “Pattern Block Puzzles” tasks, each shape is not only outlined,
which each shape represents a unique but touches other shapes only at a point, making the matching as easy as
role (e.g., one shape for each body possible. Children merely match pattern blocks to the outlines.
part) and shapes touch. Fills simple
“Pattern Block Puzzles” using trial
and error.
Make a picture.
Continued Overleaf
156 • Composition and Decomposition of Shapes
Then, the puzzles move to those that combine shapes by matching their
sides, but still mainly serve separate roles.
5 Picture Maker Puts several shapes The “Pattern Block Puzzles” at this level start with those where several
together to make one part of a picture shapes are combined to make one “part,” but internal lines are still
(e.g., two shapes for one arm). Uses available.
trial and error and does not
anticipate creation of new geometric
shape. Chooses shapes using “general
shape” or side length. Fills “easy”
“Pattern Block Puzzles” that suggest
the placement of each shape (but
note in the example on the right that
the child is trying to put a square in Later puzzles in the sequence require combining shapes to fill one or more
the puzzle where its right angles will regions, without the guidance of internal line segments.
not fit).
Make a picture.
Simple DeComposer Decomposes “Super Shape 1” is like “Piece Puzzler” with an essential difference. Children
(“takes apart” into smaller shapes) only have one shape in the shape palette and they must decompose that
simple shapes that have obvious clues “super” (superordinate) shape and then recompose those pieces to complete
as to their decomposition. the puzzle. The tool they use for decomposition is a simple “break apart”
Given hexagons, can break it apart to tool; when applied, a shape breaks into its canonical parts.
make this picture.
Shape Composer Composes shapes The “Pattern Block Puzzles” and “Piece Puzzler” activities have no internal
with anticipation (“I know what will guidelines and larger areas; therefore, children must compose shapes
fit!”). Chooses shapes using angles as accurately.
well as side lengths. Rotation and
flipping are used intentionally to
select and place shapes. In the
“Pattern Block Puzzles” below, all
angles are correct, and patterning is
evident.
Make a picture.
Snapshots (Shapes) As above, but use several copies of the same shape, so
children have to compose mentally. Also, try simple outlines and see if they
can compose the same shape with pattern blocks. Tangrams can provide
additional challenges. Continued Overleaf
158 • Composition and Decomposition of Shapes
6 Substitution Composer Makes new At this level, children solve “Pattern Block Puzzles” in which they must
shapes out of smaller shapes and uses substitute shapes to fill an outline in different ways.
trial and error to substitute groups of
shapes for other shapes to create new
shapes in different ways.
Make a picture with intentional
substitutions.
“Piece Puzzler” tasks are similar; the new task here is to solve the same
puzzle in several different ways.
Pattern Block Puzzles and Tangram Puzzles Ask students how many of a
certain shapes it would take to cover another shape (or configuration of
shapes). Students predict, record their prediction, then try to check.
Shape DeComposer (with Help) SuperShape 2 (and several additional levels) requires multiple
Decomposes shapes using imagery decompositions.
that is suggested and supported by
the task or environment.
Given hexagons, can break one or
more apart to make this shape.
7 Shape Composite Repeater Children are asked to repeat a structure they have composed.
Constructs and duplicates units of
units (shapes made from other
shapes) intentionally; understands
each as being both multiple small
shapes and one larger shape. May
continue a pattern of shapes that
leads to tiling.
Children use a shape composition
repeatedly in constructing a design or
picture.
Shape DeComposer with Imagery In “Super Shape 6” children again only have one shape in the shape palette
Decomposes shapes flexibly using and they must decompose that shape and then recompose those pieces to
independently generated imagery. complete the puzzle. The tool they use for decomposition is a scissors
Given hexagons, can break one or tool in which they must specific two points for a “cut.” Therefore, their
more apart to make shapes such as decompositions must be more intentional and anticipatory.
these.
8 Shape Composer—Units of Units In this “Tetrominoes” task, the child must repeatedly build and repeat
Builds and applies units of units superordinate units. That is, as in the illustration here, the child repeatedly
(shapes made from other shapes). built “Ts” out of four squares, used 4 Ts to build squares, and used squares
For example, in constructing spatial to tile a rectangle.
patterns, extend patterning activity
to create a tiling with a new unit
shape—a unit of unit shapes that
they recognize and consciously
construct.
Builds a large structure by making a
combination of pattern blocks over
and over and then fitting them together.
Continued Overleaf
160 • Composition and Decomposition of Shapes
Shape Parts 4 Students use shape parts to construct a shape that matches a
target shape, including multiple embedded shapes.
Shape DeComposer with Units of In “Super Shape 7” children only get exactly the number of “super shapes”
Units Decomposes shapes flexibly they need to complete the puzzle. Again, multiple applications of the
using independently generated scissors tool is required.
imagery and planned decompositions
of shapes that themselves are
decompositions.
Given only squares, can break them
apart—and then break the resulting
shapes apparent again—to make
shapes such as these.
Disembedding 2D Shapes
More research is needed before suggesting a solid recommendation as to how much time to spend
and how to approach the disembedding of 2D shapes. The motivating nature of disembedding
activities (cf. “hidden pictures” activities in children’s magazines) may indicate, however, that such
activities may be interesting to children as extra work, such as might be added to learning centers or
taken home.
The primary task we present in the learning trajectory is straightforward—to find figures in
increasingly complex geometric figures, including embedded figures. It may be wise to have children
embed figures themselves before finding already embedded figures.
4 Simple Disembedder
Identifies frame of complex
figure. Finds some shapes in
arrangements in which
figures overlap, but not in
which figures are embedded
in others.
Given find
Given find
5–6 Shapes-in-shapes
Disembedder Identifies
shapes embedded within
other shapes, such as Given find
concentric circles and/or a
circle in a square. Identifies
primary structures in
complex figures.
Given find
Given find
Continued Overleaf
162 • Composition and Decomposition of Shapes
7 Secondary Structure
Disembedder Identifies
embedded figures even when
they do not coincide with any Given find
primary structures of the
complex figure.
Given find
8 Complete Disembedder
Successfully identifies all
varieties of complex
arrangements.
Given find
Given find
Final Words
The ability to describe, use, and visualize the effects of composing, decomposing, embedding, and
disembedding shapes is an important mathematical competence. It is relevant to geometry but also
related to children’s ability to compose and decompose numbers. Further, it underlies knowledge
and skill with art, architecture, and the sciences. Thus, it helps people solve a wide variety of
problems, from geometric proofs to the design of a floor space. Of course, such designs also require
geometric measurement, the topic of the next two chapters.
10
Geometric Measurement
Length
First graders were studying mathematics through measurement, rather than counting discrete
objects. They described and represented relationships among and between quantities, such as
comparing two sticks and symbolizing the lengths as “A < B.” This enabled them to reason
about relationships. For example, after seeing the following statements recorded on the board,
if V > M, then M ≠ V, V ≠ M, and M < V, one first grader noted, “If it’s an inequality, then you
can write four statements. If it’s equal, you can only write two.” (Slovin, 2007)
Do you think this (true) episode is of a gifted class? If not, what does is suggest about young
children’s mathematical thinking? Do you think the context—thinking and talking about the length
of sticks—contribute to these first graders’ remarkable mathematical insights?
Measurement is an important real-world area of math. We use lengths consistently in our
everyday lives. Further, as the introductory story shows, it can help develop other areas of
mathematics, including reasoning and logic. Also, by its very nature it connects the two most critical
domains of early mathematics, geometry and number.
Unfortunately, typical measurement instruction in the U.S. does not accomplish any of these
goals. Many children measure in a rote fashion. In international comparisons, U.S. students’
performance in measurement is very low. By understanding measurement learning trajectories, we
can do better for children.
Learning Measurement
Measurement can be defined as the process of assigning a number to a magnitude of some attribute
of an object, such as its length, relative to a unit. These attributes are continuous quantities. That
is, up to this point we have talked about discrete quantity, a number of separate things that can
be determined exactly by counting with whole numbers. Measurement involves continuous
quantities—amounts that can always be divided in smaller amounts. So, we can count 4 apples
exactly—that is a discrete quantity. We can add those to 5 different apples and know that the
result is exactly 9 apples. However, the weight of those apples varies continuously, and scientific
measurement with tools can give us only an approximate measure—to the nearest pound (or, better,
kilogram) or the nearest 1/100th of a pound, but always with some error.
163
164 • Length
As in the domain of discrete number, research shows that even infants are sensitive to continuous
quantities such as length. At 3 years of age, children know that if they have some clay and then are
given more clay, they have more than they did before. However, they cannot reliably make
judgments about which of two amounts of clay is more. For example, if one of two equal amounts is
rolled into a long “snake,” they will say that is “more clay.”
Children also do not reliably differentiate between continuous and discrete quantity. For
example, they may try to share equally by dividing the number of cookie pieces rather than the
amount of the cookies. Or, to give someone with fewer pieces of cookie “more,” they may simply
break one of that person’s pieces into two smaller pieces!
Despite such challenges, young children can be provided with appropriate measurement
experiences. They discuss amounts in their everyday play. They are ready to learn to measure,
connecting number to the quantity. In this chapter we discuss length. In the next chapter, we discuss
other continuous quantities, such as area, volume, and angle size.
Length Measurement
Length is a characteristic of an object found by quantifying how far it is between the endpoints of
the object. “Distance” is often used similarly to quantify how far it is between any two points in
space. The discussion of the number line is critical here because this defines the number line used to
measure length (see Chapter 4). Measuring length or distance consists of two aspects, identifying a
unit of measure and subdividing (mentally and physically) the object by that unit, placing that unit
end to end (iterating) alongside the object. Subdividing and unit iteration are complex mental
accomplishments that are too often ignored in traditional measurement curriculum materials and
instruction. Therefore, many researchers go beyond the physical act of measuring to investigate
children’s understandings of measuring as covering space and quantifying that covering.
We discuss length in the following three sections. First, we identify several key concepts that
underlie measuring (Clements & Stephan, 2004; Stephan & Clements, 2003). Second, we discuss early
development of some of these concepts. Third, we describe research-based instructional approaches
that were designed to help children develop the concepts and skills of length measurement.
Units and unit iteration. Unit iteration is the ability to think of the length of a small unit such as a
block as part of the length of the object being measured and count how many times you can place the
length of the smaller block repeatedly, without gaps or overlaps, along the length of the larger object.
Young children do not always see the need for equal partitioning and thus the use of identical units.
Accumulation of distance and additivity. Accumulation of distance is the understanding that, as
you iterate a unit, the counting word represents the length covered by all units. Additivity is the
idea lengths can be put together (composed) and taken apart.
Origin is the notion that any point on a ratio scale can be used as the origin. Young children who
lack this understanding often begin a measurement with “1” instead of zero.
Relation between number and measurement. Children must understand of the items they are
counting to measure continuous units. They make measurement judgments based upon counting
ideas, often based on experiences counting discrete objects. For example, Inhelder and Piaget
showed children two rows of matches. The matches in each row were of different lengths, but there
was a different number of matches in each so that the rows were the same length (see Figure 10.1).
Although, from the adult perspective, the lengths of the rows were the same, many children argued
that the row with six matches was longer because it had more matches. They counted discrete
quantities, but in measurement of continuous quantities, the size of the unit must be considered.
Children must learn that the larger the unit, the fewer number of units in a given measure, that is,
the inverse relation between the size of the unit and the number of those units.
• To determine which of two objects is “longer,” children may compare the objects at one end
only.
• Children may leave gaps between units or overlap units when measuring.
• As old as 5 or 6 years, children may write numerals haphazardly to make a “ruler,” paying
little attention to the size of the spaces.
• Children may begin measuring at “1” rather than “0” or measure from the wrong end of the
ruler.
Figure 10.1 An experiment to see if children focus more on discrete or continuous units.
166 • Length
• Children may mistakenly think of marks on a ruler or heel-to-toe steps not as covering space
but just a “point” that is counted.
• Some children find it necessary to iterate the unit until it “fills up” the length of the object and
will not extend the unit past the endpoint of the object they are measuring.
• Many children do not understand that units must be of equal size (e.g., measuring one length
with paper clips of different sizes).
• Similarly, children may combine units of different size (e.g., 3 feet and 2 inches is “5 long”).
children with both conventional rulers and manipulative units using standard units of length, such
as edges of centimeter cubes, specifically labeled “length units.” As they explore with these tools,
discuss the ideas of length-unit iteration (not leaving space between successive length units, for
example), correct alignment (with a ruler) and the zero-point concept. Having children draw, cut
out, and use their own rulers can be used to highlight these ideas.
In all activities, focus on the meaning that the numerals on the ruler have for children, such as
enumerating lengths rather than discrete numbers. In other words, classroom discussions should
focus on “What are you counting?” with the answer in “length units.” Given that counting discrete
items often correctly teaches children that the size of the objects does not matter (i.e., for counting
discrete objects), plan experiences and reflections on the nature of properties of the length-unit in
various discrete counting and measurement contexts. Comparing results of measuring the same
object with manipulatives and with rulers and using manipulative length units to make their own
rulers helps children connect their experiences and ideas. In second or third grade, teachers might
introduce the need for standard length units and the relation between the size and number of length
units. The relationship between the size and number of length units, the need for standardization of
length units, and additional measuring devices can be explored at this time. The use of multiple
nonstandard length units could be helpful at this point. Instruction focusing on children’s interpret-
ations of their measuring activity can enable children to use flexible starting points on a ruler to
indicate measures successfully. Without such attention, children often just read off whatever ruler
number aligns with the end of the object into the intermediate grades.
Children must eventually learn to subdivide length units. Making one’s own ruler and marking
halves and other partitions of the unit may be helpful in this regard. Children could fold a unit into
halves, mark the fold as a half, and then continue to do so, to build fourths and eighths.
Computer experiences also can help children link number and geometry in measurement activ-
ities and build measurement sense. Turtle geometry provides both motivation and meaning for
many length measurement activities. This illustrates an important general guideline: Children
should use measurement as a means for achieving a goal not as an end in itself only. Note that
even young children can abstract and generalize measurement ideas working with computers if
the interface is appropriate and activities well planned. Giving the turtle directions such as forward
10 steps, right turn 90°, forward 5 steps, they learn both length and turn and angle concepts. In
Figure 10.2, children have to “finish the picture” but figuring out the missing measures (more
challenging examples are shown in the learning trajectory at the end of the chapter).
Whatever the specific instructional approach taken, research has four general implications, with
the first the most extensive. First, teach measurement as more than a simple skill—measurement is a
complex combination of concepts and skills that develops over years. Understand the foundational
concepts of measurement so that you will be better able to interpret children’s understanding and
ask questions that will lead them to construct these ideas. For example, when children count as
they measure, focus children’s conversations on that to what they are counting—not “points” but
equal-sized units of length. That is, if a child iterates a unit five times, the “five” represents five units
of length. For some students “five” signifies the hash mark next to the numeral five instead of
the amount of space covered by five units. In this way, the marks on a ruler “mask” the intended
conceptual understanding involved in measurement. Children need to understand what they are
measuring and why a unit on a ruler is numbered at its end, as well as the full suite of principles.
Many children see no problem mixing units (e.g., using both paper clips and pen tops) or using
different-sized units (e.g., small and large paper clips) as long as they covered the entire length of
the object in some way (Clements, Battista, & Sarama, 1998; Lehrer, 2003). Both research with
children and interviews with teachers support the claims that (a) the principles of measurement are
difficult for children, (b) they require more attention in school than they are usually given, (c) time
needs first to be spent in informal measurement, where use of measurement principles is evident,
and (d) transition from informal to formal measurement needs much more time and care, with
instruction in formal measure always returning to basic principles (cf. Irwin, Vistro-Yu, & Ell,
2004).
Eventually, children need to create an abstract unit of length (Clements, Battista, Sarama, Swa-
minathan, & McMillen, 1997; Steffe, 1991). This is not a static image but rather an interiorization of
the process of moving (visually or physically) along an object, segmenting it, and counting the
segments. When consecutive units are considered a unitary object, the children have constructed a
“conceptual ruler” that can be projected onto unsegmented objects (Steffe, 1991). In addition, the
U.S. mathematics curriculum does not adequately address the notion of unit. And measurement is a
fruitful domain in which to turn attention away from separate objects and toward the unit we are
counting (cf. Sophian, 2002).
Second, use initial informal activities to establish the attribute of length and develop concepts
such as “longer,” “shorter,” and “equal in length” and strategies such as direct comparison. Third,
encourage children to solve real measurement problems, and, in so doing, to build and iterate units,
as well as units of units.
Fourth, help children closely connect the use of manipulative units and rulers. When conducted
in this way, measurement tools and procedures become tools for mathematics and tools for thinking
about mathematics (Clements, 1999c; Miller, 1984, 1989). Well before first grade, children have
begun the journey toward that end.
Pre-K
Measurement: Identifying measurable attributes and comparing objects by using these attributes
Children identify objects as “the same” or “different,” and then “more” or “less,” on the basis of attributes that they can measure. They
identify measurable attributes such as length and weight and solve problems by making direct comparisons of objects on the basis of those
attributes.
Kindergarten
Measurement: Ordering objects by measurable attributes
Children use measurable attributes, such as length or weight, to solve problems by comparing and ordering objects. They compare the lengths
of two objects both directly (by comparing them with each other) and indirectly (by comparing both with a third object), and they order several
objects according to length.
Grade 1
Connections: Measurement and Data Analysis
Children strengthen their sense of number by solving problems involving measurements and data. Measuring by laying multiple copies of
a unit end to end and then counting the units by using groups of tens and ones supports children’s understanding of number lines and
number relationships. Representing measurements and discrete data in picture and bar graphs involves counting and comparisons that
provide another meaningful connection to number relationships.
Grade 2
Measurement: Developing an understanding of linear measurement and facility in measuring lengths
Children develop an understanding of the meaning and processes of measurement, including such underlying concepts as partitioning (the
mental activity of slicing the length of an object into equal-sized units) and transitivity (e.g., if object A is longer than object B and object B is
longer than object C, then object A is longer than object C). They understand linear measure as an iteration of units and use rulers and other
measurement tools with that understanding. They understand the need for equal-length units, the use of standard units of measure
(centimeter and inch), and the inverse relationship between the size of a unit and the number of units used in a particular measurement (i.e.,
children recognize that the smaller the unit, the more iterations they need to cover a given length).
2 Pre-Length Quantity Recognizer Children intuitively compare, order, and build with many types of materials,
Does not identify length as attribute. and increasingly learn vocabulary for specific dimensions.
“This is long. Everything straight is
long. If it’s not straight, it can’t be long.”
3 Length Quantity Recognizer Teachers listen for and extend conversations about things that are “long,”
Identifies length/distance as attribute. “tall,” “high,” and so forth.
May understand length as an absolute
descriptor (e.g., all adults are tall),
but not as a comparative (e.g., one
person is taller than another).
“I’m tall, see?”
4 Length Direct Comparer Physically In many everyday situations, children compare heights and other lengths
aligns two objects to determine which directly (who has the tallest tower, the longest clay snake, etc.).
is longer or if they are the same
length. Continued Overleaf
170 • Length
Stands two sticks up next to each In “As Long As My Arm,” children cut a ribbon the length of their arms and
other on a table and says, “This one’s find things in the classroom that are the same length.
bigger.”
In “Comparisons,” children simply click on the object that is longer (or
wider, etc.).
Indirect Length Comparer Children solve everyday tasks that require indirect comparison, such as
Compares the length of two objects whether a doorway is wide enough for a table to go through.
by representing them with a third
Children often cover the objects to be compared, so that indirect
object.
comparison is actually not possible. Give them a task with objects such as
Compares length of two objects with felt strips so that, if they cover them with the third object such as a (wider)
a piece of string.
strip of paper (and therefore have to visually guess) they can be encouraged
When asked to measure, may assign a to then directly compare them. If they are not correct, ask them how they
length by guessing or moving along a could have used the paper to better compare. Model laying it next to the
length while counting (without objects if necessary.
equal-length units). In “Deep Sea Compare,” children move the coral to compare the lengths of
Moves finger along a line segment, two fish, then click on the longer fish.
saying 10, 20, 30, 31, 32.
5 Serial Orderer to 6+ Orders lengths, In “What’s the Missing Step?” Children see stairs made from connecting
marked in 1 to 6 units. (This develops cubes from 1 to 6. They cover their eyes and the teacher hides one step.
in parallel with “End-to-End Length They uncover their eyes and identify the missing step, telling how they knew.
Measurer”.)
In a connection to number, “X-Ray Vision 1,” children place Counting Cards, 1 to
Given towers of cubes, puts in order, 1 6 or more, in order, face down. Then they take turns pointing to the cards, and
to 6. using their “x-ray vision” to tell which card it is.
6 End-to-End Length Measurer Lays “Length Riddles” ask questions such as, “You write with me and I am 7
units end to end. May not recognize cubes long. What am I?”
the need for equal-length units. The
ability to apply resulting measures to
comparison situations develops later
in this level. (This develops in parallel
with “Serial Orderer to 6+”).
Lays 9 inch cubes in a line beside a
book to measure how long it is.
Measure with physical or drawn units. Focus on long, thin units such as
toothpicks cut to 1 inch sections. Explicit emphasis should be given to the
linear nature of the unit. That is, children should learn that, when measuring
with, say, centimeter cubes, it is the length of one edge that is the linear unit—
not the area of a face or volume of the cube.
Measuring with rulers can begin. In this computer activity, “Reptile Ruler”,
children have to place a reptile on the ruler. The software snaps the reptile to
a whole number, and gives helpful feedback if, for example, they do not
align it to the zero point.
7 Length Unit Relater and Repeater Repeat “Length Riddles” (see above) but provide fewer cues (e.g., only the
Measures by repeated use of a unit length) and only one unit per child so they have to iterate (repeatedly “lay
(but initially may not be precise in down”) a single unit to measure.
such iterations). Relates size and
“Mr. MixUp’s Measuring Mess” can be used at several levels, adapted for the
number of units explicitly (but may
levels before and after this one. For example, have the puppet leave gaps
not appreciate the need for identical
between units used to measure an object (for the End-to-End Length
units in every situation).
Measurer level, gaps are between multiple units; for this level, gaps would
Relates size and number of units be between iterations of one unit). Other errors include overlapping units
explicitly. and not aligning at the starting point (this is important with ruler use as
well).
Continued Overleaf
172 • Length
“If you measure with centimeters Children may be able to draw a line to a given length before they measure
instead of inches, you’ll need more of objects accurately (Nührenbörger, 2001). Use line-drawing activities to
them, because each one is smaller.” emphasize how you start at the 0 (zero point) and discuss how, to measure
Can add up two lengths to obtain the objects, you have to align the object to that point. Similarly, explicitly discuss
length of a whole. what the intervals and the number represent, connecting these to end-to-
end length measuring with physical units.
“This is 5 long and this one is 3 long,
so they are 8 long together.” Children confront measurement with different units and discuss how many
Iterates a single unit to measure. of each unit will fill a linear space. They make an explicit statement that the
Recognizes that different units will longer the unit the fewer are needed.
result in different measures and that
identical units should be used, at least
intuitively and/or in some situations.
Uses rulers with minimal guidance.
Measures a book’s length accurately
with a ruler.
8 Length Measurer Considers the Children should be able to use a physical unit and a ruler to measure line
length of a bent path as the sum of its segments and objects that require both an iteration and subdivision of the
parts (not the distance between the unit. In learning to subdivide units, children may fold a unit into halves,
endpoints). Measures, knowing need mark the fold as a half, and then continue to do so, to build fourths and
for identical units, relationship eighths.
between different units, partitions of
Children create units of units, such as a “footstrip” consisting of traces of
unit, zero point on rulers, and
their feet glued to a roll of adding-machine tape. They measure in different-
accumulation of distance.
sized units (e.g., 15 paces or 3 footstrips each of which has 5 paces) and
Begins to estimate.
accurately relate these units. They also discuss how to deal with leftover
“I used a meter stick three times, then space, to count it as a whole unit or as part of a unit.
there was a little left over. So, I lined it
up from 0 and found 14 centimeters.
So, it’s 3 meters, 14 centimeters in all.”
Conceptual Ruler Measurer In “Missing Measures,” students have to figure out the measures of figures
Possesses an “internal” measurement using given measures. This is an excellent activity to conduct on the
tool. Mentally moves along an object, computer using Logo’s turtle graphics.
segmenting it, and counting the
segments. Operates arithmetically on
measures (“connected lengths”).
Estimates with accuracy.
“I imagine 1 meter stick after another
along the edge of the room. That’s
how I estimated the room’s length is 9
meters.”
Final Words
This chapter addressed the learning and teaching of length measurement. Chapter 11 addresses
other geometric attributes we need to measure, including area, volume, and angle.
11
Geometric Measurement
Area, Volume, and Angle
I had a student who basically understood the difference between area and perimeter. I drew
this rectangle on a grid. To figure the area, she counted down like this (Figure 11.1a), then she
counted across like this (11.1b). Then she multiplied three times four and got twelve. So, I
asked her what the perimeter was. She said it was “the squares around the outside.” She
counted like this (11.1c). She understood the perimeter, she just counted wrong. She was
always off by four.
Do you agree with this teacher? Does the student understand area and perimeter and distinguish
between them? What would you have asked the student to find out for sure?
Area Measurement
Area is an amount of two-dimensional surface that is contained within a boundary. Area is
complex, and children develop area concepts over time. Sensitivity to area is present in the first year
of life, as is sensitivity to number. However, infants’ approximate number sense is more accurate
than their corresponding sense of area. So, even infants find area challenging!
173
174 • Area, Volume, and Angle
Area understandings do not develop well in typical U.S. instruction and have not for a long time.
Young children show little explicit understanding of measurement. Primary graders, asked how
much space a square would cover, used a ruler (once) to measure. Even with manipulatives, many
measured a length of a side of a square, then moved the ruler to a parallel position slightly toward
the opposite side, and, repeating this process, adding the values of the lengths (Lehrer, Jenkins et al.,
1998). Limitations in knowledge are also shown by preservice teachers, as the opening story
illustrates.
To learn area measurement, children must develop a notion of what area is, as well as the
understanding that decomposing and rearranging shapes does not affect their area. Later, children
can develop the ability to build an understanding of two-dimensional arrays and then to interpret
two lengths as measures of the dimensions of those arrays. Without such understandings and
abilities, older students often learn a rule, such as multiplying two lengths, without understanding
area concepts. Although area measurement is typically emphasized in the elementary grades,
the literature suggests that there are some less formal aspects of area measurement that can be
introduced in earlier years.
Accumulation and additivity. Accumulation and additivity of area operate similarly as they do in
length. Primary grade students can learn that shapes can be decomposed and composed into
regions of the same area.
Structuring space. Children need to structure an array to understand area as truly two-
dimensional. That is, they need to understand how a surface can be tiled with squares that line up in
rows and columns. Although this is taken as “obvious” by most adults, most primary grade students
have not yet built up this understanding. For example, consider the levels of thinking portrayed by
different children as they attempted to complete a drawing of an array of squares, given one column
and row, as illustrated in Figure 11.2) (discussed in detail in the companion book). At the lowest
level of thinking, children see shapes inside the rectangle, but the entire space is not covered. Only at
the later levels do all the squares align vertically and horizontally, as the students learn to compose
two-dimensional shapes in terms of rows and columns of squares.
Conservation. Similar to linear measurement, conservation of area is an important idea. Students
have difficulty accepting that, when they cut a given region and rearrange its parts to form another
shape, the area remains the same.
space-filling properties (they “left cracks”). The teacher introduced grid paper. The children initially
resisted using this tool, probably because they wanted units whose shape was more consistent with
the shape of the hands. Eventually, however, the grid paper was adopted by the children. They
created a notional system in which fractions of a unit were color-coded for the same denomination
(e.g., 13 and 23 were the same color, and then could be combined into a single unit easily). Thus,
they learned about space filling, the irrelevance of the resemblance of the unit shape and the object
to be measured, notation, and non-integer measures.
The final task was to compare the area of zoo cages, given shapes (some rectangular, other
composites) and their dimensions, but no internal demarcations (e.g., no grid paper). Children
learned to build a multiplicative understanding of area. These children displayed substantial learn-
ing of all aspects of area measurement. Starting with approximately the same knowledge of meas-
urement in second grade as the longitudinal children (Lehrer, Jenkins et al., 1998), they surpassed,
by the end of second grade, the performance of the longitudinal children, even when the latter were
in their fourth grade year.
Thus, many more children could learn more about area, and learn formulas meaningfully, than
presently do. Children should learn initial area concepts such as these, and also learn to structure
arrays, laying the foundation for learning all area concepts and, eventually, learn to understand and
perform accurate area measurement. As another approach, children could compare regions directly
to see which covers more surface. Such enjoyable activities as paper folding, or origami, encourage
the more sophisticated strategy of superposition—placing one shape on top of the other.
In meaningful contexts, have children explore and discuss the consequences of folding or
rearranging pieces to establish that one region, cut and reassembled, covers the same space (con-
servation of area). Then challenge children to tile a region with a two-dimensional unit of choice
and, in the process, discuss issues of leftover spaces, overlapping units, and precision. Guide
discussion of these ideas to lead children to mentally partition a region into subregions that can be
counted. Counting equal area-units will move the discussion to area measurement itself. Help
children realize that there are to be no gaps or overlapping and that the entire region should be
covered.
Ensure children learn how to structure arrays. Playing with structured materials such as unit
blocks, pattern blocks, and tiles can lay the groundwork for this understanding. Building on these
informal experiences, children can learn to understand arrays and area explicitly in the primary
grades.
In summary, the too–frequent practice of simple counting of units to find area (achievable by
preschoolers) leading directly to teaching formulas is a recipe for disaster for many children
(Lehrer, 2003). A more successful approach is building upon young children’s initial spatial intu-
itions and appreciating the need for children to construct the idea of measurement units (including
development of a measurement sense for standard units; for example, finding common objects
in the environment that have a unit measure); experience covering quantities with appropriate
measurement units and counting those units; and spatially structure the object they are to measure
(e.g., linking counting by groups to the structure of rectangular arrays; building two-dimensional
concepts), thus to build a firm foundation for formulas.
The long developmental process usually only begins in the years before first grade. However,
we should also appreciate the importance of these early conceptualizations. For example, 3- and
4-year-olds can intuitively compare areas in some contexts.
Area, Volume, and Angle • 177
0–3 Area/Spatial Structuring: Pre-Area Children intuitively compare, order, and build with many types of materials,
Quantity Recognizer. Shows little and increasingly learn vocabulary for covering and amount of 2D space.
specific concept of area. Uses side
matching strategies in comparing
areas (Silverman, York, & Zuidema,
1984). May draw approximation of
circles or other figures in a
rectangular tiling task (Mulligan,
Prescott, Mitchelmore, & Outhred,
2005).
Draws mostly closed shapes and lines
with no indication of covering the
specific region.
4 Area Simple Comparer Children are asked which piece of paper will let them paint the biggest
May compare areas using only one picture.
side of figures, or estimating based on
length plus (not times) width.
Asked which rectangular “candy” is
the “same amount” as a bar 4 cm by
5 cm, one child chooses the 4 by 8 by
matching the sides of the same length.
Another child chooses the 2 by 7,
intuitively summing the side lengths.
Measures area with ruler, measuring a
length, then moving the ruler and
measuring that length again,
apparently treating length as a 2D
space-filling attribute (Lehrer, Jenkins
et al., 1998).
Area/Spatial Structuring: Side-to-Side Students’ first experiences with area might include tiling a region with a
Area Measurer. Covers a rectangular two-dimensional unit of their choosing and, in the process, discuss issues of
space with physical tiles. However, leftover spaces, overlapping units and precision. Discussions of these ideas
cannot organize, coordinate, and lead students to mentally partition a region into subregions that can be
structure 2D space without such counted. Continued Overleaf
178 • Area, Volume, and Angle
perceptual support. In drawing (or After experience quilting, children are given three rectangles (e.g., 1 × 12,
imagining and pointing to count), 2 × 6, 4 × 3) and asked which covers the most space. They are guided to
can represent only certain aspects of transform the shapes by folding and matching and ultimately transforming
that structure, such as approximately them into 12 1-unit squares.
rectangular shapes next to one
another.
Covers a region with physical tiles,
and counts them by removing them
one by one.
Draws within the region in an
attempt to cover the region. May fill
only next to existing guides (e.g., sides
of region).
5 Area/Spatial Structuring: Primitive Children cover a rectangle by tiling with physical square tiles and then learn
Coverer. the drawing convention to represent 2 contiguous edges with a single line.
Draws a complete covering, but They discuss how to best represent a tiling that there must be no gaps.
with some errors of alignment.
Counts around the border, then
unsystematically in the interiors,
counting some twice and skipping
others.
Area/Spatial Structuring: Area Unit Children discuss, learn, and practice systematic counting strategies for
Relater and Repeater. enumerating arrays.
Draws as above. Also, counts
correctly, aided by counting one row
at a time and, often, by perceptual
labeling.
6 Area/Spatial Structuring: Partial Row Children use squared paper to measure areas to reinforce the use of the unit
Structurer. square, as well as non-integer values.
Draws and counts some, but not all, Shown an array, children are asked how many in a row (5–use number that
rows as rows. May make several rows
can easily be skip-counted). Sweep hand across the next row and repeat the
and then revert to making individual
question. Continue.
Area, Volume, and Angle • 179
squares, but aligns them in columns. Fill in every greater numbers of missing sections. Use language such as
Does not coordinate the width and “bringing down” or “up” a row.
height. In measurement contexts,
does not necessarily use the
dimensions of the rectangle to
constrain the unit size.
Children learn that the units must be aligned in an array with the same
number of units in each row by representing their actions of fitting
successive squares into the rectangle. Apart from the squares along the edges
of the rectangle, each additional square must match two of its sides to sides
of squares already drawn. A child who uses a ruler to draw lines across the
rectangle has surely become aware of the alignment of the squares but may
still be unaware of the congruence of the rows, so discussion and checking
may be important.
In “Arrays in Area,” children create a “row” the size they want, and
repeatedly pull rows down to cover the area. They then put in their answer.
This may help them solve the problems above.
Continued Overelaf
180 • Area, Volume, and Angle
7 Area/Spatial Structuring: Row and To progress, children need to move from local to global spatial structuring,
Column Structurer. coordinating their ideas and actions so see squares as part of rows and
Draws and counts rows as rows, columns.
drawing with parallel lines. Counts
Children are encouraged to “fill in” open regions by mentally constructing a
the number of squares by iterating the
row, setting up a 1–1 correspondence with the indicated positions, and then
number in each row, either using
physical objects or an estimate for the repeating that row to fill the rectangular region.
number of times to iterate. Those
who count by ones usually do so with
a systematic spatial strategy (e.g., by
row).
If the task is to measure an unmarked
rectangular region, measures one
dimension to determine the size of
the iterated squares and eventually
measures both, to determine the
number of rows needed in drawing.
May not need to complete the
Children learn that the length of a line specifies the number of unit lengths
drawing to determine the area by
counting (most younger children) or that will fit along it. Given rectangles with no markings. Discuss that,
computation (repeated addition or provided you put the zero mark against one end of the line, the number you
multiplication). read off the other end gives the number of units that would fit along the
line.
In “Arrays in Area,” (see above) children are challenged to visualize their
responses without covering the entire rectangle.
8 Area/Spatial Structuring: Array Give children two rectangles (later, shapes made from several rectangles)
Structurer. With linear measures or and ask them how much more space is in one than the other.
other similar indications of the two
dimensions, multiplicatively iterates
squares in a row or column to
determine the area.
Drawings are not necessary. In
multiple contexts, children can
compute the area from the length and
width of rectangles and explain how
that multiplication creates a measure
of area.
Area, Volume, and Angle • 181
Volume
Volume introduces even more complexity. First, the third dimension presents a significant challenge
to students’ spatial structuring, but the very nature of fluid materials that are measured with
volume presents another complexity. This leads to two ways to physically measure volume,
illustrated by “packing” a space such as a three-dimensional array with cubic units and “filling” a
three-dimensional space with iterations of a fluid unit that takes the shape of the container. Filling
is easier for children, about the same difficulty as measuring length. At first this might seem
surprising, but we can see why, especially in the situation of filling a cylindrical jar in which the
(linear) height corresponds with the volume.
On the other hand, “packing” volume is more difficult than length and area but also leads to
more sophisticated understandings and to formulas for volume. Preschoolers may learn that fewer
large objects will fit in a container than smaller objects. However, to understand packing volume,
they have to understand spatial structuring in three dimensions. For example, understanding the
spatial structure of one “layer” of a cube building is similar to understanding the spatial structure of
the area of a rectangle. With many layers, the situation is complex, especially as some objects in a
3D array are “inside” and therefore hidden from view. Many younger students count only the faces
of the cubes, often resulting in counting some cubes, such as those at the corners, multiple times
and not counting cubes in the interior. Only a fifth of third graders in one study understood arrays
of cubes as consisting of rows and columns in each of several layers.
0–3 Volume/Capacity: Volume Quantity Teachers listen for and extend conversations about things that hold a lot
Recognizer. Identifies capacity or (objects, sand, water).
volume as attribute.
Says, “This box holds a lot of blocks!” Continued Overleaf
182 • Area, Volume, and Angle
4 Capacity Direct Comparer. In “Compare Capacities,” children compare how much sand or water about
Can compare two containers. eight containers will hold. Ask children to show you which holds more and
Pours one container into another to how they knew. Eventually, ask which holds the most.
see which holds more.
5 Capacity Indirect Comparer. Ask children to show you which of two containers holds more when they
Can compare two containers using a use a third container to fill each of the others. Discuss how they knew.
third container and transitive
reasoning.
Pours one container into two others,
concluding that one holds less
because it overflows, and the other
is not fully filled.
6 Volume/Spatial Structuring: Primitive Students use cubes to fill boxes constructed so a small number of cubes fit
3D Array Counter. Partial well. They eventually predict how many cubes they will need, fill the box,
understanding of cubes as filling a and count to check.
space.
Initially, may count the faces of a cube
building, possibly double-counting
cubes at the corners and usually not
counting internal cubes.
Eventually counts one cube at a time
in carefully structured and guided
contexts, such as packing a small box
with cubes.
7 Capacity Relater and Repeater. Uses In “Measure Capacities,” provide three half-gallon containers labeled “A,”
simple units to fill containers, with “B,” and “C” in three different colors, cut to hold two, four, and eight cups, a
accurate counting. one-cup measuring cup, and water or sand. Ask children to find the one that
Fills a container by repeatedly filling a holds only four cups. Help them to fill to the “level top” of the measuring
unit and counting how many. cup.
With teaching, understands that fewer
larger than smaller objects or units
will be needed to fill a given container.
7 Volume/Spatial Structuring: Partial Students use cubes to fill boxes constructed so a small number of cubes fit
3D Structurer. Understands cubes as well. They eventually predict how many cubes they will need, fill the box,
filling a space, but does not use layers and count to check.
or multiplicative thinking. Moves to
more accurate counting strategies.
Counts unsystematically, but attempts
to account for internal cubes.
Counts systematically, trying to
account for outside and inside cubes.
Counts the numbers of cubes in one
row or column of a 3D structure and
using skip-counting to get the total.
8 Area/Spatial Structuring: 3D Row and Predict how many cubes will be needed to fill the box, then count and check.
Column Structurer. Students first get a net, or pattern (below on the left) and a picture.
Counts or computes (row by column)
the number of cubes in one row, and
then uses addition or skip-counting
to determine the total.
Computes (row times column) the
number of cubes in one row, and then
multiplies by the number of layers to
determine the total.
Area, Volume, and Angle • 183
9 Area/Spatial Structuring: 3D Array Ask students how many cubes are needed to fill only a picture of a box such
Structurer. With linear measures or as that above, and then just the dimensions. Later, non-integer measures
other similar indications of the two should be used.
dimensions, multiplicatively iterates
squares in a row or column to
determine the area.
Constructions and drawings are not
necessary. In multiple contexts,
children can compute the volume
of rectangular prisms from its
dimensions and explain how
multiplication creates a measure
of volume.
Figure 11.3 Angles with (1) the same and (2) different length line segments.
Figure 11.4 Turtle Math Tools: (a) “label lines” and “label turn” tools (inserts) and (b) “angle measure” tool.
several tools. The “Label Turns” tool shows the measure of each turn, reminding children that the
command “RT 135” created an external angle of 135°, creating an angle of 45° (the internal angle
formed by the two lines, 100 and 150 units long). Figure 11.4b shows a tool that allows children to
measure a turn they desire. These tools were built into Turtle Math (Clements & Meredith, 1994),
but teachers using any Logo, or turtle geometry environment, should ensure students understand
the relationships among these ideas. Encourage children to turn their bodies and discuss their
movements, then to visualize such movements mentally, using “benchmarks” such as 90° and 45°.
2–3 Intuitive Angle Builder Block-building with structured materials (e.g., unit blocks).
Intuitively uses some angle measure
Everyday navigation.
notions in everyday settings, such as
building with blocks.
Places blocks parallel to one another
and at right angles (with the
perceptual support of the blocks
themselves) to build a “road.”
4–5 Implicit Angle User Ask children who are building with blocks to describe why they placed
Implicitly uses some angle notions, blocks as they did, or challenge them to reroute a block “road,” to help them
including parallelism and reflect on parallelism, perpendicularly, and non-right angles.
perpendicularity, in physical
Use the term “angle” to describe a variety of contexts in which angle is used,
alignment tasks, construction with
from corners of shapes to bending wire, bends in a road, or ramps. Ask
blocks, or other everyday contexts
children to find and describe other things in the world that “have similar
(Mitchelmore, 1989, 1992; Seo &
angles.” Thus, children might relate a door opening to a scissors, a ramp
Ginsburg, 2004). May identify
made with blocks to a ladder against a wall, and so forth. The focus here
corresponding angles of a pair of
should be on the size of the “opening” (for a scissors) or angle (to the
congruent triangles using physical
horizontal, for a ramp).
models. Uses the word “angle” or
other descriptive vocabulary to
describe some of these situations.
Moves a long unit block to be parallel
with another blocks after adjusting
the distance between them so as to
accurately place perpendicular block
across them, in anticipation of laying
several other blocks perpendicularly
across them.
6 Angle Matcher Matches angles Children use Shape Set to find shapes that have the same angles, even if the
concretely. Explicitly recognizes shapes are not congruent.
parallels from non-parallels in
Solve shape puzzles that require attention to angle size (i.e., Shape
specific contexts (Mitchelmore,
Composer level or above; see Chapter 9).
1992). Sorts angles into “smaller” or
“larger” (but may be misled by
irrelevant features, such as length of
line segments).
Given several non-congruent
triangles, finds pairs that have one
angles that is the same measure, by
laying the angle on top of one another.
7 Angle Size Comparer Children use the Logo turtle to make or follow paths and construct shapes
Differentiates angle and angle size (Clements & Meredith, 1994).
from shapes and contexts and
Similarly, talk about turns and their measures in a variety of movement
compares angle sizes. Recognizes
contexts, such as taking walks and making maps.
right angles, and then equal angles of
other measures, in different Relate a variety of angle size contexts to a common metaphor, such as a
orientations (Mitchelmore, 1989). clock, noting the two sides of the angle (clock “hands”), the center of
Compares simple turns. (Note that rotation, and the amount of turning from one side to the other.Talk about
without instruction, this and higher “foolers” in which an angle with a smaller measure is represented with
levels may not be achieved even by longer line segments to address students’ persistent misconception that the
the end of the elementary grades.) length of the segments, or the resulting length between the endpoints, is an
“I put all the shapes that have right appropriate indication of angle size.
angles here, and all the ones that have
bigger or smaller angles over there.”
Turns Logo turtle, using degree
measurements.
Area, Volume, and Angle • 187
8+ Angle Measurer Understands angle Students calculate the measure (internal) of angles formed by the Logo
and angle measure in both primary turtle’s turns (exterior angle).
aspects and can represent multiple
See Angle Representer, p. 145.
contexts in terms of the standard,
generalizable concepts and
procedures of angle and angle
measure (e.g., two rays, the common
endpoint, rotation of one ray to the
other around that endpoint, and
measure of that rotation).
Final Words
Measurement is one of the principal real-world applications of mathematics. It also helps connect
the two other critical realms of early mathematics, geometry and number. Chapter 12 also deals
with content domains that are important in connecting mathematical ideas and in solving
real-world problems. These include patterns, structures, and early algebraic processes, and data
analysis.
12
Other Content Domains
NCTM’s Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (2000) included five content domains
for all grade bands: Number and Operations, Geometry, Measurement, Algebra, and Data Analysis
and Probability. Previous chapters have treated the first three in depth. What of the last two? What
role do they play?
189
190 • Other Content Domains
• Perceptual patterns, such as subitized domino patterns, finger patterns, or auditory patterns
(e.g., three beats) (see Chapter 2).
• Patterns in the number words of counting (Wu, 2007, see also Chapter 3).
• The “one-more” pattern of counting (Chapter 3), which also connects counting with
arithmetic.
• Numerical patterns, such as a mental representation of 3 as a triangle; or a similar pattern
of 5 that can be broken into 2 and 3 and then put them back together to make 5 again (see
Chapters 2, 3, 5, and 6).
• Arithmetic patterns that are especially powerful and easy for children to see: doubles (3 + 3,
7 + 7), which allow access to combinations such as 7 + 8, and fives (6 made as 5 + 1, 7 as 5 + 2,
etc.), which allow for decomposition into fives (see also Chapter 6, as well as other examples
in Parker & Baldridge, 2004).
• Spatial patterns, such as the spatial pattern of squares (Chapter 8) or the composition of
shapes (Chapter 9), including array structures (Chapter 11).
None of these examples of patterns in early mathematics illustrates the most typical practice of
“doing patterns” in early childhood classrooms. Typical practice involves activities such as making
paper chains that are “red, blue, red, blue . . .” and so forth. Such sequential repeated patterns may
be useful, but educators should be aware of the role of patterns in mathematics and mathematics
education and of how sequential repeated patterns such as the paper chains fit into (but certainly do
not, alone, constitute) the large role of patterning and structure.
To begin, mathematician Lynne Steen referred to mathematics as the “science of patterns”—
patterns in number and space (1988). The theory of mathematics, according to Steen, is built on
relations among patterns and on applications derived from the fit between pattern and
observations.
So, the concept of “pattern” goes far beyond sequential repeated patterns. Patterning is the search
for mathematical regularities and structures. Identifying and applying patterns helps bring order,
cohesion, and predictability to seemingly unorganized situations and allows you to make
generalizations beyond the information in front of you. Although it can be viewed as a “content
area,” patterning is more than a content area it is a process, a domain of study, and a habit of mind.
From this broad perspective, children begin this development from the first year of life, as previous
chapters have shown. Here we limit ourselves mainly to sequential and other types of repeated
patterns and their extension to algebraic thinking—the NCTM content domain most clearly linked
to early work with patterns. But we should not forgot that this is just one small aspect of Steen’s
“science of patterns.”
From the earliest years, children are sensitive to patterns—of actions, behaviors, visual displays,
and so forth. An explicit understanding of patterns develops gradually during the early childhood
years. For example, about ¾ of those entering school can copy a repeating pattern, but only ¹⁄³ can
extend or explain such patterns. Preschoolers can learn to copy simple patterns and, at least by
kindergarten, children can learn to extend and create patterns. Further, children learn to recognize
the relationship between different representations of the same pattern (e.g., between visual and
motoric, or movement, patterns; red, blue, red, blue . . . and snap, clap, snap, clap . . .). This is
a crucial step in using patterns to make generalizations and to reveal common underlying
structures. In the early years of school, children benefit from learning to identify the core unit
(e.g., AB) that either repeats (ABABAB) or “grows” (ABAABAAAB), and then use it to generate
both these types of patterns. Little else is known, except that patterns are one of many elements
of teaching visual literacy with positive long-term impact in the Agam program (Razel & Eylon,
1990).
Other Content Domains • 191
Where is “algebra” in patterns? Having one thing stand for another is the beginnings of
algebraic representation. Note that by the pre-K or kindergartner year, many children can name
patterns with conventions such as “ABAB.” This is potentially another step to algebraic thinking,
as it involves using variable names (letters) to label or identify patterns that involve different
physical embodiments. Such naming helps children recognize that mathematics focuses on under-
lying structure, not physical appearances. Further, making a one-to-one correspondence is a
primitive version of the basic algebraic notion of mapping—like a function table. Perhaps most
clear is that even preschoolers and kindergartners can make certain “early algebraic generaliza-
tions, such as “subtracting zero from any number gives that number,” or that “subtracting a
number from itself gives zero.” Such algebraic generalizations can be further developed in the
primary grades, although students usually become conscious of these only with explicit guidance
from the teacher.
This body of research on young children’s understanding of patterns may be used to
establish developmentally appropriate learning trajectories for pattern instruction in early
mathematics education, at least for simple sequential repeated patterns. The research is even
thinner regarding patterning as a way of thinking. The next section includes some promising
approaches.
the learning trajectories of patterning in all its forms and the wider implications of patterning as a
habit of mind. We agree that in patterning, as in all mathematical areas, there is a need to help
teachers plan specific experiences and activities, capitalize on relevant child-initiated activities, and
elicit and guide mathematically generative discussions in all settings.
Illustrating this approach, additional projects from Australia show the power of emphasizing a
broad range of activities focusing on mathematical pattern and structure. The instructional activities
developed students’ visual memory as they observed, recalled and represented numerical and
spatial structures in processes such as counting, partitioning, subitizing, grouping and unitizing
(this implies that many of the most important patterning activities in this book are in other chapters,
as the introduction to this chapter suggested). These activities were regularly repeated in varied
form to encourage children to generalize. For example, children reproduced patterns, including
sequential repeating patterns and simple grids and arrays of varying sizes (including triangular or
square numbers). They explained why patterns are “the same” and described repeating patterns
with ordinal numbers (e.g., “every third block is blue”). They reproduced grid patterns when part
of the pattern was hidden, or from memory.
Thus, these “pattern and structure” activities included visual structures such as those used
in subitizing (Chapter 2) and spatial structuring (Chapters 7 and 11); structuring linear space
(Chapter 10) and the structure of numbers connected to these (Chapters 3 to 6). Thus, this view of
pattern and structure includes, but goes far beyond, simple linear patterns, and connects seemingly
separate areas of mathematics. Children who do not develop this type of knowledge tend to make little
progress in mathematics.
Moving into the elementary school years, children benefit from describing patterns with
numbers. Even sequential repeating patterns can be described as “two of something, then one of
something else.” The patterns of counting, arithmetic, spatial structuring, and so forth have been
emphasized in other chapters. Here we re-emphasize that children should be helped to make and
use arithmetic generalizations, such as the following:
• When you add zero to a number the sum is always that number.
• When you add one to a number the sum is always the next number in the counting
sequence.
• When you add two numbers it does not matter which number “comes first.”
• When you add three numbers it does not matter which two you add first.
For many, these are the first clear links among patterns, number, and algebra. One student’s use
of a strategy might prompt another student to ask why it would work, which would lead to
discussions of general statements about a given operation. However, Carpenter and Levi found this
did not occur regularly in first and second grade classrooms, so they used Bob Davis’ activities from
the Madison Project, in particular his activities involving true and false and open number sentences.
For example, students were asked to verify the truth of “true/false number sentences” such as
22 − 12 = 10 (true or false?), and others such as 7 + 8 = 16, 67 + 54 = 571. They also solved open
number sentences of a variety of forms. The open number sentences involved single variables, such
as x + 58 = 84, multiple variables such as x + y = 12, and repeated variables, such as x + x = 48.
Certain cases were selected to prompt discussion of basic properties of numerical operations and
relations; for example verifying the truth of 324 + 0 = 324 led students to generalizations about zero
(Note: when you say adding a zero to a number does not change that number, you must mean
adding “just plain zero,” not concatenating a zero, such as 10 —> 100 or adding numbers that
include zero, such as 100 + 100; Carpenter & Levi, 1999). Students also enjoyed and benefitted from
creating and trading their own true/false number sentences. Another case is sentences in the form of
Other Content Domains • 193
15 + 16 = 15 + x. This may prompt students to recognize they do not have to compute, and then to
use more sophisticated strategies for problems such as 67 + 83 = x + 82 (Carpenter, Franke, & Levi,
2003, pp. 47–57).
These researchers also indicated several practices to avoid (Carpenter et al., 2003). For example,
avoid using the equal sign to list objects and numbers (e.g., John = 8, Marcie = 9 . . .). Do not use it
to give a number in a collection (||| = 3) or to indicate that the same number is in two collections.
Finally, do not use it to represent strings of calculations, such as 20 + 30 = 50 + 7 = 57 + 8 = 65. This
last one is a common, but perhaps the most egregious case. It could be replaced with series of
equations, if they are really needed, such as 20 + 30 = 50; 50 + 7 = 57; 57 + 8 = 65.
There are a few more research-based instructional suggestions on the equal sign, which is often
badly taught. One project introduces it only in the context of finding all the decompositions for a
number, and they place that number (e.g., 5) first: 5 = 5 + 0, 5 = 4 + 1, 5 = 3 + 2 (Fuson &
Abrahamson, in press). Children then write equations chains in which they write a number in many
varied ways (e.g., 9 = 8 + 1 = 23 − 14 = 109 − 100 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 5 = . . .). Such work helps avoid
limited conceptualizations.
Another study found that kindergartners and first graders knowledge could recognize legitimate
number sentences, such as 3 + 2 = 5, but only first graders could produce such sentences. However,
they found it more difficult to recognize number sentences such as 8 = 12 − 4. Thus, teachers need
to provide a variety of examples for children, including having the operation on the right side and
having multiple operations, such as 4 + 2 + 1 + 3 + 2 = 12. In all such work, discuss the nature of
addition and subtraction number sentences and the different symbols, the role they play, and their
defining and non-defining properties. For example, students might eventually generalize to see not
just that 3 + 2 = 5 and 2 + 3 = 5, but that 3 + 2 = 2 + 3. Still, however, they might only see that the
order of the numbers “does not matter”—without understanding that this is a property of addition
(not pairs of numbers in general). Discussions can help them to understand the arithmetic
operations as “things to think about” and to discuss their properties (see many examples in Kaput,
Carraher, & Blanton, 2008).
Another study of third and fourth graders revealed that teaching the equal sign in equations
contrasted with the greater than (>) and less than (<) signs helped these students understand the
equal sign relational meaning (Hattikudur & Alibali, 2007). The students learned three signs in
the same time that the comparison students learned just one.
A final study found that providing second graders with equations such as 2 + 5 + 1 = 3 + _ and
giving them feedback improved their performance substantially. The type of tasks, non-symbolic,
semi-symbolic, or symbolic, did not matter (Sherman, Bisanz, & Popescu, 2007). What probably
does matter is whether students see such work and all arithmetic work as a sense-making activity.
That is, asked to solve a problem like 8 + 4 = + 5 students often put 12 in the box. Others include
the 5 in their total, putting 17 in the box. Others create a running total by putting a 12 in the box
and an “= 17” following the 5 (Franke, Carpenter, & Battey, 2008). As discussed, they see the equal
sign as an instruction to compute, as “the answer is coming” sign. This is not its mathematical
meaning.
Solutions are facilitated when one understands the semantics—the meaning of each symbol. For
example, students might think as follows:
What I face is an equation, with a number I don’t know. I am supposed to find the number in
the box. The two sides of the equation must be equal. I do know how to find the sum on the
left-hand side of the equation: 8 + 4 = 12. So, I can rewrite the equation as
12 = + 5,
194 • Other Content Domains
+ 5 = 12.
So, now I’m looking for the number that has the property that when I add 5 to it, I get 12.
I know how to do that. The answer is 7, so 7 goes in the box. And, I can check: 8 + 4 = 12 and
7 + 5 = 12, so 8 + 4 = 7 + 5. (Schoenfeld, 2008)
Such solutions depend on knowing the semantics of the equation. If students see these equations
in terms of their meaning, they can make sense of them and solve them. Schoenfeld argues that
every problem, even 3 + 2 = 5, is related to meaning (a group of 5 is combined with a group of 2 . . .)
and that the more it is explicitly connected to that meaning for students, the stronger will be both
their arithmetic and early algebra competence.
This means that teaching computation without attention to relational and algebraic thinking
erects a roadblock to students’ later progress in math. Students must see all math as a search for
patterns, structure, relationships, as a process of making and testing ideas, and, in general,
making sense of quantitative and spatial situations (Schoenfeld, 2008). Only if they do so
throughout their work with math will they be well prepared for later math, including
algebra.
One last project is perhaps the most surprising. The Mathematics Enhancement Project in
England has developed algebra activities for preschoolers. Consider the problem of solving two
simultaneous linear equations x + y = 4 and x = y. In this project, 4- to 5-year-old children color in
the outlines of snails following two rules: they have to color in four snails, and the number of brown
snails must equal the number of yellow snails. The materials were developed by David Burghes
based on the Hungary Mathematics Curriculum.
Readers interested in early algebra, especially for students in grades 2 through the intermediate
grades, should consult the companion book. There they will find an extended discussion of several
other projects with students across those grades.
• Algebra: Children recognize and duplicate simple sequential patterns (e.g., square, circle,
square, circle, square, circle, . . .).
• Algebra: Children identify, duplicate, and extend simple number patterns and sequential and
growing patterns (e.g., patterns made with shapes) as preparation for creating rules that
describe relationships.
First grade includes one focal point (on addition and subtraction; see Chapter 5) and two
connections:
Other Content Domains • 195
• Number and Operations and Algebra: Children use mathematical reasoning, including ideas
such as commutativity and associativity and beginning ideas of tens and ones, to solve two-
digit addition and subtraction problems with strategies that they understand and can explain.
They solve both routine and nonroutine problems.
• Algebra: Through identifying, describing, and applying number patterns and properties
in developing strategies for basic facts, children learn about other properties of numbers and
operations, such as odd and even (e.g., “Even numbers of objects can be paired, with none left
over”), and 0 as the identity element for addition.
Second grade includes one focal point (on addition and subtraction; see Chapter 5) and one
connection:
• Algebra: Children use number patterns to extend their knowledge of properties of numbers
and operations. For example, when skip-counting, they build foundations for understanding
multiples and factors.
Thus, the early work with sequential patterns soon expands to growing patterns and arithmetical
patterns.
A learning trajectory for patterns is presented in Table 12.1. As stated previously, this mostly
concerns the simple, typical case of sequential repeated patterns. (Further, the sequence here comes
mainly from the few studies on patterning with young children, mostly our Building Blocks and
TRIAD projects.) This includes but a small portion of the learning about the processes of patterning
and the concepts described by “pattern and structure.”
2 Pre-Explicit Patterner Detects and Emphasize the patterns in children’s songs, poems, and spontaneous
uses patterning implicitly, but may movements, such as dancing.
not recognize sequential linear
Work with manipulatives such as blocks, puzzles, manipulatives to
patterns explicitly or accurately.
order (e.g., simple materials such as pencils of different lengths or
Names a striped shirt with no such commercial materials as those from the Montessori group) and
repeating unit a “pattern.”
discussions of regularities help children use and eventually recognize
patterns.
3 Pattern Recognizer Recognizes a Count and Move in Patterns Spend only a few minutes counting with
simple pattern. children in patterns of 2, or another appropriate even number; for example,
“I’m wearing a pattern” about a shirt “one, two! . . . three, four! . . . five, six! . . . .” For more fun, get a drum or
with black, white, black white . . . stripes. use the corners of a wooden block to tap along with the counting, tapping
harder for emphasis at each second beat.
Pattern Walk Read the book, I See Patterns. Patterns in the world may be
confusing because of all the irrelevant, distracting information available.
The book will help explain and distinguish types of patterns. Then go on a
pattern walk and find, discuss, photograph, and draw the patterns you see.
Clothes Patterns Find repeating patterns in children’s clothing colors.
Encourage them to wear clothes with patterns and to discuss the patterns
they wear to school.
Continued Overleaf
196 • Other Content Domains
4 Pattern Fixer Fills in missing element Pattern Fixer Show children a geometric pattern and chant it with
of pattern, first with ABAB patterns. them (e.g., square, triangle, square, triangle, square, triangle . . . at
Given objects in a row with one least three complete units of the pattern). Point to a space later in the
missing, ABAB_BAB, identifies and pattern where a shape “fell off.” Ask children what shape they need to
fills in the missing element. fix the pattern. If children need help, have them chant the pattern as you
point to each block, allowing the pattern of words indicate the missing
shape.
Pattern Duplicator AB Duplicates Pattern Strips Show children a strip of paper with a geometric pattern
ABABAB pattern. May have to work pictured on it and have children describe the pattern on the strip (square,
close to the model pattern. circle, square, circle, square, circle . . .).
Given objects in a row, ABABAB, • Have the children help you copy the pattern, if necessary, by placing pattern
makes their own ABABAB row in a blocks directly on the pattern strip.
different location. • Have them chant the pattern as you point to each block.
Pattern Extender AB Extends AB Pattern Strips—Extend Show children pattern strip with an ABABAB
repeating patterns. pattern and ask them to use materials to “keep going” with the pattern.
Given objects in a row, ABABAB, adds Discuss how they knew how to do so.
ABAB to the end of the row.
Marching Patterns 1: Extend AB Children extend a linear AB pattern of
musicians by one full repetition of an entire unit. When they complete the
pattern, the musicians march in a parade.
Pattern Duplicator Duplicates Dancing Patterns Tell the children they will be dancing patterns and
simple patterns (not just alongside the first one will be clap (“one”), kick (“one”), kick (“two”); clap
the model pattern). (“one”), kick (“one”), kick (“two”); clap (“one”), kick (“one”), kick
Given objects in a row, ABBABBABB, (“two”) . . . . Sing a song along with the pattern. Later, have them
makes their own ABBABBABB row in describe the pattern.
a different location.
Pattern Planes 2 (and 3) Children duplicate a linear AAB or ABB (for 2;
ABC for level 3) pattern of flags based on an outline that serves as a guide.
When they complete the pattern, they help an airplane land.
Other Content Domains • 197
5 Pattern Extender Extends simple Creative Patterns This is a good time to add pattern-creating materials to
repeating patterns. your creative area. Someone is sure to want to make a pattern they can take
Given objects in a row, ABBABBABB, home.
adds ABBABB to the end of the row.
Pattern Strips—Extend Show children pattern strip and ask them to use
materials to “keep going” with the pattern. Discuss how they knew how to
do so.
Stringing Beads Following a “pattern tag” at the end of the string, children
place beads on the string to extend the pattern and make a pattern necklace.
Marching Patterns 2 (and 3): Extend Children extend a linear pattern of
musicians by one full repetition of an entire unit. When they complete the
pattern, the musicians march in a parade. The musicians are in patterns
such as AAB and ABB in level 2, ABC in level 3.
6 Pattern Unit Recognizer Identifies Pattern Strips—The Core Re-introduce Pattern Strips, emphasizing the
the smallest unit of a pattern. Can idea of the core of the pattern.
translate patterns into new media. • Show children a pattern strip and have children describe the pattern on the strip
Given objects in a, ABBABBABB (vertical, vertical, horizontal; vertical, vertical, horizontal; vertical, vertical,
pattern, identifies the core unit of the horizontal; . . .).
pattern as ABB. • Ask them what the “core” of this pattern is (“vertical, vertical, horizontal”).
• Have the children help you copy the pattern using sticks. Each child should
make one copy of the core.
• Ask them to “keep going” by adding additional copies of the core.
Cube Patterns Put a large group of cubes in the middle of the children.
Show them a “tower” of cubes of two colors, such as blue, blue, yellow.
Continued Overleaf
198 • Other Content Domains
7 Numeric Patterner Describes a Growing Patterns Children observe, copy, and create patterns that grow,
pattern numerically, can translate especially those such as the square growing pattern and triangular
between geometric and numeric growing pattern, noting the geometric and numerical patterns that they
representation of a series. embody.
Given objects in a geometric pattern,
describes the numeric progression.
Arithmetic and Algebraic Thinking See the many examples in the text.
Data Analysis
The foundations for data analysis, especially for the early years, lie in other areas, such as counting
and classification. That is why the Curriculum Focal Points emphasized classification and quantity
in its description of data analysis for preschool and kindergarten. And, as “connections” to the focal
points, they are always based on analyses of numerical, geometrical, and/or measurement items.
Object counting was discussed in Chapter 3. The fundamental competencies in classification will be
discussed in Chapter 13.
Other Content Domains • 199
As a simple example, children initially learn to sort objects and quantify their groups. They
might sort a collection of buttons into those with one to four holes and count to find out how many
they have in each of the four groups. To do this, they focus on and describe the attributes of objects,
classifying according to those attributes, and quantify the resulting categories. Children eventually
became capable of simultaneously classifying and counting; for example, counting the number of
colors in a group of objects, as described previously.
After gathering data to answer questions, children’s initial representations often do not use
categories. Their interest in data is on the particulars (Russell, 1991). For example, they might
simply list each child in their class and each child’s response to a question. They then learn to
classify these responses and represent data according to category. Finally, young children can use
physical objects to make graphs (objects that are the object of attention, such as shows, then
manipulatives such as connecting cubes), then picture graphs, then line plots, and, finally, bar
graphs that include grid lines to facilitate reading frequencies (Friel, Curcio, & Bright, 2001). By
second grade, most children should be able to organize and display data through both simple
numerical summaries such as counts, tables, and tallies, and graphical displays, including picture
graphs, line plots, and bar graphs (Russell, 1991). They can compare parts of the data, make
statements about the data as a whole, and generally determine whether the graphs answer the
questions posed initially.
To understand data analysis, students must learn the dual concepts of expectation and variation.
Expectation deals with averages and probabilities (such as the mean, one measure of central ten-
dency). Variation deals with uncertainty, “spread” of values (such as the standard deviations),
outliers, and anticipated and unanticipated change. Data analysis has been called the search for
signals (expectations) within the noise (variation) (Konold & Pollatsek, 2002). This research
agrees that children often initially see only the individuals in a data display (“That’s me. I liked
chocolate best”). They do not “pull the pieces together” to think about the data as a whole. Children
in the late primary or early intermediate grades can learn to view ranges in data or view the mode
(the number or range of numbers that occurs most frequently). Eventually, students can focus on
features of the data set as a whole, including the relative frequencies, density (“shape”), and location
(centers, such as the mean). Again, more information, especially for older students, is available in
the companion book.
A final note connects data representation to the discussion of algebraic thinking. The goal of both
should be making sense of quantitative situations and laying the foundation for more complex
math to come. At the heart of both is the examination of quantitative relationships and representing
those relationships to better make sense of them.
• Children learn the foundations of data analysis by using objects’ attributes that they have
identified in relation to geometry and measurement (e.g., size, quantity, orientation, number
of sides or vertices, color) for various purposes, such as describing, sorting, or comparing. For
example, children sort geometric figures by shape, compare objects by weight (“heavier,”
“lighter”), or describe sets of objects by the number of objects in each set.
• Children sort objects and use one or more attributes to solve problems. For example, they
might sort solids that roll easily from those that do not. Or they might collect data and use
counting to answer such questions as, “What is our favorite snack?” They re-sort objects by
using new attributes (e.g., after sorting solids according to which ones roll, they might re-sort
the solids according to which ones stack easily).
• Children strengthen their sense of number by solving problems involving measurements and
data. Measuring by laying multiple copies of a unit end to end and then counting the units
by using groups of tens and ones supports children’s understanding of number lines and
number relationships. Representing measurements and discrete data in picture and bar
graphs involves counting and comparisons that provide another meaningful connection to
number relationships.
Second grade includes two connections that are not titled “data analysis” but mention data:
• Children add and subtract to solve a variety of problems, including applications involving
measurement, geometry, and data, as well as nonroutine problems.
• Children estimate, measure, and compute lengths as they solve problems involving data,
space, and movement through space.
• Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of whole numbers come into play as
students construct and analyze frequency tables, bar graphs, picture graphs, and line plots and
use them to solve problems.
Thus, data is seen as an important context for solving problems but not as a focal point itself for
these age ranges. This is consistent with the consensus of a group attempting to create research-
based standards for young children that a main role for data analysis would lie in supporting the
development of mathematic processes and the content domains of number, geometry, and spatial
sense (Clements & Conference Working Group, 2004). For example, gathering data to answer a
question or make a decision is potentially an effective means to develop applied problem-solving and
number and/or spatial sense, as children simultaneously learn about data analysis.
The educational role of most of the processes has been described in previous chapters as it relates
to specific topics (classifying and other processes are discussed in the following chapter, Chapter
13). Here we discuss the role of graphs. Preschoolers appear to be able to understand discrete graphs
as representations of numerosity based on one-to-one correspondence. Providing them with
examples, motivating tasks such as graphing their progress toward gathering items for a scavenger
hunt, and feedback, may be helpful.
The instruction in one successful exploratory study used two phases (Schwartz n.d.). Phase 1
consists of group experiences. Selection of the topics for group graphing is guided by children’s
interest and ease of collection of data (“Who are the people that live in their houses?” or “How does
each child come to school?” or “What is their favorite home activity?”). Providing a variety of models
for recording data begins with concrete materials and extends to graphic, alphabetic, and numeric
representation. Teachers pose the problem of how the group could save the information, so “we
won’t forget what we said.” Some children suggested using concrete materials for graphing the
Other Content Domains • 201
information. Also, many had little concern for sorting the data as they recorded it. After a plan was
agreed upon, children were able to help record the information. Summarizing and interpreting
the data began with the question, “What did we find out?,” which focused attention on sorting the
information. If a decision had to be made, such as what kinds of cookies to purchase, children
resorted. The second phase was independent data collection for those children who were interested.
These experiences build upon those in phase 1, with the teacher providing tools (clipboards were
popular), and working with individuals to organize, record, and communicate their findings.
Another study reported success with children working with software that develops foundational
skills for data analysis (Hancock, 1995). Using “Tabletop Jr.,” children make and arrange objects,
such as cartoon characters, pizzas, stick figures, party hats, attribute “blocks,” numerals, and
abstract designs, which will be used to represent data or be the objects of the exploration. All objects
are created by combining simple attributes, just as attribute blocks are structured (such blocks are
one of the object sets). Children can choose the attributes for each object produced, or have them
generated randomly (Figure 12.2).
Next, they can arrange them in different ways, including using loops (Venn diagrams), bunches,
stacks (picture graphs), grids, and chains. Children can make free-form arrangements manually,
or they can get the objects to arrange themselves automatically, based on their attributes. The
objects are animated and move across the screen to meet whatever rule of arrangement has been
defined by the user. Arrangements may be treated as patterns and designs, or as plots and graphs
that can help with analyzing data. Figure 12.3 is a computer-generated sort of children’s hand
sizes.
These tools can be used to play “guess my rule” and others that emphasize attributes, sorting,
and arranging data. Anecdotal reports with children as young as 5 years of age are positive (Han-
cock, 1995).
Figure 12.2 Using “Tabletop Jr.,” children create stick figures by choosing attributes.
202 • Other Content Domains
Figure 12.3 Children instruct the computer to sort their data in a pictograph.
Thus, we suggest that curricula and teachers might focus on one big idea: Classifying, organizing,
representing, and using information to ask and answer questions. If graphing is to be part of that
type of activity, young children might use physical objects to make graphs, such as laying down
“shoes or sneakers” in two columns on a square grid laid on the floor. Next, they could use
manipulatives, or other discrete, physical objects such as connecting cubes. This could be repre-
sented next with picture graphs (Friel et al., 2001) and, in first grade, with simple bar graphs.
By third grade, most children should be able to organize and display data through both simple
numerical summaries such as counts, frequency tables, and graphical displays, including picture
graphs, bar graphs, and line plots, as fits the question and the data (Russell, 1991). Students can
compare parts of the data, make statements about the data as a whole, and generally determine
whether the graphs address the issue at hand. At all times, emphasis should be on the classifications
and the numerical results and how they are used to make decisions or answer the question initially
posed.
Final Words
How essential are the topics of this chapter? If viewed as “separate topics”—for example, units of
instruction on different types of repeating patterns, or on graphing—they are of secondary import-
ance and may even take too much time away from the core instruction described in previous
chapters. However, if they are viewed as fundamental processes and ways of thinking—habits of
mind that seek mathematical patterns and structure and classify mathematical objects and ideas—
they are an essential component of most all early mathematics education. (The importance of early
graphing is unknown and we do not emphasize it in our own curriculum development work.)
Similar arguments apply to the processes that are the focus of Chapter 13.
13
Mathematical Processes
Carmen had almost filled her pretend pizzas with toppings. As she got ready to roll the number
cube, she said, “I’m going to get a high number and win!” “You can’t,” replied her friend, “You have
4 spaces and the number cube only has 1s, 2s, and 3s on it.”
The numbers may be small, but the reasoning is impressive. Children can reason mathematically.
Indeed, one could argue that mathematics is essential for all thinking. That’s a strong statement.
How can it be true that all thinking involves mathematics? Logic (reasoning) is a branch of mathe-
matics, and thinking involves logic at some point.
Consider the first vignette. Before reading further, ask yourself: What reasoning do you think
Carmen’s friend was using? In our view, Carmen’s friend probably intuitively used logic that might
be described as the following:
Although logic might seem like the most abstract, least likely area of mathematics for young
children to learn to use, researchers and other sensitive observers see implicit use of logic in all
children. An 18-month-old child pulling a blanket to bring a toy within reach shows the beginnings
of “means-end” analysis.
Children appear to be impressive problem-solvers, as we’ve seen in every previous chapter. Here,
we focus on problem-solving, reasoning, and other processes.
203
204 • Mathematical Processes
Young children arguing that “we already found 5 + 2 is 7, so we know 2 + 5, ‘cause you can always
add with either number first” shows again their ability to reason from mathematical properties
(Chapters 5 and 6).
Of course, children use such reasoning in solving problems. There are also additional strategies
possessed by young children. Luke, 3 years old, watched his father unsuccessfully looking under the
van for a washer that had fallen and suggested, “Why don’t you just roll the car back, so you can find
it?” Luke employed means–end analysis better than his father. This strategy involves determining
the difference between the current state and the goal, and then taking action that reduces the
difference between them, reasoning backward from the goal to set subgoals. Means–end problem-
solving may emerge between 6 and 9 months, when, as in the previous example, children learn to
pull on a blanket to bring a toy into their reach.
Even young children have multiple problem-solving strategies at their disposal and the ability to
choose among them. Means–end analysis is a general strategy, as are several others. Children know
and prefer cognitively easier strategies. For example, in hill climbing, children reason forward from
the current state in the direction of the desired goal (DeLoache, Miller, & Pierroutsakos, 1998). Trial
and error, with light cognitive requirements, begins early, with Piagetian circular reactions trying to
make an interesting sight or sound repeat.
These strategies develop throughout the toddler and preschool years, enabling children to
address problems of increasing complexity. For example, recall that kindergartners can solve a wide
range of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division problems when they are encouraged to
use manipulatives or drawings to model the objects, actions, and relationships in those situations.
In summary, considering their minimal experience, young children are impressive problem-
solvers. They are learning to learn and learning the rules of the “reasoning game.” Research on
problem-solving and reasoning again reveals that children are more skilled, and adults less skilled,
than conventionally thought. Finally, although domain-specific knowledge is essential, we should
not fail to recognize that reasoning from domain-specific knowledge builds upon the basis of
mindful general problem-solving and reasoning abilities that are evident from the earliest years.
Classification
At all ages, children classify intuitively. For example, by 2 weeks of age, infants distinguish between
objects they suck and those they do not. By 2 years, toddlers form sets with objects that are similar
on some properties, although not necessarily identical.
Not until age 3 can most children follow verbal rules for sorting. In the preschool ages, many
children learn to sort objects according to a given attribute, forming categories, although they may
switch attributes during the sorting. Not until age 5 or 6 years do children usually sort consistently
by a single attribute and re-classify by different attributes.
Seriation
Young children also learn to seriate objects—putting them in order—from early in life. From 18
months of age, they know vocabulary such as “big,” “small,” and “more.” By 2 or 3 years of age,
they can compare numbers and number pairs on the basis of a common ordering relation. At 3
years, children can make paired comparisons, and 4-year-olds can make small series, but most do
not seriate all objects. At about 5 years, children can put six lengths in order by length. Most 5-year-
olds also can insert elements into a series.
Mathematical Processes • 205
Before moving to the next section, we note that patterning, writ large, is also one of the most
important processes and habits of mind for mathematical thinking. This type of patterning includes
but goes far beyond “red, red, blue; red, red, blue . . .” to include the propensity to see relationships,
regularities, and structures in every mathematical domain. We discussed this essential process in
Chapter 12.
The NCTM, the NAEYC, mathematicians (e.g., Wu, 2007), and research all point to the same
educational goal and recommendation: essential processes, especially reasoning and problem-
solving, must be central to the mathematical education of students of all ages.
Reasoning
Help children develop pre-mathematical reasoning from the earliest years. Provide an environment
that invites exploration and reasoning with objects such as blocks. Encourage language to support
the growth of reasoning abilities. For example, labeling situations with both “Daddy/Mommy/
Baby” and “big/little/tiny” led to a 2-year-age gain in reasoning with relations in 3-year-old
children. As other chapters have shown, having children explain and justify their solutions to
mathematical problems is an effective way to develop mathematical (and general) reasoning.
Problem Solving1
Children make progress when they solve many problems over the course of years. Children as young
as preschoolers and kindergartners, and perhaps younger, benefit from planned instruction (but
not prescribed strategies), from a teacher who believes problem solving is important. They benefit
from modeling a wide variety of situations (geometric, and, in arithmetic, varied problem types,
including addition, subtraction, and, at least from kindergarten on, multiplication, and division)
with concrete objects, and also from drawing a representation to show their thinking, from
explaining and discussing their solutions.
Solving more complex word problems remains a challenge for primary grade students. Their
conceptions must move from the many messy details of a real-world situation to more abstracted
(mathematized) quantitative conceptions (Fuson & Abrahamson, in press). For example, children
might read, “Mary bought 8 candies at the store, but she ate 3 on the way home. How many did she
still have when she got home?” The children have to see that the store plays little part, but that it’s
important that there is a group of candies and some got eaten. They might then think, she had 8 but
ate 3. Then, I have to find 8 take away 3. Then they might think to model this with fingers, finally
putting up 8 fingers and lowering the 3 on one hand.
As an example sequence, start by having as many students as possible solve a problem at the
chalkboard, using diagrams, numerals, and so forth, while others solve them at their seats, on
student-sized chalk- or whiteboards if available. Then ask two to three to explain their solutions.
Have a different group go to the chalkboard to solve the next problem. Eventually, all children
206 • Mathematical Processes
explain their thinking on at least one problem (and explain to another student on most). English
language learners may point to their diagram or co-present a solution with a peer.
Progress from easier to more difficult problem types. For each problem type, move from
problems with more familiar situations and language to those that are less familiar. Guide students
to use more sophisticated strategies and then to algorithms. Also, introduce problems with extra or
missing information, as well as multistep problems. Finally, use larger or more complex numbers
(e.g., fractions). Combine new problem types with other problem types and practiced, with
feedback. See pp. 62 and 73–80 for problem types.
Research suggests that this process of mathematizing the story situation has a reverse process
that is also important. That is, children should also make up word problems that fit number
sentences (Fuson & Abrahamson, in press). Problem posing appears to be an effective way for
children to express their creativity and integrate their learning (Brown & Walter, 1990; Kilpatrick,
1987; van Oers, 1994). Few empirical studies have been conducted that verify effects of problem-
posing, however, and none involved young children.
The child may on occasion be interested in seriating for the sake of seriating, in classifying for
the sake of classifying, etc., but, in general, it is when events or phenomena must be explained
Mathematical Processes • 207
For example, although many types of activities may support the learning of classification, a guide-
line of “classify with good causation” (Forman & Hill, 1984) indicates that children will learn from
sorting shapes according to teachers’ directions, but more from also sorting three-dimensional
objects to find out which will and will not roll down a ramp . . . and why.
Taking a wider Piagetian view, researchers (Kamii et al., 2005) provided low-income first graders
a variety of physical knowledge activities, such as bowling, balancing cubes (on a circular plate
balanced on a soda bottle), and pick-up sticks, instead of typical mathematics instruction. When
they showed “readiness” for arithmetic, they were given arithmetic games and word problems that
stimulated the exchange of viewpoints. At the end of the year, the experimental group (who did
these activities) was compared with similar groups who received traditional exercises that focused
narrowly on number (counting, one-to-one correspondences, and answering questions like 2 + 2).
The experimental group was superior in mental arithmetic and logical reasoning as revealed by
word problems. The researchers claim that the physical knowledge activities also develop logico-
mathematical knowledge, as in classifying the sticks to decide which stick to pick up first and
seriating them from easiest to hardest to pick up. Effects of the physical knowledge and arithmetic
activities cannot be disaggregated, and there was no random assignment, but the results are suggest-
ive (see also Kamii & Kato, 2005). We need well-designed studies that evaluate these and other
approaches, and compare their long-term effects.
Finally, research suggests that the processes of classification and seriation are related to number
knowledge—but in surprising ways. Preschoolers were randomly assigned to one of three
educational conditions for 8 weeks: classification and seriation, number (subitizing and counting),
and control (Clements, 1984). The first two groups improved on what they were taught, but also
improved on the other topics. Also surprisingly, the number group learned more about classification
and seriation than the classification and seriation group learned about number. It may be that all
number and counting implies some level of classification. For example, children might count the
blue cars, the red cars, and then all the cars.
Final Words
Children can be impressive problem solvers. They are learning to learn and learning the rules of the
“reasoning game.” Problem posing and problem solving are effective ways for children to express
their inventiveness and integrate their learning. They develop mathematics, language, and creativity.
And they build connections among these—the essence of learning to think.
Especially for younger children, mathematical topics should not be treated as isolated topics;
rather, they should be connected to each other, often in the context of solving a significant problem
or engaging in an interesting project. Thus, this book’s main organization based on mathematical
content should not be considered a de-emphasis on other aspects of mathematics, including general
processes of reasoning, problem solving, representing, communicating, and connecting (NCTM,
2000), which should be interwoven throughout the teaching and learning of content.
This concludes the chapters focused on mathematical goals and specific learning trajectories.
This is also the last chapter that is aligned with a corresponding chapter of the companion volume.
The next three chapters are unique to this volume, and address issues essential to implementing the
learning trajectories. Chapter 14 begins with a discussion of cognition (thinking, understanding,
and learning), affect (emotions or feelings), and equity (fairness).
14
Cognition, Affect, and Equity
Three teachers are discussing their students who are “good” and “not
so good” at math.
Aretha: Some students just are good at math and others aren’t. You
can’t change it. You can tell just by watching them in your classroom.
Carina: There certainly are a few who seem to find aspects of math
particularly challenging and a few who, for whatever reason, can learn
new math ideas quickly. But no one’s ability is fixed; they all need good
experiences to learn more and those experiences make them better at
. . . more able to learn more math.
Which teacher do you think is most accurate in her evaluation of the roles of aptitude or ability
(“nature”) compared to effort and experience (“nurture”)? Why?
209
210 • Cognition, Affect, and Equity
In this chapter, we discuss issues relevant across various topics of mathematics. Although we
have discussed children and their learning throughout the book, there are some general processes
that are important to all learning. Every previous chapter has discussed young children’s mathe-
matics learning and the ways in which they learn. This chapter discusses, from a more general
perspective, the learning processes, achievement, and emotions of these children. This leads to
issues of individual differences, cultural differences, and the principle of equity.
Working Memory
When children pay attention to something, information can be encoded into their working mem-
ories—the amount of mental “space” they have to think about mathematics and solving mathe-
matical problems (indeed, another useful metaphor is that working memory is children’s capacity
to attend to multiple items in memory). This allows children to consciously think about the task or
problem. Working memory affects children’s ability to solve problems, to learn, and to remember
(Ashcraft, 2006). Processes that are slower and more complex put additional demands on working
memory. Unsurprisingly, then, limits on working memory may be one cause of learning diffi-
culties or disabilities (Geary, Hoard, & Hamson, 1999; see the section later in this chapter) and a
particularly large working memory one cause of superior competence in mathematics.
Practical implications. Children develop greater working memory capacity as they age, probably
due to greater self-regulation and executive control and the ability to represent content more
efficiently (Cowan, Saults, & Elliott, 2002). At all ages, one way people’s minds deal with limits on
working memory is to make certain processes automatic—fast and easy. Such automatic processes
do not take much working memory (Shiffrin & Schneider, 1984). Some automatic processes are
“bootstrap” abilities, such as the ability to recognize faces. In mathematics, most must be learned
and experienced many times. A familiar example knows arithmetic combinations so well that one
“just knows” and does not have to figure them out while performing a more complicated task. Such
automaticity requires much practice. Such practice could be “drill,” but a broader definition is
repeated experiencing, which might include drill but also includes use of the skill or knowledge in
multiple difference situations, which promotes both automaticity and transfer to new situations.
Practical implications. Most students need substantial work in learning these processes, for
example, to monitor their reasoning and problem-solving. Helping children understand mathe-
matical ideas, and engaging them in conversations about mathematics and how they solved
mathematical problems promotes the development of executive processes. The next cognitive
category includes the mental objects children build. They include declarative, conceptual, and
procedural representations.
is difficult to tell. And all children can develop math competence, and even “intelligence,” working
in high-quality educational environments.
Fortunately, most young children have positive feelings about math and are motivated to explore
numbers and shapes (Middleton & Spanias, 1999). Unfortunately, after only a couple of years
in typical schools, they begin to believe that “only some people have the ability to do math.” We
believe that those who experience math as a sense-making activity will build positive feelings about
math throughout their school careers.
Practical implications. Provide meaningful tasks that make sense to children and connect with
their everyday interests and lives (remember the Building Blocks main approach, Chapter 1, p. 18).
The right degree of challenge and novelty can promote interest, and facilitating and discussing skill
improvement can promote a mastery orientation. Researchers have estimated that children should
be successful about 70% of the time to maximize motivation (Middleton & Spanias, 1999).
In summary, many negative beliefs are embedded in our culture. However, you can help children
change them. Doing so helps children for a lifetime.
Returning to the emotions, we see that affect plays a significant role in problem solving,
involving both joys and frustrations (McLeod & Adams, 1989). Based on Mandler’s theory, the
source of such emotion is the interruption of a scheme. For example, if a plan is blocked, an
emotion is generated, which might be negative or positive.
Practical implications. If children realize they are incorrect, they may believe this warrants
embarrassment, but you can change that by directly assuring children that trying and discussing,
including making errors and being frustrated, are part of the learning process. Also, discuss how
working hard to learn and figure a problem out can make you “feel good” (Cobb, Yackel, & Wood,
1989). Hold such discussions to build positive affect and beliefs about mathematics and mathemat-
ical problem solving (an important, interesting activity that is an end in itself), as well as learning
(e.g., emphasis on effort, not ability).
Trying hard also requires motivation. Fortunately, most children are motivated to learn. Even
better, they are intrinsically motivated—they like to learn for the sake of learning. Such intrinsic
motivation correlates with and supports academic success. However, children are not motivated
equally. Indeed, in one study, children’s motivational orientation (e.g., engagement and persistence
in tasks) in preschool predicted their mathematics knowledge from kindergarten up into the
primary grades (Lepola, Niemi, Kuikka, & Hannula, 2005). Further, those who begin with the lowest
mathematics knowledge have the lowest engagement in tasks (Bodovski & Farkas, 2007). Extrinsic
motivation is related to performance goals (NMP, 2008). Related to this is children’s competence
at self-regulation, already discussed. Self-regulation is not just a cognitive process but also has a
motivational component.
Practical implications. A final concern is that structured mathematics activities will negatively
affect children’s motivations or affect. There is no research we know of that supports that concern.
Research suggests the opposite (Malofeeva et al., 2004). Educators do have to avoid narrow views
of math and learning. Teachers hamper students’ learning if they define success only as fast, correct
responses and accuracy in following the teacher’s example (Middleton & Spanias, 1999).
Newman, 1986). Kindergartners’ cognitive skills, such as discriminating between same and different
visual stimuli and coding visual stimuli, predicted later interest in mathematics.
For many topics and abilities, initial knowledge predicts later learning and knowledge
(Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999; Jimerson, Egeland, & Teo, 1999; Maier & Greenfield,
2008; Thomson, Rowe, Underwood, & Peck, 2005; Wright et al., 1994). However, the effect of early
knowledge of mathematics is unusually strong and notably persistent (Duncan, Claessens, & Engel,
2004). Further, the rate of growth of mathematical skills is faster among those with higher,
rather than lower, initial mathematical skills (Aunola, Leskinen, Lerkkanen, & Nurmi, 2004).
Researchers concluded that “by far the most powerful avenue for boosting first grade test scores
appears to be improving the basic skills of low-achieving children upon entry into kindergarten.”
Contrary to the researchers’ expectations, “soft” or social–emotional skills, such as being able to sit
still in class or make friends upon school entry did not predict early achievement (Duncan et al.,
2004).
Across six studies the strongest predictors of later achievement were school-entry math and
attention skills (Duncan et al., in press). Indeed, early knowledge of reading predicted later success
in reading. However, early knowledge of mathematics was a stronger predictor of later success in
mathematics. Further, early knowledge of mathematics predicted not only success in math, but
also later success in reading. (All these held children’s pre-school cognitive ability, behavior, and
other important background characteristics constant.) Other researchers have also found that
early reading skill (kindergarten) does not predict either interest or achievement in later (second to
third grade) math (McTaggart, Frijters, & Barron, 2005). Other researchers have confirmed
that early math predicts reading, but reading does not predict math achievement (Lerkkanen,
Rasku-Puttonen, Aunola, & Nurmi, 2005).
To summarize, early math concepts are the most powerful predictors of later learning. They
predicted reading achievement as well as early reading skills predicted reading achievement.
Language and attention skills were also predictive, but less so (and some, Konold & Pianta,
2005, have found attention alone not strongly predictive). Social–emotional skills such as behavior
problems and social skills were insignificant predictors. Of course, we want positive affect,
motivation, and social relations. Further, other studies show that, at least for some children with
limited cognitive skills, social skills may be important predictors of success (Konold & Pianta, 2005).
But it would seem we should develop these alongside important knowledge and skills, such as those
of mathematics.
Are particular mathematics skills relatively more predictive? Knowing this may be useful for
screening, or early identification of those who might have mathematical difficulties (see that section
later in this chapter). Some research has found support for specific tasks, such as:
• magnitude discrimination, as in naming the larger of two digits, which may relate to a
weakness in spatial representations (Case, Griffin, & Kelly, 1999; Chard et al., 2005; Clarke &
Shinn, 2004; Gersten, Jordan, & Flojo, 2005; Jordan, Hanich, & Kaplan, 2003; Lembke &
Foegen, 2008; Lembke, Foegen, Whittake, & Hampton, in press).
• numeral identification, such as reading numerals (really a language arts skill) (Chard et al.,
2005; Gersten et al., 2005; Lembke & Foegen, 2008; Lembke et al., in press).
• missing number, naming the missing number in a series (Chard et al., 2005; Lembke &
Foegen, 2008; Lembke et al., in press).
• spontaneous focusing on number, such as using subitizing independently, which predicts
arithmetic but not later reading (see Chapter 2) (Hannula, Lepola, & Lehtinen, 2007).
• object counting and counting strategies, without errors (see Chapters 3 and 5) (Clarke &
Shinn, 2004; Gersten et al., 2005).
Cognition, Affect, and Equity • 215
• fluency in arithmetic combinations, such as addition “facts” (for older children, Geary,
Brown, & Smaranayake, 1991; Gersten et al., 2005).
Caution is advised, however, because both the screening measures and the predicted measure
often ignore any mathematics outside of routine numerical skills.
Other cognitive measures are also predictive of at least some cases of children with mathematical
difficulties or disabilities including working memory (e.g., reverse digit span) (Geary, 2003; Gersten
et al., 2005). Others have found working memory not predictive of fact fluency once attention
(one of the strongest predictors) was controlled (Fuchs et al., 2005). Attention, working memory,
and nonverbal problem-solving predicted conceptual competence. Recall that competence with
early counting, including counting confidently and accurate use of counting strategies, and magni-
tude comparison, appear particularly important (Gersten et al., 2005; Jordan, Hanich, & Kaplan,
2003).
Executive control and the related construct of self-regulation are also predictive of mathematics
achievement. Mathematics in one study was correlated with all but one measure of executive
function (Bull & Scerif, 2001). The researchers conclude that particular difficulties for children
of lower mathematical ability are lack of inhibition and poor working memory, resulting in
their having difficulty switching and evaluating new strategies for dealing with a particular task.
Persistence was significantly predictive of math achievement for both 3- and 4-year-olds (Maier &
Greenfield, 2008).
Both arithmetic combinations and text reading are predicted by the ability to retrieve verbal or
visual–verbal associations from long-term memory (Koponen, Aunola, Ahonen, & Nurmi, 2007).
This result suggests that, although single-digit calculation is a numerical skill, it is also connected to
linguistic abilities; thus, difficulties with language may restrict children’s acquisition of calculation
skills. Knowledge of algorithms was predicted by knowledge of number concepts and mother’s
educational level.
Similarly, Blair and colleagues have found that self-regulation, including effortful control and the
inhibitory control and attention-shifting aspects of executive function in preschool, were related to
measures of math (and literacy) ability in kindergarten (Blair, 2002; Blair & Razza, 2007). These
correlations are independent of general intelligence. Educators need to improve self-regulation skills
as well as enhance early academic abilities to help children succeed in school.
One of the most reliable results (see Chapter 1 and the section on families in Chapter 15) is that
children from higher-income families (correlated with higher levels of parental education and use
of progressive parenting beliefs) have higher achievement in all subjects, including math (Burchinal,
Peisner-Feinberg, Pianta, & Howes, 2002).
In addition, closer relationship with the teacher is positively related to achievement, especially
for younger and at-risk children. Finally, children who were more outgoing acquired math (and
reading) skills more rapidly (Burchinal et al., 2002). Characteristics of the home and education
program also predict math achievement (Pianta et al., 2005), a topic we address in Chapter 15. One
study we mention here found that children who were rated highest on social and emotional assets
and lowest on behavior concerns by their parents had significantly higher informal mathematics
scores (Austin, Blevins-Knabe, & Lindauer, 2008). Best predictors of informal mathematics scores
for all children included parents’ ratings of behavior concerns, providers’ ratings of child assets, and
a readiness test.
What predicts engagement? One study of preschool curricula showed no effect for curriculum,
gender, or ethnicity, and small effects for entering skill level (the higher the more engaged) and
attendance (Bilbrey, Farran, Lipsey, & Hurley, 2007). Importantly, engagement in turn predicted
quantitative concepts, as far as into first grade.
216 • Cognition, Affect, and Equity
These early competencies may interact, some compensating for others. As we saw, cognitive
processes, self-regulation, and social skills may develop somewhat independently of each other
(Konold & Pianta, 2005). Moreover, skills in one area may help some children compensate for a
lack of skills in another. For example, those of average or low cognitive ability had higher grades in
first grade if they had good social skills. In comparison, those with high cognitive ability but mild
externalizing problems did not suffer from the latter, outperforming all the other groups on
achievement.
The classic nature/nurture issue. A long-standing debate is whether nature (genetics), or nur-
ture (the home and school environment) affects children’s achievement. A typical answer is that
“both do” or that “nature deals the cards but nurture plays them.” Both of these hold some truth.
Recent research suggests answers that are much more specific. Researchers studying identical twins
longitudinally (children were 7 to 10 years of age) concluded that genetics has a large and stable
influence (0.48 for mathematics), environment plays a significant but moderate role (0.20 for
shared environments, the remainder for unshared environments, as well as errors in measurement).
Further, there is lower heritability for general intelligence, or “g” than for learning of subject matter
areas. The authors also suggest that genes code for “appetites, not just aptitude.” In other words,
genetics also affects motivation to engage in learning. They drew three additional conclusions
(Kovas, Haworth, Dale, & Plomin, 2007):
1. The abnormal is normal. Low performance is the quantitative extreme of the same genetic and
environmental influences that operate throughout the normal distribution. The researchers suggest
there are no unique “learning disabilities.”
2. Continuity is genetic and change is environmental. Longitudinal analyses show that age-to-age
stability is primarily mediated genetically, whereas the environment contributes to change from year
to year.
3. Genes are generalists and environments are specialists. Genes largely contribute to similarity in
performance within and between the three domains of mathematics, English, and science—and
with general cognitive ability—whereas environment contributes to differences in performance.
About a third of the variance between English and mathematics is common with “g,” about a third
is general to academic achievement but not “g.” Non-shared environments have surprising effects.
They account for differences between identical twins raised in the same house and school. They
account for changes from one age to another. And they account for more variance than the shared
environments. Research needs to examine school characteristics to solve the puzzle of what features
of these non-shared environments are important.
A caution in drawing implications from all of the studies reviewed in this section is that they
are correlational, not experimental. We cannot attribute causation to them. However, they are
suggestive. Chapter 16 contains evidence from experiments in which we can say something about
the effects of providing better early mathematics instruction. For now we simply make several
recommendations.
Practical implications. Teach mathematics early. Focus on the key mathematics topics outlined in
this book. Also focus on improving self-regulation skills.
ematical difficulties and disabilities. The common theme is equity. Both Chapters 15 and 16 discuss
how educators can address equity issues in instruction.
As already described in previous chapters, especially Chapter 1 (of this and especially the com-
panion book), children who live in poverty and who are members of linguistic and ethnic minority
groups demonstrate significantly lower levels of achievement (Bowman et al., 2001; Brooks-Gunn,
Duncan, & Britto, 1999; Campbell & Silver, 1999; Denton & West, 2002; Entwisle & Alexander, 1990;
Halle, Kurtz-Costes, & Mahoney, 1997; Mullis et al., 2000; Natriello, McDill, & Pallas, 1990; Rouse,
Brooks-Gunn, & McLanahan, 2005; Secada, 1992; Sylva et al., 2005; Thomas & Tagg, 2004). Ethnic
gaps widened in the 1990s (Jaekyung Lee, 2002). There is no age so young that equity is not a
concern. The achievement gaps have origins in the earliest years, with low-income children
possessing less extensive math knowledge than middle-income children of pre-K and kindergarten
age (Arnold & Doctoroff, 2003; Denton & West, 2002; Ginsburg & Russell, 1981; Griffin, Case, &
Capodilupo, 1995; Jordan, Huttenlocher, & Levine, 1992; Saxe, Guberman, & Gearhart, 1987;
Sowder, 1992b). As one example, the ECLS-B (Early Childhood Longitudinal Study) found that the
percentage of children demonstrating proficiency in numbers and shapes was 87% in higher socio-
economic status (SES) families but only 40% among lower SES families (Chernoff, Flanagan,
McPhee, & Park, 2007, but this involved simply reading numerals and so the report does not
provide useful details). These differences start early and widen (Alexander & Entwisle, 1988).
Differences in specific aspects of young children’s mathematical knowledge have been reported
in two types of comparisons. First, there are cross-national differences. As we observed in previous
chapters, some mathematical knowledge is more developed in East Asian children than in American
children (Geary, Bow-Thomas, Fan, & Siegler, 1993; Ginsburg, Choi, Lopez, Netley, & Chi, 1997;
Miller et al., 1995; Starkey et al., 1999). As a caveat, we do not know what mechanisms account for
all these cross-national differences. Some factors appear to be nationally situated, such as teachers’
knowledge, formal teaching practice, and curriculum standards. Others are transnational, such as
language differences, and yet others may be cultural without reflecting national boundaries, such
as family values (Wang & Lin, 2005). Japanese kindergartners perform better in mathematics than
those from the U.S., but neither families nor schools in Japan emphasize academics for this age
group (Bacon & Ichikawa, 1988). Their lower, but perhaps more realistic expectations, reliance on
informal instruction at the child’s level, including eliciting interest and providing examples rather
than direct teaching of procedures, may account for their success.
Second, there are differences related to socioeconomic status. Some mathematical knowledge is
more developed in children from middle-income, compared to lower-income, families (Fryer &
Levitt, 2004; Griffin & Case, 1997; Jordan et al., 1992; Kilpatrick et al., 2001; NMP, 2008; Sarama &
Clements, 2008; Saxe et al., 1987; Starkey & Klein, 1992). The key factors in one study were the
educational level attained by the child’s mother and the level of poverty in the child’s neighborhood
(Lara-Cinisomo, Pebley, Vaiana, & Maggio, 2004). These are distinct factors, with income having a
direct effect on the child and an effect mediated by the parents’ interaction with children
(e.g., higher, compared to lower, income parents providing more support for problem-solving;
Brooks-Gunn et al., 1999; Duncan, Brooks-Gunn, & Klebanov, 1994). Similarly, an analysis of the
218 • Cognition, Affect, and Equity
ECLS data shows that SES indicators and the number of books in the home both strongly predict
math and reading test scores (Fryer & Levitt, 2004; also controlling for these substantially reduces
ethnic differences).
Low-income, compared to middle-income parents, believe that math education is the responsi-
bility of the preschool and that children cannot learn aspects of math that research indicates they
can learn (Starkey et al., 1999). Also, low-income families more strongly endorsed a skills perspec-
tive than middle-income families, and their “skills” and “entertainment” in perspectives were not
predictive of later school achievement, as was the “math in daily living” perspective adopted by
more middle-income parents (Sonnenschein, Baker, Moyer, & LeFevre, 2005). These deleterious
effects are more prevalent and stronger in the U.S. than other countries and stronger in early
childhood than for other age ranges.
Consider these two children. Peter was at the highest levels of competence in number. He could
count beyond 120, state the number word before or after any given number word, including those in
the hundreds. He could also read those number words. Finally, he could use counting strategies
to solve a wide range of addition and subtraction tasks. Tom could not count. The best he could
do is say “two” for a pair of objects. Asked for the number after “six,” said “horse.” After one, he
said, comes “bike.” He could not read any numerals. Both Peter and Tom were beginning their
kindergarten year (A. Wright, 1987).
A large-scale study of this gap, a survey of U.S. kindergartners found that 94% of first-time
kindergartners passed their Level I test (counting to 10 and recognizing numerals and shapes) and
58% passed their Level 2 test (reading numerals, counting beyond 10, sequencing patterns, and
using nonstandard units of length to compare objects). However, 79% of children whose mothers
had a bachelor’s degree passed the Level 2 test, compared to 32% of those whose mothers had
less than a high school degree. Large differences were also found between ethnic groups on
the more difficult Level 2 test (NCES, 2000). Differences appear even in the preschool years. The
Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS) showed that, before entering kindergarten, low-SES
children scored 0.55 standard deviations below middle-SES children on a mathematics assess-
ment; low-SES children scored 1.24 standard deviations below high-SES children. Being a member
of both low SES and minority groups was especially damaging to these children’s initial start in
school.
Other analyses from the same large ECLS showed that children who begin with the lowest
achievement levels show the lowest growth in mathematics from kindergarten to the third grade
(Bodovski & Farkas, 2007). The authors conclude that more time on mathematics for these children
in preschool is essential.
If high-quality mathematics education does not start in preschool and continue through the
early years, children are trapped in a trajectory of failure (Rouse et al., 2005). Another study
combined the two types of comparisons. Results showed that mathematical knowledge is greater
in 3- and 4-year-old Chinese children than in American middle-class children and greater in
American middle-class children than in 3- and 4-year-olds from low-income families (Starkey et al.,
1999).
Children from low-income families show specific difficulties. They do not understand the
relative magnitudes of numbers and how they relate to the counting sequence (Griffin et al., 1994).
They have more difficulty solving addition and subtraction problems. Working-class children in the
U.K. are a year behind in simple addition and subtraction as early as 3 years of age (Hughes, 1981).
Similarly, U.S. low-income children begin kindergarten behind middle-income children and,
although they progressed at the same rate on most tasks, they ended behind and made no progress
in some tasks. For example, although they performed adequately on nonverbal arithmetic tasks,
they made no progress over the entire kindergarten year on arithmetic story problems (Jordan,
Cognition, Affect, and Equity • 219
Kaplan, Oláh, & Locuniak, 2006). Further, lower-class children were more likely to show a “flat”
growth curve for the year.
A recent survey of preschoolers’ competencies (Sarama & Clements, 2008) revealed that children
from preschools serving middle-SES populations outperformed those serving low-SES populations
on the total number score and most individual subtests. The particular subtests that showed signifi-
cant differences were, with few exceptions, those that measure more sophisticated mathematical
concepts and skills. In number, there were no significant differences for simple verbal counting
or recognition of small numbers (Clements & Sarama, 2004a, 2007c). There were significant dif-
ferences on object counting and more sophisticated counting strategies, comparing numbers and
sequencing, number composition, arithmetic, and matching numerals to dot cards. In geometry,
there were no significant differences on the simple tasks involving shape and comparison of shapes.
(The turns subtest was also relatively simple, but because it included only a single task, results
should be interpreted with caution.) There were significant differences on representing shapes,
composing shapes, and patterning. Measurement was an exception in that sophisticated concepts
and skills were involved but no significant difference between the groups was found; development
in this domain may be more dependent on school-based teaching.
Regarding individual items, performance of the low-SES group is consistent with these results.
In counting, notable differences were on using the cardinality principle, producing a collection of
a given number, counting scrambled arrangements, and telling what number comes after another
number. The other developmental progressions in number showed a more consistent difference
across items; note that both means and differences for Add/Subtract were small. In geometry,
items for all three developmental progressions showed the same pattern of consistent differences
across items.
The children’s levels within various developmental progressions provide another view of these
differences. Substantially more children in the middle-SES group were one or two levels above the
low-SES group’s level of counting, with the former operating at the Counter (Small Numbers) or
Counter To (Small Numbers) level. For comparing number, a majority of the high-SES group
succeeded at a Comparer task, one level above the level attained by most of the low-SES children.
Differences in arithmetic were small, while those in composition were larger, but neither indicated
differences in level of thinking. Similarly, differences in patterning and geometry do not indicate
distinctions in levels of thinking, but do suggest lower achievement for the lower-SES, compared to
the middle-SES group.
Other research confirms the finding that there is greater variation in number knowledge among
young children of lower-SES backgrounds (Wright, 1991). This was especially so for beginning
kindergartners in the verbal counting and numeral recognition. On the other hand, the most
advanced children were the least well served. They were learning nothing throughout the entire
kindergarten year. They did not advance in reading multidigit numerals throughout their first grade
year.
Similarly, lower-income preschoolers lag behind higher-income peers in the earliest form of
subitizing, spontaneous recognition of numerosity (Hannula, 2005). They often lack foundational
abilities to classify and seriate (Pasnak, 1987). Older children entering first grade showed a smaller
effect of familial factors on computation than on mathematics concepts and reasoning. Majority–
minority contrasts were small, but parents’ economic and psychological (e.g., high school
graduation) resources were strong influences (Entwisle & Alexander, 1990).
Early research indicated that such problems have existed for decades, with serious
negative effects (Alexander & Entwisle, 1988). The first year of school has a substantial influence
on the trajectories of young children’s knowledge of number. Black children gained less than
white children in this study, and the gap widened over a 2-year period. Transitions to school, and
220 • Cognition, Affect, and Equity
recovering from initial gaps in learning, may be more problematic for black children than white
children.
Into kindergarten and the primary grades, lower-income children use less adaptive and mal-
adaptive strategies more than middle-class children, probably revealing a deficit in intuitive
knowledge of numbers and different strategies (Griffin et al., 1994; Siegler, 1993). Most 5- and
6-year-old low-income children are unable to answer the simplest arithmetic problems, where most
middle-income kindergartners could do so (Griffin et al., 1994). In one study, 75% of children in an
upper-middle-class kindergarten were capable of judging the relative magnitude of two different
numbers and performing simple mental additions, compared to only 7% of lower-income children
from the same community (Case et al., 1999; Griffin et al., 1994). As another example, about 72% of
high-, 69% of middle- and 14% of low-SES groups can answer an orally presented problem, “If you
had 4 chocolate candies and someone gave you 3 more, how many chocolates would you have
altogether?” Low-income children often guess or use other maladaptive strategies such as simple
counting (e.g., 3 + 4 = 5). They often do this because they lack knowledge of strategies and
understandings of why they work and what goal they achieve (Siegler, 1993). However, given more
experience, lower-income children use multiple strategies, with the same accuracy, speed, and
adaptive reasoning as middle-income children.
Let us return briefly to the question of what predicts mathematics achievement, addressed
previously in this chapter. The vignette that opens this section raises an important issue. What is the
role of ability, or IQ, in explaining lower achievement of certain groups? Genetic factors that in part
determine ability, such as IQ, probably influence mathematics achievement. Among middle-class
students, such factors, rather than family or neighborhood, correlate with academic performance
(Berliner, 2006). But that is not true for the lowest-income groups. Poverty and lack of opportunities to
learn that accompany it are strong predictors. Even small reductions in poverty lead to increases in
positive school behavior and better academic performance (Berliner, 2006). Income, even more
than parental education and other indicators of lower SES, is the most powerful predictor (Duncan
et al., 1994). Indeed, SES is a better predictor in the U.S. than in other countries. Further, even with
IQ controlled, children’s cognitive functioning is influenced by their mother’s income and the
home environment she provides (and, incidentally, her IQ is affected by these same factors). Finally,
these effects are strongest in early childhood. This is important, as schools classify children right
out of preschool, and being identified as low-achieving affects their entire course of schooling
(Brooks-Gunn et al., 1999).
The lack of early learning might even change brain structure—early deficits in opportunities to
learn may become biologically embedded (Brooks-Gunn et al., 1999; Case et al., 1999). Children’s
environments, of course, determine what they have the opportunity to learn. That does not mean
these children have no mathematical competencies, far from it. Allowing children to be “off by one”
eliminated differences between groups in one study (Ehrlich & Levine, 2007b). They appear to have
a grasp of approximate numerosities, but less competence with exact numerosities.
The SES gap is broad and encompasses several aspects of mathematical knowledge: numerical,
arithmetic, spatial/geometric, patterning, and measurement knowledge (A. Klein & Starkey, 2004;
Sarama & Clements, 2008). The reason for this gap appears to be that children from low-income
families receive less support for math development in their home and school environments
(Blevins-Knabe & Musun-Miller, 1996; Holloway, Rambaud, Fuller, & Eggers-Pierola, 1995;
Saxe et al., 1987; Starkey et al., 1999). Public pre-K programs serving low-income, compared to
those serving higher-income families provide fewer learning opportunities and supports for
mathematical development, including a narrower range of mathematical concepts (Bryant,
Burchinal, Lau, & Sparling, 1994; D. C. Farran, Silveri, & Culp, 1991). Lack of resources is the main
problem, but research indicates it is not the only explanation. There are also differences in attitudes,
Cognition, Affect, and Equity • 221
motivations, and beliefs that need to be addressed (NMP, 2008). For example, “stereotype threat”—
the imposition of societal biases such as the lower-ability mathematics of blacks or women to learn
mathematics—can have a negative influence on the performance of the threatened groups (NMP,
2008). We need research on whether this affects young children and how this and other problems
can be avoided.
Further, quality is lower in classrooms with more than 60% of the children from homes below
the poverty line, when teachers lacked formal training (or a degree) in early childhood education,
and held less child-centered beliefs (Pianta et al., 2005). An analysis of the large ECLS data set found
that black children had made real gains in mathematics knowledge upon entering kindergarten—
but that over the first two years of school, they lost substantial ground relative to other races (Fryer &
Levitt, 2004). These differences are on arithmetic—addition, subtraction, and even multiplication
and division—rather than lower-order skills. There are insufficient resources in these settings to
address the needs of the children.
Thus, there is an early developmental basis for later achievement differences in mathematics:
Children from different sociocultural backgrounds are provided different foundational experiences
(Starkey et al., 1999). Programs need to recognize sociocultural and individual differences in what
children know and in what they bring to the educational situation. Knowledge of what children
bring should inform planning for programs and instruction. Extra support should be provided
those from low-resource communities. We must meet the special needs of all children, especially
groups disproportionately under-represented in mathematics, such as children of color and
children whose home language is different from that of school. All these children also bring diverse
experiences on which to build meaningful mathematical learning (Moll, Amanti, Neff, & Gonzalez,
1992). The younger the child, the more their learning is enhanced by contexts that they find relevant
and meaningful. There is no evidence that such children cannot learn the mathematics that other
children learn. (If this seems palpable, consider that, historically, it was assumed that children
from these groups were less genetically able. And remember the recent comments from the reviewer
at the beginning of this section.) Too often, children are not provided with equivalent resources
and support (Lee & Burkam, 2002). They have different and inequitable access to foundational
experiences, mathematically-structured materials such as unit blocks, technology, and so forth.
The settings in which children from different sociocultural backgrounds are served too often have
fewer resources and lower levels of high-quality interaction. They also have less to support their
physical and mental health (Waber et al., 2007). The needs of children with physical difficulties
(e.g., hearing impaired) and learning difficulties (e.g., the mentally retarded) must also be con-
sidered. There is a critical need for everyone involved with education to address this problem, so
that children at risk receive equitable resources and additional time and support for learning
mathematics. This does not mean we should treat children as if they were the same; it means
equivalent resources should be available to meet the needs of children who differ in myriad
ways, including socioculturally and individually (e.g., developmentally delayed and gifted children).
This is important, as knowledge of mathematics in preschool predicts later school success (Jimerson
et al., 1999; Stevenson & Newman, 1986; Young-Loveridge, 1989c). Specific quantitative and
numerical knowledge is more predictive of later achievement than are tests of intelligence or
memory abilities (Krajewski, 2005). Those with low mathematics in the earliest years fall farther
behind each year (Arnold & Doctoroff, 2003; Aunola et al., 2004; Wright et al., 1994).
Children who are members of linguistic minority groups also deserve special attention (Nasir &
Cobb, 2007). Although teaching specific vocabulary terms ahead of time, emphasizing cognates, is
a useful approach, vocabulary alone is insufficient. Teachers need to help students see multiple
meanings of terms in both languages (and conflicts between the two languages), and address the
language of mathematics, not just the “terms” of mathematics. Building on the resources that
222 • Cognition, Affect, and Equity
bilingual children bring to mathematics is also essential. For example, all cultures have “funds of
knowledge” that can be used to develop mathematical contexts and understandings (Moll et al.,
1992). Further, bilingual children can often see a general mathematical idea more clearly than
monolingual children because, after expressing it in two languages, they understand that the
abstract mathematical idea is not “tied” to given terms (see Secada, 1992). In general, then, “talking
math” is far more than just using math vocabulary.
More children are in deep poverty in the U.S. than other countries. The effects are devastating
(Brooks-Gunn et al., 1999).
Practical implications. Children who live in poverty and who are members of linguistic and
ethnic minority groups need more math and better math programs (Rouse et al., 2005). They
need programs that emphasize the higher-order concepts and skills at each level, as well as base
knowledge and skills (Fryer & Levitt, 2004; Sarama & Clements, 2008). What programs address
these problems? Several research-based programs are discussed at length in Chapter 15.
may have difficulty holding an error violation in working memory.1 They make more counting
errors and persist in using developmentally immature counting strategies. Indeed, they may con-
tinue to use immature, “backup” strategies with small variation and limited change throughout
elementary school (Ostad, 1998). The immature counting knowledge of MLD children, and their
poor skills at detecting counting errors, may underlie their poor computational skills in addition
(Geary, Bow-Thomas, & Yao, 1992). Some only abandon finger-counting by the end of the
elementary grades. They also have difficulty retrieving arithmetic facts, and, although the other
skills develop slowly, retrieval of facts does not improve for most children classified as MLD (Geary
et al., 1991). These findings suggest that they have a cognitive disability and not lack of education
or experience, poor motivation, or low IQ. These children may also have disrupted functions of
the central executive process, including attentional control and poor inhibition of irrelevant
associations (e.g., for 5 + 4, saying “6” because it follows 5), and difficulties with information
representation and manipulation in the language system (Geary, 2004). However, still other
researchers downplay the role of such domain-general cognitive abilities, stating that impairments
in specific early numerical systems such as subitizing are more important (Berch & Mazzocco,
2007). There is much that remains to be learned. Here we will examine what early mathematical
concepts and skills appear important, and then turn to different types and combinations of
disabilities.
Specific mathematical concepts and skills. MLD in the early elementary grades is often charac-
terized by developmental lags in retrieving arithmetic combinations, applying computational
strategies, and solving complex story problems (Dowker, 2004; Jordan & Montani, 1997).2 Repre-
sentation of numerosity may underlie many such difficulties. “Number sense” measures appear
most predictive—kindergartners who perform badly on number comparison, number conserva-
tion, and numeral reading are likely to show persistent MLD in grades 2 and 3 (Mazzocco &
Thompson, 2005). Another study found that number comparison, nonverbal calculations, story
problems, and arithmetic combinations were predictive of first grade math achievement (Jordan,
Kaplan, Locuniak, & Ramineni, 2006). Understanding specific deficits can help design programs
for individual children. For example, many children with MLD have weak conceptual knowledge
and skill in certain areas of counting. These gaps appear to contribute to their difficulties in
computational arithmetic. Addressing these early may help.
Thus, children who have MLD or MD may have quite diverse learning needs (Dowker, 2004;
Gervasoni, 2005; Gervasoni, Hadden, & Turkenburg, 2007). These findings support the need to
understand, assess, and teach these children with topic-specific learning trajectories, as has been the
theme of this book. That is, as the hierarchic interactionalism tenet of domain specific progression
would indicate, there are many relatively independent components of arithmetical competence each
of which develops along its own learning trajectory. Research on both people with brain injuries
and students with mathematical difficulties show that it is possible to have a deficit in any of those
areas independent of others (Dowker, 2004, 2005). These include basic fact knowledge, inability to
carry out arithmetic procedures, understanding and using arithmetic principles, estimating,
possessing other mathematical knowledge, and applying arithmetic in solving problems (Dowker,
2005).
Foundational abilities in subitizing, counting and counting strategies, simple arithmetic, and
magnitude comparison are critical for young children with MLD (P. Aunio, Hautamäki, Sajaniemi,
& Van Luit, 2008; Aunola et al., 2004; Geary et al., 1999; Gersten et al., 2005). Research has also
identified specific difficulties with place value and word problem-solving (Dowker, 2004). Note that
these studies often ignore mathematics topics other than number; we will address topics beyond
number in a succeeding section.
Math, reading, and language learning disabilities. Further, understanding children’s various broad
224 • Cognition, Affect, and Equity
areas of difficulty is important. For example, children with different patterns of achievement in
reading and mathematics show different patterns of performance on cognitive measures (Geary et
al., 1999). Children with both MLD and reading learning disabilities (RLD) were found to score
lower on number production and comprehension tasks, such as number naming, numeral writing,
and magnitude comparison. The authors hypothesized that children lacked adequate exposure to
Arabic representations of numbers. Children’s counting knowledge was assessed with several error
recognition tasks. Children with both RLD and MLD were more likely to view counting as a
mechanical activity. For example, they believed that counting first one color, then another, of
a group of objects was a counting error. They correctly identified the error of counting the last,
but not the first, item twice, suggesting that they had difficulties holding information in the
phonological loop component of working memory. Perhaps surprisingly, children with only MLD
performed less well on actual errors (double counting), perhaps because they have a specific deficit
in acting on objects in their working memory (or in the executive control of working memory,
Geary et al., 1999). They may not be able to retain information while they act on other information.
This is consistent with other research (Rourke & Finlayson, 1978) showing that children who have
low achievement in arithmetic but average reading scores often have poor performance on measures
of spatial abilities and on timed, but not untimed, arithmetic tests. Children who are low in both
reading and arithmetic, in contrast, are poor on verbal and both timed and untimed arithmetic
tests. In any case, children with low achievement in arithmetic show many more procedural and
retrieval errors (Geary et al., 1999; Jordan & Montani, 1997).
Primary grade students with MLD only have an advantage over their MLD/RLD peers in limited
areas (Hanich, Jordan, Kaplan, & Dick, 2001), such as accuracy on exact arithmetic calculations and
story problems (and not everyone has found even these differences, Berch & Mazzocco, 2007). They
appear to perform similarly in calculation fluency, but the MLD only children used their fingers
more accurately, suggesting that they had better facility with counting procedures (N. C. Jordan,
Hanich, & Kaplan, 2003). The MLD only and RLD only children performed about the same levels
in problem-solving throughout the study, and only slightly below normally-achieving children,
suggesting they use different pathways to solving the problems, compensating for their weaknesses
with their strengths. The MLD only children may develop math knowledge at a fast rate through the
primary grades (Jordan, Kaplan, & Hanich, 2002).
The MLD only and MLD/RLD children did not differ on approximate arithmetic (estimating
answers to addition and subtraction problems), suggesting that it is weaknesses in spatial represen-
tations related to numerical magnitudes (rather than verbal representations) that underpin fact
retrieval deficits (Jordan, Hanich, & Kaplan, 2003). Children might have difficulty manipulating
visual (nonverbal) representations of a number line—a skill that may be critical for solving addition
and subtraction problems. Supporting this, children with poor mastery of number combinations
performed worse than children with solid mastery on nonverbal block manipulation and pattern
recognition tasks. In contrast, they performed at about the same level on verbal cognitive tasks.
Other researchers have also identified a possible spatial component of MLD (Mazzocco & Myers,
2003).
In contrast, another study showed that children with MLD and MLD/RLD could compare the
number in collections as well as their normal-developing peers, but were impaired when comparing
Arabic numerals (Rousselle & Noël, 2007). Importantly, there was no difference between the MLD
only and MLD/RLD groups. This suggests that, at least for some children, MLD means having
difficulty in accessing number magnitude from symbols, rather than in processing numbers. This is
significant, as difficulty attaching meaning to numerals could confound children’s performance in a
wide variety of tasks and be the start of many other related problems with mathematics. Traditional
teaching that separates instruction on concepts from procedures would be particularly devastating
Cognition, Affect, and Equity • 225
for these children. Instead, connecting concepts and procedures, concrete/visual representations
and abstract symbols, would be more effective.
A recent study confirmed that MLD and MLD/RLD groups display qualitatively distinct
mathematical profiles from as young as 5 years of age. Although language appears to facilitate
young children’s performance on most tasks, its role was secondary in importance to nonverbal
mathematics skills (J.-A. Jordan, Wylie, & Mulhern, 2007). They appear to have core deficits in
numerical cognition (or “number sense”), including number knowledge, counting, and arithmetic.
Those with MLD/RLD are lower on math problem-solving. MLD only children appear to use their
verbal strengths to compensate somewhat for their weakness with numbers.
Children with specific language impairments (SLI) may have specific MLD, such as coordinating
the items with a structure of correspondences between speech sounds and numerical relations
(Donlan, 1998). For example, they may not acquire the quantifiers of their grammatical system,
such as “a,” “some,” “few,” or “two” (cf. Carey, 2004). Or, they may have difficulty relating “two,
three, four five . . .” to “twenty, thirty, forty, fifty. . . .” Exact arithmetic may depend more heavily on
language systems (Berch & Mazzocco, 2007).
Other impairments. Specific disabilities must be considered in a complete picture of infant to
adult developmental trajectories (Ansari & Karmiloff-Smith). Different impairments in low-level
processes may result in different difficulties in children and adults.
The most prevalent disorder in the U.S. is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD, Berch
& Mazzocco, 2007). These children habituate to stimuli rapidly and thus have difficulty maintaining
attention, spend less time rehearing, and make more errors. Attention to auditory processes is
especially problematic. This may account for their difficulty learning basic arithmetic combinations
and their difficulty with multistep problems and complex computations. Tutoring and work with
computer games have shown some success (Ford, Poe, & Cox, 1993; Shaw, Grayson, & Lewis, 2005).
Use of calculators allows some children to succeed (Berch & Mazzocco, 2007).
Most children with Down Syndrome could maintain one-to-one correspondence when
counting, but had particular difficulties producing the count words correctly. Their errors were
most often skipping words, indicating difficulty with auditory sequential memory. That is, they had
inadequate connections between one number word and the next in the sequence. They also lacked
approaches to problem-solving or counting strategies (Porter, 1999). Teachers of children with
Down Syndrome often neglect number tasks, but this is unwise. Visually presented number
sequences may help children learn to count (Porter, 1999).
Physical impairments such as hearing difficulties may be considered risk factors for mathe-
matical difficulties. However, these children seem to learn mathematics the same ways as their
peers, and there is not a strong or necessary connection (Nunes & Moreno, 1998). Visually-based
interventions may be effective with children who are deaf (Nunes & Moreno, 2002).
An unusual condition is grapheme-color synaesthesia—the involuntary experience of numerals
having distinct colors, such as seeing the numeral “5” as blue. Such children may have difficulty in
magnitude judgment and often report difficulties with arithmetic (Green & Goswami, 2007).
Blind children cannot rely on visual-spatial strategies for object counting, instead using tactile-
motor systems for keeping track of which objects have been counted (Sicilian, 1988). Accurate
blind counters used three sets of strategies. Scanning strategies were used to determine the size
of the array and any distinctive characteristics, such as linearity or circularity, that could be
used to organize counting. Count-organizing strategies capitalized upon these characteristics to
create a plan for keeping track. Partitioning strategies selected individual objects and main-
tained the separation of objects that had and had not yet been counted. The researcher proposed
developmental progressions for these, each of which moves from no, to inefficient, to efficient
strategies:
226 • Cognition, Affect, and Equity
• preliminary scanning strategies—no scanning (just started counting); moves the hand across
objects unsystematically; moves the hand across all objects in a fixed array systematically,
or moves objects during counting.
• organizing strategies—none; follows a row, circle, or array but does not use reference point to
mark where started; uses reference point, or moves objects during counting.
• partitioning—no one-to-one correspondence; touches objects but no systematic partitioning,
or moves objects but put them back in same group; uses moveable partitioning system or
moves objects to new location.
As we have seen, some researchers believe that a deficit in visuospatial strategies is a component
of MLD because they may underlie numerical thinking. What about other areas of mathematics,
such as geometry, spatial reasoning, and measurement? We know little, possibly due to a bias in
researchers. That is, the children are classified as MLD, MD, or normal on the basis of measures that
are dominated by numerical and computational items, then their performance compared on
computational and numerical word problems. No wonder they are characterized as having
“primary impairments” in those areas. We do not know about children’s performance in other areas
due to such unfortunate, limited, circular thinking. However, we can at least address the needs of
children with certain physical disabilities, an issue to which we turn.
Geometry and spatial thinking. Geometry is a more difficult area to address for children who are
visually impaired. However, strategies have been proposed for specific skills, such as making dis-
tance judgments from a tactile map (Ungar, Blades, & Spencer, 1997). Students were taught to use
their fingers to measure relative distances and think in terms of fractions or ratios, or at least in terms
of “much longer” or “only a little bit longer.” The 30-minute training helped them be as accurate as
sighted children.
The discussion of the spatial thinking of blind children in Chapter 7 indicated that all students
can build up spatial sense and geometric notions. Spatial knowledge is spatial, not “visual.” Even
children blind from birth are aware of spatial relationships. By age 3, they begin to learn about
spatial characteristics of certain visual language (Landau, 1988). They can learn from spatial-
kinesthetic (movement) practice (Millar & Ittyerah, 1992). They perform many aspects of spatial
tasks similar to blindfolded sighted children (Morrongiello, Timney, Humphrey, Anderson, &
Skory, 1995). Second, visual input is important, but spatial relations can be constructed without it
(Morrongiello et al., 1995). People who are blind can learn to discriminate the size of objects, or
their shape (circle, triangle, and square) with 80% accuracy by distinguishing echoes (Rice, 1967, as
cited in Gibson, 1969). They can certainly do so through tactile explorations. For example, students
who are blind have been successfully taught to seriate lengths (Lebron-Rodriguez & Pasnak, 1977).
Primary grade students can develop the ability to compare rectangular areas by tactile scanning of
the two dimensions (Mullet & Miroux, 1996).
However, the more severe the visual impairment, the more you need to make sure that students
are given additional activities that build on their experiences with moving their bodies and feeling
objects. Students with low vision can follow activities for sighted students, but with enlarged print,
visuals, and manipulatives. Sometimes, use of low vision devices facilitates students’ geometry
learning.
Using real objects and manipulative solids to represent two- and three-dimensional objects is
critical for all students with visual impairments. Two-dimensional objects can be represented in
tactile form on a two-dimensional plane adequately, but care should be taken that the entire
presentation is not too complex. For example, the book Let’s Learn Shapes with Shapely-CAL
presents tactile representations of common shapes (Keller & Goldberg, 1997).
However, two-dimensional tactile representations are not adequate for representing
Cognition, Affect, and Equity • 227
three-dimensional objects. Detailed, specific guidance and elaboration of the students’ experiences
with such objects is important. This is labor-intensive, but an important part of the educational
experience for children who are severely visually impaired. Make sure the students explore all
components of the object, and reflect on their relationship to each other. Students can explore and
describe a three-dimensional solid, reconstruct a solid make of components (such as with
Googooplex), and construct a cube given only one edge (e.g., with D-stix).
Research with students who are deaf has indicated that both teachers and students often did
not have substantial experience with geometry (Mason, 1995). Language, however, did play an
important role. For example, the iconic nature of the American Sign Language (ASL) sign used for
triangle is roughly equilateral or isosceles. After an 8-day geometry unit, many students spelled
“triangle” instead of using signs, which may indicate a differentiation in their minds between their
new definition of the word “triangle” and what they had previously associated with the sign
“triangle.” When provided with richer learning experiences, a more varied mathematical
vocabulary, and exposure to a wide range of geometry concepts, students can experience success
and growth in learning geometry (Mason, 1995).
Given the sometimes confusing vocabulary in geometry education, students with limited English
proficiency (LEP) require special attention. One study showed that English proficient (EP) and LEP
students can work together using computers to construct the concepts of reflection and rotation.
Students experiencing the dynamic computer environment significantly outperformed students
experiencing a traditional instructional environment on content measures of the concepts of
reflection and rotation as well as on measures of two-dimensional visualization ability. LEP students
did not perform statistically significantly differently than their EP peers on any of the tests when
experiencing the same instructional environments (Dixon, 1995).
Although, as stated, the research has been limited, some children appear to have difficulty with
spatial organization across a wide range of tasks. Children with certain mathematics learning
difficulties may struggle with spatial relationships, visual-motor and visual-perception, and a
poor sense of direction (Lerner, 1997). They may not perceive a shape as a complete and integrated
entity as children without learning disabilities do. For example, a triangle may appear to them as
3 separate lines, as a rhombus or even as an undifferentiated closed shape (Lerner, 1997). Children
with different brain injuries show different patterns of competence. Those with right hemispheric
injuries have difficulty organizing objects into coherent spatial groupings, while those with left
hemispheric injuries have difficulty with local relations within spatial arrays (Stiles & Nass, 1991).
Teaching with learning trajectories based on the developmental sequences described here is even
more important for children with learning disabilities, as well as children with other special needs.
Know the developmental sequences through which children pass as they learn geometric ideas.
As noted previously, spatial weakness may underlie children’s difficulties with numerical
magnitudes (e.g., knowing that 5 is greater than 4, but only by a little, whereas 12 is a lot greater
than 4) and rapid retrieval of numeral names and arithmetic combinations (Jordan, Hanich, &
Kaplan, 2003). These children may not be able to manipulate visual representations of a number
line.
Similarly, due to the difficulties in perceiving shapes and spatial relationships, recognizing
spatial relationships, and making spatial judgments, these children are unable to copy geometric
forms, shapes, numbers, or letters. They are likely to perform poorly in handwriting as well as
in arithmetic. When children cannot write numbers easily, they also cannot read and align
their own numbers properly. As a result, they make errors in computation. They must learn to
copy and line up numbers accurately to calculate problems in addition and subtraction, in
place value, and in multiplication and division (Bley & Thornton, 1981; Thorton, Langrall, & Jones,
1997).
228 • Cognition, Affect, and Equity
Children diagnosed as autistic need structured interventions from the earliest years. They
must be kept engaged with their world, including mathematics. Use intense interests that
characterize many children with autism to motivate them to study geometry and spatial structures.
For example, if they enjoy construction, they might study how triangles are used in bridges.
Many children with autism are visually-oriented. Manipulatives and pictures can aid children’s
learning of most topics, in geometry, number, and other areas. Children benefit from illustrating
even verbs with dramatizations. In a related vein, break down what might have been a long
verbal explanation or set of directions. About a tenth of children with autism exhibit savant
(exceptional) abilities, often spatial in nature, such as art, geometry, or a particular area of
arithmetic. These abilities are probably due not to a mysterious talent, but from massive practice,
the reason and motivation for which remains unknown (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Römer,
1993).
Children who begin kindergarten with the least mathematics knowledge have the most to gain
(or to lose) from their engagement with learning (see the previous section in this chapter on affect).
It is essential to find ways to keep these children engaged in learning tasks and to increase their
initial knowledge (Bodovski & Farkas, 2007).
Summary and policy implications. There are substantial inequities in mathematics experiences
in the early years. Some children not only start behind but also begin a negative and immutable
trajectory in mathematics (Case et al., 1999). Low mathematical skills in the earliest years are
associated with a slower growth rate—children without adequate experiences in mathematics start
behind and lose ground every year thereafter (Aunola et al., 2004). Interventions should start in
pre-K and kindergarten (Gersten et al., 2005). There is substantial evidence that this can be avoided
or ameliorated, but also evidence that our society has not taken the necessary steps to do either.
Without such interventions, children in special need are often relegated to a path of failure
(Baroody, 1999; Clements & Conference Working Group, 2004; Jordan, Hanich, & Uberti, 2003;
Wright, 1991; Wright, Stanger, Cowper, & Dyson, 1996).
U.S. children are educationally at risk due to a culture that devalues mathematics, inhospitable
schools, bad teaching, and textbooks that make little sense (Ginsburg, 1997). Children are con-
sidered learning disabled if they do not learn despite having experienced “conventional instruc-
tion.” But that instruction is often flawed. This has led some experts to estimate that 80% of
children labeled as learning disabled were labeled in error (Ginsburg, 1997, see the footnote on
Response-to-Intervention).
We need to determine whether children so labeled benefit from good instruction. For example,
some children defined as learning disabled improved after remedial education to the point where
they were no longer in remedial education (Geary, 1990). They used cognitive processes that were
similar to those of children who were not labeled. Thus, they may have been developmentally
delayed but not learning disabled. That is, they were not MLD, but merely miseducated and mis-
labeled. Better educational experience, including practice, is indicated for such children. The other
children did not benefit substantially and appeared to be developmentally different (true MLD
children) and in need of specialized instruction.
Children should be labeled in any way, especially as “MLD,” only with great caution and after good
instruction has been provided (see the footnote on Response-to-Intervention). In the earliest years,
such labeling will probably do more harm than good. Instead, high-quality instruction (preventative
education) should be provided to all children.
There is no single cognitive deficit that causes mathematical difficulties (Dowker, 2005;
Gervasoni, 2005; Gervasoni et al., 2007; Ginsburg, 1997). This is a problem for children and a
problem for research (because of the population on whom they conduct their research). Even more
pernicious is that low-income children do not have adequate opportunities to learn mathematics
Cognition, Affect, and Equity • 229
before school, and then attend preschools, childcare, and elementary schools that are themselves
low-performing in mathematics. This double dilemma is then compounded as children suffer yet a
third assault: Mislabeled as learning disabled, they suffer from lowered expectations from all
educators they encounter. This is an educational shame. We must provide complete evaluations of
the child’s past experiences; present knowledge, skills, and cognitive abilities (e.g., strategic com-
petence, attentional abilities, memorial competencies); and learning potential. If children have
difficulties learning, we must determine whether they lack background information and informal
knowledge, foundational concepts and procedures, or connections among these. Educative
experiences—beyond those regularly provided to children—must be provided over a time frame of
months to provide dynamic, formative, assessments of the children’s needs (Feuerstein, Rand, &
Hoffman, 1979) and the implications for instruction.
Practical implications. Identify children with mathematics difficulties as early as possible. Enroll
them in research-based mathematical intervention as soon as possible. Identify children who
may have been miseducated and mislabeled. Better educational experience, including practice, is
indicated for such children. Other children who did not benefit substantially are in need of special-
ized instruction. Here, drill and practice would not be indicated. Counting on fingers, for example,
should be encouraged, not suppressed.
Focus on essential areas such as components of “number sense” and “spatial sense” as described
above. Some children with MLD may have difficulty maintaining one-to-one correspondence when
counting or matching. They may need to physically grasp and move objects, as grasping is an earlier
skill than pointing in development (Lerner, 1997). They often understand counting as a rigid,
mechanical activity (Geary, Hamson, & Hoard, 2000). These children also may count objects
in small sets one by one for long after their peers are strategically subitizing these amounts.
Emphasizing their ability to learn to subitize the smallest number, perhaps representing them on
their fingers, may be helpful. (Children who have continued difficulty perceiving and distinguishing
even small numbers are at risk of severe general mathematical difficulties, Dowker, 2004.) Other
children may have difficulty with subitizing (Landerl, Bevan, & Butterworth, 2004), magnitude
comparisons (e.g., knowing which of two digits is larger; Landerl et al., 2004; Wilson, Revkin,
Cohen, Cohen, & Dehaene, 2006), and in learning and using more sophisticated counting and
arithmetic strategies (Gersten et al., 2005; Wilson, Revkin et al., 2006). Their lack of progress in
arithmetic, especially in mastering arithmetic combinations, causes consistent problems; thus, early
and intensive intervention is indicated. Young children with MLD are not accurate in evaluating
the accuracy of their solutions, which has implications for asking them to “check their work” or
“ask for help” (Berch & Mazzocco, 2007).
There are many gaps in resources to help children with special needs. There is no widely-used
measure to identify specific learning difficulties or disabilities in mathematics (Geary, 2004). There
are too few research-based programs and instructional approaches, but there are some. Those that
exist may help these children are discussed in Chapter 15. Finally, however, the most important
implication for early childhood may be to prevent most learning difficulties by providing high-quality
early childhood mathematics education to all children (Bowman et al., 2001). Equity must be com-
plete equity, devoid of labeling, prejudice, and unequal access to opportunities to learn (see Alan J.
Bishop & Forgasz, 2007, for a more complete discussion).
students; however, they most frequently teach concepts traditionally found in early childhood
programs (Wadlington & Burns, 1993). Even though research shows that these children possess
advanced knowledge of measurement, time, and fractions, such topics are rarely explored. Many
gifted and talented children may not be identified as such.
One Australian study showed that the kindergarten year mathematics curriculum is most
suited to the least advanced children. Talented children learned little or nothing of mathematics
throughout an entire kindergarten year (B. Wright, 1991). This is a serious concern because
the beginning of preschool and kindergarten can be a critical time for gifted children. They
often cannot find peers at their level with similar interests, and become frustrated and bored
(Harrison, 2004). Clearly, curricula and educators have to do better to serve the learning needs of
all children.
One study showed that parents and teachers can accurately identify gifted children. The
children’s scores were more than 1 standard deviation above the mean for their age. The children
tended to be almost as advanced in verbal and visual-spatial skills on psychometric measures as on
measures of mathematical skills. Although boys’ level of performance was higher on measures of
mathematical skills and visual-spatial working memory span, the underlying relationships among
cognitive factors were for the most part similar in girls and boys, with the exception that, for boys,
the correlation between verbal and spatial factors was greater than for girls (Robinson, Abbot,
Berninger, & Busse, 1996). The highest relationships overall, however, were between visual-spatial
and mathematics skills.
Gifted young children show the same characteristics as do older gifted children. They are
divergent thinkers, curious, and persistent. They have exceptional memories (one 4-year-old said, “I
remember things because I have pictures in my head”). They are able to make abstract connections
and engage in independent investigations—formulating, researching, and testing theories. They
show advanced thinking, knowledge, visual representations, and creativity. They have advanced
awareness of mathematical concepts. At 21 months, they sort out difference between number and
letters. One said, “I’ll tell you what infinity is. A frog lays eggs, eggs hatch into tadpoles, the tadpole
grows back legs and become a frog and then lays eggs again. Now that’s a circle. It’s infinity.
Everything that’s alive is infinity . . .” (Harrison, 2004, p. 82).
Practical implications. Identify children with gifts in mathematics as early as possible. Make sure
they have interesting mathematics to think about and perform. These children are often taught
through unstructured activities, discovery learning, centers, and games within small groups, which
are supported by research (Wadlington & Burns, 1993). However, they also need to solve engaging,
difficult problems using manipulatives, number and spatial sense, and reasoning, including abstract
reasoning.
Gender
“My daughter just does not get numbers. I told her, ‘Don’t worry, honey. I was never good at math
either.’ ” “I know,” replied her friend. “Only people with special talent can really do math well.”
Myths about math abound in our country. You probably recognized two in the above conversa-
tion. The first is that only a small number of “talented” people can succeed in mathematics—we
discussed that in a previous section in this chapter. The second, just as dangerous, is that women are
not usually in that successful group.
Findings and opinions vary widely regarding gender differences in early mathematics. A
large meta-analysis of 100 studies found that girls outperformed boys overall a negligible amount
(0.05 standard deviations) (Hyde, Fennema, & Lamon, 1990). On computation, 0.14; for under-
standing 0.03; for complex problem solving, −0.08 (boys were slightly higher). Differences favoring
Cognition, Affect, and Equity • 231
men emerged in high school (−0.29) and college (−0.32). An analysis of the ECLS database showed
girls were more likely than males to be proficient in recognizing numbers and shapes, while males
were more likely than females to be proficient in addition and subtraction and multiplication and
division. All of these differences were small (Coley, 2002). Girls may be better at drawing tasks
(Hemphill, 1987). About equal proportions of girls and boys have mathematical difficulties
(Dowker, 2004).
One study from the Netherlands found girls having superior numerical skills (Van de Rijt &
Van Luit, 1999); another found no differences (Van de Rijt, Van Luit, & Pennings, 1999). Studies of
preschoolers from Singapore, Finland, and Hong Kong reported no gender differences (Pirjo Aunio,
Ee, Lim, Hautamäki, & Van Luit, 2004), although in another study in Finland, girls performed better
on a relational, but not a counting, scale (P. Aunio et al., 2008). Differences were found in math-
ematics self-concept among young children in Hong Kong (Cheung, Leung, & McBride-Chang,
2007). Mothers’ perceived maternal support was correlated to self-concept, but only for girls.
Brain studies show differences, but they tend to be small (Waber et al., 2007). In this study, boys
performed slightly better on perceptual analysis, but girls performed a bit better on processing
speed and motor dexterity.
Several studies show that boys, more than girls, are likely to be at the low or high end of math
achievement (Callahan & Clements, 1984; Hyde et al., 1990; Rathbun & West, 2004; Wright, 1991).
This applies even to the gifted young children in the study previously discussed (Robinson et al.,
1996), which reflects differences found in gifted adolescents (NMP, 2008).
Some show differences in some number domains but not in geometry and measurement (Horne,
2004). The differences that were significant in one study were not present at the beginning of school,
but developed from Kindergarten to grade 4. This finding is consistent with studies showing that
boys make slightly greater progress in mathematics than girls (G. Thomas & Tagg, 2004).
One of the most consistent gender differences is in spatial abilities, especially mental rotation.
Most research on gender differences in spatial skills has involved older students. Recent research,
however, has identified differences in young children (Ehrlich, Levine, & Goldin-Meadow, 2006;
M. Johnson, 1987). For example, 4- to 5-year-old males demonstrate a strong advantage on mental
rotation, with girls performing at chance levels (Rosser, Ensing, Glider, & Lane, 1984). Similarly,
boys showed an advantage by age 4 years 6 months on a spatial transformation task, with the
advantage no more robust for rotation than for translation items. A comparable vocabulary task
performance indicated that the boys’ advantage on the spatial tasks was not attributable to overall
intellectual advantage (Levine, Huttenlocher, Taylor, & Langrock, 1999). At least some of this is
caused by lack of experience (Ebbeck, 1984). Girls tend to be more social, boys more interested in
movement and action, from the first year of life (Lutchmaya & Baron-Cohen, 2002). Boys gesture
more and perform better on spatial transformation tasks, providing one way to assess spatial
abilities and suggesting that encouraging gesture, especially for girls, may be worthwhile (Ehrlich
et al., 2006).
One observational study confirmed that boys’ and girls’ puzzle play was related to their mental
transformation ability (McGuinness & Morley, 1991). However, parents’ use of spatial language was
only related to girls’, not boys’, mental transformation skill (controlling for the effects of parents’
overall speech to children, SES, and parents’ spatial abilities). Parents’ spatial language may be more
important for girls (Cannon, Levine, & Huttenlocher, 2007).
Similarly, such research suggests that intentional instruction in spatial skills may be especially
important for girls. The relationship between spatial skills and mathematics achievement is higher
for girls that boys (Battista, 1990; M. B. Casey, Nuttall, & Pezaris, 2001; Friedman, 1995; Kersh et al.,
in press). Middle school girls who scored high on spatial tests solved mathematics problems as well
or better than the boys (Fennema & Tartre, 1985). Those girls with low spatial/high verbal girls
232 • Cognition, Affect, and Equity
performed most poorly. Spatial skills are stronger mediators than even mathematics anxiety or
self-confidence (Casey, Nuttall, & Pezaris, 1997). Parents’ use of spatial language is related to girls’,
but not boys’ skill at mental transformations. Girls may use more verbal mediation on some
tasks (Cannon et al., 2007).
Boys in one study were more confident in mathematics, but they were not accurate, as confidence
did not predict math competence (Carr, Steiner, Kyser, & Biddlecomb, 2008). One important
difference, however, was that girls preferred using manipulatives to solve problems, but boys
preferred more sophisticated strategies. These cognitive strategies may influence their performance
and later learning. Such difference in strategy use has been replicated repeatedly and is cause for
serious concern (Carr & Alexeev, 2008; Carr & Davis, 2001; Fennema, Carpenter, Franke, & Levi,
1998). The children solved basic arithmetic problems under two conditions: a free-choice condition
in which they were allowed to solve the problems any way they preferred and a game condition in
which the children’s strategy use was constrained so that all children used the same strategies on the
same arithmetic problems. Strategy use during the free-choice session replicated the findings of
earlier research indicating that girls tend to use strategies utilizing manipulatives and boys tend
to use retrieval. During the game condition, when we controlled the types of strategies children
used on different problems, we found that boys were as able as girls to calculate solutions using
manipulatives. Girls, however, were not as capable as boys in their retrieval of answers to arithmetic
problems from memory. No differences were found in error rates or speed of retrieval. Gender
differences were found in the variability of correct retrieval, with boys being significantly more
variable than girls (Carr & Davis, 2001).
Although the source is unknown, we know that gender differences can be minimized when all
children are provided with good education, including encouraging everyone to develop more
sophisticated strategies and to take risks. One study suggested that girls’ strategy use is guided by
classroom norms that do not actively promote the use of more mature strategies. Unfortunately,
this pattern resulted in the highest number of failures on the competency test for girls (Carr &
Alexeev, 2008). Spatial skills also may promote more mature strategies (Carr, Shing, Janes, & Steiner,
2007).
Practical implications. Teach spatial skills, particularly intentionally to girls, and encourage
parents to do so. Encourage girls as well as boys to use sophisticated strategies.
Final Words
To be fully professional and effective, teachers must understand children’s cognition and affect, and
issues of individual differences and equity. However, this is not sufficient—we also need to under-
stand how to use these understanding to promote thinking, positive dispositions, and fairness. Such
is the intent of the next two chapters. Chapter 15 addresses the contexts of instruction—the types
of settings in which children are taught, including children’s first setting, their families and their
homes. It also focuses on specific curricula that are effective in helping young children learn
mathematics.
15
Early Childhood Mathematics Education
Contexts and Curricula
What makes a good math curriculum for young children? How would you evaluate your own?
Previous chapters discussed the roles of experience, education, and teaching for specific topics.
This chapter expands that discussion to address the types of settings in which children are taught,
including children’s first setting—their families and their homes. We then focus on general findings
regarding specific curricula that are effective in helping young children learn mathematics.
Remember, because there is no corresponding chapter in the companion book, there is more
research reviewed in the chapter. We have marked paragraphs with implications for practitioners
with “Practical implications,” for those who wish to focus only on these.
A short historical view of early mathematics confirms this opinion. Frederick Froebel invented
233
234 • Contexts and Curricula
For example, children can be helped to distinguish between different quantities such as height, area,
and volume. Three preschoolers made towers and argued about whose was the biggest. Their
teacher asked them if they meant whose was tallest (gesturing) or widest, or used the most blocks?
The children were surprised to find that the tallest tower did not have the most blocks (see Chapter
9 for more on block building).
Unfortunately, the typical kindergarten building blocks have features of the less structured
toy design against which Froebel reacted. They do not have the same mathematics modularity.
Nevertheless, all these materials were designed with mathematics in mind.
mathematics activities, lessons, or episodes of play with mathematical objects, with 60% of the
children having no experience across 180 observations (Tudge & Doucet, 2004). Factors such as
race-ethnicity, SES, and setting (home or child care) did not significantly affect this low frequency.
Another study found that those in child care centers scored significantly higher on formal and
informal mathematics skills than those in child care homes (Austin et al., 2008).
A small observational study of four Pre-K teachers from two settings revealed that little
mathematics was presented in any of the classrooms, either directly or indirectly (Graham, Nash, &
Paul, 1997). Researchers observed only one instance of informal mathematical activity with physical
materials and few instances of informal or formal mathematics teaching. Teachers stated that they
believed that mathematics was important and that they engaged in mathematical discussions.
It appears that selection of materials and activities such as puzzles, blocks, games, songs, and finger
plays constituted mathematics for these teachers.
In a similar vein, the large National Center for Early Development and Learning (NCEDL)
studies report that children are not engaged in learning or constructive activities during a large
proportion of the Pre-K day (Early et al., 2005; Winton et al., 2005). They spent the largest part of
their day, up to 44%, in routine maintenance activities (like standing in line) and eating. About 6%
to 8% of the day on the average involves mathematics activities in any form. Teachers were observed
not interacting with child an amazing 73% of the day; 18% was minimal interaction. On average,
less than 3% of the time children were engaged in pre-academic experiences, and less than half the
children experienced these at all (Winton et al., 2005).
Even in one of the highest-quality programs recently created and run, the Abbott programs, the
quality of mathematics materials and teaching has been rated as very low (Lamy et al., 2004). This
may be one reason that East Asian Countries tend to outperform Western countries—the culture
develops mathematical ideas and skills more consistently at earlier ages (Pirjo Aunio et al., 2004;
Pirjo Aunio et al., 2006).
Math in preschools using literacy-based curricula. How about the effects of programs that are
ostensibly “complete” programs but fundamentally built upon literacy goals? Two curricula, one
literacy-oriented (Bright Beginnings), and one developmentally focused (Creative Curriculum),
engendered no more math instruction than a control group (Aydogan et al., 2005). However,
children in classrooms with stronger emphasis on literacy or math were more likely to be engaged
at a higher-quality level during free-choice (play) time. Those in classrooms with an emphasis
on both literacy and math were more likely to be engaged at a high-quality level that those in
classrooms with only one, or no, such emphasis.
Another study showed that even the OWL (Opening the World of Learning) curriculum, which
includes mathematics in its all-day, prescribed program, may be woefully inadequate. In a 360-
minute day, only 58 seconds were devoted to math (Dale C. Farran, Lipsey, Watson, & Hurley, 2007).
There was little instruction, few opportunities for children to engage with math materials, and few
opportunities for children to talk about math (or anything else, but they talked most in centers, less
in small groups, and least in whole-group activities). No children gained math skills, and those
beginning with higher scores lost math skills over the year. They did gain in literacy skills, but only
modestly (Dale C. Farran et al., 2007). Most children stayed the same or lost mathematics skills during
the year.
Reports from teachers. A survey (Sarama, 2002; Sarama & DiBiase, 2004) asked teachers from a
range of preschool settings at what age children should start large-group mathematics instruction.
Family and group care providers chose ages 2 or 3 most often, while the other group felt large-
group instruction should not start until age 4. Most teachers professed to use manipulatives
(95%), number songs (84%), basic counting (74%) and games (71%); few used software (33%) or
workbooks (16%). They preferred children to “explore math activities” and engage in “open-ended
Contexts and Curricula • 237
free play” rather than participate in “large-group lessons” or be “doing math worksheets.” When
asked about mathematics topics, 67% taught counting, 60%, sorting, 51%, numeral recognition,
46%, patterning, 34%, number concepts, 32%, spatial relations, 16%, making shapes, and 14%,
measuring. Geometry and measurement concepts were the least popular. Another survey reported
that both public and private preschool teachers do not think children need specific mathematics
teaching (Starkey, Klein, & Wakeley, 2004). Instead, they believed that children needed “general
enrichment.”
There are many policy issues that should be considered in addressing these limitations. As we
shall see in the next section, family influences are strong. Further, most early childhood teachers
are underpaid, and there are large disparities in salaries across settings, with teachers in public
schools paid much more than Pre-K teachers in other settings (Early et al., 2005). There is also a
wide gap in teachers’ education in these settings.
Before we turn to programs and curricula that attempt to address mathematics more adequately,
we consider the first and consistently influential setting in which children learn mathematics—the
home.
Families
Of course, families also play a major role in young children’s development, including their learning
of mathematics. There is a relationship between the frequency with which parents use numbers and
their children’s early mathematical performance (Blevins-Knabe & Musun-Miller, 1996). However,
there are several sociocultural barriers. For example, although parents believe that both home
and school are important for reading development, they consider the school more important for
mathematics development and they provide fewer experiences in mathematics than in reading
(Sonnenschein et al., 2005). They believe it is more important to help their children learn literacy
than mathematics (Cannon, Fernandez, & Ginsburg, 2005). They prefer teaching language and
they believe language is more important to learn than mathematics (Cannon et al., 2005). More
for the learning of language than mathematics, parents believe that pedagogy should consist of
determination to ensure children acquire specific knowledge, delving deeply into children’s under-
standing, and facilitating children’s learning in their everyday lives. These are profound differences
that have severe implications.
Further, as with Pre-K teachers, parents have a limited view of the breadth of mathematics
appropriate for young children (Sarama, 2002). They know more about what might be taught in
language than mathematics (Cannon et al., 2005). This was true regardless of whether parents were
Hispanic or not and whether they were low- or middle-SES. However, cultural differences are
occasionally relevant. For example, Chinese mothers are more likely than U.S. mothers to teach
arithmetic calculation in their everyday involvement with children’s learning and maternal instruc-
tion was related to Chinese, but not U.S., children’s learning of proportional reasoning (Pan, Gauvain,
Liu, & Cheng, 2006). Mothers in China rate mathematics as equal in importance to reading, but
mothers in the U.S. rate mathematics as of much less importance (Miller, Kelly, & Zhou, 2005).
Let’s examine some practices in more detail. The vignette that began the section on gender in the
previous chapter, regarding the mother’s daughter who “just does not get numbers,” indicates
the effect—sometimes negative—that parents and families can have on children’s success in
mathematics. Research describes several:
• Prenatal alcohol exposure is associated with poorer calculation abilities. This apparently is
mediated entirely by alcohol’s effect on children’s “number sense”—the basic quantitative
bootstrap competence (e.g., Dehaene, 1997; see also Chapters 2 and 4). This competence is
238 • Contexts and Curricula
associated with activity in the inferior parietal cortex, an area that is disproportionately
affected by prenatal alcohol exposure (Burden, Jacobson, Dodge, Dehaene, & Jacobson, 2007).
• Very low birth weight may lead to less mature levels of numerical reasoning on problems with
a spatial component and those that required complex problem-solving; however, verbal tasks
were affected more strongly by levels of parent education (Wakeley, 2005). Intervention
programs can be successful (Liaw, Meisels, & Brooks-Gunn, 1995).
• Poor mother–child engagement related to lower levels of academic success (T. R. Konold &
Pianta, 2005).
• Mothers rating themselves as high on affection but also high on psychological control—
behaviors that are intrusive and manipulative of children’s thoughts, feelings, and attach-
ments to parents (e.g., guilt-inducing)—is predictive of their children’s slow progress in
mathematics. Children may become “enmeshed” in family relations and less independent, or
may receive inconsistent messages of their mothers’ affection and approval and thus become
more anxious about performing well.
• Parents prefer teaching language to teaching mathematics. They are biased towards language
and belief there are “universal” grounds for helping children learn language over mathe-
matics. They also have more nuanced beliefs about preschoolers’ ability to learn language
than mathematics. For language more than mathematics, they believe that teaching should
ensure children acquire specific knowledge, that they want to delve deeply into children’s
understanding, and that they should facilitate children’s learning throughout the day
(Cannon et al., 2005).
• U.S. parents do not have high expectations. U.S. parents, compared to Chinese parents, set
lower standards. The U.S. culture does not value diligent work, as does the Chinese culture.
Chinese students’ favorite saying was “Genius comes from hard work and knowledge depends
on accumulation.” U.S. parents said they would be satisfied with 7 points lower than their
expectation for their children, but Chinese parents were only satisfied with 10 points higher.
• In many low-income homes, a limited number of mathematical activities are provided
(Blevins-Knabe & Musun-Miller, 1996; Ginsburg, Klein, & Starkey, 1998; Thirumurthy, 2003).
• One study reported that U.S. parents work less often and for less time with their children on
homework (Chen & Uttal, 1988). However, another found U.S. parents more involved with
school activities that Chinese parents, who stressed interest in mathematics and the child’s
responsibility (Pan & Gauvain, 2007). East Asian parents also provide games, building, and
paper-folding activities; U.S. parents allow children’s time to be dominated by video games
and television.
• Black children may start school with similar competencies, but grow at a slower rate. They are
less influenced by parent variables and appear to have a more difficult time transitioning to
school. Parent programs that help build bridges and prepare children for school expectations
may help alleviate these difficulties (Alexander & Entwisle, 1988).
Several additional “risk factors” for children’s homes have been studied, including living below
the federal poverty line (set at $16,000), primary home language other than English, mother’s highest
education less than a high school diploma/GED, and living in a single-parent household The more
such factors in a home, the more risk for the child. However, these factors may not be directly
responsible for lower learning. For example, being a single parent is not so much the cause as the lack
of both resources and high expectations that can accompany it (Entwisle & Alexander, 1997). Other
cultural factors must be considered as well. Perhaps the most important is that the achievement gaps
between disadvantaged and more advantaged children identified at the beginning of school (West,
Denton, & Reaney, 2001) widen over the first 4 years of school attendance (Rathbun & West, 2004).
Contexts and Curricula • 239
Children from homes with more risk factors were less likely to have reached each of the highest three
levels of math achievement. For example, about 20% of children with no risk factors were proficient
by third grade at using rate and measurement knowledge to solve word problems, compared with
11% of children with one family risk factor and 2% with two more.
Of course, parents also are critical in providing positive experiences for their children. The
more mathematics activities they engage their children in, the higher the children’s achievement
(Blevins-Knabe & Musun-Miller, 1996; Blevins-Knabe, Whiteside-Mansell, & Selig, 2007). Pro-
grams designed to improve home mathematics learning have been found to be most successful
when they had three components: joint and separate sessions for parents and children, a structured
numeracy curriculum, and “bridging” activities for parents to develop their child’s numeracy at
home (Doig, McCrae, & Rowe, 2003).
Parents can provide good materials for play that also will support mathematics learning.
Surprisingly, though, one study showed the more the mother “provides behaviors,” the lower the
child’s math ability (Christiansen, Austin, & Roggman, 2005). The researchers found that too
many directive behaviors, when the child was not engaged in many math behaviors, might be
overstimulating. Introducing formal mathematics also was negatively related to children’s informal
mathematics knowledge. These relationships, however, appeared to hold only for boys, not girls.
The study, like most in this section, is correlational, so we cannot say that parenting behaviors
caused higher or lower child knowledge. It does suggest that being responsive to children’s actions
may be particularly helpful.
Practical implications. Research describes several additional avenues for families to promote
positive mathematics learning:
• Discussing mathematical ideas when reading storybooks (A. Anderson, Anderson, & Shapiro,
2004, although the design has limited generalizability).
• Using research-based programs that contain specific suggestions written for parents (Doig
et al., 2003).
• Making sure children get sufficient sleep—they usually do not get at least 10 hours per night
(Touchette et al., 2007).
• Provision of learning experiences, including sensitivity, quality of assistance in problem-
solving, and avoiding of harsh, punitive interactions (all highly related to IQ; Brooks-Gunn
et al., 1999).
• Playing math games with children. Parents should ensure they spend some time playing only
with their young children, as positive interactions and teaching are substantially higher in this
case (Benigno & Ellis, 2004).
• Cooking with children, especially using rich vocabulary such as number and measurement
words (Young-Loveridge, 1989a). Contingent responses to children are more important than
just using the words—giving them feedback and elaborating on their responses is more
effective in building their mathematics knowledge.
• Encouraging counting when appropriate, but also encouraging a wider range of mathematical
experience (Blevins-Knabe & Musun-Miller, 1996).
• Maintaining high to very high expectations for children (Thomson et al., 2005).
• Being willing and able to participate actively in the school’s math program and training in
how to effectively assist in the classroom (Thomson et al., 2005).
• Supporting and encouraging children, which is associated with children’s motivation to learn
(Cheung & McBride-Chang, in press). Parents’ achievement demands are correlated with
actual academic performance. Children’s mastery (intrinsic) motivation, not their parents
practices or beliefs, explained their perceptions of themselves as competent.
240 • Contexts and Curricula
• Using high-quality materials that provide activity ideas and guidance. Perhaps the most useful
suggestion for parents is encourage them to get and use books and other resources that
provide ideas for activities that will engage their children and their whole family. Family
Math is a well-established program with books for parents (Stenmark, Thompson, & Cossey,
1986), see http://www.lawrencehallofscience.org/equals/aboutfm.html. NCTM features
many resources on their “Figure This! Math Challenges for Familiies” website (see http://
www.figurethis.org/fc/family_corner.htm). Searching with the phrase “family math” will yield
these and other resources.
Such relationships appear to be reciprocal. For example, in one study the impact of parents’
beliefs concerning their primary school children’s general school competence was related to
children’s focusing on school tasks, which in turn was related to children’s math performance
(Aunola, Nurmi, Lerkkanen, & Rasku-Puttonen, 2003). But parents’ beliefs in their children’s com-
petence in mathematics contributed directly to their children’s high math performance. In the
reciprocal relationships, children’s high mathematical performance increased parents’ subsequent
positive beliefs in their children’s mathematical competence, and children’s task-focusing increased
parents’ beliefs in their children’s overall school competence. Unfortunately, father’s beliefs about
their sons’ math competencies increased over the course of school, but their beliefs decreased for
girls (Aunola et al., 2003). This is particularly important because the self-perpetuating, cumulative
cycle could be positive or negative.
Parents need mathematics knowledge and skills as well as parenting skills to provide a positive
home environment for learning mathematics (Blevins-Knabe et al., 2007). Mothers’ attitudes and
perceptions about their children’s math knowledge appeared to directly affect their children’s
formal and informal math knowledge, as well as their children’s math self-efficacy. These attitudes
and perceptions also mediated the effects of the mothers’ own mathematics achievement. Parenting
behaviors had a direct effect on informal mathematics performance and mediated the effects
of the mothers’ own mathematics achievement on children’s formal mathematics knowledge
(Blevins-Knabe et al., 2007). Thus, how much mathematics mothers know matters but is affected by
the way they interact with their children. In general, these studies suggest that parents with positive
beliefs may encourage or expect their children to engage in mathematical tasks and also provide
more challenging tasks.
In working with parents, with policy-makers, and with children, early childhood math educators
should be strong advocates for foundational and explicit mathematical experiences for all children,
of all ages. In the earliest ages especially, these can often be seamlessly integrated with children’s
ongoing play and activities . . . but this usually requires a knowledgeable adult who creates a
supportive environment and provides challenges, suggestions, tasks, and language.
can be sustained into first (Magnuson, Meyers, Rathbun, & West, 2004) to third grade
(Gamel-McCormick & Amsden, 2002). As an example, the Rightstart (now Number Worlds) pro-
gram (Griffin et al., 1994), featuring games and active experiences with different models of number,
led to substantial improvement in children’s knowledge of number.1 Across five studies, almost all
children failed the number pre-test, and the majority in the comparison groups failed the post-test
as well, whereas the vast majority of those in the program passed the post-test. Children in the
program were better able to employ reasonable strategies and also were able to solve arithmetic
problems even more difficult than those included in the curriculum. Program children also passed
five far-transfer tests that were hypothesized to depend on similar cognitive structures (e.g., balance
beam, time, money). The foundation these children received supported their learning of new, more
complex, mathematics through first grade. In a 3-year longitudinal study in which children received
consistent experiences through the grades from kindergarten through primary, children gained and
surpassed both a second low-SES group and a mixed-SES group who showed a higher initial level
of performance and attended a magnet school with an enriched mathematics curriculum. The
children also compared favorably with high-SES groups from China and Japan (Case et al., 1999).
(A caution is that other research indicates that certain components of the curriculum are difficult to
implement, Gersten et al., 2008.)
A series of studies have similarly indicated that the Building Blocks curriculum (Clements &
Sarama, 2007a) significantly and substantially increases the mathematics knowledge of low-SES
preschool children. Formative, qualitative research indicated that the curriculum raised achieve-
ment in a variety of mathematical topics (Clements & Sarama, 2004a; Sarama & Clements, 2002a).
Summative, quantitative research confirmed these findings, with effect sizes ranging from 0.85
(Cohen’s d) for number to 1.47 for geometry in a small-scale study (Clements & Sarama, 2007c). In
a larger study involving random assignment of 36 classrooms, the Building Blocks curriculum
increased the quantity and quality of the mathematics environment and teaching, and substantially
increased scores on a mathematics achievement test. The effect size compared to the control group
score was very large (d = 1.07) and the effect size compared to a group receiving a different, extensive
mathematics curriculum was substantial (d = .47). There was no significant interaction by program
type (Head Start vs. public preschool).
The Number Worlds and Building Blocks programs share several characteristics. Both use research
to include a comprehensive set of cognitive concepts and processes (albeit Number Worlds focuses
on the domain of numbers). Both curricula are based on developmentally sequenced activities, and
help teachers become aware of, assess, and remediate based on those sequences (projects around the
world that use research-based developmental progressions help raise achievement of all children,
e.g., Thomas & Ward, 2001; Wright, Martland, Stafford, & Stanger, 2002). Both use a mix of
instructional methods.
Alleviating any concern about lack of attention to social-emotional domain, the PCER studies
give no indication of negative effects on other measures. Further, another study showed research
indicates that mathematics competencies are related to a wide variety of mathematics inter-
ventions, with problem behaviors negatively correlated, and self-control, attachment, and especially
initiative positively correlated with mathematics skills. Moreover, the intervention increased not
only mathematics skills but also these positive social-emotional behaviors (Dobbs, Doctoroff,
Fisher, & Arnold, 2006).
Even with few resources, parents can take action to improve their children’s school readiness.
Parents can read to children themselves or arrange for other adults to do so; provide challenging
books, games, and puzzles; help children learn to count and figure out math problems; and partici-
pate in reading and other programs at the public library. Providing warm and consistent parenting
is also important for school readiness (Lara-Cinisomo et al., 2004).
Contexts and Curricula • 243
Children from different income levels receive different types of activities during the early years of
school. However, findings are unclear. One large self-report survey indicated that classes with more
low-income or minority children were more likely to engage in problem-solving, as well as practice
activities (Hausken & Rathbun, 2004). However, other research indicates that, for example,
low-income children were more likely to work on drill and less likely to work on problem-solving
software (Clements & Nastasi, 1992).
Higher-quality programs result in learning benefits into elementary school, including in
mathematics (Fuson, 2004; Griffin, 2004; KaroIy et al., 1998). Unfortunately, most American
children are not in high-quality programs, much less in programs that use research-based
mathematics curricula (Hinkle, 2000). Further, children whose mothers had college degrees were
nearly twice as likely to be in higher-quality, center-based care as those whose mothers had not
completed high school (Magnuson et al., 2004). As another example, Hispanic children are less
likely to be enrolled, even though the benefit they receive from attending is double that for
non-Hispanic white children in mathematics and pre-reading (Loeb, Bridges, Bassok, Fuller, &
Rumberger, in press). Similarly, children from extremely poor families show a 0.22 SD (compared to
0.10 SD average for all children) advantage in mathematics concept, compare to peers who remain
at home. Further, these average gains would be predictably higher if focused mathematics programs
were in place. Thus, children from low-income and minority communities are provided fewer
educational opportunities. Implications include providing high-quality programs for all children
and their families. Even controlling for parents’ occupations and education, family practices such as
playing numbers at home have significant impact on children’s mathematical development (Sylva,
Melhuish, Sammons, Siraj-Blatchford, & Taggart, 2005).
Do children at risk already have substantial math knowledge or not? There appears to be a contra-
diction between two pictures of the mathematical knowledge and competencies of children of
different SES groups. On the one hand, the evidence suggests a substantive and widening gap.
On the other hand, there are few, or no, differences between low- and middle-income children in
the amount of mathematics they exhibit in their free play (Ginsburg, Ness, & Seo, 2003; Seo &
Ginsburg, 2004). The authors often conclude that low-income children are more mathematically
competent than expected. This contradiction may have several explanations. Low-income children
may not have the same kind of informal opportunities at home (although there is only weak
support for this hypothesis; Tudge & Doucet, 2004). Researchers often observe them in a school
setting and there is evidence that low-income families provide less support for mathematical
thinking (Thirumurthy, 2003). Thus, it may be that they evince mathematics in their play in school,
but are still engaged in such play far less than higher-income children. Another explanation is that
children have not been provided with the opportunities to reflect on and discuss their pre-
mathematical activity. There are huge, meaningful differences in the amount of language in which
children from different income levels engage (Hart & Risley, 1995, 1999). Low-income children may
engage in pre-mathematical play but be unable to connect this activity to school mathematics
because to do so requires the children to bring the ideas to an explicit level of awareness. This is
supported by the finding that a main difference between children is not their ability to perform with
physical objects but to solve problems verbally (Jordan et al., 1992) or explain their thinking
(Sophian, 2002). Consider a child who turned 4 years of age. When asked to solve “how much is ten
and one more,” she used physical blocks, added 1 to 10, and answered, “eleven.” Five minutes later,
asked several times using the same wording, “How many is two and one more,” the child did
not respond, and, asked again, said, “fifteen” . . . in a couldn’t-care-less tone of voice (Hughes, 1981,
pp. 216–217).
In summary, although there is little direct evidence, we believe the pattern of results suggest
that, although low-income children have pre-mathematical knowledge, they do lack important
244 • Contexts and Curricula
components of mathematical knowledge. They lack the ability—because they have been provided
less support to learn—to connect their informal pre-mathematical knowledge to school mathemat-
ics. Children must learn to mathematize their informal experiences, abstracting, representing, and
elaborating them mathematically, and using mathematical ideas and symbols to create models of
their everyday activities. This includes the ability to generalize, connecting the mathematical ideas
to different situations and using the ideas and processes adaptively. In all its multifaceted forms,
they lack the language of mathematics.
We believe the significance of this conclusion needs to be highlighted. Some authors find that
low-income children perform similarly to middle-income children on nonverbal calculation tasks,
but significantly worse on verbal calculation tasks (N. C. Jordan, Hanich, & Uberti, 2003), consistent
with our review. These authors also state their agreement with others (Ginsburg & Russell,
1981) that the differences are associated with language and approaches to problem-solving rather
than “basic mathematical abilities” (p. 366). We prefer to call these not “basic mathematical,”
but rather foundational abilities. We emphasize that mathematization—including redescribing,
reorganizing, abstracting, generalizing, reflecting upon, and giving language to that which is first
understood on an intuitive and informal level—is requisite to basic mathematical ability. This
distinction goes beyond semantics to involve a definition of the construct of mathematics and then
to critical ramifications for such practical decisions as allocation of resources based on equity
concerns.
Practical implications. Begin with number tasks in which numerosities are represented with
objects and model verbal descriptions, facilitating children’s receptive and expressive vocabularies.
From toddlerhood, naming the number in very small groups supports a variety of number com-
petencies (Hannula, 2005). As another example, the simple task of putting blocks in and out of a
box reveals that even 4-year-olds enjoy and can perform arithmetic (Hughes, 1986). (This despite
the quoted guidelines of the time that “arithmetic for this age would be ludicrous.”) One child,
faced with two blocks in the box (which he could not see), was asked to take out three. He replied as
follows:
Eventually, facilitate children’s transition to using more abstract symbols. In general, hold the
processes of communication and representation as important, not incidental, goals of mathematics
education. These processes are not ways to express mathematics, desirable but secondary accoutre-
ments, but rather essential aspects of mathematical understanding.
Connections between the development of mathematics and literacy are numerous and
bidirectional. For example, preschoolers’ narrative abilities, particularly their ability to convey all
the main events of the story, offer a perspective on the events in the story, and relate the main events
of the story through use of conjunctions, predicts mathematics achievement two years later
(O’Neill, Pearce, & Pick, 2004). Rich mathematical activities, such as discussing multiple solutions,
and posing and solving narrative story problems, helps lay a groundwork for literacy, and rich
literacy, that includes but goes beyond phonetic skills, helps lay a groundwork for the development
of mathematics.
Gender. Gender equity also remains a concern, as we saw in Chapter 14. Females are socialized to
view mathematics as a male domain and themselves as having less ability. Teachers show more
Contexts and Curricula • 245
concern when boys, rather than girls, struggle. They call on and talk to boys more than girls. Finally,
they believe success in mathematics is due to high ability more frequently for boys than girls and
view boys as the most successful students in their class. All these unintentionally undermine girls’
achievement motivation (Middleton & Spanias, 1999). In more than one study, boys appear more
likely than girls to appear in the lowest and highest ranges of scores in mathematics (Callahan &
Clements, 1984; Rathbun & West, 2004). In addition, there was evidence of a faster growth rate for
high-achieving boys (Aunola et al., 2004). Reasons for this are still unclear, but there are practical
ramifications. There are also some indications that boys outperform girls as early as kindergarten
on some tasks, such as number sense, estimation, and nonverbal estimation, all of which may have
a spatial component (Jordan, Kaplan, Oláh et al., 2006). However, in the U.K., preschool girls scored
higher than boys (Sylva et al., 2005).
Practical implications. Thus, the problems are complex, and there are distinct concerns
about boys and girls. Educators need to ensure everyone receives complete opportunities to
learn.
Children with special needs—MD and MLD. As we saw in Chapter 14, some children show signs
of Mathematical Difficulties (MD) and Mathematics Learning Disabilities (MLD) at young
ages. Unfortunately, they are often not identified, or categorized broadly with other children as
“developmentally delayed.” This is especially unfortunate because focused mathematical inter-
ventions at early ages are effective (Dowker, 2004; Lerner, 1997). These children often have low
skills and concepts in subitizing, counting, fact retrieval, and other aspects of computation.
They appear to not use reasoning-based strategies and seem rigid in their use of immature
problem-solving, counting, and arithmetic strategies. Children with special needs require the earliest
and most consistent interventions (Gervasoni, 2005; Gervasoni et al., 2007).
In the primary years, because children with MLD only (not MLD/RLD) performed worse than
normally-developing children in timed tests, but performed just as well in untimed tests, children
who have MLD only may simply need extra time studying, and extra time to complete, calculation
tasks. Probably the use of a calculator and other computation aides would enable these children to
concentrate on developing their otherwise good problem-solving skills (Jordan & Montani, 1997).
Children with MLD/RLD may need more systematic remedial intervention aimed at problem
conceptualization and the development of effective computational strategies as well as efficient fact
retrieval (Jordan & Montani, 1997).
Practical implications: Instruction for all children with special needs. Many children with special
needs have quite different learning needs (Gervasoni, 2005; Gervasoni et al., 2007). We need to
individualize instruction. Moreover, it appears that no particular topic as a whole must precede
another topic. For this reason, teaching with learning trajectories is the best way to address the needs of
all children, especially those with special needs. Using the formative assessment, which has been
featured throughout this book but is focused on later in this chapter, is a recommended strategy for
putting learning trajectories to work, especially for children with any type of special needs.
A different intervention is important, but this should not be a replacement but an addition to the
mathematics education of these children. All children learn from good mathematics education. If
we want to close the gap, those with low entering knowledge need more time on better mathematics
(Perry et al., 2008). Full-day kindergarten programs have been shown to produce greater mathe-
matics learning gains than half-day programs, particularly for disadvantaged children (Bodovski &
Farkas, 2007). But if other children also participate in full-day programs, the gaps will remain.
Children at risk or with special needs need more time, more mathematics.
As we saw in Chapter 14, affect and motivation are also important. Children who begin
kindergarten with the least mathematics knowledge have the most to gain (or to lose) from their
engagement with learning (see the previous section in this chapter on affect). The low engagement
246 • Contexts and Curricula
of these students may be at least partly due to teachers’ inability to engage them, or to keep them
engaged. Thus, future instructional efforts with these students should focus on innovative attempts
to improve their engagement with learning. If low-performing students spent some time daily in
small-group instruction that covered the basic number knowledge that they lack, engagement, and
hopefully achievement, might be accelerated. Finally, if average beginning achievement of these
children can be increased by more intensive preschool interventions, they may be able to also
increase their later achievement growth (Bodovski & Farkas, 2007). Interventions that specifically
address these needs are discussed in a following section.
Practical implications: Additional resources. There are many resources available to address this
country’s severe problems with equitable mathematics education. See the bibliography for the
following (Nasir & Cobb, 2007).
important to teaching children of any age is that mathematics curricula that teach a combination of
skills, concepts, and problem-solving help children learn skills about as well as if they had studied
only skills, but also concepts and problem-solving, which children in skills-only curricula do not
(e.g., Senk & Thompson, 2003).
Numeracy Recovery. Several intervention programs for young children with MD and MLD have
already been described. Another, specially designed for elementary children with weak mathematics
abilities, is the Numeracy Recovery program. The program focuses on the presumed independent
core areas of knowledge children need: counting procedures and principles, written symbolism
for numbers, understanding the role of place value in number operations and arithmetic, word
problem-solving, number fact retrieval, derived fact strategy use, arithmetical estimation, and
translation between arithmetical problems presented in concrete, verbal and numerical formats.
Working on those components that children need resulted in significant benefits relative to control
children that lasted at least a year (Dowker, 2005).
Math Recovery. Math Recovery is a focused, effective intervention program for at-risk primary
school children (Wright, 2003; Wright et al., 1996; Wright et al., 2006). The program for children
is based on Steffe’s theory of the growth of counting and arithmetic concepts and skills (see Chapters
3 and 5). Thus, fundamentally, this program is based on the idea of learning trajectories (we discuss
this program more in the early chapters and then later in Chapter 14 of the companion book,
dedicated to professional development). Later work has suggested it may be effective for more able
children as well (although, as with many others, it only addresses number). For example, it is
claimed to have affected the group of programs from Australia and New Zealand discussed in the
following paragraph (Wright et al., 2002).
Count Me In Too (CMIT), Early Numeracy Research Program (ENRP), and Early Numeracy
Project (ENP). Several systemic numeracy programs, including the Count Me In Too and Early
Numeracy Research Program in Australia and the Early Numeracy Project in New Zealand continue
to have a major impact both on the mathematics learning of young children and early childhood
mathematics education research in these countries (Perry et al., 2008; Wright et al., 2006; Young-
Loveridge, 1989b, 2004). Results are quite positive. These and other effective interventions
(e.g., Aubrey, 1997) have been featured throughout this book.
Montessori. An evaluation of the Montessori program, originally created for at-risk children
(Montessori, 1964), yielded positive effects on one type of math skills, as well as self-regulation and
literacy measures (Lillard & Else-Quest, 2007). Although there was no control for teaching training
and the content of the control program, this finding provides potentially important scientific
evidence.
A curriculum for Head Start based on the idea of “unit.” An experimental mathematics curric-
ulum for Head Start focused on the concept of unit as it applies to enumeration, measurement, and
the identification of relations among geometric shapes. Children learned that the numerical result
we obtain from counting or other measurement operations will depend on our choice of a unit and
that units can be combined to form higher-order units. Results showed significant, but modest,
positive effects (Sophian, 2004b).
Round the Rug Math. This supplementary program (Pre-K to grade 2) includes six problem-
solving adventure stories. The mathematics concepts are taught to the children through the
medium of oral storytelling sagas in an integrated approach that addresses language arts as well as
early childhood mathematics competencies, with an emphasis on spatial thinking (B. Casey, Kersh,
& Young, 2004).
Project Construct. This process-oriented curriculum had no significant effect compared to a
control group. However, neither did teachers implement it with high fidelity. Achieving and assess-
ing fidelity, no matter how difficult, is critical (Mayfield, Morrison, Thornburg, & Scott, 2007).
248 • Contexts and Curricula
A synthesized curriculum. A curriculum that synthesized two others was evaluated with a
randomized experiment. The experimental group showed enhanced number-sense performance
immediately after the instruction ended, but this difference faded after 6 months. There were no
statistically significant differences between the groups in general mathematical thinking abilities
(transfer tasks) after the intervention (Pirjo Aunio, Hautamäki, & Van Luit, 2005). The researchers
suggest that the reason for the limited gains is that teachers were not trained to deliver the interven-
tion. However, the small number of low number-sense children did maintain their relative gain. A
similar cognitive acceleration intervention, emphasizing cognitive conflict, social construction, and
metacognition, yielded more substantial gains in 5- and 6-year-old children (Adey, Robertson, &
Venville, 2002). Teachers worked with small groups on tasks reflecting general cognitive operations,
such as classification and seriation. The evaluation using a quasi-experimental design showed
significantly greater cognitive gains in the experiment group. Further, these gains included measures
of far transfer (to concepts and skills not taught) suggesting that general cognitive development was
affected. The success may be attributable to substantial professional development, including
6 inservice days and 3 or 4 coaching visits to each teacher (Adey et al., 2002).
A major conclusion is that early childhood classrooms underestimate children’s ability to learn
mathematics and are ill suited to help them learn. One researcher, noting that children actually regress
on some math skills during kindergarten, said simply that sorting and classifying, and 1-to-1
correspondence, are just not enough (Wright et al., 1994). We need more structured, sophisticated,
and better-developed and well-sequenced mathematics in early childhood education. How do we do
that well?
A Framework for Research-based Curricula. Although constructivism has been a major force in
mathematics education, its influence has decreased. One problem is that researchers have not
articulated clear, stable, repeatable products, such as curricula, that can be evaluated in more scaled
and systematic ways (Burkhardt, 2006; Confrey & Kazak, 2006). In a similar vein, the (PME) group
(Hunting & Pearn, 2003) also called for the development of frameworks to underpin research for
children in the early years. We have been working on such a framework for a decade because we too
saw a dire need. Government agencies and wider members of the educational research community
have also petitioned for research-based curricula. However, the ambiguity of the phrase “research-
based” undermines attempts to create a shared research foundation for the development of, and
informed choices about, classroom curricula.
Therefore, based on a review of research and expert practice, we constructed and tested a
framework for the construct of research-based curricula. Our “Curriculum Research Framework”
(CRF, Clements, 2007) rejects the sole use of commercially-oriented “market research” and
“research-to-practice” strategies. Although included in the CRF, such strategies are inadequate.
For example, because they employ one-way translations of research results, research-to-practice
strategies are flawed in their presumptions, insensitive to changing goals in the content area, and
unable to contribute to a revision of the theory and knowledge. Such knowledge-building is—
alongside the development of a scientifically-based, effective curriculum—a critical goal of a
scientific curriculum research program. Indeed, a valid scientific curriculum development program
should address two basic issues—effect and conditions—in three domains, practice, policy, and
theory, as described in Table 15.1.
To address all these issues, the CRF includes ten phases of the curriculum development research
process that warrant the claim that some curriculum is based on research. The ten phases are
classified into three categories, reflecting the three categories of knowledge required to meet
Table 15.1’s goals. These categories include reviewing existing research, building models of chil-
dren’s thinking and learning in a domain, and evaluation. The categories and phases within them are
outlined in Table 15.2.
Contexts and Curricula • 249
The first curriculum to be developed using the Curriculum Research Framework (CRF) was
Building Blocks, a NSF-funded Pre-K to grade 2 mathematics research and curriculum development
project, one of the first to develop materials that comprehensively address recent standards for early
mathematics education for all children (e.g., Clements & Conference Working Group, 2004; NCTM,
2000). We will elaborate the CRF by giving concrete descriptions of how the phases were enacted in
the development of the Building Blocks preschool curriculum.
The first category, A Priori Foundations, includes three variants of the research-to-practice
model, in which extant research is reviewed and implications for the nascent curriculum develop-
ment effort drawn. (1) In General A Priori Foundation, developers review broad philosophies,
theories, and empirical results on learning and teaching. Based on theory and research on early
childhood learning and teaching (Bowman et al., 2001; Clements, 2001), we determined that Build-
ing Blocks’ basic approach would be finding the mathematics in, and developing mathematics from,
children’s activities, such as “mathematizing” everyday tasks. (2) In Subject Matter A Priori Founda-
tion, developers review research and consult with experts to identify mathematics that makes a
substantive contribution to students’ mathematical development, is generative in students’ devel-
opment of future mathematical understanding, and is interesting to students. We determined
subject matter content by considering what mathematics is culturally valued (e.g., NCTM,
2000) and empirical research on what constituted the core ideas and skill areas of mathematics for
young children (Baroody, 2004a; Clements & Battista, 1992; Clements & Conference Working
Group, 2004; Fuson, 1997), including hypothesized syncretism among domains, especially number
and geometry. We revised the subject matter specifications following a content analysis by four
mathematicians and mathematics educators, resulting in learning trajectories in the domain of
number (counting, subitizing, sequencing, arithmetic), geometry (matching, naming, building and
combining shapes), patterning, and measurement. (3) In Pedagogical A Priori Foundation, devel-
opers review empirical findings on making activities educationally effective—motivating and effica-
cious—to create general guidelines for the generation of activities. As an example, research using
computer software with young children (Clements, Nastasi, & Swaminathan, 1993; Clements &
Swaminathan, 1995; Steffe & Wiegel, 1994) showed that preschoolers can use computers effectively
and that software can be made more effective by employing animation, children’s voices, and clear
feedback.
In the second category, Learning Model, developers structure activities in accordance with
empirically-based models of children’s thinking in the targeted subject matter domain. This phase,
(4) Structure According to Specific Learning Model, involves creation of research-based learning
trajectories, which, of course, have been described in detail in this book.
In the third category, Evaluation, developers collect empirical evidence to evaluate the appeal,
usability, and effectiveness of a version of the curriculum. Past phase (5) Market Research is (6)
Formative Research: Small Group, in which developers conduct pilot tests with individuals or small
groups on components (e.g., a particular activity, game, or software environment) or sections of
the curriculum. Although teachers are involved in all phases of research and development, the
process of curricular enactment is emphasized in the next two phases. Studies with a teacher who
participated in the development of the materials in phase (7) Formative Research: Single Classroom,
and then teachers newly introduced to the materials in phase (8) Formative Research: Multiple
Classrooms, provide information about the usability of the curriculum and requirements for
professional development and support materials. We conducted multiple case studies at each of
these three phases (e.g., Clements & Sarama, 2004a; Sarama, 2004), revising the curriculum
multiple times, including two distinct published versions (Clements & Sarama, 2003a, 2007a).
In the last two phases, (9) Summative Research: Small Scale and (10) Summative Research: Large
Scale, developers evaluate what can actually be achieved with typical teachers under realistic
250 • Contexts and Curricula
circumstances. An initial phase-9 summary research project (Clements & Sarama, 2007c) yielded
effect sizes between 1 and 2 (Cohen’s d ). These effects are illustrated in Figure 15.1. This study
only involved four classrooms, however.
Phase 10 also uses randomized trials, which provide the most efficient and least biased designs
to assess causal relationships (Cook, 2002), now in a greater number of classrooms, with more
diversity, and less ideal conditions. In a larger study (Clements & Sarama, 2008), we randomly
assigned 36 classrooms to one of three conditions. The experimental group used Building Blocks
(Clements & Sarama, 2007b). The comparison group used a different preschool mathematics
curriculum—the same as we previously used in the PCER research (mainly Klein, Starkey, &
Ramirez, 2002). The control used their schools existing curriculum (“business as usual”). Two
observational measures indicated that the curricula were implemented with fidelity and that the
experimental condition had significant positive effects on classrooms’ mathematics environment
and teaching. The experimental group score increased significantly more than the comparison
group score (effect size, 0.47) and the control group score (effect size, 1.07); see Figure 15.2. Focused
early mathematical interventions, especially those based on a comprehensive model of developing
and evaluating research-based curricula, can increase the quality of the mathematics environment
and teaching and can help preschoolers develop a foundation of informal mathematics knowledge
(Clements & Sarama, 2008).
We believe that these positive effects, even when compared to another curriculum supported
equivalently, were due to Building Blocks’ core use of learning trajectories.
Effects a. Is the curriculum effective in c. Are the curriculum goals f. Why is the curriculum
helping children achieve specific important? (1, 5, 10) effective? (all)
learning goals? Are the intended d. What is the effect size for g. What were the theoretical
and unintended consequences students? (9, 10) bases? (1, 2, 3)
positive for children? (What is e. What effects does it have on h. What cognitive changes
the quality of the evidence?— teachers? (10) occurred and what processes
Construct an internal validity.) were responsible? That is, what
(6–10)* specific components and
b. Is there credible documentation features (e.g., instructional
of both a priori research and procedures, materials) account
research performed on the for its impact and why?
curriculum indicating the (4, 6, 7)
efficacy of the approach as
compared to alternative
approaches? (all)
Conditions i. When and where?—Under what j. What are the support k. Why do certain sets of
conditions is the curriculum requirements (7) for various conditions decrease or increase
effective? (Do findings contexts? (8–10) the curriculum’s effectiveness?
generalize?—External validity.) (6–10)
(8, 10) l. How do specific strategies
produce previously unattained
results and why? (6–10)
Contexts and Curricula • 251
Table 15.2 Categories and Phases of the Curriculum Research Framework (CRF).
Categories Questions Asked Phases
A Priori Foundations. In What is already known that Established review procedures (e.g., Light & Pillemer, 1984)
variants of the research- can be applied to the and content analyses (NRC, 2004) are employed to garner
to-practice model, extant anticipated curriculum? knowledge concerning the specific subject matter content,
research is reviewed and including the role it would play in students’ development
Goals* Phase
implications for the (phase 1); general issues concerning psychology, education,
bcfg 1
nascent curriculum and systemic change (phase 2); and pedagogy, including the
bfg 2
development effort effectiveness of certain types of activities (phase 3).
bfg 3
drawn.
Learning Model. Activities How might the curriculum be In phase 4, the nature and content of activities is based on
are structured in constructed to be consistent models of children’s mathematical thinking and learning (cf.
accordance with with models of students’ James, 1892/1958; Tyler, 1949). In addition, a set of activities
empirically-based thinking and learning (the hypothetical mechanism of the research) may be
models of children’s (which are posited to have sequenced according to specific learning trajectories
thinking and learning characteristics and (Clements & Sarama, 2004b). What distinguishes phase 4
in the targeted subject developmental courses that from phase 3, which concerns pedagogical a priori
matter domain. are not arbitrary and therefore foundations, is not only the focus on the child’s learning,
not equally amenable to rather than teaching strategies alone, but also the iterative
various instructional nature of its application. That is, in practice, such models are
approaches or curricular usually applied and revised (or, not infrequently, created
routes)? anew) dynamically, simultaneously with the development of
instructional tasks, using grounded theory methods, clinical
Goals Phase
interviews, teaching experiments, and design experiments.
bfh 4
Evaluation. In these How can market share for the Phase 5 focuses on marketability, using strategies such as
phases, empirical curriculum be maximized? gathering information about mandated educational objectives
evidence is collected to and surveys of consumers.
Goals Phase
evaluate the curriculum,
bcf 5
realized in some form.
The goal is to evaluate Is the curriculum usable by, Formative phases 6 to 8 seek to understand the meaning that
the appeal, usability, and effective with, various students and teachers give to the curriculum objects and
and effectiveness of an student groups and teachers? activities in progressively expanding social contexts; for
instantiation of the How can it be improved in example, the usability and effectiveness of specific
curriculum. these areas or adapted to serve components and characteristics of the curriculum as
diverse situations and needs? implemented by a teacher who is familiar with the materials
with individuals or small groups (phase 6) and whole classes
Goals Phase
(phase 7) and, later, by a diverse group of teachers (phase 8).
abfhkl 6
Methods include interpretive work using a mix of model
abfhjkl 7
testing and model generation strategies, including design
abfijkl 8
experiments, microgenetic, microethnographic, and
phenomenological approaches (phase 6), classroom-based
teaching experiments and ethnographic participant
observation (phase 7), and these plus content analyses (phase
8). The curriculum is altered based on empirical results, with
the focus expanding to include aspects of support for teachers.
What is the effectiveness (e.g., Summative phases 9 and 10 both use randomized field trials
in affecting teaching practices and differ from each other most markedly in the characteristic
and ultimately student of scale. That is, phase 10 examines the fidelity or enactment,
learning) of the curriculum, and sustainability, of the curriculum when implemented on a
now in its complete form, as it large scale, and the critical contextual and implementation
is implemented in realistic variables that influence its effectiveness. Experimental or
contexts? carefully planned quasi-experimental designs, incorporating
observational measures and surveys, are useful for generating
Goals Phase
political and public support, as well as for their research
abdfjkl 9
advantages. In addition, qualitative approaches continue to be
abcde 10
useful for dealing with the complexity and indeterminateness
fijkl
of educational activity (Lester & Wiliam, 2002).
* Goals refer to the specific questions in Table 15.1, answers to which are the goals of the CRF.
252 • Contexts and Curricula
a. Number
Figure 15.2 Building blocks compared to a control group and to another intensive math curriculum.
effects (Brooks-Gunn, 2003). Third, without such follow-through, it is simply not realistic to expect
short-term early interventions to last indefinitely. This is especially so because most children at risk
attend the lowest-quality schools. It would be surprising if these children did not gain less than their
more advantaged peers year by year (Brooks-Gunn, 2003). Fourth, our TRIAD projects support
research already reviewed (and other research reviewed in this chapter) shows that most teachers
of young children are not responsive to the needs of those with high mathematical knowledge.
Thus, the mathematics-experienced preschoolers who go to kindergarten are given tasks that do not
challenge—or teach—them. Their development is stalled because no new mathematics is offered
them. And math is particularly at risk of this tragic phenomenon (Campbell et al., 2001).
Final Words
Understanding the contexts of instruction and curricula used are necessary to be an effective
educator. The final area of professionalism deals with specific instructional strategies, the topic of
Chapter 16.
16
Instructional Practices and Pedagogical Issues
Aretha: Math is different. Kids have to memorize specific facts and skills. It’s not like language,
which you can help kids develop, well, more naturally or informally. Math you have to
teach directly.
Brenda: Maybe, but don’t you think they have to see math in their world? I mean aren’t they
doing math when they build with blocks?
Carina: Both of you sound right. Does mixing those types of approaches make sense?
What do you think about instruction? Should you be more teacher-directed or more child-
centered? What role is there for play in early math education? What are the best strategies to meet
individual children’s needs? Are specific manipulatives helpful? Should we emphasize skills or
concepts?
Do children have too much technology at home and schools should keep them away from
computers, or should we use good environments to show them how to use technology for learning?
If so, what types, and how much?
This is a long chapter, because it answers these and many other critical questions. In addition to
large entities such as a “program” (e.g., Head Start) or a curriculum, there are specific perspectives,
approaches, and strategies for teaching math to young children that research indicates are effective.
Here, we briefly describe some of the most important. Although there is research evidence for each,
this evidence is in most cases qualitative and/or correlational; therefore, unlike the curriculum
evaluation described in Chapter 15, we cannot be certain that the specific instructional strategy
caused the learning. This is so even when we cite studies that used randomized designs (e.g.,
Clements & Sarama, 2007c, 2008), because the data on specific components of the instruction
were not randomly assigned (only the entire curriculum was). Therefore, these results are usually
suggestive but not definitive. We note wherever one or more studies did rigorously evaluate a
specific approach.
255
256 • Pedagogical Issues
Group Size
Our knowledge of what is most effective is limited. The previous study (Askew et al., 1997) did
not find that more, compared to less, effective teachers were any more likely to use whole-class,
small-group, or individualized approaches (Askew et al., 1997). Small-group work can significantly
increase children’s scores on tests aligned with that work (Klein & Starkey, 2004; Klein, Starkey, &
Wakeley, 1999). Children can also transfer knowledge they learned in small-group activities to tasks
that they have not been taught (Clements, 1984).
Practical implications. We suspect that small-group work, individual work at the computer, and
perhaps to a lesser extent focused whole-group activities, are the main keys to the success of
Building Blocks. However, our curriculum also uses centers and everyday activities (Clements &
Sarama, 2007c, 2008). All activities are active, but we make an extra effort to ensure that the whole-
group activities are active—physically (“Counting and Move”), intellectually and individually
(“Snapshots” with “bunny ears”—all children are solving problems and showing their solutions
individually), or socially (“talk to the person next to you about how you can figure this out”)—and
usually some combination of these.
Observations in countries that use far more whole-group instruction with young children
suggest its advantages may be overlooked in the U.S. For example, the teacher-directed, whole-class
Pedagogical Issues • 257
Korean approach provides a positive, nurturing environment that offers children the opportunity to
develop essential pre-academic skills (French & Song, 1998).
She was able to do verbal counting to 8, and then when she slowed down, she could get to 11.
So I said, “Can you make me a group of 6?” And so she did. So then I added . . . I asked her to
make a group of 12. She couldn’t do it.
Then I noted that, so now I’m thinking in the trajectories, I think she’s a “Counter (Small
Numbers),” right? She’s on her way to being a “Counter (10).” She’s in between the two.
I know just what to do to teach her the next level of thinking. That’s what I was thinking of as
I did this (Pat, 2004).
Formative Assessment
Of the ten instructional practices the National Math Panel (NMP) researched, only a few had an
adequate number of rigorous studies supporting them. One of the most strongly supported
was teachers’ use of formative assessment (NMP, 2008). Formative assessment is the ongoing
monitoring of student learning to inform instruction. One can monitor the class and individuals
within it.
Although the NMP’s rigorous studies included children only as young as the upper primary
grades, other studies confirm that regular assessment and individualization are key to effective early
math education (Thomson et al., 2005). Teachers should observe not just answers but strategies.
Other syntheses have reported that formative assessment as an intervention has been evaluated to
have effect sizes from 0.40 to 0.70, larger than effects of most instructional programs (Black & Wiliam,
1998; Shepard, 2005). It helps all children learn, but helps the lower achieving children the most.
They gain the higher-order (metacognitive) skills already attained by higher-achieving children.
Again, though, formative assessment is for everyone. In his first year of school, Harry knew all
the little mathematics that was presented. Harry did maintain the outward semblance of being
interested in the work and, at least, being willing to complete it. However, it seems that the strongest
lesson he learned in his kindergarten mathematics experience is that “you do not have to work hard
at it” (Perry & Dockett, 2005). Similarly, observations of early childhood teachers show they usually
258 • Pedagogical Issues
misjudge children’s level and give practice (“more of the same”) problems even when they intend
to provide learning opportunities (challenging problems), especially to the highest-performing
children. This is simply a reminder, discussed in Chapter 14, that it is just as important to serve the
needs of the gifted as those who are struggling (Bennett, Desforges, Cockburn, & Wilkinson, 1984).
Thus, the high-performing children were the least well served—they rarely learned new mathe-
matics. The next most likely mismatched were the lowest performers—teachers rarely move to the
lower levels they needed to learn.
Practical implications. Use formative assessment to serve the needs of all children. As with
all instructional practices, formative assessment has to be done right. Ask yourself the following
questions (Shepard, 2005):
Also, transfer is more likely when you focus your formative assessment on children’s understanding
of concepts and relationships.
If all this seems obvious and easy, note that an analysis of the ECLS data showed that about
half of kindergarten teachers report never using such strategies as achievement grouping in mathe-
matics (NRC, in press). Few Pre-K or kindergarten teachers use small groups at all—whole-group
instruction dominates.
High Expectations
Practical implications. Challenge children. Effective teachers hold higher expectations of children
than ineffective teachers (Clarke et al., 2002; Clements & Sarama, 2007c, 2008; Thomson et al.,
2005). They hold high expectations of all children (Askew et al., 1997).
• Use problems that have meaning for children (both practical and mathematical).
• Expect that children will invent, explain, and critique their own solution strategies within a
social context.
• Provide opportunities for both creative invention and practice.
• Encourage and support children progressing toward increasingly sophisticated and abstract
mathematical methods and understandings, and to understand and develop more efficient
and elegant solution strategies.
• Help children see connections between various types of knowledge and topics, with the goal
of having each child build a well-structured, coherent knowledge of mathematics.
• Use information on students’ performance, and share this with students (supporting for-
mative assessment, described previously, including differentiated activities).
• Provide clear, specific feedback to parents on their children’s mathematics achievement.
• Use peers as tutors (see the next section).
• Encourage students to verbalize their thinking or their strategies, or even the explicit
strategies you model.
• Use explicit instruction.
• Target specific areas of need.
• Include individualized work, even for brief periods, as a component of such focused interven-
tions (Dowker, 2004; Gersten et al., 2008).
Interventions are more effective the earlier they are started, both in building content knowledge
and in preventing negative attitudes and mathematics anxiety (Dowker, 2004). A few additional
approaches for primary grade students are described here.
Number and arithmetic. A review of rigorous experiments by the NMP provides guidance
regarding effective instruction for students with MD or MLD. A main successful approach was
systematic, intentional instruction (often explicit, although high-quality implicit instructional
approaches were also effective). Such instruction included concrete and visual representations,
explanations by teachers, explanations and discussion by children (including having children “think
aloud” as they solve problems), collaborative work among students, carefully orchestrated practice
with feedback, and high but reasonable expectations (NMP, 2008). Other specific approaches that
show promise include teaching strategies about computation, mixed with practice (which is usually
less interesting and less conceptual) and using visual models and teaching children to analyze the
structure of word problems. As an example, one from the NMP studies provided explicit instruc-
tion for second grades with MLD who had not learned to “count on from larger” to solve addition
problems (Tournaki, 2003):
After a few problems, the teacher had students solve problems while thinking aloud, that is,
repeating the steps and asking themselves the questions. Teachers always provided clear, immediate
feedback when students made errors. The large effect size of this study (1.61) indicates the benefit of
teaching a strategy, not just providing more practice, especially for MLD students.
Another study included the NMP report, classified as more implicit, examined the effects of 48
small group tutorial sessions, including the use of concrete objects to promote conceptual learning,
on low-achieving, at risk, first graders. Those randomly assigned to this intervention, compared to a
control group, improved on computation, concepts/applications, and story problems, but not on
Pedagogical Issues • 261
fact fluency (Fuchs et al., 2005). However, children still did not catch up to their peers who were
not at risk. Thus, this appears to be an early intervention for students who exhibit problems in
mathematics at the beginning of the first grade, as well as an example of how concepts, procedures
and problem-solving can be taught and practiced in an intense, integrated fashion.
A more recent study found that two tutoring conditions, one focused on improving fluency in
number combinations, and one designed to teach problem-solving, both improved number com-
bination fluency (Fuchs, Powell, Cirino et al., 2008). Both increased competence in procedural
calculations, with the problem-solving condition having the greater effect size. Only the problem-
solving condition also developed algebraic thinking and solving word problems. Given these results,
the problem-solving condition, which did include one session on counting strategies, as well as
work on number combinations in short warm-up and review phases, provided greater benefit.
The NMP report reveals the benefits of several components of the more recent approaches to
explicit (or a mixture of explicit and implicit) instruction, which is quite distinct from older models
of “direct instruction.” Students are explicitly taught strategies, building up a repertoire a bit at a
time, not just “facts” or “skills.” They participate in a considerable amount of small-group inter-
action where children are encouraged to think aloud as they do mathematics, receiving feedback
from peers and the teacher. They are taught to solve problems, using strategies and, often, using
concrete objects and visual representations in conjunction with more abstract representations to
analyze the problem’s structure. The teacher highlights key aspects of each type of problem (not
“key words”) and supports students’ ability to discriminate one type from another. At the end
of each instructional cycle, they not only practice but also are helped, explicitly, to generalize and
transfer their knowledge.
Other interventions have been shown to be effective. For example, tutoring successfully
remediated fact retrieval deficits, procedural computation, and computational estimation (Fuchs,
Powell, Hamlett et al., 2008). This intervention helped all children equally (e.g., those with MD only
or MD and reading difficulties).
Many children with MD or MLD have difficulties related to number “sense.” An intervention
targeted to exactly that is “The Number Race” computer game (Wilson, Dehaene et al., 2006;
Wilson, Revkin et al., 2006). The researchers stated that a basic deficit might be in abilities related
to numerical sense, the ability to represent and manipulate numerical quantities nonverbally,
emphasizing number comparison and estimation. (The authors call this “number sense,” consistent
with their previous usage, but to avoid confusion with the much broader mathematics education
research use of the term, which they also call number sense, we use “numerical sense” here). The
researchers hypothesize that children lack either nonverbal numerical sense or access to it due to
dissociation from symbolic representations. As an empirical test, the former, direct impairment of
the quantity system should result in failure on both non-symbolic and symbolic numerical tasks,
whereas the latter should leave purely non-symbolic tasks intact.
To test their theory and their software intervention, they provided children with adaptive
training on numerical comparison for half an hour per day, 4 days per week for 5 weeks. Nine
children worked with “The Number Race” software to enhance their numerical sense by providing
intensive training on numerical comparison and links between numbers and space. Scaffolding is
provided, as is repeated associations in which Arabic, verbal, and quantity codes are presented
together, and the role of symbolic information as the basis for decision-making is progressively
increased.
Children showed specific increases in performance on core numerical comparison tasks. For
example, speed of subitizing and numerical comparison increased by several hundred milliseconds.
On numerical comparison, symbolic tasks showed a speed effect, the non-symbolic showed
improvements in both accuracy and speed, although the improvements for speed were larger for the
262 • Pedagogical Issues
symbolic tasks. Subtraction accuracy increased by 23%. Performance in addition and base-ten
comprehension tasks did not improve. These results were consistent with theoretical predictions
because addition was thought to be frequently solved using a memorized table of facts, compared
to subtraction, hypothesized to rely more on numerical sense. Thus, higher-level symptoms such as
impairments in subtraction may be a derivative of a dysfunction of the core numerical sense system.
Interpretations should be made with caution because their test of transcoding assessed only con-
nections between verbal and symbolic codes, because several findings missed significance, and
especially because the number of participants was very low (9) and there was no control group.
With those caveats, results suggested that numerical sense might be a core deficit for those with
mathematical difficulties and the evidence did not prioritize either nonverbal numerical sense or
dissociation from symbolic representations (the authors claim the latter is suggested, but this was
based on a single “marginally significant” test).
Other approaches have also shown promise, including those that are more reform-oriented.
Even children with mental handicaps are capable of meaningful learning (Baroody, 1986). Teachers
must ensure that these children develop basic subitizing and counting skills and concepts. That is,
they should avoid a narrow focus on skills when more balanced and comprehensive instruction,
using the child’s abilities to shore up weaknesses, may provide better long-range results. Visual-
spatial training or mass practice should not substitute for experience looking for and using patterns
in learning the basic facts or learning arithmetic strategies (Baroody, 1996). Poor instruction
may be the reason many children show signs of MD, and even of MLD. Helping these children
build on their strengths and informal knowledge, invent counting strategies, connect concepts
and procedures, and solve problems may show that many of these children can learn math success-
fully. Strategies and patterns may need explicit teaching, but should not be neglected (Baroody,
1996).
Teachers need to carefully assess the understanding and skills of children with mental handicaps
along the relevant learning trajectories with sensitivity. For example, children with moderate
retardation may not count verbally up to 5, but may count collections of 5 or more. They may just
not be motivated to perform oral counting (Baroody, 1999). Training based on these principles
showed some success, more on near-transfer tasks (Baroody, 1996). Careful attention to tasks was
helpful. For example, helping them master a few n + 1 tasks (4 + 1, 6 + 1) helped them discover the
number-after-n rule, after which children spontaneously invented counting on (realizing, for
example, that if 7 + 1 is 8, 7 + 2 is two count words after 7).
Thus, from this perspective, preschoolers with mental retardation typically do not construct the
powerful information math knowledge that normally-developing children do. However, many
children with mental retardation appear capable of learning the counting, number, and arithmetic
concepts and skills that provide the foundation for the meaningful learning of school mathematics
(Baroody, 1996). They can be active learners, who, because of developing adaptive expertise, can
learn to monitor their own mathematical activity.
Nevertheless, in the context of most curricula, “traditional” or “reform,” there are cautions in
the research. Teachers should remember that children with MD or MLD might require additional
support, so that they are still active and involved (Woodward, 2004).
Spatial thinking and geometry. Although most researchers’ intervention programs focus only
on number, this is too limited for educators. The link between high-scoring children’s numerical
ability and their spatial and measurement ability and the lack of any growth on measurement and
geometry in lower-scoring children implies that geometry and measurement must also be addressed
(Stewart, Leeson, & Wright, 1997). For example, some children have difficulty with spatial organiza-
tion across a wide range of tasks. Children with certain mathematics learning difficulties
may struggle with spatial relationships, visual-motor and visual-perception, and a poor sense of
Pedagogical Issues • 263
direction (Lerner, 1997). As discussed (p. 227), they may not perceive a shape as a complete and
integrated entity as children without learning disabilities do (Lerner, 1997). Children with different
brain injuries show different patterns of competence. Those with right hemispheric injuries have
difficulty organizing objects into coherent spatial groupings, while those with left hemispheric
injuries have difficulty with local relations within spatial arrays (Stiles & Nass, 1991). Teaching
with learning trajectories based on the developmental sequences described here is even more
important for children with learning disabilities, as well as children with other special needs.
Teachers should know the developmental sequences through which children pass as they learn
geometric ideas.
Spatial weakness may underlie children’s difficulties with numerical magnitudes (e.g., knowing
that 5 is a greater than 4, but only by a little, whereas 12 is a lot greater than 4) and rapid retrieval of
numeral names and arithmetic combinations (Jordan, Hanich, & Kaplan, 2003). These children
may not be able to manipulate visual representations of a number line.
Similarly, due to the difficulties in perceiving shapes and spatial relationships, recognizing
spatial relationships, and making spatial judgments, these children are unable to copy geometric
forms, shapes, numbers, or letters. They are likely to perform poorly in handwriting as well as in
arithmetic. When children cannot write numbers easily, they also cannot read and align their own
numbers properly. As a result, they make errors in computation.
Recall the promising results of early emphases on structure and pattern (Chapter 12 and others).
The Pattern and Structure Mathematics Awareness Program (PASMAP), focused on improving
students’ visual memory, the ability to identify and apply patterns, and to seek structure in
mathematical ideas and representations, has shown (in very small, non-random studies) to have
positive effects on children at risk of later school failure (Fox, 2006).
Children diagnosed as autistic need structured interventions from the earliest years. They must
be kept engaged with their world, including mathematics. Use intense interests that characterize
many children with autism to motivate them to study geometry and spatial structures. For example,
if they enjoy construction, they might study how triangles are used in bridges. Many children
with autism are visually-oriented. Manipulatives and pictures can aid children’s learning of most
topics, in geometry, number, and other areas. Children benefit from illustrating even verbs with
dramatizations. In a related vein, teachers might break down what might have been a long verbal
explanation or set of directions. About a tenth of children with autism exhibit savant (exceptional)
abilities, often spatial in nature, such as art, geometry, or a particular area of arithmetic. These
abilities are probably due not to a mysterious talent but from massive practice, the reason and
motivation for which remains unknown (Ericsson et al., 1993).
In conclusion, there are substantial inequities in mathematics experiences in the early years.
Some children not only start behind but also begin a negative and immutable trajectory in
mathematics (Case et al., 1999). Low mathematical skills in the earliest years are associated with a
slower growth rate—children without adequate experiences in mathematics start behind and lose
ground every year thereafter (Aunola et al., 2004). There is substantial evidence that this can be
avoided or ameliorated, but also evidence that our society has not taken the necessary steps to do
either. Interventions must start in Pre-K and kindergarten (Gersten et al., 2005). Without such
interventions, children in special need are often relegated to a path of failure (Baroody, 1999;
Clements & Conference Working Group, 2004; Jordan, Hanich, & Uberti, 2003; Wright, 1991;
Wright et al., 1996).
264 • Pedagogical Issues
• Positive group interdependence (i.e., if you do well, I do well). Students in a group share the
same goal and resources (e.g., one activity sheet for each pair of students). Each has a specific
role to play, and these roles are rotated. Students talk together about the work, encouraging
each other to learn.
• Reciprocal sense-making (i.e., build upon your partner’s ideas). Students strive to understand
and elaborate upon the viewpoints of their partners. They engage in a mutual process of
constructing ideas.
• Cognitive conflict, then consensus (i.e., two heads are better than one—in fact, sometimes two
wrongs can make a right!). Students learn by taking the perspective of their partners and
trying to synthesize discrepant ideas to produce even better ideas. Individual accountability
(i.e., all must learn). Each student is accountable for understanding the concepts.
These lead to the following responsibilities that the teacher must make clear:
As students work together, the teacher’s role is to encourage interaction and cooperation, as well
as to discuss the children’s solutions. For example, if one student does not respond to his or her
partner, the teacher would do so to keep the discussion going. The teacher also lets students know
that working to understand is more important than getting the single, correct answer. The teacher
watches for situations that may be discussed profitably. For example, he/she might tell the whole
class that, although a certain pair of students worked on only two problems, they learned a lot from
each other by figuring out what the other person was thinking. Sometimes it is also worthwhile
to have students discuss social situations that arise. For example, the teacher might ask a pair of
students to tell the class how they successfully resolved a conflict over turn-taking. Within a small
group, students might be encouraged to discuss and decide how task responsibilities are to be
divided.
Suggestions for teachers wishing to promote the development of effective collaborative skills
include the following:
• Emphasize the importance of social support. Encourage students to provide help for peers.
Emphasize that the goal is for all students to learn and be successful.
• Teach specific communication skills such as active listening, asking and answering questions,
providing explanations, and effective debating techniques.
• Provide students with informational feedback and social reinforcement regarding their social
interactions. Teach students to give such feedback to each other. In addition, model appro-
priate interactive behavior.
• Teach and model conflict resolution skills such as negotiation, compromise, and cooperative
problem-solving.
• Encourage perspective taking (“put yourself in the other person’s shoes”) consistent with the
students’ developmental levels.
Play
Several findings support the traditional emphasis on play and child-centered experiences. In one
study, children made more progress overall and specifically on mathematics when they attended
child-initiated, compared to strictly academically-oriented, programs (Marcon, 1992). There was
some evidence that these children’s grades were higher at the end of elementary school (sixth, but
not fifth grade) (Marcon, 2002). This may be consistent with some Asian countries. For example,
Japanese Pre-K and kindergarten education places emphasis on social-emotional, rather than
academic goals (but “informal” math teaching may be ubiquitous at home and school, as we will
describe later in this section). Preschoolers engage in free play most of the day. Parents interact with
their children in mathematics, usually in real-life, such as counting down elevator numbers. Few
mention workbooks (Murata, 2004). Similarly, Flemish Belgium’s pre-primary education is more
concerned with overall development and less concerned with teaching specific content areas than
266 • Pedagogical Issues
education in the Netherlands (Torbeyns et al., 2002). Whereas Dutch children start ahead, they are
met and surpassed by Flemish children in the elementary years (but the reasons for this are not
clear). Finally, a cross-national study showed that preschools in which free choice activities
predominated, compared to those in which personal/social activities (personal care and group
social activities) predominated, had higher language scores at age 7 (Montie, Xiang, & Schweinhart,
2006). Whole-group activities in preschool were negatively related to cognitive scores at age 7
(cognition including math-relevant content areas, including quantity, spatial relations, problem-
solving, and time). These cognitive scores were positively related to the number and variety of
equipment and materials available.
However, there are cautions to those interpreting this literature. Marcon’s studies have been
criticized on methodological grounds (Lonigan, 2003) and most of these studies are only correl-
ational—there is no way to know what caused what effects. Further, exposure to mathematics
instruction explained a substantive portion of the greater gains of young Chinese, compared to U.S.
children (Geary & Liu, 1996). Perhaps most troubling to a “everyday-” or “play-”oriented approach
to mathematics is that many programs stating such a focus frequently show negligible gains.
One analysis of the PCER mathematics curriculum showed that teaching math indirectly through
everyday activities did not predict achievement gains, whereas group work did. Nevertheless, the
importance of well-planned free-choice play should not be underestimated, appropriate to the age
of the children.
Perhaps the most important caution is the notion of what is and is not an academic goal. Japanese
preschool teachers, as stated, distinguish themselves from elementary teachers as enhancing social
and emotional growth. However, what they mean is that, instead of direct teaching of numbers, they
prepared materials that induced quantitative thinking, such as card games, skipping ropes, score
boards on which to write numerals, and so forth (Hatano & Sakakibara, 2004). Further, they
enhanced this activity by questioning the children or participating in the activities. They invited
children who revealed more advanced understanding to express their ideas to stimulate the thinking
of other children (Hatano & Sakakibara, 2004). Given that the boarder Japanese culture put high
value on mathematical skills and concepts, such quantitative activities are presented frequently,
and attract the children. For example, during free play, a child took a few sheets of newspaper.
Other wanted some, and the teacher intervened and gave “one sheet [to] each” (number). She
provided two roles of tape on the combined tables of two. Some children started to create origami
objects of their own, folding two edges into triangles. One child folded, saying “Fold this into half.
Fold this into half” (making fourths, p. 197). The teacher participated by making slightly more
advanced paper objects. Children gathered around and conversations developed about geometry
and quantity. Children began to make more complex objects of their own. Composition and
decompositions of specific shapes were enacted and discussed extensively. Size and measure
concepts were threaded throughout the conversations. Thus, these “non-academic” teachers teach
mathematics extensively, arranging situations in which children can manipulate materials and
discuss ideas; offer increasingly challenging tasks; help children through modeling, participation
and provision of guidance; and offer corrective or expanding feedback (Hatano & Sakakibara,
2004). Thus, the ubiquitous occurrence in Japanese children’s homes and schools indicates that
mathematics education is emphasized, even if contrasted with the elementary schools’ “academic”
focus on mathematics.
Play has several different faces in mathematics development. “Play creates a zone of proximal
development of the child. In play a child always behaves beyond his average age, above his daily
behavior; in play it is as though he were a head taller than himself” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 102).
Preschoolers showed at least one sign of math thinking during 43% of the minutes of which they
are observed (Ginsburg et al., 1999). Of course, this may have been just a brief episode, but this
Pedagogical Issues • 267
illustrates that children could be involved in mathematics during a considerable portion of their
free play. Six categories of mathematics content emerged from their observations (Seo & Ginsburg,
2004). Classification (2%) includes grouping, sorting, or categorizing by attributes. One girl, Anna,
took out all the plastic bugs from the container and sorted them by type of bug and then by color.
Magnitude (13%) includes describing or comparing the size of objects. When Brianna brought a
newspaper to the art table to cover it, Amy remarked, “This isn’t big enough to cover the table.”
Enumeration (12%) includes saying number words, counting, instantly recognizing a number of
objects (subitizing), or reading or writing numbers. Three girls drew pictures of their families and
discussed how many brothers and sisters they had and how old their siblings were. Dynamics (5%)
includes putting things together, taking them apart, or exploring motions such as flipping. Several
girls flatted a ball of clay into a disk, cut it, and made “pizza.” Pattern and Shape (21%) includes
identifying or creating patterns or shapes, or exploring geometric properties. Jennie made a bead
necklace, creating a yellow-red color pattern. Spatial Relations (4%) includes describing or drawing
a location or direction. When Teresa put a dollhouse couch beside a window, Katie moved it to the
center of the living room, saying, “The couch should be in front of TV” (Seo & Ginsburg, 2004,
pp. 93–94). About 88% of children engaged in at least one such activity during their play. In
comparison to some preschools in which teachers emphasize only simple verbal counting and shape
recognition, this reveals a rich foundation on which to build interesting mathematics. We consider
these activities pre-mathematical—critically important, but not yet mathematized for most children
until teachers help children talk about them, reflect on them, and build on them.
Observations also indicate that play can support mathematics learning if it stimulates learning
and integrates both children and educators’ interests (van Oers, 1994). One observational study
found that spontaneous use of mathematics in young children’s (4 to 7 years) play was frequent,
enough so that there were more teaching opportunities than a teacher could possibly notice, much
less seize upon (van Oers, 1996). Although a different categorization scheme was used for categories
of mathematics, and just one dramatic play setting, a “shoe store,” was observed, some comparisons
can be made: classification (5%), counting (5%), 1−1 (4%), measuring (27%), estimating (1%),
solving number problems (1%), simple arithmetic (1%), quantitative concepts (20%), number
words (11%), space–time (5%), notation (7%), dimensions (5%), money (5%), and seriation and
conservation (0%). In another study, young children exposed to a play-based curriculum scored
significantly higher than national norms on mathematics. However, the findings are equivocal, as
the differences declined from age 5 to 7 to insignificance, and the children scored significantly lower
than these norms in literacy (van Oers, 2003, notes that the tests emphasize lower-level content).
There are several types of play, such as sensorimotor/manipulative and symbolic/pretend
(Monighan-Nourot, Scales, Van Hoorn, & Almy, 1987; Piaget, 1962). Sensorimotor play might
involve rhythmic patterns, correspondences, and exploring materials such as blocks (see the section
in geometry).
Symbolic play can be further classified as constructive, dramatic, or rule-governed. In construct-
ive play, children manipulate objects to make something. This constitutes about 40% of the play of
3-year-olds and half of the play of 4- to 6-year-olds. The power lies in children’s playing with
alternate ways of building something.
Materials such as sand, play dough, and blocks offer many rich opportunities for mathematical
thinking and reasoning (Perry & Dockett, 2002). Teachers might provide suggestive materials
(cookie cutters), engage in parallel play with children, and raise comments or questions regarding
shapes and amount of things; for example, making multiple copies of the same shape in play dough
with the cookie cutters or transforming sand or play dough objects into one another. One teacher
told two boys she was “going to hide the ball” made of play dough, covered it with a flat piece, and
pressed down. The boys said the ball was still there, but when she lifted the piece, the ball was
268 • Pedagogical Issues
“gone.” This delighted them and they copied her actions and discussed that the ball was “in” the
“circle” (Forman & Hill, 1984, pp. 31–32).
Such play with materials, when creative use is supported, can help children solve problems. A
research review reported that children encouraged to play productively with materials before using
them to solve problems were more effective at solving those problems than children who had no
such experience or those taught how to use the materials (Holton, Ahmed, Williams, & Hill, 2001).
Dramatic play involves substituting some imaginary situation for the children’s immediate
environment. Mathematics in constructive play is often enhanced when the dramatic is added. Two
children making block buildings in parallel may begin arguing that their skyscraper is the “biggest.”
Similarly, sociodramatic play can be naturally mathematical with the right setting. One suite of
activities in the Building Blocks curriculum revolves around a Dinosaur Shop where toys are pur-
chased. Teachers and children put together a shop in the dramatic play area, where the shopkeeper
fills orders and asks the customer for money (simply $1 for each dinosaur toy).
In one classroom, Gabi was the shopkeeper. Tamika handed her a 5 card (5 dots and the numeral
“5”) as her order. Gabi counted out 5 toy dinosaurs:
Teacher (just entering the area): How many did you buy?
Tamika: Five.
Teacher: How do you know?
Tamika: Because Gabi counted.
Tamika was still working on her counting skills, and trusted Gabi’s counting more than her own
knowledge of five. The play context allowed her to develop her knowledge:
Janelle: I’m getting a big number. She handed Gabi a 2 and a 5 card.
Gabi: I don’t have that many.
Teacher: You could give Janelle 2 of one kind and 5 of another.
As Gabi counted out the two separate piles and put them in a basket, Janelle counted out dollars.
She miscounted and gave her $6:
The sociodramatic play setting, with the teacher’s help, was beneficial for children at three levels
of mathematical thinking.
Games with rules involve the gradual acceptance of prearranged, often arbitrary rules. Such
games are a fertile ground for the growth of mathematical reasoning, especially strategic reasoning,
and autonomy, or independence (Griffin, 2004; Kamii, 1985). For example, games with number
cards provide experiences with counting and comparison (Kamii & Housman, 1999). Card games
can be used or adapted for learning mathematics and reasoning, such as Compare (“War”), Odd
Card (“Old Maid”), and Go Fish (Clements & Sarama, 2004a; Kamii & DeVries, 1980). These games
are often central inside of a focused, sequential curriculum, which we discuss in a succeeding
section.
Teachers support mathematics in play by providing a fertile environment and intervening
appropriately. Play in perceptually-oriented toddlers is enhanced with realistic objects. All children
should also play with structured, open-ended materials. In both China and America, the use of
Legos and blocks is strongly linked with mathematical activity in general and with pattern and
shape in particular. However, U.S. preschools have many toys, some of which do not encourage
Pedagogical Issues • 269
mathematical activity. Chinese preschools have only a few play objects, and blocks and Legos are
prominent (Ginsburg et al., 2003). Again, less is more.
In symbolic play, teachers need to structure settings, observe play for its potential, provide
materials based on their observations (e.g., if children are comparing sizes, teachers might intro-
duce objects with which to measure), highlight and discuss mathematics as it emerges within
play, and ask questions such as “How do you know?” and “Are you sure?” (about your answer or
solution) (van Oers, 1996).
These examples bring us another type, mathematical play, or play with mathematics itself (cf.
Steffe & Wiegel, 1994). For example, recall Abby playing with three of the five identical toy train
engines her father had brought home. Abby said, “I have 1, 2, 3. So [pointing in the air] foooour,
fiiiive . . . two are missing, four and five. [pause] No! I want these to be [pointing at the three
engines] one, three, and five. So, two and four are missing. Still two missing, but they’re numbers
two and four.” Abby transformed her symbolic play into playing with the idea that counting words
themselves could be counted.
The following features of mathematical play have been suggested: (a) it is a solver-centered
activity with the solver in charge of the process; (b) it uses the solver’s current knowledge; (c) it
develops links between the solver’s current schemes while the play is occurring; (d) it will, via “c,”
reinforce current knowledge; (e) as well as assist future problem-solving/mathematical activity as it
enhances future access to knowledge; and (f) these behaviors and advantages are irrespective of the
solver’s age (Holton et al., 2001).
Teachable Moments
If play has so much potential to elicit mathematical thinking, should educators simply use “teaching
moments”? A old and honored tradition capitalizing on teachable moments is an important
pedagogical strategy. The teacher carefully observes children and identifies elements in the
spontaneously-emerging situations that can be used to promote learning of mathematics (Gins-
burg, 2008). However, there are serious problems with depending on this approach. For example,
most teachers spend little time in careful observation necessary to find such moments (Ginsburg,
2008; J. Lee, 2004). They spend little time with them during their free play (Seo & Ginsburg, 2004).
As we have seen, many teachers have a difficult time engaging children in tasks at their mathe-
matical level (Bennett et al., 1984). Most teachers do not have the mathematics language and
concepts at their command. For example, they do not tend to think about relational terms in
mathematics. According to researchers, their language in general may influence their ability to see
opportunities for teaching mathematics throughout the curriculum (Ginsburg, 2008; Moseley,
2005). Finally, it is unrealistic for them to see opportunities for multiple children to build multiple
concepts (Ginsburg, 2008).
Practical implications. Seek and exploit teachable moments. However, recognize that in most
situations, they will constitute only a small portion of the mathematics activities children need.
Unfortunately, the term child-centered approaches has been the catch-all for everything from a
laissez-faire classroom where teachers do not teach anything to well-planned teacher–child inter-
actions that lead the child toward the development of more mature levels of underlying skills such
as self-regulation. No wonder many conclude that child-centered approaches are not effective.
Child-centered activities, such as play, when planned and implemented carefully, can support the
development of underlying cognitive and social emotional skills necessary for school readiness and
performance on academic tasks.
Specific child-centered pedagogical strategies can build the essential competence of self-
regulation. Young children have limited ability to pay attention, and minimizing distractions is
helpful. Building their positive self-regulation skills is also possible, with multiple benefits.
Encouraging children to talk to each other in solving a problem in small-group or large-group
settings (“turn to your partner and figure out what you think the number will be”) facilitates its
development. Promoting high-level sociodramatic play is a key way to develop self-regulation,
as children have to negotiate roles and rules—and keep to them, if they want to be included. Just as
important is eliminating the dead times, dull routines, and overly authoritarian environments that
do not develop children’s self-regulation. Such strategies have been proven successful in improving
young children’s self-regulation competencies and academic achievement (e.g., Bodrova & Leong,
2005). Used as a part of a comprehensive preschool curriculum as well as a part of an early literacy
intervention, these strategies have been proven successful in improving young children’s self-
regulation and academic achievement (Barnett, Yarosz, Thomas, & Hornbeck, 2006; Bodrova
& Leong, 2001, 2003; Bodrova, Leong, Norford, & Paynter, 2003; Diamond, Barnett, Thomas, &
Munro, 2007).
Also, unfortunately, much of the research against direct instruction (Schweinhart & Weikart,
1988, 1997) may not be reliable. Results are mostly non-significant, the approaches used in different
groups were not as different as one might suppose, numbers are very small, and so forth (Bereiter,
1986; Gersten, 1986; Gersten & White, 1986). Finally, research supports certain types of explicit
instruction, as we saw previously.
Research indicates that curricula designed to improve self-regulation skills and enhance early
academic abilities are most effective in helping children succeed in school (e.g., Blair & Razza,
2007). Further, research has shown that children in classrooms with intentional focus on mathe-
matics do better in mathematics . . . but that is not all. Children in classrooms with math content are
more likely to engage at high-quality level during free play (Dale C. Farran, Kang, Aydogan, & Lipsey,
2005).
Practical implications. Our conclusions from these diverse bodies of research are as follows:
• Recall (see Chapter 15) that mathematics curricula that teach a combination of skills, con-
cepts, and problem-solving help children learn skills about as well as if they had studied only
skills, but also concepts and problem-solving, which children in skills-only curricula do not
(e.g., Senk & Thompson, 2003).
Projects
Mathematics should be gleaned from myriad everyday situations, including play, but going beyond
it as well. For example, a group of young children investigated many measurement ideas as they
attempted to draw plans for a carpenter, so that he could build them a new table (Malaguzzi, 1997).
However, the PCER studies found no differences in children’s development of mathematics in
project approach, compared to control, classrooms. We do not yet know whether these teachers did
not implement the project well, or whether project-based, or other child-centered, programs are not
effective in supporting long-term, comprehensive growth of mathematical skills and ideas. Research
is still needed to ascertain if rich environments such as Reggio Emelia and project-based programs
can be implemented well at scale and what the benefits are.
Time
The more time they spend learning, the more children learn. This applies to full-day compared to
half-day programs (Lee, Burkam, Ready, Honigman, & Meisels, 2006; Walston & West, 2004).
Children spent more time on mathematics (although the effects may not persist to grade 3; Walston,
West, & Rathbun, 2005). For preschoolers in the average-quality preschooler, see Loeb et al., in
press. Further, average-quality centers may have negative impact on social-emotional development.
Attending more than 15–30 hours may benefit children from low-resource communities, but not
those from higher-resource communities. Children gained the most if they entered centers between
the ages of 2 and 3 years (Loeb et al., in press). Remember that these studies involve large numbers
of children, but are correlational only.
Similarly, the more time in the school day children spent on mathematics, and the more math
activities in which they engaged (up to about 20–30 minutes per day in Pre-K), the more they
learn—without harming their development in other areas (Clements & Sarama, 2008).
Multiage Grouping
One study indicated that multiage grouping alone did not support learning (Wood & Frid,
2005). Rather, effective learning was dependent upon the teacher’s capacities to develop productive
discussions among children, as well as implement developmentally appropriate curricula that
addressed the needs of the different children. Teacher planning, teacher “assisted performance,”
peer sharing and tutoring, and peer regulation were identified as important aspects. That is,
teachers used direct instruction when they needed to explain activities and set parameters for
completion of these activities. However, when monitoring students’ progress in activities, or when
students sought assistance with their learning, the teachers used questioning, paraphrasing, and
suggestions as alternative strategies to guide the children to solve the problems by themselves. No
measure of the effectiveness of each technique was provided, but the constellation of strategies is
consistent with findings on those strategies.
272 • Pedagogical Issues
Most practitioners and researchers argue that manipulatives are effective because they are con-
crete. By “concrete,” most mean physical objects that students can grasp with their hands. This
sensory nature ostensibly makes manipulatives “real,” connected with one’s intuitively meaningful
personal self, and therefore helpful. There are, however, problems with this view (cf. Metz, 1995).
First, it cannot be assumed that concepts can be “read off” manipulatives. That is, the physical
objects may be manipulated meaningfully without the concepts being illuminated. Working with
Cuisenaire rods, John Holt said that he and his fellow teacher “were excited about the rods because
we could see strong connections between the world of rods and the world of numbers. We therefore
assumed that children, looking at the rods and doing things with them, could see how the world of
numbers and numerical operations worked. The trouble with this theory is that [my colleague] and
I already knew how the numbers worked. We could say, ‘Oh, the rods behaved just the way numbers
do.’ But if we hadn’t known how numbers behaved, would looking at the rods enable us to find out?
Maybe so, maybe not” (Holt, 1982, pp. 138–139).
Second, even if children begin to make connections between manipulatives and nascent ideas,
physical actions with certain manipulatives may suggest different mental actions than those we wish
students to learn. For example, researchers found a mismatch among students using the number
line to perform addition. When adding 6 + 3, the students located 6, counted “one, two, three” and
read the answer at “9.” This did not help them solve the problem mentally, for to do so they have to
count “seven, eight, nine” and at the same time count the counts—7 is 1, 8 is 2, and so on. These
actions are quite different (Gravemeijer, 1991). These researchers also found that students’ external
actions on an abacus do not always match the mental activity intended by the teacher. Indeed, some
authors believe that the number line model does not help young children learn addition and
subtraction, and that, certainly, using the number line model to assess children’s knowledge of
arithmetic makes several important assumptions about what else they know (Ernest, 1985). In any
case, the number line cannot be viewed as a “transparent” model; if used, it must be taught.
Similarly, second graders did not learn more sophisticated strategies (e.g., adding 34 and 52 by
counting by tens: “34, 44, 54 . . .”) using a hundreds board, because it did not correspond to
students’ activity or help them to build useful figural imagery that supported creation of abstract
composite units of ten (Cobb, 1995).
Therefore, although manipulatives have an important place in learning, their physicality does
not carry—and may not even be essential in supporting—the meaning of the mathematical idea.
They can even be used in a rote manner, as did the student who used the bean as ten and the
beanstick as one. Students may require concrete materials to build meaning initially, but they must
reflect on their actions with manipulatives to do so. They need teachers who can reflect on their
students’ representations for mathematical ideas and help them develop increasing sophisticated
and mathematical representations. “Although kinesthetic experience can enhance perception and
thinking, understanding does not travel through the fingertips and up the arm” (Ball, 1992, p. 47).
Further, when we speak of concrete understanding, we are not always referring to physical
objects. Teachers of later grades expect students to have a concrete understanding that goes
beyond manipulatives. For example, we like to see that numbers—as mental objects (“I can think
of 43 + 26”)—are “concrete” for older students. It appears that there are different ways to think
about “concrete.”
We have Sensory-Concrete knowledge when we need to use sensory material to make sense of an
idea. For example, at early stages, children cannot count, add, or subtract meaningfully unless they
have actual things. Consider Brenda, a primary grade student. The interviewer had covered four
of seven squares with a cloth, told Brenda that four were covered, and asked how many in all.
Brenda tried to raise the cloth but was thwarted by the interviewer. She then counted the three
visible squares.
Pedagogical Issues • 275
Brenda’s attempt to lift the cloth indicates that she was aware of the hidden squares and wanted
to count the collection. This did not lead to counting because she could not yet coordinate saying
the number word sequence with items that she only imagined. She needed physically present items
to count. Note that this does not mean that manipulatives were the original root of the idea.
Research tends to indicate that is not the case (Gelman & Williams, 1997). However, there appears
to be a level of thinking when children can solve tasks with physical objects that they cannot solve
without such objects. For example, consider asking a girl who just turned 4 years of age to add small
numbers with and without blocks (“bricks”) (Hughes, 1981).
(1) E: Let’s just put one more in (does so). Ten and one more, how many’s that?
C: Err . . .(thinks) . . . eleven!
E: Yes, very good. Let’s just put one more in (does so). Eleven and one more, how many’s that?
C: Twelve!
(2) E: I’m just going to ask you some questions, OK? How many is two and one more?
C: (No response.)
E: Two and one more, how many’s that?
C: Err . . . makes . . .
E Makes . . . how many?
C: Err . . . fifteen (in couldn’t-care-less tone of voice). (pp. 216–217)
E: What’s three and one more? How many is three and one more?
C: Three and what? One what? Letter—I mean number?
(We had earlier been playing a game with magnetic numbers, and he is presumably referring to
them here.)
This is consistent with research showing that most children do not solve larger-number prob-
lems without the support of concrete objects until 5.5 years of age (Levine, Jordan, & Huttenlocher,
276 • Pedagogical Issues
1992). They have, apparently, not only learned the counting sequence and the cardinal principle
(usually about 3.5 years), but have also developed the ability to convert verbal number words
to quantitative meaning (cf. the ordinal-to-cardinal shift in Fuson, 1992a). Preschoolers are more
successful solving arithmetic problems when they have blocks available (Carpenter & Moser, 1982)
and may not be able to solve even the simplest of problems without such physical, concrete support
(Baroody, Eiland, Su, & Thompson, 2007).
At an even younger age, researchers argue that children have a relatively concrete understanding
of number until they learn number words. At that point, they gain a more abstract understanding
(Spelke, 2003).
In summary, those with Sensory-Concrete knowledge need to use or at least refer directly to
sensory material to make sense of a concept or procedure (Jordan, Huttenlocher, & Levine, 1994).
Such material often facilitates children’s development of mathematical operations by serving as
material support for children’s action schemes (Correa, Nunes, & Bryant, 1998). This does not
mean that their understanding is only concrete; even infants make and use abstractions in thinking
(Gelman, 1994). As another example, preschoolers understand—at least as “theories-in-action”—
principles of geometric distance and do not need to depend on concrete, perceptual experience to
judge distances (Bartsch & Wellman, 1988).
Concrete “versus” abstract? Then what of abstraction? Some decry limited abstract knowledge.
This can occur: “Direct teaching of concepts is impossible and fruitless. A teacher who tries to do
this usually accomplishes nothing but empty verbalism, a parrot-like repetition of words by the
child, simulating a knowledge of the corresponding concepts but actually covering up a vacuum”
(Vygotsky, 1934/1986, p. 150). This is abstract-only knowledge.
However, abstraction is not to be avoided, at any age. Mathematics is about abstraction and
generalization. “Two”—as a concept—is an abstraction. Further, even infants use conceptual
categories that are abstract as they classify things (Lehtinen & Hannula, 2006; Mandler, 2004),
including by quantity. These are enabled by innately specified knowledge-rich predispositions
that give children a head start in constructing knowledge. These are “abstractions-in-action,” not
represented explicitly by the child but used to build knowledge (Karmiloff-Smith, 1992). When an
infant says “two doggies,” she is using abstraction structures of numerosity to label a concrete
situation. Thus, the situation is analogical to Vygotsky’s (1934/1986) formulation of spontaneous
(“concrete”) vs. scientific (“abstract”) concepts in that abstractions-in-action guide the develop-
ment of concrete knowledge and eventually, depending largely on social mediation, become
explicated as linguistic abstractions. What of this type of knowledge, a synthesis of concrete and
abstract understandings?
Integrated-Concrete knowledge is knowledge that is connected in special ways. This is the root of
the word concrete—“to grow together.” What gives sidewalk concrete its strength is the combination
of separate particles in an interconnected mass. What gives Integrated-Concrete thinking its
strength is the combination of many separate ideas in an interconnected structure of knowledge.
For students with this type of interconnected knowledge, physical objects, actions performed on
them, and abstractions are all interrelated in a strong mental structure. Ideas such as “75,” “3/4,”
and “rectangle” become as real, tangible, and strong as a concrete sidewalk. Each idea is as concrete
as a wrench is to a plumber—an accessible and useful tool. Knowledge of money was in the process
of becoming such a tool for him.
Therefore, an idea is not simply concrete or not concrete. Depending on what kind of relation-
ship you have with the knowledge (Wilensky, 1991), it might be Sensory-Concrete, abstract-only, or
Integrated-Concrete. Further, we as educators can not engineer mathematics into Sensory-Concrete
materials because ideas such as number are not “out there.” As Piaget has shown us, they are con-
structions—reinventions—of each human mind. “Fourness” is no more “in” four blocks than it is
Pedagogical Issues • 277
“in” a picture of four blocks. The child creates “four” by building a representation of number and
connecting it with either physical or pictured blocks (Clements, 1989; Clements & Battista, 1990;
Kamii, 1973, 1985, 1986). As Piaget’s collaborator Hermine Sinclair says, “. . . numbers are made by
children, not found (as they may find some pretty rocks, for example) or accepted from adults (as
they may accept and use a toy)” (Sinclair, Forward, in Steffe & Cobb, 1988, p. v).
What ultimately makes mathematical ideas Integrated-Concrete is not their physical charac-
teristics. Indeed, physical knowledge is a different kind of knowledge than logical/mathematical
knowledge, according to Piaget (Kamii, 1973). Also, some research indicates that pictures are as
effective for learning as physical manipulatives (Scott & Neufeld, 1976). What makes ideas
Integrated-Concrete is how “meaning-full”—connected to other ideas and situations—they are.
John Holt reported that children who already understood numbers could perform the tasks with
or without the blocks. “But children who could not do these problems without the blocks didn’t
have a clue about how to do them with the blocks . . . . They found the blocks . . . as abstract, as
disconnected from reality, mysterious, arbitrary, and capricious as the numbers that these blocks
were supposed to bring to life” (Holt, 1982, p. 219). Good uses of manipulatives are those that aid
students in building, strengthening, and connecting various representations of mathematical ideas.
Indeed, we often assume that more able or older students’ greater facility with mathematics
stems from their greater knowledge or mathematical procedures or strategies. However, it is more
often true that younger children possess the relevant knowledge but cannot effectively create a
mental representation of the necessary information (Greeno & Riley, 1987). This is where good
manipulatives can play a role.
Comparing the two levels of concrete knowledge, we see a shift in what the adjective “concrete”
describes. Sensory-Concrete refers to knowledge that demands the support of concrete objects and
children’s knowledge of manipulating these objects. Integrated-Concrete refers to knowledge
that is “concrete” at a higher level because they are connected to other knowledge, both physical
knowledge that has been abstracted and thus distanced from concrete objects and abstract
knowledge of a variety of types. Such knowledge consists of units that “are primarily concrete,
embodied, incorporated, lived” (Varela, 1999, p. 7). Ultimately, these are descriptions of changes
in the configuration of knowledge as children develop. Consistent with other theoreticians
(J. R. Anderson, 1993), we do not believe there are fundamentally different, incommensurable types
of knowledge, such as “concrete” versus “abstract” or “concrete” versus “symbolic.”
Practical implications: Instructional use of manipulatives. Too often, manipulatives are used to
“make math fun,” where “manipulative math” and “real math” are seen as difference enterprises
(Moyer, 2000). Manipulatives are used as a diversion, frequently because teachers do not understand
their role as representations of mathematical ideas. Justification for their instructional role is often
that they are “concrete” and thus “understandable.” We have seen, however, that—like beauty—
“concrete” is, quite literally, in the mind of the beholder.
What role should manipulatives play? Research offers some guidelines:
• Model with manipulatives. We noted that young children can solve problems and, at the
earliest ages, appear to need concrete manipulatives—or, more precisely, sensory-concrete
support—to do so. However, the key is that they are successful because they can model the
situation (Carpenter, Ansell, Franke, Fennema, & Weisbeck, 1993; Outhred & Sardelich,
1997). Nevertheless, early number recognition, counting, and arithmetic may require (recall
Brenda), or benefit from, the use of sensory-concrete support, if they help children investigate
and understand the mathematical structures and processes. For example, children benefitted
more from using pipe cleaners than pictures to make non-triangles into triangles (Martin,
Lukong, & Reaves, 2007). They merely drew on top of the pictures but they transformed the
278 • Pedagogical Issues
pipe cleaners. Further, even subtle changes in such support can make a difference at certain
developmental levels. One study showed that 3-year-olds who used more “interesting”
manipulatives (fruit instead of plain blocks) were more likely to accurately identify numbers
in a recall task and answer subtraction questions correctly (Nishida & Lillard, 2007b). There
was no difference in children’s attentiveness to the lesson (Nishida & Lillard, 2007b). The
authors give no further hypotheses, but connections to children’s existing experiences,
perhaps building more elaborated mental models, may have accounted for the difference.
• Ensure manipulatives serve as symbols. Recall the work on models and maps (DeLoache, 1987).
Multiple studies such as this (Munn, 1998; Uttal, Scudder, & DeLoache, 1997) support this
guideline: Physical “concreteness” is not necessarily an instruction advantage. This can
physically make it difficult for children to use a manipulative as a symbol. To be useful,
children must interpret the manipulative as representing a mathematical idea. A second
example comes from early introduction of algebraic thinking. When the goal is abstraction,
concrete materials may not be particularly helpful. For example, working with differences in
children’s heights (e.g., Mary is 4 inches taller than Tom), agreeing that Tom’s height would
be T, children resisted representing Mary’s height as “T + 4,” preferring “M” (Schliemann,
Carraher, & Brizuela, 2007). Others solved some problems but still said “T” stood for “tall” or
“ten.” Also, students tended to think of the differences in height as the (absolute) heights. Part
of their difficulty was thinking of any letter as a variable amount when the concrete situations
used in the instruction implied that there was a particular quantity—unknown, perhaps, but
not one that varies. That is, children could think of the value of a height, or the amount of
money in a wallet as unknown, or a “surprise,” but had difficulty thinking of it as a range
of values. In contrast, they learned more playing activities such as “guess my rule,” in which
the context was simply mathematics, not with physical manipulatives, objects, or settings.
The pure number activities were meaningful and had advantages in helping children from a
low-performing school to think about numerical relationships and to use algebraic notations.
In summary, the relationship of manipulatives to the concepts they are to represent is not
transparent to children (Uttal, Marzolf et al., 1997). Children must be able to see the manipu-
lative as a symbol for a mathematical idea. In addition, in some contexts the physicality of a
manipulative may interfere with students’ mathematical development, and other representa-
tions may be more effective for learning. Further, active teaching must guide children to make,
maintain, and use manipulatives as symbols or tools for doing mathematics. As we describe in
more detail in a subsequent section, connecting manipulative work (e.g., place value blocks)
with verbal and representations can build both concepts and skills successfully (Brownell &
Moser, 1949; Fuson & Briars, 1990; Hiebert & Wearne, 1993).
In summary, children must construct, understand, and use the structural similarities between any
representation and the problem situation to use objects as tools for thinking. When children do
not see those similarities, manipulatives may fail to help, and many even hinder, problem-solving
and learning (Outhred & Sardelich, 1997). As we saw in the previous section, if they do not mirror
the mental actions we wish children to develop, their use could be a waste of time or even counter-
productive. Manipulatives, drawings, and other representations should as far as possible, be used
instructionally in ways consistent with the mental actions on objects that students are to develop:
• Encourage appropriate play with manipulatives. Is it good to let children play with manipula-
tives? Usually yes, sometimes no. Most teachers recognize that if young children have not
explored a manipulative on their own (say, toy dinosaurs), getting them to address the
teachers agenda (say, counting) can be at best inefficient, and at worst, near impossible.
Pedagogical Issues • 279
Further, children can and do learn pre-mathematical foundations through their self-directed
play, especially with structured manipulatives, such as pattern blocks or building blocks
(Seo & Ginsburg, 2004). However, these experiences are rarely mathematical without teacher
guidance. Counterintuitively, play can sometimes be counterproductive. When a physical
object is intended to serve as a symbol, playing with the object can interfere with under-
standing. For example, having these children play with a model of a room decreased young
children’s success in using it as a symbol in a map search task, and eliminating any interaction
increased their success (DeLoache, Miller, Rosengren, & Bryant, 1997). Thus, the purpose and
intended learning with the manipulatives must be considered carefully.
• Use few manipulatives well. Some research indicates the more manipulatives, the better.
However, U.S. teachers tend to use different manipulatives to increase “motivation” and
“make math more fun” (Moyer, 2000; Uttal, Marzolf et al., 1997). Further, Dienes “multiple
embodiment” theory suggests that to truly abstract a mathematical concept, students need to
experience it in more than one context. However, there are opposing practices and evidence.
Successful teachers in Japan tend to reuse the same manipulatives repeatedly (Uttal, Marzolf
et al., 1997). Research indicates that, indeed, deeper experience with one manipulative is more
productive than equivalent experiences using various manipulatives (Hiebert & Wearne,
1996). A synthesis seems to indicate that multiple representations are useful (e.g., a manipula-
tive, drawings, verbalizations, symbols), but many different manipulatives may be less useful.
These manipulatives should be used for multiple tasks, so children do not view them as
objects to play with but tools for thinking (Sowell, 1989).
• Use caution in beginning with “prestructured” manipulatives. We must be wary of using “pre-
structured” manipulatives—ones where the mathematics is built in by the manufacturer,
such as base-ten blocks (as opposed to interlocking cubes). They can be as colored rods for
John Holt’s students—“another kind of numeral, symbols made of colored wood rather than
marks on paper” (Holt, 1982). Sometimes the simpler the better. For example, educators from
the Netherlands found students did not learn well using base-ten blocks and other structured
base-ten materials. There may have been a mismatch between trading one base-ten block for
another and the actions of mentally separating a ten into ten ones or thinking of the same
quantity simultaneously as “one ten” and “ten ones.” The Netherlands’ students were more
successful hearing a story of a sultan who often wants to count his gold. The setting of the
story gave students a reason for counting and grouping: The gold had to be counted, packed,
and sometimes unwrapped—and an inventory constantly maintained (Gravemeijer, 1991).
So, students might best start using manipulatives with which they create and break up groups
of tens into ones (e.g., interlocking cubes) rather than base-ten blocks (Baroody, 1990).
Settings that provide reasons for grouping are ideal.
• Use drawings and symbols—move away from manipulatives as soon as possible. Children using
manipulatives in second grade to do arithmetic tend to do so even in fourth grade (Carr &
Alexeev, 2008). That is a failure to move along the learning trajectory. Although modeling
necessitates manipulatives at some early levels of thinking, even preschoolers and kinder-
gartners can use other representations, such as drawings and symbols, with, or instead of,
physical manipulatives (Carpenter et al., 1993; Outhred & Sardelich, 1997; van Oers, 1994).
Even for children as young as 5 years of age, physical manipulatives may play a surprisingly
small role. For example, in one study there was no significant difference between kinder-
gartners given and not given manipulatives accuracy or in the discovery of arithmetic
strategies (Grupe & Bray, 1999). The similarities go on: Children without manipulatives used
their fingers on 30% of all trials, while children with manipulatives used the bears on 9% of
the trials but used their fingers on 19% of trials for a combined total of 28%. Finally, children
280 • Pedagogical Issues
stopped using external aids approximately halfway through the 12-week study. Physical
objects can make an important contribution, but are not guaranteed to help (Baroody, 1989;
Clements, 1999a). Drawings can include models, such as the “empty number line” approach
(Klein, Beishuizen, & Treffers, 1998; see Chapter 5). Another consideration here is children’s
use of images. High-achieving children build images that have a spectrum of quality and a
more conceptual and relational core. They are able to link different experiences and abstract
similarities. Low-achieving children’s images tended to be dominated by surface features.
Instruction might help them develop more sophisticated images (Gray & Pitta, 1999).
With both physical and computer manipulatives, we should choose meaningful representations
in which the objects and actions available to the student parallel the mathematical objects (ideas)
and actions (processes or algorithms) we wish the students to learn. We then need to guide students
to make connections between these representations (Fuson & Briars, 1990; Lesh, 1990).
Technology—Computers and TV
Kindergartner Chris is making shapes with a simplified version of Logo (Clements et al., 2001). He
has been typing “R” (for rectangle) and then two numbers for the side lengths. This time he chooses
9 and 9. He sees a square and laughs.
Adult: Now, what do the two nines mean for the rectangle?
Chris: I don’t know, now! Maybe I’ll name this a square rectangle!
Chris uses his invented terminology repeatedly on succeeding days.
Computer Technology. At what age will computers support children’s development, both of
mathematics and of the “whole child?” In 1995, we argued that “we no longer need to ask whether
the use of technology is ‘appropriate’ ” in early childhood education (Clements & Swaminathan,
1995). The research supporting that statement was, and remains, convincing. However, mis-
understandings and unfounded criticisms of computers in early childhood continue to be pub-
lished (e.g., Cordes & Miller, 2000). This is important, because some teachers retain a bias against
computers that contradicts research evidence. Especially those teaching in middle-SES schools
believe it is “inappropriate” to have computers in classrooms for young children (Lee & Ginsburg,
2007):
I just hate computers for children this age. . . . It’s just too removed, too far removed from the
senses. . . . There’s no thought involved. It’s totally just pressing buttons. If this doesn’t work
right with one button, they just randomly press another button. There’s no thinking, there’s
no process involved. There’s no logical analysis of anything going on there.
I think that computers tend to just block in one child at a time. I mean, maybe it’ll take in
two or three, doing group activity. But it kind of isolates the child. I really don’t think that
computers have a place in early childhood (Lee & Ginsburg, 2007, p. 15).
We have countered such criticisms elsewhere (Clements & Sarama, 2003b). Here, we simply
summarize some basic findings from research on young children and computers:
• Children overwhelmingly display positive emotions when using computers (Ishigaki, Chiba,
& Matsuda, 1996; Shade, 1994). They show higher positive affect and interest when they
use the computer together (Shade, 1994) and prefer to work with a peer rather than alone
Pedagogical Issues • 281
(Lipinski, Nida, Shade, & Watson, 1986; Rosengren, Gross, Abrams, & Perlmutter, 1985;
Swigger & Swigger, 1984). Further, working on the computer can instigate new instances and
forms of collaborative work such as helping or instructing, and discussing and building upon
each others’ ideas (Clements, 1994).
• Children who had access to a computer at home performed better on measures of school
readiness and cognitive development, controlling for children’s developmental stage and
family socioeconomic status (Li & Atkins, 2004).
• The addition of a computer center does not disrupt ongoing play or social interaction but
does facilitate extensive positive social interaction, cooperation, and helping behaviors
(Binder & Ledger, 1985; King & Alloway, 1992; Rhee & Chavnagri, 1991; Rosengren et al.,
1985). Even in the preschool classroom, a computer center fosters a positive climate character-
ized by praise and encouragement of peers (Klinzing & Hall, 1985).
• Computers may represent an environment in which both cognitive and social interactions
simultaneously are encouraged, each to the benefit of the other (Clements, 1986; Clements &
Nastasi, 1985).
• Computers can motivate academic work (see the many references in Clements & Sarama,
2003b). Children are energized. They are active and took charge of their learning processes.
Those behind in other areas excelled (Primavera, Wiederlight, & DiGiacomo, 2001).
• Computers can engender creativity, including creative mathematical thinking (Clements,
1986, 1995; Clements & Sarama, 2003b).
• Computers can facilitate young children’s mathematical thinking.
This last point is most directly relevant to this book, so we will elaborate on it especially. To begin,
we provide the NMP’s summary of rigorous studies, most of which were conducted with older
elementary students. Those reviews indicated that computer-assisted instruction (CAI) practice
programs, as well as tutorial programs (often combined with drill and practice), that are well
designed and implemented, could have a positive impact on mathematics performance. Also,
learning to write computer programs improves students’ performance compared to conventional
instruction, with the greatest effects on understanding of concepts and applications, especially
geometric concepts (NMP, 2008). Next, we consider a wider variety of studies, including, but not
limited to, those with rigorous designs but involving very young children.
Computer-assisted instruction (CAI). Children can use CAI to practice arithmetic processes and
to foster deeper conceptual thinking. Practice software can help young children develop com-
petence in such skills as counting and sorting (Clements & Nastasi, 1993) as well as addition
combinations (Fuchs et al., 2006). Indeed, some reviewers claim that the largest gains in the use of
CAI have been in mathematics for preschool (Fletcher-Flinn & Gravatt, 1995) or primary grade
children, especially in compensatory education (Lavin & Sanders, 1983; Niemiec & Walberg, 1984;
Ragosta, Holland, & Jamison, 1981). About 10 minutes per day proved sufficient for significant
gains; 20 minutes was even better. This CAI approach may be as—or more—cost-effective as
traditional instruction (Fletcher, Hawley, & Piele, 1990) and as other instructional interventions,
such as peer tutoring and reducing class size (Niemiec & Walberg, 1987). Such an approach is
successful with all children, with substantial gains reported for children from low-resource com-
munities (Primavera et al., 2001).
Computer drill and practice can be helpful for all children who need to develop automaticity but
especially for those who have MD or MLD. However, this must come at the right point in the
learning trajectory. Drill does not help children who are at the level of more immature counting
strategies; they must understand the concepts and even know the arithmetic fact (although they
may remember it slowly) before drill is useful (Hasselbring, Goin, & Bransford, 1988).
282 • Pedagogical Issues
(Clements & Nastasi, 1993). They learn about measurement of length (Campbell, 1987; Clements,
Battista, Sarama, Swaminathan et al., 1997; Sarama, 1995) and angle (Browning, 1991; Clements &
Battista, 1989; du Boulay, 1986; Frazier, 1987; Kieran, 1986; Kieran & Hillel, 1990; Olive, Lankenau,
& Scally, 1986). One microgenetic study confirmed that students transform physical and mental
action into concepts of turn and angle in combined off- and on-computer experiences (Clements &
Burns, 2000). Students synthesized and integrated two schemes, turn as body movement and turn
as number, as originally found (Clements, Battista, Sarama, & Swaminathan, 1996). They used a
process of psychological curtailment in which students gradually replace full rotations of their
bodies with smaller rotations of an arm, hand, or finger, and eventually internalized these actions as
mental imagery.
Logo is not easy to learn. However, as one primary grade student declared, “This picture was very
hard and it took me 1 hour and 20 minutes to do it, but it had to be done. I liked doing it”
(Carmichael, Burnett, Higginson, Moore, & Pollard, 1985, p. 90). Moreover, when the environment
is gradually and systematically introduced to the children and when the interface is age-appropriate,
even young children learn to control the turtle and benefit cognitively (Allen, Watson, & Howard,
1993; Brinkley & Watson, 1987–88b; Clements, 1983–84; R. Cohen & Geva, 1989; Howard, Watson,
& Allen, 1993; Stone, 1996; Watson, Lange, & Brinkley, 1992). Thus, there is substantial evidence
that young children can learn Logo and can transfer their knowledge to other areas, such as map-
reading tasks and interpreting right and left rotation of objects. They reflect on mathematics and
their own problem-solving. For example, first grader Ryan wanted to turn the turtle to point into
his rectangle. He asked the teacher, “What’s half of 90?” After she responded, he typed RT 45. “Oh, I
went the wrong way.” He said nothing, keeping his eyes on the screen. “Try LEFT 90,” he said at last.
This inverse operation produced exactly the desired effect (Kull, 1986).
These effects are not limited to small studies. A major evaluation of a Logo-based geometry
curriculum included 1,624 students and their teachers and a wide assortment of research tech-
niques, pre- and post-paper-and-pencil-testing, interviews, classroom observations, and case
studies (Clements et al., 2001). Across grades K-6, Logo students scored significantly higher than
control students on a general geometry achievement test, making about double the gains of the
control groups. These are especially significant because the test was paper-and-pencil, not allowing
access to the computer environments in which the experimental group had learned and because the
curriculum is a relatively short intervention, lasting only 6 weeks. Other assessments confirmed
these results, and indicated that Logo was a particularly felicitous environment for learning math-
ematics, reasoning, and problem-solving.
These studies and hundreds of others (Clements & Sarama, 1997) indicate that Logo, used
thoughtfully, can provide an additional evocative context for young children’s explorations of
mathematical ideas. Such “thoughtful use” includes structuring and guiding Logo work to help
children form strong, valid mathematical ideas (Clements et al., 2001). Children often do not
appreciate the mathematics in Logo work unless someone helps them see the work mathematically.
Effective teachers raise questions about “surprises” or conflicts between children’s intuitions and
computer feedback to promote reflection. They pose challenges and tasks designed to make the
mathematical ideas explicit for children. They help children build bridges between the Logo experi-
ence and their regular mathematics work (Clements, 1987; Watson & Brinkley, 1990/91). This is a
general implication that should be emphasized. Research indicates that working with appropriate
computers can help children learn mathematics. Not always, however. Effects are more consistently
positive in some situations. What can teachers do?
Computer manipulatives. Alternatives include the use of activity tutorials and problem-solving-
oriented practice, as well as computer manipulatives such as provided in the Building Blocks
software. The uses and advantages of these software programs have been described throughout the
284 • Pedagogical Issues
book. Evaluations indicate that large increases in achievement caused by the Building Blocks Pre-K
curriculum are in part attributable to children’s use of this software (Clements & Sarama, 2008).
Let us return to the topic of manipulatives. Even if we agree that “concrete” cannot simply be
equated with physical manipulatives, we might have difficulty accepting objects on the computer
screen as valid manipulatives. However, computers might provide representations that are just as
personally meaningful to students as physical objects. Paradoxically, research indicates that com-
puter representations may even be more manageable, “clean,” flexible, and extensible than their
physical counterparts. For example, one group of young students learned number concepts with a
computer environment. They constructed “bean-stick pictures” by selecting and arranging beans,
sticks, and number symbols. Compared to a physical bean-stick environment, this computer
environment offered equal, and sometimes greater control and flexibility to students (Char, 1989).
The computer manipulatives were just as meaningful and easier to use for learning. Both computer
and physical beansticks were worthwhile. However, addressing the issues of pedagogical sequencing
work with one did not need to precede work with the other. In a similar vein, students who used
physical and software manipulatives demonstrated a much greater sophistication in classification
and logical thinking than did a control group that used physical manipulatives only (Olson, 1988).
The reason partially lies in the ways computer manipulatives can follow the guidelines described in
the previous section. These and other potential advantages of using computer manipulatives are
summarized in two broad categories: those that offer mathematical or psychological benefits to the
student and teacher, and those that offer practical and pedagogical benefits.
Mathematical/Psychological Benefits. Perhaps the most powerful feature of the software is that
the actions possible with the software embody the processes we want children to develop and
internalize as mental actions:
• Bringing mathematical ideas and processes to conscious awareness. Most students can use
physical manipulatives to perform motions such as slides, flips, and turns; however, they
make intuitive movements and corrections without being aware of these geometric motions.
Even young children can move puzzle pieces into place without conscious awareness of the
geometric motions that can describe these physical movements. Our research has shown that
using computer tools to manipulate shapes brings those geometric motions to an explicit
level of awareness (Sarama et al., 1996). For example, Pre-K children working on pattern
block puzzles off-computer were unable to explain the motions needed to make the pieces fit.
On computer, the children were quickly able to adapt to the tools and were able to explain to
peers what they needed to do: “You need to click there. You need to turn it.”
• Encouraging and facilitating complete, precise, explanations. Compared to students using paper
and pencil, students using computers work with more precision and exactness (Clements et
al., 2001; Gallou-Dumiel, 1989; Johnson-Gentile, Clements, & Battista, 1994).
• Supporting mental “actions on objects.” The flexibility of computer manipulatives allows
them to mirror mental “actions on objects” better than physical manipulatives. For example,
physical base-ten blocks can be so clumsy and the manipulations so disconnected one from
the other that students see only the trees—manipulations of many pieces—and miss the
forest—place value ideas. In addition, students can break computer base-ten blocks into ones,
or glue ones together to form tens. Such actions are more in line with the mental actions that
we want students to learn. Geometric tools can encourage composition and decomposition
of shapes (Clements & Sarama, 2007c; Sarama et al., 1996). As an example, Mitchell started
making a hexagon out of triangles (Sarama et al., 1996). After placing two, he counted with
his finger on the screen around the center of the incomplete hexagon, imaging the other
triangles. He announced that he would need four more. After placing the next one, he said,
Pedagogical Issues • 285
“Whoa! Now, three more!” Whereas off-computer, Mitchell had to check each placement with
a physical hexagon, the intentional and deliberate actions on the computer lead him to form
mental images (decomposing the hexagon imagistically) and predict each succeeding place-
ment. Further, compositions of shapes allow the construction of units of units in children’s
tilings and patterning. Identify the unit of units that forms the core. Show how the glue tool in
the software can be used to actually make such a unit and then slide, turn, and flip it as a unit.
It also makes building such patterns much easier (and more elegant). Sets of grouped shapes
turn, flip, and otherwise act as a unit. Thus, the actions children perform on the computer are
a reflection of the mental operations we wish to help children develop. Actions on computer
manipulatives can include precise decompositions that cannot easily be duplicated with
manipulatives; for example, cutting a shape (e.g., a regular hexagon) into other shapes (e.g.,
not only into two trapezoids but also two pentagons and variety of other combinations).
Computer manipulatives have supported dramatic gains in this competency (Clements,
Battista, Sarama, & Swaminathan, 1997; Clements & Sarama, 2007c; Sarama et al., 1996).
• Changing the very nature of the manipulative. In a similar vein, computer manipulatives’
flexibility allows children to explore geometric figures in ways not available with physical
shape sets. For example, children can change the size of the computer shapes, altering
all shapes or only some. Matthew wanted to make an all blue man and recognized that he
could overlap the computer rhombuses and to exactly cover a triangle space. In a study of
patterning, researchers stated that the computer manipulative’s flexibility had several positive
effects on kindergartners’ patterning (Moyer, Niezgoda, & Stanley, 2005). They made a greater
number of patterns and used more elements in their patterns, with computer manipulatives
than with physical manipulatives or drawing. Finally, only when working on computer did
they create new shapes (by partial occlusion).
• Symbolizing and making connections. Computer manipulatives can also serve as symbols for
mathematical ideas, often better than physical manipulatives. For example, the manipulative
can have just the mathematical features that we wish it to have, and just the actions on it that
we wish to promote, and not additional properties that may be distracting.
• Linking the concrete and the symbolic with feedback. Closely related, the computer can link
manipulative to symbols—the notion of multiple linked representations. For example, the
number represented by the base-ten blocks is dynamically linked to the students’ actions on
the blocks, so that when the student changes the blocks the number displayed is automatically
changed as well. This can help students make sense of their activity and the numbers. Is it too
restrictive or too hard to have to operate on symbols rather than directly on the manipula-
tives? Ironically, less “freedom” might be more helpful. In a study of place value, one group of
students worked with a computer base-ten manipulative. The students could not move the
computer blocks directly. Instead, they had to operate on symbols (Thompson, 1992; Thomp-
son & Thompson, 1990). Another group of students used physical base-ten blocks. Although
teachers frequently guided students to see the connection between what they did with the
blocks and what they wrote on paper, the physical blocks group did not feel constrained to
write something that represented what they did with blocks. Instead, they appeared to look
at the two as separate activities. In comparison, the computer group used symbols more
meaningfully, tending to connect them to the base-ten blocks. In computer environments
such as computer base-ten blocks or computer programming, students cannot overlook the
consequences of their actions, whereas that is possible to do with physical manipulatives. So,
computer manipulatives can help students build on their physical experiences, tying them
tightly to symbolic representations. In this way, computers help students link Sensory-
Concrete and abstract knowledge so they can build Integrated-Concrete knowledge.
286 • Pedagogical Issues
• Recording and replaying students’ actions. Computers allow us to store more than static con-
figurations. Once we finish a series of actions, it’s often difficult to reflect on them. But
computers have the power to record and replay sequences of our actions on manipulatives.
We can record our actions and later replay, change, and view them. This encourages real
mathematical exploration. Computer games such as “Tetris” allow students to replay the same
game. In one version, Tumbling Tetrominoes (Clements, Russell, Tierney, Battista, & Meredith,
1995), students try to cover a region with a random sequence of tetrominoes. If students
believe they could improve their strategy, they can elect to receive the same tetrominoes in the
same order and try a new approach.
Practical/pedagogical benefits. This group includes advantages that help students in a practical
manner or provide pedagogical opportunities for the teacher:
• Providing another medium, one that can store and retrieve configurations. Shapes serves as
another medium for building, especially one in which careful development can take place day
after day (i.e., physical blocks have to be put away most of the time—on the computer, they
can be saved and worked on again and again, and there’s an infinite supply for all children).
We observed this advantage when a group of children were working on a pattern with
physical manipulatives. They wanted to move it slightly on the rug. Two girls (four hands)
tried to keep the design together, but they were unsuccessful. Marisssa told Leah to fix the
design. Leah tried, but in re-creating the design, she inserted two extra shapes and the pattern
wasn’t the same. The girls experienced considerable frustration at their inability to get their
“old” design back. Had the children been able to save their design, or had they been able to
move their design and keep the pieces together, their group project would have continued.
• Providing a manageable, clean, flexible manipulative. Shapes manipulatives are more manage-
able and clean than their physical counterparts. For example, they always snap into correct
position even when filling an outline and—also unlike physical manipulatives—they stay
where they are put. If children want them to stay where they’re put no matter what, they can
“freeze” them into position. We observed that while working on the Shapes software, children
quickly learned to glue the shapes together and move them as a group when they needed
more space to continue their designs.
• Providing an extensible manipulative. Certain constructions are easier to make with the soft-
ware than with physical manipulatives. For example, trying to build triangles from different
classes. That is, we have observed children making non-equilateral triangles by partially
occluding shapes with other shapes, creating many different types of triangle. Making right
angles by combining and occluding various shapes is a similar example.
• Recording and extending work. The printouts make instant record-your-work, take-it-home,
post-it paper copies. (Although we are also in favor of kids recording their work with tem-
plates and/or cutouts, but this is time-consuming and should not be required all the time.)
Computers encourage students to make their knowledge explicit, which helps them build
Integrated-Concrete knowledge.
Computers and play. Research shows that the dynamic aspects of the computer often engage
children in mathematical play more so than do physical manipulatives or paper media (Steffe &
Wiegel, 1994). For example, two preschoolers were playing with the free explore level of a set of
activities called “Party Time” from the Building Blocks project (Clements & Sarama, 2004a) in
which they could put out any number of items, with the computer counting and labeling for them.
“I have an idea!” said one girl, clearing off all the items and dragging placemats to every chair. “You
Pedagogical Issues • 287
have to put out cups for everybody. But first you have to tell me how many cups that’ll be.” Before
her friend could start counting, she interrupted—“And everyone needs one cup for milk and one
for juice!” The girls worked hard cooperatively, at first trying to find cups in the house center, but
finally counting two times on each placemat on the screen. Their answer—initially 19—wasn’t
exact, but they were not upset to be corrected when they actually placed the cups and found they
needed 20. These children played with the mathematics in the situation, with solutions, as they
played with each other.
Mathematics can be intrinsically interesting to children if they are building ideas while engaged
in mathematical play (Steffe & Wiegel, 1994). To do so, the materials, physical, on a computer, or
just verbal, must be of high quality.
Practical implications: Effective teaching with computers.3 Initial adult support helps young
children use computers to learn (Rosengren et al., 1985; Shade, Nida, Lipinski, & Watson, 1986).
With such help, they can often use computers independently. Still, children are more attentive, more
engaged, and less frustrated when an adult is nearby (Binder & Ledger, 1985). One implication
of research, therefore, is that teachers make the computer one of many choices, placed where
they or other adults can supervise and assist children (Sarama & Clements, 2002b). In this section,
we provide more details on research implications regarding arranging and managing the class-
room, choosing software, strategies for interacting with children in computer environments, and
supporting children with special needs:
• Arranging the classroom. The physical arrangement of the computers in the classroom can
enhance their social use (Davidson & Wright, 1994; Shade, 1994). The parts of the computer
with which the children interact, the keyboard, mouse, monitor, and microphone, should be
at the children’s eye level, on a low table or even on the floor. If children are changing CD-
ROMs, they can be placed so that children can see and change them easily. Software might
be changed, along with other centers, to match educational themes. The other parts should be
out of children’s reach. All parts can be stabilized and locked down as necessary. If computers
are to be shared, rolling carts might be used.
• Placing two seats in front of the computer and one at the side for the teacher encourages positive
social interaction. If more than two children work with a computer, they assert the right to
control the keyboard frequently (Shrock, Matthias, Anastasoff, Vensel, & Shaw, 1985). Placing
computers close to each other can facilitate the sharing of ideas among children. Computers
that are centrally located in the classroom invite other children to pause and participate in the
computer activity. Such an arrangement also helps keep teacher participation at an optimum
level. They are nearby to provide supervision and assistance as needed (Clements, 1991).
Other factors, such as the ratio of computers to children, may also influence social behaviors.
Less than a 10:1 ratio of children to computers might ideally encourage computer use,
cooperation, and equal access to girls and boys (Lipinski et al., 1986; Yost, 1998). Cooperative
use of computers raises achievement (Xin, 1999); a mixture of use in pairs and individual
work may be ideal (Shade, 1994).
• To encourage children to connect off- and on-computer experiences, place print materials,
manipulatives, and real objects next to the computer (Hutinger & Johanson, 2000). This also
provides good activities for children who are observing or waiting for their turn.
• Managing the computer center. As you might with any center, teach children proper computer
use and care, and post signs to remind them of the rules (e.g., no liquids, sand, food, or
magnets near computers pays dividends). Using a child-oriented utility that helps children
find and use the programs they want and prevents them from inadvertently harming other
programs or files makes everyone’s life easier.
288 • Pedagogical Issues
• Monitoring the time children spend on computers and giving everyone fair access is, of course,
important. However, at least one study has found that rigid time limits generated hostility and
isolation instead of social communication (Hutinger & Johanson, 2000). A better idea is
flexible time with sign-up lists that encourage children to manage themselves. The sign-up list
itself can have a positive effect on preschoolers’ emergent literacy (Hutinger & Johanson,
2000).
• Introduce computer work gradually. Provide substantial support and guidance initially, even
sitting with children at the computer to encourage turn-taking. Then gradually foster self-
directed and cooperative learning. When necessary, teach children effective collaboration; for
example, communication and negotiation skills. For young children, this might include such
matters as what constitutes a “turn” in a particular game or free explore environment.
However, do not mandate sharing the computer all the time. Especially with construction-
oriented programs such as manipulatives, free explore environments, or Logo, children some-
times need to work alone. If possible, make at least two computers available so that peer
teaching and other kinds of interaction can take place, even if children are working on one
computer.
• Once children are working independently, provide enough guidance, but not too much. Interven-
ing too much or at the wrong times can decrease peer tutoring and collaboration (Bergin,
Ford, & Mayer-Gaub, 1986; Emihovich & Miller, 1988; Riel, 1985). On the other hand,
without any teacher guidance, children tend to “jockey” for position at the computer and use
the computer in the turn-taking, competitive manner of video games (Lipinski et al., 1986;
Silvern, Countermine, & Williamson, 1988).
• Research shows that the introduction of a microcomputer often places many additional
demands on the teacher (Shrock et al., 1985). Plan carefully the use only of computer pro-
grams that will substantially benefit your children. The computer should not be simply an
end unto itself. Computers can help children learn and should be used reflectively by both
children and their teachers. Children should learn to understand how and why the programs
they use work the way they do (Turkle, 1997).
• Use effective teaching strategies. Critical to effective use of computers is teacher planning,
participation, and support. Optimally, the teacher’s role should be that of a facilitator of
children’s learning. Such facilitation includes not only physical structuring of the environ-
ment but also establishing standards for and supporting specific types of learning environ-
ments. When using open-ended programs, for example, considerable support may need to
precede independent use. Other important aspects of support include structuring and dis-
cussing computer work to help children form viable concepts and strategies, posing questions
to help children reflect on these concepts and strategies, and “building bridges” to help
children connect their computer and non-computer experiences. Ideally, the computer soft-
ware should be closely aligned with the rest of the curriculum.
• Be actively involved. Across the educational goals, we find that teachers whose children benefit
significantly from using computers are always active. Such active mentoring has significant
positive effects on children’s learning with computers (Primavera et al., 2001). They closely
guide children’s learning of basic tasks, and then encourage experimentation with open-
ended problems. They are frequently encouraging, questioning, prompting, and demon-
strating, without offering unnecessary help or limiting children’s opportunity to explore
(Hutinger & Johanson, 2000). They redirect inappropriate behaviors, model strategies, and
give children choices (Hutinger et al., 1998). Such scaffolding leads children to reflect on their
own thinking behaviors and brings higher-order thinking processes to the fore. Such
metacognitively-oriented instruction includes strategies of identifying goals, active monitor-
Pedagogical Issues • 289
ing, modeling, questioning, reflecting, peer tutoring, discussion, and reasoning (Elliott & Hall,
1997).
• Make the subject matter to be learned clear and extend the ideas children encounter. They focus
attention on critical aspects and ideas of the activities. When appropriate, they facilitate
disequilibrium by using the computer feedback to help children reflect on and question their
ideas and eventually strengthen their concepts. They also help children build links between
computer and non-computer work. Whole-group discussions that help children communi-
cate about their solution strategies and reflect on what they’ve learned are also essential
components of good teaching with computers (Galen & Buter, 1997). Effective teachers avoid
overly directive teaching behaviors (except as necessary for some populations and on topics
such as using the computer equipment), and, as has been stated, strict time limits (which
generate hostility and isolation instead of social communication), and offering unnecessary
help without allowing children the opportunity to explore (Hutinger et al., 1998). Instead,
prompt children to teach each other by physically placing one child in a teaching role or
verbally reminding a child to explain his or her actions and respond to specific requests for
help (Paris & Morris, 1985).
• Remember that preparation and follow-up are as necessary for computer activities as they are for
any other. Do not omit critical whole-group discussion sessions following computer work.
Consider using a single computer with a large screen or with overhead projector equipment.
• Support children with special needs. Even critics of technology support its use in supporting
young children with special needs. Used well, technology can increase children’s ability to
function in diverse and less restrictive settings. Computers’ unique advantages include
(Schery & O’Connor, 1997): being patient and non-judgmental, providing undivided
attention, proceeding at the child’s pace, and providing immediate reinforcement. These
advantages lead to significant improvements for children with special needs. Teachers should
attempt to ensure that they select such software and guide children with special needs to
use it successfully. However, we should be careful not to limit children with special needs to
“compensatory” software. They also can benefit from exploratory and problem-solving soft-
ware. For example, several studies reveal that Logo is a particularly engaging activity to young
children, fostering higher-order thinking in children from preschool through the primary
grades, including special needs students (Clements & Nastasi, 1988; Degelman, Free, Scarlato,
Blackburn, & Golden, 1986; Lehrer, Harckham, Archer, & Pruzek, 1986; Nastasi, Clements, &
Battista, 1990).
Software can help, but we could do better. Few software programs are designed based on explicit
(i.e., published) theoretical and empirical research foundations (but see Clements, 2007; Clements
& Sarama, 2007c; Ritter, Anderson, Koedinger, & Corbett, 2007). More continuous, committed,
iterative research and development projects are needed in this area. Research-based iterative cycles
of evaluation and development, fine-tuning software’s mathematics and pedagogy within each
cycle, can make a substantial differences in learning (e.g., see Aleven & Koedinger, 2002; Clements &
Battista, 2000; Clements et al., 2001; Laurillard & Taylor, 1994; Steffe & Olive, 2002). Such research
could identify how and why software designs could be improved (NMP, 2008).
TV. There is even more debate in the early childhood field about the influences—positive and
especially negative—of television. There is an extensive literature (see Clements & Nastasi, 1993).
The following summarize key findings:
• Many experts advise no TV for children less than 3 years of age (and some advise none until
the primary school years).
• Educational TV such as Sesame Street, Blue’s Clues, and Peep and the Big Wide World have
positive effects on learning, and continue to be updated in content and pedagogy. Watching
educational programs predicts school readiness at age 5.
• Longitudinal studies show that high school students who watched educational television have
higher grades than those who did not. This is probably due to the early learning model—
learning leads to success in the first grades of school, which leads to positive motivation,
perceptions of teachers of competence, placement in higher-ability groups, receiving more
attention, and thus continuous success in school.
• Children’s learning is increased when adults mediate the children’s use of TV (as well as other
media). Parents might watch educational TV with their children and discuss what is viewed.
They might involve the child in active engagement with the material, following suggestions
from the show or creating their own. Interactive books can actually increase the time parents
read with their children.
• Providing parents with print materials or in-person workshops on how to follow up on media
is necessary and helpful.
One disturbing result is that high-SES preschoolers understand the mathematical ideas pre-
sented on Sesame Street better than their low-SES counterparts. Also, the better the vocabulary and
math understanding the child has, the better that child can comprehend the mathematics presented
on the screen (Morgenlander, 2005). Another finding that “the rich get richer” presents a challenge
to educators and the society as a whole.
learned to use the standard arithmetic algorithms skillfully and to understand them conceptually,
when taught conceptually, by connecting place value block and written representations (Fuson &
Briars, 1990). A far older study had similar conclusions. Second graders taught mechanically were
faster and more accurate on an immediate post-test, but those taught meaningfully were better able
to explain why the algorithm worked, scored better on the retention test, and transferred their
knowledge more successfully (Brownell & Moser, 1949). A third study similarly showed the benefits
of conceptual instruction (Hiebert & Wearne, 1993), bringing low-achieving children up to the level
of their high-achieving peers. Each of these has limitations but the pattern is clear: Good conceptual
and procedural instruction is superior to mechanical instruction in helping children achieve today’s
mathematical goals (Hiebert & Grouws, 2007).
A final study found that, unlike the usual “skills” approach (Stipek & Ryan, 1997), poor children
benefit more from a greater emphasis on meaning, understanding, and problem-solving (Knapp,
Shields, & Turnbull, 1992). Such an approach is more effective at building advanced skills and is
more—or at least as—effective at teaching basic skills. Further it engages children more extensively
in academic learning.
For the least to the most able children, studies show that the foundation of flexible and creative
use of mathematical procedures is conceptual understanding. Children’s knowledge must connect
procedures to ideas, to everyday experiences, to analogies, and to other skills and concepts (Baroody
& Dowker, 2003).
Practical implications. Teach students conceptually to help them build skills and ideas, helping
them use skills adaptively. Students then have fluent and adaptive expertise rather than mere
efficiency (Baroody, 2003). Pose problems, make connections, and then work out these problems in
ways that make the connections visible, playing both more and less active roles.
Final Words
Teaching techniques are tools, and as such, must be used carefully, thoughtfully, and appropriately.
Every strategy, from play to direct instruction, can be educative or mis-educative. “Any experience is
mis-educative that has the effect of arresting or distorting the growth of further experience”
(Dewey, 1938/1997, p. 25). For example, mis-educative experiences resulting from inappropriate
direct teaching may decrease sensitivity to the wide range of applications of mathematical ideas,
or develop automatic skill but narrow the range of further experience with the idea underlying
the skill. Conversely, child-centered education that totally rejects the structures or sequencing of
subject matter content may be motivating to children at the time, yet be so disconnected as to limit
later integrative experiences. “High-quality learning results from formal and informal experiences
during the preschool years. ‘Informal’ does not mean unplanned or haphazard” (NCTM, 2000,
p. 75). As Dewey said, “Just because traditional education was a matter of routine in which the
plans and programs were handed down from the past, it does not follow that progressive education
is a matter of planless improvisation” (p. 28). Such everyday activities have been shown to
effectively raise mathematics knowledge in Head Start classrooms (Arnold, Fisher, Doctoroff, &
Dobbs, 2002).
In summary, in this new educational arena, we know mainly that several approaches, if per-
formed in high-quality settings, can be effective. Most successful pedagogical strategies, even those
with focused goals, include play or play-like activities. All approaches have a shared core of concern
for children’s interest and engagement and content matched to children’s cognitive level. Although
some studies support general, play-oriented approaches, learning mathematics seems to be a dis-
tinct process, even in preschool (Day, Engelhardt, Maxwell, & Bolig, 1997), and approaches focused
on mathematics have been successful.
292 • Pedagogical Issues
Regardless of instructional approach or strategy, educators must remember that the ideas young
children construct can be uniquely different from those of adults (e.g., Piaget & Inhelder, 1967;
Steffe & Cobb, 1988). Early childhood teachers must be particularly careful not to assume that
children “see” situations, problems, or solutions as adults do. Successful teachers interpret what the
child is doing and thinking and attempt to see the situation from the child’s point of view. Based on
their interpretations, they conjecture what the child might be able to learn or abstract from his or
her experiences. Similarly, when they interact with the child, they also consider their own actions
from the child’s point of view. This makes early childhood teaching both demanding and
rewarding.
Not only are children’s conceptions uniquely different from those of adults, they are the best
foundation on which to build subsequent learning. Research and expert practice agree that children
should learn skills in conjunction with learning the corresponding concepts—indeed, learning skills
before developing understanding can lead to learning difficulties (Baroody, 2004a, 2004b; Fuson,
2004; Kilpatrick et al., 2001; Sophian, 2004a; Steffe, 2004). Successful innovative curricula and
teaching build directly on students’ thinking (the understandings and skills they possess), provide
opportunities for both invention and practice, and ask children to explain their various strategies
(Hiebert, 1999). Such programs facilitate conceptual growth and higher-order thinking without
sacrificing the learning of skills.
In all their interactions with children, teachers should help children develop strong relation-
ships between concepts and skills because skill development is promoted by a strong conceptual
foundation. They should encourage children to create and describe their own solution methods and
should encourage methods found to be effective, introducing them when appropriate, and should
encourage children to describe and compare different solution methods. Research indicates that
instruction that views children as active learners with relevant initial knowledge and that provides
substantial support during learning is superior to traditional instruction that lacks these charac-
teristics (Fuson, 2004). Teachers need to consistently integrate real-world situations, problem-
solving, and mathematical content (Fuson, 2004). This integration is more than a pedagogical
strategy; it is necessary to achieve both sense-making and the development of skills such as
computational fluency. It supports transfer to future learning and out-of-school contexts.
Mathematics itself involves a vast web of connections among concepts and topics (NCTM, 2000).
Programs for prekindergarten through the primary grades should interweave real-world, meaning-
ful contexts; problem-solving; and mathematical concepts and skills. Such programs have a good
chance of countering the unfortunate pattern in U.S. mathematics education, in which young
children who are initially motivated to explore mathematics (Perlmutter, Bloom, Rose, & Rogers,
1997) come to “learn” that effort does not matter and that only a select few are “talented” at
mathematics (Middleton & Spanias, 1999). Teachers should use inquiry-based and discourse-rich
approaches, emphasize working hard to understand mathematics (rather than “finishing” or
“correctness”), and focus on intrinsic motivation. Making connections to real-life situations may
also enhance children’s knowledge and beliefs about mathematics (Perlmutter et al., 1997).
Nevertheless, early competence still reflects limited understanding. Varied reasons account for
this. Expectations have risen. Only a few hundred years ago, college-level work in mathematics
involved simple arithmetic. Cultural tools for mathematics have multiplied. Most instruction in
the U.S. is not based on awareness of these tools and/or of the power of children’s thinking and the
necessity of plumbing the depths of that thinking, engendering children’s inventions. We believe
that the knowledge we have tried to help you develop through this book will empower you to be a
truly effective, professional educator.
Notes
Preface
1 Like most acronyms, TRIAD “almost” works; we jokingly ask people to accept the “silent p” in Professional Development.
13 Mathematical Processes
1 Most of the information regarding teaching problem-solving is integrated within the content chapters.
293
294 • Notes
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Index
317
318 • Index
domain specific progression, 223 experience and education: angle and turn
Double Compare, 76 measurement, 184–5
doubles, 85 area measurement, 175–6
Down syndrome, 225 arithmetic, 65–71
dramatic play, 268 classification and seriation, 206–7
drawings, 68–9, 279–80 comparing numbers, 46–7
modified algorithms, 99 composition and decomposition of 2D
dynamics, 267 shapes, 154–5
composition of number, 83–8
E composition of 3D shapes, 151–2
Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS), 218, counting, 24–9
235 data analysis, 199–202
early mathematical knowledge, as predictor of maths disembedding 2D shapes, 160
achievement, 213–14 grouping and place value, 89–90
Early Numeracy Project (ENP), 247 imagery and spatial visualization,
Early Numeracy Research Program (ENRP), 247 115–16
East Asians, 217, 218, 238 length measurement, 166–8
Easy as Pie, 39, 77 multidigit addition/subtraction,
educational settings, 233–5 92–9
mathematics in, 235–7 number line estimation, 47
effect, 249, 250 numerosity estimation, 48
sustainability of, 253 order and ordinal numbers, 47
effort, 212–13 pattern and structure, 191–4
Eggcellent, 39, 78 problem-solving, 205–6
elementary curriculum, 247 reasoning, 205
Eleven Game, 94–5 roadblocks, 65
embedded figures, 150, 160–2 shape, 131–6
emotion, 212–13, 246, 280 spatial orientation, navigation and maps,
empty number line, 95 111–15
end-to-end length measurer, 171 subitizing, 10–13
engagement, 215 volume measurement, 181
enumeration, 267 external-based reference systems, 108
environment, genetics and, 216
equal addends algorithm, 97 F
equal partitioning, 164, 174 families, 237–40
equal sign, 44, 193 see also parents
equity, 216–32 Family Math, 240
curricula and programs for children at risk, Feely Boxes, 120, 138, 139, 141
241–6 Figure the Fact, 40, 56, 104
gender, 230–2 “filling” volume, 181
gifted and talented children, 229–30 find change addition/subtraction, 75–6
MLD, MD and other disabilities, 222–9 find result addition/subtraction, 73–5
poverty and minority status, 217–22 Findell, B., 7
equivalence, 43–4 fingers, 68, 73, 100, 101
errors first-second ordinal counter, 49
counting errors, 27 fives and tens frames, 14, 18, 85
multidigit addition and subtraction, 91–2 flexible thinking, 94
estimation, 14–18, 45–6 Flip the Cards, 79
learning trajectories, 48–57 flipper, 121
number line, 45–6, 47 beginning flipper, 120–1
numerosities, 45, 46, 48 fluency, 7, 82–3, 87–8
ethnic minorities, 217–22, 235, 238, 241, 243 footstrip, 166, 172
evaluation, CRF and, 249–50, 252 formative assessment, 245–6, 257–8
executive (metacognitive) processes, 211–12, formative research, 250, 252
215 foundational abilities, 244
exemplars, 125, 127 Four in a Row, 95, 96, 106
expectations framework user, 120
data analysis, 199 Franke, M.L., 193
parents’, 238 Froebel, F., 233–4
teachers’, 259 Function Machine, 79
Index • 321
G I
games, 28, 94–5 I Spy, 141, 145
board games, 47 identification, 112
computer games, 282 imagery, 110–11
see also instructional tasks, play experience and education, 115–16
gender, 230–2, 245 learning trajectory, 120–1
general a priori foundations, 249, 252 shape decomposer with, 159
generalization, 112, 192, 276 imagined items, counter of, 39
genetics, 216 implicit angle user, 186
geometric measurement see measurement indirect length comparer, 170
geometric motions, 131, 134–5 inequalities, 44
geometry inexact part–whole recognizer, 100
children with special needs, 226–8, 262–3 Inhelder, B., 165
Froebel and early kindergarten, 234 instructional strategies, 255–92
see also shape children with special needs, 260–3
Geometry Snapshots, 120–1, 139, 142, 143, 157, 158, class size and teachers’ aides, 272
159, 160 collaborative learning/peer tutoring, 264–5
gifted and talented children, 229–30, 259 developing positive maths attitudes, 259
“gifts”, 234 direct instruction, child-centered approaches and
Ginsburg, H.P., 267 play, 269–71
goals, 3 formative assessment, 257–8
addition and subtraction, 72 gifted and talented children, 259
comparing, ordering and estimating numbers, group size, 256–7
48 high expectations, 259
counting, 29, 30 integrating teaching of concepts, skills and
data analysis, 199–200 problem-solving, 290–1, 292
length measurement, 168, 169 intentional, planned instruction, 257
pattern and structure, 194–5 interactions, discussions and connecting maths,
recognition of number and subitizing, 13, 258
14 manipulatives and “concrete” representations,
shape, 136 273–80
spatial thinking, 116–17 multiage grouping, 271
Goldilocks and the Three Bears, 50 play, 265–9
Graham, T.A., 236 practice see practice
grapheme-color synaesthesia, 225 projects, 271
graphs, 200–2 teachable moments, 269
Gray, E.M., 81 teaching beliefs and basic pedagogical strategies,
grid paper, 176 256
group size, 256–7 technology, 280–90
grouping, 88–90 time, 271
development of concept, 88–9 using learning trajectories, 257
experience and education, 89–90 instructional tasks, 4–5, 6
Guess My Rule, 79, 140, 142, 145 addition and subtraction, 73–80
guidance, 288 angle and turn measurement, 186–7
guided counting sequence, 27 area measurement, 177–80
comparing, ordering and estimating numbers,
H 49–57
habits of mind, 6, 210 composition and decomposition of 2D shapes,
handwriting, 227 155–60
Haworth, C.M.A., 216 composition of number and multidigit addition
Head Start, 235, 241, 291 and subtraction, 99–106
curriculum based on the concept of unit, composition of 3D shapes, 152–4
247–8 counting, 4, 30–40
hearing impairment, 225, 227 disembedding 2D shapes, 161–2
heuristics, 64 length measurement, 169–72
hexagons, 124 pattern and structure, 195–8
hierarchic interactionalism, 223 recognition of number and subitizing, 13–18
hierarchical classification, 20 shape, 137–47
Hispanic children, 241, 243 spatial thinking, 118–21
Holt, J., 274, 277 volume measurement, 181–3
322 • Index