The American Colonial Period

A new set of colonizers brought about new changes in Philippine literature. New literary
forms such as free verse [in poetry], the modern short story and the critical essay were
introduced. American influence was deeply entrenched with the firm establishment of
English as the medium of instruction in all schools and with literary modernism that
highlighted the writer’s individuality and cultivated consciousness of craft, sometimes at
the expense of social consciousness.

The poet, and later, National Artist for Literature, Jose Garcia Villa used free verse and
espoused the dictum, “Art for art’s sake” to the chagrin of other writers more concerned
with the utilitarian aspect of literature. Another maverick in poetry who used free verse
and talked about illicit love in her poetry was Angela Manalang Gloria, a woman poet
described as ahead of her time. Despite the threat of censorship by the new
dispensation,
more writers turned up “seditious works” and popular writing in the native languages
bloomed through the weekly outlets like Liwayway and Bisaya.

The Balagtas tradition persisted until the poet Alejandro G. Abadilla advocated
modernism in poetry. Abadilla later influenced young poets who wrote modern verses in
the 1960s such as Virgilio S. Almario, Pedro I. Ricarte and Rolando S. Tinio. While the
early Filipino poets grappled with the verities of the new language, Filipinos seemed to
have taken
easily to the modern short story as published in the Philippines Free Press, the College
Folio and Philippines Herald. Paz Marquez Benitez’s “Dead Stars” published in 1925 was
the first successful short story in English written by a Filipino. Later on, Arturo B. Rotor
and Manuel E. Arguilla showed exceptional skills with the short
story.
Alongside this development, writers in the vernaculars continued to write in the
provinces. Others like Lope K. Santos, Valeriano Hernandez Peña and Patricio Mariano
were writing minimal narratives similar to the early Tagalog short fiction
called dali or pasingaw (sketch).
The romantic tradition was fused with American pop culture or European influences in
the adaptations of Edgar Rice Burroughs’ Tarzan by F. P. Boquecosa who also
penned Ang Palad ni Pepe after Charles Dicken’s David Copperfield even as the realist
tradition was kept alive in the novels by Lope K. Santos and Faustino Aguilar, among
others. It should be noted that if there was a dearth of the Filipino novel in English, the
novel in the vernaculars continued to be written and serialized in weekly magazines
like Liwayway, Bisaya, Hiligaynon and Bannawag. The essay in English became a potent
medium from the 1920’s to the present.
Some leading essayists were journalists like Carlos P. Romulo, Jorge Bocobo, Pura
Santillan Castrence, etc. who wrote formal to humorous to informal essays for the
delectation by Filipinos.

Among those who wrote criticism developed during the American period were Ignacio
Manlapaz, Leopoldo Yabes and I.V. Mallari. But it was Salvador P. Lopez’s criticism that
grabbed attention when he won the Commonwealth Literay Award for the essay in 1940
with his “Literature and Society.” This essay posited that art must have substance and
that Villa’s adherence to “Art for Art’s Sake” is decadent.

The last throes of American colonialism saw the flourishing of Philippine literature in
English at the same time, with the introduction of the New Critical aesthetics, made
writers pay close attention to craft and “indirectly engendered a disparaging attitude”
towards vernacular writings — a tension that would recur in the contemporary
period.

The Contemporary Period

The flowering of Philippine literature in the various languages continue especially with
the appearance of new publications after the Martial Law years and the resurgence of
committed literature in the 1960s and the 1970s. Filipino writers continue to write poetry,
short stories, novellas, novels and essays whether these are socially,committed,
gender/ethnic related or are personal in intention or not. Of course the Filipino writer has
become more conscious of his art with the proliferation of writers workshops here and
abroad and the bulk of literature available to him via the mass media including the
internet.

The various literary awards such as the Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for
Literature, the Philippines Free Press, Philippine Graphic, Home Life and Panorama
literary awards encourage him to compete with his peers and hope that his creative
efforts will be rewarded in the long run. With the new requirement by the Commission
on Higher Education of teaching of Philippine Literature in all tertiary schools in the
country emphasizing the teaching of the vernacular literature or literatures of the
regions, the audience for Filipino writers is virtually assured. And, perhaps, a national
literature finding its niche among the literatures of the world will not be far behind.
AMERICAN PERIOD (1898-1941)
Historical Background
 The Filipino Revolutionists won against the Spaniards who colonized us for more than 300
years.
 Our flag was hoisted on June 12, 1898 as a symbol of our independence.
 Emilio Aguinaldo was selected the first president of the Philippine republic but this was
short lived.
 The Filipino – American war resulted in the defeat of Gen. Miguel Malvar in 1903.
 The peace movements started as early as 1900.
 Many Filipinos started writing again and the nationalism of the people remain undaunted.
 Filipino writers went into all forms of literature like news reporting, poetry, stories, plays,
essays and novels.
 Their writings clearly depicted their love of country and their longings for independence.

1. Period of Re-Orientation 1898-1910

Air Castles (Poetry) by Juan F. Salazar (1909-1910)

1. Period of Imitation 1911-1925 (American Period)

The Sea by Natividad Marquez (Poetry)

1. Period of Self Discovery (1925-1941)

Poetry
1896 by Aurelio Alvero
To a Lost One by Angela ManalangGloria

Prayer of a Student by Trinidad L. TarrosaSubido

Short Story
Dead Stars by Paz Marquez-Benitez
The Making of a Writer by Salvador P. Lopez

Shadow and Solitude (A translation of Solo Entre Las Sombras) by Claro M. Recto
translated by Nick Joaquin

1. Period of Re-Orientation 1898-1910

 Air Castles (Poetry) by Juan F. Salazar (1909-1910)
 English as a literary vehicle came with the American occupation in August 13, 1898
 By 1900, English came to be used as a medium of instruction in the public schools. From
the American forces were recruited the first teachers of English.
 By 1908, the primary and intermediate grades were using English. It was also about this
time when UP, the forerunner in the use of English in higher education, was founded.
 Writers of this period were still adjusting to the newfound freedom after the paralyzing
effect of repression of thought and speech under the Spanish regime.
  They were adjusting the idea of democracy, to the new phraseology of the English
language and to the standards of the English literary style Writers had to learn direct
expression as conditioned by direct thinking.
 They had to learn that sentence constructions; sounds and speech in English were not the
same as in the vernacular.
 The first attempts in English were in two periodicals of this time:
 El Renacimiento: founded in Manila by Rafael Palma in 1901
 Philippines Free Press: established in Manila in 1905 by R. McCullough Dick and D.
Theo Rogers
1. Period of Imitation (1911-1925)
By 1919, the UP College Folio published the literary compositions of the first Filipino
writers in English. They were the pioneers in short story writing. They were then groping
their way into imitating American and British models which resulted in a stilted, artificial
and unnatural style, lacking vitality and spontaneity. Their models included Longfellow
and Hawthorne, Emerson and Thoreau, Wordsworth and Tennyson, Thackeray and
Macaulay, Longfellow, Allan Poe, Irving and other American writers of the Romantic
School.

Writers of this folio included Fernando Maramag (the best editorial writer of this period)
Juan F. Salazar, Jose M. Hernandez, Vicente del Fierro, and Francisco M. Africa and
Victoriano Yamzon. They pioneered in English poetry.

ESSAYS
The noted essayists of this time were: Carlos P. Romulo, Jorge C. Bocobo, Mauro
Mendez, and Vicente Hilario.

Their essays were truly scholarly characterized by substance and structure. They
excelled in the serious essay, especially the editorial type. The next group of writers
introduced the informal essay, criticism and the journalistic column. They spiced their
work with humor, wit and satire. These group included Ignacio Manlapaz, Godefredo
Rivera, Federico Mangahas, Francisco B. Icasiano, Salvador P. Lopez, Jose Lansang
and Amando G. Dayrit.

SHORT STORIES
In the field of short stories, DEAD STARS by Paz Marquez Benitez written in the early
1920’s stand out as a model of perfection in character delineation, local color, plot and
message.

Other short stories published during this time were but poor imitations of their foreign
models. The UP College Folio was later replaced by the Philippine Collegian.
Newspapers and periodicals also saw print during this time like the Bulletin, the
Philippines Herald (1920), the Philippine Review, the Independent, Rising Philippines
and Citizens,and the Philippine Education Magazine 1924

1. Period of Self Discovery (1925-1941)

By this time, Filipino writers had acquired the mastery of English writing. They now
confidently and competently wrote on a lot of subjects although the old-time favorites of
love and youth persisted. They went into all forms of writing like the novel and the
drama.

Poets wrote not only love poems but patriotic, religious, descriptive and reflective
poems as well. They wrote in free verse, in odes and sonnets and in other types. Poetry
was original, spontaneous, competently written and later, incorporated social
consciousness.

Probably because of the incentives provided by publications like the Philippine Free
Press, The Graphic, The Philippine Magazine and college publications like the UP
Literary Apprentice, poetry and the short story flourished during these times.

JAPANESE PERIOD (1941-1945)

To My Native Land by Tarrosa Subido

My Father’s Tragedy by Carlos Bulosan

Shall We Walk? by Pura Santillan Castrence

Historical Background
Between 1941-1945, Philippine Literature was interrupted in its development when the
Philippines was again conquered by another foreign country, Japan. Philippine literature
in English came to a halt. Except for the TRIBUNE and the PHILIPPINE REVIEW,
almost all newspapers in English were stopped by the Japanese.

This had an advantageous effect on Filipino Literature, which experienced renewed

attention because writers in English turned to writing in Filipino. Juan Laya, who use to
write in English turned to Filipino because of the strict prohibitions of the Japanese
regarding any writing in English. The weekly LIWAYWAY was placed under strict
surveillance until it was managed by Japanese named Ishiwara.

Filipino literature was given a break during this period. Many wrote plays, poems, short
stories, etc. Topics and themes were often about life in the provinces.

Filipino Poetry
The common theme of most poems during the Japanese occupation was nationalism,
country, love, and life in the barrios, faith, religion and the arts.

Filipino Drama
The drama experienced a lull during the Japanese period because movie houses
showing American films were closed. The big movie houses were just made to show
stage shows.
Many of the plays were reproductions of English plays to Tagalog. The translators were
Francisco Soc Rodrigo, Alberto Concio, and Narciso Pimentel. They also founded the
organization of Filipino players named Dramatic Philippines. A few of playwriters were:

1. Jose Ma. Hernandez –wrote PANDAY PIRA

2. Francisco Soc Rodrigo –wrote sa PULA, SA PUTI
3. Clodualdo del Mundo –wrote BULAGA (an expression in the game Hide and Seek).
4. Julian Cruz BalmaNceda –wrote SINO BA KAYO?, DAHIL SA ANAK, and HIGANTE
NG PATAY
Philippine Literature in English (1941-1945)
Because of the strict prohibitions imposed b the Japanese in the writing and publishing
of works in English, Philippine literature in English experienced a dark period. The few
who dared to write did so for their bread and butter or for propaganda.

Writings that came out during this period were journalistic in nature. Writers felt
suppressed but slowly, the spirit of nationalism started to seep into their consciousness.
While some continued to write, the majority waited for a better climate to publish their
works. Noteworthy writer of the period was Carlos P. Romulo who won the Pulitzer
Prize for his bestsellers I SAW THE FALL OF THE PHILIPPINES, I SEE THE
PHILIPPINES RISE and his MOTHER AMERICA AND MY BROTHER AMERICANS

REBIRTH OF FREEDOM (1946-1970)

Historical Background
The Americans returned in 1945. Filipinos rejoiced and guerrillas who fled to the
mountain joined the liberating American Army.

On July 4, 1946, the Philippines regained is freedom and the Filipino flag waved
joyously alone. The chains were broken.

Palanca awards
Another inspiration for writers in Filipino was the launching of the Palanca Memorial
Awards for literature headed by Carlos Palanca Sr. in 1950. (Until now, the awards are
still being given although the man who founded it has passed away). The awards were
given to writers of short stories, plays and poetry.

The first awardees in its first year, (1950-51) short story were the following:

First Prize: KUWENTO NI MABUTI by Genoveva Edroza

Second Prize: MABANGIS NA KAMAY…MAAMONG KAMAY by Pedro S. Dandan

Third Prize: PLANETA, BUWAN AT MGA BITUIN by Elpidio P. Kapulong

(1946-1970)
New Filipino Literature
Philippines literature in Tagalog was revived during this period. Most themes in the
writings dealt with Japanese brutalities, of the poverty of life under the Japanese
government and the brave guerilla exploits.

Newspapers and magazine publications were re-opened like the Bulaklak, Liwayway,
Ilang Ilang and Sinag Tala. Tagalog poetry acquired not only rhyme but substance and
meaning. Short stories had better characters and events based on facts and realities
and themes were more meaningful. Novels became common but were still read by the
people for recreation. The people’s love for listening to poetic jousts increased more
than before and people started to flock to places to hear poetic debates.

Rebirth of Freedom (1946-1970)

Poetry
When I see a Barong-Barong by MaximoRamos (1946)

Short Story
Plighted Word by Narciso G. Reyes
Scent of Apples by Bienvenido Santos

Cadaver by Alberto S. Florentino

They Called It “BROTHERHOOD”by MaximoV. Soliven

PERIOD OF ACTIVISM (1970-1972)

Historical Background
According to Pociano Pineda, youth activism in 1970-72 activism was due to domestic
and worldwide causes. Activism is connected with the history of our Filipino youth.

Because of the ills of society, the youth moved to seek reforms.

Some continued to believe that the democratic government is stable and that it is only
the people running the government who are at fault. Some believed that socialism or
communism should replace democracy.

Some armed groups were formed to bring down the democratic form of government.
Many young people became activists to ask for changes in the government. In the
expression of this desire for change, keen were the writings of some youth who were
fired with nationalism in order to emphasize the importance of their petitions.

Many young activists were imprisoned in military camps together with rebel writer

Valedictorian sa Hillcrest ni Rolando Tinio

Beggar Children by Emmanuel Torres

PERIOD OF THE NEW SOCIETY (1972-1980)

Historical Background
The period of the New Society started on September 21, 1972. The Carlos Palanca
Awards continued to give annual awards.

Almost all themes in most writings dealt with the development or progress of the country
–like the Green Revolution, family planning, proper nutrition, environment, drug
addiction and pollution.

The New Society tried to stop pornography or those writings giving bad influences on
the morals of the people. All school newspapers were temporarily stopped and so with
school organizations.

The military government established a new office called the Ministry of Public Affairs
that supervised the newspapers, books and other publications.

The government took part in reviving old plays like the Cenaculo, the Zarzuela and the
Embayoka of the Muslims. The Cultural Center of the Philippines, the Folk Arts Theater
and even the old Metropolitan Theater were rebuilt in order to have a place for these
plays.

Singing both Filipino and English songs received fresh incentives. Those sent abroad
promoted many Filipino songs. The weekly publications like KISLAP, and LIWAYWAY
helped a lot in the development of literature. These became outlets for our writers to
publish many of their works.

Poetry
Philosopher’s Love Song by TitaLacambra-Ayala
The Tomato Game by N.V.M. Gonzales
I Married a Newspaperman by Maria Luna-Lopez
PERIOD OF THE THIRD REPUBLIC (1981-85)
Historical Background
After ten years of military rule and some changes in the life of the Filipino which started
under the New Society, Martial Rule was at last lifted on January 2, 1981.

To those in government, the lifting of military rule heralded a change. To their

perceptions, the Philippines became a new nation and this; former President Marcos
called “The New Republic of the Philippines.” A historian called this the Third Republic.
The First Republic he claimed was during the Philippine Republic of Emilio Aguinaldo
when we first got our independence form the Spaniards on June 12, 1898.
The Second was when the Americans granted us our independence on July 4, 1946.
This period, January 2, 1981, was the Third Republic when we were freed from Military
Rule.

During this period, it cannot be denied that many people seethed with rebellion and
protest because of the continued oppression and suppression. This was further
aggravated when former Senator Benigno S. Aquno Jr., the idol of the Filipino masses,
whom they hoped to be the next president, was president, was brutally murdered on
August 21, 1983.

This stage of the nation had its effect on our literature. After the Aquino assassinated,
the people’s voices could no long be contained. Both the public and private sectors in
government were chanting, and shouting; women, men and the youth became bolder
and their voices were raised in dissent. We can say that Philippine literature, in spite of
the many restrictions, still surreptitiously retained its luster.

Poetry
Death Like Stone for Benigno S. Aquino Jr. from Philippine Panorama

Fables
The Emperor’s New Underwear by Mynardo A. Macaraig

The Crown Jewels of Heezenhurst by Sylvia Mendez Ventura

The King’s Cold by Babeth Lolarga

Short Story
Hunger by Gilda Cordero-Fernando

Play
Sepang Loca by Amelia Lapeña-Bonifacio

Speech
Aquino’s Speech in Singapore

President Aquino’s Speech before the U.S. Congress

Cory Bats for the Rights of the World’s Oppressed

What is LITERATURE?
In the attempt to define the term ‘literature’, one can distinguish between two general
directions: a broad and a narrow definition. The broad definition incorporates everything
that has been written down in some form or another, i.e., all the written manifestations
of a culture (hence, there are terms such as ‘research literature’, ‘the literature on civil
rights’, etc.).
Needless to say that such a broad definition is problematic as it does not really facilitate
communication about the topic. Furthermore, this concept neglects the fact that in many
cultures in the past and for a number of indigenous peoples today, literature has not
been captured in written media but has been passed down in a long oral tradition of
storytelling, myths, ritual speeches, etc.

Attempts to come up with a narrow definition have, however, led to such a diversity of
approaches that one can hardly talk about ‘the’ narrow definition. Nevertheless, it is
possible to sift out some of the criteria scholars have applied in order to demarcate
‘literary texts’ from ‘non-literary texts’.

These criteria include:

• fictionality – product of imagination
• specialized language – differs considerably from normal everyday language
• lack of pragmatic function – not have been intended by the author for any specific
purpose
• ambiguity – open to interpretation
What is LITERATURE?
It is an enduring expression of a significant human experience in words well-chosen and
arranged.
enduring – lasting, not ephemeral
expression – sharing; a manifestation
significant – important, necessary, meaningful
human – people; different human conditions
experience – heart of literature
words well-chosen and arranged
It comes from a Latin word “litera” which means an acquaintance with letters.
Literature can be defined as everything in print.

It is a body of literary productions, either oral, written or visual, containing imaginative

language that realistically portrays thoughts, emotions, and experience of the human
condition.

Some loosely interpret literature as a faithful reproduction of man’s manifold

experiences blended into one harmonious expression.
Because literature deals with ideas, thoughts and emotions of man, literature can be
said to be the story of man. Man’s loves, grief, thoughts, dreams and aspirations
coached in beautiful language is literature.
Literature is a product of a particular culture that concretizes man’s array of values,
emotions, actions, and ideas.

The Nature of Literature

Literature is language in use that provides insights and intellectual stimulation to the
reader. As one explores literature, he likewise discovers the beauty of language.
The language that is used by literature differs from ordinary spoken or written language.

Literature uses special words, structure, and characteristics. Primarily the language of
literature differs from ordinary language in three ways:

language is concentrated and meaningful;

its purpose is not simply to explain, argue, or make a point but rather to give a sense of pleasure
in the discovery of a new experience; and
it demands intense concentration from the readers.
It indicates that the language of literature has originality, quality, creativity, and
pleasure.

The Functions of Literature

Dulce and Utile
Dulce – to entertain; to give pleasure and enjoyment
Utile – to instruct
4Rs of Literature
Recreation – Literature is a means of reassembling reality. We want to see what we
cannot see in reality.
Recognition – Literature helps us recognize the people and their contribution.
Redemption – Literature is a means of modification of behavior.
Revelation – Literature is a means of recording history. It reveals the past, the present,
and the future.
All the above definitions describe literature from different perspectives. Still, there are
certain things that are common to them. They all recognize the fact that:
i. Literature is imaginative
ii. Literature expresses thoughts and feelings
iii. Literature deals with life experiences
iv. Literature uses words in a powerful, effective and yet captivating manner
vi. Literature promotes recreation and revelation of hidden facts.

Literature is thus summed up as permanent expressions in words

(written or spoken), specially arranged in pleasing accepted patterns or
forms. Literature expresses thoughts, feelings, ideas or other special
aspects of human experiences.
Poetry in the Philippines is not different from its other counterparts around the world. In
the early 1900s, Filipino poetry celebrated romanticism, and several poems about love
flourished.

Eventually, as the years went on, poetry became more formalist – the emphasis of the
poetry is more on the form and language that the poet used, rather than the theme
itself. Then, modern poetry sprouted, and nowadays, writers are more adventurous in
their craft.

Elements of poetry used by local writers in their poems

 Senses
 Imagery
 Diction
 Rhyme Scheme
 Idea of a speaker
 Structure
 Word order
Senses and images
These are used by the writers to describe their impressions of their topic or object of
writing.

The writer uses carefully chosen and phrased words to create an imagery that the
reader can see through his or her own senses.

The kind of sense impressions in poetry are categorized in mainly the following:

 Visual imagery
 Olfactory imagery
 Gustatory imagery
 Tactile imagery
 Auditory imagery
Diction
The denotative and connotative meaning of the words in a sentence, phrase,
paragraph, or poem.

Rhyme scheme
The way the author arranges words, meters, lines, and stanzas to create a coherent
sound when the poem is read out loud.

It may be formal or informal, depending on the way the poem was written by the poet.

Idea of a Speaker
The speaker in the poem is the voice that talks to the reader.
Sometimes, it refers to itself as “I” or “me” or, sometimes in the third person (she, he,
his, her).

You should also note that the speaker is not necessarily the poet. The poet may have a
different persona in mind while writing the poem and may not have taken the situations
in the poem from his or her life experiences.

Structure
The arrangement of words and lines, either together or apart.

Also refers to the way the interdependent parts of it are organized to form a whole
poem.

Word Order
The natural or unnatural arrangement of words in a poem.

A poet may use a word grammatically or not – often called as poetic license – and
may invent words, too.