Managing Bird Damage

Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops
Managing Bird Damage

Bird damage is a significant problem in Australia with total
damage to horticultural production estimated at nearly
to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops
$300 million annually. Over 60 bird species are known to
damage horticultural crops. These species possess marked
differences in feeding strategies and movement patterns
which influence the nature, timing and severity of the
damage they cause.
Reducing bird damage is difficult because of the

unpredictability of damage from year to year and a lack
of information about the cost-effectiveness of commonly
used management practices. Growers therefore need
information on how to better predict patterns of bird
movement and abundance, and simple techniques to
estimate the extent of damage to guide future management
investment.
This book promotes the adoption of a more strategic

approach to bird management including use of better
techniques to reduce damage and increased cooperation
between neighbours. Improved collaboration and commit
John Tracey
ment from industry and government is also essential along
with reconciliation of legislation and responsibilities. Mary Bomford
Whilst the focus of this review is pest bird impacts on Quentin Hart
horticulture, most of the issues are of relevance to pest bird Glen Saunders
management in general.
Ron Sinclair
DEPARTMENT OF AG R I C U LT U R E , FISHERIES AND FORESTRY

Bird damage is a significant problem in Australia with total
damage to horticultural production estimated at nearly
$300 million annually. Over 60 bird species are known to
damage horticultural crops. These species possess marked
differences in feeding strategies and movement patterns
which influence the nature, timing and severity of the
damage they cause.
Reducing bird damage is difficult because of the

unpredictability of damage from year to year and a lack
of information about the cost-effectiveness of commonly
used management practices. Growers therefore need
information on how to better predict patterns of bird
movement and abundance, and simple techniques to
estimate the extent of damage to guide future management
investment.
This book promotes the adoption of a more strategic

approach to bird management including use of better
techniques to reduce damage and increased cooperation
between neighbours. Improved collaboration and commit
John Tracey
ment from industry and government is also essential along
with reconciliation of legislation and responsibilities. Mary Bomford
Whilst the focus of this review is pest bird impacts on Quentin Hart
horticulture, most of the issues are of relevance to pest bird Glen Saunders
management in general.
Ron Sinclair
DEPARTMENT OF AG R I C U LT U R E , FISHERIES AND FORESTRY

John Tracey
Mary Bomford
Quentin Hart
Glen Saunders
Ron Sinclair
© Commonwealth of Australia 2007
ISBN 0 644 29240 7 (set)

ISBN 0 9750443 7 0 (this publication)
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addressed to the Commonwealth Copyright Administration, Attorney General’s Department, Robert Garran Offices, National Circuit,
Barton ACT 2600 or posted at http://www.ag.gov.au/cca.
The Australian Government acting through the Bureau of Rural Sciences has exercised due care and skill in the preparation and
compilation of the information and data set out in this publication. Notwithstanding, the Bureau of Rural Sciences, its employees and
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Author affiliations:
John Tracey, NSW Department of Primary Industries – Vertebrate Pest Research Unit
Mary Bomford, Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra
Quentin Hart, Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra
Glen Saunders, NSW Department of Primary Industries – Vertebrate Pest Research Unit
Ron Sinclair, SA Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation – Animal and Plant Control Group
Preferred way to cite this publication:
Tracey, J., Bomford, M., Hart, Q., Saunders, G. and Sinclair, R. (2007) Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops.
Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra.
Design: Big Island Graphics, Canberra

Printing: Goanna Print, Canberra
Cover photographs:
Left: Bird-damaged grapes; Bruce Mitchell, NSW Department of Primary Industries.
Centre: Rainbow lorikeet eating apple; Nick Morenos, Fruit Tree Media.
Right: Starling eating Nashi pear; John Tracey, NSW Department of Primary Industries.
Section break image:

Silvereye feeding on persimmon; W. Taylor.
Supported by:
ii Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

Foreword
Bird damage is a significant problem for many As indicated by the priority issues identified in
horticulturists in Australia with over 60 bird this review, effective management of pest birds
species known to cause damage to horticultural requires: improved ability to predict patterns of
crops. These species possess marked differences bird movement and damage; the development
in feeding strategies, breeding behaviour and of simple techniques for estimating the extent
movement patterns. There is high variability in, and severity of damage; adoption of strategic
and uncertainty about, bird movements and management using improved damage reduction
subsequent damage levels between and within techniques; reconciliation of legislation and
seasons. responsibilities; and increased cooperation,
collaboration and commitment from industry
Horticulturists are also faced with increasing
and government. Whilst the focus of this review
social, environmental and legal issues that further
is pest bird impacts on horticulture, most of the
restrict the techniques that can be used to
issues are of relevance to pest bird management
reduce bird impacts. Of the techniques that are
in general.
available, few have been subjected to rigorous
scientific assessment, and management solutions Horticulturists need to have a strategic approach
are seldom suited to all bird species, crops and to managing pest birds which involves careful
situations. As a result, the management of pest planning, consideration of the species involved,
birds is one of the most difficult and challenging and estimation of the extent of damage before
tasks facing horticulturists. and after control. This approach is the basis of a
series of pest management guidelines prepared
Despite these concerns, many industry and
by the Bureau of Rural Sciences over the past
government organisations have been reluctant
decade through its administration of the National
to invest in research to reduce the damage
Feral Animal Control Programme — a Natural
caused by birds. This may be partly due to a lack
Heritage Trust initiative. Others in the series
of information on the severity and distribution of
include guidelines for managing feral horses,
the problem.
rabbits, foxes, feral goats, feral pigs, rodents,
carp and wild dogs.
Dr Colin J. Grant
Executive Director
Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops iii

Contents
Foreword.........................................................................................................................................................iii
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................................... ix
Key priorities to reduce pest bird impacts.................................................................................................. x
Introduction..................................................................................................................................................xiv
Part A: General principles

1. The ‘strategic approach’............................................................................................................................2
1.1 Define the problem...................................................................................................................................................2
1.2 Develop a management plan............................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Implement the management plan...................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Monitor and evaluate............................................................................................................................................... 9
2. Damage caused by pest birds to horticulture..................................................................................... 13
2.1 Susceptible crops.................................................................................................................................................... 13
2.2 Bird species................................................................................................................................................................ 17
2.3 Types and costs of damage................................................................................................................................ 22
2.4 Factors influencing damage............................................................................................................................... 25
2.5 Benefits of birds .................................................................................................................................................... 28
2.6 Other damage caused by pest birds............................................................................................................... 29
3. Techniques for measuring and monitoring damage and abundance............................................... 31
3.1 Questionnaires.......................................................................................................................................................... 31
3.2 Direct measures....................................................................................................................................................... 32
3.3 Indirect measures................................................................................................................................................... 33
3.4 Measuring secondary damage and compensation.................................................................................... 36
3.5 When to measure................................................................................................................................................... 37
3.6 Early forecasting of damage.............................................................................................................................. 37
4. Assessment of control techniques.........................................................................................................39
4.1 Bird scaring............................................................................................................................................................... 39
4.2 Population reduction.............................................................................................................................................50
4.3 Habitat management and decoy feeding...................................................................................................... 59
4.4 Exclusion....................................................................................................................................................................64
4.5 Chemical repellents...............................................................................................................................................70
4.6 Biological control.................................................................................................................................................... 73
5. Economic decision-making.....................................................................................................................75
5.1 Direct cost–benefit analysis .............................................................................................................................. 75
5.2 Economic threshold model................................................................................................................................. 77
5.3 Marginal analysis..................................................................................................................................................... 78
5.4 Cost-effectiveness analysis................................................................................................................................. 79
5.5 Decision theory (payoff matrix)........................................................................................................................ 79
5.6 More complex analyses........................................................................................................................................80
5.7 Stepwise approach.................................................................................................................................................80
5.8 Other factors to consider.................................................................................................................................... 83
6. Legislation.................................................................................................................................................85
6.1 Destruction of birds............................................................................................................................................... 85
6.2 Chemicals registered for bird control.............................................................................................................86
6.3 Legislation relating to noise...............................................................................................................................86
6.4 Clearing vegetation...............................................................................................................................................86
iv Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

7. Social and environmental factors affecting bird management options..........................................89
7.1 Culling of pest birds...............................................................................................................................................89
7.2 Killing of non-target animals.............................................................................................................................. 93
7.3 Chemical repellents...............................................................................................................................................94
7.4 Animal welfare.........................................................................................................................................................94
7.5 Noise pollution.........................................................................................................................................................96
7.6 Visual scaring devices and netting..................................................................................................................96
7.7 Habitat modification and decoy feeding.......................................................................................................96
8. Extension...................................................................................................................................................97
8.1 The purpose of extension....................................................................................................................................98
8.2 Engaging with landholders.................................................................................................................................98
9. Case studies.............................................................................................................................................101
9.1 Myna incursion in Port Adelaide, South Australia..................................................................................... 101
9.2 Eradicating starlings at Manypeaks, Western Australia......................................................................... 102
9.3 Cockatoo mitigation project in Victoria...................................................................................................... 103
9.4 Rosella damage to cherries (Prunus avium) in the Mt Lofty Ranges,
South Australia...................................................................................................................................................... 105
9.5 Bird damage to wine grapes in the Orange Region, New South Wales.......................................... 107
9.6 Parrot damage to apples (Malus spp.) and stone fruits (Prunus spp.) in
south-west Western Australia.......................................................................................................................... 109
9.7 Cockatoo damage to peanuts in Lakeland Downs, Cape York Peninsula,
Queensland.............................................................................................................................................................. 110
9.8 Netting enclosure over boysenberries in Hawke’s Bay, New Zealand.................................................111
9.9 Baudin’s black cockatoo damage to apples, pears and nashi fruit in south-west
Western Australia...................................................................................................................................................112
10. References................................................................................................................................................ 115
Part B: Factsheets for growers

Native species.............................................................................................................................................. 133
Black-faced cuckoo-shrike (Coracina novaehollandiae)................................................................................ 134
Crimson and Adelaide rosellas (Platycercus elegans).....................................................................................136
Crows and ravens (Family Corvidae)......................................................................................................................139
Eastern rosella (Platycercus eximius).................................................................................................................... 142
Galah (Elophus roseicapilla syn. Cacatua roseicapilla)................................................................................... 145
Little corella (Cacatua sanguinea).......................................................................................................................... 148
Musk lorikeet (Glossopsitta concinna)...................................................................................................................152
Noisy friarbird (Philemon corniculatus).................................................................................................................155
Noisy miner (Manorina melanocephala)................................................................................................................157
Pied currawong (Strepera graculina).................................................................................................................... 160
Rainbow lorikeet (Trichoglossus haematodus)...................................................................................................163
Red wattlebird (Anthochaera carunculata)......................................................................................................... 166
Ringneck (Barnardius zonarius).............................................................................................................................. 169
Scaly-breasted lorikeet (Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus)................................................................................172
Silvereye (Zosterops lateralis)...................................................................................................................................175
Sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua galerita).....................................................................................................179
Introduced species...................................................................................................................................... 183
Common myna (Acridotheres tristis).................................................................................................................... 184
Common starling (Sturnus vulgaris).......................................................................................................................187
European blackbird (Turdus merula)......................................................................................................................192
House sparrow (Passer domesticus)......................................................................................................................195

Managing the impacts of birds in horticulture....................................................................................... 199
Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................200
Management options................................................................................................................................................... 201
Summary of the main points to consider........................................................................................................... 204
Sources and further reading.................................................................................................................................... 205
Bird Management Plans............................................................................................................................................. 207
part c: appendices and sources

Appendix A: List of state and territory contacts and links..............................................................................220
Appendix B: Random and systematic sampling................................................................................................... 221
Appendix C: Some native plants that attract birds............................................................................................. 223
Appendix D: Roles of government agencies and legislation relating to pest birds............................... 226
Appendix E: Legislation and conditions relating to the destruction of native birds............................. 238
Appendix F: Chemicals available for bird control by registration or under permit................................. 241
Appendix G: Scientific names of pest and other bird species mentioned in the text........................... 243
Glossary
Glossary....................................................................................................................................................... 247
Lists of figures and tables

Figures
Figure 1.1 Silvereye feeding on small-leaved privet.............................................................................................4
Figure 1.2 A feral olive in fruit.......................................................................................................................................4
Figure 1.3 Side exclusion netting in a vineyard......................................................................................................6
Figure 1.4 Estimating and recording bird damage to grapes..........................................................................9
Figure 1.5 A flock of starlings in flight.....................................................................................................................12
Figure 2.1 Key areas of horticultural production in Australia..........................................................................13
Figure 2.2 Key areas of viticultural production in Australia.............................................................................13
Figure 2.3 Sulphur-crested cockatoo damage to oregon picnic table.......................................................22
Figure 2.4 Insects feeding on damaged bird grapes.........................................................................................22
Figure 2.5 Botrytis on grapes......................................................................................................................................22
Figure 2.6 Lorikeet damage to grapes in Adelaide............................................................................................23
Figure 2.7 Cockatoo damage to chestnuts........................................................................................................... 24
Figure 2.8 Starlings perching on powerlines........................................................................................................ 26
Figure 2.9 Starlings in a sheep paddock................................................................................................................ 26
Figure 2.10 Raptors prey on pest birds.................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 2.11 Galah damage to sunflower................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 2.12 Starlings feeding on supplementary feed for stock..................................................................... 30
Figure 3.1 A crop or orchard plan divided into strata for stratified sampling.........................................33
Figure 3.2 A hawk dispersing a flock of starlings.............................................................................................. 34
Figure 3.3 Some possible relationships between bird density and damage............................................35
Figure 3.4 Honeyeater pecking damage to grapes............................................................................................37
Figure 4.1 Characteristic starling damage to grapes........................................................................................40
Figure 4.2 Balloon bird scarer in a vineyard.......................................................................................................... 41
Figure 4.3 Predatory bird-shaped visual scaring device................................................................................. 42
Figure 4.4 Examples of poor scarecrows.............................................................................................................. 43
Figure 4.5 A more lifelike scarecrow....................................................................................................................... 43
vi Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

Figure 4.6 Compact discs tethered in a crop as visual scaring devices.................................................... 44
Figure 4.7 Gas gun......................................................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 4.8 Electronic speakers used to broadcast sounds to scare birds away
from crops..................................................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 4.9 A shooter equipped to undertake bird control............................................................................... 49
Figure 4.10 Mist nets are comprised of very fine netting and are for restricted
use only.......................................................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 4.11 Setting up a pull net................................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 4.12 Free-feeding before setting a pull net................................................................................................ 53
Figure 4.13 Modified Australian crow trap................................................................................................................ 53
Figure 4.14 Two-stage cage trap.................................................................................................................................. 53
Figure 4.15 Nest box trap................................................................................................................................................54
Figure 4.16 Preparing free-feed bait........................................................................................................................... 56
Figure 4.17 Avicide ground bait.................................................................................................................................... 57
Figure 4.18 An isolated vineyard.................................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 4.19 A vineyard surrounded by a windbreak of exotic and native species..................................... 61
Figure 4.20 A healthy, well-maintained inter-row pasture sward..................................................................... 62
Figure 4.21 Unharvested fruit left to drop................................................................................................................. 62
Figure 4.22 Exclusion netting......................................................................................................................................... 65
Figure 4.23 Drape-over or throw-over nets.............................................................................................................. 65
Figure 4.24 One of the net machines available.......................................................................................................66
Figure 4.25 Single row drape-over netting................................................................................................................66
Figure 4.26 Two-row drape-over netting................................................................................................................... 67
Figure 4.27 Four-row drape-over netting.................................................................................................................. 67
Figure 4.28 Lock-out netting.......................................................................................................................................... 67
Figure 4.29 Permanent total exclusion system........................................................................................................ 67
Figure 4.30 Netting on the edges of a crop..............................................................................................................68
Figure 4.31 One of the electrified wire shock systems available......................................................................69
Figure 5.1 Netting............................................................................................................................................................. 76
Figure 5.2 Possible relationships between (a) total costs and benefits and
control inputs; and (b) marginal costs and benefits and control inputs................................ 78
Figure 5.3 Hypothetical relationships between the cost of trapping and shooting
starlings and density.................................................................................................................................. 79
Figure 6.1 Regions where some native bird species are locally unprotected........................................... 87
Figure 7.1 Sign warning of firearm use....................................................................................................................90
Figure 7.2 Some traps catch many birds.................................................................................................................. 91
Figure 7.3 Sign indicating trapping activity............................................................................................................ 91
Figure 7.4 Goshawk caught in drape-over netting..............................................................................................94
Figure 9.1 Construction of a pull net....................................................................................................................... 104
Figure 9.2 An Adelaide rosella perched in a cherry tree................................................................................. 105
Figure 9.3 A vineyard in the case study region................................................................................................... 107
Figure 9.4 75% damage and 95% damage to grapes....................................................................................... 108
Figure B.1 Rosella damage to pear...........................................................................................................................138
Figure B.2 Crow damage to grapes...........................................................................................................................141
Figure B.3 Rosella damage to apple........................................................................................................................ 143
Figure B.4 Rosella damage to pear.......................................................................................................................... 144
Figure B.5 Galah damage to maize...........................................................................................................................147
Figure B.6 Distinctive noisy miner pecking damage to grapes......................................................................159
Figure B.7 The grey currawong (Strepera versicolor)....................................................................................... 160
Figure B.8 Currawongs on netting.............................................................................................................................162
Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops vii

Figure B.9 Rainbow lorikeet feeding on an apple................................................................................................165
Figure B.10 Rainbow lorikeet damage to grapes...................................................................................................165
Figure B.11 Red wattlebird damage to grapes...................................................................................................... 168
Figure B.12 Silvereye pecking damage to grapes, and silvereyes feeding..................................................177
Figure B.13 Cockatoo damage to sunflower.............................................................................................................181
Figure B.14 Starling damage to grapes.................................................................................................................... 189
Figure B.15 Juvenile starling feeding on nashi pear............................................................................................ 190
Figure B.16 Blackbird damage to grapes..................................................................................................................193
Figure B.17 Pecking damage to grapes by sparrows...........................................................................................197
Figure FS.1 “Orana” Property Map..............................................................................................................................212
Tables
Table 1.1 Strategic approach to managing bird pest damage.........................................................................2
Table 1.2 Example of a matrix used to examine management techniques against feasibility
and acceptability criteria in horticultural crops..................................................................................8
Table 2.1 Levels of damage to horticulture and main bird species causing damage...........................14
Table 2.2 Gross value of horticultural and wine grape production ($million).......................................... 17
Table 2.3 Pest birds of horticulture: preferred foods, feeding behaviour, movements, breeding
times and legal status................................................................................................................................. 18
Table 3.1 Comparison between face-to-face interviews, telephone surveys and mailed
questionnaires................................................................................................................................................ 31
Table 5.1 Cost–benefit and sensitivity analysis of bird netting options.................................................... 77
Table 5.2 Pay-off matrix of expected profits per hectare for two management options
for silvereyes..................................................................................................................................................80
Table 5.3 Relative costs and benefits of management techniques for pest birds in
horticulture..................................................................................................................................................... 81
Table 5.4 Pay-off matrix of management options for different pest bird densities.............................. 82
Table 7.1 Recommended firearms, ammunition and shooting ranges.......................................................90
Table 7.2 Responses on perceptions of birds as pests.................................................................................... 92
Table 9.1 Sample sizes needed to estimate percentage damage with
5% standard error..................................................................................................................................... 109
Table FS.1 Yield lost and dockage............................................................................................................................ 214
Table FS.2 Current control costs............................................................................................................................... 214
Table B.1 Randomly selected digits used to select orchard rows, vines or
branches for estimating bird damage...............................................................................................222
INDEX
Index ............................................................................................................................................................ 255
viii Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

Acknowledgments
The authors extend their sincere thanks to includes representatives from federal and state
Richard Porter, Peter Fleming, Jim Coleman, agriculture and environment departments,
Sharelle Hart, Ian Temby, Stephen Eldridge, local councils, Horticulture Australia, the Grape
Leanne Brown, Andrew Woolnough, Laurie Twigg, and Wine Research and Development Corpor
Gary Martin, Peter Thomson, Marion Massam, ation, the Grains Research and Development
Tamra Chapman, Tina Bentz, Brian Lukins, Corporation, Cherry Growers of Australia Inc.,
Peter Mawson, Sandy Hathaway, Roger Goebel the Australian Nut Industry Council, Apple and
and Steven McLeod for providing constructive Pear Growers Association of South Australia,
comments that improved the accuracy and Phylloxera Board of South Australia, Australian
relevance of these guidelines. Thanks also to Olive Growers Association, Australian Blueberry
Peter Worsley, Belinda Gershbach, Bruce Mit Growers Association, the Invasive Animals
chell, Neil Harrison, Nicole Reid, Franz Zikesch, Cooperative Research Centre, NSW Game
Corinne King and Julie Pont for tables and figures. Council, RSPCA Australia and Birds Australia. We
Richard Porter, Tamra Chapman, David Brennan, thank all these organisations for their input and
Andrew Woolnough, Colin Parry and Stephen encourage their future cooperation in addressing
Garnett wrote case studies. Tina Bentz provided pest bird issues.
help with the common starling factsheet.
This publication has been endorsed by the
Anthony Ball provided legal information related
National Vertebrate Pests Committee, and its
to Victoria. Geoff Ellerton from the Australian
production supported by the Australian Govern
Bureau of Statistics provided production
ment’s Natural Heritage Trust, Invasive Animals
information for Table 2.2. Leanne Brown assisted
Cooperative Research Centre, Horticulture
with editing and final production.
Australia, and Grape and Wine Research and
The draft guidelines were circulated for comment Development Corporation and the National Wine
via the Australasian Pest Bird Network, which and Grape Industry Centre.
Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops ix

Key priorities to reduce
pest bird impacts
Unlike most other pest animals in Australia, of why this occurs. Hence, each season, growers
there are fundamental deficiencies in our often wait until damage becomes obvious, bird
knowledge of pest bird species, their impacts, numbers are high, and the birds have developed
and the costs and efficacy of commonly used a feeding pattern. This is usually too late for
management practices. These deficiencies must effective damage control. There is anecdotal
be addressed as a priority before best practice evidence of large spatial and temporal variation
management strategies can be recommended in bird species, abundance and damage within
or promoted or new techniques investigated. crops and within properties and among crops,
Improved knowledge of the ecology, behaviour properties, and regions. There have been few
and movements of the species involved and attempts to predict these patterns. To implement
the patterns of damage will increase the effective strategic management or adequately
effectiveness of management and enable evaluate management options, more baseline
growers to optimise the timing of management. information is needed.
Improvements in the adoption and extension
Research need: Determine the causes of
of recommended management strategies is
underlying patterns in bird movements and
important to ensure that effective, humane
damage to increase the predictability of damage.
and environmentally acceptable management
Existing control techniques need to be evaluated
techniques are applied.
in relation to the ecology and biology of the
There are also a number of policy issues that must main pest bird species. Improved understanding
be addressed. Legislation and responsibilities of population dynamics, movements and biology
between States and jurisdictions are either not will allow targeted control of populations.
in place or are inconsistent and unclear, and as a Improved predictions of the movements of
result pest bird management has not received the species will allow management to be targeted
level of investment that the size of the problem during seasons when damage is more severe or
requires. Improved cooperation between, and more likely.
an increased commitment by, national and State
Benefits: Bird damage control that is more
agencies, industry organisations and end-users
cost efficient and effective, and damage
is essential to address these deficiencies. Whilst
reduction through the application of sound
the focus of these priorities is pest bird impacts
ecological principles to manage pest species.
on horticulture, most of them are of relevance to
The use of existing controls can be combined
pest bird management in general.
with management of the crop and the local
1. Improve knowledge of pest bird environment.
ecology, diet and patterns of
2. Estimate the extent, timing and costs
movements and damage.
of damage to horticulture
Problem: There is a paucity of relevant ecological
Problem: There is inadequate knowledge of
data on pest bird species. This information is
damage caused by birds at farm, regional
required to develop control techniques and
and national scales. There are few techniques
management strategies. It is difficult for growers
available for measuring damage in horticulture.
to predict when their crops will suffer significant
Methods for measuring damage are time-
bird damage. This is because of the high
consuming, complex and difficult to apply for
variability of damage and a lack of understanding
growers and land managers.
x Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

Research need: Simple field techniques need effectiveness of management techniques are
to be developed to accurately assess damage required. For example, more information is
caused by birds. These techniques need to needed to compare the costs and effectiveness
be quick and simple to be of use to growers. of various kinds of netting, including the type
Techniques to estimate social and environmental and life expectancy of netting, construction
costs also need to be investigated. Estimates of and labour costs, application techniques
damage at the farm scale will enable growers to and changes to management practices. The
decide the optimal course of action. Improved relative humaneness and non-target effects of
estimates of damage are also needed at current techniques should also be evaluated.
regional and national levels to allow improved Case studies that demonstrate ‘best practice’
allocation of resources to industries and regions management are lacking in scientific rigour
most at risk from bird damage. Realistic and in many instances rely only on anecdotal
economic assessments of damage and of social measures of damage and effectiveness. Credible
and environment costs are required before evaluations of these methods under Australian
investments are made to manage perceived conditions and on Australian bird species have
problems. rarely been conducted. The environment, the
species involved and the patterns of damage
Benefit: Simple and accurate techniques for
are markedly different from those overseas, and
estimating damage and costs at the local,
scientific evaluation of existing techniques is
regional and national scales. Better information
required. Investigation of the optimal timing of
on the extent, pattern and cost of bird damage
control will enhance the effectiveness of current
and the effectiveness of control techniques and
bird management techniques.
strategies. These data are essential for assessing
the benefits of bird control; identifying industries Benefit: Reliable advice for growers on the
and regions most at risk; identifying the main efficacy and humaneness of current bird
species involved; and allocating resources management techniques and when to apply
and establishing priorities for research and them.
management.
4. Improve adoption of effective existing
3. Assess existing control techniques on techniques
the main pest bird species
Problem: Each season growers often wait until
Problem: Current techniques used for managing damage becomes obvious before they take
birds in Australia have not been rigorously action. Growers may then initiate limited control,
evaluated in terms of their ability to reduce usually a single method like a gas gun, and
abundance or damage. leave it operating without checking whether it
is effective. In this instance there is little account
Research need: Better quality data are required
taken of habituation by birds exposed to a
for even the most commonly used techniques
frequently repeated stimulus. Growers are also
for managing birds. Studies overseas provide
often unaware of the bird species responsible for
baseline information on the efficacy of some
damage and the need for different management
techniques. However, this is no substitute for
approaches for different species. This is in con–
the need for rigorous evaluations in Australia.
trast to their attitude to weed and insect pests,
Little objective or scientifically sound advice is
where they distinguish between species and
available for current management techniques,
adjust their pest control actions accordingly.
including shooting, trapping, netting and
acoustic and visual deterrents. Improved Research need: Investigations are needed to
support for economic decision-making and more explain why farmers do not implement bird
detailed information on the costs and relative control early enough and then often implement
Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops xi

ineffective controls. For example, the use crops — could be investigated. In some situations
of less expensive measures such as decoy the development of benign and cost-effective
food (either from revegetation programmes, repellents, or humane and environmentally
specially cultivated crops, pasture management safe toxins, for introduced species could also
or alternative foods such as grain) and other be justified. There is also a need to investigate
habitat manipulative approaches to bird damage whether an alternative food source in a crop
may offer effective alternatives to conventional increases or decreases damage to the crop: the
control. However, these measures are poorly alternative food source could be a decoy food,
accepted by growers, and potentially ineffective produced through habitat manipulation such as
techniques such as electronic ‘scaring’ devices pasture management (either height or species).
and shooting to kill are popular. It is critical to For example, does the manipulation of inter-row
understand the barriers to adoption of some pasture in a vineyard to produce an alternative
techniques and ‘best practice’ and also the food alleviate damage or attract more birds to
perceptions farmers have of bird damage and the crop?
the relative effectiveness of control techniques.
Benefit: A variety of techniques and solutions
These studies need to be conducted by social
available to allow land managers to effectively
scientists trained in the investigation of
and responsibly manage pest birds.
social attitudes and behaviours. Once these
impediments to improved bird management 6. Reconcile legislation and
are identified, new advisory strategies need to responsibilities for pest birds
be developed for growers so that they are well
informed and motivated to implement more Problem: Growers are frustrated when
effective bird control strategies. Such extension attempting to obtain advice from government
strategies may involve demonstration sites to organisations. Objective advice is not always
compare integrated management approaches available and responsibilities are often passed
and provide ‘real world’ evidence of the extent from one organisation to the next.
to which damage can be reduced.
Research need: Responsibility for pest birds is
Benefits: Bird damage control that is more cost- unclear. Agreed responsibilities and improved
efficient and effective. policy mechanisms to manage the impacts of
pest birds are required between agencies. For
5. Develop additional effective, species- example, consistent guidelines are needed for
specific and humane techniques and local councils to deal with conflicts arising from
products that can be used by land the use of scaring devices. Landholders and land
managers occupiers are not required to manage any pest
bird species, unlike the case with other pests of
Problem: There is a lack of effective and humane
agriculture. Consultation and investigation are
solutions for addressing the diversity of pest
required to determine responsibilities, shared
bird problems.
obligations and benefits.
Research need: A variety of practical solutions
Benefits: Smoother management processes.
are required for growers and land managers to
effectively manage pest birds in the range of 7. Improve cooperation between, and
situations in which they occur. Growers are facing commitment from, national and State
increasing restrictions on available techniques and agencies, industry and horticulturists
require alternatives that are effective, humane,
and socially and environmentally acceptable. For Problem: There is an improvised approach to
example, providing alternative foods and decoy investment in the research and management of
plantings — such as pasture management near pest birds.
xii Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

Research need: A national approach incorp– the Import, Movement and Keeping of Exotic
orating pest bird researchers, managers and Vertebrates in Australia’ (Natural Resource
industry is necessary to avoid duplication of Management Standing Committee 2004). In
research, increase the relevance of research for some situations, translocated native birds may
growers; and provide growers with an avenue also pose threats to agriculture. A national
to contribute to the direction of research and approach is necessary to ensure that birds that
development. Engaging industry in setting have significant pest potential in one part of
priorities for bird pest research is a challenge. Australia are not kept under low security in other
regions, where they could escape, establish and
For example, the Western Australian table grape
spread.
industry believes that pest bird problems can
best be solved by netting crops, whereas the Research need: A significant element of the
Western Australian Government would like to see Vertebrate Pests Committee Guidelines for
greater industry involvement in preventing the the Import, Movement and Keeping of Exotic
arrival of starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) in Western Vertebrates in Australia is the risk assessment
Australia through eradication programmes model developed by the Bureau of Rural Sciences
conducted near the border with South Australia (Bomford 2003) which is being continually
(Andrew Woolnough, Department of Agriculture, refined. Bomford’s model evaluates a range
Western Australia, pers. comm. 2005). Longer- of factors for an exotic bird species, including
term projects and a coordinated direction for its climate match to Australia, its history of
research and development are required. establishing exotic populations elsewhere, and
its pest status overseas, to calculate a risk score
Benefits: Outcomes that address issues of low, moderate, serious or extreme. To date
of direct relevance to horticulturists, thus only a small number (approximately 50) of the
improving the rate of adoption of new control exotic bird species that are held in captivity in
techniques. A clear direction of research that Australia have been assessed using Bomford’s
will provide growers with effective, humane and model (see http://www.feral.org.au/content/
environmentally acceptable strategies for the policy/risk_assess_list.cfm ).
management of pest birds.
All exotic bird species currently held in Australia
8. Conduct risk assessments for captive need to be assessed, with the highest priority
birds being given to species considered to be pests
in their overseas range. Risk assessments of
Problem: Introduced non-native birds pose major priority translocated native species may also
threats to Australian agriculture. In addition to be necessary in some circumstances. Increased
the 20 exotic bird species already established in security may be required for species that score
the wild on the Australian mainland (Appendix a serious or extreme risk, as discussed in the
G; Bomford 2003), over 240 exotic species are Vertebrate Pests Committee Guidelines (Natural
known to be legally held in captivity (Vertebrate Resource Management Standing Committee
Pests Committee 2006), including many species 2004). Bird keepers, landowners and the general
held in low-security cages in private aviaries. public also need to be educated about the
Governments have a responsibility to ensure importance of promptly reporting any escapes
that risk assessments are conducted to identify of exotic aviary birds or sightings of unusual
species that pose a high threat of establishing birds in their area.
pest populations if they should be released from
Benefits: Governments can use the risk
captivity, and to ensure that such species are
assessment scores to assist in regulating
either kept out of Australia, or, if they are kept the import, trade and keeping of exotic or
here, are held with appropriate levels of security. translocated native bird species to reduce
To support governments in this role, the Vertebrate the risk that new agricultural pest species will
Pests Committee has published ‘Guidelines for establish wild populations in Australia.
Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops xiii

Introduction
Why produce a pest bird Good decision-making requires the costs and
benefits of different strategies to be estimated
manual?
and compared. Estimates vary because of:
Crop damage caused by pest birds is a significant variations in the species of pest birds; seasonal
problem for many horticultural industries in variations in bird movements and numbers;
Australia. Many growers seek advice on how to variations in land uses in surrounding areas;
address this problem. New types of horticultural differing economic circumstances of individual
crops are being grown, growing practices are growers; variations in the type and value of the
changing, values for horticultural products crop; and differences in growing practices. These
are increasing, and the geographical range of guidelines provide rural managers and advisers
production is expanding. These changes often with best practice approaches to managing
result in expansion of the range and impact of pest damage to horticulture caused by pest birds.
birds. There is a lack of Australian-based advisory They provide scientifically-based information
material to provide growers with the information that State and Territory Government agency
they seek, particularly with regard to the costs and staff can use to develop extension materials.
likely benefits of damage-reduction strategies. Such materials can be used to advise growers on
These guidelines aim to address this need. how to resolve specific bird problems affecting
horticultural industries, using approaches that
Bird damage is an issue that frustrates many
are humane and cost-effective.
growers because of the lack of reliable
information. There are many control techniques, ‘Growers need reliable information on how to
and pest bird control can be expensive. In 2000, assess bird damage in their crops and which
a survey of 30 local grape growers by Sydney pest bird control techniques will work best to
University in the Central Ranges of New South reduce damage.’
Wales found that bird control was costing on
average $500 per hectare per year, with most These guidelines consist of a main document of
techniques failing to adequately protect crops. general principles linked to a series of factsheets
The killing of birds does not necessarily reduce and appendices. They have been written by
crop damage, and associated animal welfare and scientific experts in pest bird management
native species conservation concerns make the who have been selected from agencies around
practice controversial and politically sensitive. Australia. The authors include experienced
Exclusion netting is usually the most effective field officers who are familiar with the practical
strategy, but it is expensive and often is either problems faced by producers.
not practical or cannot be justified given current

Although these guidelines focus specifically on
prices for some crops. As a wide range of netting
the management of bird damage to horticulture,
options and application techniques is available,
the approaches and techniques discussed are
selection of the most appropriate combination
also relevant for addressing other pest bird
can be difficult.
problems.
Growers also face high variability in, and

We define ‘pest birds’ as birds that have a
uncertainty of bird movement and damage. This
negative impact on a valued resource. In some
makes the resolution of bird problems complex.
situations this may include local populations of
Without estimates of probable damage, it is
native species.
difficult to estimate how much effort should be
put into pest bird control.
xiv Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

What these guidelines cover 5. Economic decision-making — describes the
economic principles of pest bird control.
These guidelines cover approaches to addressing This chapter provides economic tools for
bird damage to horticultural crops, including selecting alternative management strategies
tree, vine and berry fruit crops, nursery stock and deciding when to implement them. A
and vegetable crops. Chapter summaries are practical step-by-step guide is presented; it
presented below. allows horticulturists to consider the benefits
and costs of particular activities.
Part A of the guidelines contains the general
principles of pest bird control: 6. Legislation — outlines the current legislative
1. Introduction to ‘Strategic Approach’ — controls relating to pest birds. This chapter
outlines the strategic approach for best considers the implications of legislation
practice management of pest bird problems for horticulturists in making management
in horticulture. The four key steps of this decisions for pest bird control.
approach are outlined.
7. Social and environmental factors affecting
2. Damage caused by pest birds to horticulture bird management options — examines the
— describes the bird species involved and the practice of pest bird control in Australia
type, severity and cost of damage caused. and related legal, social and environmental
issues. This chapter addresses some of the
3. Techniques for measuring and monitoring
more controversial issues relating to current
damage and abundance — details techniques
and proposed approaches to pest bird
for measuring and monitoring bird damage. It
control, such as animal welfare, culling of
is important to estimate the percentage crop
native birds, threats to non-target species
loss, the value (dollars) of damage caused by
from lethal control techniques and noise
birds and the cost of their control, because
pollution from scaring. Some of the social
this enables sound decisions to be made
and practical issues facing horticulturists are
on the appropriate level of investment to
also considered.
reduce bird damage economically. It is also
important to determine which bird species 8. Extension — examines the extension of
cause damage, as well as when and where knowledge about pest bird control to growers
damage occurs, to enable sound decisions so that best practice strategic approaches
to be made on the most appropriate manage are adopted. This chapter considers the
ment strategy. practicalities of dealing with pest bird issues
amongst other management priorities. The
4. Assessment of control techniques — includ
impediments to best practice management
ing: scaring, population reduction (poisoning,
and ways of improving communication
shooting, trapping and fertility control),
between researchers, advisors and growers
habitat manipulation and decoy feeding,
are discussed.
netting (and other forms of exclusion),
chemical repellents and biological control. 9. Case studies — illustrate the principles of
This information will assist growers to the strategic approach to best practice pest
select the pest bird control techniques most bird management. They include examples of
appropriate for their circumstances. successful local and regional approaches to
managing pest bird issues.
Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops xv

10. References — contains references to the Appendix A — lists State and Territory contacts
material in Part A. responsible for pest bird management.
Part B of these guidelines consists of factsheets Appendix B — describes random and systematic
for growers: sampling methods.
Factsheets on pest birds — describes the major Appendix C — lists some of the native plants
species that may be pests in some situations. that attract birds.
Includes for each species: a photograph and
Appendix D —describes the roles of government
description to aid identification; a distribution
agencies and legislation relating to pest birds.
map; description of each species’ habits and
movements, breeding, social organisation, Appendix E — lists the legislation and conditions
preferred habitats and foods; types of damage relating to the destruction of native birds.
caused; and references for further reading.
Appendix F — lists chemicals available for bird
Factsheet on managing the impacts of birds control.
in horticulture provides an overview of the
principles and control techniques for managing Appendix G — lists the scientific names of the
bird pests, and a sample management plan. birds discussed in this manual.
Part C contains the appendices and source Finally, at the end of the manual there is a
materials: glossary.
Note: All money values throughout these guidelines are in 2007 Australian dollars.
xvi Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

PART A
General Principles
Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops 1

1. The ‘strategic approach’
General principles for an optimal approach to 1.1 Define the problem
the strategic management of pest birds are
presented in this chapter. It is unrealistic to be In strategic management, pest bird problems are
too prescriptive for best practice bird control defined by:
in horticultural crops, because of constraints
• the damage caused
imposed by a lack of basic knowledge about
pest birds and their behaviour. Experience also • the risk of damage occurring
indicates that every bird damage situation
• any associated costs
is different and requires local knowledge for
individual growers to make the best management • the species of pest bird present.
decisions.
It is necessary to estimate the percentage crop
Best practice pest bird management involves loss and value (in dollars) of the damage caused
four basic activities: by birds, because this enables sound decisions
to be made on how much effort and/or money it
• define the problem
is reasonable to spend on bird control. Problem
• develop a management plan definition also requires finding out what species
cause damage and when and where damage
• implement the plan
occurs. This information enables good decisions
• monitor and evaluate the results. to be made about where, when and how to
target control efforts.
Evaluation may then feed back to redefine the
problem and/or modify the management plan.
Table 1.1: Strategic approach to managing bird pest damage.
Problem definition Management plan Implementation Monitoring and evaluation

(Section 1.1) (Section 1.2) (Section 1.3) (Section 1.4)
· Who has the problem? · Define objectives · Involve all · Monitor regime
· Who else is involved? · Performance criteria stakeholders (techniques,
(that is, list all · Management options: and coordinate responsibility, timing,
stakeholders) – precautionary activity reporting)
· Is problem real or management · Assess against
perceived? – local eradication performance criteria
· Define and measure – sustained management · Compare techniques
pest impacts: – targeted management over time
– economic – one-off management · Evaluate outcomes
– environmental – no management and reconsider
– social · Allocate management problem definition,
· Prepare information units (what scale is management
in a form that can required for effective plan and/or
be understood by all management?) implementation, as
stakeholders (graphs, · Select management appropriate
maps etc) techniques
· Assign stakeholder
responsibilities
2 Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

1.1.1 Damage these birds. State government agencies regulate
the use of lethal control techniques such as
Techniques for assessing damage are described
shooting and any avicides that may be developed
in Chapter 3.
in the future. State agencies are also involved in
What — Define what crop (variety) and what preventing the spread of some species, such as
parts of a crop are damaged (for example, buds, common starlings in Western Australia. Local
flowers, fruit, shoots), the level of damage, and government is involved in restrictions on some
the effect on crop yields and value of the loss. control techniques, such as the use of noise
generating scaring devices.
When — Define when damage occurs. Find out
when damage first starts and at what stage of 1.1.2 Costs
ripening most damage occurs. For example, bird
In addition to crop losses, costs associated with
damage to cherries is often most severe on early-
pest birds may include:
ripening varieties (Tobin et al. 1991). Information
on how damage varies between years is also • the cost of control techniques;
important. • negative impacts of control measures — for

example, animal welfare concerns or killing
Where — It is important to find out the spatial
of non-target species (particularly those
pattern of damage. For example, whether
that benefit production);
damage occurs uniformly throughout a crop,
• opportunity costs — if a crop is not grown
is patchily distributed over a crop, or is most
(or a less profitable type of crop is grown)
severe on the outside edges. Observations on
because of bird damage risk, or if a crop
where damage occurs in relation to specific
has to be harvested early due to heavy bird
habitats, for example proximity to windbreaks
predation resulting in loss of quality and
or structures such as powerlines, can help in
quantity of produce;
making good management decisions.
• disease or weed establishment or spread
Who — Deciding who owns a bird damage by birds (Figures 1.1; 1.2); and
problem is important, because this is the person
• off-site effects — for example, complaints
or agency that has responsibility for managing
about noise pollution from scaring devices,
it. Generally it will be the grower whose crop
or an increase in problems on neighbouring
is damaged, but when a mobile bird species is
properties when there is poor bird control
involved it may be best for a group of neighbours
on one property, or poor management on a
to jointly address a problem, or birds may simply
property attracting pest birds, which then
be moved from one property to another. Both
move onto neighbouring properties.
government and private extension officers may
help growers to coordinate control actions.
Growers may believe that the government
should do more to help with control of bird
damage, but governments rarely have such legal
responsibility. Exceptions include when rare
or endangered species damage crops and are
potentially targeted for control: in such cases
government will have a responsibility to protect

1.1.3 Species
It is necessary to identify which bird species
cause damage, so that control can be directed
at those species (see Part B for information on
identifying bird species, and Chapters 2 and 3
for information on monitoring damage). Not
all bird species present will damage fruit, and
no control techniques will be effective against
all species. Similarly, different bird species may
cause damage in different years, depending on
environmental factors such as pollen production
in native trees or fluctuations in food resources
because of drought. Information on types of
damage, such as whether small pecks are taken
from fruit or whether whole fruit or whole
bunches are removed, will often help identify the
bird species responsible.
Figure 1.1: Silvereye feeding on small-leaved

privet (Ligustrum sinense) in the NSW central
1.2 Develop a
coast region. Birds contribute to the spread management plan
of privet, which is declared in New South Once the problem has been defined, there are
Wales, Queensland, Western Australia and the three steps in developing a management plan:
Australian Capital Territory.
• define management objectives and perfor
Photo: N. Lazarus.
mance indicators;
• select an appropriate management option;
and
• formulate a management strategy.
1.2.1 Define management objectives and

performance indicators
The objectives of pest bird control are to:
• prevent damage caused by pest birds or

reduce bird damage to an acceptable
level;
• produce economic benefits; and
• use the most effective, least objectionable
and safest methods.
These objectives are best described in terms

of outcomes that can be measured against
milestones or target dates, as defined by
performance indicators.
Figure 1.2: A feral olive in fruit. Birds feed on the
Defining the objectives in terms of measurable
fruit, contributing to the spread of olives as a
performance indicators enables the assessment
weed in Australia.
of whether the objectives of control are being
Photo: R. Sinclair.
achieved. Objectives should not be defined

solely in terms of the effort made to control In addition, when bird numbers are low,
birds. This is because there is no guarantee they will cause less damage and there
that increased effort actually results in reduced may be little incentive to get the last few.
levels of bird damage. Case studies (Chapter 9) Eradication of established populations
provide examples of useful performance criteria. of pest species is often prohibitively
Appropriate performance indicators are those expensive and impractical (Bomford and
that are measurable and are related directly to O’Brien 1995). However, limiting the spread
the problem, such as ‘reduce damage to less of exotic species can be an effective way
of preventing serious future impacts. Refer
than 5%’. Inappropriate performance indicators
to Chapter 9 — Case studies 9.1 and 9.2 for
are those that solely measure control effort,
examples of this management option.
such as ‘the number of days spent shooting’, ‘the
number of birds killed’ or ‘the number of control • Strategic one-off control — implementing
devices put in a crop’. These are poor choices, as a single management action that has a
the control effort or the number of birds killed long-term effect. A good example relevant
to birds is the erection of permanent
may have no relationship with the reduction
netting (Chapter 9 — Case study 9.8).
in damage (but a lot to do with the feeling of
This is expensive and requires careful
‘doing something’).
cost–benefit calculations (Chapter 5),
‘Appropriate performance indicators are but it is often worthwhile for high-value
those that are measurable and are related crops. Another example is the release of
directly to the problem, such as reducing a biocontrol agent, but none is currently
damage to less than 5%.’ available for birds (Section 4.6).
• Strategic sustained control — a manage
Factors such as safety and social acceptability
ment strategy that requires a sustained
need to be considered. For example, noisy or effort over an extended period of time to
dangerous control methods can cause injury or reduce crop damage. For example, the
poor relationships with neighbours. Measures to objective might be to reduce birds to low
prevent such potential negative impacts may be numbers and keep them low by regular
considered. culling. Significantly reducing numbers
of mobile bird species may not be a
1.2.2 Select a management option practical choice, for the same reasons that
The next step is to decide on the best eradication is rarely achieved. If, however,
management option to meet the objective(s). control is aimed at a resident population of
There are six possibilities to consider: a species that is not very mobile, it might
• Eradication — permanently eliminating the be possible to lower numbers sufficiently
entire population of the pest species in a to reduce crop damage to acceptable
defined area. This option is inappropriate levels. Population reduction may need to
for native bird species. Eradication of be achieved over a large area to make it
exotic pest bird species is rarely feasible worthwhile. Cooperation with neighbours
because of factors such as mobility, may be necessary if property sizes are
abundance, widespread distribution, small. An example of strategic sustained
ability to breed prolifically and (most control may be a culling programme
importantly) cost. In assessing eradication throughout the year for locally sedentary
as a management option it is necessary to species such as European blackbirds
consider the law of diminishing returns. The (Turdus merula) or house sparrows (Passer
first 70%–80% of birds might be relatively domesticus). Another example is the use
easy to remove, but the last 20%–30% will of scaring techniques at all times when
be much harder. The last 1%–10% may be the crop is vulnerable to bird damage,
impossible to remove, or (if they can be irrespective of whether it is a ‘good’ or a
taken) the cost is likely to be prohibitive. ‘bad’ bird season (Case study 9.7).

• Strategic targeted control — control imp • Do nothing — a viable economic option
lemented only when conditions indicate if the cost of control exceeds the benefits
that it is desirable. Birds are controlled only achieved. An example is an orchard situated
when the risk of damage is high. Applying close to a residential area where damage is
‘drape-over’ or ‘side’ exclusion netting low and scaring devices cannot be used.
(Figure 1.3) when damage is expected The only technical solution available is
to be severe, or using scaring devices permanent netting, which costs more than
strategically as fruit is reaching maturity, the savings it would bring from reduced
are examples of strategic targeted control damage (Case study 9.9). Another example
(Case studies 9.3, 9.4, 9.5 and 9.9). is where a vineyard or orchard is so large
• Crisis management — control applied that bird damage is insignificant compared
reactively with no forward planning. This with the amount of fruit harvested. This
is the most common form of pest bird occurs in the large apple-growing areas
control, with little or no action taken until of Hawke’s Bay, New Zealand, or in large
damage reaches an unacceptable level. vineyards in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation
Unfortunately, by this time pest birds have Area of New South Wales, which typically
usually developed behavioural feeding suffer insignificant levels of bird damage
patterns and damage control is often compared with isolated orchards (Case
difficult. studies 9.6 and 9.9).
Figure 1.3: Side exclusion netting in a vineyard, an example of strategic targeted control.
Photo: R. Sinclair.

When selecting the best management option and devising when and how they will be used.
from the list above, consider the following: A wide range of control techniques is available
(Chapter 4). These rely mainly on deterrence
• crop type, value, location and size;
(scaring), population reduction, habitat and/or
• levels and pattern of expected bird damage
crop management, and exclusion. They are used
(risk);
either alone or in combination. To select the
• bird species causing damage and their most appropriate techniques to use, consider the
numbers; following factors (see Table 1.2 for an example of
• neighbouring land uses and bird numbers; a selection matrix):
• control techniques available and their effec

Is it technically possible? For example, habitat
tiveness, cost, legality, humaneness and
manipulation to deter birds from roosting
social acceptability (Section 1.2.3; Chapter
or sheltering might not be feasible in crops
4); and
adjacent to native vegetation. Shooting, for
• available expertise in the use of control lethal control or deterrence, requires the use of
techniques. a registered firearm and the operator must have
an appropriate gun licence, but many farmers
If native species are involved, the grower is
have neither.
generally required to obtain a destruction
permit (Appendix E). This permit will allow the Will it work? The effectiveness of control
grower to reduce bird numbers when the crop is techniques varies greatly. For example, testing
most vulnerable to damage, and to improve the has shown that many scaring devices are
effectiveness of scaring devices. However, the largely ineffective in the longer-term, whereas
permit most likely will not allow the grower to permanent netting can be 100% effective
destroy protected species beyond the property (Chapter 4).
boundary. Issues such as this are likely to restrict
the management options available to growers Is it economically feasible? What level of
who have infestations of native pest birds. damage can be sustained and how do the costs
and benefits compare (Chapter 5)?
In orchards and vineyards, the best management
option for high-value crops sustaining consist Is the scale of the control programme feasible to
ently high levels of damage may be investment achieve the desired outcomes? Considering the
in ‘drape-over’ netting or the use of permanent scale of a control or management programme for
netting as a strategic one-off control option. pest birds is essential for success. For example,
For lower-value crops, or for crops unsuitable a habitat restoration programme to offer
alternative food for honeyeaters (Meliphagidae)
for netting, the best option is usually strategic
will require a regional approach; or preventing
targeted control. This involves implementing
the establishment of starlings in new areas will
control when damage risk is high. If the main pest
require a State or national programme.
species are resident species, such as sparrows
or common mynas (Acridotheres tristis), then Is it environmentally acceptable? Control tech
strategic sustained control to reduce resident niques may have significant non-target impacts,
populations may be appropriate. The process of especially if poisons are used. Chemical repellents
selecting management options and strategies can leave residues in fruit (Chapter 7).
for a range of situations is demonstrated by the
case studies in Chapter 9. Is it legally and socially acceptable? What are
the legal implications of the control method with
1.2.3 Select control techniques and respect to the destruction of native species, use
formulate a management strategy of firearms, animal welfare, chemical registration,
This step requires selecting the most appropriate or pollution and noise control? What are the poss
control techniques to suit the circumstances ible impacts on neighbours (Chapters 6 and 7)?

Is expertise available to use the preferred con At this point, reassess the objectives and
trol techniques effectively? Some techniques performance indicators to see if it will be
require expert assistance or considerable training feasible and practicable to meet them using
to ensure cost-effectiveness. the selected techniques. If this is not the case,
it will be necessary to redefine the performance
An example of the decision-making process
indicators or consider the use of alternative
used in formulating a management strategy is
control techniques.
provided in Table 1.2. The feasibility of different
management strategies may vary considerably If more than one technique is to be used, the
over time; with changing public attitudes; with management plan needs to specify how they
additional information; and between individual are to be integrated and the areas and times to
growers, locations and industries.
Table 1.2: Example of a matrix used to examine management techniques against feasibility and
acceptability criteria in horticultural crops (after Bomford 1988). Note that this table is an example
only: the feasibility of different management strategies may vary considerably over time; with
changing public attitudes; with additional information; and between individual growers, locations and
industries. Question marks highlight uncertainties associated with some techniques due to a lack of
rigorous experimental studies.
Feasibility/acceptability criteria
Politically/
Practically Socially
Economically Environ- legally
Control option Technically Will it feasible accept-
desirable mentally acceptable
possible work? (growers’ able
(cost–benefit) acceptable (State/
resources) (local)
Federal)
Grow
another crop Yes Yes No No? Yes Yes Yes
Grow
decoy crop Yes Yes? Yes No? Yes Yes Yes
Predators
and disease No ? ? ? ? ? ?
Harvest date Yes Yes? Yes No? Yes Yes Yes
Harvest
technique Yes Yes? Yes ? Yes Yes Yes
Alternative
foods Yes ? No? No? Yes Yes Yes
Shooting Yes No? Yes No? Yes? No? Yes?
Prevent
access, netting Yes Yes Yes ? Yes Yes Yes
Repellents Yes ? No ? ? ? ?
Deterrents,
acoustic Yes Sometimes Yes ? Yes Yes Yes?
Deterrents,
visual Yes Sometimes Yes ? Yes Yes Yes
Poisons No ? Yes ? ? ? ?
Replanting or
transplanting Yes No? No? No? Yes Yes Yes
Exclusion
netting Yes Yes ? ? Yes Yes Yes

be targeted by each technique. Similarly, if more then modify the management plan or control
than one crop or more than one property is to actions if necessary (Figure 1.4).
be treated, the management plan needs to give
details of which techniques will be used, when, 1.4.1 Monitoring
where and how they will be combined, and who The ultimate goal of pest bird management
will implement them. should be to achieve the most cost-effective
reduction in impact on a valued resource. This
1.3 Implement the management means that best practice pest bird management
plan is about maximising the economic returns from

an investment in control effort. Determining
When the management plan is complete, imple whether this goal is being reached requires
mentation can start. monitoring on a number of levels. The ultimate
measure of the success of a pest management
If more than one person is involved in im
programme is its cost–benefit relationship
plementing the management plan, good
(Chapter 5). Measuring control costs is a relativ
communication among all participants is
ely straightforward exercise; measuring benefits
essential. Each person needs to know what
in the form of reduced damage is usually more
their roles and responsibilities are. Measures
difficult (Chapter 3).
are needed to ensure that participants maintain
commitment and enthusiasm. For example, good
communication and regular monitoring (Chapter
3) will ensure that the rewards for efforts are
seen, and this, in turn, will help to maintain high
levels of motivation.
Cooperative action with neighbours may be

required to effectively implement a management
plan. The type and scale of a pest bird problem
and the management option selected will
determine the level of cooperation required.
Scaring of birds in one crop will usually just move
them to a neighbouring crop unless cooperative
action is taken. Manipulation of habitat (for
example, by decoy feeding) or population
reduction by shooting will often need to be
taken on by a group of neighbouring properties
to be effective.
1.4 Monitor and evaluate

Monitoring and evaluation are often the most
forgotten aspects of management programmes.
Once performance indicators have been set to
define the desired level of achievement against
the management objectives, the programme
needs to be monitored to determine how well Figure 1.4: Estimating and recording bird
the performance indicators are being met. This damage to grapes. Bird damage must be
gives an opportunity to evaluate the level of monitored so that control programmes can be
success, estimate the costs and benefits, and evaluated. Photo: B. Mitchell.

Some specific issues associated with the two may be more cost-effective overall for a grower
main levels of monitoring are discussed below. to select a technique with high up-front costs
Monitoring is a fundamental part of the strategic but minimal ongoing labour requirements: for
approach, rather than something that is tacked example, the use of permanent netting rather
onto the end of a management programme. than an apparently cheaper but more labour-
Monitoring is required to define the problem. intensive and less effective approach, such as
An ongoing monitoring strategy should be a key scaring, or even temporary netting. The time
component of the management plan. Because saved over the life of the permanent netting may
our understanding of birds and reducing their be spent on other activities that bring greater
impact is incomplete, management approaches benefits.
will often be a ‘best guess’. Monitoring provides
Monitoring and comparison of the annual costs
the information needed to reduce the guesswork
of different management approaches are also
in determining how and when to repeat control
complicated by the differing service lives of
and constantly improve the effectiveness of
the various equipment and materials involved
management.
(for example, different net types). There is a
There are two components to monitoring: oper resultant need to consider the discount rates
ational monitoring and performance monitoring. (see glossary) associated with current costs,
which are averaged out over a number of years
Operational monitoring aims to evaluate the
into the future. Chapter 5 explains this issue in
efficiency of the control programme. Labour,
more detail.
materials, transport and any other control costs
need to be recorded. For example, records Performance monitoring aims to determine
are needed of the costs of purchasing netting, how well the implemented management plan
setting it up and maintaining and storing it. performs in meeting the objectives as defined by
This information is used to assess whether the the performance criteria. This is usually a measure
operation is running smoothly and efficiently and of damage levels and lost production caused by
whether or not the costs compare favourably birds (Chapter 3). When comparisons are made
with the economic returns. in damage levels before and after a management
plan is implemented, or between places with and
The costs of bird control include the costs of
without bird control, it is important that the same
planning, purchase, construction and running
methods are used to measure damage levels.
of equipment and materials, and labour time.
Pest managers often leave out an important It is important to consider which bird species
component when assessing the cost–benefit are causing the most damage on a property
relationships of different management approa (Sections 2.2 and 2.3). This allows growers to
ches: their time, existing equipment and running focus appropriate monitoring and management
costs like fuel. Even if a person conducting bird strategies on these species. A count of the
control is not on a salary, there is an opportunity number of birds can also be used instead of
cost if time is spent on bird control activities at monitoring damage, although there are a number
the expense of alternative activities that have of issues that need to be considered (Chapter 3).
financial benefits. Hence it is usually appropriate The factsheets in Part B describe the main pest
to estimate a dollar value for time spent on bird bird species and their potential impacts.
control. Some pest control strategies are cheap
Chapter 3 describes in detail the techniques used
in terms of equipment and materials, but very
for measuring and monitoring damage. Random
labour intensive. For example, a grower needs to
or systematic sampling (Appendix B) of crops
consider whether the benefit derived from driv
for damage may provide a good assessment,
ing around shooting and scaring birds is greater
particularly if the damage occurs mainly when
than that derived from alternative activities. It

the crop is nearly mature and measurements problem (Chapter 4). Poor implementation can
represent actual losses rather than losses that sometimes result from unforeseen events or
may be compensated for during development catastrophes (for example, nets may collapse or
or ripening. There must be sufficient random blow away), even though the current strategy is
sampling to account for the patchiness of bird basically sound.
impact. Measured reductions in damage that
Action: Obtain expert independent advice on
occur as a result of bird control allow the benefits
the implementation of control techniques. When
of the control activity to be quantified.
something unforeseen has happened, the curr
1.4.2 Evaluation ent strategy may need adjusting to encompass
the new information. Alternatively, the current
Evaluation of monitoring information allows
strategy can be kept on the assumption that the
management changes to be made both within
catastrophe will not happen again.
and between seasons. At the most reactive level,
monitoring the effect of scaring devices on bird The perceived problem was correct but the
activity will allow immediate changes to be made management plan was not cost-effective.
to improve or maintain effectiveness. At a more
strategic level, the option of purchasing netting is This may occur either when the costs of an
an expensive and long-term decision. Therefore, effective control are not justifiable, given the
impact evaluation over several seasons may be value of the protected crop, or when the actions
required to determine whether the expense will did not achieve the desired management goals.
be justified.
Action: Obtain expert advice to determine
Evaluation of the ‘Strategic Approach’ will give whether there are likely to be cheaper and/or
rise to one of the following possibilities: more effective approaches. In some cases, if
damage is low and/or sporadic or the value of
The perceived problem was correct. The man- the crop is low, the most cost-effective option
agement plan and its implementation were may be to do nothing. Consider new control
cost-effective and optimal given the range of techniques as they become available, and decide
control techniques currently available. whether they are likely to improve the cost–
benefit of management.
Action: Continue with current strategy but
continue to monitor bird activity and damage to The perceived problem was incorrect.
determine whether the control effort needs to
be changed (increased to increase or maintain This may occur when the most obvious or
effectiveness; or decreased to save money numerous birds are targeted but they are not the
and/or time). To see whether the management species doing the most damage.
strategy can be further improved, consider new
Action: Focus monitoring to clarify which birds
control techniques as they become available.
are causing the most damage and revise the
The perceived problem was correct and the management plan accordingly.
management plan appropriate, but implemen-
The problem with pest bird management, in
tation was poor.
contrast to the management of some other pest
This is a common problem with pest animal animals in Australia such as rabbits, is the large
management, and the control techniques are number of species that can become a problem,
often blamed when it is their implementation as well as their mobility (Figure 1.5) and the
that is actually at fault. Note, however, that unpredictability of their activity within and
some commercial pest bird control products between seasons. Hence a management strategy
are fundamentally ineffective, despite manu that is appropriate now may not be appropriate
facturers’ claims that implementation is the in following seasons. This may occur if there

Figure 1.5: A flock of starlings in flight. Starlings, like many bird species, congregate in large,
very mobile flocks, making control more difficult than for other pest animals. Hence adaptive
management is even more important for pest bird management than for other pest species.
Photo: J. Tracey.
are changes in surrounding habitat or seasonal ment’ (Walters and Holling 1990) is more critical
conditions that change bird activity. Permanent for pest bird management than for management
exclusion netting avoids this uncertainty but of other pest animals. Adaptive management
may not be cost effective unless monitoring has is where different management options can be
shown that bird impact is usually high. For other implemented so that their effectiveness can be
control techniques, ongoing monitoring and monitored, evaluated and compared and the
evaluation is essential, even if the initial strategies knowledge gained can be used to improve future
are successful. The concept of ‘adaptive manage management.

2. Damage caused by
pest birds to horticulture
2.1 Susceptible crops although the level of damage is mostly unknown.
Locally significant damage is recorded to some
Many horticultural crops in Australia are sus vegetable crops, including sweet potatoes,
ceptible to bird damage (Table 2.1). Almost all peas, beans and lettuce. Locally significant
fruit crops are potentially at risk, and significant bird damage can also be caused to floriculture,
levels of damage have been reported to table particularly proteas and banksias grown for the
and wine grapes; apples, pears and other pome cut flower market.
fruit; stone fruit and cherries; mandarins and
other citrus; blueberries, strawberries and other Table 2.2 outlines the production value of some
soft fruits, bananas, pineapples, paw paws, of these industries. Figure 2.1 illustrates the key
lychees, carambolas and other tropical fruits. areas of horticultural production in Australia.
Damage is also reported to walnuts, hazelnuts, Figure 2.2 illustrates the key areas of viticultural
almonds, chestnuts, macadamias and pistachios, production.
Figure 2.1: Key areas of

horticultural production in Australia
by Statistical Local Area.
Source: Australian Bureau of
Statistics 2001.
Figure 2.2: Key areas of viticultural production

in Australia by Statistical Local Area.
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2001.

Table 2.1: Levels of damage to horticulture and main bird species causing damage. Level of damage is classified as Low (L), Medium (M), Serious (S) or Very
14
Serious (VS), derived from information in HANZAB, Sinclair and Bird 1987, Fleming et al. 1990, Massam 1990, Bomford 1992, Lim et al. 1993, Porter et al. 1994,
St John 1994, ENRC 1995, Curtin and Kingsford 1997, Olsen 2000, Bomford and Sinclair 2002, Forshaw and Cooper 2002, Tracey and Saunders 2003, the
National Pest Bird Survey and information in Section 2.3. Superscripts indicate legal status: Endangered or Threatened (t), Protected (p), Locally Unprotected
(lup) and Introduced (i). State is where damage has been reported.
fruit
Fruit1
Cherries
Stone fruit
Pome fruit
Citrus
Grapes
Tropical
Berries
Nuts
Flowers
Olives
Vegetables
Common name State
Anatidae (ducks)
p
Grey teal L NSW
Pacific black duck p M L National
Australian wood duck p L L L National
Black swan p L TAS, VIC
Anseranatidae (magpie geese)
p
Magpie goose M L L NT, QLD, WA, NSW, VIC
Cacatuidae (cockatoos)
lup
Sulphur-crested cockatoo VS S VS VS M S S S VS M M NSW, ACT, TAS, VIC, QLD, SA
p
Major Mitchell’s cockatoo M M M M VIC
lup
Little corella S S S M S VS NSW, QLD, SA, VIC, WA
Long-billed corella lup S S S M VIC, SA, NSW, ACT, WA
p
Gang-gang cockatoo M M M M VIC, TAS, NSW, ACT
p
Red-tailed black-cockatoo L L NSW, ACT, NT, QLD
Baudin’s cockatoo t, p S S M WA
Yellow-tailed black-cockatoo p S S M NSW, ACT, TAS, SA
p
Short-billed black-cockatoo M M M WA
lup
Galah S S S S VS NSW, ACT, SA, VIC, QLD, NT
Corvidae (crows and ravens)
lup
Crow/raven VS S S S S S S VS S S National
Cracticinae (currawongs)
Pied currawong p S M M M VS M M S NSW, ACT, TAS
p
Black currawong M L M M M M L NSW, TAS
Grey currawong p M M M M M M L NSW, TAS, SA

1 A combined classification for cherries, stonefruit, pome fruit, citrus, grapes, tropical fruit and berries.
fruit
Fruit1
Cherries
Stone fruit
Pome fruit
Citrus
Grapes
Tropical
Berries
Nuts
Flowers
Olives
Vegetables
Common name State
Dicaeidae (mistletoe birds)

Mistletoe bird p L L NSW
Fringillidae (finches and allies)
European goldfinch i L L NSW, ACT
European greenfinch i L L VIC, SA, TAS, NSW, ACT
Megapodiidae (brush turkeys)
Australian brush turkey p L L L L M NSW, QLD
Meliphagidae (honeyeaters)
p
Spiny-cheeked honeyeater L L NSW
lup
Red wattlebird VS S S S VS S S NSW, ACT, QLD, SA
p
Blue-faced honeyeater S M M S NSW, ACT, QLD
p
Yellow faced honeyeater S S NSW, ACT, WA
p
White-plumed honeyeater L L M NSW, ACT
p
Yellow-throated miner S S National (except TAS)
Noisy miner p VS VS VIC, NSW, QLD, TAS, SA

p
Lewin’s honeyeater L L L L QLD
p
Noisy friarbird VS S S S VS M S NSW, QLD
p
New Holland honeyeater L L S NSW, SA
Muscicapidae (Old World flycatchers)
Common blackbird i VS S M M VS M M M NSW, ACT, TAS, SA
Song thrush i L L VIC
Oriolidae (orioles)
Yellow oriole p M M QLD, NT, WA
p
Olive-backed oriole S S QLD, NSW, ACT, VIC, NT, WA
Figbird p S QLD, NSW, ACT, NT, WA, VIC, TAS
Pachycephalinae
Pachycephalinae
(cuckoo (cuckoo
shrikes) shrikes)
p
Black-faced cuckoo-shrike S S M National
Passerinae (sparrows, grassfinches)
i
House sparrow S M M M S S S NSW, ACT, TAS, VIC, SA, QLD
lup
Zebra finch L L SA
15
16
fruit
Fruit1
Cherries
Stone fruit
Pome fruit
Citrus
Grapes
Tropical
Berries
Nuts
Flowers
Olives
Vegetables
Common name State
Psittacidae (parrots)
Australian king parrot p L L L NSW, QLD, VIC
Australian ringneck p S M S S S M M L WA, SA, NT
Pale-headed rosella p M M M M M M QLD, NSW
Green rosella p M M M M M TAS
p
Adelaide rosella VS S S VS M S M M SA
Crimson rosella p VS S VS VS VS M M M NSW, ACT, VIC, QLD
p
Yellow rosella M L M L M L M NSW, SA, VIC
Eastern rosella p VS M S S VS M NSW, ACT, TAS, VIC, QLD, SA
Western rosella p S M S S S M WA
p
Regent parrot L L L WA, SA, VIC
Red-capped parrot p L L L M WA
Superb parrot t, p L L NSW
Red-winged parrot p L L L NT
p
Scaly-breasted lorikeet VS S S S M VS S QLD, NSW
Rainbow lorikeet lup VS S S S L VS VS S M M NSW, SA, VIC, QLD, NT, WA
Musk lorikeet p S M M M S L L L VIC, NSW, ACT, SA, TAS, QLD
Ptilinorhynchidae (bowerbirds)
Spotted bowerbird p L M M M QLD
Great bowerbird p S VS S M NT, QLD, WA
p
Satin bowerbird M L L S S M NSW
p
Regent bowerbird L L L L QLD
Rallidae (rails, coots)
Purple swamphen p M S QLD, WA
Sturnidae (starlings and allies)
Common myna i S S S VIC, NSW, ACT, QLD
p
Metallic starling L M QLD
Common starling i VS VS VS VS VS VS VS ACT, NSW, TAS, VIC, SA, QLD
Zosteropidae (white-eyes)
Silvereye lup VS VS VS VS VS VS VS VIC, NSW, ACT, WA, TAS, SA, QLD

Table 2.2: Gross value of horticultural and wine grape production ($million) in Australia.
Total Australia
Item
2002-03 2003-04 2004-05
Fruit and nuts 2,216.1 2,183.8 2,546.9
Table grapes and dried vine fruit grapes 225.3 197.7 219.6
Nursery production 787.8 800.8 768.2
Vegetables 2,125.6 2,355.5 2,133.5
Horticulture total value 5,354.8 5,537.8 5,668.2
Wine grapes 1,145.5 1,491.1 1,288.6
Wine grape production (kt) 1,329.6 1,816.6 1,818.4
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS).
2.2 Bird species ‘Over 60 bird species are regarded as pests to

horticulture in Australia.’
Many bird species, including both native and
introduced species, are responsible for damage Table 2.3 lists over 60 bird species that are
to horticultural crops (see factsheets in Part B). regarded as pests to horticulture in Australia.
Of the introduced birds in Australia, starlings are These species have varied movements, distri
the most serious and widespread agricultural bution, breeding seasons and feeding strategies
pest, causing high levels of damage to fruit, (Table 2.3), all of which are important to consider
particularly grapes, olives and stone fruit. Other when implementing management. Management
serious introduced pests of horticulture are strategies targeted to particular species will be
European blackbirds, sparrows and the myna. more effective. For example, control impacting
Native species, including silvereyes (Zosterops on insectivorous birds may be counterproductive,
lateralis), honeyeaters and several psittacine and control not only when the crop is susceptible
(cockatoos, corellas, galahs and rosellas) and to damage may be more appropriate for resident
Corvidae (crow and raven) species, can also species. With few exceptions, native bird species
cause severe damage to a range of horticultural are protected by legislation (Chapter 6) and
crops. most may be destroyed only under a permit
(Section 6.1).

18
Table 2.3: Pest birds of horticulture: preferred foods, feeding behaviour, movements, breeding times and legal status: For consistency, the categories of Loyn
(1985) and MacNally (1994) were used where possible for preferred food and feeding behaviour. Movements: Sedentary (S), Nomadic (N), Migratory (M).
Superscripts indicate legal status: Endangered or Threatened (t), Protected (p), Locally Unprotected (lup) and Introduced (i).
Common name Preferred food Feeding behaviour Movements Breeding
Anatidae (ducks)
Grey teal p Dabbling S, N Jan-Dec
Pacific black duck p Aquatic plants; seeds, pasture, invertebrates Dabbling, grazing S, N Mar-May, Jul-Oct
Australian wood duck p Grazing S, N Jan-Mar, Aug-Oct

p
Black swan Aquatic plants & pasture Dabbling, grazing S, N Feb-Apr, Jun-Sep
Anseranatidae (magpie geese)
Magpie goose p Aquatic plants & pasture Dabbling, grazing N Mar-May
Cacatuidae (cockatoos)
Sulphur-crested cockatoo lup Seeds, fruits, invertebrates Granivore N, S July-Dec

p
Major Mitchell’s cockatoo Granivore S May-Nov
Seeds of grasses; shoots, flowers, invertebrates
Little corella lup Ground granivory N, S May-Oct
Long-billed corella lup Seeds close to ground; some invertebrates Ground granivory N Aug-Oct
p
Gang-gang cockatoo Granivore S, N Nov-Jan
Red-tailed Black-cockatoo p Seeds, fruits, invertebrates Granivore N Mar-Dec
Baudin’s cockatoo t, p Granivore N Sept-Dec
Yellow-tailed black-cockatoo p Granivore N May-Jan

Seeds of trees & shrubs, invertebrates
p
Short-billed black cockatoo Granivore N May-Jan
lup
Galah Seeds close to ground; some invertebrates Granivore N, S Feb-May, Aug-Nov
Corvidae (crows and ravens)
Crow/raven lup Grain, fruit, insects, small animals, eggs, refuse, carrion Extensive N Jul-Oct

Cracticinae (currawongs)
Pied currawong p Extensive N Sep-Nov

p Extensive
Black currawong Fruit, insects, small animals, eggs, refuse, carrion N Sep-Nov
Extensive
Grey currawong p N Sep-Nov
Dicaeidae (mistletoe birds)
Mistletoe bird p Fruit, nectar and invertebrates Foliage searcher S? Oct-Jan
Fringillidae (finches and allies)
European goldfinch i Seeds close to ground; some invertebrates Ground searching S Sep-Nov
European greenfinch i Seeds, fruit, flowers, nectar, invertebrates Ground searching N, S Oct-Jan
Megapodiidae (brush turkeys)
Australian brush turkey p Grain, fruit, insects, small animals, eggs, refuse, carrion Ground searching S Aug-mid Feb
Meliphagidae (honeyeaters)
Spiny-cheeked honeyeater p Nectarivore N Jul-Feb

Nectar, invertebrates, plant or insect exudates
lup
Red wattlebird Nectarivore S Jul-Feb

p
Blue-faced honeyeater Invertebrates, nectar, fruit, some seeds Hawker M Jul-Jan
Yellow-faced honeyeater p Foliage searcher M Jul-Jan

White-plumed honeyeater p Nectarivore N, S Jul-Jan
p
Yellow-throated miner Wood & foliage searcher S Jul-Jan
Invertebrates, nectar, fruit, some seeds
p
Noisy miner Wood searcher S Jun-Jan
Lewin’s honeyeater p Fruit, nectar and invertebrates Wood searcher N Aug-Jan
Noisy friarbird p Nectarivore N, M Aug-Jan

p
New Holland honeyeater Nectarivore M Mar-May, Jul-Jan
Muscicapidae (Old World flycatchers)
Common blackbird i Ground searching S Aug-Feb

Invertebrates from short grass swords, fruit and litter
Song thrush i Ground searching S Aug-Feb
19
20
Oriolidae (orioles)
Yellow oriole p Foliage searcher S, N Aug-Jan

p
Olive-backed oriole Fruit, nectar and invertebrates Wood & foliage searcher M Aug-Jun
p
Figbird Wood & foliage searcher M Sep-Feb
Pachycephalinae (cuckoo shrikes)
Black-faced cuckoo-shrike p Invertebrates and fruit Wood searcher M Aug-Jan
Passerinae (sparrows, grassfinches)
House sparrow i Grain and seeds, fruit, insects, refuse Ground searching S Sep-Feb
lup
Zebra finch Seeds of trees & shrubs, invertebrates Ground searching N Oct-Mar
Psittacidae (parrots)
Australian king parrot p Granivore S Oct-Dec
Australian ringneck p Granivore S Mar-May, Sep-Dec
Pale-headed rosella p Granivore S, N Apr-Jun, Oct-Dec

p
Green rosella Granivore S Nov-Jan
p
Adelaide rosella Seeds, fruits, invertebrates Granivore S Oct-Dec
Crimson rosella p Granivore S Oct-Dec
Yellow rosella p Granivore S Oct-Dec

p
Eastern rosella Granivore S Sep-Dec
p
Western rosella Granivore S Sep-Nov
Regent parrot p Granivore N, S Sep-Dec
Red-capped parrot p Granivore S Sep-Nov

p
Seeds, fruit, flowers, nectar, invertebrates
Red-winged parrot Foliage searcher N May-Jul, Sep-Dec
t, p
Superb parrot Seeds, fruit, flowers, blossom, invertebrates Granivore N Sep-Nov
Scaly-breasted lorikeet p Foliage searcher N Jul-Nov
Rainbow lorikeet lup Nectar, pollen, fruit, seeds, insects Foliage searcher M, N Sep-Nov

p
Musk lorikeet Foliage searcher M, N Sep-Nov
Ptilinorhynchidae (Bowerbirds)
Spotted bowerbird p Forest searcher S Sep-Jan

p
Great bowerbird Forest searcher S Oct-Feb
Fruit, invertebrates, herbage
Satin bowerbird p Forest searcher S Oct-Feb
Regent bowerbird p Forest searcher S Oct-Jan
Rallidae (Rails, coots)
Purple swamphen p Diverse vegetation and invertebrates Ground searching N Jan-Dec
Sturnidae (Starlings and allies)

Ground & bush
Common myna i Grain and seeds, fruit, insects, refuse S Aug-Mar
searching
p
Metallic starling Fruit, nectar and invertebrates Foliage searcher M Aug-Jan
i
Ground & bush
Common starling Insects, grain and seeds, fruit, refuse S, N Aug-Apr
searching
Zosteropidae (White-eyes)
Silvereye lup Fruit, nectar and invertebrates Wood & foliage searcher M, N Aug-Feb

21
2.3 Types and costs of damage
Birds cause losses to horticulture by damaging
or removing shoots, stems, foliage, buds or
fruit; by damaging infrastructure (Figure 2.3),
including irrigation systems; or by secondary
spoilage through infection with moulds, yeasts or
bacteria or through insect damage (Figure 2.4).
Some secondary diseases (which occur after
the skin of the fruit is damaged), such as ‘sour
rot’ or Botrytis cinerea infection (Figure 2.5),
can devastate fruit, particularly in cool climates.
The presence of pecked and partly damaged
fruit can result in significant penalties for quality
downgrades and can add considerable labour
costs during harvesting, when growers try to
remove individual damaged fruits. Bird damage
can also make it necessary to harvest early,
resulting in a downgrading of both the quality Figure 2.5: Botrytis on grapes. Fungal infection
and quantity of fruit. is more likely on bird-damaged fruit.
Photo: N. Reid.
Damage to foliage, particularly by cockatoos and

rosellas, occurs where the birds clip branches,
stems and whole fruits, damage buds and
growing tips, or pull up seedlings. Bird damage to
foliage can directly affect fruit or nut production
in the season it occurs, but can also influence
plant growth in subsequent seasons. This is
particularly serious when damage occurs at, or
below, the lower internodes of growing plants.
Figure 2.3: Sulphur-crested cockatoo damage
This can prevent adequate flow of nutrients to
to oregon picnic table, Bundoora Park, Victoria.
the developing foliage, flowers and fruit and can
Photo: I. Temby.
reduce leaf area and photosynthesis (Rawnsley
and Collins 2003). In a study in the Eden Valley
of South Australia, 57% of buds (n = 600) of
grapevines were damaged by birds (Rawnsley
and Collins 2003). Compensation occurred in
some cases, with a ‘double-burst’ of buds after
the loss of the first plant shoot. However, the
second shoot that arises from the secondary
bud is often less productive.
Bird damage in horticultural and other agri

cultural crops is not evenly distributed across
regions, industries, varieties or seasons (Dyer
Figure 2.4: Insect damage can increase once 1967; DeHaven 1974b; Halse 1986; Sinclair
the sweet flesh of the fruit is exposed following and Bird 1987; Halse 1990; Subramanya 1994;
bird damage. Photo: J. Tracey. Komdeur et al. 2005). Typically, flocks of pest
birds concentrate their feeding and habitually

visit particular areas and ignore others (Bray
et al. 1975). For example, it has been reported
that 5% of the fields in a region may bear 95% of
the overall damage (Dyer 1967; Wiens and Dyer
1977; Whitehead et al. 1995). As a result, while
particular growers suffer devastating losses, the
impacts of bird damage measured over large
areas may be small in relation to the overall loss
to production. Unequal distribution of damage
is important when interpreting economic losses
over large areas. If damage is widespread but
the majority of growers experience insignificant
losses, broad-scale damage control may not be
economically justified. However, management
will be of great importance for individual growers
Figure 2.6: Lorikeet damage to grapes in
experiencing severe damage.
Adelaide. Photo: R. Sinclair.
Few published estimates are available of

Wales, grape losses of up to 95% were recorded
total horticultural losses caused by birds in
and losses averaged 14% across 167 vineyard
Australia. However a recent national survey
blocks (Tracey and Saunders 2003). If damage
of horticulturists indicates that they perceive
is greater than 60% the horticulture crops are
their losses to be significant. Over 1700 survey
often not worth harvesting. Vignerons in some
forms were returned, representing all major
regions have rated birds as their main pest,
horticultural industries and regions. While
above a range of insect, nematode and fungal
damage varied widely between crop types and
pests (Figure 2.6). Damage to cherries and stone
regions, horticulturalists’ estimates of damage
fruits can also be severe, with birds destroying
averaged: 7% for wine and table grapes; 13%
over 50% of fruit in some cases (Ron Sinclair,
for apples and pears; 16% for stone fruits;
Animal and Plant Control Group, South Australia,
and 22% in the nut industry (J. Tracey, NSW
pers. obs. 2005).
Department of Primary Industries, Orange,
unpub. 2007). Although verification with direct During three seasons in south-west Western
measures is still being conducted, these losses Australia, Long (1985) found that damage to
translate into significant costs to industry. Using apples, pears, plums and nectarines caused by
Australian Bureau of Statistics 2005-06 values parrots (Platycercus spp. and Polytelis spp.) was
for agricultural commodities, horticulturalists’ minor overall (1.4%), although up to 12% damage
perceived annual production losses by birds was evident in individual varieties. More severe
for these industries alone are in excess of $290 damage can occur in some seasons, particularly
million consisting of: during perioed of poor marri (Corymbia
calophylla) flowering (Rooke 1983; Halse 1986;
• $102.2 million to the wine and table grape
Long 1987; Halse 1990). Other estimates of fruit
industry;
damage to apple, pear and cherry trees suggest
• $83.7 million to apples and pears;
that damage levels range from less than 5% to
• $55.1 million to stone fruits; and 50% (Graham 1996; Graham et al. 1999).
• $48.9 million to the nut industry.
Damage to buds and blossom of cherries can
Birds cause significant damage to grapes in all also be severe, with up to 90% of buds being
Australian States (Bomford 1992). Bird damage removed by rosellas (Sinclair and Bird 1987;
to grape crops in Victoria has been estimated to Fisher 1991, 1993). In a survey of 20 cherry
average 12% (range 1%–63%) (Bomford 1992). In orchards in South Australia, one-quarter suffered
vineyards in the Orange Region of New South bud damage of over 60% (Sinclair and Bird 1987).

In one orchard, individual trees had over 95% of to walnuts was particularly serious, with 42%
their buds taken by rosellas. In the same orchard damage being reported to Victoria’s overall
an estimated three million buds were removed production. Hazelnuts (10%), chestnuts (5%)
from 44 trees (Sinclair and Bird 1987). In Fisher’s and pistachios (5%) also suffered high levels of
1993 study, bud damage was most severe to damage, costing between $8 800 and $277 000
‘Williams Favourite’ (73.6%) and ‘Black Douglas’ in lost production alone (Environment and
(79%) cherry cultivars, with ‘Lustre’ (11.3%) and Natural Resources Committee 1995). Further
‘Makings’ (13.5%) suffering less damage. management expenditure and opportunity costs,
where growers were reluctant to grow nuts
Bird damage to nut crops includes pruning
because of cockatoo damage, were unquantified.
of foliage and buds, ringbarking of trees, and
In another submission, galahs were implicated in
cracking and eating the fruits of walnuts,
killing several hundred mature almond trees at
hazelnuts, almonds, chestnuts, macadamias
a cumulative replacement cost of $516 per tree
and pistachios (Figure 2.7). Sulphur-crested
(Environment and Natural Resources Committee
cockatoos (Cacatua galerita), galahs (Elophus
1995). Crows and ravens can also be serious
[Cacatua] roseicapilla), little corellas (Cacatua
pests in almonds and, like the cockatoos, they
sanguinea) and long-billed corellas (Cacatua
often knock down many more nuts than they
tenuirostris) are the main bird pests in the nut
eat, reducing yield and quality.
industry. These species have been observed
knocking more nuts to the ground than are A survey of horticulturists in the Northern Terri
actually consumed (Environment and Natural tory indicated that losses from birds and flying-
Resources Committee 1995). Submissions by the foxes was moderate (20%–40%, severity damage
Australian Nut Industry Council and nut growers index greater than 35%) for a range of crops,
to a parliamentary inquiry into cockatoo dam including passionfruit, longan, lychee, peach,
age in Victoria indicated that economic losses to nectarine, Bactris (peiibaye palm), rambutan,
the nut industry can be severe (Environment and date, carambola, custard apple, pawpaw,
Natural Resources Committee 1995). Damage sapodilla, guava, star apple, water apple, hogs
Figure 2.7: Cockatoo damage to chestnuts. Photo: B. Mitchell.

plum, abiu, grape, banana, melon, pulasan and 2.4 Factors influencing damage
mango, and vegetables such as beans (Lim et al.
1993). The main species, in order of importance, The number of pest birds is an obvious factor
were the black flying fox (Pteropus alecto), affecting the extent and severity of damage.
rainbow lorikeet (Trichoglossus haematodus), However, a reduction in the numbers of birds may
little red flying fox (Pteropus scapulatus), not lead to proportional reductions in damage
sulphur-crested cockatoo, blue-faced honeyeater (Section 3.3). A range of factors influences pest
(Entomyzon cyanotis) and great bowerbird bird populations and the damage they cause.
(Chlamydera nuchalis) (Lim et al. 1993). Predicting when damage is likely to occur allows
Although unquantified, damage to strawberries, for more efficient allocation of management
currants, raspberries, loganberries, blackberries effort. Similarly, knowledge of the factors
and blueberries occurs from a range of species, influencing small-scale damage patterns on
particularly mynas, silvereyes, starlings, rosellas, individual orchards can help in targeting control
European blackbirds and sparrows (Bomford to locations where the damage is most severe.
and Sinclair 2002).
2.4.1 Food availability
‘In one cherry orchard, rosellas removed an
The availability of food has a major influence
estimated three million flower buds, resulting
on the numbers of pest birds. Most birds are
in significant losses to production.’
highly mobile and can travel long distances
Damage to the flower industry can be caused by for food or breeding sites. Reducing access to
parrots, cockatoos, corellas and rosellas chewing food is essential for reducing populations of
foliage, buds and flowers. Honeyeaters damage pest birds (Smith 1991; Feare 2004). Aside from
flowers when probing for nectar. The levels of the fruit or nut crop there may be many other
damage to floriculture can be considerable in foods available to birds, some of which may be
some regions, particularly by parrots, cockatoos consumed in preference to commercial crops.
and rosellas. Surveys of protea and banksia Monitoring of other food sources can provide
growers and direct measurements in Western useful information for managing damage.
Australia indicate that parrots can damage up

2.4.2 Crop or orchard characteristics
to 50% of flowers (Hector 1989b; Massam 1990).
In Massam’s (1990) survey of 46 protea growers, At an orchard level, the characteristics of the
51% reported damage by birds. property or crop and the surrounding area are
perhaps the most important factors affecting
Medium to large honeyeaters such as New
levels of bird damage. Crops with adjacent
Holland honeyeaters (Phylidonyris novae-
suitable roosting habitat or perching sites, such
hollandiae), red wattlebirds (Anthochaera
as native vegetation, windbreaks of exotic trees
carunculata) and noisy friarbirds (Philemon
or nearby powerlines (Figure 2.8), are more
corniculatus) can affect the presentation and
likely to suffer greater damage. This is widely
hence commercial value of flowers by grasping
accepted as an important factor for a range of
the petals and flowers with their feet, or by
crops, including grapes (Stevenson and Virgo
damaging the delicate stamens within the flower
1971; Boudreau 1972; Burton 1990; Graham 1996;
whilst feeding. Although there are no studies
Somers and Morris 2002), sunflowers (de la Motte
that have quantified the damage to flowers
1977; de la Motte 1990) and corn (Cardinell and
by honeyeaters, these species are known to
Hayne 1945; Mitchell and Linehan 1967; Martin
concentrate their feeding on particular trees or
1977; Bollinger and Caslick 1985a).
shrubs and can carry large amounts of pollen.
For example, Ford and Paton (1982) found that Land-use around a crop will also be important, as
individual New Holland honeyeaters can carry up it will influence the availability of alternative foods.
to 100 grains of pollen at a time from Banksia For example, there is quite a strong association
spp. and other native flowers. between livestock and starlings (Figure 2.9),

Figure 2.8: Starlings perching on powerlines. Photo: B. Lukins.
as these birds preferentially feed on ground-

dwelling insects (Wood 1973) and grazing makes
the insects more accessible to birds. A study
around Bathurst in New South Wales found that
starlings preferred cleared agricultural habitats
(Fisher and NSW Field Ornithologists Club
2000). In New Zealand, starlings increase their
attacks on vineyards in wet weather and when
pasture is too wet or high for them to feed on
invertebrates (Richard Porter, Havelock North,
New Zealand, pers. comm. 2005)
‘Crops with adjacent suitable roosting habitat

Figure 2.9: Starlings in a sheep paddock.
or perching sites, such as windbreaks or nearby
Photo: T. Bentz.
powerlines, are more likely to suffer greater
damage.’ cities in south-eastern regions of Australia are
more vulnerable to damage from this species.
The availability of pasture close to starling
breeding colonies is also positively related to The size and shape of the cropping area also
nestling survival and to the number of young influence bird damage, with smaller fields
produced per nest (Smith and Bruun 2002). It often being more susceptible than large fields
is not known whether orchards located near (Johnson et al. 1989). If the number of birds
grazed pasture are more likely to be damaged is similar, and equivalent amounts of fruit are
by starlings or whether pastures actually divert damaged by birds in small and large orchards,
starlings away from adjacent orchards. Mynas are smaller orchards will have higher percentage
closely associated with urban areas, particularly losses. This may also be exacerbated by birds’
in the south-east of Australia (see factsheets in preference for the outer edges of the block
Part B). Therefore, orchards close to towns and (Johnson et al. 1989; Somers and Morris 2002;

Komdeur et al. 2005) and the high edge-to-area 1993) and aroma (Avery and Nelms 1990; Wager-
ratio of smaller fields. More isolated orchards Page and Mason 1996; Saxton et al. 2004) also
and fields also tend to attract greater damage, may play a minor role in a bird’s selection of fruit
as has been shown for brussels sprouts and and seeds. Oil concentrations may also affect
spring cabbage (Jones 1974a; Jones 1974b), preferences. For example, rooks (Corvus frugile-
elderberries (Denslow 1987) and grapefruit gus) in New Zealand show a strong preference
(Johnson et al. 1989). for walnuts (Purchas 1980), and wild-caught
greenfinches (Carduelis chloris) in New Zealand
2.4.3 Fruit or variety characteristics show a strong preference for oilseeds compared
Time of ripening and other characteristics of the with similar-sized grass seeds or grains (Bomford
variety grown may also contribute to the level 1976).
of bird damage within an orchard or vineyard.
Size can be important in a bird’s selection
These characteristics include fruit age, maturity
of fruits (McPherson 1988; Mladovan 1998;
and sugar content; berry size, pulpiness and
Sallabanks 1993; Avery et al. 1995; Jordano 1995).
colour; fruit height; and plant vigour and foliage
A related but independent factor, fruit pulpiness
thickness.
(the amount of pulp per fruit) may also influence
Earlier-ripening varieties in some areas are known choice (Piper 1986; Sallabanks 1993). Piper (1986)
to suffer significantly greater bird damage than found the amount of pulp per fruit to be more
later-maturing varieties. This has been shown for important than other factors, including diameter,
blueberries (Nelms et al. 1990), cherries (Sinclair pulp to seed ratio, size of seeds, percentage
and Bird 1987; Tobin and Dolbeer 1987; Tobin et lipid, protein or minerals.
al. 1989a; Tobin et al. 1991), apples (Mitterling

Colour may be a cue for birds to identify ripe and
1965; Baker 1980a; Baker 1980b; Tobin et al.
nutritious fruit (Turcek 1963; Snow 1971; Willson
1989b), and other agricultural crops (Cummings
and Thompson 1982; Willson et al. 1990). Puckey
et al. 1989).
et al. (1996) found captive silvereyes (Zosterops
lateralis) exhibited a strong preference for red
Birds may start damaging fruit over a month
fruit compared to white or yellow fruit. A study
before harvest Tracey and Saunders 2003;
in New Zealand found that European blackbirds
(Komdeur et al. 2005). For grapes, this occurs
preferred red grapes and song thrushes (Turdus
at veraison when the fruit begins to colour,
philomelos) preferred white grapes (Watkins
corresponding to a sugar content of around 11–13
1999). Dark varieties of grapes (DeHaven 1974b;
Brix° (Tobin 1984). After this level of maturity
Burton 1990), cherries (Stevens and DeBont 1980)
is reached, bird damage does not necessarily
and apples (Long 1985; Long 1987) are found
increase with increasing maturity (Stevenson
to suffer greater starling damage than lighter-
and Virgo 1971; Tobin 1984; Komdeur et al. 2005).
coloured varieties. However, this does not occur
Some monitoring has shown that bird damage
in every situation (Tobin et al. 1991; Tracey et al.
gradually increases after initial ripening, but
2001) and varies depending on the bird species
more commonly considerable damage occurs
and their movements. Particular varieties can be
late in the season, just before harvest (Komdeur
targeted by certain species (Tracey et al. 2001).
et al. 2005).
This may be due to the arrival of non-sedentary
Bird preferences have been linked to sugar birds (Tracey et al. 2001), or a result of individual
concentration (Schuler 1983; Levey 1987) species’ preferences for different varieties.
and type of sugar (Schuler 1983; Martinez del
‘Colour may be a cue for birds to identify ripe
Rio et al. 1988) for a variety of fruits, but not
and nutritious fruit.’
grapes (Stevenson and Virgo 1971; Tobin 1984).
Fat content (Borowicz 1988), other nutrients Bunches at different heights on the vine or tree
(Johnson et al. 1989; Piper 1986; Brugger et al. will attract variable levels of damage. Upper

branches with sparse foliage often attract the caterpillars by birds in autumn (Chapman et al.
heaviest damage (Boudreau 1972; DeHaven 1992). Birds are known to consume soil insects
1974b; Fisher 1991; Somers and Morris 2002). such as cockchafers and underground grass
However, different bird species have different caterpillars (Subfamilies: Melolonthinae and
feeding strategies (see bird factsheets in Part Scarabaeidae), as well as codling moth pupae
B). For example, silvereyes may feed evenly and the light brown apple moth (Epiphyas
throughout a vine or tree, whereas rosellas may postvittana). Results show that bird predation
preferentially feed in the upper branches (Fisher can reduce grasshopper densities by 30%–50%
1991). (Joern 1986; Fowler et al. 1991; Bock et al. 1992).
An integrated approach to managing birds and
2.4.4 Temporal or climatic factors
insects is likely to provide ongoing benefits in
Many bird species usually feed in the early terms of reduced insect damage and reduced
morning and late afternoon, when the birds are pesticide use. In some cases, insecticide spraying
most active (Noske 1980). However, some bird has been shown to increase the number of
species do not feed until later in the morning, insect pests by inadvertently removing natural
as the earlier parts of their morning can be predatory insects (Prischmann et al. 2005).
spent on other activities. The abundance of Birds also regulate harmful insects (Strong et
insects (Woronecki and Dolbeer 1980) and the al. 2000; Sanz 2001; Tremblay et al. 2001; Mols
weather (Morton 1967; Tobin 1984; Elkins 2004) and Visser 2002). In a study in Spain, caterpillar
are other factors that influence the number of
damage to oak leaves was significantly less at
birds or feeding behaviour and subsequently
sites where breeding birds were encouraged,
bird damage levels. For example, in Tobin’s
compared with control sites (Sanz 2001). In
(1984) study, during and immediately after
another study, bird predation reduced pest
rainfall the number of birds feeding in a vineyard
insects by 50% and resulted in a 30% increase
was found to be significantly higher. Timing of
in the growth of oak trees in the Missouri Ozark
irrigation can also influence the number of birds
deciduous forest (Marquis and Whelan 1994). In
frequenting crops. In hot weather, starlings
Canada and Europe, birds have been shown to
have been observed moving with irrigation as
benefit orchards by controlling overwintering
the water stops in one block and comes on in
Lepidoptera (Solomon and Glen 1979; MacLellan
another (Ron Sinclair, Animal and Plant Control
1971). In a study in northern Sweden (Atlegrim
Group, South Australia, pers. obs. 2005). It is not
1989) the total density of insect larvae was 63%
known whether they were drinking the water or
lower where birds had access to larvae than
whether the water-moistened soil gave them
where exclosures were used; this resulted in
access to soil invertebrates.
significantly less insect damage to the annual
shoots of bilberry.
2.5 Benefits of birds
‘Birds can also provide many economic and
Birds can also provide many economic and
environmental benefits to growers.’
environmental benefits to growers including the
control of insects, competition with, or predation However, the ability of birds to regulate insect
of, pest birds and enhancement of environmental populations and reduce insect damage depends
health and aesthetics. on a number of variables, including bird
population density (East and Pottinger 1975),
Many birds found in horticultural crops are
insect life cycle (East and Pottinger 1975), habitat
insectivorous, including honeyeaters. These
(Belovsky et al. 1990) and insect population
species may play important roles in controlling
dynamics. Despite feeding on harmful insects,
insect pests. For example, the most important
birds in some situations may have a negligible
factor influencing the mortality of the codling
effect on insect populations or the damage they
moth (Cydia pomonella) is predation of the

Figure 2.10: Raptors such as this peregrine falcon prey on pest birds. Photo: B. Lukins.
cause (East and Pottinger 1975; McLennan and 2.6 Other damage
MacMillan 1983).
caused by pest birds
Birds of prey and species that compete or Birds are pests of other industries as well as
exclude pest birds are desirable in horticultural horticulture, and sometimes they also pose a risk
settings. For example, magpies (Gymnorhina to humans. They can:
tibicen) are territorial and occasionally display
• damage cereal and oilseed crops (Figure
agonistic behaviour towards, and attack, pest
2.11);
birds including sparrows (Barr 1986; Morgan
• damage aquaculture, taking fish and
et al. 2006), starlings (Morgan et al. 2006)
crustaceans;
and sulphur-crested cockatoos (Cilento and
Jones 1999). Raptors (Accipitriformes and • take and contaminate animal feed at
Falconiformes), particularly sparrowhawks, intensive livestock and production facilities
goshawks, falcons (Figure 2.10) and hobbies, (Figure 2.12);
are known predators of a range of pest birds. • eat and foul pasture;
Attracting these birds to crops might provide • prey on lambs (rarely;)
economic benefits by reducing the numbers of
• damage seedlings in plantation forests;
pest birds and the damage they cause (Section
• compete with native species for nest holes
4.1.6). However, providing habitat to attract
and food;
desirable birds requires careful consideration
and management (Section 4.3). • pose a risk to aircraft in terms of air-strike
both on runways and in the air, and nesting
in engines;

• be a social nuisance, particularly when they
roost or nest in urban areas or where they
damage woodwork or steal golf balls;
• spread disease to people and animals;
• physically attack people (for example
magpies, butcherbirds (Cracticus spp.),
masked lapwings (Vanellus miles)); and
• cause nutrient enrichment of soils and
waterways by faecal contamination.
More comprehensive reviews of these impacts

are available (Long 1981; Olsen 2000; Clarke et
al. 2001; Bomford and Sinclair 2002).
Figure 2.11: Galah damage to sunflower.

Photo: P. Fleming.
Figure 2.12: Starlings feeding on supplementary

feed for stock. Photo: B. Mitchell.

3. Techniques for measuring and
monitoring damage and abundance
Appropriate damage assessment is a critical 1979; Wakeley and Mitchell 1981; Bomford 1992;
step in the effective management of pest birds. Johnston and Marks 1997; Graham et al. 1999)
Assessment allows for improved planning and can all be used to gather damage information.
evaluation (Section 1.4). The methods used for There is a trade-off between obtaining specific
measuring bird damage in agriculture include: information and the time and cost involved
• questionnaires: face-to-face interviews, (Table 3.1). Face-to-face interviews are more
phone interviews and mail surveys (Section useful when more complex information from
3.1); specific groups is required (Orlich 1979), but
• direct measures: counting, weighing and they are more time-consuming and costly than
visual estimates (Section 3.2); and mail or phone surveys. Mail surveys can be used
over larger areas and have the lowest cost per
• indirect measures: monitoring bird numbers
response.
and energy demands (Section 3.3).
All questionnaires have potential biases. For

3.1 Questionnaires example, biases can occur when a proportion of
Questionnaires are useful in setting research the targeted sample does not respond (Dawson
and management priorities over large areas. and Bull 1970), or when the survey is conducted
Face-to-face interviews (Bennett 1984), phone after too much time has lapsed (Sen 1972), or
interviews (O’Donnell and Vandruff 1983) and when respondents overestimate or underesti
mail surveys (Atwood 1956; Dawson and Bull mate damage (MacDonald and Dillman 1968).
1970; Crase and De Haven 1973; Stickley et al. Other errors can be reduced by carefully wording
Table 3.1: Comparison between face-to-face interviews, telephone surveys and mail questionnaires
(based on rankings from Miller 1983; Crabb et al. 1988).
Factor Face-to-face interview Telephone survey Mail questionnaire
Large sample size – 0 +
Large geographical area – 0 +
Question complexity + 0 –
Highest percent return + 0 –
Lowest per unit cost – 0 +
Ease of gathering information – 0 +
Time required – + 0
Completeness of answers + 0 –
Ranking: + most favourable; 0 intermediate; - least favourable (Miller 1983).

questions to avoid leading particular responses. The decision to use weighing, counting or visual
Correct and objective phrasing of questions has estimates will depend on the type of crop as
been reviewed by a number of authors (Kahn and well as the available resources. For example,
Cannell 1967; Orlich 1979; Filion 1981; Chadwick when measuring damage to grapes it is often
et al. 1984; Crabb et al. 1988). not practical to count all the individual berries
on each bunch, so a visual estimate may be
In some cases, biases associated with quest
preferred. However, for larger horticultural
ionnaires can be corrected (MacDonald and
crops such as vegetables and stone and pome
Dillman 1968; Sen 1972). For example, fruit
fruits (such as apples and pears), counting may
growers with significant bird damage may be
be just as efficient — and more accurate. The
more likely to respond to a questionnaire about
maturity of the crop may also be relevant to
birds (Dawson and Bull 1970). By re-sampling a
the measurement method used. Counting may
proportion of the candidates that did not reply,
be suitable at harvest as part of quality control.
this ‘non-response’ bias can be estimated.
Earlier in the season visual assessments are more
Estimates or rankings of damage should be appropriate.
correlated with actual damage. This can be

‘Bird damage is often higher around
determined by using direct measures. However, if
the edges of a crop.’
growers’ perceptions of damage are inconsistent,
no adjustments to the type or design of a survey Where damage is patchy within a block,
can standardise results. Surveys should be stratification (Figure 3.1) will increase precision
supported by other measures so that results can and decrease sampling effort. For example,
be verified or corrected for measured bias. It is concentrating the sampling around the edges
important to ensure that the survey asks only of a crop, where bird damage is often higher,
questions for which data can be analysed. will usually improve efficiency and accuracy.
If sampling is being conducted over larger
3.2 Direct measures areas, stratification according to the age of

the crop, geographic area, variety, and early or
Without counting and evaluating all crops on a late maturing date can also increase sampling
property, estimation of bird damage requires the efficiency and accuracy (DeHaven 1974b).
taking of a representative sample from which
total damage is predicted. Standard random 3.2.1 Weighing
and systematic sampling procedures (Granett et
Calculating bird damage by weighing involves
al. 1974; Caughley and Sinclair 1994) (Appendix
cutting off and weighing a representative
B) are used to achieve accurate and precise
sample (plot) of individual fruits. This method
measures. The desired degree of accuracy or
has been used for measuring damage to grain
precision will dictate how much time and cost
crops (Khan and Ahmad 1990). The undamaged
are required for measurement. For example, most
weight of a fruit or bunch is calculated from the
producers can make general visual assessments
mean weight of the undamaged samples in the
without spending much time or money.
plot. An estimate of the damage in each plot is
Direct measures of damage include weighing, then calculated from the difference between this
counting and visual estimates. Counting and weight and the actual weight of the whole sample
weighing are time consuming but can be used to from the plot. However, in most horticultural
calibrate visual methods. These techniques have situations weighing is impractical because of
been used for cereal crops (Dawson 1970; Khan the variable weights of fruits and failure to take
and Ahmad 1990) and for apples, pears and into account pecked and partly eaten fruit. For
stone fruits in orchards (Long 1985). Weighing example, if a piece of fruit is pecked it may not
and counting often fail to account for losses due be suitable for sale, even though only a small
to secondary spoilage (Section 2.3). fragment of the fruit may have been removed.

AbÒbc[!
AbÒbc[
AbÒbc[
AbÒbc[#
AbÒbc["
Figure 3.1: A crop or orchard plan divided into strata for stratified sampling. Each stratum is assessed
separately, so that where damage is severe in one stratum, but not in another, this information is
collected. If the block was assessed as a whole, more samples would need to be taken to ensure
estimates are accurate. Source: Corinne King.
Hence, if a batch of damaged fruit has only 5% 3.2.3 Visual assessment

loss by weight, but 90% of the fruit has bird pecks
Visual estimation is rapid and is the method most
and pecked fruit cannot be sold, the economic
widely used to obtain measures of bird damage
loss is 90%, not 5%.
to agricultural crops (Stevenson and Virgo
An alternative weighing method can be used 1971; DeHaven 1974a; Dolbeer 1975; DeHaven
when distinct areas of the crop have been and Hothem 1979). This is achieved by using
damaged exclusively and are therefore unhar- experienced observers to estimate percentage
vestable. For example, consider several rows loss (see case study 9.5), or by assigning a
of wine grapes that are severely damaged by damage ranking to individual fruits or plants. To
starlings to the extent that they have become improve accuracy, estimates may be calibrated
uneconomic to pick. The weight of fruit or nuts by counting or weighing samples that have been
lost from rows not harvested could be estimated visually assessed. Sample cards or templates
from the average weight of harvested fruit or containing examples of damage levels can be
nuts from undamaged rows of an equivalent useful guides for measuring losses visually
variety and age. Although this provides estimates (Fleming et al. 2002; Tracey and Saunders
quickly, it also assumes negligible damage has 2003).
occurred in other areas.

3.3 Indirect measures
3.2.2 Counting
3.3.1 Monitoring bird numbers
Estimates can also be calculated by counting the
number of damaged and undamaged samples Knowledge of the birds on a property is an
within a crop. Although counting has been important starting point for reviewing available
used to estimate total damage (Burton 1990), a options to reduce damage. Awareness of the
common use of this method is to calibrate visual species involved and an understanding of
estimation methods (Stevenson and Virgo 1971; their behaviour, feeding habits, movements
DeHaven and Hothem 1979; Somers and Morris and interactions with other species (see bird
2002). factsheets in Part B) will aid decision-making.
Managing Bird daMage to Fruit and other horticultural crops 33

For example: For horticultural and many other situations,
to estimate population density or an index of
• control should be targeted in areas of
abundance is much more useful, (recording
highest bird activity;
counts of each bird species).
• non-sedentary species will require different
management to sedentary species. Control ‘Monitoring pest birds is an important
outside the ripening period is more useful starting point for reviewing options
for resident species than for species to reduce damage.’
arriving just before harvest;
Point counts, where the numbers of birds of
• many species are beneficial and can
each species are recorded for five- or ten-minute
consume large numbers of pest insects;
intervals, is one method used to estimate relative
• native species are generally protected; abundance. These counts are usually recorded
• more cryptic or solitary species may after first light, when birds are most active.
cause greater damage than more obvious Caution must be taken to count birds that are
species. Greater management effort should more active in orchards at different times of
be placed on species causing the most the day, and to take into account differences
damage; and in detectability between species. There is also
• some birds (for example magpies, red a variety of ways to correct for bias associated
wattlebirds, pied currawongs (Strepera with detection, such as using sighting distance
graculina) and birds of prey) exclude to estimate the probability of detecting a
(Figure 3.2) or prey upon other crop- bird by an observer (Buckland et al. 2001).
damaging birds. Control of these birds Some assumptions of this method are that the
may be counterproductive. probability of detecting a bird declines with
distance from the observer and that all birds
A variety of techniques can be used to estimate at the observation point are observed with
the number of birds or bird species within a given certainty.
area (Bibby et al. 2000). A method that simply
identifies the species present is the 20-minute, Counting numbers of birds can be used to
two-hectare search (Middleton and McWaters help evaluate management techniques. This
1996). This is used by many birdwatchers as part can be achieved by measuring the success of
of the Birds Australia Atlas (Barrett et al. 2003). a management campaign in terms of reduced
numbers of pest birds. For example, the number
of pest birds recorded in areas where birds were
shot may be less than in areas where only scaring
devices were used. This type of information
can be used in a cost-effectiveness analysis
(Section 5.4). If changes in bird numbers are
being used to evaluate management, the same
measurement methods should be used before
and after implementation to ensure an accurate
comparison.
3.3.2 Relationship between bird

Figure 3.2: A hawk dispersing a flock of population density and damage
starlings. Some birds of prey exclude pest birds. Bird population density can be used to predict
Photo: R. Shirley. bird damage without directly measuring the
damage. This can be achieved by using the
relationship between density and damage

(Figure 3.3). Unfortunately this relationship is • C represents a situation when damage
rarely known and is difficult to obtain. does not occur until birds reach a certain
threshold density. This could occur, for
‘Direct measures of bird damage can be
example, when native honeyeaters exhaust
simpler, less time consuming and more
a preferred native food source before
accurate than estimating bird density and
damaging fruit. This relationship could
inferring the impact.’
also occur if cherry trees compensate for
Any prediction of damage from the number a certain level of bud damage by rosellas
of birds relies on assumptions about density- before production yields are reduced
damage relationships. Does bird damage increase (Sinclair and Bird 1987).
at the same rate as pest density increases? There Even if these relationships are determined, they
is little published information about these re may be applicable only to a specific situation
lationships in horticulture. Pest density-damage and often cannot be generalised. Unlike urban
relationships are rarely simple proportional and environmental impacts of birds, direct
equations whereby halving the pest density measures of bird damage in agriculture can be
halves damage (Figure 3.3). Measurements of simpler, less time-consuming and more accurate
density and damage taken over time need to be than estimating bird density and inferring the
assessed to determine this relationship. impact.
/
3.3.3 Estimating bird damage from
0 energy requirements
Information on feeding and energy requirements
2O[OUS
of target species can also be used to estimate

1 potential impacts. These methods predict dam
age by translating bird population abundance
and daily energy requirements of individual birds
(Kendeigh 1970) into the amount of the resource
removed. Bird damage can be estimated as:
0W`R2S\aWbg
Daily amount of crop consumed = [number of
birds] x [daily energy requirements of individual
Figure 3.3: Some possible relationships
birds] x [proportion of energy obtained from the
between bird density and damage.
crop relative to all items consumed] x [energy
In Figure 3.3: available per weight of crop].
• A represents a situation where low numbers

For example if we have 10 birds, each requiring 70
of birds still cause high levels of damage.
kilojoules of energy per day, and half the energy
European blackbirds may damage fruit in
comes from grapes, which have 2.15 kilojoules of
this way, where a few resident birds can
energy per gram, then the total weight of grape
inflict continuous levels of damage over
consumed by the ten birds is:
the season.
• B represents a situation where damage is 10 birds x [70 kilojoules/(day bird)] x [1/2] x [2.15
proportionally higher when there are higher kilojoules/gram] = 163 grams/day
numbers of birds. This has been shown

If these 10 birds were of species that remove
to occur with bird damage to pistachios,
whole grapes, then the 163 grams/day is
where damage increases directly with
approximately equivalent to 163 grapes (wine
increasing numbers of crows per unit area
grapes average approximately 1 gram each) and
(Crabb et al. 1986).
this is an estimate of the loss. However, if the 10

birds were of species that only peck grapes, the • difficulty in assessing bird numbers, part
163 grams may come from many more than 163 icularly for small, mobile species;
grapes and is thus an under-estimate damage. • patchiness of bird feeding and resultant
damage within a crop;
More complex approaches using other
determinants of energy (such as age class, annual • the fact that some damage is indirect (for
and daily change in abundance and behaviour, example, mould developing on pecked
temperature and body weight) have been used grape bunches); and
to predict damage to corn and grain crops by • compensatory production, so that the crop
starlings and American blackbirds (Icteridae) partly or wholly recovers from damage
(Wiens and Innis 1974; Wiens and Dyer 1975; that occurs during development.
Weatherhead et al. 1982; White et al. 1985).
Another problem with monitoring that is focused
Considerable ecological information is required on pest numbers is that it often promotes a
for energy and density measurement methods. focus on lethal control techniques. In the case of
This requires long-term research and in most pest birds, these techniques are rarely the best
cases is not available (Otis 1989). These methods solution (Chapter 4).
also do not take into account the natural
variation in damage (Otis 1989; Hone 1994);
3.4 Measuring secondary
nor do they take into account losses due to
damage and compensation
secondary spoilage. Despite these difficulties, an
enclosure study of American blackbirds and grain In addition to the direct loss caused by birds
found that estimates of damage using energy eating fruit, crops may suffer secondary losses
requirements and bird density were equivalent through spoilage to previously undamaged
to direct measures (Weatherhead et al. 1982). fruit from moulds, yeasts, bacteria and insects
attracted to damaged fruit (Figure 2.4 and 2.5).
Estimates of damage using energy are more
This secondary damage is not easily measured
useful when estimating damage over broad
in terms of cost, as it is associated with down
agricultural areas: for example, when density
grading of fruit by purchasers, extra staff costs to
and feeding habits are already known, easily
remove bird-damaged fruit and increased costs
obtained, or being determined for other
for fungicide application. Timing and type of bird
reasons. When applying these methods to the
damage may also be a factor. For example, if wine
estimation of damage, consider factors such as
grapes are damaged by birds that peck grapes
uneven distribution of damage, opportunistic
(such as silvereyes and honeyeaters, Figure
feeding habits and diets, and damage caused
3.4), rather than remove them, and this damage
by different age classes. These factors are
occurs immediately before harvest, disease is
particularly important in horticulture, where fruit
unlikely to establish and wine quality may not
is often only a small proportion of a pest bird’s
be compromised. There is a need to record the
diet (e.g. Adelaide rosellas (Platycercus elegans
timing and type of secondary damage, as well as
adelaidae) and cherries (Reynolds 2003)).
the costs incurred.
In the case of bird damage to horticulture, a
In some crops, a certain level of bird activity can
number of factors make it difficult to estimate
be tolerated without any significant impact on
potential damage on the basis of observed
final yield. This is because plants compensate
bird numbers — required for any of the above
for fruit loss, as measured by comparing yields
-mentioned techniques. These include:
of damaged and undamaged plants rather than
• unpredictability of bird movements, part
by calculating the percentage of damaged fruit.
icularly for species that may not maintain
In many horticultural crops, remaining buds can
feeding pressure on a particular crop
compensate for damaged buds. For example, in
throughout ripening;

macadamia nut trees compensated for rat
damage by producing more nuts, and overall
yields were unaffected. In this example there are
no economic benefits of pest control.
Woronecki et al. (1979, 1980) found that estimates

of primary bird damage to corn were affected by
the state of development of the kernels at the
time of damage, the amount of compensatory
growth, and the environmental factors that
influenced secondary loss. For cherries, a
reasonably accurate estimate of bud damage
could be achieved by a single estimate just
before flowering, as new buds are not initiated
after flowering.
Figure 3.4: Honeyeater pecking damage to
‘Damage to growing shoots can cause
grapes. Photo: J. Tracey.
reduced productivity from the vine or tree in
subsequent seasons.’
cherries, removal of some buds results in larger
fruit, which attract a premium price for quality. In many cases, estimates of direct percentage
That is, fewer large fruits are worth a lot more loss will be sufficient as a basis for management
than an equivalent weight of smaller fruits. decisions. However, these estimates are
Therefore some bud damage may, in effect, be likely to be conservative when there is a high
similar to the normal horticultural practice of percentage of pecked or partly damaged fruit;
thinning and may result in economic benefits or overestimated where damage takes place
(Sinclair and Bird 1987). early in the season and compensation is likely to
occur.
However, when the damage occurs to the
growing shoots the secondary shoots are often
less productive and are likely to yield more 3.5 When to measure
numerous, but smaller, fruit. Damage to growing The most appropriate time to measure damage
shoots can cause reduced productivity from the will vary for different crops and situations. For
tree or vine in subsequent seasons (Section 2.3) example, measure as close as practicable before
(Rawnsley and Collins 2003). Peas can have their harvest when the majority of damage occurs late
emerging shoots nipped off, mainly by sparrows. in the season and all damage is easily identified
The missing shoot is often replaced by two new at this time. The situation is more complex
ones from the seed, but this causes the crop when damage is occurring at different stages of
to ripen unevenly and be downgraded by the growth before ripening, and when damage
processing factory (Porter et al. 1994). early in the season is no longer detectable
before harvest. In these circumstances, measure
‘Damaged crops may suffer secondary losses
damage in separate stages and collate the results
through spoilage by moulds, yeasts,
to obtain overall damage estimates.
bacteria and insect damage.’
An isolated assessment of bird numbers or 3.6 Early forecasting of damage

damage needs to be considered in the context
of the effects of damage on the critical stages The techniques discussed so far have focused
of crop development and on final production. on estimating damage after it has occurred.
For example, Tobin et al. (1993) found that However, this often prevents adequate manage

ment preparation for the same ripening season. • Which bird species are likely to cause
Although bird damage can be variable, early greatest damage in the area? See the bird
predictions are useful for management planning. distribution maps of the major pest species
When damage is forecast, the following factors in the factsheets in Part B. Note that some
need to be considered: species, particularly honeyeaters are non-
sedentary and may be more of a problem
• What was the damage to the crop in
when natural food sources are limited.
previous years? Assessing damage this
season helps in management decisions for • Were weather conditions during late winter
next season. through to early summer conducive to a
long and productive breeding season for
• What was the severity of damage
pest birds? Damage is likely to be worse in
other growers experienced in the area?
years when large numbers of young birds
Discussing bird damage with local industry
enter the population. Local bird watchers
associations, horticultural advisers and
and ornithologists will be useful sources of
other growers in the district is helpful.
breeding season information.
Government and industry contact details
are listed in Appendix A.

4. Assessment of
control techniques
Most horticulturists attempt to manage bird for a short period. It is also possible that once
damage using either: birds habituate to a stimulus, it could then work
• strategic one-off control (netting); or as a cue indicating the presence of available

food (Conover and Perito 1981). Under these
• strategic targeted control (usually some
circumstances it would attract birds to a crop
type of bird-scaring programme using
and have the opposite effect to that desired.
visual and/or acoustic devices, with or
without some shooting) - see Section 1.2. ‘Unless a concerted effort is maintained over
the entire period for which a crop is vulnerable,
This chapter describes research on control tech
scaring is unlikely to significantly reduce fruit
niques that may support the above management
loss.’
options. The scientific principles underlying the
effective selection and use of pest bird control Ineffective scaring may increase damage levels.
techniques are outlined. This information is For example, if a grower uses a scaring device
provided to help growers select the pest bird that results in the birds flying out of an orchard or
control techniques most appropriate for their vineyard every time a device fires, only to return
individual circumstances (Section 1.2). and continue feeding, then damage can actually
be increased. The birds may drop the fruit
4.1 Bird scaring they are eating when the device fires, and pick
another when they return, thereby increasing the
Scaring and shooting are the most common app
amount of damage (Beeton 1977; Fleming 1990;
roaches to pest bird control in Australia. Birds
Ford 1990).
are scared by unusual, sudden, unexpected,
unfamiliar or dangerous events (scare stimulus), With bird species that peck or bite fruit or
or by something that mimics a predator or the berries (for example silvereyes, red wattlebirds
response to a predator (such as bird alarm and crimson rosellas (Platycercus elegans
calls). elegans)) rather than pluck them (for example,
starlings (Figure 4.1), European blackbirds
A bird’s first reaction to being scared is flight. This
is often followed by a period of curiosity, during and corvids), scaring may spread damage and
which the bird tries to gather information about increase losses. According to Sinclair (2000a,
the scaring stimulus. Each time it encounters the 200b) each time a scaring device activates,
stimulus, it gains more information. Eventually, it it may simply disturb birds so that they move
accumulates enough information to know that to another area. With grapes, for example, the
unless the stimulus presents a real threat, it can result can be that many bunches will have only
be ignored — that is, the bird has become a few pecked berries, but these can promote
habituated to the stimulus. The time taken for insect damage or fungal infection over the whole
habituation will vary, depending on a suite of bunch, severely reducing quality (Section 2.3).
factors, including species, surrounding habitat By not disturbing feeding birds, the loss might be
and the regularity and type of noise. Habituation restricted to severe damage on fewer bunches,
is the single factor that most limits the which is better from a grape quality perspective
effectiveness of scaring, and maximum efforts (Sinclair 2000a; Sinclair 2000b). Unless birds
should be directed towards its prevention. are successfully scared to another feeding site,
Even the simplest scarer may have some effect they will inevitably return to the crop where the

scaring is being undertaken. In addition, each in a crop and before the birds get into the habit
time birds fly away and then fly back again they of feeding there. Changing devices and moving
use extra energy and need more food to satisfy them around frequently will also help to avoid
their energy needs. habituation (Marsh et al. 1991; Fisher 1992).
‘Most successful scaring of pest birds is 4.1.1 Bird species and behaviour in relation
achieved by using a variety of scaring devices.’ to scaring
Scaring devices may help to reduce damage if It is important that growers do not treat all
they are used when a crop is at the early stages pest birds as if they were a single species. Birds
of ripening, and before birds have established differ in their biology and behaviour (Section
a habit of visiting the site. Scaring is also 2.2 and factsheets Part B), and this is likely
likely to be more effective when alternative to influence how they respond to different
attractive feeding sites are available (Jarman methods of control (Fisher 1992). Growers
1990; Crossfield 2000). Most successful scaring do not categorise all pest insects as a single
of pest birds is achieved by using a variety of species: different insect species require specific
different scaring devices (Bishop et al. 2003), control strategies. Not all pest plants are simply
starting them as soon as birds show an interest regarded as weeds and treated with the one
herbicide. Similarly, not all pest bird species
should be treated the same. Some birds may
not take any notice of any scaring devices,
including shooting (Richard Porter, Havelock
North, New Zealand, pers. comm. 2005).
Some bird species are sedentary and live within

a small area; others actively move around
within a region or seasonally migrate into a
region (Table 2.3). Individuals of some species
live singly or in small groups, whereas others
form large flocks. Seasonally migratory species
such as silvereyes, or mobile species such
as starlings and cockatoos, are not strongly
attached to a territory when fruit is vulnerable
to attack. Hence mobile and non-sedentary
species should be easier to scare away than
sedentary species. In contrast, sparrows, being
a sedentary territorial species, are likely to be
difficult to scare. They are strongly attached
to their territory and will often have nowhere
else to go if all neighbouring territories are
occupied. These examples demonstrate the
need to consider the behaviour of each bird
species in formulating a management strategy.
‘It is important that growers do not treat all

pest birds as a single species.’
Figure 4.1: Characteristic starling plucking
damage to grapes. In the foreground, the fruit It is clear that the methods most suitable for
stubs remain where whole grapes have been reducing fruit loss by sparrows may differ from
removed by the birds. Photo: J. Tracey. the methods suitable for starlings. For non-

sedentary species, such as honeyeaters (Table with an eye painted on it, although the deterrent
2.3), scaring should start at the first sign that effect was minimal at 40 metres and ceased
birds are investigating a crop as a food source. after nine days.
The scaring programme may be more effective
if started well before any sign of crop damage.
With sedentary species, such as European
blackbirds, sparrows, noisy miners (Manorina
melanocephala) and rosellas, some scaring
in the crop throughout the year may help in
maintaining the message that the area is not
a safe feeding site. However there is a trade-
off between scaring to prevent birds from
establishing a feeding pattern and starting to
scare too early, which may increase habituation.
Starting a scaring programme just before the
most costly damage is likely to occur may
ensure maximum benefit.
Alternative control methods, such as population

reduction (wherever practical and legal), should
also be considered for sedentary species.
Timing of scaring can be important. For

example, feeding activity for some species is
concentrated during the early morning and
late afternoon and can also vary according to a Figure 4.2: Balloon bird scarer in a vineyard.
range of environmental factors (Section 2.4).
Photo: N. Reid.
4.1.2 Visual scaring methods Kites shaped like birds of prey (often falcons or
A wide variety of visual scarers are used. They hawks) are another type of inexpensive visual
include plastic shopping bags; car-yard bunting; scaring device. These are usually tethered to
spinning metal strips; reflective mirrors or tape; the ground, or may be suspended from helium-
balloons displaying big eyes; and predator filled balloons that are tethered to a stake by a
models such as scarecrows (human effigies), long monofilament line 30–60 metres above the
plastic silhouettes of birds of prey, or kites in the ground. Ground-tethered kites require constant,
shape of predatory birds. low-velocity wind to keep them aloft, but often
in the early morning and late afternoon there is
Balls or balloons with large eyespots are in little wind and these are the times when some
expensive scaring devices. Helium- or air- birds tend to feed. Winds of over eight kilometres
filled balloons with eyespots can be tied to per hour can blow down kites and balloons
vegetation or to long poles (Figure 4.2). They (Hothem and DeHaven 1982), which may also
can be used successfully only in still conditions be damaged when they become entangled in
or in light winds; otherwise they will be blown trellises or vegetation.
flat and damaged. Tests of the effectiveness
of eyespot balloons are mainly inconclusive Predatory bird kites suspended from helium-
(Marsh et al. 1991). McLennan et al. (1995) found filled balloons have successfully reduced bird
that a commercial ball with a reflective eye damage to blueberries (damage reduced by
that appeared to move as the ball rotated was 35%), vineyards (by 48%; range 32%–88%) and
significantly (P < 0.01) more effective at repelling cornfields (by 83%) in North America (Conover
sparrows from a feeding table than a beach ball 1982; Hothem and DeHaven 1982; Conover 1984).

To be effective, the predator kites were used at a Marsh et al. (1991, 1992) made some generalis–
density of about one per hectare. The main cost ations about scaring with scarecrow and
when using the predator kites was maintaining predatory bird models on the basis of their
the helium balloons, as most lasted only a few review of the world literature on this topic.
days. The kites were more effective against some For best results, scarecrow and predatory bird
pest bird species than others. The effectiveness models should:
of predator kites may be improved by selecting a
• appear lifelike (Figure 4.4 and 4.5);
model that closely resembles a predator species
• have motion (for example, pop-up
that occurs in the local area (Marsh et al. 1991).
Some predatory bird silhouettes imported from scarecrows and windblown predator
North America and sold on the Australian market models);
are not similar to Australian species and may not • be highly visible;
be recognised as a threat by pest birds here. • be moved frequently to new locations
in and around the crop to help prevent
Another inexpensive scaring device used is
habituation;
a predatory bird model mounted on a pole or
building (Figure 4.3). For example, Conover • be supported by additional control
(1985) used animated owl models to protect methods, such as shooting to scare, or
vegetable plots from damage caused by other acoustic scaring devices; and
American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos). • be started before birds develop a feeding
The owl model, grasping a crow model in its habit in a crop.
talons, was mounted on a weather vane so that
it moved in the wind. The wings of the model Despite some old and resilient myths, birds do
also moved, either by the wind or by a battery- not seem to be scared by bird carcasses (Naef-
operated motor. This animated predator model Daenzer 1983) unless they are life-like or in a
reduced crop damage by 81% compared with

an unprotected control plot and was relatively
cheap to build.
‘In general, visual scarers offer only

short-term protection, as birds soon
learn to ignore them.’
In general, visual scarers offer only short-term

protection, as birds quickly realise that they
pose no real threat and then become habituated
(Long et al. 1990; Marsh et al. 1991; McLennan
et al. 1995). For example, some birds habituate
to predator kites after only five hours’ exposure
(Conover 1982). Visual scarers are simply
something new and unusual in the birds’
environment, and they soon learn to ignore them.
This is particularly true for devices that are not
kept in motion by wind or motor. Effectiveness
also declines with distance from the scarer.
For example, McLennan et al. (1995) found the
effectiveness of eyespot balloons in keeping
sparrows away from a feeding table was greatest
at the closest distance measured (ten metres) Figure 4.3: Visual bird scaring device shaped
and negligible at 40 metres. like a predatory bird. Photo: B. Mitchell.

threatening pose, and even then habituation
develops rapidly (Bishop et al. 2003). Snake and
cat models are equally ineffective (Marsh et al.
1991).
The major limitation of attempting to scare birds

using reflectors, bright spinning or flapping
objects, or similar devices is rapid habituation
(Marsh et al. 1991). Wind conditions are important,
because wind creates motion and sometimes
sound, which increases the effectiveness of
visual scaring devices (Tobin et al. 1988; Marsh
et al. 1991). For example, CDs (compact discs)
hanging on string in fruit trees cause random
light flashes in the wind (Figure 4.6). However,
high winds can break, or even blow away, scaring
devices.
Figure 4.5: Lifelike scarecrows, holding gun-
Once birds habituate they will fly between scaring like sticks, combined with gas gun operation,
devices or even perch on them before entering are more likely to be effective for controlling
a crop to feed. Different pest bird species may pest bird damage than either device on its own.
have different responses to scaring devices. For Photo: R. Sinclair.
example, in Ohio, red-winged blackbirds (Age
laius phoeniceus) and sparrows were effectively macroura) were not (Dolbeer et al. 1986).
scared from grain and sunflower crops by Reflecting tape was also found to be ineffective
reflecting tape, but American goldfinches (Car for repelling starlings, American robins (Turdus
duelis tristis) and mourning doves (Zenaida migratorius), house finches (Carpodacus mexi
Figure 4.4: Examples of poor scarecrows, as they are not lifelike. Photos: R. Sinclair.

canus), mockingbirds (Mimus polyglottos) and Sound travels through air in waves, and the
grey catbirds (Dumetella carolinensis) feeding in loudness of sound, usually measured in decibels,
blueberry plots (Tobin et al. 1988). Dolbeer et al. declines with the square of the distance from
(1986) speculated that reflecting tape might be the source. This means that the loudness of a
more effective against flock-feeding birds than signal drops away rapidly with distance. Sound
those that feed solitarily or in small groups. shadows also form behind objects, such as trees
or bushes, which further decrease sound signal
4.1.3 Acoustic scaring methods strength (Bomford and O’Brien 1990; Marsh et
Scaring with acoustic (sound-producing) devices, al. 1991).
including ultrasonic devices, is often promoted
‘Birds ignore sounds after a short time if they
as effective, scientific, humane, cheap and simple
are repetitive, emanate from the same point
to operate (Bomford and O’Brien 1990). Many
source, and pose no physical threat.’
types are marketed in Australia, ranging from
cheap crackers and wind-operated devices to Most acoustic devices are set to go off
expensive, sophisticated electronic devices. The automatically at either regular or random
most commonly used acoustic devices rely on intervals; others are triggered by the movement
startling or fear for their scaring effects. Most are of birds. As with visual methods of control, birds
non-biological sounds generated by mechanical, become habituated to, and then ignore, sounds
electronic or explosive means and may include after a time if they are repetitive, emanate from
wind or mechanically powered noise generators, the same point source, or pose no physical threat.
a range of electronically amplified sounds, An extreme example is the lack of response
propane gas cannons, crackers and firearms. shown by birds adjacent to airport runways as jet
Some devices produce bioacoustic sounds aircraft take off or land, often only metres away,
and others produce ultrasound (sound beyond with noise levels well over 100 decibels. A scaring
human reception). and chemical repellent system that operates
only when birds fly through a radio beam was
shown to be more resistant to habituation than
alternative systems that operated at regular or
random intervals for keeping waterfowl away
from contaminated ponds (Stevens et al. 2000).
There is at least one commercial device available
in Australia that is triggered by radar detection
of the birds and bioacoustic deterrent calls are
activated by radio transmission (Muehlebach
and Bracher 1998).
The most common form of scaring with sound

relies on shooting to scare or harass, or devices
such as gas guns (Figure 4.7) that produce
loud bangs. Shooting should always be initiated
before other scarers so that birds make a
connection between a loud bang and real danger.
Many native birds are protected, and a permit
from a State fauna authority is required before
they can be shot or harassed (Section 6.1). All
Figure 4.6: Compact discs tethered in a crop introduced birds can be shot without a permit,
can make good visual scaring devices, as they provided that other firearm and animal welfare
reflect light and move. Photo: B. Mitchell. regulations are observed. Shooters should move

around rather than stay in one location. Similarly, likely determined mainly by the quality of the
devices producing bangs should also be moved sound and by how often it is repeated.
around to reduce the rate of habituation.
Distress calls are usually loud ‘squawks’ given
Bioacoustic or biosonic sounds are broadcasts by birds held captive, either in a net or by a
of recorded calls used in animal communication: predator. The common response to a distress
usually alarm, distress or predator calls, or call is for surrounding birds to be attracted to
electronic mimics of such calls, are used in a the site, where they often fly around making a
variety of acoustic devices available on the lot of noise in what is called mobbing behaviour
market. The calls are recorded, sometimes (Conover and Perito 1981; Conover 1994).
digitised and modified, amplified, and then Generally, distress calls are likely to be less
broadcast through speakers (Aubin 1990; Marsh effective for scaring birds than alarm calls, but
et al. 1991) (Figure 4.8). distress calls are sometimes used because they
are easier to record, and they have been shown
Some birds give alarm calls when they see a
to be effective for dispersing herons (Ardeidae),
predator or something they perceive as a threat.
gulls (Larus spp.) and crows (Naef-Daenzer 1983;
Alarm calls alert nearby birds to the presence
Gorenzel and Salmon 1993; Bishop et al. 2003).
of danger, and the usual response is immediate
flight. Alarm calls are often species-specific, Birds habituate rapidly and start to ignore a
although some species will respond to other broadcast alarm or distress calls if the same call
species’ alarm calls (Baxter et al. 1999). When or call sequence is frequently repeated (Martin
taped alarm calls, or electronic imitations of 1986; Aubin 1990; Yokoyama and Nakamura
alarm calls, are broadcast, they may have a similar 1993; Harris and Davis 1998). They may take
effect to a real alarm call. The effectiveness of flight, but rapidly return to continue feeding. The
broadcast alarm calls for scaring birds away is quality of the broadcast sound is determined by
Figure 4.7: Gas gun. These devices produce loud bangs at intervals to deter birds from a crop. Note
that the placement of such devices near dry grass or other flammable material poses a fire hazard.
Photo: N. Reid.

Figure 4.8: Electronic speakers used to broadcast sounds to scare birds away from crops.
Photo: R. Sinclair. Inset photos left: T. Bentz, right: R. Sinclair.
the quality of the recording and the quality of bioacoustic calls or simulated calls to scare
the amplifier and speakers used to broadcast birds. For example, in cage tests, Yokoyama
the call. The broadcast calls generally need to and Nakamura (1993) found that for young
be those of the bird species present, or at least tree sparrows (Passer montanus), the sound
calls from species the local birds usually respond produced by a paper flag was significantly (P <
to. Another factor that can influence the effect 0.05) more aversive than a broadcast distress
is whether the broadcast calls were recorded
call of their own species. The distress calls were
locally. Birds have dialects, and the alarm call
also subject to more rapid habituation.
of a bird from an area with a different dialect
may be less effective than a locally recorded call Bird vocalisations, including alarm and distress
(Marsh et al. 1991). calls, are extremely intricate. Birds are more likely
The calls of birds of prey or imitations are some to accurately interpret pre-recorded amplified
times used to try to scare birds, and some of sounds when high-quality recording, amplifying
the devices on the market include bird of prey and broadcasting equipment is used (Aubin
calls. There is little evidence in peer-reviewed 1990; Marsh et al. 1991). In addition, if calls are
literature that such sounds are effective. In fact, recorded, digitised, stored on a computer chip
many predators do not call when they hunt, as and then amplified through speakers, there
it would make little sense for them to call out may be a marked reduction in the aversive
and warn potential prey that they are nearby and stimuli contained in the calls. It is possible that
hungry. So it would seem unlikely that their calls such bioacoustic sounds represent little more
would be effective for scaring birds.
than something new and unusual in the birds’
Growers need to be wary of unsubstantiated environment, and different devices simply
claims about the long-term effectiveness of present different sounds.

It is possible that ‘communication jamming’ occ • the sound is supported by other control
urs when sounds with a similar frequency range methods; and
to birds’ communication calls are broadcast • the sound is reinforced by real danger, for
(Rooke 1983; Bomford and O’Brien 1990). This example, shooting.
supposedly inhibits some flock-feeding birds
such as silvereyes from hearing each other so they They also suggest that:
become confused. Some devices are designed • loud sounds are more aversive than quiet
to produce sounds that irritate, rather than scare sounds (if the frequencies are within the
or distress, to limit habituation. However, this has birds’ hearing range);
not been investigated. • sounds with a wide frequency range are
more aversive than pure tones;
‘Growers need to be wary of unsubstantiated
claims about the effectiveness of simulated • loud sounds produced by simple,
calls to scare birds.’ inexpensive methods can be as effective
as sounds produced by expensive devices;
Ultrasound is very high frequency sound above
• adult birds are more easily scared than
the range of human hearing (greater than or
juveniles;
equal to 20 kilohertz). Most bird species cannot
• hunted species take longer to habituate to
hear ultrasound, or they can hear only the lower
bangs;
frequencies (Beuter and Weiss 1986; Marsh et al.
1991). Even for birds that can hear ultrasound, • broadcast alarm and distress calls can be
there is no reason for it to be more effective for effective but are subject to habituation
scaring than audible sound. Despite anecdotal and are often species-specific; and
user testimonials and unsubstantiated claims • all species eventually habituate to nearly
from advertisers, manufacturers and distributors, all sounds tested.
no scientific field experiments have indicated
that ultrasound is of value for reducing bird 4.1.4 Combining visual and acoustic
damage to crops. In fact, experiments have scaring methods
shown that ultrasonic devices are ineffective The best results are likely to be obtained if
(Bomford and O’Brien 1990; Bomford 1990a; different control methods are combined to
Erickson et al. 1992; Haag-Wackernagel 2000). prevent habituation (Bishop et al. 2003). For
example, when a bird hears a distress call it
Few reliable scientific experiments have been
usually approaches the sound, expecting to see
conducted on the value of acoustic devices for
a bird being grasped by a predator (Conover
reducing bird damage to crops. However, on the
1994). If such an image is not associated with
basis of reviews of the world literature on this
the sound, rapid habituation occurs. If distress
topic, Bomford and O’Brien (1990) and Bishop
call broadcasts are paired with a predator model
et al. (2003) drew some generalisations about
that appears to be grasping a struggling bird,
scaring with sound.
observing birds are likely to have their fears
They suggest that the best effect is obtained reinforced, which in turn will delay habituation.
when: Support for this hypothesis comes from the
findings that starlings and American crows
• the sound is presented at random
habituated less to plastic owl models when
intervals;
they appeared to be grasping a struggling
• a range of different sounds is used;
bird (Conover and Perito 1981; Conover 1985).
• sounds are broadcast for the minimum Nakamura (1997) found that playbacks of taped
time needed to get a response; calls of jungle crows (Corvus macrorhynchos)
• the sound source is moved frequently; were largely ineffective for scaring rufous turtle

doves (Streptopelia orientalis), as was the fire a starter pistol occasionally (acoustic). Birds
presentation of a stuffed jungle crow. However, may then learn to associate the clothing, gun-
the combined stimuli of a stuffed crow with a sticks and bangs with danger and be scared by
crow call were highly effective and were resilient farm workers.
to habituation in the three successive trials
In some situations it will be appropriate to
conducted.
place acoustic scaring devices in, and conduct
Combining treatments may be more effective shooting from, the middle of the crop facing out,
for bird damage control but adds to the cost, rather than on the edges of crops, which may
and this needs to be taken into account when scare birds further into the crop. Where feasible,
a grower makes decisions about implementing a shooter on a motorcycle (Figure 4.9) can cover
a pest control programme (Section 1.3). For a crop much better than a stationary shooter or
example, Cummings et al. (1986) evaluated a scare gun, because they are able to drive into the
mechanical, gas-operated, pop-up, life-size, centre and all parts of the crop. By driving up and
human scarecrow model coupled with a propane down the rows, a motorcyclist can prevent birds
exploder for reducing red-winged blackbird from settling and encourage them to look for
damage to sunflower crops. The device was set more peaceful places to feed in. However, these
so that the exploder went off 15 to 30 seconds approaches to scaring have not been validated.
after the scarecrow popped up (Cummings et al.
4.1.5 Scaring with aircraft
1986). In three fields, damage was reduced by
an average of 84% in the first five-day treatment The use of model aircraft, ultralights or full-sized
period and by 59% in a subsequent five-day aircraft to chase birds from crops is an example
treatment period. In two other fields near roost of combining visual and auditory stimuli. These
sites where red-winged blackbirds were well may be of most value in broadacre, high-value
established, damage was reduced by only 8% crops, as they are expensive in terms of labour
and 31%. Cummings et al. (1986) concluded and materials. In addition, if birds are continually
that the scarecrow-exploder device would be harassed and made to fly considerable distances
economically worthwhile for crops in which before they return, then they will need to eat
damage levels exceeded 18%, which was about more fruit to make up the energy loss than if
1.2% of crops. they had been left undisturbed (Section 4.1).
‘To prevent habituation, the best results Garrity and Pearce (1973) found that model
are likely to be obtained if different control airplanes controlled by skilled operators reduced
methods are combined.’ the numbers of robins in blueberry fields, but
they also achieved only partial coverage of the
Using scarecrows holding gun-like sticks (visual) crop at risk. The robins resumed feeding during
(Figure 4.5), combined with gas guns (Figure 4.7) refuelling and soon after flights ceased. Similarly,
or another bang-producing device (acoustic) to trials of model aircraft in wheat revealed that
scare birds, can be effective if this is randomly sparrows quickly resumed feeding whenever the
reinforced by real danger in the form of a aircraft was not in use (Richard Porter, Havelock
person actually shooting at birds (Section 4.2.1). North, New Zealand, pers. comm. 2005).
This technique involves farm workers acting
as ‘substitute shooters’ (Porter and McLennan 4.1.6 Birds of prey
1988; Sinclair 1998). This theory is that shooters Falconry or ways of attracting true predatory
should always wear distinctive clothing (visual) species to remain close to a crop is often the
(for example, a shirt of the same bright colour), subject of inquiry. Trained falcons and hawks are
and that other people working around the crop sometimes used to keep birds away from overseas
should wear the same distinctive clothes (visual) airports (Erickson et al. 1990; Marsh et al. 1991).
and carry a gun-like stick (visual) and perhaps However, the efficacy of this has rarely been

Figure 4.9: A shooter equipped to undertake bird control. It is important to take precautions such as
informing neighbours that shooting is taking place. Photo: R. Sinclair.
evaluated. In one study, trained falcons used at soybean crops to enhance house mouse
O’Hare International Airport to keep birds away predation significantly (P < 0.001) increased the
from the runways were not as cost effective as number of diurnal raptors visiting and hunting
two men with shotguns (Dolbeer 2003). Falconry over these crops, compared with untreated
is not permitted in most Australian States and crops (Kay et al. 1994).
Territories and is too labour intensive to be an
Encouraging raptors to specific areas is
economic option for protecting horticulture.
problematic, as different species occupy different
High levels of training are needed for both birds
ecological niches. For example, sparrowhawks
and handlers, and suitable raptor species are
and goshawks (Accipiter spp.) prefer hunting
often rare and protected. Previous attempts to
amongst trees and tall shrubs to surprise prey.
use falconry to protect agricultural crops have
Conversely, most falcons prefer open country,
mostly been unsuccessful (Kenward 1978).
and Australian hobbies prefer lightly timbered
In North America, artificial perches and nest country along watercourses (Marchant and
boxes were provided in orchards in an Higgins 1993). The most effective predators of
unsuccessful attempt to attract birds of prey adult pest birds are also unlikely to be attracted
to reduce vole populations (Askham 1990). To by carrion or other food sources. Species most
attract birds of prey to vineyards, Howard et al. likely to be attracted to carrion (such as wedge-
(1985) hung live decoy prey birds in cages from tailed eagles (Aquila audax), little eagles (Hier
artificial perches. Hawks attacked the caged aaetus morphnoides) and whistling kites (Mil
birds, but nearby feeding birds simply moved a vus sphenurus)) do not normally hunt birds in
short distance to other sections of the vineyards flight. Some studies have shown that providing
and grape damage was not reduced. In Australia, perches increases the numbers of birds of prey
perches placed around the perimeter of irrigated (Kay et al. 1994). However, this has not yet been

demonstrated to reduce the number of pest For pest birds with high reproductive rates,
birds or the damage they cause. The presence of control during breeding may be more effective
predatory birds could also inadvertently increase than control during the ripening season (Paton
damage levels if birds were repeatedly disturbed et al. 2005). This is likely to be the case for
and returned to damage new fruit after each starlings, because large numbers of juveniles
disturbance. congregate after breeding, which coincides
with the grape-ripening season. However, for
4.2 Population reduction birds with low reproductive potential, lethal

control can be up to six times more efficient
Some approaches to pest bird control are based than reproductive control (Dolbeer 1998). Hence
on a belief that every dead bird is one less to population dynamics and targeting of the timing
damage crops and any attempt to kill pest birds of control are important considerations.
is therefore worthwhile. In practice, killing birds
is usually legally restricted, very labour intensive, Feare (1991) suggests that there are two
and in most situations is unlikely to be cost- fundamental reasons why attempts to reduce
effective for reducing bird damage (Dyer and pest bird populations over broad areas have
Ward 1977; Feare et al. 1988; Feare 1991). There failed. First, most pests have a wide geographical
are many physical, economic, legal, social and range and much of the population is inaccessible
environmental limitations (Section 1.2.3) to using to control operations. Second, control attempts
lethal control for birds. In horticulture there are can be counteracted by compensatory increases
native species involved (Section 2.2), and many in breeding and survival. There are many
of which may provide economic benefits. examples where population control has not been
successful for these reasons. Some examples
To attempt long-term population control for any are the aerial application of organophosphate
species, a good understanding of their population for controlling quelea (Quelea quelea) in Africa
dynamics (Dolbeer 1998; Murton 1968) and the (Ward 1979); shooting wood-pigeons (Columba
subsequent effects on the environment is essential. palumbus) to reduce damage to grain and clover
In many circumstances it is not uncommon for in Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom (Murton et al.
up to 65% of young birds born each year to 1974); application of the surfactant PA-14 to large
die before they are one year old (Feare 1984). roosts of common grackles (Quiscalus quiscula),
Therefore, killing when there are large numbers of red-winged blackbirds and starlings to reduce
juveniles may simply be removing birds that were agricultural damage in Tennessee, North America
soon going to die anyway. (White et al. 1985); and the use of explosives to
control starlings at roosts to reduce damage
‘Killing birds is usually legally restricted, to cherries in Belgium (Tahon 1980). However,
is very labour intensive and in most cases is when dealing with a small, isolated population
unlikely to be cost-effective for where immigration is preventable, a substantial
reducing bird damage.’ reduction in numbers may be achievable (Feare
1991; Dolbeer 1998).
Lethal control is often ineffective for species
with high reproductive capacity and high rates Short-term population reduction, such as
of annual mortality. For example in Belgium, concentrated efforts in small areas during
seven years of substantial effort using explosives critical ripening periods just before crop damage
resulted in almost 750 000 starlings being killed occurs, may be effective. Ward (1979) proposed
at their roosts in an attempt to reduce damage to that an ‘immediate crop protection’ strategy for
cherry orchards (Tahon 1980). However, because quelea around cereal crops would be preferable
of high immigration and recruitment rates this than the previous ‘total reduction strategy’. This
had little medium- or long-term influence on was proposed after an estimated one billion
starling populations or crop damage. quelea were killed annually by aerial spraying

with avicides, with no indication of long-term a gas gun followed immediately by a shooting
reductions in population levels or damage. No programme. By this time, many of the birds will
published evidence could be found showing have become habituated to the loud bang and
either short-term or long-term population may not be afraid of the sound.
reduction leading to reduced crop damage in
horticulture. 4.2.2 Trapping and netting
In general, trapping birds is unlikely to be a useful
4.2.1 Shooting stand-alone option for most horticulturists.
Shooting is the bird control technique most In many situations, and for most bird species,
commonly used by horticulturalists in Australia trapping may not reduce pest populations to
(Fleming 1990, Tracey and Saunders 2005). below the economic damage threshold. Its use
Although few studies have evaluated its efficacy, is generally limited to small areas where few
shooting is unlikely to be cost-effective as a birds need to be removed, or when dealing with
stand-alone control measure in reducing pop resident populations where large numbers can
ulations of pests or damage. For example, studies be captured. Trapping and netting are usually
of wood pigeons and damage to brassica crops time-consuming and therefore costly, and
showed that an intensive shooting campaign growers soon become tired of these procedures.
in the experimental area did not result in less The legal status, care and humane euthanasia
damage than at control sites (Murton and Jones of trapped birds also need to be considered
1973). Further studies showed that shooting did (Sharp and Saunders 2004b). One advantage
not increase the winter mortality of wood pigeons of trapping is that it allows protected species of
above the level experienced in the absence of birds to be released unharmed.
shooting (Murton et al. 1974). Unless shooting is
carried out effectively over an area much larger ‘Trapping birds is unlikely to be a useful
than the orchard, new birds will quickly move in stand-alone option for most horticulturists.’
to replace those that have been shot.
On the basis of a nationwide questionnaire
Shooting can be an effective way of enhancing conducted in the USA, Gorenzel et al. (2000)
a scaring programme (Section 4.1) (Figure 4.9). reviewed trapping for pest bird control. Most
It can be regarded as a training technique to respondents (57%) considered that trapping
educate birds to associate a loud bang with a was not important overall for bird control in
real threat, but the technique needs to be used crops. However, in California, some respondents
intelligently. Indiscriminate shooting is not cost- thought trapping was important for control of
effective, and attempts at culling large numbers starlings and house finches in grapes. Gorenzel
of birds may be counterproductive. If too many et al. (2000) found no rigorous evaluations of
birds that have been taught to be frightened of a the effectiveness of trapping or the factors
shooter are killed, naive individuals that have not influencing results. Most evaluations of trapping
been ‘educated’ may rapidly replace them. put an emphasis on the numbers of birds caught
rather than on damage levels in relation to the
‘Shooting is the most commonly used
cost of control. The most common trapping
bird damage control technique
mistakes listed by respondents were failure to
but its cost-effectiveness in Australia
conduct adequate free-feeding and poor trap
is yet to be evaluated.’
placement (Gorenzel et al. 2000). Free-feeding
Shooting may have most value if it is reinforced (also called pre-baiting or pre-feeding) is where
by other scaring techniques and if it is started bait is placed out for several days before traps
before other scarers to establish the association are activated. Poor trap placement was probably
between the loud bang and real danger (Section due to inadequate observations of flight paths
4.1.3). A common problem is the failed use of and roosting and feeding areas. Failure to use

decoy or call birds in traps can also influence Cannon nets
their effectiveness (Williams and Schwab 1974). The use of cannon nets is more restricted than
any other capture technique and requires
The success of trapping and netting depends
considerable training, experience and many
largely on the skill of the operator. Several
volunteers. In addition to licences from the
Australian State governments issue permits to a
Australian Bird and Bat Banding Scheme, a
few select people to commercially use nets to
licence for the use of explosives is also required
trap and remove pest birds from areas such as
from State or Territory authorities. Explosives are
orchards. Trapping is used successfully as part
used to propel nets over large areas. Although
of an integrated programme to limit the spread
these nets have been used for ducks, parrots,
of starlings into Western Australia (Case Study
eagles and starlings, they are most commonly
9.2), and for managing cockatoo and corella
used for catching shorebirds. This method has the
populations in Victoria (Case Study 9.3). Some
potential to capture large numbers of birds that
trappers can catch reasonably large numbers
congregate in open areas, although appropriate
of birds. Free-feeding and knowledge of bird
sites can be difficult to locate. Cannon nets are
movements and behaviour in the target area
unlikely to be useful for controlling pest birds in
are essential. Different trap designs that have
horticulture.
been used successfully to capture pest birds are
described below. The ability of these methods to Pull nets
reduce pest bird damage to horticulture has not
Pull nets (Figure 4.11) of various designs (Bub
been investigated.
1995), also known also as single clap nets
Mist nets or book traps, have been used since ancient
Egyptian times (MacPherson 1897). One such
Mist nets (Figure 4.10) are commonly used to
design has been refined by officers of the
capture birds for research but are restricted
Department of Sustainability and Environment in
to licensed bird banders and controlled by the
Victoria and has been used for over ten years to
Australian Bird and Bat Banding Scheme (Lowe
capture long-billed corellas and sulphur-crested
1989). Mist nets are not recommended for
cockatoos. This design includes a large net, two
managing pest birds, because of the likelihood
steel arms with a locking trip mechanism and
of catching non-target species and the training
two stretchable rubber leads. These nets can be
required.
activated by remote control or by hand with a
long wire cable attached to the trip mechanism.
Figure 4.10: Mist nets are comprised of very fine Figure 4.11: Setting up a pull net.
netting and are for restricted use only. Photo: B. Lukins.
Photo: J. Tracey.

To improve capture efficiency and avoid non- and hold a large number of birds, provided that
target captures, observations of flock size and there is adequate shade, food and water (Sharp
feeding behaviour and at least five days of free- and Saunders 2004b). The V-shaped entrances
feeding (Figure 4.12) are recommended. of this trap can be adjusted for different species
(Gadd 1996).
Walk-in cage trap
Walk-in cage traps (Figure 4.14) operate by

attracting birds into a cage with a lure of food
or other birds. Various mechanisms of capture
can be used. For example, a drop-down door
can be activated by a bird walking on a treadle
plate, closing the bird inside the cage. A variety
of funnel entrances can also be used, either at
ground level or elevated with a perch beneath.
The use of lure-birds is applicable for flocking
birds such as starlings and territorial birds such
as the introduced myna. Simple designs can
Figure 4.12: Free-feeding grain for cockatoos
capture a single bird at a time; more elaborate
and corellas before setting a pull net.
designs can capture multiple birds and include
Photo: J. Tracey.
holding cages for lure birds.
Modified Australian crow trap
A trap that has been used with some success

in vineyards and orchards on a variety of
bird species is the modified Australian crow
(MAC) trap (Figure 4.13). This design was first
developed to capture crows (Woodbury 1961)
and is probably the trap most commonly used by
horticulturists in Australia. Crows and starlings
are the main species targeted. This design is also
used in conjunction with other techniques to
prevent the establishment of starlings in Western
Australia (Case Study 9.2). The trap can capture
Figure 4.14: Two-stage cage trap with a starling

passing through the one-way entrance.
Photo: B. Lukins.
Capture at nest sites
Figure 4.13: Modified Australian crow trap with Catching by hand or with hand-held nets at nest
captured starlings. Photo: J. Tracey. sites is an opportunistic method that is legally

restricted (Chapter 6). This trapping method is 1976). They also suggested that a multi-catch
unlikely to result in large numbers of birds being design would greatly improve the efficiency
captured. Removal of breeding adults also has of catching starlings and may be of benefit for
animal welfare implications for dependent eggs small fruit orchards.
and young (Sharp and Saunders 2004b).
Euthanasia
A variety of single-catch nest box traps (Figure Once captured, any non-target species should be
4.15) have been used to capture hole-nesting released on site. Pest birds should be euthanased
species (DeHaven and Guarino 1969; Stewart in the most humane way practicable. The preferr
1971; Blums et al. 2000). Dehaven and Guarino ed techniques are the use of carbon dioxide
(1969) used a spring-loaded trap door that from a regulated cylinder, or neck dislocation.
closed over the entrance of the nest box when Safe and humane procedures for these methods
triggered by a treadle inside the box. More soph are described in codes of practice and standard
isticated designs use electronics for monitoring operating procedures available from http://www.
captures (Stewart 1971). Stewart (1973) operated deh.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/publications/
a single nest box trap during a 124-day period humane-control/ (Sharp and Saunders 2004c).
and captured 56 starlings. Knittle and Guarino To avoid the stress of additional handling and
(1976) used 26 nest box traps in approximately transportation, a practical method of euthanasia
80 hectares (200 acres) and captured 294 at the capture location is recommended.
starlings in 57 days. On the basis of the
reproductive capacity for the area (Dehaven and 4.2.3 Poisoning
Guarino 1970), they concluded that this achieved
Poisons specifically used for bird species are
an overall reduction of about 959 birds from the
known as avicides. The use of poisons for pest
post-breeding population (Knittle and Guarino
birds is strictly controlled by legislation (Chapter
6), although there have been some problems in
Australia with illegal poisoning (Du Guesclin et al.
1983; Alexander 1990; Environment and Natural
Resources Committee 1995). The main dilemmas
with poisons are: community resistance to
their use; their impacts on non-target species;
animal welfare concerns; and (depending on the
poison used) their residual or secondary effects
in the food chain. The availability of poisons
in Australia is regulated by the Australian
Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority
(Section 6.2). The use of lethal poisons for birds
is restricted to licensed pest control operators,
requires site permits from wildlife agencies, and
may be permitted only for use in, or around,
buildings. These requirements vary with the type
of chemical and between States, and permits,
restrictions and conditions of use are regularly
reviewed and updated (Section 6.2).
Free-feeding (where unpoisoned bait is placed

out for several days before the poison is added)
Figure 4.15: Nest box trap. is essential for a successful poisoning campaign.
Photo: J. Tracey. This is to attract birds to the site, allows the

operator to determine how much bait is needed DRC-1339
per day, and conditions the birds to take the bait DRC-1339 (3-chloro-4-methylaniline hydro
at the site. Free-feeding should continue until the chloride, Flockoff® or Starlicide®) is a poison that
amount taken per day is roughly the same. On affects renal function in birds. It is currently not
the day before poisoning, the amount of free- registered for use in Australia. This poison was
feed provided can be reduced (often halved) so identified by the Denver Research Centre (DRC)
that all of it is eaten and the birds are left a little after evaluating more than 2000 chemicals for
hungry. The amount of poisoned bait provided pest bird control between the 1940s and the
can be less than the amount of the last free-feed 1980s (Spurr 2002). In North America and New
(halved again) to minimise over-use of poison Zealand it has been used for over 30 years (Bull
bait, reduce non-target impacts and lessen the 1965; Besser et al. 1967), and it is currently applied
potential for bait-shyness to develop. to cereals, cereal pellets (Figures 4.16 and 4.17),
bread and dripping, sultanas and potato chips
‘The use of lethal poisons for birds
for controlling starlings, red-winged blackbirds,
is usually restricted to licensed
crows, ravens and gulls.
pest control operators.’
In New Zealand it has been used for many years
Bait-shyness occurs when birds receive a sub
to control rooks. Initially, ground baiting of rooks
lethal dose of poison but enough to make them
was conducted using bread and dripping at
ill and cause them to avoid the poison bait in the
carefully selected times of the year when their
future. Bait-shyness can also develop if a poison
preferred foods were lacking. These control
acts too quickly and the birds that have not eaten
operations were very successful in terms of
the poisoned bait see those that have eaten it
numbers of birds killed (over 86 000 were killed
being affected (Richard Porter, Havelock North,
in the first 15 years) (Porter 1987). More recently,
New Zealand, pers. comm. 2005). Ensuring
a jellied form of DRC-1339 has been applied to
adequate free-feeding is the most effective way
the edges of nests by an operator hanging from
to reduce bait-shyness (Nelson 1994).
a helicopter (Richard Porter, Havelock North,
A range of poisons has been used to kill birds. New Zealand, pers. comm. 2005).
They include organophosphates (Ridpath et al.
DRC-1339 is unique among avicides, as it has
1961), endrin (Stickel et al. 1979), 1080 (Balcomb
selective toxicity for different bird species. Many
et al. 1983), nicotine (Ridpath et al. 1961),
species that are regarded as pests, including
strychnine (Long and Vagg 1960; Ochs 1976;
starlings, pigeons, gulls, crows and ravens, are
Redig et al. 1982), PA-14 (Heisterberg et al.
highly sensitive (United States Department
1987) and brodifacoum (Godfrey 1986; Porter
of Agriculture 2001; Eisemann et al. 2003).
1996). Poisons currently registered for pest
Conversely, DRC-1339 has been shown to have
bird control overseas (DRC-1339) or in Australia
low toxicity to most mammals (except cats)
(4-aminopyridine, alpha-chloralose and fenthion)
and many bird species native to North America
are discussed in more detail below.
(Eisemann et al. 2003). Of the 55 bird species
Most of the avicides discussed in this section tested, two are native to Australia: the budgerigar
have not been demonstrated to effectively (Melopsittacus undulatus) and the barn owl
reduce damage caused by Australian pest birds, (Tyto alba). As this toxin is metabolised rapidly
and considerably more field research would be there is minimal risk of secondary exposure. The
needed to establish their potential value. There mode of action is irreversible kidney and heart
are also animal welfare and target specificity damage, which causes death three to 50 hours
concerns associated with many avicides, and after ingestion (United States Environmental
there has been little assessment of their potential Protection Agency 1995). There are potential
non-target effects on Australian species. animal welfare concerns for birds that receive a

Figure 4.16: Preparing free-feed bait prior to trials of DRC-1339. Photo: J. Tracey.
sub-lethal dose and suffer the effects of kidney Pest Control Officers and government workers.
and/or heart damage beyond one or two days When birds eat treated grain, it causes them to
(Sharelle Hart, RSPCA, pers. comm. 2006). behave erratically and to give off distress calls
However to avoid this, each bait is loaded with before death (Goodhue and Baumgartner 1965;
at least a lethal dose for the target species. Gadd 1992). This may frighten away nearby birds
A recent review (J. Dawes, Pestat, Canberra, or cause them to mob the affected bird. Hence
unpub. 2006) suggests that although birds may this chemical is also considered a secondary
become thirsty after ingesting starlicide they chemical repellent (Section 4.5.2).
do not display other signs of distress, and birds
that survive ingestion of the toxin show no signs There are animal welfare, social perception,
of pathology at either the gross or microscopic target specificity and human safety concerns
level. However, it should be pointed out that about the use of this chemical, and it is unlikely to
humaneness of toxins is difficult to assess, and gain registration in other States and Territories.
the absence of obvious distress signals does

Alpha-chloralose
not mean an animal is not feeling unwell or even
Alpha-chloralose (or α-chloralose) is a chloral
experiencing pain. The review by Dawes (Pestat,
Canberra, unpub. 2006) suggested that non- derivative of glucose that acts as a soporific or
target impacts can be minimised by appropriate narcotic by depressing the cortical centres of
design and application of baits. the brain. As a soporific it is the most humane of
the avicides. Alpha-chloralose can be mixed with
Aminopyridine grain bait at a concentration of around 2% and
Aminopyridine (also called 4-aminopyridine offered to birds after a period of free-feeding
or Scatterbird®) has effects similar to those (Nelson 1994). Alternatively it can be added
of central nervous system stimulants and is to drinking water. Care needs to be exercised
currently registered for application to grain with the use of alpha-chloralose to avoid bait
baits in New South Wales, Tasmania and Victoria shyness. An advantage of alpha-chloralose,
(Section 6.2), where its users are restricted to particularly where non-target species may be

trials. However, the baiting caused dispersal of
local flocks away from the crops. The dispersal
lasted up to 90 days, which was long enough for
the crops to be harvested (Sinclair and Cerchez
1992). At the cattle feedlot, starlings were
successfully dispersed using 1.5% weight/volume
alpha-chloralose in water or 1.5% weight/weight
alpha-chloralose in cattle feed placed outside
but adjacent to the feedlot troughs where the
birds were foraging on split food.
Fenthion methyl
Fenthion methyl (commercial names include

Control-a-Bird®, Rid-a-Bird®, Avigel® and
Avigrease®) is an organophosphate that acts
as a cholinesterase inhibitor and neurotoxin. It is
registered in Victoria, Tasmania and the Northern
Territory. Use of this product is limited to pest
control officers and requires a licence in Tasmania
(Section 6.2). It is used only against introduced
Figure 4.17: Avicide ground bait.
species of birds. The chemical is usually mixed
Photo: N. Reid.
in a special grease or gel for surface application
inside buildings and on structures such as bridges
at risk, is that the dose can be reduced so that
and steel girders. Birds get the grease on their
birds are immobilised and not killed. Non-target
feet and the poison is absorbed through the skin.
species can be revived and released and target
The chemical is rapidly metabolised in birds,
birds can be killed humanely. The dose rate that
thus reducing the risk of secondary poisoning.
causes mortality varies with the species, the size
Non-target species may succumb to primary
of the bird, and the ambient temperature. Higher
poisoning if they consume the feet or beaks of
mortality is evident in smaller birds and at low
birds poisoned by the grease (Hunt et al. 1991,
(< 12 °C) or high (> 30 °C) air temperatures.
1992). This chemical is not available as an oral
The main use of alpha-chloralose is for controlling toxin, and its use has non-target (Bruggers et al.
feral pigeons around buildings. It has also 1989), welfare (Spurr 2002) and human health
been useful for removing small or establishing (Jeremiah and Parker 1985) concerns. Because
populations of sparrows, starlings, mynas (Case of these issues, it is unsuitable for protecting
Study 9.1) and crows. When used for bird control, horticultural crops.
alpha-chloralose usually kills few individuals but
causes the bulk of the population to disperse, 4.2.4 Chemical fertility control
and this may last long enough for a crop to A number of chemical products cause infertility
ripen. Hence, it may be considered to act more in birds when added to their food. Reproduction
as a chemical repellent (Section 4.5) than as a is also prevented when chemicals or oils are
poison. However, non-target species may be at sprayed on their eggs. Although birds are
risk (Section 7.2.2). Sinclair and Cerchez (1992) considered North America’s most significant
trialled alpha-chloralose on sparrows in apricot vertebrate pests and pest bird research has
and grape crops and on starlings in a cattle been well funded there, fertility control agents
feedlot. With sparrows, they found that 0.5% have not been considered sufficiently promising
weight/weight alpha-chloralose on mixed canary to attract research funding in recent decades. No
seed resulted in variable mortality rates between products are currently registered for this use in

Australia. No published evidence could be found Ornitrol®
demonstrating that fertility control chemicals Ornitrol® (20, 25-diazocholesterol hydrochloride)
can reduce pest bird damage to crops in Aust is a steroid that is a long-acting inhibitor of
ralia or overseas. ovulation in many bird species and also inhibits
testicular growth. When added to food at
A drawback of many fertility control agents
0.1% it has been shown to delay or reduce egg
is that they require several doses. There is
production in caged and wild pigeons for up to
little information about the effects of these
six months (Elder 1964; Wofford and Elder 1967;
products on offspring that do hatch but may
Woulfe 1968). At this concentration it took seven
have received a partial dose. Oestrogen-based
days for birds to ingest an adequate dose, but
products are likely to affect the fertility and at a 1% concentration the birds refused to eat
sexual development of any non-target species enough grain to be effective. Higher doses can
taking bait. also be toxic to birds (Lofts et al. 1968), and the
signs described could have welfare implications.
‘No published evidence could be found
Wofford and Elder (1967) concluded that two
demonstrating that fertility control chemicals
treatments a year at 0.1% would control fertility
can reduce pest bird damage to crops in
if both treatments were timed to coincide with
Australia or overseas.’ the breeding season.
Bomford (1990b) reviewed chemical fertility Ornitrol® at 0.1% or 0.05% on grain fed to field
control techniques and assessed the potential populations of red-winged blackbirds had
value of several chemicals that reduce fertility in variable success, reducing hatch success by
birds, including the following: between 7% and 61% in various trials (Fringer
and Granett 1970). Timing of baiting, variable
Mestranol
uptake of bait and promiscuity were proposed
Mestranol (17-ethynyl-3-methyl ether) is an as factors reducing success rates. Canary seed
orally active oestrogen. In a cage trial, spraying impregnated with Ornitrol® at 0.1% and fed to
the eggs of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix) captive sparrows resulted in 0% hatch success
with mestranol increased embryo and chick compared with 64% in a control group (Mitchell
mortality, and made all quail that hatched et al. 1979). This effect is not permanent, as a
irreversibly sterile (Wentworth et al. 1968). fertile egg was produced about a week after
Force-feeding mestranol-impregnated grit to treatment ceased. Within a month hatch success

was similar to that in the control group.
adult quail reduced their fertility, but this was
not developed as a technique suitable for use on Triethylenemelamine
wild birds (Wentworth 1968).
Triethylenemelamine (TEM) (2,4,6-tris(ethyle–
BDH 10131 nimino)-s-triazine) arrests spermatogenesis
through inhibition of meiosis. Vandenbergh and
BDH 10131 (the 3-cyclopentyl ether of 17α-
Davis (1962) field-tested TEM on a breeding
hexa-1′,3′diynyloestra-1,3,5(10)-trien-17β-ol) is a
population of red-winged blackbirds in a marsh
synthetic oestrogen that was investigated as an
for two years. In both years the hatch rate was
alternative to mestranol or quinoestrol because
significantly reduced relative to that at a control
it was shown to be active for a longer period in
site. In contrast, Fringer and Granett (1970) and
laboratory rats (Kendle et al. 1973). In laboratory Guarino and Schafer (1974) field-tested TEM
trials on birds, Kendle et al. (1973) fed BDH 10131 on territorial male red-winged blackbirds and
to caged pigeons (Columba livia) for two days found that it did not reduce breeding success.
and found that fertile egg production dropped Davis (1961) found that caged starlings orally
to less than 20% of that in untreated birds. dosed with TEM in winter, when the testes were

fully regressed, did not recover their fertility would need to consume 5 g of 0.25% nicarbazin
for several months. A small field trial of TEM on bait/day to obtain the recommended dose for
male starlings, which were captured, dosed with effective contraception. Many passerines might
TEM and released, showed that their breeding require even higher doses. Delivering such high,
success was reduced. However, the production consistent daily doses throughout the breeding
of some fertile eggs in the territories of sterilised season would be difficult for most birds that
males indicated that their female partners were damage horticulture.
occasionally mating with other males.
Egg oils
ThioTEPA Vegetable and mineral oils can be used to prevent
ThioTEPA is the abbreviation for triethyleneth hatching when the oils are applied directly to
iophosphoramide (tris (1-aziridinyl) phosphine eggs in the nest. An advantage of applying oils,
sulfide). Potvin et al. (1982) sterilised wild rather than destroying eggs or nests, is that birds
male red-winged blackbirds by feeding them may continue incubating, in some cases beyond
thioTEPA-treated corn for ten days. The hatch the normal time for hatching (Christens and
rate was 46%, which was significantly lower than Blokpoel 1991; Cummings et al. 1997). For many
the average hatch rate of 85% in the control area. bird species re-nesting is common after nests
The fertility of some female partners of treated and eggs are destroyed. Vegetable and mineral
male red-winged blackbirds was suggested to oils prevent the hatching of 96% to 100% of the
have been a result of females copulating with eggs of chickens (Gallus gallus), ring-billed gulls
males from other territories. (Larus delawarensis), herring gulls (Larus ar
gentatus) and Canada geese (Branta canaden
Nicarbazin
sis) (Blokpoel and Hamilton 1989; Christens
Nicarbazin (C H N O ), is a complex of two and Blokpoel 1991; Baker et al. 1993; Christens
19 18 6 6
compounds, 4,4’-dinitrocarbanilide (DNC) and et al. 1995; Cummings et al. 1997; Pochop et al.
4,6-dimethyl-2-pyrimidinol (HDP). Nicarbazin is 1998b).
an oral contraceptive for birds and is registered
A study comparing mineral oil with commercially
by the United States Environmental Protection
available oils (including castor, corn, linseed,
Agency (US EPA 2005) for use against pest
safflower and soybean) found that they
geese and pigeons. DNC is the active component
were equally effective (Pochop et al. 1998a).
but it is very poorly absorbed and requires HDP
Preventing the hatching of eggs by using oils is
for absorption and to achieve a contraceptive
effective, but may have a high labour cost due to
blood level. Once absorbed, nicarbazin interferes
the inaccessibility of many bird nests. Therefore
with the formation of the vitelline membrane,
this technique may only be useful for small or
separating the egg yolk and egg white. The effect
isolated pest populations (Miller 2002). There
on hatchability is a function of time and dose and
may be an application for reducing small urban
is reversible (US EPA 2005). Nicarbazin must be
populations of pest birds with extended breeding
consumed daily, consistently and in adequate
seasons, such as ibis (Threskiornithidae) (Martin
quantity to achieve a contraceptive effect and
and Dawes 2005).
a single or intermittent dose will not affect egg
hatchability.
4.3 Habitat management and
Smaller birds, including passerines, have the
decoy feeding
most inefficient absorption of nicarbazin,
requiring a higher bait concentration and dose With increasing regulatory and social restrictions
(M. Avery in prep.). A pigeon requires a dose rate on killing birds or using noisy scaring devices,
of 83 mg/kg bodyweight/day. Assuming similar there is greater interest in manipulating habitat
values for passerines, a 150 gram passerine quality as an alternative means of reducing

bird damage (Van Vuren 1998). A number of 4.3.2 Orchard management decisions
approaches (reviewed by Bishop et al. 2003)
Some horticultural bird problems can be reduced
can be applied. Habitat quality can be reduced by decreasing the attractiveness of orchards.
so that fewer resources are available for a The varieties of fruit grown can be important
pest species and their numbers decline, or with respect to both time of maturity, sugar
the crop can be made less attractive to pests. content and type, fruit size, colour and texture
Alternatively, pest birds can be lured away from (Section 2.4). Depending on the main species of
an area by providing more attractive habitats or pest birds in an area, some varieties of fruit may
food elsewhere. be less prone to damage. For example, the fruit
of some olive varieties may be too small or too
4.3.1 Reducing habitat quality large to suffer high levels of bird damage from
For environmental and economic reasons, the particular species (Mladovan 1998; Spennemann
removal of roosting vegetation is not practicable and Allen 2000). Growers may be able to avoid
for reducing populations of pest birds over growing varieties most prone to damage from
information obtained from established growers
large areas. Furthermore, there are State and
in an area.
local government controls over vegetation
modification, and even pruning of some trees There is a range of factors that influence the
is not allowed without permission in some severity of bird damage (Section 2.4). These
jurisdictions (Section 6.4). It may be possible, factors may provide opportunities for reducing
however, to modify or remove isolated trees bird problems. For example, the only crop in an
or shrubs that are used for roosting, although area (Section 2.4) (Figure 4.18) or the first (Baker
inquiries must be made to determine whether 1980a) or last crop in a district to have fruit
this action will be in contravention of State native maturing are more likely to sustain bird damage.
vegetation retention legislation (Section 6.4). Therefore, in areas where bird problems are likely
to be significant, choose varieties that mature at
St John (1991) found that modifying access to the same time as others in the area. This can help
food and water reduced the number of little reduce damage by spreading the availability of
corellas roosting in river red gums (Eucalyptus food over a wider area.
camaldulensis), and alleviated damage. Experi
mental trimming of roost trees in Houston, Texas ‘Isolated orchards tend to suffer more damage
to reduce the urban impacts of brown-headed than those surrounded by other orchards that
produce similar fruit.’
cowbirds (Molothrus ater), starlings, grackles
(Quiscalus quiscula and Cassidix mexicanus), Orchard location can be important. For exam
red-winged blackbirds and American robins ple, proximity of the orchard to either native
was effective in preventing roosting (Good and vegetation, windbreaks consisting of exotic
Johnson 1976, 1978). In this study, trimming species (Figure 4.19), or powerlines may
consisted of removing one-third of the canopy; increase fruit losses caused by to some species
this is considered a ‘heavy’ trim by professional (Stevenson and Virgo 1971; Graham 1996). Land
tree surgeons. Stands of pruned trees were not use around an orchard will also be important,
occupied, whereas trees that were not pruned as it will influence the availability of alternative
were occupied to the same level as in previous foods (Section 2.4). For example, there may be
seasons (Good and Johnson 1976, 1978). an association between livestock and starlings,
as these birds regularly feed on ground-dwelling
Removing nearby food sources may also reduce insects and grazing makes these insects more
damage on a local scale (Section 4.3.3). For accessible to the birds. Isolated orchards tend
example, removing blackberry bushes that are to suffer more damage than those surrounded
exploited by starlings, rosellas and silvereyes by other orchards producing similar fruit. Hence,
may help reduce damage to nearby fruit. before planting, consider the surrounding
habitat and the bird species that may become
a problem.

Figure 4.18: An isolated vineyard. The only crop in an area may be more susceptible to bird damage.
Photo: J. Tracey.
Figure 4.19: A vineyard surrounded by a windbreak of exotic and native species. Depending on the
pest species present, a windbreak of purely exotic species may make a crop more susceptible to bird
damage. Photo: J. Tracey.

The pasture sward in an orchard and the Depending on the grass species and height, the
surrounding area may influence damage levels. pasture sward can either increase or decrease
When planted in an adjacent field it may offer the abundance or availability of certain insects,
an alternative (decoy) food that helps to attract and this in turn may influence bird damage in
the birds away from the fruit (Section 4.3.3). different ways. For example, starlings prefer
Conversely, pasture within orchard rows may short (Whitehead et al. 1995) and freshly
provide food that attracts birds, and when the mown (Tinbergen 1981) grass where insects are
crop ripens it becomes an additional item for more accessible. Woronecki et al. (1981) and
the birds to eat. For example, in New Zealand, Woronecki and Dolbeer (1980) found a strong
orchards that have a sward of grass that seeds and consistent relationship between reduced
in late winter or early spring attract birds such insect populations and reduced corn damage
as sparrows and greenfinches, and these species by red-winged blackbirds in Ohio. Conversely,
will nip the fruiting buds of apples and pears, in New York, reduced damage by the same
causing losses as high as 90% (Richard Porter, bird species in corn was found to be related to
Havelock North, New Zealand, pers. comm. increases in insect populations (Bollinger and
2005) Regular management and maintenance Caslick 1985b).
of pasture swards between rows can reduce the
It is important to observe the birds responsible
alternative food for some pest species (Figures
for crop damage and their behaviour patterns.
4.20; 4.21).
Forde (1989) recommended planting rows of
alternative food such as sudax grass to reduce
damage to fruit by regent parrots (Polytelis
anthopeplus) and yellow rosellas (Platycercus
elegans flaveolus) because he observed that the
birds preferred sudax seed to other native seeds,
commercial seeds, fruit or nuts. Reynolds (2003)
observed Adelaide rosellas foraging on soursob
bulbs (Oxalis pes-caprae) in cherry orchards
and showed that the birds could be attracted to
Figure 4.20: A healthy, well-maintained inter- feed at plots where the bulbs had been made
row pasture sward. Management of pasture available by light cultivation. He concluded that
in an orchard and the surrounding area can a number of weed or pasture species could be
influence bird damage in different ways. similarly manipulated to act as decoy foods but
Photo: J. Tracey. suggested that measures encouraging birds to
feed elsewhere should be counter-balanced by
an integrated approach, discouraging them from
feeding in the susceptible crop.
4.3.3 Decoy food

Decoy feeding is a potentially viable method of
reducing bird damage, but it requires further
investigation for horticulture. Growing decoy
crops has been successfully used to reduce bird
damage to sunflower crops (Broome 1979; Allen
1982, 1984; Cummings et al. 1987). Providing
Figure 4.21: Unharvested fruit left to drop can alternative food sources for horticulture requires
provide a food source for pest birds. careful consideration of the pest species and
Photo: B. Lukins. their preferences and feeding behaviour.

A decoy crop needs to be at a stage of maturity times of flowering, and the structure and extent
where birds will feed on it just before the grower’s of vegetation will determine whether plantings
commercial crop becomes vulnerable to attack, serve as decoy food sources or whether they
so that the birds’ feeding patterns are established attract more damaging species.
on the decoy food. Scaring can be used in
‘Many birds will preferentially feed on
conjunction with decoy feeding and should be
nectar-producing trees and shrubs rather
concentrated around the orchard and kept well
than on fruit crops.’
away from the decoy site. It may take more
than one season to develop established feeding Many birds, including honeyeaters and silver
patterns on a particular decoy site. If decoy food eyes, are attracted to nectar-producing trees
(rather than a decoy crop) is supplied, it must be and shrubs. They will preferentially feed on
highly palatable and at least as nutritious as the these plants rather than on fruit crops. When
commercial crop, otherwise there is little reason the surrounding vegetation produces good
for birds to be attracted to it. quality nectar, bird damage is often low. When
investigating nectar flows in the Margaret River,
The strong attraction starlings have for soil
Rooke (1983) found that higher average yield of
insects may offer an opportunity to exploit a
honey per hive corresponded with lower damage
particular feature of a pest species’ diet by using
by silvereyes to grapes. Bird damage was lowest
a ‘decoy feeding’ strategy. When fruit matures
during good nectar years, which coincided with
in late summer or autumn, soil insects are often
warm springs and autumns and relatively cool
largely inaccessible to starlings because the
periods during February and March. Further
soil is dry and hard. Keeping an area of ground
research suggested that silvereyes prefer
moist may improve access to soil insects, the
alternatives to grapes, including sugar-water
preferred food source. However, this strategy
and plants such as marri, seaberry saltbush
has not yet been proven to reduce fruit losses,
(Rhagodia candolleana), nightshade (Solanum
and omnivorous birds may still consume fruit
spp.), berries and figs. Research has also found
preferentially when it is available.
that birds damaging grapes were usually in
4.3.4 Native vegetation poor physical condition, possibly because of a
lack of natural food sources. Rooke (1983) also
Native flowering plants can be planted to act as
discovered that providing additional food did
decoy food sources (Section 4.3.3) for native
not increase the number of silvereyes.
honeyeaters. Increasing plant diversity and the
extent of native vegetation on farmland is known Native flowering plants also attract insectivores,
to increase the diversity of birds, particularly including many honeyeaters. These bird species
native species (Green 1986; MacDonald and may be beneficial in the vineyard throughout the
Johnson 1995). This leads to the perception year by controlling insect pests (Section 2.5).
that damage to fruit crops will be amplified Providing well-structured native vegetation can
with increased plantings of native vegetation. serve to provide shelter for insectivores, support
However, many pest birds, including crows, bird diversity, and supply an effective decoy
ravens, starlings, cockatoos and corellas, prefer food source. Selecting the most appropriate
open agricultural areas. Other species, such plant species is crucial to ensure that the nectar
as European blackbirds and mynas, thrive in source is acting as a diversion from the orchard
urban environments. Pied currawongs and noisy rather than attracting more pest birds. Habitats
miners thrive in fragmented habitats with little with exotic flowering plants can be preferred by
structural diversity. Increasing the extent of well- introduced bird species such as starlings and
structured and diverse native vegetation may European blackbirds (Green 1986; Williams and
not increase the abundance of these species. Karl 1996; Kinross 2000) and native frugivores
The bird species, the plant species and their (Recher and Lim 1990) that damage fruit. Many

birds beneficial in vineyards are absent from decoy trees and shrubs that are productive for
introduced vegetation such as pines. The absent the whole period that crops are vulnerable to
species include specialist predators, Eucalyptus bird damage. For honeyeaters, the preferred
canopy feeders, obligate cavity-nesters and species for decoy plantings include Eucalyptus
insectivores (Suckling et al. 1976). These species spp., Melaleuca spp., Callistemon spp., Banksia
can control harmful insects or compete with, or spp. and Grevillea spp. Appendix C provides a
prey on, pest birds (Section 2.5). list of native shrubs and trees and their flowering
periods. These plants may attract insectivores
A balance of native shrubs and trees of vary
and serve as decoy food sources for native
ing heights is recommended for conservation
honeyeaters and silvereyes.
and may reduce the numbers of pest birds. To
avoid colonisation by aggressive edge-specialist In summary, the most appropriate plants to act
honeyeaters (for example, noisy miners), O’Neill as a decoy food source will depend upon:
(1999) suggests that revegetation should not
• the pest bird species;
include more than 20% of nectar-producing
shrubs. Providing excess nectar in winter may • the time of ripening for the varieties
also cause normally non-sedentary species, grown;
such as silvereyes or lorikeets, to overwinter in • climate; and

orchards. Plantings of marri, figs, banksia and • soil type.
seaberry saltbush are recommended to reduce
silvereye damage to grapes in the south-west of Locally indigenous plant species are less likely to
Western Australia (Rooke 1983). become weed problems and are more likely to
be attractive to local bird species.
An awareness of the main bird species in an area
is vital in deciding the most suitable plant species The use of decoy plantings can be risky because
and where to plant them. Plantings should be of seasonal variations in the timing of flowering.
located where they are most likely to attract This control technique should be used with
birds and far enough away from the orchard to caution and in conjunction with other control
avoid damage. Ideal decoys for honeyeaters will methods.
be those plants that flower before a commercial
crop becomes vulnerable to attack and that 4.4 Exclusion
continue to produce nectar throughout the
ripening period. 4.4.1 Netting
Exclusion netting (Figure 4.22) has become a
The flowering periods of decoy plantings and
popular method of controlling bird damage in
how this relates to the ripening times of the
Australia. This is because of the advent of long-
varieties present on the property need to be
life, ultraviolet radiation-stabilised, strong plastic
considered. Abundant nectar just before or after
netting. It is now in use over a wide range of crop
ripening can inadvertently result in increased
types and over areas of more than 50 hectares.
damage. For example, large numbers of noisy
There is no engineering reason why even larger
friarbirds damaging vineyards in Orange, New
areas cannot be covered.
South Wales, have been linked to heavy flowering
of red stringybark (Eucalyptus macrorhyncha) in Using nets to physically prevent birds from
the same season (Tracey and Saunders 2003). In gaining access to crops is an effective way of
that season, harvesting was delayed by adverse reducing or preventing damage (Case studies
weather. Noisy friarbirds attracted to flowering 9.4 and 9.7). As bird damage is often variable
red stringybark in the area, then switched to and difficult for growers to predict (Section
feeding on mature wine grapes after nectar loads 2.3), one of the attractive features of exclusion
were exhausted. Hence it is important to select netting is that it reduces uncertainty and the

Figure 4.22: Exclusion netting. Photo: R. Sinclair.
need to monitor the bird problem. Netting also

overcomes increasing concerns about the use of
chemicals, animal welfare issues, and restrictions
on the use of acoustic devices under noise
pollution control legislation.
‘Netting overcomes concerns about the use

of chemicals, animal welfare issues, and
restrictions on the use of acoustic devices.’
Netting is not the best solution in all situations. It

is an acceptable solution when the benefits from
Figure 4.23: Drape-over or throw-over
excluding birds and not having to carry out any
nets. These are being used increasingly on
other bird control exceed the costs of netting
commercial horticulture crops.
(Chapter 5). Permanent netting is unlikely to be
Photo: J. Tracey.
an economic solution for low-value crops or for
crops that usually sustain only a low level of bird
short-term protection over the ripening season.
damage (Hector 1989a; Sinclair 1990; Slack and
Drape-over nets are lightweight, relatively
Reilly 1994).
inexpensive, extruded or loosely knitted fabrics
Drape-over or throw-over nets (Figure 4.23), that are available in a variety of colours, mesh
although previously used mainly in home sizes and widths (Duffy 2000). Laying nets over
gardens and on small hobby farm tree crops, a crop and removing them for re-use can be
are now becoming increasingly common on labour-intensive, but a number of labour saving
commercial horticulture crops — particularly methods have been developed (Fuller-Perrine
high-value grape and berry crops. They offer and Tobin 1993; Taber and Martin 1998; Duffy

2000) and are now commonly used (Figure Alternative drape-over netting options include
4.24). Keeping the ground between grapevines one- (Figure 4.25), two- (Figure 4.26), four-
clean of prunings and weeds will extend the life (Figure 4.27) or six-row netting or a ‘lockout’
of drape-over nets. Because of the fixed cost of system (Figure 4.28), whereby nets are draped
the equipment required to apply and remove over orchard trees or vines and then joined
nets efficiently, it is more economical to use together to create a complete cover. The
drape-over nets on large or high-value crops ‘lockout’ method requires more labour but less
where bird damage levels are generally high material, as the netting does not drape to the
(Fuller-Perrine and Tobin 1993). On small or low- ground on the inside rows of the block. When
value crops the value gained from avoiding the spraying for botrytis and other diseases or to
damage may not outweigh the cost of netting reduce fruit splitting, some growers use small
(Chapter 5). tractors to enable them to spray underneath the
netting, particularly for ‘lock-out’ and multiple-
row netting systems. Less netting is also required
when covering multiple rows, rather than a single
row, and this improves cost-effectiveness.
Some growers construct lightweight total-

exclusion netting systems, using second-hand
water pipe for poles, star-droppers for anchors,
and soft wire or baling twine to hold up low-
cost, short-lived nets, such as fish gill nets. These
systems have a high maintenance component
and usually require replacing every one to three
years. For crops that need only short-term
Figure 4.24: One of the net machines available protection, these lightweight systems may be
that growers use to save on labour costs of appropriate if a low-cost source of labour is
netting. Photo: A. Carter. available for maintenance.
Figure 4.25: Single-row drape-over netting. Photo: J. Tracey.

Figure 4.28: Lockout netting, where a net is
pinned to the ground on the outside of the
block only. Photo: A Carter.
Figure 4.26: Two-row drape-over netting.
Photo: J. Tracey.
In Australia, permanent total exclusion systems
are a popular form of bird exclusion for some
tree crops. The basic design is simple, involving a
pole and wire or cable structure supporting roof
and side netting (Figure 4.29). Most structures
now consist of panels of net that are individually
erected, with each panel stretched tightly
between wires joined at the selvedged edges.
The perimeter poles are usually wood, although
steel can be used. The structures are designed
so that loads that develop on the structure from
wind, rain, hail or snow are transferred back to
Figure 4.27: Four-row drape-over netting. the ground anchors guying back the perimeter
Photo: N. Reid. poles.
Figure 4.29: Permanent total exclusion system in a nectarine orchard. Photos: P. Fleming.

According to netting manufacturers, some black
nets have life expectancies of over ten years,
and white nets last five to eight years. The
supporting structure should outlast several nets
with minimal maintenance if it is well designed
and erected. In New Zealand, some wire netting
has lasted even longer (45 years) and is resistant
to chewing and breaching by birds.
Permanent netting may not be feasible for older

established orchards or for crops planted on
steeply sloping ground. Even where netting is
technically feasible, it is a significant expense
Figure 4.30: Netting on the edges of a crop
to purchase and erect. The most economical
only. This may be feasible where the damage is
option is to incorporate the costs of design
worse at the edges. Photo: R. Sinclair.
and erection of full netting into farm plans at
the early establishment stage. The costs and
couple of outside rows uncovered and net rows
benefits of netting are considered in Chapter 5.
further into the crop. This way, those outside
There are considerable economies of scale as the
rows operate as a sacrificial decoy and help to
area netted increases. An awareness of the main
prevent birds over-flying the netted of rows and
species responsible or potentially responsible
entering the crop.
for damage is necessary to determine the
appropriate mesh size. When only larger parrot Effects of netting on production and
and cockatoo species cause damage, increasing management
mesh size can reduce costs.
Netting can benefit fruit quality by reducing the
‘There are considerable economies of scale prevalence of blemishes, sunburn and wind rub.
as the area netted increases.’ Netting can, however, also increase the vigour
of foliage and affect the size and colour of fruit
If nets are erected over an existing orchard with by altering the microclimate. For example, hail
a history of bird damage, it may be desirable to netting, which has a much finer mesh (two
temporarily conduct a scaring programme to millimetres) than that required for birds, reduces
break the birds’ habit of feeding on the crop. light levels by 20%–25% if black, 18% if grey
Otherwise birds may chew on the netting to try and 12%–15% if white (Middleton and McWaters
to get inside. 1996). Under hail netting, wind speed can also
be reduced by up to 50% and humidity can
Where bird damage is worst around the edges
increase by more than 50%. Despite a perceived
of a vineyard, Taber and Martin (1998) suggest
change in temperature under nets, netting has
it may be worthwhile netting just the edges
little or no effect on temperature and does not
of a large crop (Figure 4.30). Scaring devices
offer frost protection (Middleton and McWaters
can then be used to keep birds away from the
1996).
crop centre. If birds are forced to feed in the
centre of a crop, well away from shelter, they Altered conditions under netting are likely to
may feel less comfortable and scaring may be necessitate changes to management practices
more effective. Another advantage of netting to ensure maximum productivity. Changes
the edges of vineyards is that low-flying birds in the choice of rootstock and in pruning and
such as European blackbirds are forced up irrigation practices may need to be considered,
into the sky, allowing time for them to be shot. especially in the case of vigorously growing
Alternatively, it may be more beneficial to leave a varieties. Disease management may also require

Figure 4.31: An electrified wire shock system. Photos: J. Tracey.
further consideration in cooler climates, for slow- 4.4.2 Other methods of exclusion
ripening varieties, and in disease-prone regions.
Some systems have been developed to
In Middleton and McWalter’s (1996) study of incorporate electrified wires over crops (Figure
the effects of hail netting in apple orchards in 4.31). The principle is that birds standing on the
Stanthorpe (Queensland), Orange (New South electric wires will receive a small electric shock,
Wales), and Drouin (Victoria), less fruit was sufficient to scare them away but not to harm
produced under netting. Reductions in fruit set them. Although no scientific investigation of
were not large and were beneficial in this study, the effect of these electrified systems on crop
as less thinning was required. Reduced fruit damage has been reported, field observations of
size and increased shoot growth occurred on bird behaviour (Emma Crossfield, University of
vigorous trees under netting. The effects on fruit Adelaide, South Australia, pers. comm. 2005) in
colour depend on the variety and fruit position. a vineyard have revealed that birds learn not to
Pollination may also be affected by netting; stand on the electrified wires and perch elsewhere
fewer bees are observed on trees under black in the crop. These observations suggest that this
netting than on uncovered trees (Middleton form of control is unlikely to reduce damage.
and McWaters 1996). Exclusion of insects has

Attempts have been made to protect horticultural
also been considered a benefit in orchards, for
crops by using monofilament lines strung over
example, for fruit-flies in stone fruit (Lloyd et al.
crops. Optimum filament size and spacing are
2005). Placing beehives in the netted areas may
still being developed. Knight (2000) found that
overcome poor pollination.
birds were repelled about 25 centimetres from
For low-chill stone fruits, exclusion netting (hail filament erected like a tepee over fruit trees. How
net of two millimetres hole diameter) was found ever, a field experiment to test monofilament
to enhance fruit development by seven to ten lines placed at 30-centimetre intervals over a
days and to improve fruit quality by increasing grape crop showed that they were ineffective
sugar concentration by 20%–30% and increasing in preventing damage by starlings and other
colour intensity by 20% (Lloyd et al. 2005). species (Steinegger et al. 1991). There are also

welfare concerns with monofilament lines, as the United States in the last 20 years on primary
injuries to birds can occur. chemical repellents to protect agricultural crops
from birds (Avery 1992; Cummings et al. 1994;
In a field experiment, Chambers (1993) demon
Curtis et al. 1994; Cummings et al. 1995; Avery
strated that covering individual table grape
et al. 1996b; Watkins 1996; Watkins et al. 1996;
bunches with polyester sleeves significantly
Cummings et al. 1998a,b; Dolbeer et al. 1998; Gill
(P < 0.05) reduced the damage caused by Cape
et al. 1999; Askham 2000). Much of this work has
sparrows (Passer melanurus). The polyester
focused on methyl anthranilate, a human food-
sleeves did not reduce grape quality or yield. The
flavouring additive that occurs naturally in many
obvious disadvantage of this approach is that it
plants. This work showed that some formulations
is labour-intensive and hence costly. Although
of methyl anthranilate are effective in reducing
damage was reduced to almost negligible levels
bird damage to some horticultural crops, but
in this experiment, not all bunches were covered,
that their effectiveness is variable.
so the birds had access to uncovered grapes. It
is possible that if all bunches were covered the In Australia, Sinclair and Campbell (1995)
birds would have pecked through the sleeves, as conducted cage trials testing the repellency of
occurred in one instance. methyl anthranilate on four species of pest bird:
the Adelaide rosella, silvereye, little corella and
4.5 Chemical repellents starling. They found that when alternative food
was provided methyl anthranilate was highly
Chemical repellents (or deterrents) are aversive
repellent to all four species. However, field trials
substances that are usually sprayed onto crops
with the chemical on apricots, grapes, cherries,
because their taste, smell, colour or physiological
and apples did not demonstrate effective
effect makes the treated fruit unattractive to
repellency at application rates that were not
birds (Mason and Clark 1997). Many chemicals
phytotoxic (Sinclair and Campbell, unpublished).
used or tested as bird repellents were originally
Staples et al. (1998) found that the chemical
registered as agricultural products such as
was phytotoxic to rice seeds and seedlings and
insecticides or fungicides (Clark 1998). Currently
also warned of its potential toxicity to marine
there are few available chemical repellents in
animals if the chemical was applied in marine
Australia that growers can use to prevent loss of
environments.
fruit caused by birds (Section 6.2). One limitation
is that chemical repellents can leave residues The size of the fruit can affect a repellent’s
in fruit that make them unsuitable for human effectiveness. For example, apples and pears
consumption (Porter et al. 1996). In addition, may not be protected because the treated
some chemical repellents are phytotoxic and surface area of the fruit is small in relation to the
damage sprayed plants. A further problem is volume of edible flesh. Birds need only to make a
the small size of the Australian market for such small hole in the skin to access large amounts of
chemicals. The cost of obtaining and keeping untreated flesh (Richard Porter, Havelock North,
registration of agricultural chemicals has meant New Zealand, pers. comm. 2005).
that neither industry nor government is prepared
to meet the costs of minor-use chemicals such There are, unfortunately, a number of dubious
as bird repellents. bird repellent formulations being promoted that
contain chilli or compounds that taste bitter
4.5.1 Primary repellents to humans. Because birds have very different
Primary bird repellents are agents that produce taste receptors to humans and are insensitive to
an immediate avoidance response by birds many compounds that humans find distasteful,
because of their unpleasant smell or taste, or these repellents are likely to be ineffective. For
because they cause irritation or pain (Clark example, a chilli extract with a heat strength
1998). Considerable work has been conducted in claimed to be over 80 times that of the strongest

chillies used by humans was tested on sparrows, only 2% of their fruit to birds. Over a 12-year
and they ate it without being repelled (Richard repayment period, spraying alone, without the
Porter, Havelock North, New Zealand, pers. high cost of netting trees, gave better financial
comm. 2005). Naphthalene and capsaicin, returns. Methiocarb residues on the fruit were
although marketed in the United States as bird reduced by 50% (to within the New Zealand
repellents, have not been shown to be effective Agricultural Chemical Board limit of seven parts
in deterring birds (Dolbeer et al. 1988; Mason et per million) after the fruit had been washed in
al. 1991; Clark 1997). water. Residues were reduced by 66% after
washing in dilute detergent (Porter 1982).
‘Some repellent formulations contain
compounds that taste bitter to humans — birds Tobin et al. (1989a) tested the effectiveness of
have very different taste receptors to humans methiocarb spray in protecting cherries from
and are insensitive to many compounds that pest birds (mainly starlings, American robins,
humans find distasteful.’ and house and common grackles). Although they
found that sprayed blocks had significantly (P =
Mint derivatives (Avery et al. 1996a) and caffeine 0.03) less damage (6.5%) than unsprayed blocks
(Avery et al. 2005) are other repellents that have (8.8%), the level of reduction in damage was not
undergone preliminary testing. However, further sufficient to justify the cost of spraying. In a later
field investigation is required before these can field trial, Tobin et al. (1991) found that spraying
be recommended for application to horticultural cherries with methiocarb did not significantly (P
crops. > 0.5) affect the average percentage of cherries
damaged by starlings and 14 other species of
4.5.2 Secondary repellents
birds.
Secondary repellents work by making birds feel ill,
In aviary trials, Cummings et al. (1998b) found
so that they subsequently develop a conditioned
that spraying with methiocarb significantly (P
aversion to the food to which the repellents have
< 0.01) reduced the consumption of lettuce
been applied (Clark 1998). Methiocarb (Mesurol-
seedlings by horned larks (Eremophila alpestris).
75®) is a carbamate insecticide that is also used
Topical application of methiocarb to sprouting
as a snail and slug poison. It acts by inhibiting the
tomato seedlings reduced skylark (Alauda ar
activity of acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that
vensis) damage to minimal levels (Anonymous
catalyses the breakdown of the neurotransmitter
1970).
acetylcholine. In the 1970s methiocarb was
trialled in Australia as a bird repellent. It provided Hardy et al. (1993) conducted field trials to assess
good protection against European blackbird and the safety of spray applications of methiocarb.
silvereye damage over two seasons in trials in They concluded that even heavy repeated
the Riverland region of South Australia, with the spraying did not pose a hazard to wildlife, despite
yield harvested from treated areas being almost the fact that mammals and birds were exposed
double that of untreated areas (Bailey and Smith to the compound.
1979).
The use of methiocarb as a bird repellent applied
Porter (1982) compared the effectiveness of to fruit has been discontinued in Australia
methiocarb and netting individual trees to because the manufacturer failed to provide long-
protect sweet cherries from exotic bird species term toxicological data to support continued
in New Zealand. The pest species present were registration. For re-registration of methiocarb
mynas, starlings, European blackbirds and song for this purpose, information would be needed
thrushes. Spraying with methiocarb significantly on its potential impacts on non-target species
(P < 0.001) reduced damage: sprayed trees lost and its residues in fruit and wine. This research
10% of their fruit to birds, whereas unsprayed would be expensive, and the market for the
trees lost 80%. Sprayed and netted trees lost product is considered too small to justify the

cost. Methiocarb residues, however low they necessary for its digestion. Avery et al. (1995)
may be, are not acceptable in wines in most found that caged starlings and cedar waxwings
wine-importing countries. (Bombycilla cedrorum) ate significantly (P <
0.1) more artificial fruit containing hexose (a
Methiocarb as a seed-dressing has had mixed
mixture of glucose and fructose) than artificial
results and is not generally recommended.
fruit containing sucrose, and this preference
Holding (1995) applied methiocarb to canola
overrode pre-existing preferences for fruit colour.
seed and recorded good deterrence against
However, tests conducted by Askham (1996) on
skylarks with a doubling of the yield in treated
starlings do not support the theory that birds are
versus untreated plots. However, delayed
intolerant to sucrose.
germination may cause insufficient chemical to
be absorbed by the sprouting seedlings, which Anthraquinone, commercially known as Flight
may lead to increased bird damage. This has Control®, is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
been found in the case of treated tomato seed that occurs naturally in insects, plants and fungi.
(Bergman 1970). Although commonly used in the manufacture of
dyes and as a catalyst in the paper industry, this
Porter and McLennan (1995) tested the effec
chemical has also been used as a grazing repell
tiveness of cinnamamide (a secondary plant
ent to deter birds (particularly Canada geese)
compound) and netting for protecting grapes
from golf courses, airports, urban and industrial
from pest birds. The pest species present were
areas and landfills, and as a seed coating and
mainly sparrows, silvereyes, greenfinches,
repellent to protect crops. Anthraquinone and
European blackbirds and song thrushes. Both
related compounds have been shown to reduce
treatments significantly (P < 0.01) reduced
consumption of rice, millet, sorghum and maize
the numbers of pecked and missing grapes.
by red-winged blackbirds, brown-headed cow
Cinnamamide reduced damage by 40% and
birds and dickcissels (Spiza americana) (Wright
netting by 84%; however, neither treatment
1962; Avery et al. 1997; Dolbeer et al. 1998; Avery
significantly increased mean bunch weight or
et al. 2001; Cummings et al. 2002). Cage trials
mean yield. This was possibly because the vines
with horned larks indicated that high levels of
compensated for missing grapes by increasing the
damage (60%) still occurred to treated lettuce
size of the surviving fruit. Porter and McLennan
(York et al. 2000). However, York et al. (2000)
(1995) found residues of cinnamamide in wine
suggested that bird damage was artificially high
made from treated grapes, and this chemical
because of the nature of the enclosure situation
also left a ‘plastic-like’ flavour on grapes, making
and indicated that field trials were required.
them unacceptable for making wine.
4.5.3 Delivery of primary and secondary

Other secondary bird repellents that have been
repellents
used in North America are lindane (an insecticide
that stimulates the central nervous system) Repellents that are eaten target oral receptors
and captan and thiram (originally fungicides), if they are primary repellents, or gastrointestinal
which depress the central nervous system (Clark receptors if they are secondary repellents (Clark
1998). There is also Kocide®, which is a copper- 1998). Chemical repellents are rarely delivered in
based fungicide (Avery et al. 1994); and fipronil, raw form, but are combined with other substances
an insecticide developed for use on rice seed and applied in accordance with label instructions
and other crops (Avery et al. 1998). Brugger (Clark 1998). Carriers, spreaders, stickers and
et al. (1993) and Martinez del Rio et al. (1997) wetting agents improve the deposition of the
suggested that sucrose (household sugar) in repellent. These products ensure even coverage
high concentrations on fruit might act as an and improve retention by slowing environmental
effective secondary repellent for starlings and degradation and weathering losses. The stability
other pest birds because they lack the enzymes of the repellent can be affected by carriers,

stabilisers, solvents, binders, biocides and (Hirundo neoxena)), whose wing-tips sometimes
antioxidants (Clark 1998). The concentrations of become glued to the surfaces to which the gel
the repellent agent and additives are important, has been applied.
as these will influence efficacy and cost. For
some agents, concentrated applications can 4.5.5 Seed coating
leave unacceptable residues. If toxic repellents Coating seeds with substances such as clay,
are used, concentrated applications can cause cement, plaster (Dolbeer and Ickes 1994),
blemishes on the crop, damage the foliage, or diatomaceous earth (containing sharp particles),
kill non-target species (Staples et al. 1998). or starch can make it more difficult or unpleasant
for birds to crack them open, thus reducing
4.5.4 Tactile repellents damage. Handling time increases, making the
Clark (1998) investigated the use of contact seeds less attractive to the birds. In cage tests,
tactile repellents applied to perches to irritate Cummings et al. (1998b) found that coating
birds’ feet. Starlings avoided perches painted lettuce seeds with clay significantly (P < 0.01)
with tactile repellents containing plant extracts reduced seed consumption by horned larks.
or methiocarb. None of the substances tested These treatments have the potential to reduce
caused illness in birds. Clark (1998) concluded damage to newly sown crops.
that further work was needed to see whether
such non-lethal repellents are useful for pest bird 4.6 Biological control
control.
Biological control or biocontrol is the control
A number of non-toxic, sticky or oily substances of pests using other living organisms. Usually
are used for bird control (Clark 1998). Polybutene infectious disease agents are used that kill
is one product that is registered in some the pests, or cause them to become infertile.
Australian States (Section 6.2), but its use is Currently there are no biocontrol agents that
illegal in South Australia under the Prevention can be used against pest birds, and no research
of Cruelty to Animals Act 1985. When applied is being conducted in Australia to discover a
to surfaces where birds perch, these substances bird biocontrol agent. Falconry or attracting
feel unpleasant and the birds avoid them. predatory birds to crops for pest bird control
Some problems may occur with short-legged may be considered a biological control (Section
species (for example, welcome swallows 4.1.6).

5. Economic decision-making
After the bird damage problem has been defined to cost ratio (BCR), net present value (NPV) and
and before management is initiated, alternative internal rate of return (IRR). The BCR is the ratio
strategies will need to be reviewed (Section of discounted benefits to discounted costs and
1.2). Different types of economic analysis are indicates the potential return per $1 invested over
available to help in directing this process. These the period. NPV is the present-day value of the
analyses can contribute in a descriptive or discounted benefits less the discounted costs. The
prescriptive way to decision-making (Mumford IRR is the discount rate that equates discounted
and Norton 1984). The use of descriptive models benefits and costs over time, that is, the discount
helps to develop an understanding of economic rate at which NPV = 0. Profitable control options
relationships. For example, they may be useful for will have a BCR greater than one, a positive
estimating the level of bird control that has the NPV and an IRR greater than the discount rate.
maximum economic benefit. Descriptive models Wherever possible, benefits and costs should be
require accurate measurements of a range of valued at current market prices, as these values are
factors, including damage and management known and allow direct comparison over time.
costs, benefits of applying control, and the
‘Wherever possible, benefits and costs should
relationships between bird density and the
be valued at current market prices, to allow
damage birds cause. In comparison, prescriptive
direct comparison over time.’
models incorporate value judgements and
compare different management strategies using Comparison of many benefit-to-cost ratios
specific, subjective criteria. Both economic will enable a prediction of the most suitable
models can be useful in selecting the most management strategy and desired level of
appropriate strategy. management activity. Incorporating risk into
cost–benefit calculations will improve their
Five types of analysis are reviewed here, with an
relevance. This normally involves discounting,
emphasis on birds in horticulture: direct cost–
which takes into account declining monetary
benefit, economic threshold model, marginal
values over the management period. Discount
analysis, cost-effectiveness and decision
rates include the effects of inflation and also
theory. To promote practical application, a
include the perceived risk of a management
simple stepwise procedure is then described
strategy. Riskier management decisions are
to help horticulturists in selecting optimal
reflected in higher discount rates. Time and risk
bird management strategies. This includes a
are important considerations when planning
description and an example of a simplified cost–
control, because initial decisions will usually have
benefit analysis, which explains the procedure of
economic effects in subsequent periods.
estimating the benefits and costs of particular
activities. Where information is available this can
5.1.1 Cost–benefit analysis for bird netting
incorporate some aspects of different analyses
in vineyards, Orange (New South
and will provide a reasonable prediction of the
Wales)
most cost-effective management regime.
(John Tracey and David Vere, NSW Department
of Primary Industries)
5.1 Direct cost–benefit analysis
A cost–benefit analysis was conducted to
Cost–benefit analysis is a commonly used method
that compares benefits and costs at a particular evaluate four bird-netting options in vineyards
level of activity. If benefit exceeds cost the proposal that sustained damage levels of 15%–30% of
is economically profitable. There are three main annual yield. No damage was assumed to occur
criteria calculated in a cost–benefit analysis: benefit under the netting options. Average annual

damage levels in the Orange district are about Sensitivity analysis was undertaken to determine
15% (Tracey and Saunders 2003). District yield the break-even prices and yields for each of the
averages of 13 tonnes per hectare and an average options (Table 5.1). Price was sensitised against
price of $1300 per tonne were also used. The the base yield, as was yield against the base
period of the analysis was ten years, with a real price. Permanent netting remained marginally
discount rate of 5%. profitable at a tonnage price of $1100 at the
budgeted yield (13 tonnes) or a yield of 10.5
‘Netting options generated positive
tonnes per hectare at the budgeted price of
economic returns.’
$1300 per tonne. This indicates that the price/
The results are given in Table 5.1. The base no- yield margins are narrow (a fall in price of 15%
netting option generated positive cost–benefit and a yield decrease of about 20%) for this
criteria and has a unitary (1:1) BCR at an annual option when compared with the base values.
damage level of about 40%, above which a In comparison, the drape-over netting options
vineyard operation without netting would be have much higher tolerances for price or yield
an uneconomic proposition. No netting was
reductions. Comparative tolerances without
profitable at the district average damage level
netting are between $990 and $1160 per tonne
(15%), but long-term returns were significantly
and 9.4 and 11.4 tonnes per hectare for increas
reduced as damage increased. Each of the
ing levels of damage.
netting options generated positive economic
returns. Permanent netting was the most The overall result is that protection against birds
expensive control option, but it had sound with netting is a profitable investment for Orange
cost–benefit criteria over a 10-year period. district vineyards, where damage levels average
Direct comparison with the no-netting option 15% annually (Tracey and Saunders 2003). Below
suggests that permanent netting is an economic
that level, there appears to be little economic
investment only if bird damage averages about
benefit in installing permanent netting unless
25% over time. The drape-over netting options
this option results in significant yield increases
(Figure 5.1) are more profitable. The BCRs for the
(this possibility has not been considered).
drape-netting options are of a similar magnitude
Drape-over netting generates much higher NPVs
but favour the four-row option. Although no
than the no-net option that incurs 15% damage;
bird damage is assumed to occur when nets are
it has similar BCRs and IRRs as for the one-row
installed, the unitary BCR estimates indicate that
option, and all cost–benefit analysis criteria are
damage levels up to 19% for permanent netting
higher for the two- and four-row options. This
and 30–33% for the drape netting options could
be absorbed by investment in netting. protection option is therefore a sound economic
practice. Additional sensitivity analysis indicated
that a no-net option would approximate the
NPV to one-row drape netting at a 9% damage
level. Experience in the Orange district suggests
that bird damage exceeds this level in many
vineyards.
This example deals only with direct loss by birds.

For example, lost income for reduced quality
due to bird damage can be severe, particularly
in a climate of over-supply. In many cases
Figure 5.1: Netting is generally the most bird damage can result in total rejection of a
economically viable option for pest bird control load of fruit. The value of the loss under these
where damage is greater than 15%. circumstances can be very much higher than the
Photo: B. Mitchell. loss due to yield reduction from bird predation.

Table 5.1: Cost–benefit and sensitivity analysis of bird netting options (ten years at 5% real discount).
Cost–benefit criteria Sensitivity analysis
NPV BCR IRR Maximum Minimum Base

($’000) (%) damage price at yield
level base yield (tonne
(%)a ($/tonne) /hectare)
No netting 39.1
15% damage 19.19 1.31 15.5 990 9.4
20% damage 15.14 1.25 13.5 1 045 10.0
25% damage 10.09 1.18 11.5 1 100 10.6
30% damage 7.03 1.12 9.3 1 160 11.4
Permanent netting 15.20 1.19 10.5 19.2 1 100 10.5
Drape netting – one-row 24.09 1.34 15.3 30.1 975 9.1
Drape netting – two-row 25.66 1.37 16.3 32.2 950 8.9
Drape netting – four-row 26.97 1.39 17.2 33.4 930 8.7
a Level of bird damage that generates a unitary (1:1) BCR.
5.2 Economic threshold model As an example, consider a fully irrigated olive

grove with 250 Manzanillo trees per hectare
The economic threshold model also uses direct
that incurs annual starling damage. The grove
costs and benefits but indicates the density
produces 10 000 kilograms per hectare and
of a pest population at which the benefit of
the manager receives $0.60 per kilogram (P).
management just exceeds its cost (Stern et al.
Measurement of starling feeding behaviour
1959; Mumford and Norton 1984). This break-
even point can be used to decide the pest might suggest that each additional starling per
density at which a particular management hectare reduces yield by 10 kilograms (D) during
strategy should be initiated. To apply this model the growing season. Lethal shooting might cost
managers need knowledge of: $100 per hectare (C) but is only 50% (K) effective
in reducing damage. Applying the economic
• bird density;
threshold concept in this case indicates that a
• levels of damage resulting from a range
density of 33 starlings per hectare could be
of bird population densities (density–
endured before initiating control. Implementing
damage relationships);
control when starling densities were lower than
• the impact of different levels of
this would cost more than the savings that would
management on bird density;
be achieved in reducing damage.
• value of output (for example, in dollars
per tonne); and The calculations for the above example are as
• costs of different levels of management follows. To calculate the pest density at which
techniques. benefit of management equals the cost:

Management Management
benefit = cost O
PDKθ = C
P = price of olives per
B]bOZPS\STWba
kilogram ($)
D = loss in olive yield (kilograms)
caused by one starling per B]bOZQ]aba
hectare
K = the proportional reduction
in damage achieved by
shooting (with ‘1’ T
:SdSZ]T1]\b`]Z
representing 100%
reduction) P
θ = starling density
C = the cost of shooting per
;OÙW\OZPS\STWba
hectare ($)
To calculate starling density where benefits

;OÙW\OZQ]aba
equals costs, this formula becomes:
θ = C
____

PDK
θ = 100
____ Q

0.6 x 10 x 0.5 :SdSZ]T1]\b`]Z
θ = 33.3 starlings per hectare

Figure 5.2: Possible relationships between: (a)
total costs and benefits and the level of control
inputs; and, (b) marginal costs and benefits and
5.3 Marginal analysis the level of control inputs.
Marginal analysis determines either: (1) the pest

density at which maximum profit occurs; or (2) 1994). The difference between using total costs
the level of control that is most profitable for and benefits and marginal costs and benefits is
a particular pest density. As distinct from the outlined in Figure 5.2.
economic threshold model, marginal analysis

Total costs equal total benefits at f, which is also
investigates the optimal level of control rather
the break-even point (where the cost–benefit
than simply identifying whether control should
ratio equals one), and maximum profit occurs at
start. It also differs from the previous two
c, the level of inputs at which the marginal cost
models by using incremental changes in costs
equals the marginal benefit (after Hone 1994).
and benefits rather direct costs and benefits.
These incremental changes are measured as This model recognises different initial pest
marginal cost, which is the change in total cost densities and optimum levels of control for each
resulting from a unit change in output, and density. As initial pest density increases, so does
marginal benefit, which is the change in total the marginal value of pest control, which will
benefit resulting from a one-unit change in the justify more control inputs (Johnston 1991). This
benefit of pest control (McTaggart et al. 1992). concept would encourage the use of appropriate
The desired level of activity is that at the point levels of control. However, damage levels and how
where the marginal cost of the extra unit of input various levels of control will influence damage
equals the marginal benefit of that unit (Hone need to be known with reasonable certainty.

5.4 Cost-effectiveness analysis 5.5 Decision theory
This type of analysis is used to compare the cost-
(payoff matrix)
effectiveness of different management strategies This form of analysis provides perhaps the most
(Hone 1994) and is used when benefit is difficult useful support to horticulturists. Most other
to measure. Instead of estimating monetary economic models require accurate measures of
benefits, it compares cost per animal with pest costs and benefits or assumptions about density–
density or the number of animals removed damage relationships, which are often highly
per unit area. It is therefore more often used variable and difficult to estimate. This model can
when comparing strategies that rely on direct incorporate probabilities of different outcomes,
population manipulation for reducing damage. which is a simple way of assessing risk. These
can be estimated from past experiences in an
area or from general or subjective information
on individual techniques or expected damage.

Chapter 4 (Assessment of control techniques)
1]ababO`ZW\U
& AV]]bW\U
provides a useful guide to help determine the
BÒ^^W\U
$ benefits of different strategies.
" To illustrate with a simplified example, consider

silvereye damage to vineyards in the Margaret
River area of south-west Western Australia.
A study between 1971 and 1983 (Rooke 1983)
! " #
suggested that the highest levels of silvereye
2S\aWbgabO`ZW\UaY[
damage coincided with poor flows of marri
Figure 5.3: Hypothetical relationships between nectar, the birds’ preferred food. Marri produces
the costs of trapping and shooting starlings low-quality nectar and/or low quantities one in
($/starling) and density (starlings/km2). every four years, on average. Thus, the probability
of suffering high damage can be assumed to
be 0.25, whereas the probability of negligible
This analysis allows consideration of alternative
damage is 0.75. A hypothetical example to
techniques when removing different levels of
compare netting with no netting is presented in
pest populations. For example, it may be more
Table 5.2. In this example, we assume that:
cost-effective to trap starlings when they are at
low density but more effective to shoot at higher • net returns are $10 600 per hectare in
densities (Figure 5.3). years with no bird damage;
• losses of 60% occur in poor marri
The two techniques will achieve an equal cost
flowering years; and
per starling where the two lines cross — that is,
at a density of about 165 starlings per square • bird netting costs $1120 per hectare
kilometre. per year (including labour) and is 90%
effective in reducing damage (that is,
reduces damage from 60% down to 6% in
poor marri flowering seasons).
The desirable option is the one with the highest

expected profits. In this example bird netting is
more likely to produce slightly higher profits in
the long term than no netting. It would also be
more beneficial in terms of consistent cash flow
between seasons.

Table 5.2: Pay-off matrix of expected profits per 5.7 Stepwise approach
hectare for two management options for silver
The following section is a guide for deciding
eyes in vineyards.
when, where and how to implement bird man
Probability of damage agement and provides a reasonable prediction
Bird No pest Pest of the most cost-effective management regime.
management damage damage Expected
This step-wise approach incorporates some
strategy (0.75) (0.25) profit
components of the above models, and could be
No netting $10 600 $42402 $90104 applied to optimise management strategies for
birds.
Netting $94801 $88443 $93215 Step 1. Estimate the cost of bird damage
1 $10 600 – $1120 = $9480 Estimating the cost of the damage will provide
2 $10 600 x 0.40 = $4240 a basis for deciding how much should be spent
3 ($10 600 x 0.94) – $1120 = $8844
to manage a problem. Methods for estimating
4 ($10 600 x 0.75) + ($4240 x 0.25) = $9010
damage are outlined in Chapter 3.
5 [($10 600 – $1120) x 0.75] + [($10 600 – $636 – $1120)
x 0.25] = $9321
Step 2. List the cost of different management
strategies
5.6 More complex analyses
List all management strategies and how much
The above analyses do not take into account
they would cost to implement. Management
many variables that influence the costs and
strategies can include individual techniques
benefits of management: for example, soil fertility,
or combinations, and different levels of
rainfall, climate, habitat and temperature may
application. Table 5.3 provides a starting point
influence food availability and the preferences
for considering the relative costs and benefits of
and movements of pest bird species. These
different management techniques. However, the
factors may help to predict when and where
actual costs and benefits can vary considerably
damage is likely to be most severe, or the success
according to a range of factors, including bird
of particular management options. Additional
species, crop variety, size of the orchard, terrain,
economic factors can also be incorporated, such
climate, harvest strategy and control techniques.
as more detailed information on accountability of
Hence costs and benefits should be calculated
development and operation costs, externalities
for each situation. Also consider carefully the
and discount rates (Perkins 1994). Where these
labour involved for each strategy. Growers often
variables demonstrate consistent relationships,
underestimate the value of their own time and the
linear programming can be used (Luenberger
money spent maintaining different techniques.
1984). Dynamic programming goes a step
further and allows the inclusion of factors that
change in the way they influence or predict costs
and benefits (Bauer and Mortensen 1992). Both
models require expert programming knowledge,
as well as an understanding of how and when
the range of biological and economic factors
will influence pest populations, damage and
management. These could be used to improve
property-based decision-making or to evaluate
management options and aid decisions at a
regional or national level.

Table 5.3: Relative costs and benefits of management techniques for pest birds in horticulture.
Categories applied to costs correspond to approximate dollar values per hectare: Very High
> $10,000; High $3000–$10,000; Medium $500–$3000; Low < $500; Nil $0 or incidental costs.
Categories applied to benefits correspond to an increasing level of effectiveness: Low, Medium or
High, as determined from the information reviewed in Chapter 4. ‘?’ indicates insufficient information
available.
Cost
Management Technique Benefit
Upfront Annual
Grow another crop Med? Low? Low?
Grow decoy crop Med? Low? Low?
Harvest date Nil Nil Low
Harvest technique ? ? Low
Alternative foods Low Med ?
Shoot Low Low Low
Permanent netting Very High Nil-very low High
Drape-over netting High Med High
Repellents Low Low? ?
Acoustic deterrents: electronic Med Low Low ?
Acoustic deterrents: gas gun Med Low Low
Acoustic deterrents: combined Med Med Med
Acoustic deterrents: with shooting Med Med Med
Visual deterrents Low Low Low
Poisons Low? Low? ?
Replanting or transplanting Med Nil Low?
Electric fencing Low Low Low
Step 3. Consider the effectiveness and benefit Step 4. Calculate cost–benefit ratios for man
of each strategy agement strategies
Estimating the benefits of each management Using the information from steps 1–3, estimate
strategy is difficult, as horticulturists themselves the costs and predicted benefits of implementing
seldom have the resources to trial different each management strategy. If the benefits
techniques. It is also unrealistic to provide exceed the costs, then the ratio of benefits to
prescriptive guidelines of when techniques costs is greater than one and the management
will work for every situation, particularly when strategy is economically profitable. The desirable
using a combination of techniques. Chapter management strategy is one that will provide the
4 and Table 5.3 provide an objective guide as maximum benefit to cost ratio.
to the range of available techniques and their
Step 5. (Optional) Construct a table listing the
relative effectiveness. Consider how applicable
management strategies and their costs and
and effective these are for the crop being
benefits (pay-off matrix)
assessed, and estimate the benefits of their
implementation. This allows different options to be compared
after the current conditions are considered.
For example, a grower may construct different
matrices for different bird densities, seasonal

conditions or commodity prices. Including Step 6. Decide when to implement
probabilities of the likelihood of each state will aid
Some of the economic models discussed can
decision-making. Examples of pay-off matrices
be used to identify the level of control that is
for different pest densities and probabilities are
most profitable for a particular bird density. For
presented in Table 5.2 and Table 5.4. A problem
example, these models can take into account
for many growers will be estimating probable
the relationships between density and damage
costs of bird damage for different bird densities
and differences between the costs of controlling
and management strategies. For example, in
different densities of pests. An optimal level of
Case Study 9.9 growers estimated fruit losses
control could be estimated for fluctuating bird
were very high (40%–70%) on the basis of their
density and implemented when benefits exceed
perception of the proportion of fruit damaged,
costs.
whereas estimates of monetary losses indicated
much lower losses of fruit (< 10%) for these In practice, density–damage relationships of
pome fruit orchards. One option is to estimate pest birds in horticulture are often not available
maximum and minimum values for losses and can be highly variable. Even when good
and create two matrices, one using minimum information is available it is often not practicable
estimated values and the other using maximum for horticulturists to be immediately responsive
values. If the same management strategy gives to short-term fluctuations in density or damage.
the highest expected profit in both matrices then When damage becomes significant it is usually
there is no need to collect better information on too late to implement effective control. For
potential damage levels. If, however, different example, effective use of scaring often requires
management strategies give maximum profits in a ‘start early’ approach to prevent birds from
the two matrices, then it is probably desirable establishing a feeding pattern. Similarly, invest
to collect better information on damage before ment in netting cannot easily be withdrawn for
investing in expensive management strategies seasons in which damage is below the cost–
such as permanent netting.
Table 5.4: Pay-off matrix of four management options for three different probabilities of bird damage.
Management strategies include: (0) do nothing; (1) low intensity control; (2) moderate intensity control;
(3) high intensity control (after Norton 1988). Each cell contains the $ value of each combination of
management strategy and probable bird damage. The ‘Expected profit’ column allows the grower
to compare the benefits of the alternative strategies – see Section 5.5 and Table 5.2 for an example
showing how to calculate these $ values.
PROBABILITY OF BIRD DAMAGE

EXPECTED
BIRD MANAGEMENT STRATEGY
Low Medium High PROFIT
(L) (M) (H)
(0) Do nothing
$ Outcome $ Outcome $ Outcome $A
L,0 M,0 H,0
(1) Low
(e.g. visual deterrent) $ Outcome $ Outcome $ Outcome $B
L,1 M,1 H,1
(2) Moderate
(e.g. scaring with shooting) $ Outcome $ Outcome $ Outcome $C
L,2 M,2 H,2
(3) High
(e.g. netting) $ Outcome $ Outcome $ Outcome $D
L,3 M,3 H,3

benefit threshold. Instead, horticulturists need often undesirable ecologically and politically to
to look at costs and benefits over a longer time reduce the populations of these species. Birds
frame and make decisions accordingly. Where are highly mobile, have high rates of recruitment,
damage in an area is likely to be high or there is and can quickly recover to pre-control densities.
a history of high damage, investing in continuing These factors highlight the difficulties in applying
bird management is likely to be worthwhile, even economic models that rely on reducing density
if damage is highly variable between seasons. to reduce damage to horticultural enterprises.
Legal, social and environmental considerations

5.8 Other factors to consider are additional factors that should be considered
With any management decision there are in decision-making (Chapter 7). Some of these
always components of risk. Different bird man are:
agement strategies will have varying levels of • Neighbour relations — will an intensive
risk. Managers who are risk-averse will select scaring campaign inhibit future
strategies that provide reasonable returns under cooperation between neighbours?
the widest range of conditions, but a potential
• Off-site considerations — does a control
trade-off may be lower profits. If a manager’s
strategy adversely influence adjacent land
priority is to maximise profit in the long-term, the
use?
preferred strategy will be that which is likely to
give the highest returns even though there may • Environmental — is the management
be increased risk of no returns or losses during action environmentally acceptable?
bad seasons. Direct cost–benefit and decision • Animal welfare — is the technique
theory methods allow managers to account for humane?
some of the risks of damage or management • Occupational health and safety — are the
success. management practices safe for operators?
Economic models attempt to draw simple • Legal — will bird control breach any
conclusions from dynamic, complex systems. legislative requirements?
They are more applicable when dealing with • Indirect effects of control — will reduction
single pests, where reductions in pest density in the numbers of birds in vineyards
result in corresponding reductions in damage, increase harmful insect loads?
or when costs and benefits are easily measured.
• Debt servicing — are consistent profits
Birds in horticulture rarely conform to these
needed to service debt?
ideals. Incorporating a range of other factors will
improve the relevance of economic models but 5.8.1 Tax considerations
will also increase their complexity.
Currently there are no federal tax concessions
Culling pest birds using techniques such as available for bird control infrastructure for
shooting, poisoning or trapping has often been horticulture crops. However, netting and other
unsuccessful in achieving long-term reductions in infrastructure or equipment used for controlling
population size or agricultural damage (Section birds can be depreciated through the tax system.
5.2). Although mostly unquantified in Australia, For example, the Australian Taxation Office (ATO)
bird damage is highly variable among regions, has reviewed the effective life of permanent
growers and seasons. Management action netting structures for primary producers. From
would therefore be more efficiently targeted 1 July 2006, the ATO has given a ‘safe harbour’
in industries and regions where damage is effective life of 20 years for permanent nets for
significant, instead of aiming for broad-scale birds, sun, hail and wind. However growers may
reductions in bird density. There is a diversity of still assume a shorter effective life based on their
native bird species that cause damage, but it is circumstances.

6. Legislation
Legislation relevant to pest birds can include Acts, 6.1 Destruction of birds
Regulations and policies for: quarantine; exports
and imports; nature conservation; agriculture; Permits are not required for the control of
biological diversity; ecologically sustainable introduced species in Australia (Appendix G).
development; clearing of vegetation; animal However, the destruction of any bird must abide
welfare; and the management of stock routes, by other legislation. For example, in New South
forestry and conservation reserves (Appendix Wales the techniques used must be humane
D). Many of these are applicable in addressing (Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1979;
national, State-wide or regional concerns about Section 7.4); birds must not be owned by anyone
pest birds. However, the influence of legislation or on another person’s property (trespass;
on a landholder’s decisions is often unclear. Enclosed Lands Protection Act 1901) and no
Issues that are of most concern to horticulturists birds may be culled within a National Park or
have a direct influence on the management of reserve (National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974).
birds on their property. These include inquiries Equivalent legislation applies in other States and
such as: Territories. Under Commonwealth legislation
(Environment Protection and Biodiversity
• Which bird species require destruction
Conservation Act 1999) threatened species are
permits? How are these obtained?
protected. Birds may also be afforded protection
(Section 6.1; Appendix E)
as components of World Heritage properties,
• Which chemicals may be used for bird Ramsar wetlands and Commonwealth areas. In
control? (Section 6.2; Appendix F) many cases, legislation will also apply to non-
• What are the restrictions on chemical use? lethal disturbance of native birds and hence
(Section 6.2; Appendix F) permits may be required for the use of some
• Who supplies the chemicals? (Section 6.2; non-lethal methods of control.
Appendix F)
‘Native bird species are protected, and
• What are the restrictions for using scaring penalties apply if they are destroyed
devices? (Section 6.3) without a permit.’
• Can pest bird roosting or nesting habitat
In general, native bird species are protected,
be cleared? Is a permit required or
and heavy penalties apply if they are destroyed
available? (Section 6.4)
without a permit. However, there are various
• Are there animal welfare implications to
provisions in State legislation that allow the
be considered including codes of practice,
destruction of certain native species in desig
for example for the shooting of birds?
nated regions without a permit. These species
It is important that these questions be considered are termed ‘unprotected’ (Victoria, subject
at the time the available management alterna to certain conditions, and South Australia) or
tives are reviewed. The questions are discussed ‘locally unprotected’ fauna (New South Wales);
below. or are species that are subject to year-round
‘restricted open seasons’ for specified areas
(Western Australia) (Figure 6.1).
In most States and Territories permits may

be obtained from National Parks and Wildlife
agencies for controlling protected native birds,
excluding endangered or threatened species.

Damage, or potential for damage, to agriculture 6.3 Legislation relating to noise
or the environment must be demonstrated and
permits are usually issued for a specific number Encroaching urban development and changing
of birds and for a designated period (Appendix land-use are major issues for horticulture in areas
E). However, in the Australian Capital Territory, close to towns and cities. The use of acoustic
wildlife may be killed only if it is considered a scaring devices is one example where increasing
danger to people. Destruction permits are not conflict is occurring (Section 7.5). Environmental
issued in the Australian Capital Territory for any protection authorities in most Australian States
native bird species, even if they are considered to and Territories have developed guidelines for
be causing damage to agriculture (Appendix E). the levels of noise that can be emitted beyond
property boundaries. For example, in New South
Wales this is regulated under the Protection of
6.2 Chemicals registered for
the Environment Operations Act 1997 (Sections
bird control 136–140 and Sections 263–283). In some States,
All legally available chemicals used in horticulture local councils have been given jurisdiction to
are registered with the Australian Pesticides resolve these conflicts and to establish guidelines
and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA). and appropriate zoning laws. This often includes
The APVMA is responsible for the assessment, specifications for the frequency and intensity of
registration and regulation of pesticides noise and the time of day when acoustic devices
and veterinary medicines and administers may be used. There have been several cases
the National Registration Scheme for these where horticulturists have been prosecuted for
chemicals. Registration is constantly reviewed repeated use of prohibited or restricted-use
and updated, and permits for many chemicals are scaring devices (Section 7.5).
issued for only limited times. Horticulturists can
contact the APVMA (02 6272 5852) or access 6.4 Clearing vegetation
the PUBCRIS registry database online at http://
www.apvma.gov.au for up-to-date information. Habitat manipulation can be effective for reduc
Chemicals currently registered in each State ing pest populations (Van Vuren 1998; Section
and suppliers and conditions of use are listed 4.3). However, this may have severe environ
in Appendix F. Apparent conflicts in legislation mental consequences and may inadvertently
may occur; for example, polybutene is currently increase the numbers of other pest birds (Section
registered in South Australia by the APVMA 7.7). Clearing of native vegetation is legally
although its use is illegal under the Prevention restricted in all States and Territories, and permits
of Cruelty to Animals Act 1985 (Published in the are required from State planning and natural
South Australian Government Gazette 11 July resources agencies (Appendix D). Even pruning
1996 p. 113; sub-regulation 2 b: ‘gel for bird feet of trees may not be allowed without a permit.
prohibited’). This emphasises the importance of Some States have restrictions on the removal of
consulting State governments for advice, as they exotic trees if they are very old specimens or are
hold the responsibility for controlling the use of heritage listed. Local government also has a role
chemicals in each jurisdiction. in establishing and enforcing tree preservation

orders.

Rainbow lorikeet Galah
Sulphur-crested cockatoo Long-billed corella
Crows and ravens Purple swamphen
Figure 6.1: Regions of Australia where some

native bird species are classified as locally
unprotected. Note: More detailed maps
showing the delineations within States are
available from www.feral.org.au. National
Parks or conservation agencies should
be contacted for current information on
protected species (Appendix E).
Source: Peter Worsley Resource Information
Budgerigar, zebra finch, little corella,
NSW Department of Primary Industries.
red wattlebird and silvereye

7. Social and environmental
factors affecting bird
management options
In addition to technical and economic consid However, even where there is no social pressure
erations, there is also a range of social and legal affecting choice of management strategy,
issues to take into account when selecting bird landholders should select legal strategies that
management options, including: reduce damage but have minimal impact on non-
target animals and the environment. Humane
• acceptability of culling target birds
culling of pest birds should be used only as a last
(particularly if native species);
resort.
• risk of killing of non-target animals;
• consequences of use of chemical
7.1 Culling of pest birds
repellents (phytotoxicity, residues and
breakdown products); Lethal control poses a number of real and
• animal welfare issues associated with perceived problems. The practice may attract
lethal, and some non-lethal, techniques; adverse public attention, particularly in urban
areas. Many people perceive birds, even
• noise pollution associated with acoustic
introduced species, not as pests but as a delight
scaring devices and shooting;
to see and hear. A focus on culling is also rarely
• aesthetic acceptability of visual scaring the most appropriate solution (Section 4.2)
devices and netting; and and may detract from accurately defining the
• issues associated with habitat problem (Section 1.1). Carefully identifying the
modification and decoy feeding. species involved, assessing whether bird impact
is economically significant, and reviewing the
Conflict is likely to be greatest in more densely
full range of damage reduction options are
populated areas. Horticulturists in many regions
important considerations before implementing a
are under increasing pressure from urban ex
culling programme. The stress some landholders
pansion. Improvement in the compatibility of
experience from bird damage may lead them to
land uses is essential to ensure that productive
focus on the birds themselves, which in turn may
agricultural land is retained and standard
lead to an emphasis on lethal control techniques.
agricultural practices are not compromised. In Part of the problem is that bird damage is often
Australia this responsibility falls primarily under more obvious than other impacts on fruit quality
the control of local governments. However, some and volume, and bird management may be
State government departments have developed considered in isolation from other management
guidelines to encourage rural residents and considerations.
commercial farmers to work together and to
provide a supportive social and regulatory ‘Lethal control may attract adverse public
structure for agriculture. For example, in Victoria attention, particularly in urban areas. Many
the State Planning Policy Framework includes people perceive birds, even introduced species,
a policy commitment to protect agricultural not as pests, but as a delight to see and hear.’
activities that fall within acceptable industry

Permits may be obtained to cull some native pest
performance standards (Department of Primary
birds in some States. Lethal control techniques
Industries Victoria 2005).
for which permits may be obtained include
shooting, trapping and poisoning (Chapter 6).

7.1.1 Shooting
Shooting can be target-specific and humane
if conducted properly. However, the use of
shotguns may pose a risk of non-target kills in
mixed species flocks, as well as the likelihood
of injuring birds. Consideration of appropriate
firearms and ammunition size for target species
will reduce the risks of unnecessary injury
(Table 7.1) (South Australian National Parks and
Wildlife Service 2001). There are also safety
issues associated with firearms that necessitate
their restricted use (Figure 7.1). Public attitudes
towards shooting are often negative. This is
reinforced by negative publicity towards duck Figure 7.1: Signage may be required where
and kangaroo shooting. firearms are used. Photo: T. Bentz.
Table 7.1: Recommended firearms, ammunition and shooting ranges for the humane destruction of birds.
Bird species Firearm Optimum Effective range Shot size

range (m) (m)
Small birds to starling size 410 shotgun 15-30 25-30 10’s 10’s-12’s
silvereyes, sparrows 12 gauge shotgun
blackbirds, starlings 410 shotgun, 12g shotgun 15-30 25-30 7’s-9’s 7’s-9’s
red wattlebirds, rosellas, 12 gauge shotgun 30 30 6’s-8’s
lorikeets
Birds up to teal size 12 gauge shotgun 30 30 4’s-6’s
galahs, little corellas, silver
gulls, feral pigeons,
chestnut teal*, grey teal*
pink eared duck*, white-
eyed duck*
Birds up to shelduck size 12 gauge shotgun 30 40 3’s-5’s
long billed corellas,
sulfur-crested cockatoos,
cormorants, magpies,
crows, ravens, black duck*,
wood duck*, Australian
shelduck*
Cape barren geese Centrefire rifle with 50 200 manuf. specs
telescopic sights
Emu Shotgun - only 12 gauge 30 40 1’s & 2’s (36g)
Heart shot - centrefire rifle 50 100 manuf. specs
Head shot - shotgun 5 10 1’s & 2’s
(injured birds only)
* Non toxic shot must be used, adjusting shot size as necessary.
Source: South Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service 2001. Note: Western Australian authorities currently
use 0.22-calibre rifles with silencers for starling control due to the particular requirements of eradicating localised
populations.

7.1.2 Poisoning the cockatoo-trapping programme coordinated
by the Victorian Department of Sustainability and
Alpha-chloralose is the only chemical that is
Environment (DSE) to reduce damage to grain
currently registered in some States for culling
and horticultural crops (Figure 7.3). Damage
birds in agricultural situations (Section 4.2.3).
caused by cockatoos before or after control is
If used at lethal concentrations it can be made
not measured. However, DSE uses skilled
target-specific to a certain extent through free-
operators, employs a humane method of
feeding in particular areas, and by using specific
euthanasia (CO2, Sharp and Saunders 2004c),
feed types that will attract the target birds. Alpha-
collates information on the number of birds
chloralose should be added only if observation
culled, and runs an education programme
confirms that only target birds are feeding on
aimed at reducing on-farm practices that
the bait. If non-target species are likely to take
attract cockatoos. The Department is therefore
the bait, a change of bait type or placement
in a position to respond to criticism of the
may help. Otherwise, a lower concentration of
programme.
alpha-chloralose can be used so that birds are
sedated rather than killed. Non-target species
can then be revived and released and target
birds humanely killed. However, there is likely
to be a negative community perception about
the use of poisons to control birds, regardless of
whether they are defined as ‘pests’ or not.
‘The use of illegal toxins is a concern on

environmental and animal welfare grounds.’
The use of illegal toxins is a concern on environ

mental, occupational health and safety and
animal welfare grounds. Illegal poisoning may
Figure 7.2: Some traps catch many birds. Such
kill non-target animals and contaminate crops
traps may be of concern to people unaware of
and the environment. Landholders employing
the damage pest birds can do.
such techniques are liable to prosecution under
Photo: B. Lukins.
various State laws, discussed in Chapter 6 and
outlined in Appendices E and F.
7.1.3 Trapping
Trapping, and particularly the use of traps that
catch many birds (Figure 7.2), presents a graphic
image that will concern some people. Restricting
the use of trapping to skilled operators, and
justifying trapping (and indeed, any lethal
control programme) in terms of a demonstrated
reduction in damage, should improve the general Figure 7.3: Ample signage and using skilled
acceptance of such techniques. Nonetheless, operators are some of the precautions taken
where native species are culled there will always by The Victorian Government in its cockatoo
be some controversy. An example is the case of trapping programme. Photo: B. Lukins.

7.1.4 Social factors Table 7.2: Responses to a survey by the Victo-
rian Institute of Animal Science asking Victorians
The culling of any animal, regardless of its pest
to list ‘other’* bird species that they classified as
status, will concern a portion of the general com
pests.
munity. If the animal is native, and particularly if
it is appealing or iconic, more people are likely Introduced species No. of responses
to be concerned. In a survey by the Victorian
Sparrow 44
Institute of Animal Science (Johnston and Marks
European blackbird 20
1997), 23% of respondents (all of whom were
Starling *** 12
from Victoria) considered corellas to be pests,
compared with 59% for starlings and 38% for Myna *** 6
mynas. To put these figures into context, 95% Rock dove (feral pigeon) 3
and 87% of respondents regarded rabbits and

foxes, respectively, to be pests. Corella damage Native species No. of responses
to sown cereal crops is a reasonably high-profile
Cockatoo** 33
pest issue in Victoria. Interestingly, there were no
Crow or raven 17
strong differences in attitude between farming-
and non-farming-background respondents, ‘Seagull’ 11
although there was significant local variation in Galah 8
responses. Duck 6
Corella *** 4
Another point of interest from the Victorian
Magpie 3
survey relevant to bird management is that a
Budgerigar 1
relatively high proportion of respondents were
undecided as to whether starlings and mynas Cormorant 1
were pests, possibly reflecting a lack of aware Eagle 1
ness of the impacts caused. Another influence Emu *** 1
may be that 19% of respondents believed that Ibis 1

introduced species that have been in Australia Swan 1
for more than 100 years should be regarded as Waterhen 1
‘native’. This figure is likely to increase in the
* ‘Other’ referred to those species not already covered
future with increasing urbanisation of society, in the main survey.
ignorance of species’ native or introduced status ** The common and/or colloquial term ‘cockatoo’ refers
(particularly with regard to birds), and the belief to a number of species that may include galahs and
that the culling of any animals is unacceptable corellas.
*** These bird species were included in the main
regardless of the species’ origins or pest status.
survey and would therefore not be listed by most
The survey included an open question allowing
respondents as ‘other’ pest animals—hence these
respondents to list other animal species that they values are underestimates.
classified as pests. Of the 822 survey responses,
the numbers that were identified as pests are These figures are based on a Victorian survey,
listed in Table 7.2. and results would obviously vary by region and
State depending on species distribution and
density, land use and local community attitudes.

7.2 Killing of non-target animals lethal toxins that have sufficiently variable
toxicity to different bird species. DRC-1339
In the 1996 Victorian Institute Animal Science (Section 4.2.3) is an avian-specific poison that
attitudinal survey (Johnston and Marks 1997), does have some selective toxicity for different
39% of respondents thought it was acceptable bird species: many pest species in North America
for small numbers of non-target native wildlife (for example, starlings and crows) are highly
to die during efforts to control a large number sensitive. The target specificity of this toxin for
of pests. However, 49% of respondents found Australian species is unknown. Nonetheless,
this scenario unacceptable. There was a similar lethal toxins (or lethal techniques in general)
breakdown (38% and 51% respectively) of are unlikely to ever become a mainstay of best
attitudes towards the killing of non-target practice bird management. Careful selection
domestic animals. Although not surveyed, there of the bait type, monitoring of baiting areas,
is likely to be less concern about the killing and a detailed understanding of the behaviour
of non-target, unowned, introduced species. of target species are essential when reducing
There are a number of bird control techniques non-target deaths and before considering lethal
used by horticulturists and land managers that toxins for reducing bird damage.
affect non-target species, including shooting,
poisoning, trapping and netting. 7.2.3 Trapping and netting
Some non-target bird species are likely to be
7.2.1 Shooting
captured when trapping, even though some trap
Shooting is a relatively target-specific form designs can be made more species-specific by
of pest animal control. However, there is the changing the size of the trap entrances (Section
possibility of unintentional killing of non-target 4.2.2). Free-feeding and field observations can
birds through misidentification or the use of reduce this risk, and regular checking (Sharp and
shotguns on mixed groups of birds. Intentional Saunders 2004b) can ensure that non-target
killing of non-target or non-approved native birds species are released unharmed. Traps or nets
is illegal and ad hoc shooting is likely to attract used for flocking birds pose a risk of harming
adverse public attention. This adverse attention non-target birds in mixed groups.
leads to further restrictions on what may be a
useful supplementary technique for scaring and Even though target and non-target species can
targeted culling of pest birds. be caught and occasionally injured or killed in
exclusion (particularly in drape-over) netting
7.2.2 Poisoning (Figure 7.4), from a welfare perspective it is
Poisoning birds can put a large number of non- clearly preferable to any form of intentional
target species at risk. For example, during control lethal control. Problems with animals getting
work for tree sparrows in Port Hedland, Western caught in the nets or trapped within them can
Australia using alpha-chloralose, a large number be managed by the selection of appropriate
of non-target peaceful doves (Geopelia striata) net materials and construction and by regular
were accidentally killed through their high intake inspections. Permanent netting enclosures
of poisoned grain (Marion Massam, Department generally pose lower risks of accidentally
of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia, pers. catching non-target species than other forms of
comm. 2005). However, alpha-chloralose can netting, especially if one-way escape doors are
be used (where legal) in such a way as to make included.
it target-specific, as sub-lethal doses have a
temporarily disabling (soporific) effect (Section
4.2.3). It is difficult to develop target-specific

Figure 7.4: A goshawk inside drape-over netting. Target and non-target species can become caught
in netting. Photo: J. Tracey.
7.3 Chemical repellents of the complexity of pain perception and

physiology. The assessment of pain requires a
Currently there are no registered chemical multi-disciplinary approach that incorporates
repellents to prevent bird damage to fruit in an understanding of physiology, pathology and
Australia, and there are a number of issues animal behaviour. The difficulty with wild — and
to be considered if such a product were to particularly prey — animals is that masking
become available in the future. Some chemicals the signs of illness is an important survival
(such as methyl anthranilate) can be phytotoxic mechanism. Subtle behavioural responses to
and therefore may damage sprayed plants to pain can lead observers to conclude that some
an unacceptable level (Staples et al. 1998). animals have a limited ability to experience pain
Chemical repellents may also leave residues on (Gregory 2004).
fruit, posing problems for human consumption
and/or subsequent processing. There may also ‘Community attitudes towards animal
be animal welfare issues associated with some welfare differ dramatically according to
repellents, particularly ‘secondary’ repellents the species involved.’
(Section 4.5).
The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals (RSPCA) acknowledges that in some
7.4 Animal welfare circumstances it may be necessary to implement
a control programme if there is an imbalance in
Community attitudes towards animal welfare
wild populations of some native species or to
depend very much on the species involved.
reduce the impacts of introduced animals (see
There are likely to be greater concerns and
also Temby 2005). However, RSPCA’s policy
media attention associated with native versus
states that lethal control should be employed only
introduced birds, particularly if they are
where there is no humane non-lethal alternative,
appealing, iconic or rare.
(RSPCA Australia 2004). Furthermore, the
Unfortunately, assessment of the humaneness RSPCA states that lethal control programmes
of pest control techniques is difficult because should be target-specific; be directly supervised

by government authorities or be part of an conducted into fertility control of introduced
approved management programme; and collect birds in Australia. Any form of fertility control
publicly available data to justify the culling in for over-abundant native birds would have to be
terms of subsequent reduction in damage. non-disseminating so that it could be targeted at
a regional level.
The overarching philosophy of the RSPCA is that
any pest animal control needs to be justified in In the 1996 Victorian Institute of Animal Science
terms of measured damage, and that manage attitudinal survey (Johnston and Marks 1997),
ment needs to focus on the most effective the only question that provided potential insight
damage reduction strategies, which do not into general public attitudes towards pest birds
necessarily involve lethal control. If lethal control and animal welfare was one seeking feedback on
is employed, it should be carried out in a strategic preferred lethal control techniques for different
way using the most humane and effective pest animals. The bird pests specifically mention
techniques available to reduce the need for ed in this question were starlings and mynas, and
recurrent culling. These general views are shared there was a relatively high level of ‘undecided’
and promoted by State and Territory agencies responses (33% and 45% respectively) for
responsible for pest animal management. preferred control methods compared with those
Regardless, general pest bird population reduc for better-known pests such as rabbits. This
tion is often illegal (particularly for native probably reflects a greater ambivalence towards
species) and often socially unacceptable and/or pest birds and a lack of understanding of their
ineffective in reducing damage (Section 4.2), impacts and potential control techniques. A
although small-scale culling through shooting relatively high percentage of respondents (17%
may be useful to enhance the effect of scaring for starlings; 15% for mynas) thought there was
devices. no appropriate control technique for these pest
birds. Interestingly, 21% (for starlings) and 18%
With regard to specific lethal control techniques,
(for mynas) of respondents thought that
shooting can be humane, although the use
biological control was the best approach for
of shotguns clearly poses the risk of injuring,
these species. It is unknown what various
but not killing, birds, which then need to be
respondents meant by ‘biological control’ in the
dispatched as quickly as possible. Trapping can
case of pest birds. There were lower-level (6%–
be relatively humane, provided it is conducted
12%) preferences for other control techniques,
by skilled operators and the caught birds are
such as shooting, poisoning and trapping.
killed humanely (for example, with carbon
dioxide or by neck dislocation). The humaneness 7.4.1 Standard Operating Procedures
of any chemical (such as alpha-chloralose) is
Animal welfare standard operating procedures
always difficult to accurately assess, as obvious
have been developed for pest animals, including
symptoms are not always a good indication of
for the euthanasia, shooting and trapping
the pain and distress experienced by an animal
of birds (Sharp and Saunders 2004a; Sharp
(Barnett and Jongman 1996). Where alpha-
and Saunders 2004b; Sharp and Saunders
chloralose is used as a low-dose soporific, there
2004c). These provide recommendations for
is potential for birds that leave the site under the
reducing animal welfare impacts on target
effect of the chemical to be injured or preyed
and non-target species; outline health and
upon before they have a chance to recover.
safety considerations; and describe operating
RSPCA supports research into fertility control procedures. The recommended methods of
for pest animals, provided that the methods are euthanasia for captured birds are inhalation
humane, specific and likely to be effective in of carbon dioxide gas, neck dislocation, and
reducing target populations (RSPCA Australia injection of barbiturates.
2004). There is no research currently being

7.5 Noise pollution areas, and safety problems along roadways.
The use of scarecrows and kites shaped like
Noise pollution associated with acoustic birds of prey is likely to be less of an aesthetic
scaring devices and shooting is an issue near issue. Regardless, visual scaring devices that are
residential areas co-located with horticultural left in one position for a prolonged period are
properties. The problems are exacerbated by generally ineffective (Section 4.1.2). Netting can
the recommendation that these techniques be be made more aesthetically acceptable by using
employed in the early morning and evenings darker colours. However, birds may be more
when birds are most active. likely to become tangled in darker-coloured
netting: white netting poses more of a visual
Fortunately, some ‘best practice’ recommen–
barrier that birds can avoid. Netting thickness
dations for the use of acoustic scaring devices
and mesh diameter may also influence visibility
(Section 4.1.3) and shooting comply with reduced
by birds and therefore the likelihood that they
noise pollution objectives — for example, scaring
may become tangled in the netting.
devices should be used sparingly and at random
to avoid habituation. Similarly, shooting is likely
to be most cost- and time-effective when used 7.7 Habitat modification and
sparingly to reinforce scaring devices, rather decoy feeding
than for general population control.
There may be some scope for acceptable habitat
‘Noise pollution associated with acoustic modification or management when establishing
scaring devices and shooting is likely to a new orchard or vineyard in a previously cleared
become an issue near residential areas.’ area. This may include not planting crops near
trees that may be used for roosting and food
Most Australian State and Territory environment
(particularly flowering natives). At the same
protection agencies have general guidelines
time, reduction in the threat of bird damage
and legislation regarding noise pollution
needs to be balanced with other objectives
(Section 6.3). However, regulatory responsibility
such as windbreaks and vegetation corridors
for environment protection legislation often
for conservation. Clearing of existing native
resides with local councils. Horticulturists that
vegetation, even where legal, may be socially
repeatedly use acoustic devices may be held
and environmentally undesirable.
liable if any residence or occupier is ‘affected
by an offensive noise’, and if a local court finds The use of decoy crops may be a non-
this to be offensive. In regions where conflicts controversial way of resolving bird damage in
between horticulture and urban residents occur, some situations (Section 4.3). However, even
some councils have developed specific guidelines this method may cause conflict in a community
for the use of acoustic devices. For example, the under the following scenarios:
Adelaide Hills Council, South Australia, restricts
• where the decoy crop is a grass or pasture
the use of gas guns to between 7am and 8pm,
species and there are concerns about
six detonations per hour, more than 200 metres
weed spread to surrounding properties;
from a neighbouring residence, hospital or
• where the decoy food is meat (used,
school, and one device per 4.2 hectares.
for example, for crows, with the aim of
protecting nut crops or attracting birds of
7.6 Visual scaring devices prey); and/or
and netting
• where there are concerns from other
The use of plastic shopping bags, car-yard bun growers that decoy crops are maintaining,
ting and reflective materials potentially poses or even increasing, the numbers of pest
aesthetic problems if placed in crops in public birds in the area.

8. Extension
There are a number of potential impediments be effective if conducted according to current
to the adoption of ‘best practice’ pest bird ‘best practice’ principles. Therefore, the role of
management. These include: extension would be to encourage landholders
to monitor fox activity and lamb losses and to
• lack of information about the damage
coordinate best practice fox baiting with their
birds cause and options for reducing
neighbours if there is a problem.
damage;
• landholders lacking the time and/or In the case of pest bird management, the
money to conduct bird control; extension message is not as simple. Bird
• cost-effectiveness of pest bird control damage is unpredictable, and exclusion netting
may be marginal on the basis of currently — the main damage prevention measure that
available techniques; and has been demonstrated to be highly effective
— is expensive. A range of less expensive
• some landholders are not concerned
techniques and strategies has either been
about, or simply accept, the level of
shown to be ineffective (for example, many
damage and/or have had little historical
scaring devices), or has not yet been adequately
interest and involvement in pest bird
evaluated. Others are not responsive enough to
management.
be used for occasional pest bird problems (for
Specific impediments to adoption of ‘best example, decoy crops) or may not be suitable
practice’ pest bird management include: for established properties (for example habitat
• problems are sporadic and often modification).
unpredictable;
Clearly, where the economics of exclusion
• impacts may not be obvious and/or are netting are uncertain or negative, pest bird
difficult to measure; management is limited by the lack of available,
• cheaper control techniques are often inexpensive and proven control techniques that
labour-intensive and ineffective; are not labour- intensive. In areas where pest bird
• proven techniques such as netting are problems are sporadic and unpredictable, there
expensive and may not be cost-effective is a need for responsive techniques that can be
for low levels of damage; used once a pest bird problem arises. For most
pest animal problems, the objective is strategic
• a great many of the species involved are
management to prevent population build-up at a
protected native species; and
property (for example, mice), local (for example,
• entrenched beliefs that nothing ‘works’.
rabbits) or regional (for example, foxes and wild
The above can be illustrated by comparing dogs) level. In the case of flocking gregarious
bird management with management practices birds, there is a case for reactive, improvised
undertaken for foxes. Foxes can be a threat to control (for example, some scaring devices) to
lamb production in certain situations (Saunders supplement longer-term approaches (such as
et al. 1995). The challenge is to determine habitat modification).
whether there is a significant impact at the
local or regional level. If the impact is significant
then there is a conceptually simple and cheap
resolution, with 1080 baiting being shown to

8.1 The purpose of extension plagues. Having said that, past and current
research and modelling are improving the pre
Extension may serve the following purposes: dictability of mouse plagues with the aim
• Inform landholders of new research that of developing and encouraging preventive
quantifies damage and evaluates damage management. Pest bird research in Australia is
reduction options and/or the cost– less advanced, but hopefully current and future
benefits of different approaches in the research will improve the predictability of bird
context of other property management impact and provide a greater range of cost-
obligations. The concept of ‘best practice’ effective strategies to reduce impact.
is dynamic and should be constantly re-
‘The unpredictability of bird damage
evaluated as new information becomes
encourages a crisis management approach.’
available. Landholders should be informed
of their options for strategic and reactive In the meantime, landholders need to be made
control depending on whether pest birds aware of the cost–benefits of preventive options
are a constant or occasional problem. such as exclusion netting. An awareness of early
• Inform landholders of new commercial intervention solutions is also important should a
products that have become available (for pest bird problem become apparent.
example, new types of exclusion net).
There are a number of ‘hi-tech’ commercial
• Coordinate landholders where problems
products that have the appeal of advertised
(such as flocking gregarious birds) need
instant results for moderate cost and are there
to be managed on a regional level.
fore selected over more expensive and/or long-
term approaches. Unfortunately these products
8.2 Engaging with landholders may fail to live up to manufacturers’ claims. Ex
tension has a role in helping landholders balance
The most important thing for a specialist pest
these claims with the most recently available
animal management researcher or extension
scientific evidence. Advisors should also discuss
advisor to understand is that bird damage is
the legalities and ‘externalities’ of various control
just one of many issues that producers have
options in helping landholders develop a damage
to deal with. Other issues, such as water and
reduction strategy. For example, many pest
nutrient availability, have a much more direct
birds are native and protected, and this places
and predictable link to horticultural production
restrictions on lethal control techniques.
and will be uppermost in producers’ minds.
Similarly, other pest issues such as weeds, insect If nothing else, landholders should be encour
pests and disease may be more significant, aged to:
predictable and solvable than bird damage. The
• balance local folklore with new extension
motivation of most landholders relates to current,
material and their own assessment;
rather than potential, damage. Bird damage
also occurs during the ripening and harvest • review current approaches;
season, when producers are preoccupied with a • try new recommended approaches;
range of issues, including irrigation, disease and • work with neighbours; and
insect pest management, and machinery/labour
• assess results over several years and
requirements leading up to harvest.
modify their approaches accordingly.
The main problem with encouraging producers
to develop strategic approaches to managing
bird damage is unpredictability. This encourages
a crisis management approach, as with mouse

8.2.1 How landholders obtain uncommon for researchers to receive simplistic
their information feedback on complex issues through surveys.
Researchers may then become disillusioned
One-on-one contact is invariably more effective
once research has begun if there is little
than written material. Landholders need to
landholder commitment. Thus it is important
be approached when a problem is likely and
the information is therefore directly relevant. for researchers and extension officers to have
At the same time, landholders should also be ongoing contact with landholders to determine
approached outside of busy periods, when what the real issues are and which solutions are
they are more likely to be interested in strategic likely to be practical. This initial ‘reality check’ will
considerations. help ensure that research is focused on practical

solutions.
Sustained direct communication is the most
valued and effective form of conveying and The next step is to involve landholders in the
receiving the landholder perspective (Andrew research to ensure it remains practical and
1997). Meetings should have a clear, practical is re-focused as necessary. For example, if it
purpose and be held at times that suit becomes clear that landholders do not have time
landholders. to implement certain management actions at
certain times of the year, then alternative
‘Meetings should have a clear practical actions should be investigated. Towards the
purpose and be held at times that end of the research phase, preliminary research
suit landholders.’ results should be provided to a wider group
Extension workers need to identify and work of landholders who have not been directly
with key players in the community and industry. involved in the research process. This will allow
For example, large vineyards are likely to have further fine-tuning of recommendations before
the labour and financial resources to work with extension materials are produced. It is important
researchers and try new pest bird management to recognise that pest bird management attracts
approaches. This should bring profile to the a range of views and hence to expect and respect
issue and lead to wider adoption. However, it is diversity of opinion.
important not to neglect smaller growers, who
Local ‘experiments’ (for example, netting half a
may best be targeted through cooperatives or
row to demonstrate what the level or quality of
grower associations.
production would be without bird damage) can
Researching and implementing new approaches be particularly effective. Landholders are more
is a long-term endeavour. The best results will likely to take note of these results than more
occur where the same person works with the rigorous research results derived from outside
community over a long period, builds trust and, the local area.
as a result, becomes aware of the real issues and
‘PESTPLAN’ (Braysher and Saunders 2003)
limitations on solutions.
provides a process to help regions prioritise and
Landholders (and people in general) often plan pest animal management. In doing so, it also
respond differently to questionnaires than helps identify regional research and extension
they would in person (Andrew 1997). It is not priorities.

9. Case studies
9.1 Indian myna incursion Formulate a management strategy
in Port Adelaide, South The application of a toxin is technically possible

Australia and practicable in this scenario. Alpha-chloralose
is legally permitted under certain restrictions
Ron Sinclair, Animal and Plant Control Group,
(Section 6.2). Mynas are an introduced species
South Australia.
and are likely to consume bait material. As the
9.1.1 Define the problem baiting will occur in a specific isolated location,
social and environmental impacts are limited.
Indian mynas are absent from South Australia
Direct observation and free-feeding will ensure
but are listed as one of the world’s worst invasive
minimal risks to non-target species.
species (Invasive Species Specialist Group
2005). They have considerable potential to
9.1.3 Implement the management plan
become established in other regions of Australia
Bread was scattered along the median strip
(Bomford 2003). Information on mynas suggests
where the birds were observed foraging, and
that potential environmental and agricultural
three birds fed on it almost immediately. Alpha-
impacts on South Australia could be significant
chloralose (360 milligrams) was mixed with
(see factsheet in Part B; Perumal et al. 1971; Toor
margarine and was spread very thinly on slices
and Ramzan 1994; Clarke et al. 2001; Bomford
of soft white bread with the crusts removed.
and Hart 2002; Bomford 2003).
Each slice was cut into squares weighing
In December 2004, the Animal and Plant Com approximately one gram, so that there was an
mission of South Australia received information average of 3.75 milligrams of alpha-chloralose
from a member of the public regarding the per square. The squares were then put together
sighting of mynas on a road verge near Port (margarine sides inside) to make it easier to
Adelaide. The last confirmed report of this transport and handle the baits. At first light on
species in the State had been in 1988. This report the following morning, the alpha-chloralose
was investigated and two mynas were observed ‘sandwiches’ were scattered in the same location
foraging on the median strip of a busy suburban and by 08:00am three mynas were captured: an
road. They were observed carrying food to a nest adult male, a juvenile and a breeding female.
site in a hollow metal cross-arm of an adjacent None of the birds died as a result of consuming
power pole. the bait, but the birds were sufficiently affected
to enable them to be captured by hand.
9.1.2 Develop a management plan
Define management objectives and 9.1.4 Monitor and evaluate
performance criteria Monitoring of this site by observation confirmed
that all mynas were successfully eradicated
Prevent the establishment of mynas in Port
from this location. Continued action on reported
Adelaide (South Australia).
sightings of mynas is proposed to prevent the
Select an appropriate management option establishment of this species in South Australia.
Eradication in this situation is feasible as the

population is small (only an isolated breeding
pair was observed) and not yet established, so
further immigration may be preventable.

9.2 Eradicating starlings at to investigate the report. The first visit failed to
find the flock but the second visit found the flock
Manypeaks, Western
and a specimen was recovered. By late December
Australia
it had been confirmed that the specimen was
Andrew Woolnough and Colin Parry, Department an immature starling and therefore confirmed
of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia that there was a flock of starlings present at
(DAFWA). Manypeaks, east of Albany. Through appropriate
surveillance, it was determined that 43 birds
9.2.1 Define the problem were present.’
Starlings are known to cause significant damage
to fruit where they occur (see factsheets in Part 9.2.2 Develop a management plan
B) and have a demonstrated capacity for rapidly Define management objectives and
colonising new areas (Long 1981). Starlings were performance criteria
introduced to Victoria (1856–1871), New South
Prevent the establishment of starlings in Western
Wales (1880) and South Australia (1881) by
Australia.
acclimatisation societies (Long 1981) and rapidly
colonised Australia’s south-east. However, Select an appropriate management option
despite the suitable climate (Bomford 2003),
starlings are not yet established in Western Eradicate emerging populations and conduct
Australia. The Nullarbor Plain offers a natural continuous control. Appropriate control options
barrier to their westward expansion, and the include trapping, mist and cannon netting,
Agriculture Protection Board and DAFWA have and shooting. At the same time, engage the
continuously controlled emerging populations community to participate in surveillance and
since 1971 to prevent their establishment. increase awareness of starlings to determine
Populations have been eradicated from the routine of the known flock and detection of
Esperance, Dalyup, Bremer Bay and Manypeaks, other flocks/birds in the area.
and persistent incursions are being continuously
Formulate a management strategy
controlled at Condingup and Munglinup
(Woolnough et al. 2005). The key to the eradication strategy was planning
and surveillance. Planning included:
A strategic approach to managing starlings has
been adopted by the Agriculture Protection • obtaining appropriate permission for the
Board and DAFWA. This approach has assessed use of silencers with .22 rifles;
potential impacts, implemented control of • sourcing traps and other resources from
establishing populations using radio-tagging, other starling operations;
trapping, netting and shooting, and evaluated • having a number of control options
cost-effectiveness of the management pro available; and
gramme (Hector 1989c; Coyle 1992; McElwee
• clearly planning when to use which
2000; Woolnough et al. 2005).
option.
One example of a successful campaign of starling
The incident response also required appropriate
eradication was that at Manypeaks. The following
management endorsement for resource expend
account is from the records of the District Officer
iture. The general strategy was to shoot birds
in charge of the incident, Colin Parry:
during nesting (August) and, until that time,
‘In late November 1987, a landholder reported to to desensitise the flock to hides and vehicle
the Agriculture Protection Board that a flock of movements, maintain lure traps, and identify
birds on their property at Manypeaks could be the movements, habits and nesting sites of the
starlings. Two visits were made to the property starlings.

9.2.3 Implement the management plan 9.3 Cockatoo mitigation project
In the first month of the incident the community in Victoria
had been fully informed through media camp
David Brennan, Department of Sustainability and
aigns (radio, television and newspaper) and
Environment, Victoria.
public meetings. Simultaneously, the strategy
was developed and implemented, with the key 9.3.1 Define the problem
being a comprehensive surveillance programme.
Sulphur-crested cockatoos, long-billed corellas
The surveillance programme identified flight
and galahs have a documented history of
paths that were suitable for mist-netting. Two
causing damage to a wide range of agricultural
attempts at mist-netting captured 19 of the 43
crops in Victoria. Damage is often sporadic and
birds. Importantly, by having knowledge of the
viewed as an individual farmer’s problem rather
roost trees, the birds could be counted as they
than industry-wide. The cost to the individual
returned to the roost after each attempt to con
experiencing this damage can equate to several
firm remaining numbers. Surveillance identified
thousands of dollars in a season. Damage is
that there were occasional opportunities to shoot
diverse, including: ringbarking of grape vines;
individual birds with silenced .22s when the birds
snipping bunches of grapes before harvest;
were separated from the main flock. Great care
pulling out newly planted trees; eating fruit and
was taken to not disturb the main flock. Four
nuts; feeding on sown and maturing grain and
birds were removed in this way. Surveillance also
oilseeds; and structural damage to buildings and
identified that there were opportunities to use
farm equipment. However, a significant aspect of
cannon nets near where the starlings bathed and
‘the problem’ is that these cockatoos and corellas
drank. In two sessions of cannon netting, nine
are large and white, and thus highly conspicuous
birds were caught in the first firing and eight in
birds especially when they occur in flocks. For
the second. The remaining three birds were shot
some growers, their mere presence is assumed
with shotguns in the week following the second
to be associated with damage.
cannon-net firing.
Five months after the first report all starlings had

9.3.2 History of managing cockatoos in
been removed from Manypeaks. In this example,
Victoria
netting (cannon and mist) and shooting (rifles Reports of cockatoo damage to Victorian
and shotguns) were the optimum control farming enterprises increased dramatically from
techniques, underpinned by comprehensive the late 1960s to the point where the problem
surveillance. consistently entered the political arena. In
1995, the Environment and Natural Resource
9.2.4 Monitor and evaluate Committee (ENRC) began an ‘Inquiry into
Monitoring of the site confirmed that all starlings Problems in Victoria caused by Long-billed
had been eradicated from Manypeaks. A media Corellas, Sulphur-crested Cockatoos and Galahs’.
campaign was undertaken to inform the public Several recommendations were made, including
of the success and for ongoing promotion of to support shooting not as a control method but
reporting. Inspections were carried out at weekly as an important part of a scaring strategy, to
intervals until there was complete confidence support trapping and gassing and to double the
that there were no longer starlings at Many penalty for the deliberate poisoning of wildlife.
peaks. Several recommendations referred to the need
to assess the frequency and extent of damage
being caused by cockatoos, and to measure
damage levels following management actions.
The overall emphasis of the report was to
support extension and education and to take the

focus away from lethal controls as ‘the answer’. This involved working directly with farmers and
In its response to Parliament, the Department by demonstrating that birds could be caught.
of Sustainability and Environment Victoria In this way, the debate about whether or not
stated that on the basis of the ENRC inquiry, its poisoning was the only effective management
objective was to minimise the economic damage option, was quelled.
that the birds were causing farmers, as opposed
to managing the species. 9.3.3 Current management strategy
In 2002, it was realised that the farming
Consultants were engaged to assist with
community required better information about
production of an education and extension
cockatoo behaviour, and ecology. A review of
package. Training sessions for extension officers
the management strategy changed the emphasis
were held and initial planning was undertaken to
of the project to a more educational and self-
trial diversionary feeding as a damage reduction
help approach by teaching farmers about bird
technique. This strategy, however, did not reduce
behaviour and management techniques.
farmers’ claims of ongoing economic damage
or reduce their appeals for assistance through An extensive training programme is currently in
political channels. place to teach farmers across Victoria how to
effectively minimise economic damage whilst
In 1999, despite the recommendations of the
promoting non-lethal techniques. As farmers have
ENRC report, the government allowed the use
different levels of experience and understanding
of agricultural chemicals to poison cockatoos
of bird management, effective communication
under regulatory conditions. Farmers who did
often means ‘one-on-one’ or small group on-site
not meet the conditions for the use of poison
tuition. Training includes cockatoo identification,
had the option of trapping and gassing. In
ecology and behaviour; legal responsibilities;
2000, trapping and gassing was expanded and
and management techniques, including farm
poisoning was deemed illegal.
hygiene (minimising the food source that attracts
In 2000, a five-year strategic plan was developed the birds to the property), effective scaring,
for cockatoo damage management in Victoria to and effective implementation of trapping and
address key issues, including control (trapping, gassing. For farmers to be able to trap and gas
gassing and repellents), research, compliance cockatoos in Victoria, they must be trained and
and human resourcing. The first priority was to accredited by the Department, demonstrate
minimise the economic damage that the birds scaring techniques, improve hygiene practices,
were causing to farmers by providing on-ground and most importantly, be experiencing serious
help in the form of trapping and gassing ‘teams’. damage.
The Department continues to work to promote

non-lethal techniques by, developing best
practice guidelines for chemical control of
onion grass (an attractive and preferred food
for cockatoos) in turf and high profile areas,
providing advice on new technologies such as
better grain bunker tarps and trialling engineered
solutions to minimise spilt grain and reduce
access to grain storage areas and feedlots.
To evaluate the education-based approach,

demand for training was monitored. Every farmer
Figure 9.1: Construction of a pull net trap in trained was seen as a step closer to achieving
Bendigo, Victoria. Photo: B. Lukins. the Department’s goal of empowering farmers to

reduce economic damage on their property. Over
the past three years the Department has trained
and accredited over 120 farmers and farming
enterprises to gas and trap cockatoos. Since the
inception of the five year project the Department
has been able to achieve a reduction in ministerial
correspondence (measuring communities’
perceptions), a reported perception by farmers
of reduced economic loss, and a reduction in the
number of birds trapped annually. Over the past
eight years a total of 80 000 cockatoos (with a
peak of 22 600 in the year 2000 down to 900
in 2007) have been removed from the Victorian
population.
9.3.4 Future Directions

This case study describes the overall approach
taken recently in Victoria for the management
of cockatoos and corellas, emphasising the
importance of education, proactive relationships
with stakeholders and consideration of alternative
Figure 9.2: A tagged Adelaide rosella perched
management techniques. Despite the success in
in a cherry tree. Photo: R. Sinclair.
managing a difficult and sporadic problem, there
remains some fundamental deficiencies in the
programme. The following recommendations 9.4 Rosella damage to cherries
are made to achieve best practice and further (Prunus avium) in the
improve the programme: Mt Lofty Ranges, South
Australia
1. Continue to encourage and support land
managers in taking ownership of the problem (from Fisher 1991, 1992 and Sinclair and Bird
by maintaining the existing training programme 1987).
of pest bird behaviour, population dynamics and
management techniques; 9.4.1 Define the problem
The Adelaide Hills in the Mt Lofty Ranges of
2. Increase emphasis on appropriate problem
South Australia provides a cool climate and
definition and assessments of damage at the
well-drained soils suited to cherry growing.
local level;
A major pest to cherry orchards in the area is
3. Investigate the broader implications of existing the Adelaide rosella (Figure 9.2), which can
management at the regional and industry level cause severe damage to buds, flowers and
and on cockatoo species distributions and overall ripening fruit. The following example illustrates
numbers in Victoria; a technique used in a three-hectare orchard for
assessing bud damage to four cherry varieties:
4. Evaluate existing management methods ‘William’s Favourite’, ‘Black Douglas’, ‘Lustre’
(lethal and non-lethal) by measuring damage and ‘Makings’.
and/or pest bird abundance before and after
management actions; and Select eight trees of each variety
5. Investigate the cost effectiveness of alternative Using paired random numbers (Appendix B),
management methods in reducing damage. five cherry trees for each variety were identified.

A simple technique for achieving this was to Count the number of damaged and intact buds
allocate letters for rows and numbers for trees on selected bud whorls
so that each tree had a unique combination,
Damaged buds can be identified easily, as the
one letter and one number (for example; Row
base of the husk is left on the branch while
B Tree 7). Random numbers were selected until
the rest of the bud is removed. The number
five cherry trees for each variety were allocated.
of damaged buds can then be expressed as a
The number of trees required depends on
percentage of the total number of buds.
the number in the orchard and the severity of
damage in each variety. Normally when damage Cherries do not continue to initiate buds after
is low, fewer trees and branches are required. summer, so an estimate just before flowering
Using an equal number of samples for each should provide an accurate estimate of bud
variety was a form of stratification that enabled damage. Bud damage is only one component
better comparison between varieties. In this of overall damage, which also includes damage
case, ‘William’s Favourite’ was the most heavily to flowers and fruit. Compensatory growth of
damaged variety; therefore extra samples could remaining buds and fruit may occur. For example,
be taken in these blocks. some bud damage may, in effect, be similar to
the normal horticultural practice of thinning and
Select eight branches on each tree
may even result in economic benefits (Sinclair
Each tree was divided into a low section (up to and Bird 1987). The initial study (Fisher 1991)
2.65 metres — able to be reached when standing focused on bud damage, but the same sampling
on the ground) and a high section (from 2.75– procedure could be extended to include an
5.9 metres — able to be reached using a picker’s estimate of damage to fruit.
ladder). A branch was selected on the north,
Assess damage to fruit just before harvest
south, east and west sides of each tree at each
of these two levels. This overcame any bias Just before harvest the selection procedure was
associated with rosellas targeting a particular repeated (Steps 1–3), but five clusters of cherries
direction or height. For example, in this study, were systematically selected (Appendix B) on
fruit on higher branches were damaged earlier selected spurs in each of the eight selected
than those lower down, so if only lower branches branches on each tree. The number of missing
were sampled bird damage would have been and intact cherries on each cluster was counted.
underestimated. An overall percentage of damaged cherries was
then estimated. Again, the number of cherry
Systematically select every fifth bud whorl on clusters sampled depends on a range of factors,
every fifth spur (or branchlet) but 20% of spurs and clusters can be used as
a guide. To avoid selecting further samples of
In the original study (Fisher 1991), all intact and
branches and spurs, these could be marked at
damaged buds were counted on each of the
the time of bud damage estimation.
selected branches. This is an intensive procedure
but could be made more efficient by system In this example, as bud damage is measured as a
atically selecting spurs and bud whorls and percentage, consideration needs to be given to
counting the number of damaged and intact compensation and the difficulties of measuring it.
buds on selected whorls. The size of the sample Direct fruit losses to cherries can also be estimated
required depends on the level and variability of at harvest by using the same sampling procedures
bird damage, the cherry variety, and the number but counting the numbers of damaged and intact
of whorls per tree. As a starting point, every fifth cherries on each selected cluster.
spur (20%) and every fifth bud whorl on selected
spurs should be sufficient to obtain an accurate Bird damage to buds was severe during 1986,
estimate. 1987 and 1991. Mean block damage ranged from
less than 10% to over 90%, and was particularly

severe in ‘William’s Favourite’. Subsequent
damage to fruit was considered to be at levels
of little economic significance during these seas
ons.

Define management objectives and
performance criteria
Reduce cherry bud damage by Adelaide rosellas

down to 5% or less.
Select an appropriate management option
Strategic targeted control.
An integrated scaring programme was planned,

with a combination of acoustic and visual devices
and shooting. Targeted scaring was to take place
during bud development, rather than during the Figure 9.3: A vineyard in the study region, near
ripening period. Mount Canobolas, Orange, New South Wales.

Photo: J. Tracey.
Integrated scaring was implemented with a E. seeana, E. tereticornis, E. viminalis), pine
concerted effort to vary the placement and (Pinus radiata) plantations, mixed farming, apple
types of devices used. and stone-fruit orchards and sheep and cattle
grazing country. Bird species that damage fruit
9.4.4 Monitor and evaluate are equally diverse. The main pests include
Ongoing monitoring of bud damage indicated a starlings, silvereyes, pied currawongs, crimson
lack of success of the scaring programme (see rosellas and eastern rosellas (Platycercus
monitoring directions under ‘Define the problem’ eximius), noisy friarbirds, red wattlebirds, yellow-
(Section 9.4.1). faced honeyeaters (Lichenostomus chrysops)

and a variety of other species. The following
example illustrates a technique used in a five-
9.5 Bird damage to wine grapes
hectare vineyard with four wine grape varieties;
in the Orange Region, New ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’, ‘Merlot’, ‘Chardonnay’ and
South Wales ‘Sauvignon Blanc’.
John Tracey, Vertebrate Pest Research Unit, New
Systematically select ten vines from each
South Wales Department of Primary Industries
outside edge from each block
9.5.1 Define the problem The ‘outside edge’ here refers to the first and last
Cool-climate grapes are grown in high-altitude two rows of the block and the first and last two
(990 metres and above) vineyards surrounding vines in each row. Systematic sampling is where
Mount Canobolas, near Orange, New South the first vine is selected at random (Appendix
Wales (Figure 9.3). The majority of vineyards B) and then subsequent vines on that edge are
are less than ten hectares and are interspersed selected at regular intervals. For example, with
with a diversity of vegetation types, including a random-start vine of six and an interval of
scattered eucalypts (Eucalyptus macrorhyncha, ten, subsequent vines sampled would include

Figure 9.4: 75% (left) and 95% (right) damage to grapes. Photos: J. Tracey.
16, 26, 36, 46, etc. A study conducted in the 1979). Practice and calibration by estimating
Orange region indicated that bird damage to damage to bunches with known damage
wine grapes is always greater on at least one of improves accuracy.
the four outside edges than in the interior of the
Re-sample if damage is greater than 10%
block, except when damage is less than five per
cent (Tracey and Saunders 2003). Where damage was less than 10% in each outside
edge no further sampling was necessary, as this
Randomly select one bunch from each of the
estimate can be considered a good indication of
ten vines
damage in the entire block, regardless of block
Bunches were randomly selected (Appendix B) size (Tracey and Saunders 2003). If damage
to avoid over-sampling of more visible bunches. was greater than 10%, then more samples were
Techniques to overcome this bias are described required. The level of damage determined the
by Sinclair (2000a, 2005) and Tracey and number of samples needed in each edge (Table
Saunders (2003). 9.1). The same number of samples also needed to
be taken from the interior of the block.
Visually estimate damage to selected bunches
Calculate the overall damage
The selected bunch was studied and the bird
damage visually estimated to the nearest 5% Mean damage for each block was calculated
(Figure 9.4). The average bunch damage for from estimates of damage within each edge
each block edge was calculated. Visual estimates and from the interior, if this was sampled. The
of bird damage in a variety of crops have number of vines in each sampled section needed
been considered accurate for most purposes to be taken into account. This was achieved by
(Stevenson and Virgo 1971; Dolbeer 1975; multiplying the average percentage damage in
DeHaven and Hothem 1979; Martin and Crabb each section by the total number of vines in it,

Table 9.1: Sample sizes needed to estimate percentage damage with 5% standard error.
Damage (%) 5–10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90–95

Sample size 10 24 37 46 49 46 37 24 10
and dividing the sum of these for each section netting (Section 5.1.1). Continued monitoring in
by the total number of vines in the block. The un-netted blocks was conducted to re-assess
overall percentage loss was then converted to netting placement for the following season.
the cost of damage, using production figures.
In this study, the sampling technique allowed

9.6 Parrot damage to apples
more blocks to be assessed with decreased and stone fruits in south-
effort. Grape losses were found to be up to west Western Australia
95%, with an average of 14% over 167 vineyard
(from Long 1985)
blocks. Using the average loss across vineyard
blocks, although patchy, would equate to a cost 9.6.1 Define the problem
of approximately $200 per tonne or $1954 per
The majority of Western Australia’s commercial
hectare. These figures assume a gross return of
fruit-growing enterprises occur in the lower
$1430 per tonne (14% × $1430 = $200 per tonne);
south-west region and include pome fruits
9.75 tonnes is produced per hectare with gross
such as apples and pears; stone fruits such as
returns of $13 958 per hectare ($1430 per tonne;
nectarines, peaches, plums and apricots; and
14% × $13 958 = $1954 per hectare).
grapes. Many orchardists grow several fruit
varieties, and orchards are often located adjacent
to stands of jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) and
marri hardwood forests and livestock grazing
country. Three main parrot and cockatoo species
Reduce bird damage to 1% using strategically are reported to damage fruit: the red-capped
placed drape-over netting. parrot (Purpureicaphalus spurius), ringneck

(Barnardius zonarius) and Baudin’s black-
Select an appropriate management option cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus baudinii). This case
study describes an intensive but simple method
Strategic targeted control.
for measuring damage. It involves counting
Formulate a management strategy numbers of damaged fruit in, and under, every
tree in six apple and stone fruit orchards over
Apply drape-over netting in vineyard blocks three seasons.
where damage was greater than 10% in the
previous season. Count the number of damaged fruits on the
ground beneath each tree
In this study monthly counts were conducted
Drape-over netting was applied to blocks and
from December to June. This was to ensure that
varieties where damage was most severe.
early damage to fruit was accounted for. Fruit was
judged to be ‘old’ (brown and wrinkled) or ‘new’
9.5.4 Monitor and evaluate
(fresh-looking), and only new fruit was recorded
Estimates of bird damage were conducted in
in each successive count. If there was significant
netted and un-netted blocks. A direct cost–
fruit loss from other causes such as mammals
benefit analysis incorporating the benefits
(for example, possums, bats or rodents), disease,
and costs of netting suggests that drape-over
hail, and wind, they were separated from counts
nets will be cost effective over the life of the

of fruit damaged by birds. Close examination of loss over the six orchards of only 1.75%. During
fruit usually revealed the cause of the damage. the period of the study the value of damage to
Parrots took chunks from individual fruits rather fruit did not exceed $100 in any orchard (Long
than pecking. The size of the piece removed was 1985).
relative to the size of the bird. In this study the
removal of large chunks and evidence of split 9.6.2 Develop a management plan
apples indicated damage by a large parrot, in Define management objectives and
this case the Baudin’s black-cockatoo. Damage
by mammals can usually be distinguished by the
teeth marks in the fruit and was estimated in this As bird damage during these seasons was
study to be less than 1%. insignificant, the objective was to continue
monitoring damage and abundance. Manage
Count the number of bird-damaged fruits in
ment action could be re-evaluated if damage
each tree
were to exceed 10% or if large increases in pest
While standing underneath each tree an observer bird abundance were noted.
counted the number of bird-damaged fruits on
the tree. This was done monthly, at the same
time as the previous step, ‘Count the number Do nothing. Costs of management would exceed
of damaged fruits on the ground beneath each the $100 lost to birds during the assessment
tree’. Care was needed to ensure that all bird- period. Continued monitoring of damage levels
damaged fruit on tall trees was counted. and costs (monitor and evaluate section below)
would enable management to be implemented
Estimating total damage
when damage increased.
Following harvest and/or packing, the total
number of fruit grown for each variety was
determined. The number of bird-damaged fruit Not applicable.
over the total grown (damaged + harvested)
provided an overall estimate of damage. If 9.6.3 Implement the management plan
significant fruit loss occurred for other reasons, Not applicable.
then these fruit losses were included in the total
number grown. The cost of bird damage was 9.6.4 Monitor and evaluate
then estimated from the numbers of each variety Monitoring damage levels was the most direct
damaged. way to assess whether ‘Do nothing’ was the most
cost-effective management option.
This technique was time-consuming and could
have been made more efficient by reducing the
sample size, particularly in varieties suffering 9.7 Cockatoo damage to
low damage. An example would have been peanuts in Lakeland Downs,
to have systematically selected (Appendix B) Cape York Peninsula,
every fifth tree and to have followed the same Queensland
procedure. In the third year, Long (1985) reduced
Stephen Garnett, Charles Darwin University,
sampling in this way for the green varieties of
Northern Territory
apple and simply multiplied the total damaged
by five. Estimates were similar to the results from 9.7.1 Define the problem
counting every tree and significantly reduced
Situated in the Laura River Valley of tropical
sampling time.
North Queensland, Lakeland Downs has
On this occasion bird damage was found to recently experienced regional development and
be insignificant, with a maximum percentage expansion into various horticultural industries.

Historically a cereal grain cropping and dairy Calculate total costs
farming area, Lakeland Downs, with its high
The overall cost of cockatoo damage was esti
rainfall and well-drained ferrosol soils, now
mated by simply summing the above costs.
also successfully produces large quantities of
peanuts, coffee, bananas and sugar. From the In 1998, lost profits averaged 7.3% across seven
mid-1990s, peanut crops have received high blocks (range 0%–31.8%) and totalled $28 167 for
levels of damage from red-tailed black-cockatoos one district. Further indirect costs to irrigators
(Calyptorhynchus banksii) and sulphur-crested and crops from poor irrigation were estimated at
cockatoos. These species pull the peanut shrub $7500 for this district.
out of the ground by the stems and shell and
retrieve the nuts. The birds cause further damage 9.7.2 Develop a management plan
to irrigation systems. This example, taken from Define management objectives and
Garnett (1998) and Garnett (1999), illustrates performance criteria
a technique for assessing direct and indirect
damage to irrigated peanut crops. The management objectives were defined as
follows: to monitor crop and irrigation damage
Estimate the area of crop damaged before and after control measures; reduce
damage by using scaring, reinforcement and
In this situation cockatoo damage occurred
sacrificial crops; and monitor and re-evaluate as
intensively in certain sections of the crop and at
necessary.
negligible levels in most other areas. Damage was
particularly severe within 200 metres of adjacent Select an appropriate management option
roosting habitat (Garnett 1999). Damage was
therefore more easily measured by calculating Strategic, sustained control.
the area over which it occurred rather than
attempting to count individual plants. Areas were
estimated by measuring the distances around An integrated strategy of scaring, reinforcement
damaged peanut shrubs using an odometer in a (scaring combined with limited shooting) and
vehicle or from aerial photography. sacrificial crops.
Convert area to cost 9.7.3 Implement the management plan

Area was converted into tonnage loss by using In 1999, an integrated strategy of scaring,
an estimate of production and price received per reinforcement and sacrificial crops and concerted
tonne. In this study, an average of 0.607 tonnes efforts by peanut growers, Queensland National
of peanuts was produced per hectare, and an Parks and Wildlife Service and the Peanut
average price of $650 per tonne was received. Company of Australia contributed to reductions
in damage.
Record the costs of repairing irrigation systems
damaged by cockatoos 9.7.4 Monitor and evaluate
In this study, cockatoos caused regular damage Damage was measured as described before and
to pivotal irrigators by chewing through 20- after control.
millimetre poly-pipe casing and internal elec

trical wiring. The cost of repair included all 9.8 Netting enclosure over
labour involved. Cost of the damage to plants as boysenberries in Hawke’s
a result of poor irrigation was more difficult to Bay, New Zealand
quantify but was added by estimating the area
Richard Porter, Havelock North, New Zealand
or number of plants affected.

9.8.1 Define the problem 9.8.3 Implement the management plan
This property in Hawke’s Bay, New Zealand, has In 2002, half the crop was covered with the
grown boysenberries for about 15 years. At times enclosure for the first season to see how
bird damage losses have reached as high as an effective it was compared with the uncovered
estimated 40%. An accurate measurement of boysenberry vines.
losses was never conducted because there were
no easy ways to do this. Although conventional 9.8.4 Monitor and evaluate
scaring techniques and shooting were used, The results of covering the boysenberries were
they met with very limited success. Great care so good that the uncovered part of the crop was
had to be taken where bird shot landed from no longer needed to meet the market demand
the shotgun, because the boysenberries are for the berries. The uncovered vines were
surrounded by pome fruit orchards, and it would removed, freeing up the land for other crops
have been totally unacceptable to have lead such as sweetcorn and maize. There was a huge
shot in these fruit. The cost of a full-time person saving on shooting and scaring devices. Less
to operate scaring devices and shoot birds per maintenance of vines and sprays was needed
hour was $11–$13 per hour. During some parts because half the crop was no longer being grown.
of the harvesting season bird scaring took up to Little sorting of fruit was required for removing
ten hours a day. Shotgun shells cost about $110 damaged fruit. The netting is expected to remain
per hectare and other control devices about $50 in good condition for about ten years, because it
per hectare. It was estimated that approximately is left in place out of harm’s way. Finally, by using
$2500 per hectare per year was spent on conventional control techniques it would take
shooting and other forms of bird control. just over five years to catch up with the cost of
covering the crop with permanent netting. This
9.8.2 Develop a management plan does not include the savings of maintenance
Define management objectives and of a smaller cropping area. Nor does it include
performance criteria the profits from cropping the area that was
previously used to grow boysenberries.
Reduce bird damage to very low levels in half the
crop by constructing permanent netting over it.
9.9 Baudin’s black-cockatoo
Select an appropriate management option damage to apples, pears
Strategic, targeted control.
and nashi fruit in south-west
Western Australia
Tamra Chapman, Department of Environment
The strategy was to cover half the crop with and Conservation (DEC), Western Australia
permanent netting to see how effective it was.
Permanent netting was selected in preference to
9.9.1 Define the problem
drape-over netting because drape-over netting The two major apple, pear and nashi grow
has a short life and because boysenberries are ing regions in Western Australia are the Perth
harvested almost daily, making the removal and Hills and the south-west. The main parrot and
replacement of drape-over netting too labour cockatoo species reported to damage fruit in
intensive. In contrast, the permanent netting these orchards are Baudin’s black-cockatoo, the
enclosure would allow easy access to the crop. ringneck and the red-capped parrot. Baudin’s
Although permanent netting was expensive black-cockatoo damages fruit when it extracts
($13 000 per hectare) it was expected to last for seeds and discards the flesh.
over ten years.
Baudin’s black-cockatoo has been known to
damage fruit in apple orchards since the early

1900s. DEC files show that a number of means The farmgate value of the fruit per tree was
of protecting orchards from damage by Baudin’s calculated from the farmgate value of the fruit for
cockatoo have been employed in the past, the entire industry divided by the total number
including open seasons for shooting, paying of trees in the industry.
bonuses for cockatoo destruction, and licensed
Record the cost of damage
trapping for the pet trade. It is now unlawful
to kill Baudin’s cockatoo to protect fruit crops, For each fruit grower, the total size of the orchard
because they are listed as a threatened species ranged from 0.4 to 50 hectares and averaged
under both State and Federal legislation. The 6.8 hectares (standard error = 1.2, n = 55). The
only legal way to protect crops is to use non- number of trees per grower ranged from nine
lethal methods under a licence from DEC. Illegal to 50 000 and averaged 4446 (standard error
shooting to kill still occurs, however, and is now = 977, n = 58 growers). The estimated farmgate
one of the greatest threats to the bird’s long- value of the fruit per tree was $46.79 for apples
term survival. This study illustrates an attempt to and pears (excluding nashi). Therefore, the
conserve this threatened species while allowing estimated farmgate value of the fruit grown by
fruit growers to protect their crops. orchardists in the survey averaged $208 018 per
property. Monetary loss estimated by growers
A survey was conducted to quantify the damage
averaged $12 453 (standard error = $3537, n =
caused by Baudin’s cockatoo to apple, pear
53) per property, which equates to $1831 per
and nashi crops in the south-west of Western
hectare or 6% of farmgate income. This falls
Australia during the 2004–2005 season. These
within the category of low loss of fruit (< 10%).
data were compared with those from surveys
Growers estimated that losses were very high
conducted in previous seasons. The cost of
(40%–70%) on the basis of their perception of
damage control was estimated and effective
the proportion of fruit damaged, which is an
damage control techniques were identified for
overestimate in comparison with the calculated
the future benefit of fruit growers.
monetary loss.
Estimate the proportion of the crop damaged
The low loss of fruit recorded during the 2004–
Surveys were posted to 277 fruit growers 05 season was similar to, albeit a little higher
registered as apple and pear growers with the than, the 1.4% loss per orchard recorded by Long
Western Australian Fruit Growers’ Association. (1985) for the years between 1973 and 1975. Halse
Respondents were asked to fill in a table of: (1986) recorded 16.9% fruit damage in 1984,
suggesting that damage can be high in some
• crop type (apple, pear or nashi);
years and can also vary widely among years,
• variety of fruit;
varieties and regions. Halse (1986) analysed
• area of planting for each variety records of reports of damage and identified
(hectares); a pattern showing that damage was low in
• number of trees of each variety; and most years, but built up to moderate damage
• extent of the damage for each variety: approximately once every 10 years. Accounts
in newspapers and on DEC files revealed that
1. None
damage was high in the early 1920s, early to
2. Low (< 10%)
mid-1930s, early to mid-1940s, early 1950s and
3. Moderate (10%–20%) 1969, and from 1982–1984 (Halse 1986). This
4. High (20%–40%) shows that, although damage can be moderate
5. Very High (40%–70%) in some years it is low in most years and there
has been no evidence collected to show that the
6. Extreme (> 70%).
level of damage has increased over time since
the early 1920s.

Estimate the cost of damage control and the cost of damage control. Thus most
growers are likely to make the best use of time
On average, growers estimated that they
and money by using scaring techniques only
undertook pest bird control on 83 days during
in seasons when bird numbers are sufficiently
the 2004–05 season. About two hours were
high to cause unacceptable levels of damage
dedicated to pest control per day, at an esti
(strategic targeted control).
mated cost of $29 per hour. Thus, growers spent
an estimated mean of $5041 (standard error = Formulate a management strategy
$104, sample size = 46 growers) on pest control
The most effective combinations of techniques
per property during the 2004–05 season. This
were: 1) gas guns as the primary technique in
represents $741 per hectare, or 2% of farmgate
combination with motorcycle (harassment) and
income.
shooting to scare; or 2) motorcycle (harassment)
9.9.2 Develop a management plan as the primary technique in combination with
gas guns and shooting to scare. Growers should
make the most effective use of the time and
money dedicated to damage control by using
Individual orchardists should compare the value these techniques as part of a well planned and
of their loss with the cost of control to choose an executed programme to prevent the cockatoos
appropriate objective and performance criteria, from establishing a habit of feeding in the
because of the high variation in damage between orchard and from becoming habituated to the
properties. Ideally, damage should be restricted scaring methods.
to < 10% of fruit loss across the industry in
Western Australia. 9.9.3 Implement the management plan
Public education materials have been prepared
by DEC to advise growers on how to employ an
Growers with low levels of damage may choose effective damage control programme. The use of
the ‘do nothing’ option. Those with high, very bird-scaring devices can cause conflict between
high or extreme damage should consider the growers and residents in rural areas. Thus, these
benefits of netting (strategic one-off control). devices must be used with consideration for
For example, one grower lost an estimated neighbouring residents and in accordance with
$150 000 of farmgate value of fruit during the relevant noise regulations. This issue has been
2004–05 season. This four-hectare orchard had addressed by a Western Australian Government
5000 ‘Pink Lady’ apple trees, and the farmgate Working Group, which has produced guidelines
value of the trees on this property was $233 951. for the use of scaring devices in orchards (http://
These estimates show that 64% of farmgate value www.naturebase.net/plants_animals/living_
was lost. This grower estimated that the loss was with_wildlife/pdf/best%20_practice_guidelines.
very high (40%–70%) in terms of the proportion pdf).
of fruit damaged, which is consistent with the
9.9.4 Monitor and evaluate
calculated monetary loss. In this particular case,
netting may be justified because the benefits Comparing damage caused in orchards using a
gained would exceed the costs of netting. range of techniques would be the most effective
way to test the effectiveness of techniques. For
If the pattern of damage for the majority of example, compare the proportion of fruit lost in
orchards is less than 10% loss of farmgate a ‘do nothing’ orchard with an orchard that has
income in most years and a maximum loss of gas guns and shooting to scare, or record losses
around 17% once every ten years, then elaborate before and after beginning a damage control
and expensive control measures, such as netting, programme.
may not be justified in terms of loss of income

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PART B
Factsheets for growers
This part presents information on 20 species that can be significant
horticultural pests. For each species information is given on names,
identification, distribution, habitat, movement, foods
and feeding behaviour, breeding, damage to horticulture,
protection status and sources of further information.
Apart from these 20 species, there are many

other bird species in Australia that can be pests
(Table 2.1, Table 2.3). Information on these
species’ identification, distribution, habitat,
diet and breeding can be obtained from many
reliable sources including:
Barrett, G. Silcocks, A., Barry, S. Cunningham, R. and Marchant, S. and Higgins, P.J. (1993) Handbook of
Poulter, R. (2003) New Atlas of Australian Australian New Zealand and Antarctic Birds
Birds. Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union, Volume 2: Raptors to Lapwings. Oxford University
Hawthorn East, Victoria. Press, Australia.
Blakers, M., Davies, S.J.J.F. and Reilly, P.N. (1984) The Morcombe, M. (2003) A Field Guide to Australian Birds.
Atlas of Australian Birds. Melbourne University Steve Parish Publishing, Archerfield Qld.
Press, Melbourne. Pizzey, G. and Knight, F. (2001) A Field Guide to the
Forshaw, J.M. (1969) Australian Parrots. Lansdowne Birds of Australia.Harper Collins, Sydney.
Press, Melbourne. Reader’s Digest Services Pty Ltd (1988) Reader’s Digest
Frith, H.J. (1982) Waterfowl in Australia. Angus and Complete Book of Australian Birds. Reader’s
Robertson, Sydney. Digest, Sydney.
Higgins, P.J. (1999) Handbook of Australian New Simpson, K. and Day, N. (2004) Field Guide to the Birds
Zealand and Antarctic Birds Volume 4: Parrots to of Australia. 7th Edition. Viking, Ringwood.
Dollarbirds. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Slater, P., Slater, P. and Slater, R. (1989) The Slater
Higgins, P.J. and Davies, S.J.J.F. (1996) Handbook of Field Guide to Australian Birds. Revised Edition.
Australian New Zealand and Antarctic Birds Weldon, Sydney.
Volume 3: Snipe to Pigeons. Oxford University Taylor, M. and Canberra Ornithologists Group (1992)
Press, Melbourne. Birds of the Australian Capital Territory: An
Higgins, P.J. and Peter, J.M. (2003) Handbook of Atlas. Canberra Ornithological Group Inc and the
Australian New Zealand and Antarctic Birds National Capital Planning Authority, Canberra
Volume 6: Pardalotes to Spangled Drongo. ACT.
Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
Higgins, P.J., Peter, J.M. and Cowling, S.J. (2006)

Handbook of Australian New Zealand and
Antarctic Birds Volume 7: Part A and B Boatbill
to Starlings. Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
Higgins, P.J., Peter, J.M. and Steele, W.K. (2001)

Handbook of Australian New Zealand and
Antarctic Birds Volume 5: Tyrant-flycatcher to
Chat. Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
Marchant, S. and Higgins, P.J. (1990) Handbook of

Australian New Zealand and Antarctic Birds
Volume 1 (Part A and B): Ratites to Ducks. Oxford
University Press, Australia.

Factsheets:
native species
Managing Bird daMage To FRuiT And oTheR hoRTiculTuRAl cRoPs 133

Black-faced cuckoo-shrike
(Coracina novaehollandiae)
Other names Voice
Blue jay; messenger bird; shufflewing. ‘Plee-urk’ and a descending, gentle ‘quarieer
quarieer quarieer’.
Habitat
This is one of Australia’s most common birds,
distributed throughout the country in most
habitats. The black-faced cuckoo-shrike is partic
ularly abundant in open sclerophyll woodland
and forest, farmlands, roadside vegetation
and tree-lined watercourses. Common also in
suburban areas, parks and gardens and extends
Photo: Canberra Ornithologists Group. to arid regions along watercourses. Also occurs
in rainforests and tall wet sclerophyll forest,
but at lower densities and often for only short
periods during migration.
Movements
Migratory, large-scale movements regularly
occur with seasons. Northward movements start
in mid-autumn and include many individuals who
travel to New Guinea for winter. A number of
individuals remain throughout the year in most
populations, hence they were often considered
Birds Australia Atlas (1998–2002) sedentary. However, complete departures occur
in some areas, particularly in the southern high-
Field identification altitude ranges around Wollombi, Canberra and

Jamieson regions. Altitudinal movements are
This is a medium-sized (33 centimetres head to evident in these areas, where populations take
tail) bird, soft grey in colour with a white belly advantage of the milder climate and greater
and tail tip. It has a black face extending from food availability in lowland areas during winter.
behind the eye, down the cheek and across the Occasional nomadic movements outside seasons
breast; absent on immatures. The flight pattern are also thought to occur in response to avail
is distinctive; undulating, with a wing shuffle able food. Seasonal movements create regular
on landing. Unrelated to cuckoos or shrikes, increases in density in the north during winter,
the black-faced cuckoo-shrike has, however, with corresponding decreases in the south. The
plumage comparable to that of cuckoos and a opposite trend takes place during summer. In
bill shape similar to that of shrikes. Surprisingly, the eastern States, migratory movements have
DNA sequencing has linked it closely to the
corvids (crows), despite morphological and
behavioural differences.

recently been identified as predominantly north- Damage
west, rather than directly northward. Hence
populations from the south-east regions travel Black-faced cuckoo-shrikes can damage orchard
in a direction perpendicular to the coast of New and vineyard fruit, including grapes, stone fruits,
South Wales. Migration patterns are less obvious berries, pears and other soft fruits. Severe
in the west. damage can be caused by migrating flocks taking
advantage of these easily accessible energy
sources. Birds damage fruit by squashing and
Foods and feeding behaviour
tearing it and swallowing the pip, seeds and skin.
Black-faced cuckoo-shrikes have a diet pre However, they have a clear preference for insects
dominantly of insects supplemented with and individual birds are likely to be beneficial in
seeds, fruit and vegetable matter. Caterpillars orchards and vineyards in many situations and
(Lepidoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), grass during most of the year. For example, potentially
hoppers (Orthoptera), weevils (Curculionidae) detrimental insect pests such as vine moth
and many flying insects are commonly consumed. caterpillars (Hippotion celerio) are known prey
Individuals, pairs or small groups often perch on items.
exposed tree branches in the upper canopy, or
forage amongst the outer foliage for a variety of Protection status
insects. Black-faced cuckoo-shrikes rarely feed
continuously on the ground, but will dive from Protected.
perches, often landing to take insects and other
food. Large flocks can occur, especially during Sources and further reading
migration in spring and autumn. For example, Higgins, P.J., Peter, J.M. and Cowling, S.J. (2006)
flocks of up to 45 have been observed in the Handbook of Australian New Zealand and
vineyards of central New South Wales during Antarctic Birds Volume 7: (Part A and B) Boatbill
to Starlings. Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
April, where it was assumed that they were
migrating north for the winter. Pizzey, G. and Knight, F. (2001) A Field Guide to the
Birds of Australia.Harper Collins, Sydney.
Schodde, R. and Tidemann, S.C. (1986) The Readers

Breeding Digest Complete Book of Australian Birds
Readers Digest Services Pty Ltd, Sydney.
A small, flat nest is carefully shaped from fine
dry grass, twigs and bark, bound with spider Simpson, K. and Day, N. (2004) Field Guide to the Birds
of Australia. 7th Edition. Viking, Ringwood.
webs and positioned in a horizontal fork of a tall
tree, often a she-oak (Casuarina). Black-faced Taylor, M. and Canberra Ornithological Group. (1992)
Birds of the Australian Capital Territory: An
cuckoo-shrikes habitually build well-concealed
Atlas Canberra Ornithological Group Inc and the
nests 10–20 metres up in the canopy, although
National Capital Planning Authority, Canberra
sometimes lower. Occasionally they utilise ACT.
disused nests of other species, including mud
nests of the magpie-lark (Grallina cyanoleuca).
The flat nest often results in eggs or chicks
falling out, for example during high winds. Two
or three green eggs with brownish blotches
(34 × 24 millimetres) are laid once a year, typically
between August and January. This species
breeds throughout its range, often following rain
in arid areas.

Crimson and Adelaide rosellas
(Platycercus elegans)
Other names All types are medium-sized (35–38 centimetres
head to tail), with prominent blue cheek patches
Blue-cheeked rosella (all subspecies); mountain and broad tails. The blue cheek complex is
lowry, red lory (P. elegans); Murray or yellow unique to this species, with the exception of
rosella, Murray smoker, Murrumbidgee parrot the green rosella (Platycercus caledonicus),
(P. elegans flaveolus). Note: the terms ‘lory’ and found only in Tasmania and some islands of
lowry’ are used interchangeably. Bass Strait. Females tend to be smaller than
males with slightly smaller heads and bills. The
crimson rosella (A) is a brilliant deep red with
bright blue shoulder patches and tail. Juvenile
plumage is olive green with patches of crimson
on the forehead, breast and rump. The plumage
of P. elegans nigrescens (B) is similar but darker.
Yellow replaces crimson in the yellow rosella
(C), except for a red frontal band. The Adelaide
rosella (D) has plumage of varying amounts of
orange and red which replaces the crimson or
yellow of the other forms.
Photo: B. Furby.
Voice
B A loud ‘kweek kweek’ during flight, a smooth
piping whistle (‘psita-a-see’) when perched, not
unlike an alarm clock.
D C
Habitat
A The crimson rosella tends to prefer wetter forests
and woodlands, which are commonly found
in most types of rainforest and wet sclerophyll
forest. Their occurrence in open habitats,
Birds Australia Atlas (1998–2002)
farmlands, orchards, vineyards, urban parks and
gardens and semi-cleared landscapes is usually
Field identification
associated with adjacent blocks of wet or dry
This species now includes three rosella types that Eucalyptus woodland or with riparian vegetation,
are quite distinct in geographic distribution and or it can be attributed to the movements of
plumage colour. They were known previously as immature post-breeding flocks. Adelaide rosellas
different species and locally by different common are dispersed through a variety of open forest
names: crimson rosella (Platycercus elegans and cultivated habitats in the Mt Lofty ranges,
elegans (A), and P. elegans nigrescens (B) of the including stringy bark and gum (e.g. Eucalyptus
north-east coast of Queensland); yellow rosella obliqua, E. baxteri, E. leucoxylon, E. viminalis and
(P. elegans flaveolus (C)) and Adelaide rosella (P. E. fasciculosa) habitats and orchard landscapes,
elegans adelaidae (D)) (pictured above). but further north around the Flinders Ranges

they are more restricted to river red gum (E. (Romulea rosea), and spilled grain. Peak feeding
camaldulensis) communities. The distribution of time is in the early morning and late afternoon
the yellow rosella is even more closely associated during winter, but is more constant in autumn.
with the occurrence of the river red gum. This Feeding also occurs in mixed flocks with eastern
subspecies is restricted to the riparian vegetation rosellas (Platycercus eximius), superb parrots
of the Murray–Murrumbidgee river systems and (Polytelis swainsonii) and ringnecks (Barnardius
occurs away from watercourses only where the zonarius).
river red gum grows.
Breeding
Movements
Rosellas breed primarily in tree hollows of
All types are sedentary, with only occasional Eucalyptus spp. in woodland from September to
nomadic movements at the fringes of their January. They chew and strip existing bark, sticks
range, during winter, or by immature flocks. Local and wood chips for nest lining, rather than bring
movements in winter may occur from Eucalyptus in new material. Females select sites near those
woodland to more open areas. Regional occupied in the previous season, sometimes
movement towards more dense vegetation also used and lined by other species. Females
communities often takes place before the onset incubate four to eight white, oval eggs (28 × 23
of breeding. millimetres) for 21 days, leaving the nest for short
periods in the mornings and afternoons to be
Foods and feeding behaviour fed by the male. Young fledge after 35 days and
remain with the parents for a further four weeks.
Rosellas feed predominantly on plant material, Nests produce an average of 0.4 to three fledged
including foliage, seeds, buds, flowers, fruit and young per clutch and clutches are usually larger
nectar. However, insects and their larvae, including in nests used in previous seasons. Nest failure is
Christmas beetles (Anoplognathus spp.), aphids often caused by destruction of eggs by mammals
(Aphis spp.) and psyllids (Sternorryncha) often or birds, including other crimson rosellas, or by
supplement their diet. Unlike many other parrot desertion.
species, these rosellas forage commonly in tree
and shrub canopies. Pairs and small groups
Damage
forage in the foliage and branches of Eucalyptus
spp., Casuarina spp., Callitris spp., Acacia spp., Various levels of damage occur to a wide variety
Grevillea spp., Pinus spp.(roosting only), fruit of horticultural crops, including apples, cherries,
and nut crops, and introduced weed species stone fruits, almonds, chestnuts, bramble
such as wild olives, blackberry, lantana (Lantana berries, grapes, pears (Figure B.1), plums, guava
camara), sweet briar (Rosa rubiginosa) and and quinces. Adelaide rosellas in particular
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.). The yellow rosella is can cause severe losses to cherry crops in the
often observed foraging high in the branches Mt Lofty Ranges by damaging buds, flowers
of flowering and seeding river red gums. The and fruit. Bud damage can be considerable in
Adelaide rosella is preferentially a ground feed some areas, with total losses resulting in some
ing bird. Dietary studies (Reynolds 2003) confirm varieties. Crimson rosellas will also occasionally
that introduced Mediterranean pasture species cause damage where they occur near orchards
make up the bulk of their diet in modified habitats and vineyards. Vegetables and young wheat
throughout it’s range. Ground feeding increases crops are also damaged in some areas. In the
in frequency during the summer months and in Riverland of South Australia, the yellow rosella
open areas, where small flocks feed on pasture causes damage to soft fruits such as grapes,
weeds, thistles (Asteraceae), dock (Rumex cherries and pears.
spp.), clover (Trifolium spp.) seed, onion grass

Figure B.1. Rosella damage to pears. Photo: J. Tracey.
Protection status Halse S. A. (1986) Parrot Damage in Apple Orchards in

South-western Australia — a Review. Technical
Protected. Report No. 8., Department of Conservation and
Land Management, Western Australia.
Harman, I. (1981) Australian parrots in bush and aviary.

Sources and further reading Inkata press, Melbourne.
Aslin, V.M. (1978) Behaviour and ecology of the Crimson
Krebs, E.A. (1998) Breeding biology of crimson rosellas
Rosella (Platycercus elegans). BSc(Hons) thesis,
(Platycercus elegans) on Black Mountain,
University of New England, Armidale.
Australian Capital Territory. Australian Journal of
Bridgewater, A.E. (1934) The food of Platycercus eximius Zoology 46: 119–136.
and P. elegans. Emu 33: 175–186.
Reynolds, T.M. (2003) The Feeding Ecology of the
Crome, F. and Shields, J. (1992) Parrots and pigeons Adelaide Rosella (Platycercus elegans adelaidae)
of Australia. In The National Photographic Index in Cherry Growing Districts of the Adelaide
of Australian Wildlife. Angus and Robertson, Hills. MSc Thesis. Department of Environmental
Sydney: pp. 131–137. Biology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide.
Fisher, A.M. (1991) Bud damage by Adelaide rosellas
(Platycercus elegans adelaidae) to different
varieties of sweet cherry (Prunus avium) grown in
the southern Mt Lofty ranges. BSc(Hons) thesis,
University of Adelaide.
Golding, B.G. (1979) Use of artificial hollows by mammals

and birds in the Wombat Forest Daylesford,
Victoria. Unpublished MESc thesis. Monash
University, Melbourne.

Crows and ravens
(Family Corvidae)
Other names Field identification
Australian raven (Corvus coronoides), little raven Native Australian crows and ravens (Corvus spp.)
(C. mellori), little crow (C. bennetti), Torresian crow are common, large (48–54 centimetres head to
(C. orru), forest raven (C. tasmanicus). tail) black birds. They are the only members of
the Corvus genus with white eyes. Five native
species are recognised, all of similar size and
appearance and difficult to distinguish: the
Australian raven (C. coronoides), little raven (C.
mellori), little crow (Corvus bennetti), Torresian
crow (C. orru) and forest raven (C. tasmanicus).
An introduced species, the house or Columbo
crow (C. splendens), has also been observed in
Fremantle, Rottnest Island and Port Hedland in
Western Australia and near the Melbourne Zoo
in Victoria, but as a result of efforts to remove
them, individuals have not become established.
Australian raven Photo: B. Furby. This species is smaller (42–44 cm length), has
brown eyes, and is grey-brown around the neck
and breast. Native species can be distinguished
Australian raven
by slight variations in plumage, habits and
calls. The two crows have hidden white down
at the base of their feathers; this down is grey
in the raven species. Ravens also have more
prominent throat hackles, which are especially
Little raven
long and pointed in the Australian raven. Other
differences, particularly in their distribution and
in their calls, flight pattern and flock size, can be
used to distinguish species. Consult Higgins et
al. (2006) for further details.
Little crow
Voice
Crows and ravens utter a wide variety of
calls that vary between species, regions and
Torresian crow age groups. The territorial calls are the most
commonly vocalised and can be used to
distinguish between species where distributions
overlap. The larger species, the Australian raven
and the Torresian crow, utter higher notes than
Forest raven the other species, and have been described as
tenors; while little ravens and little crows are
described as baritones; and the forest raven as
Birds Australia Atlas
a bass. The territorial calls of each species are
(1998–2002)
briefly described below:

Australian raven - a wailing ‘aah aah aah two species often perform larger movements
aaaaaaah’. in response to water and food availability and
they often become sedentary for only three
Forest raven - a series of short, very deep,
months during breeding. For example, in the
guttural notes ‘korr korr korr korrrrr’; deeper and
Murray-Darling region, large numbers of little
harsher than the calls of the Australian or little
ravens travel south-east in summer to higher
raven;
rainfall areas, returning in autumn. Individual
Little raven - a series of rapid short notes, ‘aark movements are also greater for the little raven
aark aark aaaaark’: shorter and twice as fast as (up to 352 kilometres) and little crow (up to 691
the Australian raven and higher than the calls of kilometres), in comparison with those of other
the forest raven. species. Non-breeding birds travel farther and are
the main component of corvid populations. Birds
Torresian crow - more varied than other species typically return to the same sites to breed. They
with shorter and sharper notes than the establish territories that vary in size considerably
Australian raven; a laughing or barking ‘uk uk between species and habitats, from 0.4 to more
uk uk uk uk’ or a ‘ok ok ok ok ok ok’ sometimes than 130 hectares.
followed by gargling sounds. Notes can also
change mid-call.
Little crow - a series of nasal and monotonous
Corvids are omnivorous scavengers and pred
notes, ‘nark nark nark nark nark nark’ with less
ators, consuming many types of insects, carrion
variation than the other species.
and vegetable matter. Large insects usually
comprise the majority of the diet, followed
Habitat by carrion and plant materials, such as fruit,
vegetables, seeds and foliage. Availability and
These species occupy most types of habitat,
hence quantities of different foods vary between
particularly farmlands, dry open Eucalyptus
habitats and season. Nestlings, eggs, small
woodlands and forests, open savannah and
lizards and birds are also frequent prey items.
coastal and urban areas. Alpine areas, arid
Food is usually first located by aerial searches
regions and watercourses and swamps are also
after sunrise, followed by long bouts of ground
frequented. The little crow is better adapted
foraging. They will also occasionally consume
to drier habitats, including mallee (e.g. E.
fruit and beetles (Coleoptera), bugs (Hemiptera)
diversifolia, E. rugosa), mulga (Acacia aneura)
and flying insects from trees and shrubs. Feeding
and spinifex (Triodia spp.). All species avoid
around carcasses is most common and often
dense closed forests with the exception of the
includes caching surplus meat. These sites can
forest raven. This species is the only corvid found
be vigorously defended during food shortages
in Tasmania. It also is uncommon on the mainland
and provide a range of insects, including dung
with only a few isolated populations residing
(Scarabaeidae) and carrion (Silphidae) beetles.
on the north-east coast of New South Wales
Spiders, grasshoppers and locusts (Orthoptera),
and in the coastal regions of southern Victoria
weevils (Curculionidae), ants (Formicidae) and
and South Australia. Expansion of agricultural
caterpillar (Lepidoptera) larvae are also common
development, particularly grazing, has facilitated
prey items. This predation on pasture and crop
increases in corvid distribution and abundance
insect pest species would be beneficial to most
in many areas.
farmers. Peak feeding occurs during the early
morning and late afternoon with flocks return
Movements ing to roost in the middle of the day. Crows and
ravens regularly visit watering sites throughout
These species are all sedentary. No regular large-
the day, more frequently in arid areas. Mixed
scale movements are evident, but the little raven
feeding flocks often congregate around food
and little crow display more nomadic traits. These

sources where distributions overlap; in some fruit or foliage and sever seedlings. In vineyards,
cases all three raven species have been observed crows and ravens remove or damage fruit they
feeding at one site. can reach when sitting on trellis posts or strong
vine canes and have been observed pushing
Breeding young vines to the ground to feed from them
(Figure B.2). Although netting reduces their
Corvids make large bulky stick nests occasionally impact on grapes, if the netting is simply draped
bound with mud and lined with grass, bark over the vines, they can weigh it down if they
strips and wool. They are usually constructed by perch en mass and damage the grapes through
both sexes in an upright fork of the uppermost the net. They can also perch on, and forage
canopy, but lower in arid areas. The little raven directly from, foliage, and this is evident in grain
nests are typically much lower (at less than 10 crops. Commercial grains and storage areas are
metres height), occasionally even on the ground often susceptible. Oats, wheat, sorghum, maize
in cleared areas. A single brood of three to six is and rice are commonly consumed, often from
raised in a season (July–October). Egg size varies stock feed and during sowing, but also from
among species, little crows laying noticeably stubble paddocks following harvest. Crows and
smaller eggs (39 × 26 millimetres) than other ravens are also frequently implicated in causing
species (44–45 × 30–41 millimetres). The little stock losses, and are known to prey upon
crow also has a more variable breeding season lambs and injure sheep. However, losses are
and clutch size and is more likely to nest in rarely significant, as these birds are most likely
response to rainfall. Females incubate for about to injure lambs that are already sick, dying or
20 days, and both sexes feed the young, which mismothered. Some studies suggest that only
fledge at about 40 days. the largest species (Australian forest ravens)
are capable of inflicting damage. Unlike raptors,
Damage these species have difficulty penetrating mammal
skin; hence soft parts are targeted (mouth, eyes,
Corvids are known to consume various quantities
anus, umbilicus).
of grapes, cherries, olives, plums, bramble berries,
pineapples, passionfruit, potatoes, almonds,
peanuts and grains. Corvids directly consume Protection status
Protected, but unprotected in some States and
regions (Section 6.1).
Sources and further reading

Debus, S.J.S. (1995) Identifying crows and ravens.
Wingspan 5: 38–42.
Higgins, P.J., Peter, J.M. and Cowling, S.J. (2006)

Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and
Antarctic Birds (HANZAB). Volume 7: Boatbill to
Starlings, Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
Lawrence, C. (2005) Some vocal characteristics and call

variations in the Australian Corvids. Australian
Field Ornithology 22: 72–82.
Figure B.2: Crow damage to grapes: hollowed- Rowley, I. (1969) An evaluation of predation by ‘crows’
on young lambs. CSIRO Wildlife Research 14:
out and torn berries. Damaged bunches are
153–179.
always high up and exposed, near canes large
Rowley, I. (1973) The comparative ecology of Australian
enough to support the weight of the large bird.
corvids. I–VI. CSIRO Wildlife Research 18: 1–169.
Photo: R. Sinclair.

Eastern rosella
(Platycercus eximius)
Other names Voice
Red-headed, white-cheeked or golden mantled Calls similar to, but higher-pitched than, those of
rosella; Rosehill parrot. crimson rosellas (Platycercus elegans elegans):
rapid high-pitched ‘pink pink’ during flight and
an ascending whistle or slow piping ‘kwink kwink’
when perched.
Habitat
Eastern rosellas replace and coexist with
crimson rosellas in more open habitats but rarely
inhabit rainforest or wet sclerophyll forest. They
are common throughout their range in open
woodlands, farmlands, orchards, cultivated
croplands and suburban parks and gardens.
Photo: G. Dabb. However, in drier parts they reside close to
creeklines or floodplains. Their occurrence
in open forests is associated with grassy
understorey or adjacent grasslands. Hence this
species has benefited from the clearing of dense
forest or replanting of grassy landscapes. They
are also often observed along roadsides and
perched on fence-lines or overhead wires.
Movements
Considered mainly sedentary, although some
seasonal movements are thought to occur
as a result of dispersal before (New South
Wales populations) or after (South Australian
Field identification populations) breeding. In the Australian Capital
Territory certain populations exhibit altitudinal
This species is a medium-sized (29–33
movements, where birds emigrate from higher
centimetres head to tail), broad-tailed colourful
to lower altitudes in winter. Typical of most
parrot. The head, upper breast and tail coverts
parrot species, juveniles and sub-adults tend to
are bright red, the cheeks are white, the belly and
be more mobile. Eastern rosellas occur singly, in
lower breast yellow, shoulders blue, and rump
pairs or in small groups and occasionally in larger
green to turquoise. Females and immatures are
groups of up to 100. Daily movements are usually
a little duller and have a slight green area on the
confined to local areas and the birds often loaf in
rear of the crown.
tree branches during the middle of the day.

Foods and feeding behaviour orchards, are selected in August, and breeding
usually occurs between September and
Eastern rosellas prefer ground foraging on December. Nests are often used by the same
grasses, with seeds being the major component pairs in consecutive seasons. Hollows are often
of their diet throughout the year. However, unlined, or may be lined with small amounts of
shrub and tree seeds (particularly Eucalyptus chewed bark, wood and plant material. Four
spp. and Acacia spp.), fruits, flowers, buds to seven white, oval eggs, distinguishable from
and nectar and a variety of insects, including those of other rosella species by their size (26
caterpillars (Lepidoptera), lerp, psyllids, coccids × 22 millimetres), are laid at two-day intervals.
(Sternorryncha) and galls on Eucalyptus leaves Females are fed by the males while incubating
are also consumed when available. Foraging and when their young are newly hatched. Young
parties are usually small (less than 10 birds), are then fed by both sexes. Suitable nesting sites
largest in the morning, smallest during the are often usurped by starlings (Sturnus vulgaris)
middle of the day and intermediate sized groups and mynas (Acridotheres tristis). Nesting failure
in the afternoons. Foraging in the tree and shrub is also attributed to desertion, infertility or
canopy for fruit, flowers, seeds or buds is often breakage of eggs, or predation by lace monitors,
done opportunistically. A greater proportion of brush-tailed possums or rats.
the day is spent feeding in the cooler months.
Damage
Breeding
Eastern rosellas are known to damage nuts,
Eastern rosellas usually nest in the hollows of sunflowers, grain and a variety of fruit crops,
mature Eucalyptus spp., but also in tree stumps, including apples (Figure B.3), grapes, cherries,
fence posts, nest boxes and hollows of a variety pears (Figure B.4) and plums. Impacts on
of other species, including Casuarina spp., figs, viticulture include the chewing of growing vines
Melaleuca spp. and fruit trees. Suitable hollows and clipping of young vine stems. Eastern rosellas
in cleared and open woodlands, including damage fruit by biting medium-sized chunks;
Figure B.3: Rosella damage to apple. Photo: J. Tracey.

Figure B.4: Rosella damage to pear.
Photo: J.Tracey.
Cannon, C.E. (1984) Flock size of feeding Eastern

this often increases secondary losses caused by
and Pale-headed Rosellas. Australian Wildlife
fungi such as botrytis (Botrytis cinerea) or by
Research 11: 349–355.
insects. Rosella damage is distinguishable from
Green, R.H. (1983) The decline of eastern rosella
that caused by other species by the triangular-
(Platycercus eximius diemenensis) and other
shaped marks made by the lower beak and by Psittaciformes in Tasmania concomitant with
the small fragments (less than one centimetre in the establishment of the introduced European
diameter) found underneath the fruit. starling (Sturnus vulgaris). Records of the Queen
Victoria Museum, Launceston 82: 1–5.
Protection status Harman, I. (1981) Australian parrots in bush and aviary.
Inkata press, Melbourne.
Protected
Penck, M. (1992) Breeding biology and vocalisation
differences facilitating coexistence of Adelaide
Sources and further reading and Eastern rosellas (Platycercus spp.) in Adel
Brereton, J.L.G. (1963) Evolution within the aide. South Australian Ornithologist 32: 25–32.
Psittaciformes. Proceedings XIII International
Ornithological Congress 13: 499–517.
Cannon, C.E. (1977) The comparative feeding biology of

two Australian parrots, Platycercus eximius and
P. adscitus. PhD thesis, Department of Zoology,
University of Queensland.

Galah
(Elophus roseicapilla syn. Cacatua roseicapilla)
Rose, rose-breasted or willock cockatoo. This species is an easily recognised, small (35–38
centimetres head to tail), pink and grey cockatoo.
It is noisy and conspicuous, with an erratic flight
pattern. Its generic name is derived from the
Greek, ‘dawn’ and ‘crest’ referring to the rose-
pink crest like the rising dawn. The species name
comes from the Latin ‘roseus’ (rose) and ‘capillus’
(capped). Females are distinguished by pinkish
skin around the eye; males and immatures have
dark brown eye skin.
Voice
A loud, high-pitched ‘chill chill’ during flight, a
shrill screech in alarm, and a softer hum while
Photo: M. Bomford. roosting or feeding.
Habitat
The galah occupies highly varied habitats
throughout Australia in open savannahs, agri
cultural areas, open forests, woodlands, shrub
lands, mangroves, arid and semi-arid regions,
sand-plains and urban areas. Galahs seldom
occur in dense wet sclerophyll woodland or
rainforests and avoid extreme desert regions,
although in open country they prefer riverine
or roadside habitat with remnant Eucalyptus
or Casuarina woodlands. They are common
in farming districts, urban parks, gardens and
Birds Australia Atlas (1998–2002) sporting fields. Their abundance and distribution
have expanded dramatically and continue to
expand owing to clearing and thinning of dense
forests, expanding cereal cropping and improv
ed access to water since European colonisation.
In particular, the availability of grain from crops,
storage facilities and stock feed has provided
food during winter periods when it was naturally
scarce. Galahs are now the most widely disper
sed and probably the most abundant cockatoo in
Australia. Highest densities occur in the Murray–
Darling river system of south-eastern Australia
and in the wheat belt of the south-west of
Western Australia.

Movements and white stemless (Onopordon acule)) and
corms of onion (Guildford) grass (Romulea
This species is generally sedentary, with nomadic rosea) are also frequently eaten.
tendencies in juvenile and non-breeding sub-
populations and in certain habitats. Sedentary Feeding flocks of 500–1000 galahs are common
birds will concentrate their movements around in cropping areas and groups are larger when
their nest sites and return to hollows to roost food sources are more concentrated. Larger
travelling less than 10 kilometres for food. flocks form during feeding rather than when
Nomadic sub-populations may traverse larger roosting or flying, and while feeding on grain
areas (over 1000 square kilometres) and will rather than on pasture or in orchards. Nomadic
roost near food sources. Galahs rarely display flocks will roost within two kilometres of feeding
large-scale seasonal movements. Exceptions sites and visit them repeatedly while the food
are some populations of the far north, which are source remains. They will often forage with
thought to move to the north coast in the dry sulphur-crested cockatoos (Cacatua galerita),
season and away from it during the wet. Extreme long-billed (Cacatua tenuirostris) and little
climatic conditions and habitats with variable (Cacatua sanguinea) corellas, Major Mitchell’s
food and water availability can also result in cockatoos (Cacatua leabeateri), red-tailed
large regional movements. black-cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus banksii) and
mallee ringnecks (Barnardius zonarius barnardi),
and respond to their alarm calls. Feeding forays
usually last one to four hours and begin within
Seeds of grasses and herbs, especially cereal an hour after dawn and within five hours of
grains, comprise about 75% of their diet through dusk. Shorter foraging periods of less than 30
out the year. The remainder includes small minutes occur during the day, especially when
quantities of nuts, fruits, berries, shoots, buds, temperatures are low and food is scarce, and
flowers, tubers, corms, bulbs and insects. Galahs while the birds are feeding young.
are ground foragers who search by sight, rarely
digging except when seeds or rhizomes are close Breeding
to the surface. Cultivated seed crops, particularly
wheat, oats and barley, provide a stable food Galahs can breed throughout the year. Breeding
source in many areas. Grain is available from varies according to rainfall and food resources
germinating crops, stubble, spillages around with peaks in February to May and August to
storage areas or along roadsides, and stock feed November. Pairs form permanent bonds and
or (rarely) livestock dung. remain loyal to nest sites which they both visit
throughout the year. Hollows in Eucalyptus near
Seeds of native and improved pastures and water are selected in preference to other sites,
weeds, such as Erodium spp., clover, subclover although birds can nest in cliff crevices, logs
(Trifolium spp.) and medic (Medicago spp.), wild and fence-posts. Unlike other cockatoos, galahs
oats (Avena spp.), wallaby grass (Danthonia spp.), will line nests with Eucalyptus leaves. Two to six
western button grass (Dactyloctenium radulans), eggs (35 × 26 millimetres) are incubated by both
Flinders grass (Iseilema membranaceum) and sexes for about 23 days. Feeding of the young is
Mitchell grass (Astrebla lappacea) are commonly also shared equally. Fledging occurs at around
consumed outside cropping areas and seasons. 50 days and the young remain partly dependent
Winter and autumn crops such as sunflower until 100 days. About 47% of eggs laid reach
and sorghum are also exploited, in some cases fledging, with about 19% of fledged young
offering year-round access to commercial crops. dying before independence. Adverse weather
Seed heads from introduced thistles (scotch conditions, competition from other hole-nesting
(Cirsium vulgare), saffron (Carthamus lanatus) species and predation contribute to nesting
failure.

Damage
The main damage galahs cause is to germinating
cereal crops because of their dependence on
seeds. Although they collect grain from other
sources, damage is still known to occur to
commercial crops of wheat, sorghum, barley,
oats, maize (Figure B.5), sunflower, canola and
safflower. Although they frequently damage
almonds and occasionally eat soft fruits, damage
to orchards, vineyards and nut plantations is
usually by pruning of leaves, buds and flowers,
chewing of young canes, clipping and pulling out
of young plants, stripping bark, and splitting of
fruit for seeds. Citrus, apples, stone fruits, wine
grapes, walnuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, pistachios
and almonds are susceptible to this type of
damage. Young Eucalypt — particularly those
in revegetation programmes — and other native
plant species, including saltbush and bluebush,
can suffer similar damage. Impacts in urban
areas to structures such as timber trellising,
communications aerials, rubber insulators and
Figure B.5: Galah damage to maize where husks
cables also occur and are typical of the damage
were pulled right back exposing the kernels,
caused by large parrot species with curious and
which were then completely removed.
intelligent natures. Temporary covers of grain
Photo: P. Fleming.
stores and haystacks are often torn exposing
the contents to weather and spoilage. Rhizomes,
corms, bulbs and clover seed often attract galahs
to sports ovals, bowling greens and golf courses
where large foraging groups destroy the turf.
Noske, S. (1980) Aspects of the behaviour and ecology

Protection status of the White Cockatoo (Cacatua galerita) and
Galah (C. roseicapilla) in croplands in north-east
Protected, but locally unprotected in some
New South Wales. MSc Thesis, University of New
States and regions (Section 6.1). England, Armidale.
Rowley, I. (1990) The Galah. Sydney: Surrey Beatty.
Temby, I. (1998) Reducing cockatoo damage in Victoria.

Eclectus 5: 20–26.

Little corella
(Cacatua sanguinea)
Bare-eyed, blue-eyed, Dampier’s, short-billed Little corellas (36–39 centimetres, head to tail)
corella or cockatoo. are found only in Australia and New Guinea.
They have bare, bluish skin around the eye, a
small erectile crest and a small whitish bill. The
underwing and undertail, seen during flight, are
sulphur yellow. Cacatua sanguinea gymnopsis
(A) and normatoni (B) subspecies have a
pink patch between the eye and bill, which is
unnoticeable in the nominate sanguinea (C)
subspecies. The long-billed corella (C. tenuir
ostris) and western corella (C. pastinator) are
similar species: distinguished by a longer bill. The
long-billed corella has a prominent crimson or
salmon throat bar. The western corella has small
traces of colour on the throat and a deep patch
between the eye and the bill. Wing beats are
shallower than the galah’s (Elophus [Cacatua]
rosiecapilla) but deeper than that of the sulphur-
crested cockatoo (C. galerita). Little corellas are
usually seen in large, noisy flocks.
Voice
Photo: P. Bird. Inset photo: G. Dabb.
Very raucous screeching calls during flight
C B and while roosting. Calls are similar to, but

distinguishable from, those of the sulphur-
crested cockatoo. However, the calls are almost
identical to (only slightly deeper than) the calls
of the long-billed corella.
A A
Habitat
Little corellas occupy a variety of timbered
habitats including lightly wooded grassland,
acacia shrubland, swamp sclerophyll forests,
open sclerophyll, monsoon and riparian
woodland and adjacent croplands, ploughed
paddocks and grazing areas. Large flocks
are also prominent in rural townships, around
homesteads and grain silos. They have even
moved into urban Adelaide and roost in gardens,

sporting fields and recreational areas. They are New South Wales and seek refuge around the
prevalent in the arid and semi-arid rangelands billabongs, dams and waterholes of the semi-
and considered a dryland species, but are arid and tableland regions. Conversely, large
uncommon in areas without permanent water. influxes of little corellas have appeared in other
In drier parts of Australia they are replaced by areas during floods and prolific breeding can
Major Mitchell’s cockatoos (C. leadbeateri). In occur in these areas (for example, in Melbourne
South Australia they are distributed along the during the 1974 floods). Despite little evidence
Murray River and tributaries in association with of movement across the Bass Strait, populations
the river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis). have become established in Tasmania where they
Eucalypt species associated with watercourses are now widespread in central farmland areas.
are also occupied by little corellas in other areas However, aviary escapees are a likely contributing
including southwest Victoria and the Pilbara factor, being implicated in the establishment of
region of Western Australia. They also occupy populations in Perth and Adelaide.
other woodland areas with tall grasses and in
Little corellas form large communal roosts of
close proximity to water, including open mallee
thousands, but leave in small groups (1–20)
(e.g. E. diversifolia), coolibah (E. microtheca),
during the dawn period to travel to feeding sites
and woodlands of Callitris — Casuarina spp.,
and return before sunset. During the middle of
Eucalyptus — Allocasuarina spp. and Andansonia
the day they normally loaf and shelter in tall
— Eucalyptus spp. During food shortages local
trees often beside water or feeding sites.
populations will venture into more marginal
habitats, such as Eucalyptus — Acacia spp. Flocks of up to 70 000 birds have been reported
or saltbush (Atriplex spp., Rhagodia spp.) in the Kimberley, Western Australia. They also
shrublands or dry mallee and arid Callitris spp. regularly occur with other species such as long-
stands. On Australia’s mainland the distribution billed and western corellas, galahs and sulphur-
and abundance of little corellas have increased crested cockatoos. Single birds and small flocks,
since European settlement, particularly in South in particular, will join flocks of other species. In
Australia and the wheat belt of Western Australia, the breeding season (May–October) flocks tend
because of increased access to water, clearing of to be smaller as pairs remain close to their nest
native shrublands and pasture improvement. hollows.
Movements Foods and feeding behaviour

This species is mainly sedentary but displays Grass seed comprises the majority of the diet,
larger movements in response to extremes with varying amounts of seed from other sources,
in climatic conditions. However, it is more as well as nuts, fruit, berries, buds, shoots,
nomadic than the sulphur-crested cockatoo flowers, roots, bulbs, corms and occasionally
and perhaps the galah. Typically, there are no insect larvae. Hence most foraging occurs on, or
large-scale seasonal movements, but some close to, the ground. Corellas become arboreal in
populations exhibit regular local movements some areas, particularly in urban and horticultural
with seasonal patterns. Pairs will separate from regions where open pasture is limited and exotic
flocks and travel to riverine habitat during the or cultivated fruit or nut trees are plentiful. In
breeding season (May–October). Immatures and native and other agricultural environments they
non-breeding adults are more mobile and can prefer to feed in woodlands with established
disperse up to 250 kilometres, particularly after perennial grasses over shrublands or shrubby
the breeding season. Erratic movements often woodlands with sparse grass cover. Preference
occur when they follow available water and food. for seeding grasses, herbs, shrubs and trees
For example, during droughts large flocks depart varies considerably with season and location.
from the arid regions of western Queensland and Oats, sorghum, wheat, Acacia spp., river red

gum, spinifex (Triodia spp.) and rice grass Damage
(Xerochloa spp.) are commonly consumed
when available. Particular weed species are also Little corellas can cause significant damage to
targeted, especially doublegee (Emex australis) fruit and nuts, particularly as their nomadic habits
tick-weed (Cleome viscosa) and hogweed can result in large numbers arriving unexpectedly.
(Boerhavia spp.). Wood borers of Eucalyptus Fruit damage typically occurs as a result of birds
spp. are also sought after, and individual birds seeking seeds, rather than the fruits themselves.
will split bark and crack limbs to retrieve the Citrus, apples and stone fruits are commonly
insects. Like other large parrots, little corellas damaged. However, young apples and pears and
have a habit of chewing various objects, ranging other pome fruits are also consumed directly. In
from fabricated structures and cables to heavy some cases more fruit or nuts are knocked to
defoliation of roost trees. Although they will the ground than are actually eaten. They seldom
consume leaves, bark, buds and other vegetative eat grapes but are known to prune vine foliage
matter, chewing behaviour is more likely a result and actively growing canes, clip and pull out
of their innate curiosity; hence they often target young vines and snip off entire bunches. Pruning
novel items in their environment. They may also and foliage destruction, including ringbarking,
chew for beak maintenance, to fill in time with can also cause significant economic losses in
displacement behaviour due to an abundance of nut orchards including chestnuts, hazelnuts,
food, or foliage thinning to help avoid predator pistachios and almonds. Vegetable crops and
attack. peanuts are often dug up or pulled out of the
ground. A variety of commercial cereal and oil
Little corellas regularly form large noisy flocks seed crops suffer losses when little corellas dig
in the hundreds or thousands, especially while up freshly sown seed, sever plants or attack seed
feeding, drinking and roosting. Peak feeding heads. Crops targeted this way include oats,
occurs in the early mornings and late afternoons, wheat, sorghum, rice, maize, canola, sunflower
when they may spend a great deal of time and safflower. When foraging in crops little
digging for buried seeds and roots, including corellas can hold seeds under their tongues for
freshly sown seed. They usually drink twice a later de-husking and eating.
day.
Their chewing habits can result in considerable
damage to existing native vegetation and habitat
Breeding
restoration projects. For example, large roosting
Little corellas most commonly breed in hollows colonies (often exceeding 10 000 individuals)
in riverine Eucalyptus spp., but hollows in bottle- along watercourses of the Flinders Ranges are
trees and mangroves, crevices in cliffs and known to cause significant damage to many
termite mounds are used occasionally. They can mature Eucalyptus spp., particularly river red
usurp galahs from nests and have been known to gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), but also native
raise galahs’ young. They often nest in the same pine (Callitris columellaris), peppermint box (E.
hollow in consecutive seasons, sometimes with odorata) and long-leaved box (E. goniocalyx).
several pairs breeding in the same tree. Breeding Rows of planted native plants in revegetation
season (usually May–October) and clutch size projects appear more susceptible than naturally
vary with climatic conditions, with multiple occurring plantings of a similar age, possibly
broods possible in good seasons and little or because they represent something novel.
no breeding during drought. Two or three, and
Silos, grain bunkers and fodder storage areas,
occasionally four, eggs (35 × 26 millimetres) are
co-axial cables, communication aerials and
laid in unlined hollows. Often only one young
household wiring are also at risk of damage
is raised per nest because the other eggs do
from little corellas. They sometimes form large
not hatch. Both sexes incubate the eggs, males
seasonal roosts in rural towns or suburban areas
during the day and females at night.

(for example, in Adelaide) and cause considerable
damage to infrastructure (particularly grassed
areas such as ovals, golf courses, bowling greens
and community swimming pools) and affect
local amenity values through noise pollution and
defoliation of, and damage to, local trees.
Protection status
States and regions (Section 6.1).

Beardsell, C.M. and Emison, W.B. (1985) The little corella
in the south-east of South Australia. South
Australian Ornithologist 29: 206–207.
Emison, W.B. and Beardsell, C.M. (1989) Long-billed

corellas feeding in rice crops in the Riverina
region of New South Wales. Australian Birds 22:
76–77.

Jarman, H. (1979) The corellas in Victoria and the

Riverina, N.S.W. Australian Bird Watcher 8: 103–
117.
Kentish, B., Wallis, A., Brennan, D., Hartwell, D.,

Whiteford, C. and Temby, I. (2005) Corella
problems in western Victoria: a chronology of
the management of a native pest species. In
13th Australasian Vertebrate Pest Conference
Proceedings. Landcare Research, Wellington,
New Zealand: pp. 217–223.
St John, B. (1991) Management of Little Corellas in

the Flinders Ranges: Discussion Paper. South
Australia: Wildlife Management Section, South
Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service.


Musk lorikeet
(Glossopsitta concinna)
Red-eared lorikeet; red-crowned lorikeet; green The musk lorikeet is a green lorikeet with bright
keet; green leek. red cheeks and forehead, blue to turquoise
crown, olive-brown on the lower back of the neck
and yellow patches on the side of the breast.
The bill is black with a red-orange tip. Large
flocks are often seen racing through the high
canopy or among dense foliage in the tops of
Eucalyptus trees. Hence they are often confused
with purple-crowned lorikeets (Glossopsitta
porphyrocephala) or little lorikeets (G. pusilla),
especially as they frequently occur together.
However, size can be used to distinguish the
species, as musk lorikeets are noticeably larger
(22 versus 16 centimetres head to tail) than the
other two species. Females are similar to but
usually duller and slightly smaller than males.
Voice
A shrill metallic screech during flight; varied but
continual noisy chattering while feeding.
Photo: P. Charles.
Habitat
Musk lorikeets prefer sclerophyll woodlands,
dry open forests, tall mallee (e.g. Eucalyptus
diversifolia, E. rugosa) shrubland, and open
parks and gardens with scattered Eucalyptus
spp. They are also common in semi-cleared
agricultural areas, including orchards, where
remnant riparian or roadside woodland persists.
They usually avoid wet sclerophyll woodlands
and rainforest. Their preferences for particular
vegetation types vary with flowering seasons,
but some regional patterns have emerged.
White box (Eucalyptus albens) and red ironbark
(E. sideroxylon) communities are frequented to
the north and west of the Great Dividing Range.
Red bloodwood (E. gummifera) is favoured in
East Gippsland, Victoria, and river red gum (E.
camldulensis) near Melbourne. Musk lorikeets

avoid brown stringybark (E. baxteri) in the areas Grevillea spp. and paperbark (Melaleuca spp.).
surrounding Adelaide. Other vegetation types, Plantations of sugar gum (E. cladocalyx) and
such as Angophora spp., coastal woodlands and South Australian blue gum (E. leucoxylon) are
open heathlands, are occasionally utilised in also regularly visited for nectar. Pollen, fruit,
good flowering seasons. flower buds, seeds and insects are consumed as
supplements in various quantities including the
Musk lorikeets avoid logged forest, and gradual
fruits of a variety of cultivated crops.
declines in abundance have been attributed to
the clearing of Eucalyptus spp. for agriculture. A very gregarious species, the musk lorikeet can
However, native tree planting in suburbia, or form flocks of several hundred at feeding sites.
increases in Eucalyptus spp. plantations in rural
Feeding activity is often chaotic and noisy with
areas have increased local populations in some
birds excitedly flying backward and forwards
areas.
among foliage. Peak feeding time occurs in
the early mornings, but continuous feeding
Movements throughout the day is not uncommon. Musk
This is a classic nomadic species, and its lorikeets will also frequently feed in association
movements are closely associated with the with other lorikeets (rainbow, Trichoglossus
flowering of Eucalyptus spp. Its erratic move haematodus; scaly breasted, T. chlorolepidotus;
ments are likely to be a result of variable nectar little and purple-crowned) and swift parrots
availability, although its movements can be more (Lathamus discolor). Breeding pairs will often
predictable than those of many other lorikeets. remain together within flocks during feeding
Musk lorikeets are common in the sclerophyll and roosting. Roosting sites are in tall trees away
forests of south-eastern Australia, particularly from feeding areas.
Victoria, but increasingly rare in Queensland.
Tasmania has considerable populations that Breeding
commonly move large distances but exhibit
Musk lorikeets build basic nests in Eucalyptus
little movement to the mainland. A small feral
spp. cavities, often with very small entrances
population became established in Perth but
(four centimetres diameter) through which the
has since been removed. Suburban populations
parents push their way. Two white, rounded eggs
are thought to have altered their movement
(25 × 20 millimetres) are laid on a small amount
behaviour because of a continuous supply of
of chewed wood inside the cavity. The female
flowering plants and they have become more
incubates, but both sexes roost inside the hollow
sedentary. Influxes to suburban areas have also
and then feed and raise the young. They have
been attributed to surrounding bushfires or
a 24-day incubation period, fledge at about 60
adverse weather conditions, including drought.
days and reach maturity at 13–14 months, but
often they do not breed until they are two years
Foods and feeding behaviour old. Breeding usually occurs between September
Unlike other parrots, lorikeets have no ventriculus and November but is thought to depend on
to store grit to grind and digest food; instead flowering in nectar-producing trees.
they use a brush-tipped tongue for collecting
nectar. Musk lorikeets are strongly arboreal and Damage
favour nectar from flowering plants, particularly
Musk lorikeets will invade gardens, orchards
Eucalyptus spp. Certain native plant species
and vineyards for ripening apples, pears, nashi
are preferred including river red gum (E.
fruit, cherries, loquats, apricots, plums, peaches,
camldulensis), swamp mahogany (E. robusta),
nectarines, vegetables and wine and table
red ironbark (E. sideroxylon), Angophora spp.,
grapes. Damage is particularly prevalent in
bottlebrush (Callistemon spp), Banksia spp.,

South Australia and Victoria and is perhaps more Protection status
severe in stone fruits than in other horticultural
industries. Because of their preference for Protected.
flowering eucalypts, damage is most serious
during poor eucalypt flowering seasons when Sources and further reading
large incursions to horticultural areas can occur. Ford, H.A. and Paton, D.C. (1986) The Dynamic Partner
Damage to nuts, such as almonds and hazelnuts, ship: Birds and Plants in Southern Australia. D.J.
can occur during bud development. Partly ripe Woolman Government Printer, Adelaide.
grain crops such as sorghum, corn and wheat Harman, I. (1981) Australian parrots in bush and aviary.
are also consumed, although significant damage Inkata press, Melbourne.
to these crops is rare. Large feeding flocks in Hutchins, B.R. and Lovell, R.H. (1985) Australian Parrots:
orchards can cause significant damage within A Field and Aviary Study. Avicultural Society of
Australia, Melbourne.
short periods, often in localised areas. Hence
damage occurs to many fruits on a single tree, Neilsen, L. (1969) Psittacines of southern Queensland.
South Australian Ornithologist 25: 89–93.
rather than evenly over the crop. Musk lorikeets
are persistent feeders. For example, in the Mt North, A.J. (1912) Nests and Eggs of Birds found
Breeding in Australia and Tasmania. Volume III.
Lofty Ranges large flocks were observed to visit
Special Catalogue No. 1. Australian Museum,
a pear orchard every day for three weeks until
Sydney.
the crop was eliminated. Lorikeet damage is
Paton, D.C. and Reid, N.C.H. (1983) Preliminary
distinguished from that of other species by the
observations on damage to apricots by birds
horseshoe-shaped marks made by the lower beak near Murray Bridge, South Australia. Agricultural
and triangular marks made by the upper beak. Record 10: 8–11.
Fruit and skin fragments under trees bearing Paton, D.C., Carpenter, G. and Sinclair, R.G. (1994) A
damaged crops are similar or smaller than those second bird atlas of the Adelaide region. Part
left by rosellas (less than one centimetre in 1: Changes in the distribution of birds: 1974–75
versus 1984–85. South Australian Ornithologist
diameter).
31: 151–193.
Temby, I. (2002) Bird and Flying-fox Bat Damage to

Orchard Fruit: an Identification Guide. Depart
ment of Natural Resources and Environment,
Melbourne.

Noisy friarbird
(Philemon corniculatus)
Leatherhead; knobbynose; four-o’clock; monk. This species is a large (30–35 centimetres head
to tail) brown-grey honeyeater with an obvious
bald black head. There is a distinctive knob on the
bill which is smaller on immature birds and absent
from juveniles. It has a silver-grey crown, nape
and throat and a white underbelly and tail tip.
Voice
Conspicuous raucous ‘four o’clock’.
Habitat
The noisy friarbird inhabits open dry sclerophyll
forests and woodlands, swampy woodland
and heath, including coastal heath, mallee (e.g.
Eucalyptus diversifolia, E. rugosa), brigalow
(Acacia harpophylla), gidgee (Acacia cambagei),
parks and gardens. Riverine habitats with river
red gum (E. camaldulensis) and black box
(E. largiflorens) or coolibah (E. microtheca)
associations are also commonly occupied,
including those that extend into arid areas. This
species avoids rainforest, dense wet sclerophyll,
sedgeland, open savannah, and pure stands of
Photo: G. Dabb.
Callitris spp. or introduced pine (Pinus spp.).
Movements
The noisy friarbird can be migratory. Most
populations also display nomadic movements
following good quality nectar flows of flowering
trees and shrubs. Southern populations have
more pronounced migratory habits and large
numbers regularly move to lower altitudes and
north during winter, returning for spring and
summer. The longest recorded movement was
Birds Australia Atlas (1998–2002) that of a bird that moved from Mudgee south to
Mitta Mitta in north-east Victoria, a distance of
510 kilometres. In comparison, fewer movements
are apparent in the northern extremities of their
range where many individuals are sedentary.

Foods and feeding behaviour brown eggs are laid up to four times a year, but
more commonly three. Females incubate for
Noisy friarbirds mainly feed on nectar but also around 16 days, but both sexes feed the young
fruits, flowers, pollen, seeds, insects, lerps, and defend the nest. Young continue to be fed
manna, honeydew and occasionally bird eggs until two or three weeks after fledging. Predation,
and nestlings. Flowering trees and shrubs with abandonment during dry seasons, and parasitism
abundant nectar are sought after and aggress by the common koel (Eudynamys scolopacea)
ively defended. Preferences for plant species and other cuckoos are the main causes of
fluctuate with flowering seasons. Favoured nesting failure. When successful, nests produce
species include swamp mahogany (E. robusta), an average of about two fledglings. Adults are
red ironbark (E. sideroxylon), yellow gum (E. known to live for more than nine years.
leucoxylon), white box (E. albens), Blakely’s red
gum (E. blakelyi), red bloodwood (Corymbia
Damage
gummifera), Angophora spp., paperbarks
(Melaleuca or Callistemon spp.), Banksia spp. This species is often a pest of orchards and
and Grevillea spp. They are mainly arboreal, vineyards, especially during nectar shortages
foraging in the high canopy on flowers and in autumn. Significant losses can occur to
foliage though they will also forage in the grapes, cherries, stone fruit, pears, tropical fruit,
shrub layer and occasionally on the ground. blueberries, mulberries, bilberries, blackberries
They often hawk insects and during spring and and figs. In some situations overripe or damaged
summer can consume large quantities. Cicadas fruit is targeted in preference to viable fruit. For
(Cicadidae and Tettigarctidae) are a preferred example, greater numbers of birds have been
food source when available and are thought to recorded in blocks of freshly machine-harvested
influence breeding success in some areas. Noisy wine grapes than in adjacent unharvested blocks.
friarbirds feed in mixed flocks with lorikeets, red The damage is similar to that of red wattlebirds,
wattlebirds (Anthochaera carunculata) and other with large pecks and hollowed-out flesh.
honeyeaters (Meliphagidae) until competition
intensifies due to food shortages. Usually Protection status
friarbirds feed in noisy small flocks of less than
20, but larger congregations can occur around Protected.
food sources.
Breeding Ford, H.A. and Trémont, S. (2000) Life history
characteristics of Australian honeyeaters.
Noisy friarbirds build basket-shaped nests from Australian Journal of Zoology 48: 21–32.
strips of bark, dry grass and long thin twigs Ford, H.A. (1998) Faithfulness to breeding site
carefully interwoven and bound together by and birthplace in noisy friarbirds (Philemon
spider webs. The nest cup has softer material corniculatus). Emu 98: 269–275.
including soft bark fibres, leaves, hair and Ford, H.A. (1999) Nest site selection and breeding
wool. Nests are suspended by the rim amongst success in large Australian honeyeaters: are there
benefits from being different? Emu 99: 91–99.
leafy branches of Eucalyptus spp., kurrajongs
(Brachychiton populneus) or other species and Saunders, A.S.J. and Burgin, S. (2001) Selective foliage
foraging by red wattlebirds, Anthochaera
are usually well concealed but more conspicuous
carunculata, and noisy friarbirds, Philemon
than red wattlebird nests. Breeding adults
corniculatus. Emu 101: 163–166.
will often return to the same nesting sites in
Saunders, A.S.J. (1993) Seasonal variation in the
consecutive seasons despite migratory habits.
distribution of the noisy friarbird Philemon
However, young are eventually forced from their corniculatus and the red wattlebird Anthochaera
natal areas if they do not disperse and seldom carunculata in eastern New South Wales.
return. Two to four blotched pale pink to pink- Australian Bird Watcher 15: 49–59.

Noisy miner
(Manorina melanocephala)
Micky miner; southern black-backed miner; The noisy miner is a pale grey, medium-sized
cherry eater; snakebird; squeaker; soldier bird. (24–28 centimetres head to tail) honeyeater with
a black crown, face and ear, a bare yellow patch
behind the eye and a yellow bill. It has a darker
grey wing, with an olive to yellow streak. The
noisy miner is distinguishable from the yellow-
throated miner (Manorina flavigula) and black-
eared miner (Manorina melanotis) by the darker
head plumage. This distinction is particularly
important in the Murray mallee region of South
Australia, Victoria and New South Wales. Work
is under way to conserve the black-eared miner,
now very rare in this region.
Voice
Distinctive, high-pitched and noisy ‘tiee, tiee,
tiee, tiee’ in alarm, with a variety of other calls.
Habitat
Noisy miners prefer open woodlands and
forests, particularly edges and isolated patches
Photo: B. Furby.
without a distinct shrub layer. For example, dry
Eucalyptus woodlands, grassy forests, mixed dry
sclerophyll with Callitris spp. and lightly timbered
farmlands, parklands, gardens and pasture,
orchards, vineyards and road reserves. Bird
densities are known to increase with decreasing
area of woodland; hence the birds are generally
absent from large forest remnants (greater
than 500 hectares) but are most abundant in
small fragments (one to two hectares). Noisy
miners are also occasionally found in remnant
or planted fragments of wet sclerophyll, coastal
heath, Melaleuca spp., Acacia spp., brigalow
Birds Australia Atlas (1998–2002) (Acacia harpophylla) and mulga (A. aneura). This
species avoids dense forests and woodlands
and has benefited from grazing, clearing and
fragmentation of native vegetation.

Movements Active, aggressive and gregarious, noisy miners
forage within colonies in sub-flocks (or coteries)
Noisy miners are sedentary throughout their of 6–30 birds, but hundreds can congregate in
range. Most individuals remain within small, clumps of flowering plants. Noisy miners feed
well defined territories with home ranges less mainly in foliage, but also in the tree canopy,
than 200 metres in diameter. Female home along branches, trunks, and on the ground.
ranges are even smaller, commonly less than Mixed feeding groups rarely occur because of
100 metres. Occasionally, larger movements of the birds’ defensive behaviour, but birds may
up to 18 kilometres have been recorded perhaps feed alongside other species in more structured
as a result of juvenile dispersals or the return of vegetation.
translocated birds to their previous territories.
They are very sociable and are seldom observed
Breeding
singly or in pairs. Small groups of 6–30 birds
aggressively defend core areas within a larger Two to six eggs (mean 2.9) are laid in a fragile
home range. Communal roosts are often at new bowl of sticks, bark and leaves lined with softer
sites each evening usually in the outer branches material such as hair or fur and held in a tree or
of feeding trees and shrubs. shrub fork. Communal breeding takes place year
round, but most commonly between June and
Foods and feeding behaviour September with up to 22 males and one female
attending a single nest during a season. Twice as
Omnivorous feeders, noisy miners consume a many nests have been observed during June and
variety of insects, nectar, fruit, seeds, vegetables September as in the warmer months of October
and occasionally frogs and reptiles. They to January, despite the presence of fewer insects.
commonly forage in and defend high nectar This may be a strategy for limiting predation.
bearing trees and shrubs, including Eucalyptus Four broods can be raised in a year with the
spp., Banksia spp., Grevillea spp., and Camellia building of a new nest starting directly after the
spp. Arthropods are regularly consumed, young are independent, at about 16 days after
especially spiders, beetles (Coleoptera), weevils fledging. About 34% of eggs produce young that
(Curculionidae), bugs (Hemiptera) and wasps fledge, with an average of 0.89 fledged young
(Apocrita). Psyllids, lerps (Sternorryncha) and per nest. Mortality is mainly due to starvation,
manna (bark exudates) are also occasionally abandonment, failure to hatch, predation and
gleaned from leaves and bark. Noisy miners, adverse weather conditions.
however, exclude many other bird species that
are thought to maintain insect populations at
Damage
lower levels. Fruits from orchards and from
trees and shrubs such as native tamarind Noisy miners are known to damage horticultural
(Diploglottis australis), Moreton Bay fig (Ficus crops, particularly soft fruits such as grapes
macrophylla), saltbush (Rhagodia spp.) and (Figure B.6), plums, apricots, cherries, peaches,
seeds of Poaceae, goosefoot (Chenopodium nectarines, pears, apples and berries. Using their
spp.) and peppercorn (Schinus areira), are also brush-tipped tongues, they collect flesh and
eaten opportunistically. juice from sharp angular punctures in the fruit.
Smaller fruits such as berries and grapes are often
swallowed whole. They are known to swallow
the seeds of weed species such as peppertree
(S. areira), and blackberry, but their potential to
spread environmental weeds is probably limited
by their sedentary habits.

Protection status
Protected.

Arnold, K.E. (2000) Strategies of the cooperatively
breeding noisy miner to reduce nest predation.
Emu 100: 280–285.
Barrett, G.W., Ford, H.A. and Recher, H.F. (1994)

Conservation of woodland birds in a fragmented
rural landscape. Pacific Conservation Biology 1:
245–256.
Clarke, M.F. and Oldland, J.M. (2007) Penetration

of remnant edges by noisy miners (Manorina
melanocephala) and implications for habitat
restoration. Wildlife Research 34: 253–261.
Dow, D.D. (1977) Indiscriminate interspecific aggression

leading to almost sole occupancy of space by a
single species of bird. Emu 77: 115–121.
Dow, D.D. (1979) Agonistic and spacing behaviour

of the noisy miner Manorina melanocephala, a
communally breeding honeyeater. Ibis 121: 423–
436.
Figure B.6: Distinctive noisy miner pecking
Grey, M.J., Clarke, M.F. and Loyn, R.H. (1997) Initial
damage to grapes. Photo: R. Sinclair.
changes in the avian communities of remnant
eucalypt woodlands following a reduction
in the abundance of noisy miners, Manorina
Although noisy miners occasionally remove melanocephala. Wildlife Research 24: 631–648.
insect pests, they are also associated with Grey, M.J., Clarke, M.F. and Loyn, R.H. (1998) Influence
increased Eucalyptus spp. dieback. This has been of the noisy miner (Manorina melanocephala) on
attributed to the miners’ aggressive exclusion avian diversity and abundance in remnant grey
of insectivorous birds. Removal of noisy miners box woodland. Pacific Conservation Biology 4:
55–69.
in one area causes a significant increase in the
abundance and diversity of other insectivorous
birds and potentially decreases the impacts of
defoliating insects. Most bird species entering
the territories of noisy miners are mobbed and
chased and in some cases killed.

Pied currawong
(Strepera graculina)
Currawong; bell magpie; black magpie The pied currawong is a large (41–51 centimetres
head to tail), mainly black bird with white
patches on the wing and the base and tip of
the tail. The wing patch is crescent-shaped and
prominent during flight but also visible while
perching. The intense yellow eye is distinctive
and can be used to distinguish it from other
large black and white birds. Similar species of
the same genus, the black currawong (Strepera
fuliginosa) of Tasmania and the grey currawong
(Strepera versicolor) (Figure B.7) of southern
and western Australia, are also known to damage
horticultural crops. They occupy similar habitats
and have comparable movements and feeding
and breeding behaviours, but several differences
Photo: H. Pollock.
have been identified (see below).
Voice
Distinctive ringing; deep guttural ‘curra-wong’.
Figure B.7: The grey currawong

(Strepera versicolor). Photo: B. Furby.

Habitat Populations in urban areas during this period
and also in winter often scavenge a variety of
Currawongs occupy a wide range of habitats, foods including vegetable scraps, pet food and
including open Eucalyptus woodland and garden fruit. Feeding flocks are conspicuous and
forest, wet sclerophyll, rainforest, shrubland, range in size from solitary birds to large flocks.
coastal woodland, parks and gardens, orchards, Large congregations are typical around food
vineyards and agricultural areas with scattered sources and during roosting. Up to 200 have
Eucalyptus species. The pied currawong is rare been observed foraging on a single vineyard
or absent from open savannahs and arid and and in suburban gardens. Grey currawongs are
semi-arid regions. This species is most abundant more elusive and occur only in small flocks on
along the coasts of New South Wales and the mainland; they are usually solitary or in pairs,
Queensland. and rarely in groups greater than five.
Movements Breeding
This is a nomadic species. No large-scale A large but often shallow bowl of sticks lined
seasonal movements are evident, but many with grass, bark and rootlets is assembled in
populations travel to lower altitudes during an upright fork of the uppermost canopy. The
winter. These relatively short movements (less tallest trees, often Eucalyptus spp., are selected
than 80 kilometres) are also associated with in preference if they occur within small clumps.
populations moving to urban areas, particularly Isolated trees are rarely used. Permanent pairs
in the south-east. Increases in abundance of pied return to nests of the previous season, establish
currawongs in the Murray-Darling catchment territories and start nest building usually in
indicate that many of them visit the region August. Populations in northern Queensland
in winter. Altitudinal movement as well as a often breed earlier than southern populations,
small northward shift is apparent in south-east but most breeding occurs between September
Queensland, where there are large influxes of the and November. Two to four light-brown eggs (41
birds to nearby low-lying areas during autumn × 30 millimetres) with darker spots are laid and
and winter. Movements are confined during incubated for 21 days. One brood is raised per
breeding (September–November) when pairs year. Males help by feeding the females during
aggressively defend small territories. In Canberra nesting and both sexes feed the young for about
and Sydney there are increasing numbers of nine weeks after fledging. Breeding usually
pied currawongs that breed in urban areas and occurs in forested habitats, but increasingly in
remain there throughout the year. Black and urban areas (see Movements).
grey currawongs are more sedentary throughout
their range.
Damage
Foods and feeding behaviour Large flocks of pied currawongs frequently raid
vineyards, orchards and market gardens for fruit,
Pied currawongs are omnivores, consuming a nuts and vegetables. Significant losses can occur
variety of insects, small birds, eggs and reptiles, to grapes, cherries, persimmons, olives, and
fruits and vegetable matter. Proportions vary with nuts as well as other crops. Small plantations
availability, habitat and season. Insects and small near favoured roosting habitat are particularly
invertebrates are the major dietary component susceptible, in some cases sustaining 100% crop
during breeding. In some cases swarms of insects, loss. Persistent and intelligent feeders, they have
particularly stick insects (Phasmatodea), cause been observed consuming fruit through nets by
large influxes of currawongs. Fruit from orchards landing and swinging on them (Figure B.8). The
and vineyards are increasingly consumed in majority of smaller fruits are removed completely
agricultural regions during summer and autumn.

Figure B.8: Currawongs have been observed landing on nets and feeding through them.
Photo: J. Tracey.
and swallowed whole. They are also responsible Sources and further reading
for carrying the seeds of weed species such
Bayly, K.L. and Blumstein, D.T. (2001) Pied currawongs
as camphor laurel (Cinnamomum camphora), and the decline of native birds. Emu 101: 199–
Cotoneaster spp. and privet (Ligustrum spp.) 204.
and have a potential role in their dispersal. Bell, H.L. (1983) Forty years of change in the avifauna of
Pied currawongs are known to prey on large a Sydney suburb. Australian Birds 18: 1–6.
numbers of native birds including fairy-wrens, Buchanan, R.A. (1989) Pied currawongs (Strepera
thornbills and honeyeaters (Meliphagidae). graculina): their diet and role in weed dispersal in
However, the decline of native birds is linked to suburban Sydney, New South Wales. Proceedings
of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 111:
many other factors. Introduced species such as
241–255.
starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) and sparrows (Passer
Major, R.E., Gowing, G. and Kendal, C.E. (1996) Nest
domesticus) are also common prey.
predation in Australian urban environments and
the role of the pied currawong, Strepera graculina.
Protection status Australian Journal of Ecology 21: 399–409.
Protected. The Lord Howe Island sub-species

Strepera graculina crissalis is listed as vulnerable
under the Commonwealth Environment Protec
tion and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.

Rainbow lorikeet
(Trichoglossus haematodus)
Bluey, rainbow or coconut lory; Swainson’s, blue- Well known and brightly coloured, this is
bellied or blue mountain lorikeet; blue mountain Australia’s largest lorikeet (25–31 centimetres
parrot. head to tail). Race ‘haematodus’ (A) has a green
upper wing, back and tail; dark blue head and
abdomen; bright red bill and eye; red and dark
grey underwing; yellow collar and under-tail;
and a bright yellow stripe through the primary
and secondary feathers. In the ‘red-collared’ race
(rubritorquis)(B), red replaces the yellow collar
that extends down the chest, and the abdomen
is a darker blue-black.
Voice
Musical screech in flight, feeding chatter softer
Photo: N. Morenos, Fruit Tree Media. than that of other lorikeets.
B
Habitat
Rainbow lorikeets inhabit a diverse range of
habitats, including tropical rainforest, wet and
dry sclerophyll forest and woodlands, savannah
A woodlands, and farmlands. They commonly
visit orchards and farmlands with remnant or
A
replanted stands of Eucalyptus spp. They are
abundant in suburban parks and gardens and
widely dispersed through cities such as Adelaide,
Brisbane and Sydney. Feral populations also
occur in Western Australia. Rainbow lorikeets
tend to prefer the riverine habitat of tall open
Eucalyptus woodland at lower altitudes,
following nectar flows into other habitats when
suitable species are flowering. They venture into
the fringes of rainforest and wet sclerophyll at
higher altitudes for blossoms of suitable feed
trees such as beach acronychia (Acronychia
imperforata) and umbrella trees (Schefflera
actinophylla) or where artificial food sources are
present. Coastal plains and heath, mangroves
and Melaleuca woodlands are also utilised
for flowering species such as Banksia spp.,
Xanthorrhea spp., Grevillea spp. and Callistemon

spp. However, the understorey structure appears (both Callistemon spp. and Melaleuca spp.),
relatively unimportant unless the plants are Banksia spp. and blackbean (Castanospermum
flowering. Populations reside in woodlands and australe). They also commonly feed on blossoms
forests with dense shrub layers or an exclusively of introduced plants such as coral trees (Erythrina
grass and herb understorey. spp.), peppertree (Schinus areira) and palms
(Phoenix canariensis and Washingtonia filifera);
seeds from Casuarina spp., pine trees (Pinus
Movements
spp.), lantana (Lantana camara) and Solanum
The rainbow lorikeet is a nomadic species that spp., and fruit from orchards, figs, lilly pilly
often relocates to exploit nectar from a wide (Acmena smithii), camphor laurel (Cinnamomum
range of flowering plants. Abundance varies camphora) and Calytrix spp.
considerably between seasons. Mass departure
Arboreal and agile foragers, rainbow lorikeets can
takes place during some years and, conversely,
hang upside down in the outer canopy to reach
peaks in abundance occur during ideal flowering
flowers or fruit with their brush-like tongues.
conditions. As a result, no regular large-scale
High canopy branches are usually preferred.
movements are apparent, although individuals
However, red-collared lorikeets will forage lower
and flocks are able to travel large distances. In
in the canopy during the dry season and many
areas with reliable food sources, particularly in
low shrubs are frequented. Feeding flocks range
suburbia, some individuals have become more
from solitary birds to thousands but they usually
sedentary. This is likely because of the availability
occur in groups of up to about 50. They will
of a diverse range of flowering plants and supply
feed alongside scaly-breasted, musk and varied
of artificial feeding stations. However, even in
lorikeets but are usually partly segregated. Early
these areas large numbers of transient birds can
morning and afternoon are favoured feeding
arrive suddenly during peak flowering periods.
times with brief forays during the middle of the
Some local populations are suspected to have
day.
declined as a result of clearing for agriculture.
Daily movements usually involve travelling sev Breeding

eral kilometres from large communal roosts at
Rainbow lorikeets usually breed from September
dawn to feeding sites. Roosts can be comprised to November, but this can extend from July
of several thousand birds. The birds feed through through to January during ideal conditions
out the day, often moving to other feeding when they occasionally produce double broods.
sites; or they loaf in tall nearby Eucalyptus spp. Pairs, which may bond for life, prepare cavities
Flocks are often seen darting among the canopy in hollow branches or knotholes at the tops
between feeding sites. They return to the roost (up to 25 metres high) of tall trees, often along
before dusk where they remain in dense foliage watercourses. Open woodland dominated by
or hollow branches. Eucalyptus spp., Angophora spp. or Melaleuca
spp. is preferred for breeding. Two white, oval
Foods and feeding behaviour eggs (27 × 23 millimetres) are laid in a small layer
of wood shavings. Females incubate eggs for 10
Like other lorikeets, rainbow lorikeets prefer
days during which time the males regularly visit
nectar and pollen from flowers but will also and roost inside the hollows. Both sexes feed the
consume native and orchard fruit, berries, seeds young until two or three weeks after fledging
and insects. Flocks gather in various habitats, and the birds reach sexual maturity after two
utilising nectar from a wide variety of species, years. Nest success has not been studied away
including red-flowering gum (Corymbia ficifolia), from captivity but is thought to be affected by
blue gum (E. globulus), northern woollybutt the presence of other hole-nesting species such
(E. miniata), forest red gum (E. tereticornis), as mynas (Acridotheres tristis), starlings (Sturnus
blackbutt (E. pilularis), bottlebrush, paperbark vulgaris) and ringnecks (Barnardius zonarius).

Damage in the South-West Land Division, without the
need to obtain a licence from the Department
When good quality nectar is unavailable, of Environment and Conservation (DEC), in
large flocks can cause significant damage accordance with an Open Season Notice, 25
to mango, custard apple, apple (Figure B.9), August 1989 (Wildlife Conservation Act 1950).
plum, cherry, peach, nectarine, apricot, pear, The lorikeets must be taken in a manner that
and citrus orchards. Wine and table grapes are does not cause damage to trees, and people
also susceptible (Figure B.10). Fruit damage, trapping or attempting to trap the lorikeets must
as with other lorikeets, is characterised by be licensed under the Wildlife Conservation
horseshoe-shaped marks made by the lower Regulations 1970. Rainbow lorikeets may be
beak and triangular marks made by the upper kept in captivity only by a person holding a
beak. Chunks (about one centimetre diameter) Regulation 12 aviculture licence which costs
are taken from the fruit, squeezed for their $10 per year (Wildlife Conservation Regulations
juice, and the remaining pip and skin discarded 1970). The rainbow lorikeet is also a declared pest
directly from the tree. Rainbow lorikeets also of agriculture in the South-West Land Division,
occasionally damage ripening corn or sorghum excluding the Perth metropolitan area, under the
crops in Queensland and Northern New South Agriculture and Related Resources Protection Act
Wales, where flocks of thousands of rainbow 1976. To prevent the lorikeets from establishing
and other lorikeets can feed opportunistically new populations in the wild, any lorikeets that
throughout the day. Nut crops are sometimes are seen outside the metropolitan area should be
damaged, and growing shoots, buds and flowers humanely destroyed or reported to DEC or the
can be clipped. Department of Agriculture and Food Western
Australia (Lamont and Massam 2002).

Chapman, T. (2005) The Status and Impact of the
Rainbow Lorikeet (Trichoglossus haematodus
moluccanus) in south-west Western Australia.
Miscellaneous Publication 04/2005. Department
of Agriculture, Western Australia.

Lamont, D.A. and Massam, M. (2002) Rainbow Lorikeet:

Farmnote No. 8/2002. Department of Agriculture
Figure B.9: Rainbow lorikeet feeding on an and Department of Conservation and Land
apple. Photo: N. Morenos, Fruit Tree Media. Management, Government of Western Australia.
Figure B.10: Rainbow lorikeet damage to Neilsen, L. (1969) Psittacines of southern Queensland.
grapes. Photo: R. Sinclair. South Australian Ornithologist 25: 89–93.
Temby, I. (2002) Bird and Flying-fox Bat Damage
Protection status to Orchard Fruit: an Identification Guide.

Department of Natural Resources and
Protected in all States and Territories except Environment, Melbourne.
Western Australia. In Western Australia the Wyndham, E. and Cannon, C. (1985) Parrots of eastern
rainbow lorikeet is listed as ‘acclimatised fauna’ Australian forests and woodlands: the genera
under a Wildlife Conservation (Acclimatised Platycercus and Trichoglossus. In Birds of Eucalypt

Forests and Woodlands: Ecology, Conservation,
Fauna) Notice, 15 September 1992 (Wildlife
Management. Keast, A., Recher, H.F., Ford, H.
Conservation Act 1950). Rainbow lorikeets can be and Saunders, D. (eds). Surrey Beatty and Sons,
‘taken’ (shot or livetrapped) on private property Chipping Norton NSW: pp. 141–150.

Red wattlebird
(Anthochaera carunculata)
Wattled honeyeater; barkingbird; gillbird; what’s The red wattlebird is a large (32–36 centimetres
o’clock; chock. head to tail) honeyeater with grey-brown
plumage that is streaked white. Primary wing
feathers and tail feathers have white edges that
are obvious in flight. It has a silver-white cheek
patch, red wattle and eye, and yellow underbelly.
Juveniles are similar (but without the wattle or
yellow belly) and have a red-brown iris. There are
separate races in south-east (carunculata)(A)
and western (woodwardi)(B) Australia, and
an isolated population on Kangaroo Island
(clelandi)(C).
Voice
Noisy harsh calls, ‘tobacco box’ or ‘what’s
o’clock’, grating ‘chock’.
Habitat
Red wattlebirds occupy a range of habitats,
including open sclerophyll woodlands, mallee
(Eucalyptus diversifolia, E. rugosa), coastal
heath and shrublands. They are common also
Photo: L. Pedler. in farmlands, parks, gardens, vineyards and
orchards, particularly those with stands of
remnant woodland or native regrowth.
Occasionally they inhabit the edges of denser
forests, including rainforest. This species is
widespread and prominent in lowland open
Eucalyptus woodland in the temperate zone.
In particular, habitats with diverse shrubby
understorey consisting of Banksia spp.,
B
A
Callistemon spp. and Acacia spp. are preferred.
C
Movements
Birds Australia Atlas (1998–2002) Movements have not been well studied, but most
populations are probably sedentary. Nomadic
movements also occur often as a result of
prolific flowering of shrubs and trees. Visiting

migrants can also increase resident populations from many insectivorous and nectar-feeding
in various seasons. Regular altitudinal and species, including other wattlebirds. Peak feeding
latitudinal movements have been recorded in occurs in the early mornings and late afternoons,
some areas, particularly in southern New South with less time spent foraging during periods of
Wales and the Australian Capital Territory where abundant nectar.
some flocks are believed to migrate up the coast
for winter with large numbers of yellow-faced Breeding
(Lichenostomus chrysops) and white-naped
honeyeaters (Melithreptus lunatus). Small east– Considerable effort is given to nest building,
west migrations also occur in Western Australia which can take several weeks. A small cup of
during some seasons. fine grass, bark and twigs, lined with fur, hair or
wool, is shaped within a larger nest of carefully
intertwined long thin sticks and grass. Nests are
usually well concealed within foliage of a tall
Red wattlebirds are mainly nectivorous, preferr shrub or tree, often Eucalyptus spp., mistletoe
ing Eucalyptus spp., Banksia spp., Angophora or Acacia spp. Two or three oval, speckled, pink
spp., Eremophila spp., Xanthorrhoea spp., eggs (33 × 22 millimetres) are laid two to five
mistletoe, Grevillea spp., Hakea spp. and other days after the nest has been completed. Two, or
native flowering plants with high nectar loads. occasionally, three broods are raised in a season
Exotic trees and shrubs are also common (July–February). Females, with occasional help
sources of nectar, particularly in urban areas. A from the males, incubate the eggs for 17 days
variety of insects are consumed regularly, with until hatching after which both sexes feed the
quantities varying according to the availability young until two or three weeks after fledging. In
of nectar and other food sources. In some cases recorded studies, as few as 26% of young reach
insects comprise the majority of their diet. The fledging, resulting in an average of 0.51 young per
sugary outer coating and excretions of psyllids, nest. Mortality is mainly due to adverse weather
scale, and coccids (Sternorryncha) such as lerps conditions and predation by goshawks (Accipiter
(Psylloidea) or honeydew, or tree exudates such spp.), currawongs (Strepera spp.), butcherbirds
as manna, are also frequently gleaned from (Cracticus spp.), ravens (Corvus spp.), possums,
plants, particularly Eucalyptus. Fruit comprises cats and snakes. The age of the oldest recorded
a small proportion of their diet but increases red wattlebird from banding records is 12 years,
in importance during shortages of other food 11 months.
types.
Sometimes large flocks of more than 100 birds

Damage
will congregate around favoured food sources. This species is often observed in vineyards
However, this species is usually solitary or in and orchards and is known to cause damage
small groups when feeding. Their long bills and to grapes (Figure B.11), peaches, plums, figs,
brush-tipped tongues are well suited for probing cherries, olives, loquat, apples, apricots, pears
tubular flowers. However, inflorescences from and berries. The birds’ sharp bills cause large
species with shallow flowers are often selected angular punctures from which juice and flesh are
in preference. Arboreal and active feeders, extracted. Occasionally smaller fruits (less than
they are most commonly observed accessing 10 × 10 millimetres) are swallowed whole. Damage
blossoms in the outer canopy but also forage is more significant during shortages of nectar
among foliage and bark and occasionally on or insects. In some cases fruit consumption is
the ground. They habitually establish feeding evident only on overripe fruit left on trees.
territories of up to 100 metres in diameter. Red
wattlebirds aggressively defend their territories

Protection status
States and regions (Section 6.1).

Ford, H.A. and Paton, D.C. (1977) The comparative
ecology of ten species of honeyeaters in South
Australia. Australian Journal of Ecology 2: 399–
407.
Ford, H.A. and Trémont, S. (2000) Life history

characteristics of Australian honeyeaters.
Australian Journal of Zoology 48: 21–32.
Ford, H.A. (1999) Nest site selection and breeding

success in large Australian honeyeaters: are there
benefits from being different? Emu 99: 91–99.
Saunders, A.S.J. and Burgin, S. (2001) Selective foliage

foraging by red wattlebirds, Anthochaera
carunculata, and noisy friarbirds, Philemon
corniculatus. Emu 101, 163–166.
Saunders, A.S.J. (1993) Seasonal variation in the

distribution of the noisy friarbird Philemon
corniculatus and the red wattlebird Anthochaera
carunculata in eastern New South Wales.
Australian Bird Watcher 15: 49–59.
Figure B.11: Red wattlebird damage to Shiraz

grapes. Photo: R. Sinclair.

Ringneck
(Barnardius zonarius)
Port Lincoln ringneck; twenty-eight parrot; The ringneck is a small to medium-sized (28–44
mallee ringneck. centimetres head to tail) parrot with mostly
green plumage and a prominent yellow ‘ringneck’
half-collar. Hence the specific name is derived
from the Latin ‘zona’ (girdle or belt). The five
distinguished races,’ mallee ringneck’ (barnardi)
(A), ‘Cloncurry ringneck’ (macgillivrayi) (B), ‘Port
Lincoln’ (zonarius) (C), occidentalis (D), ‘twenty-
eight’ (semitorquatus) (E), differ in appearance,
vocalisations and distribution. The green-headed
races (mallee and Cloncurry ringnecks) are rarely
implicated in damage to agriculture except in the
Riverland of South Australia; hence this section
Photo: G. Dabb.
focuses on the dark-hooded races. The ‘Port
Lincoln’ and ‘twenty-eight’ parrots both have
black heads, dark blue cheeks, and blue leading
edges to otherwise green wings. The ‘twenty-
eight’ race has a unique red frontal band above
the beak and the ‘Port Lincoln’ has a yellow belly
and flank.
Voice
Repeated melodious whistling as a contact call
(or a trisyllable ‘twent-ti-eight’ for the ‘twenty-
eight’ race), and a series of clamorous calls when
alarmed, usually in flight. The species was first
described in Western Australia by the French,
and an alternative interpretation of their call is
that it is a two-syllable ‘vingt-huit’ rather than
‘twent-ti-eight’.
Habitat
Although races of ringnecks occur in a diverse
array of vegetation communities, these birds’
habitat requirements are generally similar.
They prefer open woodlands, shrublands
and grasslands and often reside in remnant
vegetation along watercourses, particularly in
arid areas. The ‘Port Lincoln’ is a very successful

race. It is the most common parrot in Western Foods and feeding behaviour
Australia’s wheat belt and utilises all types of
timbered habitats. It occurs in abundance in any Ringnecks prefer feeding on seeds of grasses,
arid areas that have river red gums (Eucalyptus herbs and low shrubs, but they often consume
camaldulensis). There are few stands of mallee in bulbs, corms of onion grass (Romulea rosea),
eastern Australia without populations of ‘mallee berries, flowers, beetles, lerp, insect galls and
ringneck’ although some populations are thought larvae and grain from crops, spills or storage
to have contracted as a result of clearing and areas. Some populations are more arboreal,
settlement. Similarly, populations of ‘Cloncurry regularly feeding in the outer branches of orchard
ringnecks’ appear to have retreated to remnants trees and Eucalyptus spp. during flowering and
following the expansion of farmlands. In contrast, fruiting seasons. The fruits of Eucalyptus spp.,
the dark-hooded races are increasingly observed Angophora spp., mistletoe and cultivated crops
in orchards and croplands and in gardens in towns are often consumed when available. These birds
and cities, including Perth. The ‘twenty-eight’ will also chew tree and shrub foliage for food and
occurs in denser vegetation of the southwest beak maintenance including Xanthorrhea spp.
including tall stands of jarrah (E. marginata), karri and a range of Eucalyptus species. In suitable
(E. diversicolor), marri (Corymbia calophylla), trees they will consume sap which often has a
and wandoo (E. wandoo), and is displaced by similar sugar content to nectar. They gain access
the ‘Port Lincoln’ race where this vegetation has to the sap by stripping the bark and scraping the
been cleared. Habitat clearing is a major factor in exposed cambium and phloem with their beaks.
the increasing range and abundance of the ‘Port
Unlike red-capped parrots and other species
Lincoln’ race.
that split fruit for their seeds, ringnecks usually
avoid unripe fruits. Hence this species tends
Movements to cause greater damage to orchards closer to
harvest. When feeding in orchards, birds enter
A mainly sedentary species, but population
soon after first light, reaching peak numbers
influxes are known to take place in wetter areas
after an hour and then dispersing within three
during drought. Regular movements occur in arid
hours after sunrise. Undisturbed birds will often
areas in response to rainfall. Hence ringnecks are
remain in orchards or nearby roosting habitat
often more nomadic in drier areas, irregularly
throughout the day, feeding occasionally.
visiting desert regions. They frequently occur
Feeding frequency is higher again before sunset.
in mixed flocks with other species such as
Certain populations, predominantly of the green-
rosellas (Platycercus spp.), red-capped parrots
headed races, are quite timid when appropriate
(Purpureicaphalus spurius), red-rumped parrots
refuge habitat is absent. Pairs or small groups
(Psephotus haematonotus) and blue bonnets
of up to 12 are usually observed feeding, but
(Northiella haematogaster), particularly at water
much larger groups occur at water sources
or feeding sites. They leave the roost at sunrise,
and favoured feeding sites. They often feed in
perch in trees during the heat of the day and
association with other parrot species.
return to roost before sunset. In drier areas they
are observed at watering points before feeding
and roosting, although this is uncommon in
the wetter areas of the southwest of western
Australia.

Breeding red-capped parrots. Ringnecks are also known to
damage cereal crops, garden plants and forestry
Females prepare hollows in tree branches, trunks plantations. Damage to plantations of York
or logs, often showing preference for Eucalyptus gum (E. loxophleba), Tasmanian blue gum (E.
spp. within dense copses. In the drier parts of globulus) and wandoo (E. wandoo) is common;
their range they retreat to remnant Eucalyptus damage to the trunks, foliage and young shoots
spp. along watercourses to breed, particularly can cause deformities. The greatest economic
in river red gums. The breeding season varies damage occurs when trees are young and the
noticeably among races and distributions and with base sawlog is vulnerable. Young plants in
rainfall in the more arid regions, but it generally revegetation programmes and native plants and
occurs between September and December or shrubs such as Xanthorrhea spp. or farm trees are
March and May. The same hollows are often also at risk. Damage is particularly severe during
occupied in consecutive years. Ringnecks reach seasons of poor Eucalyptus spp. flowering.
sexual maturity at two years and lay four to six
(average 4.6) white eggs directly on the wood
Protection status
inside hollows or in a small bed of bark shavings,
grass or leaves. Incubating females are fed by Protected.
the male, who remains close to the nest. Eggs
hatch after about 20 days, and hatchlings are Sources and further reading
fed by both parents. During suitable conditions
broods have high fledging success (more than Inkata press, Melbourne.
65%), but the number of nests and brood size
Long, J.L. (1984) The diets of three species of parrots
declines dramatically during drought. Nesting in the south of Western Australia. Australian
success is also influenced by starlings (Sturnus Wildlife Research 11: 357–371.
vulgaris), goannas, honeybees and occasionally Long, J.L. (1985) Damage to cultivated fruit by parrots
galahs (Elophus [Cacatua] roseicapilla). in the south of Western Australia. Australian
Wildlife Research 12: 75–80.
Damage Long, J.L. (1989) Breeding Biology of Four Species

of Parrots in the South of Western Australia.
The majority of damage by ringnecks in Technical Series No. 6. Agriculture Protection
horticulture is attributed to the ‘Port Lincoln’ and, Board, South Perth.
to a lesser extent, the ‘twenty-eight’ parrots. The Ritson, P. (1995) Parrot Damage to Bluegum Tree Crops:
other races are generally declining in range and a Review of the Problem and Possible Solutions.
Resource Management Technical Report 50.
abundance and rarely occur in populations large
Agricultural Protection Board of Western
enough to cause economic impact. The dark- Australia, Perth.
headed races, however, can cause significant
Ritson, P., Wyre, G., Shedley, E., Coffey, P. and Morgan,
damage to apples, pears, plums, peach, necta B. (2001) Parrot Damage in Agroforestry in the
rines, cherries, grapes, blueberries, blackberries, Greater than 450 mm Rainfall Zone of Western
Citrus spp., olives, almonds, vegetables and Australia. Department of Agriculture Western
cultivated flowers. A preference for red-skinned Australia TreeNote No. 26.
apple varieties and pears, plums and nectarines Sindel, S. and Gill, J. (1999) Australian Broad-Tailed
is evident in some regions. Fruit damage occurs Parrots: The Platycercus and Barnardius Genera.
Chipping Norton New South Wales: Surrey Beatty
when ringnecks tear chunks of fruit and remove
and Sons Pty Ltd.
and discard the skin, but they will also consume
fallen fruit. Secondary losses also occur with
fungal and other infections. Ensuing damage is
also done by western rosellas which more often
consume fruit already attacked by ringnecks or

Scaly-breasted lorikeet
(Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus)
Green, green and gold, or green and yellow This is the only lorikeet with a completely green
lorikeet; greenie; lory; green keet. head. The scaly-breasted lorikeet has a bright
red bill. There are yellow borders to the neck and
breast feathers, giving a scaly appearance, but
otherwise it is a uniformly leaf-green lorikeet,
with an orange-red underwing. The spectacular
underwing colour is often used to distinguish
species during flight. Scaly-breasted lorikeets
exhibit similar habitat use, movement, feeding
and breeding patterns to rainbow lorikeets
(Trichoglossus haematodus). They often co-occur
in mixed flocks and also occasionally interbreed.
Voice
Resembles the call of the rainbow lorikeet but is
often sharper and louder.
Habitat
Scaly-breasted lorikeets occupy a similar
distribution and habitats to rainbow lorikeets
Photo: G. Chapman. in eastern Australia, but are more prevalent
in open agricultural and coastal lowland
areas. They avoid rainforest. Scaly-breasted
lorikeets are common in woodlands and heaths
dominated by Eucalyptus spp., Melaleuca spp.,
dry Casuarina spp., Xanthorrhea spp., Banksia
spp. and Callistemon spp. They are widespread
in suburban parks and gardens and horticultural
areas.

Movements they are usually first acknowledged by their
noisy chattering, rather than by sight. They
Like other lorikeets, scaly-breasted lorikeets are habitually forage in the outer canopy branches
nomadic and their population densities fluctuate where blossoms are often more abundant.
in accordance with the flowering patterns of Occasionally pairs or individuals may defend
plants and shrubs. They utilise mainly coastal food trees, driving away other species such as
habitats, occasionally travelling inland along river other lorikeets and noisy miners, although this
systems. No substantial north–south movement is uncommon, particularly in areas of abundant
is evident with the seasons, but flocks can tra fruit or nectar. Groups will feed throughout the
verse large distances in short periods. The scaly- day, but peak feeding usually occurs in early
breasted lorikeet is predominantly a lowland mornings and late afternoons.
species, more so than the rainbow lorikeet,
although northern populations will venture
Breeding
to higher altitudes. Some individuals display
more sedentary traits, especially in urban areas. Breeding can occur at any time during the year,
An isolated breeding population has become possibly in response to abundant flowering,
established around Melbourne from aviary but it usually takes place between July and
escapees and these are also largely resident November. Tree hollows with small entrances,
birds. The species is gregarious, particularly when high in Eucalyptus spp. trees, are prepared by
feeding and roosting. They travel from roosting both sexes by chewing entrances and lining nests
sites at dawn and congregate in feeding trees, with a fine layer of wood dust. Considerable
usually high in the canopy. Typically, the scaly- effort is given to removing decaying wood and
breasted lorikeet loafs in nearby trees during the any nesting material of other species. Two, or
middle of the day, before it begins its pre-roost rarely three, eggs (25 × 20 millimetres) are laid
feeding activities. and then incubated by the female for about 25
days. Both sexes feed the young and may roost
Foods and feeding behaviour inside the hollow for the eight weeks until the
young leave the nest.
Primarily nectivorous, scaly-breasted lorikeets
feed from a range of native plants, particularly
Damage
Eucalyptus spp., Melaleuca spp., Tristania spp.,
Banksia spp., Callistemon spp. and Xanthorrhea Scaly-breasted lorikeets, often in association with
spp. Trees and shrubs planted in urban areas are other lorikeets, can cause damage in vineyards
also commonly visited for their blossoms and and peach, nectarine, orange, mandarin and
include coral trees (Erythrina indica), flowering custard apple orchards. Damage can be severe,
rain trees (Pithecolobium saman) and umbrella particularly in localised areas of Queensland,
trees (Schefflera actinophylla). Fruit, flowers, where large flocks cause considerable damage
pollen, seeds and insects also comprise various in short periods. They are likely also to damage a
proportions of their diet. Fruits of figs, mistletoes variety of other stone and pome fruits, including
(for example, Notothixos cornifolius), native elms plums, cherries, apricots, apples and pears. Large
(Celtis paniculata) and horticultural cultivars are flocks also invade grain crops, causing damage
commonly consumed when available. to Sorghum spp. and maize fields in Queensland
and northern New South Wales. Chewing and
Mixed flocks with rainbow, musk and little
consumption of buds, flowers and leaves of
lorikeets often form at feeding sites where
horticultural crops is common; hence cultivated
large groups (more than 500) can congregate.
flowers are also susceptible.
Typically, feeding groups are smaller, averaging
about five. Scaly-breasted lorikeets are acrobatic
feeders, but because of their leaf-green plumage

Protection status
Protected.

Ford, H.A. and Paton, D.C. (1986) The Dynamic Partner
ship: Birds and Plants in Southern Australia.
Government Printer, Adelaide.

Neilsen, L. (1969) Psittacines of southern Queensland.

South Australian Ornithologist 25: 89–93.

near Murray Bridge, South Australia. Agricultural
Record 10: 8–11
Temby, I. (2002) Bird and Flying-fox Bat Damage to

Orchard Fruit: an Identification Guide. Depart
ment of Natural Resources and Environment,
Melbourne.
Wyndham, E. and Cannon, C. (1985) Parrots of eastern

Australian forests and woodlands: the genera
Platycercus and Trichoglossus. In Birds of Eucalypt
Forests and Woodlands: Ecology, Conservation,
Management. A. Keast, H.F. Recher, H. Ford, and
D. Saunders (eds): pp 141–150.

Silvereye
(Zosterops lateralis)
Wax-eye; white-eye; grey-breasted white-eye; Small, evasive and fast moving, silvereyes are
ring-eye. the smallest (10–13 centimetres head to tail) pest
birds of horticulture. They have olive yellow to
olive green on the head, upper surface of the
wings, rump and tail with the abdomen varying
from dull cinnamon through grey-brown to
grey or white with the under tail being white
or light yellow. Their name comes from their
characteristic white eye-ring and they have a
short, sharp-pointed bill. They are often seen in
large flocks flying at height or darting between
foliage of shrubs and trees. Eight races are now
recognised in Australia and are distinguishable
only by slight variations in colour, behaviour and
distribution.
All races are grey-backed, except the Western

Australian race ‘chloronotus’(A), which has
Photo: L. Pedler. an olive-green back, green-yellow throat,
and pale buff flanks. Grey-backed races
include ‘lateralis’(B), which has deep rufous
flanks and breeds in Tasmania and migrates,
overlapping the mainland races and extending
E
F
as far north as Rockhampton (shown by arrow);
‘cornwalli’(C), which has pale rufous flanks
and occurs from south-east Queensland to
D
Victoria; ‘pinarochrous’(D), which is the same
A
C as ‘lateralis’ but duller and resides in south-east
South Australia; and ‘vegetus’ (E), the same as
‘cornwalli’ but smaller and lives in coastal north-
B
east Queensland. Isolated island populations are
those of ‘chlorocephala’(F), the largest of the
Birds Australia Atlas (1998-2002)
races, which has a heavier bill and is restricted to
the Bunker and Capricorn islands off Gladstone,
Queensland; ‘tephropleurus’ of Lord Howe Island;
and ‘ochrochorus’ of King Island in Bass Strait.
Another possible race, ‘westernensis’, replaces
‘cornwalli’ in south and south-east Victoria. The
following sections focus on the mainland races
and ‘lateralis’, as they are the ones that cause
damage to horticulture.

Voice migrate at night following established routes
and visit particular sites in consecutive seasons.
A characteristic high, sharp ‘tseep’ as a contact Some pairs and individuals will not migrate and
call; other calls vary from a series of shrill short certain silvereyes migrate in some years but not
notes to softer drawn-out mimicry. others.
Daily movements vary highly with food

Habitat
availability. During the breeding season (August
Silvereyes frequent a diverse range of habitat to February) males and females establish small
types, including wet and dry sclerophyll forest territories which they defend, but they often
and woodland, rainforest, mallee (e.g. Eucalyptus traverse a larger home range and occasionally
diversifolia, E. rugosa) shrubland, coastal heath, congregate around important food sources.
mangroves, farmlands, parks, gardens, orchards They will also travel to distant food sources
and vineyards. Some regional preferences are despite the presence of equivalent locally
evident, with favoured habitats including marri available food. Perhaps this is for the benefits of
(Corymbia calophylla) and coastal heath in communal feeding or to detract predators and
Western Australia; manna gum (Eucalyptus other silvereyes from their nesting sites. Despite
viminalis)/peppermint (E. radiata) associations occasional forays for food, home range size
and red ironbark (E. sideroxylon) in the during breeding is often confined to less than one
eastern States; Banksia spp. and Grevillea spp. hectare. After January large flocks congregate
shrublands; and fruiting trees and shrubs from including many juveniles that disperse natal
suburbia and horticultural areas. Open savannah areas or begin annual migration.
and arid areas are avoided.

Movements
Silvereyes are generalist feeders, favouring
This species is mainly migratory, travelling insects, nectar and fruit. They prey upon a variety
large distances, particularly along Australia’s of insects and consume nectar, fruit and seeds
east coast, where movements of up to 1600 from a range of native and introduced plants.
kilometres have been recorded. Southern High volumes of invertebrates are regularly
populations, especially ‘lateralis’, exhibit clear consumed in larvae and adult form, particularly
migratory patterns, regularly traversing Bass moths (Noctuidae), bugs (Hemiptera), scale
Strait in early autumn and extending as far as insects (Sternorryncha), spiders, beetles
Rockhampton, Queensland, by May. In eastern (Coleoptera), wasps (Hymenoptera) and flies
Australia, seasonal movements increase with (Diptera). They also often exploit nectar and
latitude; hence northern races such as ‘vegetus’ fruit, preferring native trees and shrubs such as
rarely migrate large distances. Instead, they are marri (Corymbia calophylla), karri (Eucalyptus
mainly sedentary or display regional nomadic diversicolor), red ironbark (E. sideroxyloni),
movements in response to fluctuating food Leptospermum spp., Callistemon spp., seaberry
supplies. In Western Australia, silvereyes saltbush (Rhagodia candolleana) and native
(‘chloronotus’) are also primarily nomadic. This rose (Boronia serrulata). Introduced species,
race travels inland when coastal food sources including coral trees (Erythrina spp.), lantana
diminish and return to utilise spring flowering (Lantana camara), holly (Ilex europaeus), wild
species, rather than displaying innate migratory tobacco (Nicotiana spp.), cape gooseberries
movements. In comparison, numerous individuals (Physalis peruviana) and many cultivated fruits,
of the south-eastern mainland races regularly are utilised especially when nectar from native
move north during winter and are replaced by species is scarce. Food scraps in suburban areas
the Tasmanian race as they advance north. Most are also consumed on occasion.

Frequently arboreal, they access lower branches are likely but difficult to measure in migratory
of trees and shrubs, hawking insects and populations. The main causes are probably
gleaning psyllids (Sternorryncha) and other vulnerability to exposure and fatigue during
insects from leaves and twigs. Ground and migration and predators such as birds of prey,
high canopy feeding is also common. During goannas, mice, rats and cats. Silvereyes are
migration, silvereyes travel large distances daily known from banding records to live up to 11 years
to visit feeding sites. Sedentary sub-populations in the wild, but the average age is two.
often move short distances but vary their daily
travel according to food accessibility. Extremely Damage
large flocks can arrive at feeding sites. Although
flock size varies with latitude, the largest flocks Silvereyes probably cause the greatest damage
usually occur following the influx of juvenile birds to Australian horticulture of any native bird. They
after January. frequently damage wine and table grapes (Figure
B.12), cherries, peaches, nectarines, plums,
blueberries, apricots, apples, pears, tropical
Breeding
fruit, olives, tomatoes and capsicum. Losses are
Both sexes build a small nest cup from hair, fine particularly severe when native nectar sources
grass and spider-web, which is well concealed are unavailable and during migration when high-
in the outer foliage of shrubs, low tree canopy energy food sources are sought. Nectar and
or grape vines. Two to four pale blue eggs (17 native fruit are preferred over horticultural crops
× 13 millimetres) are laid, usually twice, but up but are often in short supply due to clearing of
to four times, in a season (August–February). native vegetation, during dry seasons through
Hence, populations can increase rapidly in ideal lack of flowers, or in excessive wet periods when
conditions with maximum numbers of juveniles nectar may become diluted. Although variable,
during January. The ten-day incubation period higher nectar yields often occur following warm
and the feeding of young are shared between autumns and springs. Cooler temperatures during
sexes. High mortality rates following breeding nectar production also increase nectar yields.
Figure B.12: Silvereye pecking damage to grapes (left). Photo: R. Sinclair; and silvereyes feeding on
persimmon (right). Photo: W. Taylor.

Silvereyes puncture fruit with their sharp bills, Protection status
creating small diamond-shaped holes and they
lap at the flesh with their brush-tipped tongues. Protected, but locally unprotected in some
This often causes secondary losses by attracting States and regions (Section 6.1).
insects such as wasps (Hymenoptera), bees, and
ants and promotes the growth of fungi including Sources and further reading
Botrytis cinerea, yeast and other infections. Rooke, I.J. (1983) Research into the Biology of the
They will also feed on fallen and previously Silvereye Leading to Methods for Minimizing
damaged fruit, in some cases targeting these Grape Damage in Vineyards of South-west
Australia. Technical Series No. 2. Agricultural
in preference to unspoiled portions. They
Protection Board of Western Australia, Perth.
also potentially contribute to the dispersal
Rooke, I.J. (1984) The silvereye, Zosterops lateralis Aves:
of weeds such as bridal creeper (Asparagus
Zosteropidae: a review. Journal of the Royal
asparagoides), lantana (Lantana camara), bitou
Society of Western Australia 66: 163–169.
bush (Chrysanthemopides monilifera) and privet
(Ligustrum spp.). However, they often avoid
swallowing large fruit, so they may be inefficient near Murray Bridge, South Australia. Agricultural
at dispersing seeds of large-fruited weed Record 10: 8–11.
species. Matthiessen, J.N. and Springett, B.P. (1973) The
food of the silvereye, Zosterops gouldi (Aves:
Outside or during the early stages of the ripening Zosteropidae), in relation to its role as a vector of a
period, silvereyes can be important predators granulosis virus of the potato moth, Phthorimaea
of insects. For example, they are known to operculella (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). Australian
consume large volumes of codling moth (Cydia Journal of Zoology 21: 533–540.
pomonella) larvae, a serious pest in apple Rey, P.J., Gutierrez, J.E., Alcantara, J., and Valera, F.
orchards, and are implicated in controlling the (1997) Fruit size in wild olives: implications for
avian seed dispersal. Functional Ecology 11: 611–
potato moth (Phthorimaea operculella), a vector
618.
of the granulosis virus.

Sulphur-crested cockatoo
(Cacatua galerita)
White cockatoo; greater sulphur-crested cocka This species is a large (48–55 centimetres head
too. to tail) white bird with a prominent yellow crest
that curves forward (downward over the beak
when the crest is raised). Both sexes are similar,
differing slightly in size and iris colour. This species
has a distinctive uneven flight pattern, with a
series of wing beats followed by a glide. Often
seen in large flocks and communal roosts, but
also occurs in pairs and small groups, particularly
in the tropics and during the breeding season.
They associate with galahs (Elophus [Cacatua]
roseicapilla) and corellas (long-billed (Cacatua
tenuirostris), western or little (C. sanguinea))
while feeding. Corellas can be distinguished by
their smaller and leaner stature and shallow wing
beats during flight.
Voice
Photo: M. Bomford.
A single distinctive screech as a contact call; an
occasional high-pitched call while roosting or
feeding, and a series of harsh screeches when
alarmed.
Habitat
Sulphur-crested cockatoos are common in a
variety of habitats in eastern, northern and
southern Australia in sclerophyll forests, pine
forests and rainforests; Eucalyptus and Casuarina
woodland; cultivated areas; parklands; and
open savannas. Open pasture and croplands,
where vegetation persists along watercourses,
Birds Australia Atlas (1998–2002) are preferred. Hence this species has benefited
from clearing, cropping and improved access to
water. They often roost in tall, dense stands of
Eucalyptus spp. where water is close by, but will
move some distance to feeding sites.

Movements Breeding
Considered mainly sedentary, this species Breeding normally occurs from July to
seldom moves large distances between seasons, December. Hollow entrances and linings are
although it may occasionally relocate for chewed in branches or trunks of mature trees.
breeding or food or to escape adverse climatic Most commonly, nest hollows occur at 5–20
conditions. Local movements usually occur along metres height in Eucalyptus spp. trees, in close
watercourses, but flocks can transverse large proximity to water. Nesting also occasionally
open areas for food. Despite daily movements occurs in cliff faces and in mature Melaleuca
of up to six kilometres, they maintain fidelity to spp. and Angophora spp. trees. A single pair
roosting sites. They form larger flocks and travel of cockatoos will nest in each tree despite the
further in autumn, when not breeding. During regular occurrence of multiple hollows. They
this period flocks are often more likely to travel have, however, been recorded sharing trees with
into cleared or cultivated areas. Similarly, during other species, including galahs, kookaburras
the breeding season birds are more dispersed (Dacelo novaeguineae), barn owls (Tyto alba)
and tend to be resident. Highest densities occur and starlings (Sturnus vulgaris).
just after breeding.
Males and females usually visit hollows through
out the year. Both sexes prepare the nest, incubate
Foods and feeding behaviour eggs (which takes about 30 days) and feed the
Sulphur-crested cockatoos have a varied diet of young. Two or three white eggs are laid on a bed
grass and plant seeds, nuts, fruits, green leaves of wood chips 2–10 centimetres deep. However,
and stems, flowers, bark, roots, bulbs, rhizomes pairs average less than one fledgling per year as
and insect larvae. Where available, seeds, grain a result of egg infertility, egg predation by lace
and onion grass (Romulea rosea) corms comprise monitors, possums, and carpet pythons, nest
the majority of their diet. Hence birds are mainly occupation by bees and trapping for aviculture.
observed feeding in open areas. They are also Fledging occurs at around 10 weeks, but juveniles
attracted to fruit, seeds and flowers of trees are fed by their parents for a further six weeks
more common in northern parts of Australia. after leaving the nest. From banding studies
cockatoos are known to live beyond eight years
Larger flocks form while feeding, rather than in the wild, but many are likely to be older as
when day-time roosting or flying, where groups captive birds have lived beyond 100 years.
can consist of a few birds to several hundred.
Feeding flocks also tend to be larger in more
Damage
open habitats. The majority of feeding usually
occurs in the morning and afternoon. Morning Damage to horticulture is often to buds, shoots
feeding usually takes place around one hour and growing stems, rather than fruit. However,
after sunrise and in the afternoon in the two to sulphur-crested cockatoos are well known for
three hours before sunset. Larger flocks gather removing large chunks of, or splitting, pome and
during the afternoon session. Feeding forays stone fruit to get at the seeds. Seeds of citrus
usually last one to two hours, but this varies with fruits are also consumed. The size of the bitten-
the season and region. For example, in some off pieces can be used to distinguish cockatoo
regions feeding is more common in the middle damage from damage by smaller species.
of the day, especially during the cooler months. Damage to fruit occurs when the birds consume
Conversely, midday feeding is rare in summer, fruit on the branch and knock others to the
when temperatures are highest. ground or remove whole fruits and fly to an
adjacent roosting tree. They also damage nuts,
such as hazelnuts, almonds, walnuts, pecans,
chestnuts and pistachios, by cracking the shells.

Figure B.13: Cockatoo damage to sunflower. Photo: P. Fleming.
Cockatoos also chew buds and young shoots inc Protection status
luding those of cherries, grapevines and peanut
shrubs; and they chew bark and foliage and strip Protected, but locally unprotected in some
it from orchard trees. Significant damage to regions (Section 6.1).
limbs and fruiting spurs can occur when a flock
lands in a single orchard tree, simply due to the Sources and further reading
weight of the birds. Mature grape bunches are Harman, I. (1981) Australian parrots in bush and aviary.
often snipped directly from the vines. The birds Inkata press, Melbourne.
also damage a range of cereal grain and oilseed Noske, S. (1980) Aspects of the behaviour and ecology
crops (e.g. sunflower, Figure B.13) by digging up of the white cockatoo (Cacatua galerita) and
sown seed and feeding on seed heads. Vegetable galah (C. roseicapilla) in croplands in north-east
New South Wales. Master of Science Thesis,
crops are also susceptible to cockatoo damage
University of New England, Armidale.
and the birds can cause havoc in nurseries by
damaging seedling stock.
Cockatoo and parrot species chew on various

materials to maintain their beaks. Damage to
infrastructure such as irrigation systems, coaxial
cables, electrical insulators, radio and television
aerials and red cedar building materials for beak
maintenance is common.

Factsheets:
introduced species

Common myna
(Acridotheres tristis)
Indian, Calcutta or house myna; mynah. The myna is a medium-sized (25–26 centimetres
head to tail) but heavily built bird with mainly
brown plumage. It has a dark brown to black
head with a bright yellow patch behind the eye,
and a yellow bill, legs and feet. The wing patch,
under-tail covets and tail tip are white. Mynas
have a distinct strut or exaggerated hop when
moving across the ground and can be in small to
very large groups.
Voice
Varied repertoire: a coarse ‘karrarr’; a high tri-
syllable ‘weeo’; and a brisk ‘seeit’ in alarm.
Photo: M. Bomford.
Habitat
The common myna is a common inhabitant of
urban areas, savannah, cleared agricultural lands,
cultivated paddocks, plantations, canefields
and roadside vegetation. Mynas are closely
associated with human development, especially
following initial introductions. Colonisation
of surrounding agricultural areas and open
woodlands can occur gradually, usually starting
along roads or railways. The birds also have
potential to colonise areas away from human
settlement, such as coastal mangroves, flood
plains and open forest, but are usually at lower
density in these areas and avoid dense forests.
In the Atherton Tablelands (Queensland) they
now occupy all habitats except thick rainforest
and populations are steadily expanding into
agricultural areas of New South Wales and
Victoria. Once the birds are established,
dramatic increases in density are apparent. For
example, in urban centres such as Canberra,
Melbourne and the inner and surrounding areas
of Sydney, mynas have proliferated. Preferred
roosts are well-sheltered sites, particularly
introduced trees and shrubs with dense foliage

such as phoenix palms (Phoenix canariensis) or family groups on the ground, but larger groups
introduced pines where they are often observed can feed in trees and shrubs for fruit and seeds.
with starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) and sparrows Mynas rarely feed far from roosting or nesting
(Passer domesticus). Large communal roosts sites and in some urban areas they will restrict
of up to 5000 can occur, but smaller roosts of foraging to within 100 metres of the roost.
40–80 are more typical in Australia. Roosting
behaviour involves loud calling at dawn and dusk Breeding
and occasionally during the night.
Mynas are hole-nesting species. They have
similar breeding habits to starlings but are more
Movements
dominant. Pairs mate for life and vigorously
This species is sedentary. No seasonal move defend territories and nest sites during the
ments and only localised dispersal patterns are breeding season which extends from August
evident in Australia. Local fluctuations in density to March. Untidy nests of sticks, leaves, paper
are most likely due to high rates of juvenile and other items are prepared in tree hollows, in
mortality, which is typical of highly fecund the tops of palm trees, or in walls and ceilings
species. Density is therefore highest after the of buildings. Two, or sometimes three, broods
young leave the nest between December and are raised per season, with 3–6 young per
March and lowest during the early stages of brood. Eggs are similar to those of starlings
breeding in the following season. Intermittent but marginally larger (31 × 22 millimetres) and a
juvenile or adult dispersal can occur along brighter blue.
main roads and railways and may become
more frequent as populations increase. Daily Damage
movements are also confined to small areas,
often within three kilometres of a roost site. Pre- Mynas can cause considerable damage to
roosting flocks assemble in the late afternoons ripening fruit, particularly grapes, but also figs,
in cleared areas or perching on powerlines, apples, pears, strawberries, blueberries, guava,
antennae, bridges or other manufactured mangoes and breadfruit. Cereal crops such as
structures. maize, wheat and rice are susceptible where they
occur near urban areas. Roosting and nesting
commensal with humans create aesthetic and
health concerns. Mynas are known to carry
Mynas are highly adaptable omnivorous scav avian malaria and exotic parasites such as the
engers and feed on a variety of food scraps, Ornithonyssus bursia mite which can cause
fruits, vegetables, grains, seeds, flowers, nectar, dermatitis in humans. The myna can help spread
young birds, eggs and invertebrates and their agricultural weeds: for example, it spreads the
larvae. Unlike starlings, which commonly probe seeds of Lantana camara which has been classed
for invertebrates below the ground, these as a Weed of National Significance because of
birds are ‘surface-feeders’. Their diet varies its invasiveness. Mynas are regularly observed
considerably with availability. Insects are reg to usurp nests and hollows, kill the young and
ularly consumed in large quantities, particularly destroy the eggs of native bird species including
beetle (Coleoptera) and moth (Noctuidae) larvae, seabirds and parrots (see list below) and kill
locusts, grasshoppers (Orthoptera) and flies small mammals although the extent to which
(Diptera). They are frequent dwellers of rubbish these actions reduce native populations remains
dumps and often consume food scraps around unquantified.
buildings and food-processing plants and along
roadsides. Mostly they forage in pairs or small

List of threatened species that may be adversely Protection status
affected by the myna:
Unprotected; introduced species.
Regent parrot1,4 Polytelis anthopeplus
Coxen’s double- Cyclopsitta diophthalma Sources and further reading

eyed fig parrot 1,3
coxeni Byrd, G.V. (1979) Common myna predation on wedge-
tailed shearwater eggs. Elepaio 39: 69–70.

Counsilman, J.J. (1974) Breeding biology of the Indian
Turquoise parrot1,3 Neophema pulchella myna in city and aviary. Notornis 21: 318–333.
Counsilman, J.J. (1974) Waking and roosting behaviour

Glossy black Calyptorhynchus lathami
of the Indian myna. Emu 74: 135–148.
cockatoo1,3
Feare, C. and Craig, A. (1999) Starlings and Mynas.
Little tern2,3 Sterna albifrons Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
Grant, G.S. (1982) Common mynas attack black noddies

Hooded plover2,3 Thinornis rubricollis and white terns on Midway Atoll. Elepaio 42:
97–98.
Flesh-footed Puffinus carneipes
Hermes, N. (1986) A census of the common mynah
shearwater2,3
Acridotheres tristis along an axis of dispersal.
Corella 10: 55–57.
White tern 2,3
Gygis alba
Hone, J. (1978) Introduction and spread of the common
Sooty tern2,3 Sterna fuscata myna in New South Wales. Emu 78: 227–230.
1 Competition for nest hollows. Martin, W.K. (1996) The current and potential
2 Potential predation of eggs or direct attacks. distrubution of the common myna (Acridotheres
3 Occurs within the current distribution of the myna. tristis) in Australia. Emu 96: 166—173.
4 Occurs within the potential distribution (Martin
Pell, A.S. and Tidemann, C.R. (1997) The impact of two
1996) of the myna.
exotic hollow-nesting birds on two native parrots
in savannah and woodland in eastern Australia.
Biological Conservation 79: 145–153.
Pimentel, D., Lach, L., Zuniga, R. and Morrison, D.

(2000) Environmental and economic costs of
nonindigenous species in the United States.
BioScience 50: 53–65.
Wood K.A. (1995) Roost abundance and density of

the common myna and common starling at
Wollongong New South Wales. Australian Bird
Watcher 16: 58–67.

Common starling
(Sturnus vulgaris)
Starling; European or English starling. A dark-coloured medium-sized (20 centimetres
head to tail) bird, with a sharp pointed bill,
relatively short tail and pointed wings. In the
breeding season starlings turn a glossy black
with metallic purple or green tints, slightly
duller in females. The bill turns dull yellow with
a blue base on males and a salmon pink base on
females, and the legs of both sexes turn from a
dark colour to an orangey hue. In non-breeding
plumage both males and females are brown and
speckled, with a dull grey bill and legs. Females
have a darker inner eye ring surrounded by a
lighter iris ring, whereas males do not have the
light ring. Under-wing coverts are very dark or
black in adult males and brown or grey in females,
but this can vary among individuals. Males (73–
96 grams) generally weigh slightly more than
non-gravid females (69–93 grams). Juveniles are
uniform grey-brown above and lightly flecked
below, with dark bills and grey eyes. They moult
into non-breeding adult plumage over summer.
Photo: T. Waite. Voice

The call is a collection of wheezy whistles, clicks
and scratching notes. Starlings also have the
ability to mimic other birds.
Habitat
Starlings are adapted to a variety of habitats
and are one of the most common species in
lowland suburban and cleared agricultural areas
of the south-east mainland and Tasmania. They
also occur in open woodlands, irrigated pasture,
feedlots, mulga (Acacia aneura), mallee (e.g.
Birds Australia Atlas (1998–2002) Eucalyptus diversifolia, E. rugosa), reed-beds,
coastal plains and cliffs, and occasionally in
alpine areas. They avoid dense dry sclerophyll
woodlands, wet Eucalyptus woodlands and
forest, rainforest and arid regions. Populations

are more marginal in the northern parts of movements. Australian starlings are generally
their range, where climate may partly limit sedentary, with an average movement of two
their establishment. Water availability appears kilometres recorded from banding recoveries and
important and hence high rainfall regions, a maximum of 987 kilometres. Although starlings
irrigated areas, temporary surface water and will shift regionally, movements are generally
flooded drainage swamps attract high densities. more localised than those of nomadic lorikeets
and honeyeaters (Meliphagidae) which travel
In Western Australia the climate is suitable for
larger distances seeking nectar from flowering
range expansion, but to date, starlings have
plants. However, Australian starlings commonly
failed to colonise this suitable habitat because
make small regional movements according to
of the barrier offered by the Nullarbor Plain
food availability, particularly in cultivated and
and concerted efforts to eradicate colonising
cleared agricultural areas. In urban areas starlings
populations. Recently, a population has been
are more sedentary, with seasonal fluctuations in
discovered around Esperance, and, at the time of
abundance because of high juvenile mortality
writing, the feasibility of eradication, or at least
and dispersal rates.
containment, was being considered.
Preferred night roosts are introduced plants Foods and feeding behaviour
with dense foliage including Africa boxthorn
Starlings have an extremely diverse diet that
(Lycium ferocissimum), firethorn (Pyracantha
varies seasonally, geographically, and with
spp.), hawthorn (Crataegus momgyna), plane
the age of individuals. Food items range from
trees (Platanus orientalis.), palms (Palmae),
fruits and seeds to skinks, worms and snails,
willows (Salix spp.), cypress (Cupressus spp.,
with arthropods being the most numerous and
Chamaecyparis spp. or Callitris oblonga), pines
diverse group of organisms eaten by starlings
and cedars (Pinaceae), oak (Quercus spp.)
in Australia. However, starlings are highly
and reed beds, or concealed cavities in human
adaptive and in time of food scarcity will eat
structures or cliffs. Prominent areas such as
almost anything, including garbage. Their diet is
powerlines, dead trees, building roofs and aerials
restricted by both the size of food items and by
are often used throughout the day for perching
amounts, since the bill is more suited to probing
and preening.
and the gut lacks a crop that would usually
facilitate gorging. Starlings need to drink water
Movements daily.
Following fledging, young starlings disperse in
Invertebrates generally make up about half the
search of food and shelter. Juveniles may move
starling’s diet and are especially important for
great distances to feed. For example, Cabe
laying mothers and their young. Olives, when
(1999) found that the average distance moved by
present, are also a food staple for adults and
juveniles in the USA was 104 kilometres, although
young during the breeding season. Juveniles
distance varied greatly among individuals. Just
tend to eat more plant foods, most likely because
over half the birds returned to their birth sites to
of inexperience in foraging for insects.
breed (Cabe 1999). One study of banded juveniles
found 20% moving more than 100 kilometres Starlings prefer to feed in short grass, primarily in
from their birth sites, whereas another 20% from cow and sheep paddocks or on lawns. They often
the same colony moved less than ten kilometres forage in large flocks, taking insects disturbed
(Feare 1984). by grazing animals, and they also take larvae,
insects and herbage directly from the ground.
In contrast to the migratory populations in
Starlings also probe the bark of trees for insects
northern Europe and North America, starlings
and ‘oxpeck’ sheep, as well as catching flying
in Australia display no large-scale seasonal
insects on the wing. Starlings may be beneficial

in some agricultural areas, taking crop-damaging Damage
larvae with their probe-like bill, but this benefit
has not been scientifically confirmed. Other Starlings cause significant damage to
feeding sites vary seasonally and include horticultural industries, particularly cherries,
orchards, vineyards, cereal crops, feedlots and grapes (Figure B.14), blueberries, olives, stone
rubbish sites. Feeding duration in cereal and fruits, apples, pears (Figure B.15) and a range of
horticultural crops, where birds can rapidly eat vegetable crops. Dried fruit industries are also
a large quantity of food, is usually shorter than susceptible, with damage evident in currants,
the time spent in other feeding areas. Once a sultanas, raisins and dried stone fruits; birds
feeding pattern is established, starlings will use occasionally remove fruit from drying racks.
the same sites for extended periods, but unlike Fruit damage can start up to six weeks before
other bird species they have no consistent peak harvest but increases in severity during ripening.
feeding times. Upper branches with sparse vegetation often
attract the heaviest damage. Whole berries from
Starlings feed in large flocks of up to 20 000; olives, grapes and cherries are removed and
this is thought to improve their feeding efficiency swallowed; larger fruits display a series of sharp
and to decrease predation by birds of prey. As peck marks.
the breeding season approaches, feeding flocks
become progressively smaller as more time is Cereal crops are susceptible when grain is freshly
spent at feeding sites that are close to the nest. sown and during ripening. Starlings also take
grain from feedlots, storage areas, piggeries,
dairies and poultry farms.
Breeding
Sexual activity and nest building peak in early
spring (August–September). Starlings form pairs
and nest in tree hollows, holes in the ground and
gaps or crevices in cliffs, tree stumps, fence-
posts and eaves and under roofs of buildings.
They frequently reuse the same hollows for
initiating second broods. The male builds a small
cup-shaped nest within the hollow. Both inter-
and intra-specific aggression is used during the
breeding season to acquire and defend nest
sites. Males may even kill each other in such
encounters. Nest usurpation, whereby starlings
aggressively take over the active nest of another
species, has also been documented.
A suite of factors influences laying date, in

cluding day length, food availability, social
cues and climate. In Australia, laying generally
begins in August–September and continues until
December–January. Incubation lasts 12 days,
during which time females spend 80% of their
time on the nest. Males also help in incubation
for short periods. A female may have up to three
broods a year, and clutch size ranges from one Figure B.14: Starling damage to grapes, where
to seven eggs with a mean range of 3.8–4.9. whole grapes are removed, leaving a brush-like
Nestlings fledge at 20–23 days. stalk. Photo: J. Tracey.

Starlings can carry many parasites and diseases, Protection status
raising concern in food factories and industrial
areas and are a potential risk to livestock Unprotected; introduced species.
industries. For example, they are implicated
in carrying (and in some cases transmitting), Sources and further reading
salmonella, cryptococci, Newcastle disease ABBBS (2006) Online search of the Australian Bird
(poultry), transmissible gastroenteritis (pigs), and Bat Banding Scheme database for Sturnus
eastern encephalitis (horses) and foot-and- vulgaris January 2006. http://www.deh.gov.au/
biodiversity/science/abbbs/abbbs-search.html
mouth disease (ungulates), although the risks
remain unquantified. Damage to infrastructure is Barker, R.D. and Vestjens, W.J.M. (1990) The Food of
Australian Birds. 2. Passerines. CSIRO Division of
commonly reported, particularly the fouling of
Wildlife and Ecology: Lyneham, ACT.
roof cavities wth faecal matter and with nesting
Cabe, P.R. (ed.) (1993) European starling (Sturnus
material. Environmental impacts, particularly the
vulgaris). The Birds of North America. The
usurping of nest hollows, is potentially serious
American Ornithologists’ Union, Philadelphia:
for some native species, for example, Coxen’s The Academy of Natural Sciences. Washington,
double-eyed fig parrot (Cyclopsitta diophthalma D.C.
coxeni) and the turquoise parrot (Neophema Cabe, P.R. (1999) Dispersal and population structure in
pulchella). The spread of environmental weeds the European starling. Condor 101, 451–454.
such as olives by starlings is also an emerging Feare, C. (1984) The Starling. Oxford University Press:
issue. Aesthetic problems are also common Oxford.
because of the formation of large noisy roosts Feare, C. and Craig, A. (1999) Starlings and mynas.
in urban areas. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
Fisher, A.M. (1992) Vigilance and variation: the key

to victory in the vineyard. Australian and New
Zealand Wine Industry Journal 7: 140–143.
Figure B.15: Juvenile starling feeding on Nashi pear. Photo: J. Tracey.

Gochfield, M. (1978) Starling roost site selection:
preference for palm trees. Emu 78: 39–40.
Green, R.H. (1965) Mass banding of the common starling.

The Australian Bird Bander 3: 27–31.
Green, R.H. (1983) The decline of eastern rosella

(Platycercus eximius diemenensis) and other
Psittaciformes in Tasmania concomitant with the
establishment of the introduced common starling
(Sturnus vulgaris). Records of the Queen Victoria
Museum, Launceston 82: 1–5.
Paton, D.C., Sinclair, R.G. and Bentz, C.M. (2005) Ecology

and Management of the Common Starling
(Sturnus vulgaris) in the McLaren Vale Region.
Final Report to Grape and Wine Research and
Development Corporation, UA 01/05.
Pell, A.S. and Tidemann, C.R. (1997) The impact of two

exotic hollow-nesting birds on two native parrots
in savannah and woodland in eastern Australia.
Biological Conservation 79: 145–153.
Thomas, H.F. (1957) The starling in the Sunraysia District,

Victoria Part I–IV. Emu 57: 31–337.
Wall, L.E. (1973) Starling roost on the Tasman Bridge,

Hobart. Tasmanian Naturalist 32: 4–6.
Weber, W.J. (1979) Health Hazards from Pigeons,

Starlings and English Sparrows. Thomson
Publications: Fresno, California.
Wood K.A. (1995) Roost abundance and density of

the common myna and common starling at
Wollongong New South Wales. Australian Bird
Watcher 16: 58–67.

European blackbird
(Turdus merula)
Common Eurasian, European or Fennoscandian The male European blackbird is a uniformly
blackbird; ousel. black, medium-sized (25 centimetres head to
tail) bird with a yellow to orange bill and eye-
ring. The bill is almost red-orange in forested
habitats. The tail is long and rounded, obvious in
flight. Females are dark brown with faint streaks
on the chest and also have a duller yellow-brown
bill. Juveniles are similar to females but have a
tinge of rufous on the chest plumage. Blackbirds
tend to be a shy species, spending much of their
time close to cover either foraging in leaf litter,
mulch or grass or in shrubbery. Movement across
the ground is by jerky hops often followed by
wing and tail flicks. They tend to fly fast but
undulating and low to the ground when flushed
Photo: Sannse/Wikipedia.
to rapidly regain cover. Native of Europe, North
Africa and southern Asia, the European blackbird
is a member of the Muscicapidae family (true
thrushes). It shares a genus with the song thrush
(Turdus philomelos), which was also introduced
to Australia in the late 1850s.
Voice
Musical fluting song; a high, harsh ‘tsee tsee’ in
alarm.
Habitat
The European blackbird is common in most
habitats of south-eastern Australia, displaying
a preference for urban bushland, parks, gardens
and horticultural areas. Unlike the song thrush,
which is restricted to the urban areas of
Melbourne, the European blackbird has colon
ised many types of natural habitat, including
riverine vegetation, rainforest, wet sclerophyll,
dry Eucalyptus woodlands, coastal heath and
even mallee (e.g. Eucalyptus diversifolia, E.
rugosa). Their distribution continues to expand,
particularly along the Murray-Darling river
systems to the north. Vegetated river systems

in other areas are also thought to aid dispersal. leaves bound by mud. Nests are usually well
Local densities are generally stable, although concealed and suspended from less than one
slight decreases are evident in suburban metre to as high as 12 metres, in the top of a
Canberra. Birds of this species often prefer areas stump or log or in an upright fork amongst
with a combination of open or cleared pasture bracken fern or other dense tree or shrub foliage.
and a dense shrub layer. Eggs are incubated by the female for 12–14 days.
European blackbirds continue to raise broods
Movements under ideal conditions, mostly from August

to February. Nesting failure is often caused by
The European blackbird is sedentary in Australia, predation, particularly by the pied currawong
with few movements greater than 10 kilometres (Strepera graculina). Replacement clutches
recorded. They are known to be partial migrants are usually laid — in one case five unsuccessful
in Europe, particularly in the northern extremes attempts were recorded during a season.
of their range. In Australia large movements of up
to 500 kilometres can occur, but are likely to be
Damage
made by juveniles dispersing after the breeding
season. Solitary or in pairs, small territories are If fruit is available European blackbirds will
defended year round, but particularly during the consume it throughout the year. Grapes (Figure
breeding season. European blackbirds roost in B.16), cherries, peaches, nectarines, figs, olives
the thick foliage of shrubs and trees, forage in and berries are particularly susceptible. Damage
open areas, shrubs and leaf litter during the day, to vineyards and orchards is often associated
and return to roost in the late afternoon. with the presence of adjacent shrubs and dense
garden plants. Hence damage is concentrated
Foods and feeding behaviour around these features. Small fruits, including
Blackbirds predominantly rely on arthropods,

including ground invertebrates, flying insects,
earthworms, snails and spiders, but they also
consume variable amounts of fruit, small
reptiles and vegetable matter. Foraging mainly
on the ground, they rake at leaf litter and
probe open pasture and lawns in urban areas.
European blackbirds are occasionally arboreal
and consume native (for example Exocarpus
cupressiformis) and cultivated (for example,
olive, blackberry, grape, fig) fruits. European
blackbirds are implicated in spreading some of
these species into new areas. They vigorously
defend territories and are aggressive towards
other bird species, especially for several weeks
leading up to, and during, their breeding season,
but they are more tolerant during other times of
the year.
Breeding
Figure B.16: Blackbird damage to grapes,
Three to five pale blue-green eggs with reddish showing cleanly plucked berries on hidden
brown spots (34 × 23 millimetres) are laid in a bunches inside the canopy. Most damage occurs
large, deep bowl of dry grass, bark strips and at ends of rows near cover. Photo R. Sinclair.

grapes, cherries, olives and figs, are usually
taken whole and consumed in nearby vegetation.
Although sedentary, European blackbirds
have been implicated in the spread of weed
species including blackberries, olives and sweet
pittosporum (Pittosporum undulatum). They also
have the potential to compete with native bird
species, including the closely related bassian
thrush (Zoothera lunulata) and the grey shrike-
thrush (Colluricincla harmonica).
Protection status
Unprotected; introduced species.

Gleadow, R.M. (1982) Invasion by Pittosporum
undulatum of the forests of central Victoria.
II. Dispersal, germination and establishment.
Australian Journal of Botany 30: 185–198.
Lenz, M. (1990) The breeding bird communities of three

Canberra suburbs. Emu 90: 145–153.

House sparrow
(Passer domesticus)
English or Eurasian sparrow. This small (14–16 centimetres head to tail) bird is
sexually dimorphic. Males have a grey crown, a
chestnut back and neck and chestnut wings with
black tips, white cheeks, and a grey rump and
tail. Their black bib is increasingly prominent with
status, particularly during breeding. Dominant
males display the largest bibs. Females are
a uniform pale grey, with dark streaks on the
wings. Males and females are a similar size.
Voice:
Continual, jangly ‘cheerup’ and chirps when
feeding or perching; a high-pitched ‘treeee’ in
Photo: G. Dabb.
alarm.
Habitat
Commensal with humans, sparrows inhabit
most continents throughout the world. They
were introduced to Australia in the 1860s by
acclimatisation societies and are now abundant
in cities, towns, rural areas and around farm
buildings, particularly in the south-east of Aust
ralia. They are closely associated with humans
and populations are known to decline in towns
that have been deserted. They avoid unsettled
areas and forested habitats. Their failure to
Birds Australia Atlas (1998–2002) colonise Western Australia may be due in part
to the barrier of the Nullarbor Plain and lack
of continuous human habitation. Eradication
of invading house sparrows also occurs. For
example, more than 70 house sparrows were
destroyed at Wanneroo in 1994 and 15 were
destroyed near Fremantle harbour in 2005
(Government of Western Australia). In rural areas,
densities are greatest when properties are small
and hence human activity more concentrated.
Sparrows roost in trees with dense foliage,
including introduced species such as palm trees
(Phoenix spp.), and in reed beds, roof spaces,

or the ivy (Hedera helix) surrounding buildings those of Eucalyptus spp. Two to six white to pale
or trees. In urban areas they are more common grey eggs with dark grey and dark brown spots
in the centres of towns and cities rather than in are incubated for 10–14 days. Young fledge after
suburban garden areas. 14–17 days. They have a long breeding season,
which can extend from July to April, with peak
Movements breeding between September and February. Two

or three broods are commonly raised during this
House sparrows are sedentary and no seasonal season. Males often switch partners between
movement patterns are evident throughout broods but remain loyal to nest sites, which are
their range. However, they can disperse rapidly, aggressively defended from other males and
initially colonising parts of Australia at a rate of smaller native species.
over 100 kilometres a year. Conversely, dispersal
is limited and gradual in unsettled areas,
Damage
particularly in drier regions where colonisation
can occur at a rate of less than seven kilometres Sparrows are considered the most significant
per year. Highly sociable and gregarious, they pest of crops in New Zealand and commonly
usually form small colonies but can also con cause damage to fruit, vegetable, grain and
gregate in large flocks of several thousand, oilseed crops in Australia. Significant losses have
particularly following the breeding season. been recorded in pear, apple, berry, cherry, grape
Established colonies do not usually move more (Figure B.17), nectarine, apricot, plum, peach, and
than a couple of kilometres. loquat orchards. Vegetables and cereals such as
tomatoes, lettuce, lucerne, peas, wheat, maize,
Foods and feeding behaviour sunflower, soya bean and rice are often damaged
and germinating shoots and seedlings removed.
Sparrows feed predominately on seeds and Pecked fruit may often result in secondary losses
scavenged food waste, but they will also consume because the exposed flesh encourages insects
flowers, buds, fruits and insects. Vegetable and fungal diseases which can spread damage
matter, bread, grain and grass and weed throughout the crop. Considerable amounts
seeds, are regularly consumed. Small groups of grain can also be lost at feedlots, piggeries
(usually less than 20) forage on the ground and poultry farms. Aesthetic problems arise
along walkways, near rubbish sites and in open as a result of faecal deposition in roosting and
areas. This small bird will often aggressively nesting areas. Drains and gutters can become
defend feeding locations from smaller species, blocked with nesting material. Sparrows are
but it can co-occur with starlings (Sturnus also susceptible to a range of potential diseases,
vulgaris), mynas (Acridotheres tristis) and including salmonellosis, tuberculosis, and Giardia
European blackbirds (Turdus merula). and Cryptosporidium infection. The prevalence
Occasionally they forage in the tree foliage, of infection and the bird’s importance as a vector
where they catch flying insects and remove and for transmission are, however, largely unknown.
peck fruit. They are known to usurp native species from
nest hollows, although normally they prefer to
Breeding nest in buildings.
House sparrows build untidy grass and stick

dome nests lined with feathers, mainly in gaps of
Protection status
buildings, often under eaves, and between and Unprotected; introduced species.
beneath roofing material. Occasionally they nest
on tree branches or in tree hollows, including

Figure B.17: Pecking damage to grapes by sparrows. Photos: R. Sinclair.
Sources and further reading Jensen, G.V. (1974) A study of bird damage in a
commercial orchard in the Auckland district.
Chilvers, B.L., Cowan, P.E., Waddington, D.C., Kelly,
Annual Journal Royal New Zealand Institute of
P.J. and Brown, T.J. (1998) The prevalence of
Horticulture 2: 47–50.
infection of Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium
spp. in wild animals on farmland, south-eastern Lenz, M. (1990) The breeding bird communities of three
North Island, New Zealand. International Journal Canberra suburbs. Emu 90: 145–153.
of Environmental Health Research 8: 59–64. Weber, W.J. (1979) Health Hazards from Pigeons,
Dawson, D.G. (1970) Estimation of grain loss due to Starlings and English Sparrows. Thomson
sparrows (Passer domesticus) in New Zealand. Publications: Fresno, California.
New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 13:

681–688.
Elgar, M.A. and Catterall, C.P. (1982) Flock size and

feeding efficiency in house sparrows. Emu 82:
109–111.
Government of Western Australia Departments of:

Agriculture and Food; Fisheries; Environment
and Conservation and the Forest Products
Commission of Western Australia (2006).
Review of Biosecurity Risk Management in
Western Australia, Preamble and Status Reports
(Consultation Draft) Perth.

Factsheets:
Managing the impacts of
birds in horticulture

Introduction • Where is the problem?
• How severe is the problem?
Many native and introduced birds in Australia
• Will the problem change with time?
can cause significant damage to cultivated fruit,
nuts, olives and grapes. The main problem species Identify the birds involved
are starlings, sparrows, European blackbirds,
Implementing an effective bird control programme
silvereyes, parrots and lorikeets, cockatoos,
requires a basic understanding of the ecology
honeyeaters and corvids.
and biology of the targeted pest species and (in
There is a diverse range of options for managing some cases) those species affected directly (non-
pest birds. They have variable effectiveness and targets) or indirectly (prey species) by a control
no single solution is applicable to all situations. programme. Control strategies can be targeted
Most crop damage occurs during the ripening at particular groups of birds. For example, some
season, which coincides with the busiest time for species such as rosellas, sparrows and European
growers. As a result, bird management is often blackbirds are largely sedentary and may live in
not initiated until after considerable damage has and around a crop throughout the year. Trying to
already occurred. Integrated pest management prevent them from entering and damaging the
is a concept well understood for insect and crop only during the time it is vulnerable is very
disease problems, but birds are rarely managed difficult without applying some out-of-season
in the same strategic way. management of these species. This is in contrast
to the control strategies appropriate for species
Rather than focusing simply on killing as many
such as silvereyes and many honeyeaters that
pests as possible, it is now realised that, as
are highly migratory and only move into crops
with most other aspects of agriculture, bird
during specific periods. Their control needs to be
management needs to be carefully planned and
initiated only if any of these periods coincide with
coordinated. Bird control is just one aspect of
the time that the crop is vulnerable to damage.
an integrated approach to the management of
Native birds need to be identified because most
production. Many birds are highly mobile and
of these species are protected and permits are
can readily replace those that are killed in control
required for their control. Furthermore, most
programmes. Unless actions are well planned
native birds are beneficial or desirable, so it is
and coordinated they are unlikely to have a
important that management does not affect
lasting effect. When planning bird management
these species. Conversely, some birds can be
there are some important steps that should be
both beneficial and pests. Honeyeaters for
considered.
example, can become a more serious problem
in orchards during seasons of poor Eucalyptus
What is the problem?
flowering, but also consume many damaging
In the past, the pest was usually seen as the only insects throughout the year. Other information
problem. Hence the solution was to kill as many as sheets are available on individual pest bird
possible. We now know that the situation is more identification, biology, movements, habitat,
complex. First, determine what the problem is. feeding behaviour and the damage they cause.
It may be reduced crop yields, secondary losses
causing downgrading of fruit, complaints from Estimate the damage caused to
neighbours, or emotional stress from worrying production
about the next attack. Several things impact on
Estimating the amount of damage and calculating
each of these problems and controlling birds is
the cost will provide a basis for deciding how to
often only part of the solution.
best reduce pest bird impact and how much the
The following questions will help define the grower can afford to invest in any control effort.
problem: The percentage of crop damaged by birds in an

orchard block can be estimated by randomly

or systematically sampling rows, plants, and increases in damage. For example, in the long
individual fruit or bunches. Bird damage to term, managers may use netting on a small part
individual fruit or bunches can be estimated by of their crop every year. In the short term, when
counting, weighing or by using a visual estimate. damage is higher, they may also implement a
Often sampling and calculating damage for the scaring programme.
edges of a crop separately will increase the
efficiency. Monitor and evaluate
Has the management been successful? Estimat
Identify any key constraints ing damage is the most direct way to measure
Consider legal, social and environmental issues. the effectiveness of a management programme.
For example, will scaring devices be acceptable All costs and labour of implementing control
to the local community, and are the techniques should also be considered. For example, nets
legally and/or environmentally responsible and may have significantly reduced bird damage, but
acceptable? if they are repeatedly removed for maintenance
or spraying of the crop there will be additional
Decide when the most cost-effective time costs to consider. What worked; what didn’t;
is to implement the plan what can be improved for next year? Evaluating
Even when good information is available it management will enable improved decision-
is often not practicable to be immediately making for future strategies and allows actions
responsive to short-term fluctuations in bird to be modified to maximise economic return.
numbers or the damage they cause. When dam
There is no one simple solution for managing
age becomes significant it is usually too late to
birds effectively. However, the following infor
implement control. For example, effective use
mation may help growers decide on the most
of scaring often requires a ‘start early’ approach
appropriate actions for their situations.
to prevent birds establishing a feeding pattern.
Likewise, investment in netting cannot be simply
withdrawn for those seasons in which damage Management options
is below the cost–benefit threshold. Instead, we
Scaring
may need to look at costs and benefits over
a longer time frame and make decisions Many visual and sound devices have been used
accordingly. If damage in the area is likely to by managers in an attempt to scare birds. These
be high or there is a history of high levels of include LPG gas guns, electronic devices, radio,
damage, the grower should be more inclined flashing or rotating lights, scarecrows, reflective
to invest in continuing management action. mirrors or tape, helium- or air-filled balloons,
Measuring damage this year will help in selecting and predator models or kites. Habituation is the
the optimal management option next year and main drawback of all types of scaring. Birds can
beyond. quickly become accustomed to noise or visual
cues and start ignoring them.
Develop the most appropriate bird
Best results for scaring are achieved when:
management plan
• combinations of techniques are used;
Importantly, the management plan must have
details of what will be done, who will do it, • scaring starts before birds establish a
when it will be done and how much it will cost. feeding pattern;
Options can include individual techniques or • the sound is reinforced by shooting or a
combinations, and different levels of application. threat; and
The plan must have long-term, year-to-year • the timing and placement of devices are
strategies to prevent damage and short- changed frequently, but not at regular
term reactive strategies to cope with sudden intervals.

The following suggestions may improve or Encouraging raptors to specific areas is difficult,
prolong the effectiveness of scaring: as different species occupy different ecological
niches. For example, sparrowhawks and gos
• combining a mix of visual and sound
hawks prefer hunting among trees and tall
devices;
shrubs to surprise prey; most falcons prefer open
• loud sounds are more aversive than quiet
country; and Australian hobbies prefer lightly
sounds;
timbered country along watercourses. The most
• sounds with a wide frequency range are effective predators of adult birds are unlikely to
more aversive than pure tones; be attracted by carrion or other food sources.
• loud sounds produced by simple cheap Species that may be attracted (e.g. wedge-tailed
methods may be just as effective as sounds eagles, little eagles and whistling kites) do not
produced by expensive devices; normally hunt birds in flight. Some studies have
• visual devices are most effective if they shown that providing perches increases the
incorporate movement such as flashing or numbers of birds of prey. However, this has not
flapping; yet been demonstrated to reduce the number
of pest birds or the damage they cause. More
• devices are more effective when used for
investigation is required.
the shortest time necessary for a response;
discontinue their use when birds are not
Lethal control
feeding in the crop or the device is no
Many attempts to kill birds, despite alleviating
longer effective;
frustration, often do not reduce damage. The
• adult birds are generally more easily scared
techniques used are usually labour intensive
than juveniles;
and may have legal, welfare and social concerns.
• all species habituate to nearly all sounds Permits from national parks and wildlife agencies
tested; are required for controlling most native species.
• ultrasonic devices are ineffective, as Pest birds, particularly introduced species, have
most birds cannot hear ultrasound (≥ 20 high population turnover rates and high rates of
kilohertz); natural juvenile mortality. Attempts to reduce
• broadcast alarm and distress calls can be populations in the long-term need to remove
effective but can result in habituation, as a greater number than are being replaced.
for other sounds; some are species-specific Therefore, greater effectiveness may be achieved
and may cause a ‘mobbing’ rather than a if the breeding population is targeted.
flight response; and
The use of traps requires considerable labour
• birds of prey rarely call when hunting; and is therefore often cost prohibitive. However,
hence pre-recorded raptor calls are no trapping may be of benefit in situations where
more likely to scare birds than any other a single resident species is involved and a large
novel sound. proportion of the population can be trapped. A
multitude of different trap designs is available,
Birds of prey
including remotely operated nets, cage and roost
Attracting birds of prey or the use of falconry traps, funnel-entrance traps, modified Australian
is often perceived to be of value in scaring crow traps and nest box traps. The success of
birds or reducing pest numbers. However, trapping varies according to the skill of the
although falconry has been used previously at operator and the time of year. For example, large
airports to reduce bird strikes, it is impractical numbers of starlings can be captured after the
in most situations. Falconry is strictly regulated breeding season, between late December and
in Australia, requires skilled handlers and May, when many juveniles are congregating.
considerable training, and is labour intensive. However, this may have little long-term effect on

the population size owing to the high breeding mature simultaneously can help to alleviate the
potential of starlings, which can produce an damage to individual growers. Depending on
average of two clutches of four to five chicks the birds involved, sites with adjacent roosting
each season. In contrast, removing breeding habitat or powerlines can have higher losses. The
adult birds during the breeding season (August numbers of pest birds and the levels of damage
to November) may result in the capture of fewer will vary according to the preferred habitat of
individuals but potentially creates a greater different species. For example, mynas prefer
reduction in population size for the following urban environments; cockatoos and starlings
summer and autumn. are most abundant in cleared agricultural and
peri-urban areas; and most native species
Shooting is most beneficial when employed as a prefer native vegetation. These factors can be
part of a scaring programme. If regarded as a bird considered before planting new crops.
training tool rather than a method of population
control, it can educate birds to associate noise Providing alternative food sources by decoy
with a real threat. To reduce habituation, shooting or sacrificial planting may be effective in some
should be done at the same time scaring devices situations. This relies on knowledge of the
are used. This establishes a connection between feeding habits of the main pest birds involved.
the scarer and danger. A decoy planting ideally will produce food of
equivalent or enhanced nutritional value and
Although some lethal poisons are registered attractiveness for birds. It should be available
for use in some States (contact the agriculture just before and during the time that the crop
department in each State or see http://www. is susceptible to damage. For honeyeaters and
apvma.gov.au), their use is strictly regulated. lorikeets, revegetating areas with local native
For example, there are products that may be trees and shrubs will increase the availability
applied only for controlling introduced species, of their preferred food source. This may offer a
in or around buildings. They can only be used long-term solution in reducing damage and has
by licensed pest control operators and require obvious environmental benefits. Birds, such as
site permits from national parks and wildlife starlings, that prefer insects may be attracted to
agencies. irrigated areas where large numbers of insects
are available. However, supplying alternative
The reduction of breeding success by removing foods may also attract more pest birds to the
eggs or nests or applying oil to eggs has not been area. Hence, for honeyeaters and lorikeets, a
adequately investigated. This method may be more regional approach to revegetation, rather
appropriate for highly fecund species and it has than localised plantings, may be required.
the advantage of reducing the need to kill large Additionally, a scaring programme is likely to
numbers of birds. Permits must be obtained for be more effective if alternative food sources are
native species. Various fertility-control chemicals available.
have been investigated for controlling birds, but
none has been sufficiently field tested, nor are Netting
any commercially available. Exclusion netting using drape-over or perm
anent nets has high up-front costs but may be
Orchard management and habitat appropriate where high-value crops are grown
considerations and levels of damage are high. A range of netting
A range of landscape and habitat factors influ options is available. Machines can be used to
ence the number of pest birds and the damage install and remove drape-over nets of varying
they cause. These factors can be considered when width (for example, covering one, two or four
the grower is attempting to minimise losses. The rows). ‘Lock-out’ netting provides a continuous
varieties grown and timing of maturity can be cover of netting by joining draped nets without
important. For example, growing varieties that the need for poles and cables. Nets can also be

used on infrastructure to prevent birds roosting Polybutene is a sticky substance that irritates
or nesting. If maintained, netting with ultraviolet bird’s feet and can prevent them from roosting on
stabilisers can provide between five and ten infrastructure; hence is applicable for buildings
years of protection. and urban areas. Aluminium ammonium sulfate
may be applied to vegetables, nuts, fruit, orchard
Drape-over netting is more easily damaged than
trees and vines, provided that the guidelines
permanent netting and often does not provide
on the permit are adhered to (e.g. thorough
as much protection. Permanent netting is easier
washing before consumption). However, there is
to maintain and allows easier spraying of vines
no evidence of its efficacy in deterring birds from
and trees. Netting overcomes many of the
feeding. Methiocarb is a secondary repellent that
legal, environmental, social and animal welfare
causes birds to become ill, creating a learned
concerns of other techniques. The decision to
aversion to the food. This product may be
net is mainly an economic one. Will the increase
applied only to ornamental plants, and it is not
in returns from excluding birds be beneficial
registered for use on edible fruit or nuts. Garlic
over the life of the netting? As an example, cost–
and chilli sprays have been used to deter birds
benefit analyses on vineyard netting suggest that
from feeding, but again, there is no evidence
drape-over nets are cost-effective when damage
that they are effective.
is consistently greater than 10% and permanent
nets are cost-effective when damage is over
25%. The value of the crop and the practicalities
Summary of the main points to
of netting must be considered. consider
• Identify the birds causing the damage
Roosting deterrents
⇒ Consider behaviour, movements and
A variety of spikes, coils and wire products are legalities.
available to exclude birds from perching on
• Measure the damage
buildings and infrastructure. Electrified wires,
⇒ How much is bird damage actually
which can be attached to the tops of vineyard
costing the grower?
trellises, are also available. These wires give
birds a small electric shock but do not harm • Apply integrated control
them. Monofilament lines have been successful ⇒ Consider using multiple techniques
for deterring larger birds from fish farms but are
⇒ For scaring, start early and
ineffective for deterring smaller birds from fruit
use persistence, variation and
or nut crops.
reinforcement.
Chemical deterrents • Review the bird management strategy
There are several chemical deterrent products ⇒ Do the benefits outweigh the costs?
commercially available in Australia. Check ⇒ If not, change tactics or do nothing
with the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary other than monitoring in case damage
Medicines Authority for up-to-date registration worsens.
information (http://www.apvma.gov.au/pubcris/
subpage_pubcris.shtml) and appropriate app
lications. Some deterrents are based on
polybutene, which is a tactile roosting repellent;
aluminium ammonium sulfate, which acts on a
sense of smell and taste; or methiocarb, which is
an insecticide that causes conditioned aversion.

Sources and further reading Kay, B.J., Twigg, L. E., Nicol, H. I. and Korn, T.J. (1994)
The use of artificial perches to increase predation
This factsheet is based on national guidelines on house mice (Mus domesticus) by raptors.
Wildlife Research 21: 95–106.
for managing pest birds developed by the
Bureau of Rural Sciences and NSW Department Sinclair, R. (2000) Guidelines to best practice bird
control to minimise losses in vineyards. Australian
of Primary Industries, with assistance from the
Viticulture Mar/Apr: 60–85.
Natural Heritage Trust and the Australasian
Sinclair, R. (2005) A grower’s guide to managing birds in
Pest Bird Network. The following references are
South Australian vineyards. Phylloxera and Grape
particularly relevant:
Industry Board of South Australia, Adelaide.
Bomford, M. and O’Brien P. (1990) Sonic deterrents in
Tracey, J. (2004) Managing bird pests in orchards. In
bird damage control: a review of device tests
Orchard Plant Protection Guide for Deciduous
and effectiveness. Wildlife Society Bulletin 18:
Fruits in NSW 2004/05 (Hetherington, S.
411–422.
D., Bright, J.D. and Thwaite, W.G. eds). NSW
Bomford, M. and Sinclair, R. (2002) Australian research Department of Primary Industries, Orange NSW:
on bird pests: impact, management and future pp 2–5.
directions. Emu 102: 29–45.
Tracey, J. and Saunders, G. (2003) Bird damage to
Braysher, M. (1993) Managing Vertebrate Pests: the Wine Grape Industry. Report to the Bureau
Principles and Strategies. Australian Government of Rural Sciences, Department of Agriculture,
Publishing Service, Canberra. Fisheries and Forestry. NSW Agriculture, Orange
Braysher, M. and Saunders, G. (2002) Best Practice NSW.
Pest Animal Management. AgNote DAI 279. NSW

Department of Primary Industries, Orange NSW.

Bird Management Plans

A bird management plan provides a grower with Set out below is a checklist of the type of
the appropriate information on which to base information a grower needs to collate to develop
decisions on how best to manage losses due to a property specific plan, followed by a sample
pest birds. The level of detail required for a plan plan for a fictitious property. These are provided
will vary according to the nature and scale of as guides only and are neither exhaustive nor
both the property and the bird problem. intended to be prescriptive.
Checklist of information to
develop a bird management plan
Note: detailed guidance on options for measuring • areas most frequented by birds ;
and managing bird damage can be found in
• areas of high human activity; and
Chapters 3–7 and Appendix A*.
• alternative feed.
Property map
Bird problem
Prepare a property map (see Figure FS.1) showing
the location of: Which species cause damage
• different crops grown; • list the pest bird species known to visit
the property;
• varietal blocks;
• note which species are causing damage in
• surrounding vegetation;
each crop or varietal block;
• property features relevant to bird damage
• rank them in order of importance based
− powerlines
on estimated damage caused; and
− roads and tracks
• determine a pattern of presence for each
− dams, damp or swampy areas, other species
watering points
− those present most of the year
− sheds and farm buildings, especially (resident)
those used for grain or fodder storage;
− those present only as the crop ripens
• sensitive areas such as (migrant/nomad)
− property owner’s house(s) − those present at other specific times.
− neighbours’ houses
When does damage occur?
− nearby townships
• record expected harvest dates for each
− horse stables and dairys;
crop or varietal block;
• where most damage occurs on individual
• record when damage starts; and
blocks;
• if possible, compare the data to previous
• bird flight lines;
years to establish any patterns.
* Where this factsheet is provided separately, please note that it is an extract from, and makes reference to: Tracey,
J., Bomford, M., Hart, Q., Saunders, G. and Sinclair, R. (2007) Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural
Crops. Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra

What is the cost of bird damage on the prop Management and monitoring
erty?
strategies
If the information is available, collate: Select management strategies to address
• record(s) from previous years experience; damage caused by resident and migrant/nomad
and pest bird species.
• an ongoing record of what is happening in

Aims
the current year/season.
Set a quantifiable aim(s) against which results
Estimate for each year:
of management can be compared to measure
• the tonnage of crop lost due to birds; success; for example, a defined percentage for:
• the total value of the tonnage lost; and • reduction in the loss of crop;
• the value of loss due to dockage for • increase in yield;
reduced quality of fruit due to birds.
• reduction in current control costs; and
Estimate the cost of bird control activities • increase in profit.
including:
Management actions
• depreciated cost of any equipment used
for bird control; Prepare separate action lists for resident and
• consumable items (fuel, ammunition, gas migrant/nomad pest bird species.
etc.); and
List the actions to be taken to achieve the
• labour (include own labour costs). aim(s):
From the above, calculate the annual cost of bird • what resources/techniques (of those
damage to the business (see Table FS.1). listed above) will be used to manage the
main pest species;
Management resources • when will these resources/techniques be

used;
List the bird management resources/techniques
• how will these resources/techniques be
available for use on the property, for example:
used (e.g how often, in what order);
• visual scarers; e.g. hawk-kites, scarecrows,
• how will the ongoing effectiveness of
eye-spot balloons, plastic bags on poles,
each resource/technique be maintained;
streamers, shiny tape, air-filled ‘scarey-
man’; • where will the resources/techniques be
used; and
• static noise scarers; e.g. firearm, gas gun,
electronic and bioacoustic bird scarers; • who will be responsible for ensuring that
these actions are carried out.
• noise scarers combined with movement;
e.g. motor bike without a muffler, model Monitoring
or real aircraft, barking dog trained to
Document the monitoring of:
scare birds;
• exclusion netting; • the management resources/techniques
used;
• habitat management; e.g. decoy feeding,
sacrificial crop, strategic mowing, pasture • the actions that have been implemented;
management, irrigation, revegetation; and
and/or • what needs to be done to improve the
• culling. effectiveness of both the resources/

techniques and the actions.

Monitoring records could include: Record what information will be supplied to
• an estimate of loss from the same place(s) neighbours:
within the crop on regular occasions • name(s) of property owner/manager; and
throughout the season/period; and/or • contact details including mobile and after
• a regular estimate of the number and hours phone numbers.
species of birds feeding on the crop at a
List what action will be taken to notify neigh
particular time of the day.
bours:
Communications • prior to implementing the management

plan;
The following information should be recorded as
• while the plan is activated; and
part of the plan:
• if unusual circumstances arise.
• list all neighbours to the property and
their contact details; and List the method of communication to be used:
• list with contact details facilities that • phone call

may be affected by management actions • fax/e-mail
(particularly noise) on the property e.g.
• personal visi
schools, hospitals, horse studs.
• letterbox drop
• record the date neighbours are contacted.
List what action will be implemented as a result

of a complaint by a neighbour and record what
action was undertaken.

Sample Bird
— e.g. a powerline; patches of native scrub
along the creek; other structures birds
Management use as cover before entering the crop

(e.g. road-side feral olives and boxthorns,
Plan* a junk pile with a lot of old wire netting,

an old shed where sparrows and starlings
roost in the roof etc); several large
This sample plan for a fictitious property has been isolated trees used as launch sites;
prepared to assist growers in developing their • features that I think reduce damage (e.g.
own property-specific bird management plan. It areas of high human activity near the
contains more narrative and greater detail than packing and machinery sheds);
most growers would be willing to set down on
• areas that might offer alternative food
paper because the intention of presenting it this
(several old fig trees and a pasture
way is not to tell growers what to do, but rather
paddock adjacent to a dam); and
to suggest the type of information that could be
• potential noise sensitive areas such as the
put into a plan of their own. Although the plan is
neighbours’ residences.
for a vineyard, the principles it contains will be
similar for most horticultural properties. I know from previous years, which parts of the
different blocks get the most damage and the
BIRD MANAGEMENT PLAN
areas that seem to be in birds’ flight paths – these
FOR “ORANA” VINEYARD
have been shown on the map.
O’Briens Rd, Ashenville SA 5111
b) Which species cause damage and what
Owner/Operator: J & C Smith
damage do they cause?
Ph: (05) 8390 0000
Last year I spent some time early in the mornings
“Orana” is a 25 hectare property with 15.5
when the grapes were ripening to watch and
hectares of grapes in a grape growing district
record who was doing what in the vineyard. This
of South Australia. A small seasonal creek runs
allows me to prioritise species against which
through the middle of the property. There are
to direct my best efforts. I recorded rosellas,
open pasture paddocks to the west, native scrub
wattlebirds, starlings, silvereyes, crows, grey
and a powerline on the east, a neighbouring
currawongs, magpies, blackbirds, sparrows, red-
vineyard owner’s house to the north-west and
rumped parrots and goldfinches in the vines. I
a non-producer’s residence to the north-east
did not see magpies, red-rumped parrots or
across O’Briens Road.
goldfinches doing any damage. Although I could
hear currawongs calling and occasionally saw
PROBLEM DEFINITION them in the vines, I decided that they, like the
crows, were few in number and I could give them
a) Where does damage occur on my property?
a low priority. In the table below, I have ranked
So that I can see where to put my major effort the main species according to nature of the
and devise suitable management actions, I have damage they cause and my visual estimation of
marked a map of my property (Figure FS.1) with the amount of that type of damage in each block
the: in previous years. I noted whether I thought birds
• different varietal blocks; were residents or migrant/nomads.
• features that I think contribute to damage
* J.,
Where this factsheet is provided separately, please note that it is an extract from, and makes reference to: Tracey,
Bomford, M., Hart, Q., Saunders, G. and Sinclair, R. (2007) Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural
Crops. Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra

Neighbour’s house Neighbour’s house
A B
O’Briens Road
W Shed
Sp
Block A B Sp
Chardonnay Dam
3.3 ha Block B
Shiraz Pasture
Sy R 4.5 ha St
W
St
Sy
Creek
R
Creek
B
Block C
Cabernet-Sauvigon Block D
5.2 ha Pinot Sp Junk pile
St St 2.5 ha
B Sp Pasture
B St
W
Sy
Our Old sheds = bird damage
house
Powerlines Fig trees
Resident
Block Species or Migrant Priority Grape damage
A Wattlebird M 1 Neat 3-5 mm peck or hole or completely hollowed out fruit

leaving skin only
Rosella R 1 Bite across fruit, often leaving seeds
Silvereye M 2 Small 1-2 mm triangular peck or hole
Sparrow R 2 Skin torn, fruit partly squashed, damaged fruit on ground under
vine
Blackbird R 2 Fruit cleanly plucked off
B Starling M 1 Fruit cleanly plucked off
Silvereye M 2
Rosella R 3
Wattlebird R 4
Blackbird M 4
Sparrow R 4 MAP KEY
C Starling M 1 B = Blackbird
Blackbird R 2 R = Rosella
Wattlebird M 3 Sp = Sparrow
Rosella R 3 St = Starling
Silvereye M 3 Sy = Silvereye
D Sparrow R 1 W = Wattlebird
Starling M 2
Blackbird R 3
Figure FS.1: “Orana” property map and species prioritisation.

Starlings and blackbirds together probably ac - testing existing equipment, e.g. gas-gun,
count for more individual fruit loss (i.e. plucked electronic scarer;
fruit) than do wattlebirds, rosellas, silvereyes and - obtaining a Destruction Permit from the
sparrows (pecks, bites and tears) but the damage relevant State Government agency (see
from these latter birds probably costs me more Appendix E*) in case I need to shoot a
because they leave the damaged fruit on the few rosellas; and
vine to be harvested. In addition, the damaged
- talking to my neighbours to give them
grapes allow rots to develop which spread to
information about what I will be doing,
undamaged grapes and this can be sufficiently
when it will happen and why I need to do
widespread to result in significant down-grading
it and to give us the opportunity to sort
of fruit at the winery.
out any relevant issues.
c) When does damage start?
d) How much do birds cost me?
The first signs of damage on each of the four

The amount I am willing to spend on bird
grape varieties on my property usually appear
management is governed by the losses I am
6-7 weeks before harvest. I have noted on a
sustaining. This is made up of the value of the
calendar below when to expect damage as this
yield lost, dockage by the winery for reduced
allows me time to prepare management actions
quality and current control costs. Based on last
including:
years figures:
- purchasing scaring items such as eye-spot
balloons and hawk-kites;
- constructing scaring devices like scare-
crows;
BW[Sb]W\WbWObS >`SRWQbSRVO`dSab
[O\OUS[S\bOQbW]\a bW[S
0Z]QY0
0Z]QY1
0Z]QY/
0Z]QY2
8O\cO`g 4SP`cO`g ;O`QV

Table FS.1: Yield lost and dockage.
Area Total yield Damage

Block Tonnes lost $’s lost
(ha) (t) (%)
A 3.3 11.6 9 1.1 4,4901
B 4.5 21.7 6 1.3 2,470
C 5.2 20.2 3 0.6 1,100
D 2.5 9.0 5 0.5 600
Total 4.4 8,660
1 This loss includes a $250/t dockage at the winery for excessive bird-damaged fruit and botrytis.
Table FS.2: Current control costs2
Capital Items Cost
1.5 ha Bird netting (10 m wide x 3000 linear m x $0.30/m2) (over 6 yrs) $1,500
2 x Gas-guns with timers @ $1,000 ea (over 10 yrs) $ 200
1 x Shot gun @ $600 (over 10 yrs) $ 60
1 x Electronic scarer @ $1,500 (over 10 yrs) $ 150
2 x hawk-kites @ $200 ea (over 4 yrs) $ 100
4 x eye-spot balloons @ $75 ea (over 4 yrs) $ 75
Running costs
1 x person for bird control (4 hrs x 6 days/wk x 11 wks @ $15.00/hr) $3,960
Net application and removal costs (labour + equipment) $ 700
800 km mileage (depreciation, fuel, insurance) for 4WD ute @ $0.58/km $ 460
Labour to make 2 scarecrows $ 75
Consumable items
Gas for gas-guns $ 100
1000 x Shot gun shells $ 250
100 x Birdfrite cartridges $ 400
1 x 12v battery $ 75
2 Reels reflective tape $ 35
TOTAL $8,140
Therefore the total cost of bird damage and bird management is $16,800.
2 Costs include the requirement to harass resident species throughout the year. Ideally capital item costs would
be ‘depreciated’ (see Chapter 5*), but even the rough non-depreciated estimates in this table will give a general
indication of the costs versus benefits of bird management.

MANAGEMENT RESOURCES this by reducing the amount of grapes lost to
birds and improving the quality of my produce
AVAILABLE
(fewer bird-pecked grapes going to the winery)
a) Visual scarers without significantly increasing my control costs.
• 2 hawk-kites I want to achieve this in an economic, safe and
socially acceptable way.
• 4 eyespot balloons
• 2 scarecrows b) Management actions
• metallic reflective tape
The management techniques available to me
• 30 plastic shopping-bags on 3 m bamboo are deterring and scaring birds, excluding birds
poles and some property management to modify bird
habitat or the availability of alternative foods.
b) Noise scarers
• 2 double bang gas-guns with timers I use a different approach with the two types
• 1 side-by-side 12 gauge shot gun of birds (residents and migrant/nomad) that

cause me problems in my vineyard. Residents
• 1 electronic bird scarer with 8 speakers
(rosellas, blackbirds and sparrows) require some
c) Noise and movement scarers management over much of the year because
• Farm ute and truck with radios they are permanent residents who appear to
make my property part of their territory. I have
• Old motorbike without a muffler
been harassing rosellas and blackbirds (chasing/
• 4 red tee-shirts for property staff disturbing them, shooting at them) throughout
d) Exclusion the year to discourage them from using the

vineyard blocks as safe places to feed. I have left
• 3,000 m of 10 m wide bird netting
them alone elsewhere on the property in the hope
e) Additional labour that they will learn to use alternative foods there.
During winter and spring I have been removing
One person employed part-time to run bird as much of the sparrow harbour as possible and
control programme — person has appropriate destroying blackbird nests particularly in and
drivers licence, gun licence and knowledge of around the garden surrounding my house.
the Code of Practice for Humane Destruction of
Birds (see Section 7.4*). I only need to use short-term control techniques
against visitor species (red wattlebirds, silvereyes
f) Other resources and starlings) because they are only here in large
numbers after veraison. Being transient, they do
Destruction Permit to shoot 20 rosellas if
not have territorial claims on my vineyard and
necessary.
are generally easier to move on than resident
species.
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Nonetheless, because most bird management
a) Aims
work needs to be done after veraison (my busiest
In the past, my bird control has been somewhat time of the year), I will employ someone part-
haphazard, poorly directed, begun too late and time as a bird-control person (BCP) specifically
lacked evaluation. However, I am aware that to run my management programme. Generally
several of the species that are a major problem the person will work for 3 hrs in the morning and
for me are not easy to control and I want to 2 hrs in the afternoon, 6 days per week. BCP will
be realistic in setting an objective for my plan. start the work in early January, approximately 6-
Therefore my aim is to reduce my dollars lost by 7 weeks before the Pinot harvest.
approximately $4000 and I will attempt to do

Scaring crop pointing in. The gas-guns will not be left
out in the vineyard when not in use. They will
BCP will ‘train’ birds to be afraid of humans
not be used at all in Block B because it is too
and human activities. The training will involve
close to Neighbour B’s house. If they are used on
shooting at or close to birds initially whilst on
other blocks, at no time will they face towards
foot and then from a range of different vehicles
Neighbour B’s house.
used on the property (motorbike, ATV, ute, truck,
tractor). BCP will vary the route taken when Both the ute and the truck have car radios and
patrolling the property. To add to the variability, from time to time one or both of these will be
BCP will sometimes wear a red tee-shirt and parked with the radio on near places where bird
sometimes not. Sometimes other people working pressure is high. They will be moved regularly.
on the property will also wear a red tee-shirt. I
BCP will use the old motorbike that does not
have two life-like scarecrows dressed in similar
have a muffler on occasions both when shooting
clothes to those BCP wears when shooting. The
and when patrolling.
scarecrows also hold a gun-like stick. They too
will sometimes wear a red tee-shirt. Every 1-2 BCP will visually assess birds’ reactions to all
days they will be moved around the vineyard but scaring devices on a daily basis. At the first sign
will be kept in a shed when not in use. that a device’s effectiveness has waned ie birds
seem to ignore it, its function will be modified
On occasions, harassment-shooting will be
or it will be moved or swapped for some other
combined with the sudden appearance of a novel
device. In Block B where silvereye damage can
visual scaring devices such as eye-spot balloons,
be worst, no scaring might be the best option.
plastic shopping bags on bamboo poles or strips
This is because silvereyes become very ‘flighty’
of reflective tape tied to similar poles. As with
when frequently harassed and tend to put one
the scarecrows, these devices will be moved
peck only in each grape before moving on to
regularly. The hawk-kites fly from a 5-metre pole
another place in the crop - if not harassed they
mounted on wheels for easy re-location – these
might stay in the area near cover and not spread
too will be used sparingly and only moved
damage through the block.
to places where damage is occurring when it
becomes apparent that additional scaring is Netting
required.
I will again use bird netting to protect the
BCP might use the gas-guns or the electronic western section of block C against starlings that
scarer from time to time but only after the initial drop into the vines off the powerline. I will leave
‘training’ period and only on an infrequent and the first 3 rows uncovered (as a sacrificial crop)
irregular basis. These devices will be used in and then cover the next 14 rows, 2 rows at a time.
accordance with relevant State guidelines on It takes 5 people 4 hours to put the net on and
the use of noise-generating devices and relevant fix the bottom of the net and 4 people 2.5 hours
local government by-laws. They will only be to get it off and pack it away. When necessary,
used when birds are trying to feed in the crops scaring will also be carried out in the eastern part
i.e. usually in the mornings and afternoons and of the block but care will be taken to minimise
definitely not all day nor every day. The two gas- disturbance on the western side; otherwise the
guns will be set to fire at approximately the same starlings may overfly the netting.
time so that it will sound like a shooter is moving
through the area, but they will not fire more I might need to consider purchasing more throw-
than 5 times an hour and for not more than 2-3 over netting because in Block B there are several
consecutive hours. They will be situated where stony rises where the soil is shallow and leaf
birds are trying to enter a block and usually in cover is always thin and starlings often attack
the crop pointing out rather than outside of the these areas first.

I will use wire bird-netting to keep sparrows and progressing and provide me an opportunity to
starlings out of the old shed rooves. review the management programme if I think
too much damage is occurring and a change is
Property management
required.
There are two aspects of property management

Finally, just before each block is harvested, BCP
available to me to alter bird behaviour. I have been
will sample at least 100 bunches taken throughout
reducing the favourability of certain habitats for
the block to make a quantitative estimate of
sparrows by removing feral olives and boxthorns
the percentage of grapes lost due to birds. I
on the roadside, removing or burying old rolls of
also intend to keep good records of how much
wire-netting especially in the junk pile near Block
money I spend on my management activities.
D and bird-proofing the shed rooves. I also want
A record will also be kept of any dockage for
to try to improve habitat for some other species
bird damaged fruit at the winery. These figures
so as to provide an alternative food to lure them
will help me to determine if my aims have been
away from my grapes. Roughly once a week, I
achieved and assist decisions for next year.
will slash a strip through the pasture paddock
to lower the vegetation height and make weed
seeds available to rosellas. As they are also used
COMMUNICATION
to eating apples on nearby orchards, I will try to Pro-active
encourage them away from the vines by putting
chopped apple on the strip and then, if they There are only two residences within 500
are accepted, I will try oats or sunflower seeds. metres of my vineyard. On December 25th
By irrigating some small slashed areas close to I rang neighbour A and neighbour B to tell
my dam (and well away from the vines), I will them that I will need to be initiating my bird
promote weed seed production for rosellas and management programme in the next two weeks
provide moist ground where starlings and crows and I would be making limited use of two gas-
can dig for insects. guns, an electronic scarer, shooting and a
motorbike without a muffler. I briefly explained
The old fig trees east of my house produce ripe why I needed to do this and roughly what I was
fruit at about the same time as the Pinot begin to planning to do, in particular with respect to the
ripen so I will endeavour to not disturb birds that gas-guns. I could not be precise in saying when
feed on them as they are an attractive alternative and where various devices would be used as
to grapes. their use depends on changing things around in
response to birds’ reactions to them. I asked if
c) Monitoring and evaluation
they had any objections to this. Neighbour A had
As already stated, BCP will monitor the no objections as they have their own vineyard
effectiveness of scaring devices on a daily basis. to protect and no-one would be home during
This will simply entail closely watching (using the day. Neighbour B on the other hand, who is
binoculars) how birds react in the vicinity of each a non-farming resident, was concerned about
device. In addition, BCP will set up monitoring noise impacts especially from the use of the
‘posts’. There will be four of these within each gas-guns. I agreed not to use them in Block B ie
block and each will be an area where at least 30 the block closest to their house, not to use them
randomly selected bunches will be examined for every day (not that I had planned to do so) and
damage once per week. An estimate will be made not to use them on Sundays. They thought that
of the total number of grapes either missing the electronic scarer would not concern them as
(plucked off) or damaged (bitten, squashed or much and would not object to it being used, at
torn) for each bunch and an average calculated least infrequently in Block B. I suggested they let
for all bunches at the ‘post’. These records will me know if it did worry them.
allow me to regularly monitor how damage is

Reactive
It is possible that even though I use noise

scaring devices infrequently, neighbour B might
complain to the Local Council that he is being
subjected to amounts and levels of noise from
me and other growers in his immediate vicinity
that are in excess of the legal limits. If this occurs,
I will contact the other growers with some
suggestions as to how we, collectively, could
minimise the noise impact on neighbour B. The
sorts of suggestions might be to have a roster
nominating who could use their noisy devices in
the mornings or in the afternoons or on which
days, or we could double the time between
bangs or halve the number of devices in use at
any one time. We may well need to contact our
local industry representative to assist in setting
up such a co-operative scheme.

Published by Bureau of Rural Sciences
PART C
Appendices and sources
Appendix A: List of State and
Territory contacts and links
Relevant government agencies Tasmania
Department of Primary Industries and Water
Australian Government: — www.dpiw.tas.gov.au
Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources
Natural Resource Management — www.dier.tas.gov.au
— www.daff.gov.au/nrm
Parks and Wildlife Service
Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry — www.parks.tas.gov.au
— www.brs.gov.au South Australia
Department of the Environment and Water Resources Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity
— www.environment.gov.au Conservation — www.dwlbc.sa.gov.au
Department for Environment and Heritage

State Government:
— www.environment.sa.gov.au
Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Resources
Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries — www.pir.sa.gov.au
— www.dpi.qld.gov.au Parks and Wildlife
Environmental Protection agency/Queensland — www.parks.sa.gov.au
Parks and Wildlife Service

Western Australia
— www.epa.qld.gov.au
Department of Agriculture and Food
New South Wales — www.agric.wa.gov.au
Department of Primary Industries Department of Environment and Conservation

— www.dpi.nsw.gov.au — www.dec.wa.gov.au
Department of Environment and Climate Change

Northern Territory
— www.environment.nsw.gov.au
Department of Planning and Infrastructure
National Parks and Wildlife Service
— www.ipe.nt.gov.au
— www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au
Department of Primary Industry, Fisheries and Mines
Australian Capital Territory — www.nt.gov.au/dpifm
Department of Territory and Municipal Services Department of Natural Resources, Environment

— www.tams.act.gov.au and the Arts
— www.nt.gov.au/nreta
Victoria
Department of Primary Industries Local Government:
— www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi Australian State, Territory and Local Governments
Department of Sustainability and Environment — www.gov.au
— www.dse.vic.gov.au/dse The Australian Local Government Association
Parks Victoria links to local governments
— www.parkweb.vic.gov.au — www.alga.asn.au/links

Appendix B: Random and
systematic sampling
For estimating bird damage in horticulture, or between, the cause of variation. For example,
random sampling means that every plant, if bird damage occurs around regularly placed
branch, bunch or individual fruit has an equal irrigation outlets, sampling may occur either near
chance of appearing in a sample. Systematic an outlet (which would result in overestimation of
sampling requires a random number as a starting damage) or between outlets (which would result
point and then selection of units at regular in an underestimate). However, the effects of
intervals. For example, to select a sample of 10% this type of bias can be reduced by being aware
of the trees from an orchard row with 212 trees of any potential causes and selecting random
we might select a random number of between numbers more often — for example, a different
one and ten (say, seven) to choose the first tree random number at the beginning of every row.
and then select every tenth tree thereafter, for
Table B.1 overleaf can be used to select a random
example, 7, 17, 27, 37, 47, and so on. Systematic
sample. Many other sources of random numbers
sampling therefore requires the selection of only
can be used, including the 100th of a second
one random number to start with. This method
digit on a stopwatch, the random button on a
of sampling distributes the sample evenly over
scientific calculator, the last digits of phone
the orchard or crop and therefore is often
numbers in a telephone book, and random
more accurate. A potential disadvantage of
number tables in statistical texts (Snedecor and
systematic sampling occurs when the orchard or
Cochran 1967; Cochran 1977).
crop contains regular variation and the interval
between successive samples happens to fall on,

Table B.1: Randomly selected digits for selecting orchard rows, vines or branches for estimating
bird damage.
34380016 09061251 53683584 80919523 79614856 86261788

77692190 12472610 22052980 04092532 02914212 14771569
25653859 30878018 49827265 32163457 33465377 32004151
38354442 27351299 87813654 72599872 89211707 23063753
63453475 73487045 87525254 41969054 27018952 67518540
06690878 17858821 05765252 32251350 43834040 46009400
03664052 20764794 00447707 83353069 09028291 23102206
72819605 65189367 07654958 11904050 68054140 56386303
49709159 64035768 49964599 16304209 87324747 61824702
72509232 23599353 16015809 78008057 10335704 05355998
88766747 83303629 81348003 49047212 45070040 60748009
03416852 71663259 60440382 65851314 52606891 13700369
18042848 18520768 30056764 29262978 27018952 72196112
81364483 03521226 63813288 40834681 46498306 23088473
71012299 60835902 67979980 85366375 55746330 64986114
76538591 50134892 78576617 39694815 19597461 77313150
63664968 33825190 29672231 07737358 87918027 25697806
89794000 80524003 72973418 81773736 51705985 63546861
80762963 34770043 08621784 69987793 70520646 59915769
68867153 63027741 77293924 00252693 61074862 83594775
82092349 85888241 53488571 50189825 87135228 43471480
44644307 76557817 60130009 83424482 40658895 15128636
48698386 55584277 44361400 52150945 54169744 83704642
07405011 51832331 74629658 05910825 24384899 62972808
39156468 29707938 18998688 66642354 47110813 80710776
53079318 52642598 44732200 09945677 53373211 50302438
65807367 52804651 49096652 72660298 86786401 08583331
79480270 17092502 01436506 16609088 52203131 59945982
61006195 49354839 26510819 48673666 15590075 16677755
22569353 38857082 49038972 87072054 65167394 85591601
23387860 15029756 79537950 73879818 03768426 80848109
02710959 18424635 61382488 73855098 42507401 43067721
74099551 27950072 89140294 69441206 65634327 14694662
20904874 34349803 08116398 82078616 76681417 51582385
63057955 79922483 15208289 79741203 25837886 20841700
15046236 84503922 10939970 30713218 08591571 84965361
References
Cochran, W.G. (1977) Sampling Techniques. John Wiley
and Sons, New York.
Snedecor, G.W. and Cochran, W.G. (1967) Statistical

Methods. 6th Edition. Iowa State University Press,
Ames, Iowa, USA.

Appendix C: Some native plants
that attract birds
Note: some Australian native plants can be invasive outside their natural range. Refer to your State
department of environment, or local Bushcare or Landcare group for a list of plants suitable in your
region.
Plant species Common name Flowering period
Epacridaceae
Astroloma humifusum Cranberry heath May – Jun
Astroloma pinifolium Pine heath Sept – Feb
Epacris impressa Common heath Mar – Nov
Epacris longiflora Fuchsia heath Dec – May
Eupomatiaceae
Eupomatia laurina Native guava Sept – Feb
Haemodoraceae
Anigozanthos flavida Kangaroo paw Sept – Feb
Anigozanthos viridis Green kangaroo paw Sept – Feb
Malvaceae
Hibiscus huegelii Blue hibiscus Sept – Feb
Mimosaceae
Acacia implexa Lightwood Dec – Mar
Myrtaceae
Beaufortia elegans Elegant beaufortia Sept – Feb
Beaufortia sparsa Swamp bottlebrush Dec – Feb
Callistemon comboynensis Cliff bottlebrush All year
Callistemon ‘Guyra Hybrid’ All year
Callistemon montanus Bottlebrush Sep – Feb
Callistemon pachyphyllus Wallum bottlebrush All year
Callistemon pallidus Lemon bottlebrush Nov – Feb
Callistemon pinifolius Pine-leaved bottlebrush Dec – Feb
Callistemon polandii Gold-tipped bottlebrush All year
Callistemon speciosus Albany bottlebrush Nov - Feb
Callistemon viminalis Weeping bottle brush All year
Calothamnus gilesii Giles net-bush Sept – Feb
Calothamnus pinifolius Apple green Dec – Feb
Darwinia citriodora Lemon-scented myrtle Sept – Feb
Darwinia fascicularis Jun – Feb
Eucalyptus erythrocorys Red-cap gum Feb – Mar
Eucalyptus globulus Tasmanian blue gum Sept – Feb
Eucalyptus leucoxylon rosea Pink flowered yellow gum Mar – Aug
Eucalyptus macrandra Long-flowered marlock Dec – Feb
Eucalyptus macrocarpa Mottlecah Sept – Jan
Eucalyptus nicholii Nichol’s gum Mar – May
Eucalyptus obliqua Messmate stringybark Sept – Feb
Eucalyptus ptychocarpa Swamp bloodwood Dec – May

Eucalyptus robusta Swamp mahogany Dec – Feb

Eucalyptus setosa Roughleaf bloodwood Dec – May
Eucalyptus tetraptera Square-fruited mallee Sept – Feb
Eucalyptus viminalis White gum Jan – May
Eugenia australis Brush cherry Dec – May
Eugenia luehmanii Small-leaved lilly-pilly Dec – Feb
Melaleuca alternifolia Medicinal tea-tree Sept – Feb
Melaleuca armillaris Green globe Sept – Feb
Melaleuca diosmafolia Green honey myrtle Sept – Feb
Melaleuca elliptica Granite honey myrtle Sept – May
Melaleuca erubescens Dec – Feb
Melaleuca linariifolia Narrow-leaved paperbark Sept – Feb
Melaleuca quinquenervia Broad-leaved paperbark Mar – May
Melaleuca styphelioides Prickle-leafed paperbark Sept – Feb
Melaleuca thymifolia Feather honey myrtle Dec – May
Sept – Feb
Melaleuca viridiflora Weeping tea-tree All year
Pittosporaceae
Pittosporum revolutum Yellow pittosporum Aug – Sept
Pittosporum rhombifolium Diamond pittosporum Mar – Aug
Proteaceae
Banksia aemula Wallum banksia Mar – Jun
Banksia brownii Feather-leaved banksia May – Jul
Banksia caleyi Caley’s banksia Nov – Dec
Banksia coccinea Scarlet banksia Jun – Feb
Banksia compar Jan – Jun
Banksia marginata Silver banksia Sept – Feb
Banksia media Golden stalk banksia Dec – Aug
Banksia robur Swamp banksia All year
Banksia serrata Saw banksia Dec – Jun
Banksia speciosa Showy banksia Dec – May
Buckinghamia celcissima Ivory curl flower Feb – Mar
Grevillea arenaria Grey grevillea All year
Grevillea banksia Kahili All year
Grevillea banksii Red silky oak Sept – Feb
Grevillea baueri Bauer’s grevillea May – Dec
Grevillea bipinnatifida Grape grevillea Nov – Jan
Grevillea chrysophaea Golden grevillea All year
Grevillea dimorpha Flame grevillea Mar – Jun
Grevillea illumina Jun – Nov
Grevillea lavandulacea Lavender grevillea All year
Grevillea leucopteris White plumed grevillea Sept – Feb
Grevillea robusta Silky oak Nov – Feb
Grevillea ‘Robyn Gordon’ All year
Grevillea sericea Silky grevillea Mar – Nov
Hakea cristata Snail hakea May – Sept
Hakea laurina Pincushion hakea Mar – Aug

Hakea nodosa Yellow hakea Apr – Aug

Hakea suaveolens Sweet hakea May – Aug
Lomatia silaifolia Wild parsley Dec – Feb
Stenocarpus sinuatus Firewheel tree Dec – May
Telopea oreades Gippsland waratah Dec – Feb
Rutaceae
Correa alba White correa May – Aug
Correa backhouseana Australian fuchsia Mar – Aug
Correa baeuerlenii Chefs cap Mar – Aug
Correa glabra Rock correa Mar – Aug
Correa mannii Mann’s correa Mar – Nov
Euodia elleryana Pink euodia Dec – Feb

Appendix D: Roles of
government agencies and
legislation relating to pest birds
Agency Relevant legislation Role
and strategies
Commonwealth 
Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Agricultural and Veterinary To protect the health and safety of human
Medicines Authority; Department of Chemicals Code Act 1994 beings, animals and the environment
Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry by putting in place a system to regulate
agricultural chemical products and veterinary
chemical products. An agricultural chemical,
in part, is used as a means of directly or
indirectly destroying, stupefying, repelling,
inhibiting the feeding of, or preventing
infestation by or attacks of, any pest in
relation to a plant, a place or a thing.
National Drugs and Poisons Agricultural and Veterinary The National Drugs and Poisons Scheduling
Scheduling Committee Chemicals Code Act 1994 Committee considers the threat category of
any agricultural chemical.
Department of the Environment Environment Protection Review key threatening processes for
and Water Resources and Biodiversity endangered species and prepare Threat
Conservation Act 1999 Abatement Plans as required. No bird species
are currently considered a key threatening
process.
Department of the Environment Environment Protection In part, to provide for the protection of the
and Water Resources and Biodiversity environment, especially those aspects of
Conservation Act 1999 the environment that are matters of national
environmental significance. Also to govern
management of pests in Commonwealth
national parks. The Minister may issue
permits for the export of live native birds if
the proposed export would be an eligible
non-commercial purpose export (within the
meaning of section 303FA).
Regulates the import of potential harmful
environmental pests and restricts the export
of native birds.
National Industrial Chemicals Industrial Chemicals An Act to establish a national system of

Notification and Assessment (Notification and notification and assessment of industrial
Scheme Assessment) Act 1989 chemicals, to provide for registration of
certain persons proposing to introduce
industrial chemicals and for related purposes.
Environmental Protection Authority National Environment To provide for the establishment of a National
Protection Council Act Environment Protection Council, and for
1994 related purposes. This Act includes the
objective to ensure that, by means of the
establishment and operation of the National
Environment Protection Council, people enjoy
the benefit of equivalent protection from
air, water or soil pollution and from noise,
wherever they live in Australia.
Australian Customs Service, Quarantine Act 1908 Regulates the importation of exotic birds that
Australian Quarantine Inspection have the potential to become pests.
Service (AQIS); Department of
Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry

and strategies
Department of the Environment The National Strategy for Promotes the rapid completion and
and Water Resources Ecologically Sustainable implementation of national and regional
Development strategic plans for the management of pests
and reviews legislation for the control of
pests, including birds.
Department of the Environment The National Strategy Promotes the adoption of ecologically
and Water Resources for the Conservation of sustainable agricultural and pastoral
Australia’s Biological management practices in the interests
Diversity of encouraging and sustaining biological
diversity.
Department of Agriculture Fisheries   Responsible for developing and implementing

and Forestry strategies for ecologically sustainable
development, including pest bird
management. Coordinates vertebrate pest
management at the national level.
Australian and New Zealand   ANZECC provides a forum for member

Environment and Conservation governments to exchange information and
Council (Advisory Body) experience and develop coordinated policies
in relation to national and international
environment and conservation issues.
New South Wales 
National Regulation Authority Agricultural and Veterinary To apply certain laws of the Commonwealth
Chemicals (New South relating to agricultural and veterinary
Wales) Act 1994 chemical products as laws of New South
Wales; and for other purposes.
Department of Primary Industries Animal Research Act 1985 Protects the welfare of animals used in
connection with research by requiring
persons or organisations carrying out animal
research or supplying animals for research
to be authorised under this Act and by
regulating the carrying out of animal research
and the supply of animals for research by
those persons or organisations. This Act
covers those keeping animals with intention
of using them for animal research, and those
unlawfully supplying animals for use in
connection with animal research.
Environment Protection Authority Environmental Hazardous To provide for control of the effect on the
Chemicals Act 1985 environment of chemicals and chemical
wastes. This Act includes the consideration of
substances that may produce harmful effects
in organisms or biological systems (human,
plant, animal or otherwise), and substances
that may affect the soil or any other physical
feature of the environment.
NSW Department of Primary Exotic Diseases of Animals To provide for the detection, containment
Industries Act 1991 and eradication of certain diseases affecting
livestock and other animals and for other
purposes. This Act, in relation to animals,
applies to all animals, whatever their status
and whether or not the property of the
Crown or any person. It includes possession,
quarantine, restricted areas, disinfection,
destruction, seizure and compensation.

and strategies
Game Council of NSW Game and Feral Animal To provide for the effective management
Control Act 2002 of introduced species of game animals
and to promote responsible and orderly
hunting of those game animals on public
and private land and of certain pest animals
on public land. A person must not release a
game animal into the wild for the purpose
of hunting the animal or its descendants.
‘Game animal’ is any of the following that
is living in the wild: deer, California quail,
pheasant, partridge, peafowl, turkey. Any of
the following animals that is living in the wild
is also a ‘game animal’ for the purposes of this
Act: pig, dog (other than dingo), cat, goat,
rabbit, hare and fox.
NSW Police Inclosed Lands Protection To consolidate the enactments relating to the
Act 1901 protection of inclosed lands from intrusion
and trespass. This Act includes unlawful entry
and offensive conduct.
Department of Environment and National Parks and Wildlife To consolidate and amend the law relating
Climate Change (NSW) Act 1974 to the establishment, preservation and
management of national parks, historic sites
and certain other areas and the protection
of certain fauna, native plants and Aboriginal
objects. Also governs the issue of permits
for the destruction of native species that are
causing damage to agriculture. A person shall
not harm any animal that is within a national
park or historic site, or discharge a prohibited
weapon in a national park or historic site. A
person shall not use any substance, animal,
firearm, explosive, net, trap, hunting device
or instrument or means whatever for the
purpose of harming any such fauna.
Department of Infrastructure, Native Vegetation Relating to the conservation and sustainable

Planning and Natural Resources Conservation Act 1997 management of native vegetation and the
clearing of land. Its role is, in part, to prevent
the inappropriate clearing of vegetation.
Environment Protection Authority Pesticides Act 1999 To promote the protection of human health,
the environment, property and trade in
relation to the use of pesticides, having
regard to the principles of ecologically
sustainable development within the meaning
of the Protection of the Environment
Administration Act 1991; and to minimise risks
to human health, the environment, property
and trade. A person must not use a pesticide
in a manner that harms any non-target animal
or non-target plant, or (if there is no approved
label or permit for the pesticide) harms any
animal or plant.
RSPCA Prevention of Cruelty to To prevent cruelty to animals; to promote

Animals Act 1979 the welfare of animals by requiring a person
in charge of an animal to provide care for
the animal; to treat the animal in a humane
manner; and to ensure the welfare of the
animal. This includes not inflicting pain, not
abandoning animals, and providing adequate
food/water/shelter.

and strategies
Department of Environment and Protection of the In part, to protect, restore and enhance the
Climate Change Environment Operations quality of the environment in New South
Act 1997 Wales, having regard to the need to maintain
ecologically sustainable development; and
also to reduce risks to human health and
prevent degradation of the environment. It
covers waste and pollution, including noise
pollution.
Rural Lands Protection Boards Rural Lands Protection Act Responsibilities for vertebrate pest
1989 management. Declared pests do not currently
include birds. Restrictions on removal or
destruction of timber.
Queensland
Department of Primary Industries Land Protection (Pest and Management of particular pests on land and
and Fisheries Stock Route Management) for other purposes. Pest animal management
Act 2002 includes exotic mammals, reptiles and
amphibians. Bird species are not included at
present, but local governments have power to
declare pests under local law.
Department of Natural Resources Land Protection (Pest and Management of stock route network aspect of
and Water Stock Route Management) the legislation.
Environment Protection Agency Nature Conservation Act Research and management of protected
and Queensland Parks and Wildlife 1992 areas, protecting native wildlife and its
Service habitat. Protects biological diversity, cultural
resources and values, and the conservation
values of land. In particular, defines 11 classes
of protected area ranging from national parks
(scientific), World Heritage management and
international agreement areas to national
parks (Aboriginal land) and nature refuges
and co-ordinated conservation areas involving
private property. This Act also covers
trespass: a person must not take wildlife on
any land, or enter, or be on, any land for the
purpose of taking wildlife and the keeping or
selling of birds.
Environment Protection Agency Environment Protection For the protection of Queensland’s

Act 1994 environment. Covers research, and
development of policies. Implements and
integrates environmental strategies into
matters such as land-use planning and
managing natural resources, ensuring
actions to protect environmental values from
environmental harm, monitoring contaminants
in the environment, and requiring those
causing environmental harm to pay costs and
penalties. Includes environmental nuisance
by noise.
Department of Primary Industries Animal Care and Protection Stipulates that a person must not be cruel
and Fisheries Act 2001 to an animal. This includes areas such as
inhumane practices, caging without sufficient
food or water, transportation that causes
harm, neglect to provide shelter, and more.
Also mentions the killing of pest animals but
provides an exemption if the act causes as
little pain as is reasonable.

and strategies
Department of Natural Resources Land Act 1994 Covers destruction of trees on holdings,
and Water etc., permits, tree management plans and
destruction of noxious weeds.
ACT 
Department of the Territory and Nature Conservation Act Provides for the protection and conservation
Municipal Services 1980 of native animals and native plants, and
for the reservation of areas for those
purposes. Includes keeping, selling, killing,
exporting/importing native animals, as well
as interference with nests of native animals.
Contains legislation on clearing causing
substantial loss or harm to a reserve area.
A person shall not interfere with a nest
of a native animal, or with anything in the
immediate environment of such a nest.
Department of the Territory and Environment Protection Provide for the protection of the environment
Municipal Services Act 1997 and for related purposes, including noise
control.
Department of Land Planning and Pastoral Lands Act 2000 To make provision for the conservation
Environment and granting of title to pastoral land and
the administration, management and
conservation of pastoral land, and for related
purposes.
Parks and Wildlife Commission Parks and Wildlife To establish a Commission to establish and
Commission Act 2000 manage, or assist in the management of,
Parks, Reserves, Sanctuaries and other land;
to encourage protection, conservation and
sustainable use of wildlife; to establish a land-
holding corporation in connection with these
purposes; and for related purposes.
Animal Welfare Advisory Animal Welfare Act 1992 To prevent neglect of, and cruelty to, animals,
Committee to ensure the welfare of animals. A person
must not lay a poison in any place with the
intention of killing or injuring a domestic or
native animal. A person shall not, knowingly,
use spurs with sharpened or fixed rowels
on an animal. A person shall not, without
reasonable excuse, administer an electric
shock to an animal, except in a manner
authorised under a law of the Territory. A
person shall not, without reasonable excuse,
convey or contain an animal in circumstances
under which the animal is subjected to
unnecessary injury, pain or suffering.
Department of the Territory and Enclosed Lands Protection Relating to protection of enclosed lands
Municipal Services Act 1943 from intrusion and trespass. This act includes
penalties for trespass on enclosed lands, and
for leaving gates open.

and strategies
South Australia
Department of Primary Industries Agriculture and Veterinary Relating to the use of agricultural chemical
and Resources of South Australia Products (Control of Use) products, fertilisers and veterinary products,
(PIRSA) Rural Chemicals Program Act 2002 and for other purposes.
Environment Protection Agency Environmental Protection To provide for the protection of the
Act 1993 environment; to establish the Environment
Protection Authority and define its functions
and powers, and for other purposes. Provides
for the protection of the environment, and
for related purposes. Includes noise pollution,
especially through enforceable Codes of
Practice such as Guidelines for the Use of
Audible Bird Scaring Devices.
National Parks and Wildlife South National Parks and Wildlife To provide for the establishment and
Australia Act 1972 management of reserves for public
benefit and enjoyment; to provide for
the conservation of wildlife in a natural
environment; and for other purposes. A
person must not take an animal, or the eggs
of an animal, or a native plant within certain
areas (e.g. sanctuaries, reserves). Hunting
is discussed. The Minister may grant to any
person a permit to take protected animals or
the eggs of protected animals, if satisfied that
it is desirable to grant the permit: to facilitate
scientific research; or to enable the person to
place bands, marks or tags upon such animals
and then to release them; or to permit the
destruction or removal of animals that are
causing, or are likely to cause, damage to
the environment or to crops, stock or other
property; or for any other purpose (other than
for sale). A plan of management must not
provide for the culling of protected animals
from a reserve unless the Minister is of the
opinion that the culling of those animals is
the only practicable option for controlling an
overpopulation of animals of that species in
the reserve. The Minister may also approve
permits for the harvesting of protected
animals. It is a defence to a charge of an
offence involving molestation or harassment
of a protected species if it can be proven
that the defendant acted reasonably to
frighten the animal in order to protect himself
or herself or another person or to protect
property comprising plants cultivated for
commercial or other purposes or animals or
property of any other kind.
Department of Water, Land and Native Vegetation Act 1991 To provide incentives and help to landowners
Biodiversity Conservation in relation to the preservation and
enhancement of native vegetation; to control
the clearance of native vegetation; and for
other purposes. This includes its significance
as a habitat for wildlife, or if plants are of
a rare, vulnerable or endangered species.
Amendments prohibit broadacre clearance of
intact native vegetation but allow clearance
in accordance with exemptions in the
regulations to the Native Vegetation Act 1991.

and strategies
Natural Resources Management Natural Resources and To promote sustainable and integrated
(NRM) council and boards; Management Act 2004 management of the State’s natural resources;
Animal and Plant Control Group, to make provision for the protection of
Department of Water, Land and the State’s natural resources, and for
Biodiversity Conservation other purposes. This includes possession,
movement, release, quarantine, sale and
control of pest and native species.
Department of Water, Land and Pastoral Land Management To make provision for the management and
Biodiversity Conservation and Conservation Act 1989 conservation of pastoral land; and for other
purposes. Includes trespassing and rights to
travel across land. Includes restrictions on
hunting/shooting on pastoral land, damage
or interference with pastoral land, cutting
down, lopping of branches from, or otherwise
damaging, any living tree or bush on pastoral
land.
Animal Welfare Advisory Prevention of Cruelty to To discourage cruelty to animals; and for
Committee Animals Act 1985 other purposes. Includes ill-treatment of
animals (e.g. failure to supply adequate
food and water, inhumane transport, and
other causes of unnecessary pain), electrical
devices for control, and medical and surgical
procedures.
Northern Territory
Department of Primary Industry, Agricultural and Veterinary To apply certain laws of the Commonwealth
Fisheries and Mines Chemicals (Northern relating to agricultural and veterinary
Territory) Act 1994 chemical products as laws of the Northern
Territory, and for other purposes. Regulates
agricultural chemical products and veterinary
chemical products.
Department of Primary Industry, Agricultural and Veterinary To control the use of agricultural and
Fisheries and Mines Chemicals (Control of Use) veterinary chemicals and the manufacture,
Act 2004 sale and use of fertilisers and stockfoods,
to manage land and agricultural produce
contaminated by chemicals, and for related
purposes.
Department of Local Government, Animal Welfare Act 1999 To provide for the welfare of animals, prevent
Housing and Sport cruelty to animals, and for related purposes.
Includes neglect; cruelty; abandonment;
provision of food, drink and shelter;
prohibited procedures; confinement; and
transportation. Also includes regulations on
poison, traps, electrical devices and spurs.
Department of Primary Industry, Biological Control Act 1986 To make provision for the biological control of
Fisheries and Mines pests in the Northern Territory, and for related
purposes.
Department of Primary Industry, Exotic Diseases (Animals) To provide compensation for certain losses
Fisheries and Mines Compensation Act 1990 occasioned by exotic diseases of animals.
‘Exotic disease’ means a disease, parasite or
pest prescribed in the Schedule.

and strategies
Pastoral Land Board Pastoral Lands Act 1998 To make provision for the conversion
and granting of title to pastoral land and
the administration, management and
conservation of pastoral land, and for related
purposes. Includes, in part, the prevention
or minimisation of degradation of, or other
damage to, the land and its indigenous plant
and animal life. The Board may, by notice in
writing, direct a pastoral lessee to control
declared feral animals on his or her pastoral
land by culling, fencing or other means
directed by the Board, and the pastoral lessee
shall comply with the reasonable directions
of the Board. Also includes public access and
closures of pastoral lands.
Department of Health and Public Health Act 1985 Relating to Public Health. This act includes
Community Services measures for the control or destruction of
noxious vermin and insects, the disposal of
dead animals, and the testing, examination,
isolation and destruction of animals and the
payment of compensation for the destruction
of animals that are found to be diseased.
Department of Primary Industry, Stock Diseases Act 2003 Relating to the control of diseases in stock
Fisheries and Mines and for other purposes. The objects of this
Act are, in part, to provide for the detection,
prevention, control and eradication of
diseases that affect stock. Includes quarantine
and movement of stock.
Department of Primary Industry, Stock Routes and Travelling To provide for the maintenance and control
Fisheries and Mines Stock Act 1996 of stock reserves and stock routes, for the
construction, maintenance and control of
watering places and dips for stock, for the
control of travelling stock, and for other
purposes.
Department of Justice Summary Offences Act To provide for the control of certain criminal
2001 offences. Includes noise that constitutes
undue noise.
Department of Natural Resources, Territory Parks and Wildlife To make provision for, and in relation to, the
Environment and The Arts Conservation Act 2005 establishment of Territory Parks and other
Parks and Reserves and the study, protection,
conservation and sustainable utilisation of
wildlife. Firearms and traps are prohibited in
sanctuaries. A person shall not, in a sanctuary,
take, capture, kill or have in his other
possession any animal. This Act includes the
survival of wildlife in its natural habitat; the
management of identified areas of habitat,
vegetation, ecosystem or landscape to ensure
the survival of populations of wildlife within
those areas; and the control or prohibition
of the introduction or release of prohibited
entrants into the Territory. Also, feral animals
are to be managed in a manner that reduces
their population and the extent of their
distribution within the Territory and controls
any detrimental effect they have on wildlife
and the land.
Department of Justice Trespass Act 2000 To amend the law relating to trespass.
Includes trespass on premises, on prohibited
land, after direction to leave, and after
warning to stay off.

and strategies
Department of Planning and Valuation of Land Act 1994 Relating to the valuation of Land.
Infrastructure ‘Improvements’ within this act include pest
and weed management.
Tasmania
Department of Primary Industries, Vermin Control Act 2000 To provide for the control of vermin. Mostly
Water and the Environment in regards to rabbits, yet the Minister may
declare any animal or bird vermin. This Act
includes destruction of vermin, entry of
inspectors to land to destroy vermin if the
owner does not comply (but does incur
costs); and laying of poison by inspectors.
A person must not destroy, injure or remove
any trap, snare, poison or other thing that
is intended to capture or destroy vermin. A
person may not set at large any vermin and
must not destroy/damage, or leave open
vermin-proof fences.
Department of Primary Industries, Agriculture and Veterinary To control the use and application of
Water and the Environment Chemical (Control of Use) agricultural chemical products and veterinary
Act 1995 chemical products, to provide for related
matters and to repeal certain Acts.
Department of Primary Industries, Animal Health Act 1995 To provide for the prevention, detection and
Water and the Environment control of animal diseases, to provide for the
maintenance and improvement of animal
health, and for related purposes. Discusses
quarantine, importing and movement of
animals. Also sale, possession and disposal of
infected animals.
Department of Primary Industries, Animal Welfare Act 1993 To prevent neglect of, and cruelty to, animals,
Water and the Environment to ensure the welfare of animals, and for
related purposes. Includes storage, transport,
unnecessary pain, humane treatment and so
on.
Department of Primary Industries, Environmental To provide for the management of the

Water and the Environment Management and Pollution environment and the control of pollution in
Control Act 1994 the State. Covers general pollution, including
the nuisance of noise.
National Parks and Wildlife Service, National Parks and Reserve To provide for the management of national
Tasmania Management Act 2002 parks and other reserved land. A person
must not cut down a tree, or damage or
otherwise destroy a tree or a fallen tree, that
is on reserved land without the approval of
the managing authority. This Act involves
the preservation and protection of fauna and
flora; seizure, destruction or killing in reserved
land; and also exclusion or ejection of persons
from the area.

and strategies
Parks and Wildlife Service Tasmania Nature Conservation Act To make provision with respect to the
2002 conservation and protection of the fauna,
flora and geological diversity of the State,
to provide for the declaration of national
parks and other reserved land and for
related purposes. The Minister may enter
into any agreement relating to the use and
management of any private land if to do so
would, in the opinion of the Minister, tend to
promote conservation purposes in relation
to that land, or the purposes for which a
private nature reserve or private sanctuary
has been set aside under this Act. It contains
regulations on the prohibitions or control of
taking, keeping, buying/selling, export and
disposal of wildlife or wildlife products. Also
possession or use of hunting equipment or
animals for this purpose.
Victoria 
Parks Victoria Agriculture and Veterinary To impose controls in relation to the use,
Chemicals (Control and application and sale of agricultural and
Use) Act 1992 veterinary chemical products, fertilisers and
stock foods and the manufacture of fertilisers
and stock foods. This includes protecting the
environment and protecting the health and
welfare of animals.
Department of Sustainability and Catchment and Land Sets up a framework for the integrated
Environment Protection Act 1994 management and protection of catchments.
In part, its aim is to encourage community
participation in the management of land and
water resources and also to set up a system of
controls on noxious weeds and pest animals.
It states that the landowner has to prevent
the spread of, and as far as possible eradicate,
established pest animals (including on
roadsides and Crown land held under lease).
Environment Protection and Environment Protection To create a legislative framework for

Heritage Council Act 1970 protection of the environment in Victoria,
having regard to the principles of
environmental protection. Focuses on
pollution and waste, including noise pollution.
Department of Sustainability and Flora and Fauna Guarantee To establish a legal and administrative
Environment Act 1988 structure to enable and promote the
conservation of Victoria’s native flora
and fauna and to provide for a choice
of procedures that can be used for the
conservation, management or control of flora
and fauna and the management of potentially
threatening processes.
Victorian Land Titles Office Land Act 1958 Involves lands from urban, agricultural,
non-agricultural lands. Includes trespass
onto lands. Some conditions may be applied
to leases in regards to felling/clearing of
vegetation. Leases may contain conditions
on the destruction and control of vermin and
noxious weeds, and also the destruction,
removal, or use of forest produce.

and strategies
Department of Sustainability and National Parks Act 1975 The preservation and protection of the natural
Environment environment, including wilderness areas and
remote and natural areas in those parks; and
the protection and preservation of indigenous
flora and fauna and of features of scenic or
archaeological, ecological, geological, historic
or other scientific interest in those parks.
Non-indigenous animals may not be used in
any parks. The Act includes special provisions
for a number of Parks (e.g. protection of life
occupancies in Alpine National Park). There
is to be no hunting, although guns and other
weapons may be used to hunt feral animals.
Exotic fauna are to be exterminated in
National and State parks.
Department of Primary Industries Prevention of Cruelty to To prevent cruelty to animals, to encourage

Animals Act 1986 the considerate treatment of animals, and to
improve the level of community awareness
about the prevention of cruelty to animals.
Department of Sustainability and Wildlife Act 1975 To establish procedures in order to promote
Environment the protection and conservation of wildlife,
the prevention of taxa of wildlife from
becoming extinct, and the sustainable use of,
and access to, wildlife; and to prohibit and
regulate the conduct of persons engaged in
activities concerning or related to wildlife.
The Minister may authorize the use of
prohibited equipment for certain purposes
(e.g. to capture wildlife for study). A person
must not buy, sell, acquire, receive, dispose
of, keep, possess, control, breed, process,
display, take samples from, or experiment on,
wildlife without writing from the Minister. The
use of any snare, trap, net, gun, or substance
prohibited is an offence. Any person who kills,
destroys, takes or injures wildlife by any bait
impregnated with poison or any substance,
whether liquid, solid, or gaseous, which is
prescribed to be a poison for the purposes
of this section or lays any such poison or
substance with intent to kill, destroy, take, or
injure wildlife shall be guilty of an offence.
A person cannot use any glue, adhesive
material, bird-lime or any similar viscid
substance for taking or restraining of wildlife.
A person must not interfere with, harass,
hinder or obstruct a person who is engaged in
hunting or taking game.
Western Australia 
Department of Agriculture and Agriculture and Related Protects primary industries and the resources
Food, WA Resources Protection Act related to primary industries. Is involved with
1976 prohibiting or regulating measures for the
control of declared plants and animals. This
includes chemicals, appliances, trapping,
experiments, disposal and permits. Also
contains regulations on storage, use and
transport of prescribed chemicals.
Department of Agriculture and Soil and Land Conservation To provide for the prevention of land
Food, WA Act 1945 degradation and land restoration. Contains
legislation in regards to clearing or damaging
trees, shrubs, grass or any other plants on any
land.

and strategies
Department of Environment and Wildlife Conservation Act Concerned with the conservation of protected
Climate Change 1950 flora and fauna. This Act discusses restrictions
placed on possessing, taking or disposal of
fauna. Also, a person may not take duck,
goose or quail for the purposes of sport or
recreation. Also discusses keeping, importing/
exporting to/from the State, breeding and so
on, whether the animal is protected or not.
Contains information on storage and/or use
of illegal means or devices for taking fauna on
lands of which that person is the occupier.
Environmental Protection Authority Environment Protection To provide for the protection of the
Act 1986 environment and for related purposes,
including noise.
Conservation Commission of Conservation and Land A person shall not, without lawful authority,
Western Australia, Marine Parks Management Act 1984 fell, cut, injure, destroy, obtain, or remove
and Reserves Authority, and Marine any forest produce in, on, or from any land
Parks and Reserves Scientific to which this section applies. A person shall
Advisory Committee; Department not, except under a permit, licence, or lease
of Environment and Conservation under this Act, or a grant, lease, licence, or
(DEC) other authority from the Crown, hunt, shoot,
or destroy or set snares for the purpose of
capturing any indigenous fauna on land to
which this Act applies, or occupy, clear, or
break up for cultivation, or any other purpose,
land to which this Act applies.
Department for Planning and Land Administration Act Pastoral land is not to be used other than for
Infrastructure 1997 pastoral purposes without a permit. Pastoral
lessee must not remove trees or otherwise
clear land under the lease or disturb or affect
its soil.
Department of Local Government Animal Welfare Act 2002 Stipulates that a person must not be cruel
and Regional Development; in to an animal. This includes areas such as
partnership with the RSPCA, local inhumane practices, caging without sufficient
governments, Department of food or water, transportation that causes
Agriculture and Food, Department harm, failure to provide shelter, and more.
of Environment and Conservation Also mentions the killing of pests.
and Fisheries WA
Department of Agriculture and Agriculture and Related Application of provisions relating to the
Food, WA Resources Protection Act control of certain pests or diseases may be
1976 made to commercial and non-commercial
producers.
Police and Emergency Services Police Act 1892 To provide for the management of WA
Police. This act deals with trespass, including
land that is fenced or enclosed by natural
structures such as creeks. Persons will be
fined if they were not invited onto the land.

Appendix E: Legislation and
conditions relating to the
destruction of native birds
Jurisdiction Species locally Permits for Conditions Agency Relevant legislation
unprotected1 destruction
of native
birds
ACT None Not avail- No permits are issued for Department of Nature Conserva-
able native birds, even if they the Territory tion Act 1980
are considered to be caus- and Municipal
ing damage to agriculture Services
or the environment
NSW Sulphur-crest- Available. Issued where birds are Department of National Parks and
ed cockatoo, Sections 120 causing or likely to cause Environment and Wildlife Act 1974
galah, crows and 121 of environmental or agricul- Climate Change
and ravens the Act tural damage. The number
and the purple and species of birds and
swamp hen the time period are speci-
fied on the permit.
NT None Available. Issued where birds are Parks and Territory Parks and
Section 55 causing or likely to cause Wildlife Service Wildlife Conserva-
of the Act environmental or agricul- of the Northern tion Act 2005
tural damage. The number Territory
and species of birds and
the time period are speci-
fied on the permit.
QLD None Available Issued where birds are Environment Nature Conserva-
causing or likely to cause Protection tion Act 1992
environmental or agricul- Agency and
tural damage. The number Queensland
and species of birds and Parks and
the time period are speci- Wildlife Service
fied on the permit.
SA Red wattlebird, Available. Issued where birds are Department for National Parks and
galah, silvereye, Section 53 causing or likely to cause Environment and Wildlife Act 1972
budgerigar, ze- of the Act environmental or agricul- Heritage
bra finch, little tural damage. The number
corella, crows and species of birds and
and ravens the time period are speci-
fied on the permit.
TAS Long-billed Available Issued where birds are Tasmanian Parks National Parks and
corella2 causing or likely to and Wildlife Wildlife Act 1970
cause environmental or Service
agricultural damage. If <
25 then a ‘shoot to scare’
permit may be issued for
one month. If > 25 then a
‘shoot to kill’ permit may
be issued. Five birds a
day may be shot, with a
maximum of 25 birds over
a one-month period.

of native
birds
WA Sulphur- Not avail- Open seasons are declared Department of Wildlife Conser-
crested able in defined regions for Environment and vation Act 1950;
cockatoo2, particular species known Conservation; Agriculture and
rainbow to cause agricultural or Department of Related Resources
lorikeet2, galah environmental damage or Agriculture and Protection Act 1976
those considered danger- Food, WA
ous. For these species
no permit is required and
there is no limit on the
number of birds that can
be destroyed.
VIC Sulphur-crest- Available. S28A permits are issued Department of Wildlife Act 1975,
ed cockatoo, Section where birds are causing Sustainability and Wildlife Regula-
galah and long- 7A, 28A environmental or agricul- Environment tions 2002
billed corella of the Act tural damage. The number
(Commer- and species of birds, meth-
cial Wildlife ods of destruction and the
(Wildlife time period are specified
Controller on the permit.
Licence)) S7A Governor in Council
under r.34 of declaration as [the listed
the Wildlife species being] unpro-
Regulations tected only where serious
damage is being done to
trees, vineyards, orchards,
recreational reserves or
commercial crops, and
[the listed species] may be
destroyed by (a) landown-
ers and occupiers, their
employees and members
of their families; or (b) in
the case of recreational
reserves, members of com-
mittees of management.
r.34 A Commercial Wildlife
Controller may take (the
listed species) for the pur-
pose of removing danger
to persons or property
from that wildlife.

of native
birds
Common- None Not In addition to regulating Department of Environment

wealth available native species in Com- the Environment Protection and
monwealth parks and and Water Biodiversity
reserves, the EPBC Act Resources Conservation Act
requires permits for: 1999
• activities outside
Commonwealth parks
or reserves that may
affect protected
species3 in Christmas
Island, Cocos (Keel-
ing) Islands or Coral
Sea Islands territories.
• activities that occur
in a Commonwealth
area that may affect
a member of a listed
threatened species
or ecological com-
munities, a member
of a listed migratory
species, or a member
of a listed marine
species.
1 Permits are not required for these species within designated regions (Figure 6.1).
2 Considered introduced pests
3 For a definition of ‘protected species’ see Regulation 9 of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity
Conservation Regulations 2000 (Regulations) and the definition of the term in the dictionary at the end of
the Regulations.

Appendix F: Chemicals available
for bird control by registration or
under permit
NSW
QLD
ACT
TAS
VIC
WA
NT
SA
Active ingredient Product Names Supplier Conditions
Lethal poisons
Alphachloralose             Y   Alphachloralose Agriculture For use by licensed

  Protection pest control operators,
  Board Of Agriculture Protection
Western Board officers and other
Australia authorised persons only
on commercial areas. For
use on pigeons, starlings,
sparrows and sulphur-
crested cockatoos (below
20 degrees south). Not
to be used on other
native species without
permission from DEC WA.
Y Y Rentokil Rentokil Initial For introduced species,
Alphachloralose Pty Ltd only in and around
Bird Control buildings. For use by
Agent licensed pest control
operators or persons
authorised by the
Registrar of Pesticides.
Y Rentokil Rentokil Initial Site permit required
Alphachloralose Pty Ltd from NPWS. For some
Bird Control native and introduced
Agent species, only in and
around buildings. To be
used by licensed pest
control operators or
appropriately trained
NSW Agriculture and
Rural Lands Protection
Board Staff.
Fenthion                 Fenthion (Status Bayer For the control of
  A) Cropscience pigeons, starlings,
  Pty Ltd mynas and sparrows.
  This product is to be
Y Y Y Control-A-Bird Control-A-Bird supplied only to, and
Agent Pty Ltd used only by, a licensed
pest control operator and
Y Y Y Avigrease Pest Australian the user must have in
Bird Eradication Pest Bird their possession a copy
Compound Management of standard operating
Pty Ltd procedures (e.g. AAA Bird
Control Services Standard
Operating Procedures
Y Y Y Avigel Pest Bird Greg Cowan (SOP) for the Application
Control Agent Trading As of Avigrease Pest Bird
ANC Bird Eradication Compound).
Control

NSW
QLD
ACT
TAS
VIC
WA
NT
SA
Active ingredient Product Names Supplier Conditions
4-aminopyridine Y Y Y Y Y Y Scatterbird Sterling Pest License must be obtained

Control Pty from NSW NPWS. In
Ltd NT, use requires written
approval from the
Department of Natural
Resources, Environment
and the Arts. To be used
by licensed pest control
operators only. Used only
around buildings. For
exotic birds e.g. pigeons,
starlings, sparrows and
mynas.
Chemical deterrents
Aluminium Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y D-Ter Animal and Lorac  
ammonium Bird Repellent Australia Pty
sulfate Ltd
 
  Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Multicrop Scat Multicrop For garden areas.
Bird and Animal (Aust) Pty Ltd
Repellent
Y Rudducks Bird Rudducks Pty For garden areas.
and Animal Ltd
Repellent
Polybutene   Y       Y   Y Cyndan Bird Ban Loremo Pty Do not contaminate
  Bird Repellent Ltd trading waterways. Do not apply
  as Cyndan to wet surfaces, ice,
Manufacturing snow. Use on ledges, sills,
railings, i.e. roosts. For
exotic birds, e.g. pigeons,
starlings, sparrows.
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Scarecrow Bird Garrards Pty Do not contaminate
Repellent Ltd waterways. Do not apply
to wet surfaces, ice,
snow. Use on ledges, sills,
railings, i.e. roosts. For
exotic birds, e.g. pigeons,
starlings, sparrows.
  Y             Garrard’s Bird Garrards Pty  
Repellent Ltd
Source: Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority
Note: This information does not replace product labels, or legislation. Conditions, status and the availability of
registered chemicals may have changed. For the latest information check the APVMA’s registry database
PUBCRIS, which is available on-line at www.apvma.gov.au , or contact the department of agriculture in each
State or Territory (Appendix A).

Appendix G: Scientific names
of pest and other bird species
mentioned in the text
Native Australian species (P. elegans nigrescens in north-east coastal

Adelaide rosella Platycercus elegans adelaidae Queensland)
Australian brush turkey Alectura lathami Cuckoos — family Cuculidae
Australian king parrot Alisterus scapularis Eastern rosella Platycercus eximius
Australian raven Corvus coronoides Emu Dromaius novaehollandiae
Australian ringneck Barnardius zonarius Figbird Sphecotheres viridis
Australian shelduck (mountain duck) Flesh-footed shearwater Puffinus carneipes

Tadorna tadornoides Forest raven Corvus tasmanicus
Australian wood duck (maned duck) Galah Elophus [Cacatua] roseicapilla
Chenonetta jubata Gang-gang cockatoo
Barn owl Tyto alba Callochephalon fimbriatum
Bassian thrush (White’s thrush) Glossy black-cockatoo Calyptorhynchus lathami
Zoothera lunulata Goshawks Erythrotriorchis radiatus and
Baudin’s black cockatoo Accipiter spp.
Calyptorhynchus baudinii Great bowerbird Chlamydera nuchalis
Black duck (Pacific black duck) Green rosella Platycercus caledonicus
Anas superciliosa
Grey currawong Strepera versicolor
Black currawong Strepera fuliginosa
Grey shrike-thrush Colluricincla harmonica
Black-eared miner Manorina melanotis
Grey teal Anas gracilis
Black-faced cuckoo-shrike Coracina
Gulls Larus spp.
novaehollandiae
Hardhead (white-eyed duck or widgeon)
Black swan Cygnus atratus
Aythya australis
Blue bonnet Northiella haematogaster
Honeyeaters — family Meliphagidae
Blue-faced honeyeater Entomyzon cyanotis
Hooded plover Thinornis rubricollis
Brown falcon Falco berigora
Ibis — family Threskiornithidae
Budgerigar Melopsittacus undulatus
Kookaburra Dacelo novaeguineae
Butcherbirds Cracticus spp.
Lewin’s honeyeater Meliphaga lewinii
Cape barren goose Cereopsis novaehollandiae
Little corella Cacatua sanguinea
Chestnut teal Anas castanea
Little crow Corvus bennetti
Common koel Eudynamys scolopacea
Little eagle Hieraaetus morphnoides
Cormorants Phalacrocorax spp.
Little lorikeet Glossopsitta pusilla
Coxen’s double-eyed fig parrot
Little raven Corvus mellori
Cyclopsitta diophthalma coxeni
Little tern Sterna albifrons
Crimson rosella Platycercus elegans elegans

Long-billed corella Cacatua tenuirostris Rosella Platycercus spp.
Lorikeets Glossopsitta spp Satin bowerbird Ptilonorhynchus violaceus
Magpie Gymnorhina tibicen Scaly-breasted lorikeet
Magpie goose Anseranas semipalmata Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus
Magpie-lark Grallina cyanoleuca Short-billed black-cockatoo

Calyptorhynchus latirostris
Major Mitchell’s cockatoo Cacatua leadbeateri
Silver gull Larus novaehollandiae
Mallee ringneck Barnardius zonarius barnardi
Silvereye Zosterops lateralis
Maned duck (Australian wood duck)
Chenonetta jubata Sooty tern Sterna fuscata
Masked lapwing (spur-winged plover) Spiny-cheeked honeyeater

Vanellus miles Acanthagenys rufogularis
Metallic starling Aplonis metallica Spotted bowerbird Chlamydera maculata
Mistletoe bird Diaceum hirundinaceum Sulphur-crested cockatoo Cacatua galerita
Musk lorikeet Glossopsitta concinna Superb parrot Polytelis swainsonii
New Holland honeyeater Swans Cygnus spp.

Phylidonyris novaehollandiae Swift parrot Lathamus discolor
Noisy friarbird Philemon corniculatus Torresian crow Corvus orru
Noisy miner Manorina melanocephala Turquoise parrot Neophema pulchella
Olive-backed oriole Oriolus sagittatus Twenty-eight parrot
Pale-headed rosella Platycercus adscitus Barnadius zonadius semitorquatus
Parrots Platycercus spp. and Polytelis spp. Wedge-tailed eagle Aquila audax
Peaceful dove Geopelia striata Welcome swallow Hirundo neoxena
Peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus Western rosella Platycercus icterotis
Pied currawong Strepera graculina Western corella Cacatua pastinator
Pink-eared duck Whistling kite Milvus sphenurus

Malacorhynchus membranaceus White-plumed honeyeater
Purple-crowned lorikeet Lichenostomus penicillatus
Glossopsitta porphyrocephala White-naped honeyeater Melithreptus lunatus
Purple swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio White tern Gygis alba
Rainbow lorikeet Trichoglossus haematodus White’s thrush (Bassian thrush)
Red-capped parrot Purpureicephalus spurius Zoothera lunulata
Red-rumped parrot Psephotus haematonotus Yellow-faced honeyeater

Lichenostomus chrysops
Red-tailed black-cockatoo
Calyptorhynchus banksii Yellow rosella Platycercus elegans flaveolus
Red wattlebird Anthochaera carunculate Yellow-tailed black-cockatoo

Calyptorhynchus funereus
Red winged parrot Aprosmictus erythropterus
Yellow-throated miner Manorina flavigula
Regent bowerbird Chlamydera nuchalis
Yellow oriole Oriolus flavocinctus
Regent parrot Polytelis anthopeplus
Zebra finch Taeniopygia guttata
Ringneck Barnardius zonarius

Introduced (exotic) species American goldfinch Carduelis tristis
Blackbird (European) Turdus merula American robin Turdus migratorius
Chicken Gallus gallus Brown-headed cowbird Molothrus ater
Goldfinch (European) Carduelis carduelis Canada goose Branta canadensis
Greenfinch (European) Carduelis chloris Cape sparrow Passer melanurus
House sparrow Passer domesticus Cedar waxwing Bombycilla cedrorum
Myna (common or Indian) Acridotheres tristis Common grackle Quiscalus quiscula
Pigeon feral or wild or rock dove Columba livia Dickcissel Spiza americana
Skylark Alauda arvensis Grackle Quiscalus quiscula, Cassidix mexicanus
Song thrush Turdus philomelos Grey catbird Dumetella carolinensis
Starling (common or European) Sturnus vulgaris Herring gull Larus argentatus
Tree sparrow Passer montanus Horned lark Eremophila alpestris
House (Columbo) crow Corvus splendens
Overseas species not found in Australia
House finch Carpodacus mexicanus
American blackbirds
Japanese quail Coturnix coturnix
This is an inclusive term that refers to any
Jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos
bird of the family Icteridae (Passeriformes),
whose male is black or predominantly black. Mockingbird Mimus polyglottos
This family has 96 species of New World Mourning dove Zenaida macroura
orioles, blackbirds, cowbirds and allies. In Quelea Quelea quelea
this document this term mainly refers to red-
Red-billed gull Larus delawarensis
winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus),
Red-winged blackbird Agelaius phoeniceus
common grackles (Quiscalus quiscala) and
brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater). Rook Corvus frugilegus
Common starlings (Family Sturnidae) have Rufous turtle dove Streptopelia orientalis
also been included in this group on occasion.
Wild Pigeon Columba livia
This term has been used in the text only if
Wood-pigeon Columba palumbus
the individual species have not been more
accurately identified.
American crow Corvus brachyrhynchos

GLOSSARY

Accuracy: a measure of how close an estimate Barbiturate: any of a group of barbituric acid
is to the true value. This can be measured by derivatives that act on the central nervous
bias ([Estimate – Known]/Known) or mean system. Used in humans to treat insomnia,
squared error (sample variance + [bias] ). If an 2
seizure and convulsions and to relieve anxiety
estimate equals the actual value it is unbiased. and tension, and in animals to sedate.
By this definition the accuracy of an estimate
Benefit–cost ratio: a ratio that identifies the
can be measured only when the true value is
relationship between the benefits and costs of
known. Some estimates of bias can be achieved
a proposed project. Specifically, it is the ratio
by investigating factors that consistently cause
of discounted benefits to discounted costs,
a value to be over- or under-estimated. In most
indicating the potential return per $1 invested
cases, estimates are assumed accurate and
over the period. Profitable control options will
unbiased and only precision is estimated.
have a benefit–cost ratio greater than one.
Acoustic: see Deterrents, acoustic.
Bioacoustic sounds: see Biosonic sounds
Adaptive management: use of different
Biocontrol: see Biological control.
management options, implemented so that
treatments and their effectiveness can be Biological control: the control of pests using
monitored, evaluated and compared and the other living organisms, usually infectious diseas
knowledge gained can be used to improve future es, but also includes the use of predators. Also
management. Also called ‘adaptive experimental called biocontrol.
management’ or ‘learning by doing’.
Biosonic sounds: broadcasts of recorded calls
Alarm call: loud call given by bird when it senses used in animal communication — usually alarm,
danger; to alert other birds. Not all birds have distress or predator calls, or electronic mimics
alarm calls. Usually causes birds to take flight of such calls. The calls are recorded, sometimes
immediately. Usually species specific. digitised and modified, amplified, and broadcast
through speakers to keep birds away from
Ambient temperature: the air temperature
vulnerable crops.
surrounding the animal.
Bird of prey: meat-eating bird. Day-hunting birds

Annual migrant: see migratory.
of prey (Order Falconiformes) are kites, hawks,
Arthropod: invertebrate (animal without a eagles (Accipitridae) and falcons (Falconidae).
backbone but with an external skeleton, and Night-hunting birds of prey (Order Stringiformes)
jointed legs). This group includes: are owls. Birds of prey are also called raptors.
• insects
Brassica crops: vegetables and oilseeds from
• myriapods (including centipedes and the Family Brassicaceae, including broccoli,
millipedes) cabbage, brussels sprouts, cauliflower, turnips,
• arachnids (including spiders, mites and mustard and canola.
scorpions)
Brix°: a scale used for the measure of soluble
• crustaceans (including slaters, prawns and sugar content (SSC). Expressed in degrees.
crabs).
Cambium: the layer of tissue (one to several
Avicide: poison specifically used for killing
cells thick) between the bark and the wood of a
birds.
woody plant. The cells increase by division and
form new wood (phloem) cells and bark (xylem)
cells. See phloem and xylem.

Cannon net: a rocket-propelled, large net that Cost-effectiveness analysis: a type of analysis
may catch large numbers (up to 500) birds at that is used to compare the cost-effectiveness
one time. Usually the target birds need to be of different management strategies.
pre-fed where the net has been set up. The
Crisis management: control applied reactively
net operator observes from a hidden location
with no forward planning.
and activates the explosive propellent with an
electrical charge to ‘fire’ the net over the top of Cryptic: appearance that conceals or disguises
the feeding birds. an animal’s shape or behaviour — often in birds
through dull-coloured plumage or when birds
Chemical repellents: aversive substances that
keep themselves hidden from view by inhabiting
are usually sprayed onto crops because their
dense vegetation such as heavy grapevine
taste, smell, colour or physiological effects make
canopies.
the treated fruit unattractive to birds. Also called
chemical deterrents. See also Primary repellents Decoy crop: a crop grown specifically to attract
and Secondary repellents. birds. Ideally, it should be attractive just before
nearby commercial crops become vulnerable to
Clutch: the complete set of eggs or chicks
bird attack, and remain more attractive to the
produced at any one time.
birds than the commercial crop(s) throughout
Communication jamming: sounds with a similar the period when the commercial crops would
frequency range to birds’ communication otherwise be attacked.
calls are broadcast in an attempt to disrupt
Decoy feeding: providing attractive food to birds
communication between flock birds. Trialled as
to lure them away from attacking commercial
a pest bird control technique but has unproven
crops. Decoy food must be highly palatable and
effectiveness.
at least as nutritious as the commercial crop,
Compensatory crop production: recovery otherwise there is little reason for birds to be
growth in plants that occurs following damage attracted to it.
and may reduce the economic losses resulting
Descriptive models: models that help users to
from the damage. For example, new shoots may
understand economic relationships. For example,
grow from the site of the damage, or remaining
they may help users to estimate the level of
fruit may grow larger.
bird control that has the maximum economic
Corvids: the family grouping of birds that benefit. Descriptive models require accurate
includes ravens and crows. Five native species measurements of a range of factors, including
are recognised that are of a similar size and damage and management costs, benefits of
appearance and are difficult to distinguish: little applying control, and the relationships between
crow (Corvus bennetti), Torresian crow (C. orru), bird density and the damage they cause. A
Australian raven (C. coronoides), forest raven descriptive model can also support process
(C. tasmanicus) and little raven (C. mellori). management and improvement, helping to
An introduced species, the house or Columbo identify potential problems before they occur.
crow (C. splendens), has also been observed Examples include economic threshold models,
in Fremantle (Western Australia) and near the marginal analysis and cost-effectiveness analysis
Melbourne Zoo in Victoria. (Chapter 5).
Cost–benefit analysis: an analysis that compares Destruction permit: a permit issued by a State or
benefits and costs at a particular level of activity. Territory government to allow a grower to kill or
(see Benefit-cost ratio). harass a specified number of specified birds by
specified means, often over a specified period of
time, to reduce crop damage.

Deterrents, acoustic: sound-producing devices can cover a single row. Alternatively, they can be
intended to scare pest birds. Outputs may include two-, four- or six-row nets or a ‘lock-out’ system,
audible, ultrasonic (above human-hearing range) where nets are draped over orchard trees or vines
or infrasonic (below human-hearing range) sounds, and then joined together to create a complete
or combinations of these. Includes electronic cover. Some growers use poles to create low-
devices, gas guns, firecrackers, shotgun reports, cost support structures for drape-over nets. Well
bangers (crackershells) and biosonic sounds. Also cared-for drape netting can last between five
called auditory devices. and eight years. Also called throw-over netting.
Deterrents, visual: devices whose appearance is Dynamic programming: an optimisation pro

intended to scare pest birds. Includes scarecrows, cedure that is particularly applicable to problems
predator models, kites, artificial eyes, balloons, requiring a sequence of interrelated decisions.
and flashing and fluttering objects. Each decision transforms the current situation
into a new situation. A sequence of decisions,
Diatomaceous earth: a light, porous rock or soil
which in turn yields a sequence of situations,
derived from fossilised microscopic unicellular
is sought that maximises (or minimises) some
algae called diatoms. The sharp fragments can
measure of value or effectiveness. Consider a
irritate mucous membranes or eyes.
simplified example: comparing starling control
Discount rate: the rate used to calculate the strategies that vary with the season. If a decision
present value of future benefits or costs. It is is made to impose a level of control during the
calculated by using the reverse equation to breeding season, then the situation changes and
that used to calculate interest rates on invested will affect subsequent decisions. For example,
money. this decision is likely to influence the rate of
population change and the population density,
Dispersal: the permanent emigration of individual and hence the efficacy of subsequent control
birds from a population or from their normal decisions made during the ripening season.
home range. This is most often associated with Dynamic programming attempts to take account
juveniles or young adults dispersing from their of changes to the situation and provides a guide
natal home range or place of birth, but can to selecting the optimal solution.
also be used to describe adults permanently
vacating their home range for other reasons (e.g. Economic threshold model: indicates the
permament changes in food, water or shelter). density of a bird population where the benefit
This behaviour can occur within migratory, of management just exceeds its cost (Stern et al.
nomadic or sedentary populations. See also 1959; Mumford and Norton 1984). This break-even
migratory, nomadic, sedentary. point can be used to decide the bird density at
which a particular management strategy should
Distress call: loud ‘squawk’ given by a bird held be initiated.
captive usually by a predator. Often attracts
other birds to mob the predator. Eradication: permanently eliminating the entire
population of a bird species in a defined area by
Dockage: penalty applied by wholesalers for a defined date.
blemishes, impurities, or reduced quality of fruit as
a direct or indirect consequence of bird damage. Exclusion netting: use of nets to physically
prevent birds from gaining access to crops —
Drape-over netting: increasingly common usually economic only when high levels of bird
form of temporary exclusion bird netting used damage occur in a high value crop. See also
to protect commercial horticulture crops, Permanent netting, Drape-over netting.
particularly high-value grape and berry crops,
over the ripening season. Drape-over nets can Exotic species: non-native species. Also called
be lightweight, relatively inexpensive nets that introduced or alien species.

Externality: an effect of production that is not constraints (for example, the numbers of pest
taken into account by the producer and that birds present, fruit varieties grown, labour and
affects the utility or costs of other producers. capital resources), arranged in an array.
Falconry: traditional art of training falcons to Marginal analysis: an analysis of the relative
hunt game. shift in cost and benefit values that occurs as
incremental changes are made in the level of
Fertility control: technique used to reduce the
pest control effort.
fertility of animals—contraception.
Marginal benefit: the shift in benefit values that
Fledging: the stage of chick development when
occurs as incremental changes are made in
the flight feathers are developing or developed
the factor(s) that affect the level of costs (for
and the chick is ready to fly.
example, changes to fruit damage losses that
Free-feeding: placement of unpoisoned bait for occur as bird scaring activity is increased).
several days before a poisoning campaign to
Marginal cost: the shift in cost values that occurs
improve efficiency, reduce the impacts on non-
as incremental changes are made in the factor(s)
target species and limit bait shyness.
that affect the level of costs (for example,
Gravid: a female carrying eggs or embryos. changes that occur in the cost of deploying
additional scaring devices around an orchard as
Habituation: process by which a bird’s response pest bird activity increases).
to a fear stimulus is reduced over time following
repeated exposure. If the bird learns through Migratory: regular movements of a species
repeated exposure to the stimulus that it usually within season over long distances, often
presents no real danger, the bird will eventually collectively and in large numbers. Species can
ignore the stimulus. be described as: annual migrants, where all or
most individuals move between breeding and
Horticultural crops: cultivated fruits, nuts, non-breeding ranges (for example shorebirds);
berries, vegetables, flowers and ornamental partial migrants, where some individuals in
plants. the population are migratory, while others are
sedentary (for example Tasmanian silvereyes
Inflorescence: a cluster of flowers on one stalk.
display innate migratory behaviour moving from
IRR [internal rate of return]: the discount rate Tasmania as far north as Queensland every year,
that equates discounted benefits and costs while many silvereyes of northern populations
over time: that is, the discount rate at which net do not migrate); or as regional migrants, where
present value = 0. Essentially, this is the return regular movements occur over short distances
that a grower would earn if he/she expanded with season. See also dispersal, nomadic,
production or invested back into the property, sedentary.
rather than investing that money elsewhere.
Mist net: fine, almost invisible nets used for
Profitable bird control options will have an IRR
catching birds for research or monitoring
greater than the discount rate.
purposes only. Mist nets are not available to
Internode: a section of stem between two growers as a damage reduction tool.
nodes (plant stem where a leaf is or has been
Monofilament lines: nylon ‘fishing’ lines strung
attached).
over crops. These have been claimed to repel
Linear programming: A linear programming birds. It has been speculated that because
problem has a linear objective function (for monofilament line seems to appear and
example, to maximise whole-farm gross margins disappear, birds are repelled by the uncertainty
from fruit production) and a set of linear of whether a barrier exists or not. Perhaps

the fear of becoming entangled is part of the Opportunity cost: the cost of using a resource
deterrent. Effectiveness in reducing bird damage on the basis of what it could have earned if used
to horticultural crops is unproven. for the next best alternative — for example, the
opportunity cost of farming the land by growing
Net present value: the future stream of benefits
a less profitable type of crop than the one that
and costs converted into equivalent values today.
could have been grown if pest birds were not
This is done by assigning monetary values to
present.
benefits and costs, discounting future benefits
and costs using an appropriate discount rate, Partial migrant: see migratory.
and subtracting the sum total of discounted
Passerines: order of birds that comprises the
costs from the sum total of discounted benefits.
perching songbirds.
Nomadic: irregular movements of a species
Pay-off matrix: table listing management
over long distances in response to temporary
strategies and their costs and benefits.
resources (especially the availability of food,
water or shelter) apparently randomly, or Performance indicators: these define the desired
through no affiliation with a normal home range. level of achievement against the management
For example, movements of Australian ducks objectives — that is, they describe the outcomes
over long distances in response to available that will be achieved in measurable terms and
surface water (unlike migratory ducks in the the timeline for achieving them.
northern hemisphere that move seasonally
between breeding and non-breeding areas); or Performance monitoring: aims to determine
movements of lorikeets and many honeyeaters how well the implemented management plan
in response to available nectar. Note there is performs in meeting the objectives, as defined
often insufficient information to distinguish by the performance criteria.
between movement classifications; in many
Permanent netting: use of long-life, ultraviolet
cases behavioural traits overlap. Caughley (1977)
radiation-stabilised, strong plastic netting
considered nomadism as a form of dispersal
supported over the top and sides of a crop with
that is difficult to differentiate from local
a pole and wire or cable structure to exclude
movements, but by definition this implies the
birds from crops. Nets may last over ten years
absence of a home range. This text differs from
before needing to be replaced and supporting
Caughley’s (1977) definition in relation to the
structures last much longer. Can be applied to a
scale of movements, to allow us to differentiate
wide range of horticultural crops.
movements in a local area (sedentary) which have
a spatial component (less than 50 kilometres), Phloem: the layer of cells just inside the bark of
from irregular movements over thousands of woody plants that conducts food from the leaves
kilometres. In this text we have avoided the term to the stem and roots. On the outside edge of
‘dispersive’, an apparent synonym for nomadic, the cambium, which separates the phloem from
due to possible confusion with ‘dispersal’. See the xylem. See xylem and cambium.
also dispersal, migratory, sedentary.
Phytotoxic: toxic to plants and at sufficient
Odometer: instrument that indicates distance concentrations will cause plant damage or
travelled by a vehicle. death.
Operational monitoring: monitoring that aims to Pome fruit: apples (Malus spp.), pears (Pyrus
evaluate the efficiency of a control programme. spp.), nashis (Pyrus pyrifolia), quinces (Cydonia
Labour, materials, transport and any other control oblonga) and related fleshy fruit. Also called
costs need to be included in estimating the total pipfruit.
costs of a programme, so that the relative costs
of alternative approaches can be compared.

Pre-baiting: see Free-feeding. Regional migrant: see migratory.
Precision: a measure of how close estimates Repellents: see chemical repellents.

are to each other, or how close they are to an
Resident: see sedentary.
expected value based on repeated samples, and
measured by a variance. A measure of precision Secondary losses: fruit spoilage by moulds,
can be obtained by replicating sampling units. In yeasts, bacteria and insect damage following
general, the larger the number of sampling units bird damage.
the more precise the estimate.
Secondary plant compound: defence chemicals,
Pre-feeding: see Free-feeding. occurring in plants that have evolved to inhibit
feeding by herbivores.
Prescriptive models: models that incorporate
value judgements and compare different man Secondary repellents: chemical repellents that
agement strategies using specific, subjective make birds feel ill after ingestion. The birds
criteria. An example in economics is ‘decision subsequently develop a conditioned aversion
theory’, where risks, costs and benefits are to the food on which the repellent has been
considered subjectively to aid decision-making applied.
(Section 5.5).
Sedentary: movements of a species within a
Primary repellents: chemical repellents that given area or home range normally of less than
produce an immediate avoidance response by 50 kilometres. In this text we use sedentary as a
birds because of their unpleasant smell or taste, synonym for ‘resident’ and vice versa. See also
or because they cause irritation or pain. dispersal, migratory, nomadic.
Sensitivity analysis: analysis of how sensitive

Propane exploder: a noise-generating device
outcomes are to changes in the assumptions
that looks vaguely like a cannon or gas gun
used in a model.
and in which propane or LP gas is exploded to
produce loud impulsive bangs as a technique for Soluble sugar content: an indication of the
scaring pest birds. potential alcohol percentage and residual sugars
(sweetness) of wine.
Psittacine: birds that belong to the order
Psittaciformes — that is, the parrots and cocka Soporific: a substance that induces
toos. Common psittacines include cockatiels, unconsciousness.
lorikeets, cockatoos and rosellas.
Standard deviation (s.d.): an estimate of the
Psyllids and coccids: sap-sucking insects similar variability of a sample calculated from the square
to scale insects (Sternorryncha). root of the variance (s2):
¤ x x / (n 1)
n 2
Ramsar: The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands is
s.d. = i
an intergovernmental treaty which provides the
i 1
framework for national action and international
where xi = value of each measurement from 1–i;
cooperation for the conservation and wise use
x̄ = sample mean; and n = sample size.
of wetlands and their resources. It was adopted
in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came Standard error (s.e.): a measure of the variability
into force in 1975. The Convention’s member of measurements around the mean.
countries cover all geographic regions of the
planet see http://www.ramsar.org/ for more s.e.( x̄ ) = s.d./ n
information.
where s.d. = standard deviation; x̄ = sample
Raptor: see Bird of prey. mean; and n = sample size.

The interval x̄ ± 2s.e will contain the true mean in Sub-population: a well-defined set of interacting
95% of large random samples. This interval thus individuals that compose a proportion of a larger,
constitutes the 95% confidence limits. interbreeding metapopulation.
Stone fruit: fleshy soft fruit with large seed Tactile repellents: chemicals that are applied to
(Prunus spp.), including nectarines (Prunus perches and irritate birds’ feet on contact. Most
persica var. nucipersica), peaches (Prunus are non-toxic, sticky or oily substances.
persica), plums (Prunus spp.) and apricots
Throw-over netting: see Drape-over netting
(Prunus armeniaca).
Ultrasound: very high frequency sound above
Strategic one-off control: implementation of a
the range of human hearing (greater than or
single management action that has a long-term
equal to 20 kilohertz). Most bird species cannot
effect.
hear ultrasound at all or hear only the lower
Strategic sustained control: a management frequencies.
strategy that requires a sustained effort over
Ventriculus: part of a bird’s digestive system,
an extended period of time to reduce crop
being the thick-walled muscular pouch below
damage.
the proventriculus (similar to the stomach in
Strategic targeted control: control implemented other animals) and crop in many birds, used for
only when conditions indicate that it is grinding food. Also called a gizzard.
desirable.
Veraison: ripening period when grapes begin to
Stratifying: where a site to be sampled is divided colour and their sugar content increases.
into sub-units (strata) based on the homogeneity
Xylem: the layer of tissue just inside the bark of
of some feature within each sub-unit. For
woody plants that transports minerals and water
example, damage is to be estimated in a vineyard
from the roots to the stems and leaves.
block where bird damage is concentrated in the
last four panels of vines of each row closest to
an area of native vegetation. The block can be
divided into high and low damage strata along
the line between the fourth and fifth panel, and
this would be the demarcation line for sampling
effort.

INDEX

Note: page locators in bold indicate illustrations. legislation relating to native birds, 240
legislation relating to pest birds, 226–227
Australian king parrot, 16, 20
17-ethynyl-3-methyl ether (mestranol), 58 see also parrots
20,25-diazocholesterolhydrochloride, 58 Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines
2,4,6-tris(ethyle-nimino)-s-triazine (TEM), 58–59 Authority, 86
3-chloro-4-methylaniline, 55–56 Australian raven see ravens
4-aminopyridine, 56, 242 Australian ringneck see ringneck
Australian wood duck, 14, 18
avicides see poisons
A Avigel, 57, 241

Avigrease, 57, 241
accuracy (defined), 248
avoidance response see primary repellents (chemical
acoustic deterrents, 44–48, 250, 253
repellents)
cost-benefit analysis, 81
noise control, 86, 96
Acridotheres tristris see common myna
ACT see Australian Capital Territory B
adaptive management (defined), 248 bait (poisoning), 54–57, 57, 91
Adelaide rosella, 105, 136 mynas (case study), 101
characteristics, 20 and non-target species, 93
damage to cherries (case study), 105–106 bait-shyness, 55, 56
fact sheet, 136–138 balloon bird scarers, 41, 41
level of damage to horticulture, 16 balls, as bird scarers, 41
aircraft, as deterrent to pest birds, 48 barbiturate (defined), 248
alarm calls, 45, 46, 248 bare-eyed corella or cockatoo see little corella
alien species see introduced species barkingbird see red wattlebird
alpha-chloralose, 56–57, 91, 93, 95, 101, 241 Barnardius zonarius see ringneck
aluminium ammonium sulfate, 204, 242 Baudin’s black cockatoo, 14, 18, 109–110, 112–115
ambient temperature (defined), 248 BDH 10131, 58
aminopyridine, 56 bell magpie see pied currawong
ammunition, 90 benefit-cost ratio (defined), 248
Anas superciliosa see Pacific black duck see also cost-benefit analysis
Anatidae see ducks berries, 14–16, 111–112
animal welfare, 93–95 see also fruit crops
Anseranas semipalmata see magpie goose best practice, xi, xiv, xv, 2, 9, 98
Anthochaera carunculata see red wattlebird impediments to, 97
anthraquinone, 72 see also pest bird management
apples bioacoustic sounds, 45–47, 248
cockatoo damage (case study), 112–115 biological control, 73, 248
damage and losses, 23 see also falconry; fertility control
damage susceptibility, 13 biosonic sounds see bioacoustic sounds
lorikeet damage, 165 bird breeding times and habits, 18–21
parrot damage (case study), 109–110 see also fact sheets for bird species, pages
rosella damage, 143 134−197
APVMA see Australian Pesticides and Veterinary bird calls
Medicines Authority recordings as bird scarers, 45–47, 202
arthropod (defined), 248 voice see fact sheets for bird species, pages
Australian Bird and Bat Banding Scheme, 52 134−197
Australian brush turkey, 15, 19 bird carcasses (as bird scarers), 42–43
Australian Capital Territory bird control see pest bird control techniques; pest bird
chemicals available for bird control, 241–242 management
government agencies, 220, 230 bird deterrents see acoustic deterrents; visual
legislation relating to native birds, 238 deterrents
legislation relating to pest birds, 230 bird distributions see fact sheets for bird species,
Australian government pages 134–197
government agencies, 220, 226–227 bird management see pest bird management

bird movements, 18–21 breeding times, 18–21
see also fact sheets for bird species, pages bright objects see reflective devices as bird scarers
134–197 Brix° (defined), 248
bird of prey see birds of prey broadcast sounds as bird scarers, 45–46
bird population density brush turkeys, 15, 19
and cost-benefit of control, 77–79, 82–83 bud damage, 23–24, 37, 62, 106
as predictor of damage, 34–36 budgerigar, locally unprotected, 87, 238
bird population dynamics, 50–51 bunting see visual deterrents
bird population reduction, 50–64, 83, 202–203
cost-benefit analysis of, 81
eradication, 5, 101–103, 250 C
failures, 50, 83
Cacatua galerita see sulphur-crested cockatoo
social and environmental factors, 89–96
Cacatua roseicapilla see galah
see also pest bird control techniques
Cacatua sanguinea see little corella
bird protection status see protected birds; see also
Cacatuidae see cockatoos
fact sheets for bird species, pages 134–197
caffeine, as bird deterrent, 71
bird scaring see scaring
cage traps, 53, 53, 91
birds
see also trapping (bird control)
behaviour, 40–41, 94
Calcutta myna see common myna
benefits of, 28–29
Callochephalon fimbriatum see gang-gang cockatoo
energy requirements of, 35–36
Calyptorhynchus banskii see red-tailed black-cockatoo
monitoring numbers of, 33–34
Calyptorhynchus baudinii see Baudin’s black cockatoo
native plants that attract birds, 223–225
Calyptorhynchus funereus see yellow-tailed black
overseas species not found in Australia, 245
cockatoo
pest birds see pest birds
Calyptorhynchus latirostris see short-billed black-
population density see bird population density
cockatoo
scientific names, 243–245
cambium (defined), 248
birds of prey
cannon nets, 52, 249
defined, 248
capsaicin, as bird deterrent, 71
as deterrent to pest birds, 29, 48–50, 73, 202
captan, as bird repellent, 72
habitats and behaviour, 49, 202
captive birds, risk assessment for, xiii
kites shaped as (bird scarers), 41–42, 96
see also introduced species
recorded calls of (bird scarers), 46
capture at nest sites, 53–54
see also falconry
car-yard bunting see visual deterrents
black cockatoos, 14, 18, 109–110, 112–115
case studies see crop damage assessment case
see also cockatoos
studies; pest bird control case studies
black currawong, 14, 19, 160–161
cats, models of, 43
black duck see Pacific black duck
chemical fertility control, 57–59
black-eared miner, 157
chemical repellents, 70–73, 94, 204, 242
black-faced cuckoo shrike, 15, 134–135
cost-benefit analysis, 81
black magpie see pied currawong
defined, 249
black swan, 14, 18
delivery of, 72–73
blackbird see European blackbird
licences and permits, 86, 94, 242
blue-cheeked rosella see rosellas
see also poisoning; poisons
blue-eyed corella or cockatoo see little corella
chemical residues, 70, 71–72, 73, 94
blue-faced honeyeater, 15, 19
chemicals see chemical repellents; poisons
see also honeyeaters
Chenonetta jubata see Australian wood duck
blue jay see black-faced cuckoo shrike
cherries
book traps see pull nets
bud damage, 23–24, 37, 106
bowerbirds
damage and losses, 23–24
characteristics, 21
damage levels and bird species, 14–16
level of damage to horticulture, 16
protective measures, 71
boysenberries (netting enclosure case study), 111–112
rosella damage (case study), 105–106
Brassica crops, 51
cherry eater see noisy miner
Brassica crops (defined), 248
chestnuts, cockatoo damage to, 24
breeding habits see fact sheets for bird species, pages
134–197

chilli sprays, as bird deterrent, 70–71 coots, 16, 21
see also chemical repellents see also purple swamphen
chock see red wattlebird Coracina novaehollandiae see black-faced cuckoo
cinnamamide, 72 shrike
citrus corellas
damage levels and bird species, 14–16 community attitudes to, 92
damage susceptibility, 13 fact sheet, 148–151
clearing, of vegetation, 86, 96 locally unprotected, 87, 238–239
see also habitat management mitigation project (case study), 103–105
climatic factors Corvids (defined), 249
in damage levels, 28 see also crows; ravens
in forecasting damage, 38 cost-benefit analysis, 75–79
clutch (defined), 249 defined, 249
coccids and psyllids (defined), 253 of netting options for vineyards, 75–77, 204
cockatoo damage of specific pest bird management techniques,
to foliage, 22 77–78, 81–82
to fruit crops, 109–110, 112–115 cost-effectiveness analysis
to furniture, 22 defined, 249
level of, 14 of management strategies, 79
to nut crops, 24, 24, 110–111 costs
to sunflowers, 181 associated with pest birds, 3
cockatoos, 179 cost estimation, 82
characteristics, 18 of crop losses, 23–25
community attitudes to, 92 see also cost-benefit analysis; cost-effectiveness
locally unprotected, 87, 238–239 analysis
mitigation project (case study), 103–105 counting (damage assessment technique), 33, 105–106,
see also corellas; galah; sulphur-crested cockatoo 109–110
colour Cracticinae see currawongs
of fruit, 27 crimson rosella, 16, 20, 136–138
of netting, 68, 96 see also rosellas
Columbo crow, 139 crisis management, 6, 98, 249
common Eurasian, European or Fennoscandian crop damage
blackbird see European blackbird crops susceptible to bird damage, 13–16
common myna, 184 damage other than horticultural, 29–30
associated with urban areas, 25–26 distribution, 22–23, 83
case study, 101 factors influencing damage, 25–28
characteristics, 16 by particular bird species see the species name,
community attitudes to, 92, 95 eg galah
fact sheet, 184–186 to particular fruit crops see the fruit name, eg
level of damage to horticulture, 21 grapes
common starling, 13, 26, 30, 187 prediction methods, 34–36, 37–38
associated with livestock and pastures, 25–26 probability of, 79–80, 82–83
characteristics, 21 secondary damage, 22, 36–37
community attitudes to, 92, 95 types and costs of damage, 22–25
damage caused by, 16, 40, 77–78, 189–190 unpredictability of, 97, 98
eradication (case study), 102 see also crop damage assessment; crop damage
fact sheet, 187–191 assessment case studies
Commonwealth government crop damage assessment, 3, 31–38, 200
government agencies, 220, 226–227 bird density as predictor of damage, 34–36
legislation relating to native birds, 240 and bird energy requirements, 35–36
legislation relating to pest birds, 226–227 early forecasting, 37–38
communication jamming, 47, 249 knowledge and research needs, x–xi
community attitudes to pest control, 89–96 secondary damage, 36–37
compensatory crop production, 22, 36–37, 249 when to measure, 37
contraceptives see fertility control crop damage assessment case studies
Control-a-Bird, 57, 241 apples and stone fruits, 109–110

apples, pears and nashi, 112–115 cost-benefit analysis, 76–77, 81
peanut crop, 110–111 and non-target species, 93, 94
stone fruits, 105–106, 109–110 DRC-1339, 55–56, 93
wine grapes, 107–109 ducks
see also pest bird control case studies characteristics, 18
crops community attitudes to, 90, 92
characteristics influencing damage, 25–27 level of damage to horticulture, 14
compensatory crop production, 22, 36–37, 249 dynamic programming, 80, 250
susceptible to bird damage, 13–16
crows, 249
characteristics, 18 E
community attitudes to, 92
eastern rosella, 16, 20, 137, 142–144, 142
damage to grapes, 141
see also rosellas
fact sheet, 139–141
economic decision-making, 75–83
level of damage to horticulture, 14, 17, 24
cost-benefit analysis, 75–77, 249
locally unprotected, 87, 238
cost-effectiveness analysis, 79, 249
traps for, 53, 53
decision theory (payoff matrix), 79–80, 82
cryptic (defined), 249
economic threshold model, 77–78, 250
cuckoo shrikes
marginal analysis, 78, 251
characteristics, 20
stepwise approach, 80–83
economic threshold model, 77–78, 250
culling see bird population reduction
edge netting, 68, 68
currawongs, 34, 160–161
see also netting
characteristics, 19
egg oils, 59, 203
electrified wires, 69, 81, 204
Elophus roseicapilla see galah
Cyndan Bird Ban see polybutene
endangered species, 85–86
see also protected birds
energy requirements of birds, 35–36
D engagement with landholders, 98–99
D-Ter (bird repellent) see aluminium ammonium sulfate English sparrow see house sparrow
damage English starling see common starling
to crops see crop damage environmental factors in bird management, 83, 89–96
other than horticultural, 29–30 eradication, 5
Dampier’s corella or cockatoo see little corella case studies, 101–103
decision theory (payoff matrix), 79–80, 82 defined, 250
decoy crops and food, 62–63, 96, 203 see also pest bird control techniques
cost-benefit analysis, 81 Eurasian blackbird see European blackbird
defined, 249 Eurasian sparrow see house sparrow
native vegetation as decoy food sources, 63–64, European blackbird, 5, 192
203 characteristics, 19
definitions of terms (glossary), 248–254 community attitudes to, 92
destruction permits see licences and permits damage to grapes, 27, 193
diatomaceous earth (defined), 250 fact sheet, 192–194
Dicaeidae see mistletoe birds level of damage to horticulture, 15
direct measures of damage, 32–33 European goldfinch, 15, 19
discount rate (defined), 250 European greenfinch, 15, 19
dispersal, 57, 250 European starling see common starling
distress calls euthanasia, 51, 54, 95, 104
defined, 250 evaluation see monitoring
recordings as bird scarers, 45–46, 47, 202 exclusion systems for bird control
‘do nothing’ option, 6 electrified wires, 69, 81, 204
dockage (defined), 250 monofilament lines, 69–70, 204, 251–252
drape-over nets, 6, 65–66, 65–67, 76, 162, 203–204, netting, 6, 64–69, 65, 76–77, 93–94, 94, 111–112,
250 162, 203–204, 250
exotic species see introduced species

experiments see research and research needs fruit characteristics influencing damage, 27–28
extension, 97–99 insect damage to fruit, 22
see also government agencies; information production value, 17
sources see also crop damage; crop damage assessment
externality (defined), 251 fruit quality, 22
fungal infection of grapes, 22
fungicides, as bird repellents, 72
F furniture, cockatoo damage to, 22
falconry, 48–50, 73, 202, 251

see also birds of prey
feeding behaviour see foods and feeding behaviour G
Fennoscandian blackbird see European blackbird galah
fenthion methyl, 57, 241 characteristics, 18
feral pigeons, 57, 92 community attitudes to, 92
fertility control, 57–59, 203, 251 damage to nut crops, 24
see also biological control damage to sunflower, 30
field identification see fact sheets for bird species, fact sheet, 145–147
pages 134–197 level of damage to horticulture, 14
figbird, 15, 20 locally unprotected, 87, 238–239
finches gang-gang cockatoo, 14, 18
characteristics, 19 Garrard’s Bird Repellent see polybutene
level of damage to horticulture, 15 gas guns as bird scarers, 44, 45, 96
fipronil, as bird repellent, 72 gassing see euthanasia
firearms and ammunition, 90 gel, for pest control, 57, 86
see also shooting gillbird see red wattlebird
fish gill nets, 66 glossary of terms, 248–254
‘fishing’ lines see monofilament lines Glossopsitta concinna see musk lorikeet
fledgling (defined), 251 golden mantled rosella see Eastern rosella
Flight Control, 72 goldfinch see European goldfinch
Flockoff, 55–56 government agencies
flower crops contact details, 220
damage and losses, 25 role relating to pest birds, xii–xiii, 226–242
damage levels and bird species, 14–16 see also extension; legislation
damage susceptibility, 13 grapes
flying foxes, 24–25 damage, 23, 37, 40, 108, 141, 165, 168, 189, 193,
foliage damage, 22, 25 197
foods and feeding behaviour damage and losses, 23, 109
feeding behaviour, 18–21, 62–63 damage (case study), 107–109
foods preferred by pest birds, 18–21 damage levels and bird species, 14–16
influence of food availability on damage, 25 fungal infection, 22
see also fact sheets for bird species, pages production value, 17
134–197 protection of grape bunches, 70
forecasting damage, 36–37 see also wine grapes
see also crop damage assessment grassfinches
forest raven see ravens characteristics, 20
four o’clock see noisy friarbird level of damage to horticulture, 15
foxes, as pests, 92 gravid (defined), 251
free-feeding, 51, 53, 53, 54–55, 251 grazing repellents, 72
Fringillidae see finches grease or gel, for pest control, 57, 86
fruit crops great bowerbird, 16, 21
damage and losses, 23–25 greater sulphur-crested cockatoo see sulphur-crested
damage susceptibility, 13–16 cockatoo
effects of chemical repellents on production, 70, green and gold/green and yellow lorikeet see scaly-
72–73 breasted lorikeet
effects of netting on production and green keet see musk lorikeet; scaly-breasted lorikeet
management, 68–69 green leek see musk lorikeet

green lorikeet see scaly-breasted lorikeet internode (defined), 251
green rosella, 16, 20, 136 interviews (damage assessment technique), 31–32
see also rosellas introduced species, 93
greenfinch see European greenfinch community attitudes to, 92–93, 95
greenie see scaly-breasted lorikeet defined, 250
grey-breasted white-eye see silvereye destruction and culling arrangements, 44, 85–86,
grey currawong, 14, 19, 160–161, 160 94–95
grey teal, 14, 18 fact sheets, 184–197
guns see firearms and ammunition; gas guns as bird risk assessment for captive birds, xiii
scarers scientific names, 245
see also names of species, eg common myna
H
habitat see fact sheets for bird species, pages 134–197 J
habitat management, 59–64, 81, 86, 96, 203, 249 jamming (communication jamming), 47, 249
habituation, 42–47, 202, 203, 251
hail netting, 68–69
height of fruit, 27–28 K
hexose, as bird repellent, 72
king parrot see Australian king parrot
honeyeaters, 35, 38, 63–64
kites, as bird scarers, 41–42, 96
characteristics, 19
knobbynose see noisy friarbird
damage to grapes, 37
Kocide, as bird repellent, 72
level of damage to horticulture, 15, 25, 36–37
see also noisy friarbird; noisy miner
horticultural losses, 22–25
see also crop damage L
horticultural production land-use, influence on damage, 25–27
gross value, 17 landholders, xii, 98–99
horticultural crops defined, 251 leatherhead see noisy friarbird
key areas, 13 legal considerations in pest bird management, 83,
see also fruit crops 85–87, 226–242
house crow, 139 legislation, xii, 85–87
house myna see common myna relating to pest birds, 226–237
house sparrow, 195 relating to the destruction of native birds, 238–
characteristics, 5, 20 240
community attitudes to, 92 see also licences and permits; registration of
damage to grapes, 197 chemicals
fact sheet, 195–197 lethal procedures see bird population reduction;
level of damage to horticulture, 15 eradication; poisoning
humane procedures see animal welfare; bird Lewin’s honeyeater, 15, 19
population reduction; euthanasia see also honeyeaters
licences and permits
for destruction or culling, 85–86
I destruction permits (defined), 249
relating to the destruction of native birds, 238–
Indian myna see common myna
240
indirect measures of damage, 33–36
for trapping, 52
inflorescence (defined), 251
for use of chemicals, 54–55, 56, 57, 86, 241–242
information sources, 132, 205, 220
see also registration of chemicals
see also extension; see also fact sheets for bird
lindane, as bird repellent, 72
species, pages 134–197
linear programming, 80, 251
insect damage to fruit, 22
little corella, 148
see also secondary losses
characteristics, 18
insect pest control, 28
insecticides, as bird repellents, 71–72, 204
internal rate of return (defined), 251
see also cost-benefit analysis
see also corellas

little crow see crows models (economic models) see economic decision-
little raven see ravens making
livestock, associated with starlings, 25–26 modified Australian crow traps, 53, 53
, locally unprotected, 87 monitoring
‘lockout’ system of netting, 66, 67 bird control and damage prevention effectiveness,
long-billed corella, 148 9–12
characteristics, 18 bird numbers, 33–34
level of damage to horticulture, 14 monk see noisy friarbird
locally unprotected, 87, 238 monofilament lines, 69–70, 204, 251–252
see also corellas motion devices as bird scarers, 42–43, 44, 202
lorikeets motorcycles, used by shooters, 48
damage to apples, 165 mountain lowry see rosellas
damage to grapes, 23, 165 movements see fact sheets for bird species, pages
fact sheets, 152–154, 172–174 134–197
lory see rosellas; scaly-breasted lorikeet Multicrop Scat (bird repellent) see aluminium
lowry see rosellas ammonium sulfate
multiple-row netting systems, 66, 66, 67, 76–77
Murray rosella see yellow rosella
M Murray smoker see yellow rosella

Murrumbidgee parrot see yellow rosella
MAC traps see modified Australian crow traps
Muscicapidae see Old World flycatchers
magpie, bell see pied currawong
musk lorikeet, 16, 20, 152–154, 152
magpie, black see pied currawong
see also lorikeets
magpie goose, 14, 18
myna or mynah see common myna
magpies, 29, 30, 34, 92
mail surveys (damage assessment technique), 31–32
Major Mitchell’s cockatoo, 14, 18
mallee ringneck see ringneck N
management see habitat management; orchard names, scientific, 243–245
management; pest bird management naphthalene, as bird deterrent, 71
maned duck see Australian wood duck nashi
Manorina melanocephala see noisy miner cockatoo damage (case study), 112–115
marginal analysis, 78–79, 251 starling damage, 190
marginal benefit, 251 national parks and reserves, 85–86
marginal cost, 251 native species, 94
Megapodiidae see brush turkeys community attitudes to, 89, 91–95
Meliphagidae see honeyeaters fact sheets, 134–181
messenger bird see black-faced cuckoo shrike legislation relating to destruction of native birds,
mestranol, 58 238–240
Mesurol-75, 71–72 locally unprotected, 85, 87, 238–240
metallic starling, 16, 21 protection from harm or harassment, 17, 44, 51,
see also starlings 85–86, 93
methiocarb scientific names, 243–244
as bird repellent, 71–72, 204 see also names of bird species, eg galah
as seed-dressing, 72 native vegetation
methyl anthranilate, as bird deterrent, 70, 94 clearing of, 86, 96
micky miner see noisy miner as decoy food sources, 63–64, 203
migratory (defined), 251 species that attract birds, 223–225
miner, noisy see noisy miner nest box traps, 54, 54
mineral oils (prevention of egg hatching), 59, 203 see also trapping (bird control)
mint derivatives, as bird deterrent, 71 nest site capture, 53–54
mist nets, 52, 52, 251 net-laying machines, 65–66, 66, 203
mistletoe birds net present value (defined), 252
characteristics, 19 see also cost-benefit analysis
level of damage to horticulture, 15 netting
models as bird scarers aesthetic issues, 96
aircraft, 48 colour, 68, 96
predators, 42–43, 47–48

compared with cinnamamide treatment, 72 orchard characteristics, influence on damage, 6, 25–27,
compared with methiocarb spraying, 71 60–62
cost-benefit analysis of options, 75–77, 81, 204 orchard management, 7, 60–62, 203
at edge of crop, 68, 68 see also pest bird control techniques; pest bird
effects on production and management, 68–69 management
exclusion netting, 6, 64–69, 65, 111–112, 162, 203– orioles
204, 250 characteristics, 20
hail netting, 68–69 level of damage to horticulture, 15
life expectancies of nets, 68 Ornitrol, 58
and non-target species, 93 ousel see European blackbird
traps, 51–54, 53–54, 91, 95 see also trapping (bird
control)
New Holland honeyeater, 15, 19 P
Pachycephalinae see cuckoo shrikes
New South Wales
Pacific black duck, 14, 18
chemicals available for bird control, 241–242
pale-headed rosella, 16, 20
government agencies, 220, 227–229
see also rosellas
legislation relating to native birds, 238
parrots
characteristics, 20
nicarbazin, 59
damage to apples and stone fruits (case study),
109–110
noisy friarbird, 15, 19, 155–156, 155
see also cockatoos; galah; lorikeets; rosellas
noisy miner, 15, 19, 157–159, 157
Passer domesticus see house sparrow
Passerines
nomadic (defined), 252
characteristics, 20
non-target species, 93
defined, 252
Northern Territory
pastures, associated with starlings, 25–26
pay-off matrix, 79–80, 82, 252
peanuts, cockatoo damage (case study), 110–111
pears
NSW see New South Wales
cockatoo damage (case study), 112–115
NT see Northern Territory
damage and losses, 23
nut crops
damage susceptibility, 13
damage and losses, 23, 24
rosella damage, 138, 144
damage levels and bird species, 14–16, 24, 110–111
starling damage, 190
damage susceptibility, 13–16
peregrine falcon, 29
production value, 17
performance indicators (defined), 252
nylon lines see monofilament lines
performance monitoring
of bird control and damage prevention, 10–11
defined, 252
O permanent netting systems, 67–68, 67
odometer (defined), 252 and boysenberries (case study), 111–112
oils (prevention of egg hatching), 59, 203 cost-benefit analysis, 76–77, 81
oily substances (tactile bird repellents), 73 defined, 252
Old World flycatchers and non-target species, 93
characteristics, 19 tax considerations, 83
level of damage to horticulture, 15 permits and licences see licences and permits
olive-backed oriole, 15, 20 pest bird control case studies
olive trees cockatoo damage to peanuts, 110–111
damage levels and bird species, 14–16 cockatoo mitigation, 103
and starling damage, 77–78 myna eradication, 101
as weeds, 4 parrot damage to apples and stone fruits, 109–110
operational monitoring, 10, 252 rosella damage to cherries, 105–106
opportunity cost (defined), 252 starling eradication, 102

see also crop damage assessment case studies; information sources on, 132
pest bird control techniques; pest bird knowledge and research needs, x
management overseas species not found in Australia, 245
pest bird control techniques, 7–9, 97, 201–204 scientific names, 243–245
costs and benefits of, 77–79, 81 and susceptible crops, 13–16
data and research required, xi–xii see also names of bird species, eg galah; see also
and probability of bird damage, 79–80, 82–83 pest bird control techniques
selection matrix, 8 pest birds
specific techniques damage other than horticultural, 29–30
biological control, 73, 248 see also falconry damage to crops see crop damage
chemical repellents see chemical repellents information sources on, 132 see also fact sheets
euthanasia, 51, 54, 94, 104 for bird species, pages 134–197
exclusion see exclusion systems population density, 34–36, 77–79, 82–83
fertility control, 57–59, 203, 251 population dynamics, 50–51
habitat management and decoy feeding, predators of, 29
59–64, 81, 86, 96, 203, 249 preferences for fruit or variety characteristics,
netting see netting 27–28
poisoning, 54–57, 81, 83, 93, 203 see also risks to other industries, 29
poisons see also pest bird management; pest bird species
population reduction, 5, 50–64, 81, 83, 89– PESTPLAN, 99
96, 101–103, 202–203, 250 Philemon corniculatus see noisy friarbird
scaring see scaring phloem (defined), 252
shooting see shooting phtyotoxic (defined), 252
trapping see trapping (bird control) pied currawong, 14, 19, 34, 160–162, 160
see also pest bird control case studies; pest bird pigeons, 57, 58, 59, 92
management pipfruit see pome fruit
pest bird damage see crop damage plans see pest bird management: plans
pest bird management, 2–12, 200–205 plastic objects as bird scarers see visual deterrents
best practice, xi, xiv, xv, 2, 9, 97, 98 Platycercus elegans see rosellas
crisis management, 6, 98, 249 poisoning, 83, 203
economic decision-making, 75–83 baits, 54–57
environmental considerations, 83, 89–96 cost-benefit analysis, 81
extension (role of ), 97–99 free-feeding, 54–55
government role and legislation, 226–242 and non-target species, 93
information sources on, 205, 220 poisons, 54–57, 91, 241–242
legal considerations, 83, 85–87, 226–242 licences and permits, 54–55, 56, 57, 86, 91, 203,
management options, 5–7 241–242
modelling, 80 see also chemical repellents; chemical residues
monitoring and evaluation of, 9–12 pollination, effect of netting, 69
national approach needed, xii–xiii polybutene, 73, 242
options, 81–83 see also chemical repellents
plans, 4–9, 80–83, 201, 204, 208–218 polyester sleeves, on grape bunches, 70
priorities, problems and research needs, x–xiii pome fruit
problem definition, 2–4 damage levels and bird species, 14–16
RSPCA policy, 94–95 damage susceptibility, 13
social considerations, 83, 89–96 defined, 252
step-wise approach, 80–83 see also apples; nashi; pears
strategic approach, 2–12 population density see bird population density
see also pest bird control case studies; pest bird population reduction see bird population reduction
control techniques Port Lincoln ringneck see ringneck
pest bird species, 4, 87, 200, 238–239 pre-baiting see free-feeding
behaviour, 40–41, 94 pre-feeding see free-feeding
characteristics, 17–21 precision (defined), 253
community perceptions of, 92, 95 predators, models of, 41–43, 42, 47, 96
fact sheets predatory birds, 29, 34, 45–46, 48–49, 73
introduced species, 184–197 see also birds of prey; crows; ravens
native species, 134–181

prescriptive models (defined), 253 level of damage to horticulture, 14, 17, 24
prey, 94 locally unprotected, 87, 238–239
primary repellents (chemical repellents), 70–71, 253 recordings as bird scarers, 45–47, 202
see also chemical repellents red-capped parrot, 16, 20, 109–110
priorities for pest bird impact reduction, x–xiii see also parrots
privet, 4 red-crowned lorikeet see musk lorikeet
problem definition, 2–4 red-eared lorikeet see musk lorikeet
see also pest bird management red-headed rosella see Eastern rosella
propane exploder (defined), 253 red lory see rosellas
see also gas guns as bird scarers red-tailed black-cockatoo, 14, 18, 110–111
protected birds, 17, 44, 51, 85–86 see also cockatoos
see also native species red wattlebird, 15, 34, 166
protection status, see fact sheets for bird species, characteristics, 19
pages 134–197 damage to wine grapes, 168
Prunus see stone fruits fact sheet, 166–168
Psittacidae see parrots level of damage to horticulture, 15
psittacine (defined), 253 locally unprotected, 87, 238
psyllids and coccids (defined), 253 red-winged parrot, 16, 20
Ptilinorhynchidae see bowerbirds see also parrots
pull nets, 52–53, 52, 104 reflective devices as bird scarers, 43–44, 44, 96, 202
see also netting regent bowerbird, 16, 21
pulpiness of fruit, 27 regent parrot, 16, 20, 62
purple swamphen, 16, 21, 87, 238 see also parrots
Purpureicephalus spurius see red-capped parrot registration of chemicals, 70, 71, 86, 226, 241–242
see also chemical repellents; licences and permits
Rentokil alphachloralose see alpha-chloralose
Q repellents see chemical repellents; tactile repellents

research and research needs, x–xiii, 98–99
Queensland
residues, of chemicals, 70, 71–72, 73, 94
Rid-a-Bird, 57
government agencies, 220, 229
ring-eye see silvereye
ringneck, 137, 169
legislation relating to pest birds, 229
characteristics, 20
questionnaires, 31–32, 99
damage to apples and stone fruits, 101–110
see also surveys
ripening time of fruit, 27
R risk and risk assessment, 79–80, 83
rabbits, as pests, 92 concerning captive birds, xiii
rails, 16, 21 rock dove, 57, 92
see also purple swamphen roosting deterrents, 73, 204
rainbow lorikeet, 163, 165, 172 rose-breasted cockatoo see galah
characteristics, 20 rose cockatoo see galah
fact sheet, 163–165 Rosehill parrot see Eastern rosella
level of damage to horticulture, 16 rosellas, 105, 136, 142
locally unprotected, 87, 239 characteristics, 16, 28, 62
see also lorikeets damage to apples, 143
Rallidae see coots; rails damage to cherries, 23–24, 35, 105–106
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 85, 253 damage to foliage, 22, 25
random sampling see sampling (damage assessment damage to grapes, 107
technique) damage to pears, 138, 144
raptors see birds of prey damage to stone fruits (case study), 105–106
ravens, 139, 249 fact sheets, 136–138, 142–144
characteristics, 18 level of damage to horticulture, 17, 20, 39
community attitudes to, 92 Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals,
fact sheet, 139–141 94–95

Ruddocks Animal and bird deterrent see aluminium snakebird see noisy miner
ammonium sulfate snakes, models of, 43
social factors in bird management, 83, 89–96
soldier bird see noisy miner
S soluble sugar content (defined), 253

song thrush, 15, 19, 27, 192
sampling (damage assessment technique), 32–33,
soporific effects of chemical repellents, 56, 91, 93, 95,
221–222
101, 253
case studies, 105–109
sound-producing bird scarers see acoustic deterrents
satin bowerbird, 16, 21
South Australia
scaly-breasted lorikeet, 16, 20, 172–174, 172
see also lorikeets
Scarecrow Bird Repellent see polybutene
scarecrows, 42, 43, 48, 96
scaring, 5–6, 39–40, 201–202
southern black-backed miner see noisy miner
acoustic methods, 44–48, 81, 86, 96, 250, 253
sparrow see house sparrow
with aircraft, 48
species
bird species and response, 40–41
introduced see introduced species
combined visual and acoustic methods, 47–48
native see native species
shooters’ clothing and equipment, 48, 49
pest see pest bird species
ultrasonic devices, 47, 202, 254
spinning objects see motion devices as bird scarers
using birds of prey, 29, 48–50, 202
spiny-cheeked honeyeater, 15, 19
visual methods, 41–44, 47–48, 96, 201–202, 250
Scatterbird, 56, 242
spotted bowerbird, 16, 21
scientific names of birds, 243–245
squeaker see noisy miner
secondary losses, 22, 32, 36–37, 196, 253
standard deviation (defined), 253
secondary plant compound (defined), 253
standard error (defined), 253–254
secondary repellents (chemical repellents), 56, 71–73,
Starlicide, 55–56
94, 204, 253
starlings, 13, 26, 187
see also chemical repellents
associated with livestock and pastures, 25–26
sedentary (defined), 253
characteristics, 21
seed coating, 72, 73
community attitudes to, 92, 95
seed-dressing, with methiocarb, 72
damage caused by, 16, 40, 77–78, 189–190
sensitivity analysis, 76–77, 253
eradication (case study), 102
shooting, 87, 203
for bird population reduction, 51, 83, 90, 95
feeding on supplementary stock feed, 30
for bird scaring, 44, 49, 51
stone fruits
costs and benefits of, 81
firearms recommended, 90
damage levels and bird species, 14–16
non-target species, 93
defined, 254
shooters’ clothing and equipment, 48, 49, 90
parrot damage (case study), 109–110
shooting devices as bird scarers, 44–45, 48
rosella damage (case study), 105–106
see also cherries
short-billed black-cockatoo, 14, 18
strategic one-off control, 5, 7, 39, 114, 254
short-billed corella or cockatoo see little corella
strategic sustained control, 5, 7, 254
shufflewing see black-faced cuckoo shrike
strategic targeted control, 6, 7, 39, 254
side exclusion netting, 6, 6
stratifying (defined), 254
see also netting
Strepera graculina see pied currawong
silvereye, 4, 175
Sturnidae see starlings
characteristics, 21
Sturnus vulgaris see common starling
damage in vineyards, 79–80
sub-population (defined), 254
sugar concentration of fruit, 27
sugar (sucrose), as bird repellent, 72
sulphur-crested cockatoo, 179
single catch nest box traps see nest box traps
characteristics, 18
single clap nets see pull nets
damage to peanuts (case study), 110–111
size of fruit, 27

U
locally unprotected, 87, 238–239
ultrasonic devices, 47, 202
mitigation project (case study), 103–105
ultrasound (defined), 254
sunflower
unprotected native species, 85, 87, 238–240
cockatoo damage to, 181
see also introduced species
galah damage to, 30
superb parrot, 16, 20, 137
surveys, 99
of community attitudes to pest species, 92, 95 V
damage assessment technique, 31–32 vegetable crops
swans, 14, 18 damage levels and bird species, 14–16
systematic sampling see sampling (damage damage susceptibility, 13
assessment technique) production value, 17
vegetable oils (prevention of egg hatching), 59, 203
vegetation clearing, 86, 96
T see also habitat management
ventriculus (defined), 254
table grapes see grapes
veraison (defined), 254
tactile repellents, 73, 81, 204, 254
Victoria
Taeniopygia guttata see zebra finch
Tasmania
Victorian Institute of Animal Science, 92, 95
vineyards
tax considerations, 83
cost-benefit analysis of netting options, 75–77,
TEM (triethylenemelamine), 58–59
204
temporal factors, 201
side exclusion netting, 6, 6
in damage levels, 28
silvereye damage, 79–80
in scaring, 41
see also wine grapes
thioTEPA, 59
visual assessment of damage, 33, 81
thiram, as bird repellent, 72
visual deterrents, 41–44, 47–48, 201–202
threatened species, 85–86
aesthetic issues, 96
see also protected birds
defined, 250
throw-over nets see drape-over nets
voice (bird voice), see fact sheets for bird species,
Torresian crow see crows
pages 134–197
total exclusion systems see exclusion systems for bird
control
toxic repellents see chemical repellents
trapping (bird control), 51–54, 83, 91, 95, 202–203 W
cockatoo mitigation case study, 103–105 walk-in cage traps, 53, 53
and non-target species, 93 see also trapping (bird control)
traps, 53–54, 91 wattlebirds, locally unprotected, 87, 238
Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus see scaly-breasted see also red wattlebird
lorikeet wattled honeyeater see red wattlebird
Trichoglossus haematodus see rainbow lorikeet wax-eye see silvereye
triethylenemelamine (TEM), 58–59 weather conditions, in forecasting damage, 38
triethylenethiophosphoramide (thioTEPA), 59 weighing (damage assessment technique), 32–33
tris (1-aziridinyl) phosphine sulfide (thioTEPA), 59 Western Australia
tropical fruit chemicals available for bird control, 241–242
damage and losses, 24–25 government agencies, 220, 236–237
damage levels and bird species, 14–16 legislation relating to native birds, 239
damage susceptibility, 13 legislation relating to pest birds, 236–237
Turdus merula see European blackbird western corella, 148
Turdus philomelos see song thrush see also corellas
twenty-eight parrot see ringneck western rosella, 16, 20
see also rosellas

what’s o’clock see red wattlebird
white-cheeked rosella see Eastern rosella
white cockatoo see sulphur-crested cockatoo
white-eye see silvereye
white-plumed honeyeater, 15, 19
wildlife safety, 71, 85–86, 93–95
willock cockatoo see galah
wind conditions and visual scaring devices, 41, 43
wine
chemical residues in, 71–72
soluble sugar content (defined), 253
wine grapes
bird damage, 108, 168
bird damage (case study), 107–109
production value, 17
see also grapes
wire netting, 68
see also netting
wood pigeon, 51
X
xylem (defined), 254
Y
yellow-faced honeyeater, 15, 19
yellow orioles, 15, 20
yellow rosella, 16, 20, 136–138
see also rosellas
yellow-tailed black cockatoo, 14, 18
yellow-throated miner, 15, 19, 157
yield see fruit crops
Z
zebra finch
characteristics, 20
Zosterops lateralis see silvereye

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Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

Managing Bird Damage

Reducing bird damage is difficult because of the

This book promotes the adoption of a more strategic

DEPARTMENT OF AG R I C U LT U R E , FISHERIES AND FORESTRY

Reducing bird damage is difficult because of the

This book promotes the adoption of a more strategic

DEPARTMENT OF AG R I C U LT U R E , FISHERIES AND FORESTRY

ISBN 0 644 29240 7 (set)

Copies available from:

Ph: 1800 020 157

Mary Bomford, Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra

Quentin Hart, Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra

Preferred way to cite this publication:

Design: Big Island Graphics, Canberra

Section break image:

ii Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops iii

Part A: General principles

iv Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

Part B: Factsheets for growers

Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops 

part c: appendices and sources

Lists of figures and tables

vi Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops vii

viii Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops ix

x Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops xi

xii Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops xiii

strategy, but it is expensive and often is either problems faced by producers.

not practical or cannot be justified given current

Growers also face high variability in, and

xiv Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops xv

xvi Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops 1

Table 1.1: Strategic approach to managing bird pest damage.

Problem definition Management plan Implementation Monitoring and evaluation

2 Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

important. • negative impacts of control measures — for

Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops 3

Figure 1.1: Silvereye feeding on small-leaved

1.2.1 Define management objectives and

• prevent damage caused by pest birds or

These objectives are best described in terms

4 Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops 5

6 Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

• control techniques available and their effec­

Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops 7

Harvest date Yes Yes? Yes No? Yes Yes Yes

Shooting Yes No? Yes No? Yes? No? Yes?

8 Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

plan is about maximising the economic returns from

Cooperative action with neighbours may be

1.4 Monitor and evaluate

Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops 9

Managing Bird Damage to Fruit and Other Horticultural Crops

• control techniques available and their effec

Bird damage in horticultural and other agri