Carbohydrates.

Fruits, vegetable, beans, and grains are all sources of carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates are the simple and complex sugars obtained from the foods we eat. Not all
carbohydrates are the same. Simple carbohydrates include sugars such as table sugar or
sucrose and fruit sugar or fructose. Complex carbohydrates are sometimes called "good
carbs" due to their nutrient value. Complex carbohydrates are composed of several simple
sugars linked together and include starches and fiber. Carbohydrates are an important
part of a healthy diet and a valuable energy source needed to perform normal biological
activities.

Carbohydrates are one of the four major classes of organic compounds in

living cells. They are produced during photosynthesis and are the main sources of energy
for plants and animals. The term carbohydrate is used when referring to a saccharide or
sugar and its derivatives. Carbohydrates can be simple sugars or monosaccharides,
double sugars or disaccharides, composed of a few sugars or oligosaccharides, or
composed of many sugars or polysaccharides.

Organic Polymers

Carbohydrates are not the only types of organic polymers. Other biological polymers
include:

 Lipids: diverse group of organic compounds inclusive of fats, oils, steroids, and
waxes.
 Proteins: organic polymers composed of amino acids that perform a multitude of
functions in the body. Some provide structural support, while others act as
chemical messengers.
 Nucleic Acids: biological polymers, including DNA and RNA, that are important
for genetic inheritance.

A monosaccharide or simple sugar has a formula that is some multiple of CH2O. For
instance, glucose (the most common monosaccharide) has a formula of C6H12O6.
Glucose is typical of the structure of monosaccharides. Hydroxyl groups (-OH) are
attached to all carbons except one. The carbon without an attached hydroxyl group is
double-bonded to an oxygen to form what is known as a carbonyl group.

The location of this group determines whether or not a sugar is known as a ketone or an
aldehyde sugar. If the group is not terminal then the sugar is known as a ketone. If the
group is at the end, it is known as an aldehyde. Glucose is an important energy source in
living organisms. During cellular respiration, the breakdown of glucose occurs in order to
release its stored energy.

Two monosaccharides joined together by a glycosidic linkage is called a double sugar

or disaccharide. The most common disaccharide is sucrose. It is composed of glucose
and fructose. Sucrose is commonly used by plants to transport glucose from one part of
the plant to another.

Disaccharides are also oligosaccharides. An oligosaccharide consists of a small

number of monosaccharide units (from about two to 10) joined together.
Oligosaccharides are found in cell membranes and assist other membrane structures
called glycolipids in cell recognition.

Polysaccharides can be composed of hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides

combined together. These monosaccharides are joined together through dehydration
synthesis. Polysaccharides have several functions including structural support and
storage. Some examples of polysaccharides include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin.
Starch is a vital form of stored glucose in plants. Vegetables and grains are good sources
of starch. In animals, glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles.

Cellulose is a fibrous carbohydrate polymer that forms the cell walls of plants. It
composes about one-third of all vegetable matter and cannot be digested by humans.

Chitin is a tough polysaccharide that can be found in some species of fungi. Chitin also
forms the exoskeleton of arthropods such as spiders, crustaceans, and insects. Chitin
helps to protect the animal's soft internal body and helps to keep them from drying out.

Carbohydrate Digestion

Carbohydrates in the foods we eat must be digested to extract the stored energy. As
food travels through the digestive system, it is broken down allowing glucose to be
absorbed into the blood. Enzymes in the mouth, small intestines, and pancreas help to
break down carbohydrates into their monosaccharide constituents. These substances are
then absorbed into the bloodstream.

The circulatory system transports glucose in the blood to cells and tissues of the body.
The release of insulin by the pancreas allows glucose to be taken in by our cells to be used
to produce energy through cellular respiration. Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the
liver and muscles for later use. An overabundance of glucose can also be stored
as fat in adipose tissue.

Digestible carbohydrates include sugars and starches. Carbohydrates that cannot be

digested include insoluble fiber. This dietary fiber is eliminated from the body through
the colon.
 Proteins

Proteins are very important biological molecules in cells. By weight, proteins are
collectively the major component of the dry weight of cells. They can be used for a variety
of functions from cellular support to cell signaling and cellular locomotion. Examples of
proteins include antibodies, enzymes, and some types of hormones (insulin). While
proteins have many diverse functions, all are typically constructed from one set of 20
amino acids. We obtain these amino acids from the plant and animal foods we eat. Foods
high in protein include meats, beans, eggs, and nuts.
Amino Acids

Most amino acids have the following structural properties:

A carbon (the alpha carbon) bonded to four different groups:

 A hydrogen atom (H)

 A Carboxyl group (-COOH)
 An Amino group (-NH2)
 A "variable" group

Of the 20 amino acids that typically make up proteins, the "variable" group determines
the differences among the amino acids. All amino acids have the hydrogen atom, carboxyl
group and amino group bonds.

The sequence of the amino acids in an amino acid chain determines a protein's 3-D
structure. Amino acid sequences are specific to specific proteins and determines a
protein's function and mode of action. A change in even one of the amino acids in an
amino acid chain can alter protein function and result in disease.

 Proteins are organic polymers composed of amino acids. Examples of proteins

antibodies, enzymes, hormones, and collagen.
 Proteins have numerous functions including structural support, storage of
molecules, chemical reaction facilitators, chemical messengers, transport of
molecules, and muscle contraction.
 Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain. These
chains can twist to form 3-D protein shapes.
 The two classes of proteins are globular and fibrous proteins. Globular
proteins are compact and soluble, while fibrous proteins are elongated and
insoluble.
 The four levels of protein structure are primary, secondary, tertiary, and
quaternary structure. A protein's structure determines its function.
 Protein synthesis occurs by a process called translation where genetic codes on
RNA templates are translated for the production of proteins.

Amino acids are joined together through dehydration synthesis to form

a peptide bond. When a number of amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds,
a polypeptide chain is formed. One or more polypeptide chains twisted into a 3-D shape
forms a protein. Polypeptide chains have some flexibility but are restricted in
conformation. These chains have two terminal ends. One end is terminated by an amino
group and the other by a carboxyl group. The order of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
is determined by DNA. DNA is transcribed into an RNA transcript (messenger RNA) that
is translated to give the specific order of amino acids for the protein chain. This process
is called protein synthesis.

There are two general classes of protein molecules: globular proteins and fibrous
proteins. Globular proteins are generally compact, soluble, and spherical in
shape. Fibrous proteins are typically elongated and insoluble. Globular and fibrous
proteins may exhibit one or more of four types of protein structure. The four structure
types are primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure.

A protein's structure determines its function. For instance, structural proteins such as
collagen and keratin are fibrous and stringy. Globular proteins like hemoglobin, on the
other hand, are folded and compact. Hemoglobin, found in red blood cells, is an iron-
containing protein that binds oxygen molecules. Its compact structure is ideal for
traveling through narrow blood vessels.

Protein Synthesis

Proteins are synthesized in the body through a process called translation. Translation
occurs in the cytoplasm and involves the rendering of genetic codes that are assembled
during DNA transcription into proteins. Cell structures called ribosomes help translate
these genetic codes into polypeptide chains. The polypeptide chains undergo several
modifications before becoming fully functioning proteins.
 Lipids

Lipids are very diverse in both their respective structures and functions. These diverse
compounds that make up the lipid family are so grouped because they are insoluble in
water. They are also soluble in other organic solvents such as ether, acetone, and other
lipids. Lipids serve a variety of important functions in living organisms. They act as
chemical messengers, serve as valuable energy sources, provide insulation, and are the
main components of membranes. Major lipid groups
include fats, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes.

 Lipids, as a class of compounds, are insoluble in water but are soluble in other
organic solvents. Examples of such solvents include: acetone and ether.
 Waxes, steroids, phospholipids and fats are the most common types of lipid
groups.
 Fats have glycerol in addition to three fatty acids. The structure of the fatty acids
determines whether or not the fat is considered saturated or unsaturated.
 Phospholipids have four major components: fatty acids, a glycerol component,
and both a phosphate group and a polar molecule.
 Human sex hormones, like testosterone and estrogen, are classed as
steroids. Steroids most often have a four-fused ring structure.
 Waxes are composed of an alcohol and a fatty acid. Plants often have wax coatings
that help them to conserve water.

Lipid Soluble Vitamins

Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in adipose tissue and in the liver. They are eliminated
from the body more slowly than water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamins include
vitamins A, D, E, and K. Vitamin A is important for vision as well as skin, teeth,
and bone health. Vitamin D aids in the absorption of other nutrients including calcium
and iron. Vitamin E acts as an antioxidant and also aids in immune function. Vitamin K
aids in the blood clotting process and maintaining strong bones.

Organic Polymers

Biological polymers are vital to the existence of all living organisms. In addition to lipids,
other organic molecules include:

Carbohydrates: biomolecules that include sugars and sugar derivatives. They not only
provide energy but are also important for energy storage.

Proteins: - composed of amino acids, proteins provide structural support for tissues, act
as chemical messengers, move muscles, and much more.

Nucleic Acids: - biological polymers composed of nucleotides and important

for gene inheritance. DNA and RNA are two types of nucleic acids.

Fats are composed of three fatty acids and glycerol. These so called triglycerides can
be solid or liquid at room temperature. Those that are solid are classified as fats, while
those that are liquid are known as oils. Fatty acids consist of a long chain of carbons with
a carboxyl group at one end. Depending on their structure, fatty acids can be saturated or
unsaturated.

Saturated fats raise LDL (low-density lipoprotein) cholesterol levels in the blood. This
increases the chances for developing cardiovascular disease. Unsaturated fats lower LDL
levels and reduce the risk for disease. While fats have been denigrated to the point that
many believe that fat should be eliminated from the diet, fat serves many useful purposes.
Fats are stored for energy in adipose tissue, help to insulate the body, and cushion and
protect organs.

A phospholipid is composed of two fatty acids, a glycerol unit, a phosphate group and
a polar molecule. The phosphate group and polar head region of the molecule is
hydrophillic (attracted to water), while the fatty acid tail is hydrophobic (repelled by
water). When placed in water, phospholipids will orient themselves into a bilayer in which
the nonpolar tail region faces the inner area of the bilayer. The polar head region faces
outward and interacts with the water.

Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes, which enclose and protect
the cytoplasm and other contents of a cell. Phospholipids are also a major component of
myelin, a fatty substance that is important for insulating nerves and speeding up electrical
impulses in the brain. It is the high composition of myelinated nerve fibers that
causes white matter in the brain to appear white.

Steroids have a carbon backbone that consists of four fused ring-like structures. Steroids
include cholesterol, sex hormones (progesterone, estrogen, and testosterone) produced
by gonads and cortisone.

Waxes are composed of an ester of a long-chain alcohol and a fatty acid.

Many plants have leaves and fruits with wax coatings to help prevent water loss. Some
animals also have wax-coated fur or feathers to repel water. Unlike most waxes, ear wax
is composed of phospholipids and esters of cholesterol.
 Nucleic acids

Nucleic acids are molecules that allow organisms to transfer genetic information from
one generation to the next. These macromolecules store the genetic information that
determines traits and makes protein synthesis possible

 Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store genetic information and enable
protein production.
 Nucleic acids include DNA and RNA. These molecules are composed of long
strands of nucleotides.
 Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a
phosphate group.
 DNA is composed of a phosphate-deoxyribose sugar backbone and the nitrogenous
bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
 RNA has ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases A, G, C, and uracil (U).

Two examples of nucleic acids include: deoxyribonucleic acid (better known as DNA)
and ribonucleic acid (better known as RNA). These molecules are composed of long
strands of nucleotides held together by covalent bonds. Nucleic acids can be found within
the nucleus and cytoplasm of our cells.

Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotide monomers linked together. Nucleotides

have three parts:

 A Nitrogenous Base
 A Five-Carbon (Pentose) Sugar
 A Phosphate Group

Nitrogenous bases include purine molecules (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidine
molecules (cytosine, thymine, and uracil). In DNA, the five-carbon sugar is deoxyribose,
while ribose is the pentose sugar in RNA. Nucleotides are linked together to form
polynucleotide chains. They are joined to one another by covalent bonds between the
phosphate of one and the sugar of another. These linkages are called phosphodiester
linkages. Phosphodiester linkages form the sugar-phosphate backbone of both DNA
and RNA.

Similar to what happens with protein and carbohydrate monomers, nucleotides are
linked together through dehydration synthesis. In nucleic acid dehydration synthesis,
nitrogenous bases are joined together and a water molecule is lost in the process.
Interestingly, some nucleotides perform important cellular functions as "individual"
molecules, the most common example being ATP.

DNA is the cellular molecule that contains instructions for the performance of all cell
functions. When a cell divides, its DNA is copied and passed from one cell generation to
the next generation. DNA is organized into chromosomes and found within the nucleus of
our cells. It contains the "programmatic instructions" for cellular activities. When
organisms produce offspring, these instructions in are passed down through DNA.

DNA commonly exists as a double stranded molecule with a twisted double helix shape.
DNA is composed of a phosphate-deoxyribose sugar backbone and the four nitrogenous
bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In double
stranded DNA, adenine pairs with thymine (A-T) and guanine pairs with cytosine (G-C).
RNA is essential for the synthesis of proteins. Information contained within the genetic
code is typically passed from DNA to RNA to the resulting proteins. There are several
different types of RNA.

 Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the RNA transcript or RNA copy of the DNA
message produced during DNA transcription. Messenger RNA is translated to
form proteins.
 Transfer RNA (tRNA) has a three dimensional shape and is necessary for the
translation of mRNA in protein synthesis.
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a component of ribosomes and is also involved in
protein synthesis.
 MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small RNAs that help to regulate gene expression.

RNA most commonly exists as a single stranded molecule composed of a phosphate-

ribose sugar backbone and the nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine, cytosine and
uracil (U). When DNA is transcribed into an RNA transcript during DNA transcription,
guanine pairs with cytosine (G-C) and adenine pairs with uracil (A-U).

The nucleic acids DNA and RNA differ in composition and structure. The differences are
listed as follows:

DNA

 Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine

 Five-Carbon Sugar: Deoxyribose
 Structure: Double-stranded

DNA is commonly found in its three dimensional, double helix shape. This twisted
structure makes it possible for DNA to unwind for DNA replication and protein synthesis.

RNA

 Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil

 Five-Carbon Sugar: Ribose
 Structure: Single-stranded

While RNA does not take on a double helix shape like DNA, this molecule is able to form
complex three dimensional shapes. This is possible because RNA bases form
complementary pairs with other bases on the same RNA strand. The base pairing causes
RNA to fold forming various shapes.