UNIT 3

CLAUSES
Clauses are principal structures of which sentences are composed. A clause is a unit structured
around a verb phrase. It is a group of related words that contains a subject and a predicate, and it
is a part of a sentence. Structurally, these two parts correspond to a nominal part (subject) and a
part with verbal nucleus (predicate). Together they express a proposition.

Subject Predicate
Andrew was playing computer games when his mother came home.

The weather is favourable.

The predicate can be broken down into a verb phrase and a number of complements (objects,
complements, adverbials).
clause

subject predicate

verb phrase direct object adverbial

John met his friend in Paris.

The lexical verb in the verb phrase denotes an action or a state and is accompanied by one or
more elements which denote the participants involved in the action, state, the attendant
circumstances, the attitude of the speaker/writer to the message, the relationship of the clause
to the surrounding structures, etc. The mentioned constituents together with the verb phrase
are called clause elements. They are realised by phrases or by embedded clauses (clauses may
contain other clauses inside them).
sentence

clause 1 clause 2
Jane, my best friend, didn’t know what Robert was doing during his stay there.
subject verb object

The subject of the sentence above, which is at the same time the subject of clause 1 is realised by
the NP Jane and appositive phrase my best friend, the predicate is realised by the verb didn’t
know and clause 2, what Robert was doing during his stay there, which is a dependent
(subordinate) clause with its own subject and predicate and functions as the object of the
sentence. sentence
clause 1

Mr. Brown, who is my brother ‘s colleague, can speak six languages.

subject = NP + clause 2 verb object

23
In the example above, the subject is realised by the NP Mr. Brown and its postmodifier who is my
brother ‘s colleague, which is a dependent clause, the predicate consists of the VP can speak and
the object, which is realised by the NP six languages.

3.1 CLAUSE ELEMENTS

The first distinction should be made between the elements that are obligatory, and the elements
that are optional. In the following sentence:
My friend walked quickly down the street.
subject verb adverbial

My friend (subject) walked gives us essential information, it is complete in itself. Something is

predicated of My friend, namely that he walked (verb phrase). The predicator realised by the VP
walked constitutes the whole predication. The rest of the clause, quickly and down the street, are
optional elements – adjuncts (adverbials), they are not essential, syntactically or semantically, for
the completion of the clause.
CLAUSE

SUBJECT
VERB (V)
OBJECT (O)
indirect (IO)
direct (DO) PREDICATE
COMPLEMENT (C)
subject compl. (Cs)
object compl. (Co)
ADVERBIAL (A)

The presence or absence of such elements as the object and complement depends on the type of
the verb. If the verb is transitive, it takes object/s, if it is non-transitive, it is not followed by an
object. Linking (copular) verbs are followed by a complement.

3.1.1 SUBJECT (S)

The subject of a clause is the element (person, place, thing, or idea) of which something is
predicated, and which must be present in English declarative and interrogative clauses. The
subject is the element that is doing or being something. It is a clearly identifiable constituent of a
clause by asking Who? or What? It is an obligatory element of a clause; every English clause must
have an explicit subject. It can be realised by a wide variety of phrases and clauses. Typically, the
subject of a clause or sentence is the noun or noun phrase that (but not in all cases) refers to the

24
doer of the action expressed by a transitive verb in an active sentence, or to the main person or
thing involved in the event or state expressed by an intransitive verb.
A simple subject is the subject of a clause stripped off modifiers, the main word in the complete
subject. The simple subject of the following sentence is trip.
The long, hard trip across the desert was finally over.
complete subject

A compound subject consists of two or more connected subjects that have the same verb. The
usual connecting words are and and or.
All my friends and my sister enjoyed the party.

The subject can be characterised by the following syntactic features. It:

 is expressed by a noun phrase, pronoun (except for those in objective case), nominal
clause, or non-finite clause
Peter speaks Italian. To drive like this can be dangerous.
That he likes it is obvious. Sitting in the garden is pleasant.

 precedes the verb phrase, but placed after the operator in interrogative clauses, except when
the subject is a wh-word
Does your English teacher like it?
Did accepting the new job make you happy?
 determines the form of the verb phrase in the present tense and in the past tense of the verb
"be" (number and person concord)
My sister Maria plays tennis very well.
They usually eat in the garden in summer.
The amateur actors were exhausted after the performance.
The government has/have agreed on reduction of taxes.
 determines the number of the NP expressing the subject complement, and of reflexive
Pronouns Mr and Mrs Parker are our best neighbours.
She didn't notice herself in the mirror.
 may correspond to a by-phrase in passive sentences
This delicious food was cooked by David. (David cooked. . .)
When we turn an active sentence into passive, we change the subject:
The teacher questioned the student.
The student was questioned by the teacher. (The student was questioned x.)

The subject can be associated with almost every type of semantic role. With transitive action
verbs, it often denotes:
an agent, the initiator of the action denoted by the verb:
My elder brother gave me an expensive purse as a birthday present.
a subject may also denote an inanimate causer of an event:
The strong wind blew some cyclists off the road.
25
it identifies the instrument or means used by an agent:
Only hard work will enable you to get a higher position.
with many stative verbs and passive ones, the subject is the recipient in an action or state:
They own an income property in Guilford.
Robert has been asked several questions, but he was unable to answer any of them.

Except for NP and pronouns, subjects can be expressed by other phrases and also by clauses:
Adjective Phrases The rich are getting richer and the poor are getting even poorer.
Adverbial Phrase Here is where I wanted to go.
Prepositional Phrases At a hotel costs much more than in a bungalow.
Existential ‘there’ There were only about five minutes left.
Empty subject ‘it’ It is a nice sunny day today. It was a long time ago.
Anticipatory ’it’ It surprised me that he won the match.
Finite clauses What he told her is a secret.
Non-finite clauses To smoke like this is dangerous.
Playing tennis was the only thing he enjoyed.

3.1.2 PREDICATE
The predicate is the completer of a sentence; it typically follows the subject and is the core part
of the clause, minus the subject. It is identified syntactically by position (after the subject) in
declarative clauses. The predicate is the verbal component of a clause which tells us whether the
situation expressed by the clause is a state, an action or an event. It is associated with the
meanings expressed by tense, aspect, modality, voice and phase. It is always realised by finite
verb phrases.
She is being examined at the moment.
(present tense, progressive aspect, passive voice, process- examine)
They couldn’t have done it.
(modality, past tense, perfective aspect, active voice, process- do)

For the purpose of analysing and creating texts, it is helpful to see what the predicate, the most
informative part of the clause, consists of. The predicate can be broken down into a verb phrase (central
element in the clause) and a number of other clause elements that complete the sentence, such as
objects, complements, and adverbials

___________clause_____________
subject ____________predicate_______________
verb phrase object adverbial
The girls are reading a book in the garden.

The girls were singing a pop-song. (SVO) Linda is beautiful. (SVC)

Ted told me a story. (SVOiOd) She took it easy. (SVOC)
It looks nice. (SVC) He left his car in the garage. (SVOA

26
The verb be in Linda is beautiful is called linking, or copular verb as it connects the subject and its
complement. Most often copular verbs are forms of the verb ‘be’ that links non-verbal predicates
(nouns, adjectives and certain adverbs) with their subjects and serves as a carrier for tense and
subject-verb agreement, but sometimes they can be verbs related to the five senses (look, sound,
smell, feel, taste), and sometimes verbs that somehow reflect a state of being (appear, seem,
become, grow, turn, prove, remain). What follows the linking verb will be either a noun
complement as in: David is a dentist., or adjective complement as in: He has grown old.

3.1.3 OBJECT
A transitive verb requires an object. Some transitive verbs can have two objects: an indirect
object followed by a direct object. The object usually refers to the person or thing affected by
the action of the verb.

3.1.3.1 DIRECT OBJECT (OD)

The direct object is typically a noun phrase which expresses the recipient, the patient, or
‘undergoer’ of the action, the person or thing most clearly affected by this action, or it names the
result of the action. It is not preceded by a preposition and having no prepositional paraphrase.
Typically, the direct object is realised by noun phrases, noun equivalents, and nominal clauses.

The direct object is associated with a wide variety of semantic roles. It typically denotes an
animate or inanimate participant affected by an action.
The policeman arrested the suspect.
He drank a glass of beer.
The direct object has the following syntactic features:

 is found with transitive verbs only

 is in the objective case of pronouns I answered her.
 is placed immediately after the verb phrase, but there may be an intervening indirect object
She sent him a letter.
Oi Od
 when the verb phrase occurs in a passive clause, the direct object typically become subject in
the passive clause:

Alice needed some money. ----------- Some money was needed (by Alice).
S V O S V

The direct object can be realised by:

Noun phrase He passed the test.
Finite clause All of them know that she has failed the exam.
I don’t know how long it is.
Non-finite clause She wanted to watch the match.
Ted loves walking in the rain.
anticipatory ‘it’+finite/non-finite clause My uncle finds it unlikely that he will finish it today.
Brad considered it difficult to reach the summit.
27
Prepositional phrase (of time or place) They suggested after lunch for the meeting.

3.1.3.2 INDIRECT OBJECT (OI)

The indirect object is the clause constituent that immediately follows the verb phrase in clauses with
two objects. Typically, indirect objects refer to humans or animals, and not to inanimate things. It refers
to a person indirectly affected by the action described in the sentence, and identifies to or for
whom or for what the action of the verb is performed. The person generally receives something
or benefits from something.
Herald gave Salome a nice present.
The indirect object is usually equivalent to a phrase introduced by to or for, but that phrase normally
comes after the direct object.
Herald gave a nice present to Salome.
Tom booked a table for us.
The indirect object has the following syntactic features:
 is found with ditransitive verbs only
 is typically a noun phrase, but may be a finite nominal clause (wh- clause)
 is in objective case of pronoun (She gave him a present.)
 is normally placed between the verb phrase and the direct object
 may retain as object, or correspond to the subject in passive paraphrases
 may be paraphrased with prepositional object (She gave a present to him.)
 if the subject and indirect object refer to the same person, the indirect object is
generally, a reflexive pronoun. (The director asked himself a question.)

The semantic roles associated with the indirect object are more restricted than with the subject
and the direct object. The indirect object typically has a:
recipient role (corresponding to a paraphrase with to). It denotes a person that is indirectly
involved in the action, generally the person receiving something or intended to receive
something, or benefiting in some way:
They paid me the full price back.
Sandra has shown Andrew the pictures they took in Rome.

beneficiary role (corresponding to a paraphrase with for)

Could you save me a place next to you?
David has bought Janis a bunch of flowers.

3.1.3.3 PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT (OP)

Prepositional object (also called complement of preposition) is a less important type of object
that is mediated by (follows) a preposition. It is realised by a prepositional phrase. Like with any
PP, the completive of the preposition can be realised by:
Noun phrase
Marianne is looking after her younger sister.
Not having met them before, Joe didn’t know whether he could rely on the others.
28
Noun clause
They talked about what had happened to their friends.
Non-finite clause
George didn’t want to agree with paying so much for the car. (Ger.P)
He was interested in how to get there without getting into troubles. (WH+ to-inf.)

In the examples above the others and what had happened..., her younger sister, etc. are not
considered to be direct objects of the prepositional verbs rely on, talk about, and looking after,
since the preposition faces in two directions, both to the verb and the object, and the cut-off
point between the prepositional verb and its complement is before the preposition, not after it,
which can be tested by inserting an adverb (She counted fully on her husband’s wealth.).This is
why we talk both about prepositional verbs and prepositional objects.

Prepositional objects are able to passivize; the NP completive of the preposition can become
subject in a passive clause and the preposition is placed at the end of the clause.
They look after her younger sister. ----------- Her younger sister is being looked after.

3.1.4 COMPLEMENT (C)

The term complement in a general sense, means something that is necessary to complete a
grammatical construction. At sentence level, the complement completes the sense of an
utterance by telling us something about the subject or object. A complement is thus a part of the
predicate of a certain kind of clause; in fact, complement is often used synonymously with
‘predicate phrase’. It is a noun phrase or an adjective phrase that is related to the subject or
object by a linking (copular) verb. Complements are divided according to the type of basic verb
they pattern with into subject complement and object complement

3.1.4.1 SUBJECT COMPLEMENT (CS)

The subject complement (also called subject predicative) is the obligatory constituent which
follows a copular verb (therefore refers back to the subject), and which cannot be made subject
in a passive clause. It completes the predication after a copular verb by specifying an attribute of
the subject, its identity, or a circumstance inherent to the predication. The subject complement
typically identifies or characterizes the person or thing denoted by the subject.
His sister is a nurse.
Their proposal seemed sensible.
The road in this part is too dangerous.
Peter’s grandfather is getting very old.
My cousin has become a computer expert in his workplace.

The most common copular (linking) verb is ‘be’, but a wide range of verbs can be used to link the
subject to its complement. These add meanings of transition (become, get, go, grow, stay, turn)
and of perception (appear, look, feel, seem, sound, smell). Most of the mentioned copular verbs
29
also function as transitive verbs. For instance, the verb smells as in The coffee smells good., is a
copular verb and good is its complement; but in The dog smelt the bone., the verb smell is a
transitive verb and the bone is its direct object.
The phrases following copular verbs will be considered subject complements if the verb can be
replaced by ‘be’ and cannot be intransitive with the same meaning.

The winner seemed very tired. (= is very tired)

The subject complement has the following syntactic features:

 is found with copular verbs only
 is realised by:
Noun phrase Fred is my best friend.
Adjective phrase Her brother is very clever.
Nominal clause His idea is that we should support him in his activities. (finite clause)
What I hate is waiting for her when we go out. (non-finite cl.)

 typically follows immediately after the verb phrase

 is in nominative or accusative case of pronouns
It was him that made it. It was she who came in.

3.1.4.2 OBJECT COMPLEMENT (CO)

The object complement (also called object predicative) is the constituent which completes the
predication when the verb leads us to specify some characteristic of the direct object. It is usually
placed immediately after the direct object, and is linked in an intensive relationship with it
although there is not a copular verb present.
I found his performance entertaining.
They declared the meeting open.
The committee elected him chairman.

The object complement has the following syntactic features:

 occurs with transitive verbs
 is usually a noun or an adjective phrase, but may be a finite nominal clause (wh- clause)
Their enormous enthusiasm has made the team what it is today.
 is normally placed immediately after the direct object, but with some verbs, it can be
preceded by as, or occasionally by for:
Her parents regard Julie [as] a talented musician.
I have almost taken you [for] a foreigner.

The object complement provides the same type of information about the direct object as the
subject complement does about the subject.

30
3.1.5 ADVERBIAL (A)
Adverbials are optional elements in clause structure which can be omitted without affecting the
grammaticality of the clause. They have a wider range of roles than the other clause elements
which is reflected in their having a wide range of meanings, forms, positions, and grammatical
functions. Adverbials usually tell us something extra about the action, happening, or state
described by the rest of the sentence. There can be included several adverbials within a single
sentence.
This summer we’ll probably visit our friends in Venice.

Adverbials differ from the other constituents of clause structure in several ways. They have the
following syntactic features:
 they can be added more or less independently of the type of verb
 they are generally optional in the clause structure (some verbs require an adverbial without
which the proposition is incomplete; it is in clauses that answer questions When/Where
is/was X?)
 they are realized by adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, or clauses
 they are more mobile than the other clause elements, often occupying a variety of
positions in the clause
 their positions are determined to a larger extent by textual and pragmatic factors than the
positions of other clause elements, which are more determined by syntax
 unlike the other clause elements, more than one adverbial may co-occur in the same clause
While the main elements of clause structure typically have fixed places in the clause, adjuncts are
mobile, they can come at different places in the clause. We need to distinguish three main
positions: initial, medial and end-position (see example sentence above).
In terms of their grammatical functions, there are three main types of adverbials:
adjuncts (circumstance adverbials)
disjuncts (stance adverbials)
conjuncts (linking adverbials)

3.1.5.1 ADJUNCTS
Adjuncts typically describe the circumstances or conditions of an action or state. They answer
questions like: Where? When? How? Why? To what extent? and may express a wide range of
semantic roles:
place He was walking down the street when I met him.
time John will stay there until next Friday. He is always asking me silly questions.
manner Alice tried to reveal the secret by questioning her relatives.
reason/cause Mr. Black was happy because he found his lost dog.
purpose Diana and Tom were whispering so that they wouldn’t wake up the baby.
result He stayed up late, so he is very sleepy now.
concession Although she is on a diet, she can’t resist the cakes that her Granny baked.
condition, etc. If he explains me how to do it, I’ll be able to put it together by myself.

31
3.1.5.2 DISJUNCTS
Disjuncts are optional additions to a clause that typically express the attitude of the
speaker/writer towards the content of the message. Unlike adjuncts, they are more loosely
attached to the clause, they are more mobile, and they are not part of predicate. The same form
may be used as an adjunct or a disjunct, especially if it is a single-word –ly adverb.

Clause with adjunct: clause

S Predicate

VP Adverbial (Adjunct)
Everyone was behaving naturally. (naturally = in a natural manner)

Clause with disjunct: clause

S Predicate Adverbial (Disjunct)

VP Od
Your parents will miss you naturally. (naturally = of course)

Disjuncts have a superior role to sentence elements, being somewhat separate from the clause,
since their message refers to the whole of the clause or sentence. For this reason, they are
usually placed before or after it, while adjuncts are just typically placed after the verb:
Of course, he is late again.
He is late again, of course.

3.1.5.3 CONJUNCTS
Whereas adjuncts modify elements of clauses, and disjuncts add a comment on whole clauses or
sentences, conjuncts (also called linking adverbials or conjunctive adverbs) tell us how the
speaker or writer understands the semantic connection between two utterances, or parts of
utterances. They are more peripheral in clause structure than adjuncts, and are not part of the
predicate, but connectors of structure. They express the type of connection between
clauses. Conjuncts, like disjuncts, are mobile and often separated from the rest of the clause, and
they cannot be elicited by question forms.
Conjuncts can be placed:
· between clauses:
His parents are not wealthy; nevertheless, Tom has an expensive car.
· between sentences:
Ann didn’t study hard during the semester. Consequently, she failed the final exam.
· at the end of sentences:
Paul didn’t study enough. He failed the test, therefore.
· between paragraphs:
Firstly..., Further..., In conclusion...,etc.
32
Conjuncts can express many different types of connection, and thus have the following semantic
roles:
a/ ADDITIVE: and, furthermore, in other words, moreover...
b/ ADVERSATIVE: but, instead, nevertheless, on the other hand...
c/ CAUSAL: for, because, therefore, then, in that case...
d/ TEMPORAL: next, then, after that, finally...
(see more in Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990:185-7)

Conjuncts should be distinguished from coordinators. While coordination expresses a logical

relationship, conjuncts express textual relationship. Coordinative conjunctions such as and, but
and or can also function as conjuncts.
Adjuncts, Disjuncts and Conjuncts are optional elements which can be added or omitted without
producing an ungrammatical clause. The ADJUNCT provides non-inherent circumstantial
information, DISJUNCTS provide an attitudinal comment by the speaker on the content of the
clause, and CONJUNCTS are not elements of the clause; they reflect how the speaker intends the
semantic connections to be made between one part of the discourse and another.

3.2 BASIC CLAUSE PATTERNS

Combination of the major clause elements conform to a limited number of patterns. All of those
contain a subject and a verb phrase (the subject is not visible in imperatives and some dependent
clauses). The occurrence of other major clause elements is determined by the potential of the
individual verb (transitive, intransitive, copular). There are verbs which combine only with a
subject (usually intransitive verbs), some verbs combine with a subject and another element
(copulas, transitive), or some with subject and two other elements. One or more adverbials can
be freely added to all patterns. Each pattern is especially adapted for the expression of some
characteristic meaning.
According to what elements an independent clause (simple sentence) consists of, we distinguish
seven basic types. They differ according to whether one or more clause elements are obligatory
present in addition to the subject and verb.

Subject-verb phrase
S+V The boy cried.
The SV clause pattern expresses propositions answering the question ‘What does/did X do?’ and
contains an intransitive verb:

Subject- verb phrase- obligatory adverbial

S+V+A Henry is in Paris.
Some verbs require an adverbial without which the proposition is incomplete. Clauses that agree
with this pattern typically answer questions like ‘When is/was X?’, ‘Where is/was X?’
The adverbial in constructions of this type is less mobile than other time and place adverbials and
cannot usually be left out.

33
Subject – verb phrase – subject complement
S+V+C Ellen is a teacher / pretty.
There are two main varieties of this pattern, both containing a copular verb and a subject
predicative. We may call the two patterns characterising pattern and identifying pattern.
• The characterising pattern contains a characterised participant as subject and answer the
question ‘What is/was X like?’ or How did X change/How has X changed?’ In this pattern a
property is ascribed to the referent of the subject. The property may be expressed by a noun
phrase or an adjective phrase.
She remained scared. Tom became a scientist.
• Clauses following the identifying pattern answer the question ‘Which one is/was X?’ The
copular verb is be. The complement is a definite noun phrase.
Mr Miller is the president of the society.

Subject – verb phrase – direct object

S+V+O She wrote a letter.
This pattern contains a subject, a mono-transitive verb, and a direct object. The direct object
most typically expresses the participant or entity which is affected by the action denoted by the
verb.

Subject – verb phrase – indirect object – direct object

S+V+O+O We asked him several questions.
The pattern contains a ditransitive verb. It can be described as the SVOd pattern expanded by a
recipient or benefactive role.

Subject - verb phrase – direct object - complement

S+V+O+C They found it difficult.
The pattern contains a complex transitive verb. There is an attributive relation between the
direct object and its complement.

Subject – verb phrase – direct object – obligatory adverbial

S+V+O+A I took the book from the shelf.
The adverbial in this pattern typically expresses location. Unlike adverbials in general, it cannot
normally be moved. It differs from ordinary locative adverbials in that it does not specify the
circumstances of the ‘placing’, ‘putting’, etc., but rather describes where the referent of the
direct object ends up.

3.2.1 VARIATIONS ON CLAUSE PATTERNS

In addition to the clause patterns presented above, there are variations depending upon a range
of structural, semantic, pragmatic, and textual factors. The grammar of English allows us a set of
options for reordering the information in our message in order to achieve communicative
dynamism. The principal types of order variations are:

34
 inversion of the subject and (the first part of) the verb phrase:
Had I been there, I wouldn’t have said a word.
 fronting of objects and other elements which are normally in post-verbal position
Her character I don’t like.
 postponement of objects and of adverbial particles of phrasal verbs
Under the table lay a dirty old sock.
 the passive is another variation, rather structural reorganisation than that of order:
The window was broken.
 existential ‘there’- this construction serves to introduce new information, usually in the
form of an indefinite phrase later in the clause:
There’s a stranger standing in front of the house.
 extraposition, where anticipatory (introductory) it is used in the subject position:
It was obvious that she took it.
 clefting a clause can be divided into two parts, each with its own verb:
It was his dog that ate the sausage. (His dog ate the sausage.)
What she wants is a man who’ll really love her.
 ellipsis is the omission of elements which are recoverable from the linguistic or situational
context: She thanked him but <she> didn’t hear any response.
(All the above-mentioned variations to clause patterns will be discussed in more details in Unit 8).

35
EXERCISES 15-29
15. Circle the SUBJECT(s) and underline the VERB(s) in each following sentence.
1. She washed, conditioned, and dried her hair.
2. George likes playing football, but he hates handball.
3. To know him is to love him.
4. I want to help choose the apartment, or I refuse to move.
5. Working overtime was a necessity if he wanted to keep his job.
6. Some people say that winning isn’t everything, but losing isn’t anything.
7. Do you want a piece of cake?
8. Whoever said Gill was the best is a liar.
9. The orange shades, which were the reflection of the sun, camouflaged the dirty windows.
10. The ballerina and her partner danced as though they were one person.

16. Indicate whether the underlined element in each sentence is subject (S), verb or verb
phrase (VP), indirect object (IO), direct object (DO), complement of a linking verb (C),
or none of the above (X).

1. __VP__ Pass me the salt, please.

2. _______ My friend has just left.
3. _______ Give him another chance.
4. _______ Can I have some more juice?
5. _______ Harry is busy.
6. _______ She fastened the rope to the lamp post.
7. _______ Imagine life without computers.
8. _______ He has never seen a cow.
9. _______ The bird in the cage is beautiful.
10. _______ Words are not the only form of communication.

17. Identify the underlined elements in the sentences as S, VP, IO, DO, C or X (none of the
above).

1. __S, C__ Fishing in a peaceful stream is enjoyable.

2. _______ The actor, though he was ill, played brilliantly.
3. _______ After a lengthy day, we relaxed on the beach.
4. _______ He didn’t know what he should do.
5. _______ Answer the question by another question.
6. _______ The leaves turned red and yellow.
7. _______ The noisy pupils made the teacher nervous.
8. _______ Tom, sitting next to me, asked Mary to the dance.
9. _______ He presented the results to the audience.
10. _______ I don’t like playing cards.
11. _______ She is singing a sad song.
36
 12. _______ Chicago is the city that works.
13. _______ To pass the exam was her objective.
14. _______ Take whichever one you prefer.
15. _______ You can’t be rich, clever , and handsome.
16. _______ Don’t ask your parents stupid questions.

18. Bracket the non-essential constituents (adverbials-A) in each of the following sentences.
1. Albert performed his duties (faithfully).
2. Regretfully he withdrew from the competition.
3. Can you tell me the way to the Post Office?
4. Many of the houses must have disappeared since my father’s day.
5. George carefully drove his new car on the motorway.
6. They went to mountains to watch the wildlife.
7. Fred and John expressed their feelings by singing and dancing.
8. He immediately said that he would do the work.
9. Somebody snatched my bag in the park.
10. He helped the girl to her feet.
11. The children left the table without clearing away the dishes.
12. While writing her report, Katy finished the whole pack of cookies.
13. Arsenal became League champions for the fifth time on Saturday.
14. He left the room as if he were in a hurry.
15. I drew a deep breath.

19. Identify the phrase or clause that realizes the SUBJECT function in each of the following
sentences.
1. The first and third Fridays of each month are paydays.
2. Babysitting, lawn mowing, and waiting on tables are not quick ways to earn money.
3. There are still a lot of questions to be answered.
4. It is a well known fact that smoking can cause cancer.
5. The list of people who would like to contribute is long.
6. What you do in your free time is none of my business.
7. That Jim failed the exam didn’t surprise anyone.
8. The water coming down from the snowfields above may cause floods.
9. To go there without being invited is a stupid idea.
10. It is sometimes difficult to tell the truth.
11. There’s no business like show business.
12. It has been raining for almost a week.

37
20. Extrapose the subject in the following clauses
1. That she won the match didn’t surprise us.
__It didn’t surprise us that she won the match.____
2. What you do in your spare time is none of my business.
________________________________________________
3. To have a lot of money and a big house is not my idea of being happy.
________________________________________________
4. Who paid the bill didn’t interest me.
________________________________________________
5. That they left without saying goodbye was not nice of them.
_______________________________________________

21. Identify the different types of ‘it’ Subject in the sentences below.
Example: It was raining. ___empty “it”__
Where is your coat? - I put it there. __pronoun – ref.__
It was not difficult to answer her question. ___anticipatory “it”___

1. I just don’t remember, it was the only thing I could do in the situation I were. _______
2. It would cost a fortune to stay at the Hilton during the tournament. _______
3. For some people, it’s a nightmare when they can’t find a place to park their car. _______
4. It was raining all the time, so we didn’t even leave the tent._______
5. I don’t really like his performance. It is rather odd. _______
6. They decided to climb up the mountain as it was a warm and sunny day. _______

22. Identify the constituents that function as Direct OBJECT in each of the following sentences
and name the forms that realize this function.

1. I passed her the papers. NP

2. He banged the door as he went out. _______
3. I dislike going out for dinner on Saturday night because the restaurants are crowded.
_______
4. The teacher ordered the pupils to finish the essay at home. _______
5. A very few people play bridge anymore. _______
6. Between races they placed their bets at the pari-mutual window. _______
7. Maria didn’t want to ask her mother the same question. _______
8. In the last years of the 20th century, New York replaced Paris as the art capital of the
world. _______
9. One doubts that many will survive the long trek over the mountains. _______
10. The negotiations have achieved very little. _______
11. A team of divers have discovered what they believe to be sunken treasure. _______
12. When the snow turned to ice, it broke the branches of many trees. _______

38
23. Rewrite the following clauses in a way that you put the Indirect after the Direct Object in
each clause, and use to or for.

1. She sent her boy friend a love letter.

_____She sent a love letter to her boyfriend._____
2. I’m going to make myself a nice cup of tea.
________________________________________
3. Perhaps we could find him a job.
________________________________________
4. They haven’t repaid Peter that loan.
________________________________________
5. They didn’t give me time to think it over.
________________________________________
6. Mr. Kelly left his nephew most of his fortune.
________________________________________
7. He is offering us a chance in a million.
________________________________________
8. Why did she refuse to lend me her fur coat?
________________________________________
9. Save your brother a piece of this delicious cake.
________________________________________
10. I won’t write him his homework.
________________________________________

24. Some of the following clauses contain a Subject COMPLEMENT (Cs), others Object
COMPLEMENTs (Co). Identify each and state the form which realizes the function.

1. Her idea sounded excellent. _Adj.P_

2. They must prove themselves fit for the task. _______
3. Andy’s bar is where I would never go. _______
4. Happiness is having an understanding family. _______
5. Tom’s behaviour made us really surprised. _______
6. Make the coffee a bit stronger. _______
7. Her character is what I like not her appearance. _______
8. The best defence is a good offence. _______
9. She’ll probably end up rich. _______
10. The weather has turned unexpectedly cold lately. _______

39
25. Rewrite the following sentences in a way that you put a Complement realized by an
Adjective in place of the Noun complement.
Example: He turned out a total idiot. – He turned out totally idiotic.

1. It has never proved an excellent choice. _______________________________

2. At the end everyone became a thorough bore. _______________________________
3. Mandy usually looks a happy young lady. _______________________________
4. The project will never end up a total success. _______________________________
5. He is a real fool. _______________________________
6. Your plan seems utter madness to me. _______________________________
7. It sounded a great idea. _______________________________

26. Complete the sentences with most appropriate noun or adjective complements.
1. As soon as he learned about her failure, he became………….
2. Peter Grow has been elected…………. of the company for the second time.
3. The meal Ronny prepared for dinner smelled…………….. .
4. The student’s constant interruptions made the teacher ………….. .
5. Their plans with the old building didn’t prove a particular ………….. .
6. It has turned out a nice and sunny ………. again.

27. Identify the underlined elements in the following sentences by stating their form (NP, PP,
Inf.P, Ger. P, Part. P, Adj.P, Adv.P, SC...) and function (S, V, IO, DO,C, A).

1. NP / Oi Please give me a chance.

2. ________ What he did was wrong.
3. ________ Nicole Kidman is a talented actress.
4. ________ It is surprising that she hasn’t announced the results yet.
5. ________ The reporter asked the senator a leading question.
6. ________ The pie looked delicious.
7. ________ Their garden extends as far as the river.
8. ________ Maria would like to travel to Spain.
9. ________ Hiking in the mountains was an enjoyable experience.
10. ________ His stupid questions made Peter very upset.
11. ________ I don’t know whether to leave or stay.
12. ________ Joyce’s dream is to win the lottery.
13. ________ They walked right across the street.
14. ________ They don’t believe in what she’s said.
15. ________ Probably, he can do it later today.

40
28. Identify the patterns of the following independent clauses as SV, SVA, SVO, SVC, SVOO,
SVOC or SVOA.

1. My best friend is a nurse. ____SVC___

2. They didn’t want to tell me the truth. ____________
3. Katherine bought some biscuits and coke for her brother. ____________
4. Keeping in shape was important to the weightlifter. ____________
5. Many people regard the fitness craze as a wake-up call. ____________
6. Mark hopes to open another fitness centre soon. ____________
7. His dream is to have two fitness centres. ____________
8. He knows how to make this business successful. ____________
9. Due to the growing number of people at this fitness centre, we are expanding. __________
10. Bill and his friends take kickboxing lessons on Saturdays. ____________
11. Joyce is an aerobic instructor. ____________
12. Our football team became League champions for the second time last week. __________

29. Instructions as for 28

1. Robert gave Julie a bunch of roses for her birthday. ____________
2. The examinee found the questions rather difficult. ____________
3. They kindly offered us the best seats. ____________
4. Their plans sounded reasonable. ____________
5. He drove carefully his very expensive new car. ____________
6. The scared animal jumped over the fence. ____________
7. John tried to reveal the secret by questioning his relatives. ____________
8. His stupid questions made Peter very upset. ____________
9. Mr. Norton, our history teacher, usually comes to the classroom 5 minutes before the
lesson starts. ____________
10. A long engagement doesn’t insure happiness, nor does a lengthy stay at the repair shop
guarantee a good job. ____________
11. It is important to read the instructions in the booklet. _____________
12. They strode in silence to the car-park. ____________

41