Applied Electricity and Electronics

Prof. Mohammad Salman Aslam

Faculty of Engineering
Applied Electricity & Electronics
Faculty of Engineering - UCP

University of Central Punjab

Lecture No: 1 Basic Concepts SI Units – AC&DC concept

Basic Concepts – System of Units- Basic Quantities – AC &
DC – Potential Difference – Voltage-Current Relationship –
Power – Circuit Elements – Superconductivity – Voltage Drop 1
Applied Electricity & Electronics
Lecture - 1
Basic Concepts; Measuring system of electrical quantities.
Electricity; a form of energy. Elementary charge and unit of
charge. Charge in motion and current carriers in solids,
liquids, gases and vacuum. Power and energy conversion. .
Quantifying and defining current and voltage. Computing
power in DC circuits and power equations. Opposition to the
flow of current by materials Conductors, insulators and
semiconductor materials. Ohm’s Law and controlling
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current in electrical circuits.
System of units
• System of units currently practiced to measure the electrical
quantities is International System of Units, or SI for brief.
• SI standard system is composed of basic or base units and prefix.
• Base Unit is a term representing the amount of measurable quantity
with a unique name e.g. ohm () for resistance, ampere (A) for
current etc.
• Prefix defines the multiples
of ten by which measured
quantity is greater or lesser
than the basic unit employed
to describe it.
• Officially specified twenty SI
prefixes are defined on
opposite side of the slide. 3
Basic Quantities
• An electrical circuit is an interconnection of electrical components.
• Most elementary quantity in any electrical circuit is charge and
motion of charge in the circuit is responsible for energy transfer.
• Electricity is a form of energy i.e. the capacity to execute a work.
• Basic unit of charge is Coulomb (C).
• One Coulomb of charge is defined as the amount of charge possesses
by 6.25 x 1018 electrons.
• An electron (& proton) thus possess 1/ 6.25 x 1018 C of charge that
translates into 1.6 x 10-19 coulombs.
• This charge on an electron or proton is refereed to as elementary
charge and is taken – 1 for an electron and + 1 for a proton.
• Electric charge as a basic property of matter occurs only in discrete
natural unit and can neither be created nor destroyed. 4
• Charge moves by free electrons in solids known as charge carriers.
• Motion of charge in a closed path signify current flow in a circuit.
• An electric circuit is essentially a pipeline that facilitates the transfer
of charge from one point to another by charge carriers.
• Amount of current is specified in terms of charge and the time
required to move that charge past a given point.
• Since charge is measured in coulombs, time in seconds, hence
coulombs per seconds describes the current measured in amperes.
• Ampere (A); is the base unit of current and one ampere equals one
coulomb of charge moved past a given point in one second.
• Symbolically I = Q/t where I is current, Q is charge and t is time.
• In terms of base units A = C/s where A stands for ampere, C for
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coulomb and s for seconds.
• Current can essentially be either an alternating or direct current,
denoted as AC and DC respectively.

• As a function of time AC & DC characteristics are drawn below.

• AC has variable amplitude
and keeps reversing
direction of its flow.
• DC magnitude may vary but it never reverses its flow direction.

• AC is common electricity found in every house hold and workplace

whereas DC we encounter in our automobiles and electronic devices.

• Assumed polarity of the charge carriers forms basis of defining flow

of current as either “Electronic Flow” OR “Conventional Flow”.
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• However electronic flow is the established scientific fact
• It makes no difference, as will be demonstrated later, to consider
electronic or conventional flow to represent current direction.
• Current is always defined by giving out its direction as well as the
magnitude i.e. it is essentially a vector quantity.
• Symbolism that is commonly used to represent current flow is to draw
an arrow on the conductor showing the direction of flow of current
with the value of current in amperes printed over it.
• For example; fig. a on right shows 2 A current
flowing left to right in the shown wire.
• Negative sign indicates that direction of actual current
flow is opposite to direction of assumed flow
represented by an arrow.
• As fig. b shows that 3 A current is flowing from right 7
to left and not left to right as indicated by arrow.
• Random motion of charge carriers does not constitute current flow,
only a steady movement of carriers in specific direction contributes to
the flow of current. So how do we achieve it?
• By applying voltage source across a closed path or circuit.
• Voltage is the electric pressure that causes the current carriers and
thus current to flow. It is also known as emf (electro motive force)
and potential difference.
• Potential difference is the most descriptive term because a voltage is
actually a potential energy difference that exists between two points.
• What is potential energy? Energy exists in potential or kinetic forms.
• Potential energy is energy at rest where it can be stored for long time
and when conditions are right it can be changed into kinetic energy.
• Anything that has a mass and is in motion has a kinetic energy. 8
• Charge carriers too posses potential energy and their motion converts
it into kinetic energy.

• Voltage is a potential energy difference similar to potential energy

difference found in an object placed at some height.

• Instead of being moved by force of gravity, electric charges are

moved by the force of an electric field.

• In electricity the potential energy and potential energy difference are

due to electric charges and electric fields.

• Charge carriers always move from higher to lower potential.

• In conventional flow +ve terminal is considered at higher potential

and in electronic flow –ve terminal is taken at higher potential. 9
• Forming a circuit will initiate a continuous flow of electrons from
terminal at higher potential to lower potential and the energy required
to move it is the difference in energy level between these points.
• Base unit of potential difference (or voltage) is Volt, which is
abbreviated V, and defined V = W/Q i.e. 1 V = 1J/1C.
• For Example; Potential difference of 6.5 V implies that 1 C of charge
flowing through a light bulb, across this source, converts 6.5 J of
electrical energy into light and heat.
• Difference in energy level between points, is defined in such a way
that informs on the point that is at higher energy level than the other.
• Most common way is to allocate polarity sign to the points and
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indicate the value of voltage in between these points.
• In figure shown here, variable V1 = 2V defines
the magnitude of potential difference that exist
between the terminals marked A and B.
• Positive (+) and negative (–) signs define
polarity and hence reference direction for V1.
• Considering the conventional flow, point A is at higher potential than
point B as indicted by plus and minus signs respectively.
• When a unit charge is moved from point A & B (through the circuit),
it will give up energy to the circuit and will have 2 J less energy as it
arrives at point B, (W = V x Q = 2 x 1 = 2 J).
• If a unit charge is moved from point B & A (through the circuit), an
extra energy must be added to the charge by the circuit and charge
will end up having 2 J more energy as it arrives at point A than the
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energy it had when it started with at point B.
• In circuit here V2 = – 5 V, which implies that the
potential difference between point A & B is 5 V.

• Negative sign reflects that, point B is at higher

potential and not point A as shown.

• This can also be expressed equally well as shown

in equivalent circuit on right.

• Thee is no change in magnitude i.e. V3 = 5 V but

point B is shown at higher potential.
• It is neither always possible nor necessary to expect the variable
representing current or voltage to give positive answer.

• A negative number assigned to voltage or current variable gives

exactly the same information as positive number. 12
• Like the current, it is necessary to specify both the magnitude and
direction (polarity) of voltage.

• It would be incomplete to say that voltage between two point is 10 V

or far that matter current in the line is 2 A, since only the magnitude
and NOT the directions have been defined in either case.

• While arrow is used to indicate direction of current, the direction of

voltage is expressed by defining the polarity i.e. positive or negative
sign assigned to each terminal.

• Positive or negative signs can also be defined for just one of the
terminals, sign of the other can be inferred from it automatically.

• Which one of the two possible signs be taken at higher potential will
depend on electronic or conventional flow of current considered. 13
• To investigate the voltage-current
relationship for energy transfer
consider the shown flashlight circuit.

• Current flows from positive terminal

into bulb and returns at negative
terminal of battery.
• Bulb converts the electrical energy supplied by charge carriers into
light/heat energy and loose energy as they leave the bulb.

• Inversely these charge carriers gain energy as they pass through the
battery where chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.

• This energy transfer is evident from the polarity of voltage across the
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battery and bulb plus the direction of flow of circuit current.
• Current flows in the circuit in clock-wise direction.
• One can see that bulb, where energy is being absorbed, the positive
current is shown entering the positive terminal.
• Conversely in the battery, where the energy is being supplied or
replenished, positive current is shown entering the negative terminal.
• This “Voltage-Current Relationship” in a circuit can help determine
the energy transfer across different circuit elements as follows.
• When a circuit element is absorbing the energy, positive current
from the source enters its positive terminal and leave through its
negative terminal to arrive back at negative terminal of the source.
• When energy is being supplied by the circuit element, then it is
the positive current that enters its negative terminal and leaves
through its positive terminal to complete the path. 15
• Example; Consider a circuit element (box)
that has been extracted from the larger
circuit (cutout) for examination.

• Here energy is being absorbed by circuit

element connected across terminals A & B,
which are at potential difference of 3 V.
• I = 2 A indicated in the circuit reveal that 2 C of charge is moving
from point A to B through the circuit element every second.

• Since 3 J per coulomb of energy {W = V x Q = 3 x 1 =3} dissipates

into the load (circuit element), therefore, for 2 A current flowing in
the circuit, the energy absorbed by the load every second is 6 J.

• Charger charging a battery is example of circuit supplying energy. 16

• In the figure here, it is the circuit
element (box) that is supplying
energy to whatever is connected
across the terminals.

• What will happen if a negative sign

is allocated to the current?
• I = – 2A would imply that positive current is not leaving, as shown,
but entering the positive terminal, hence element absorbs energy.

• Product of current and voltage (P = VI) yield Power.

• Recall we defined voltage in joule per coulomb i.e. V = W/Q.

• We also defined current as coulomb per second or I = Q/t.

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• Power can thus be defined P = VI = (W/Q) x (Q/t) = W/t.
• P= W/t describes rate of using energy or doing work.

• Power thus describes how rapidly energy is converted to another form

of energy or alternatively how fast the work is done.

• Power is measured in Joules per second called watt.

• Symbol of power is P and has the base unit watt abbreviated as W.

• Example; Find the power rating of electric device that coverts 940 J
of energy in 10 seconds?

• W = 940 J and t =10 s, thus p = W/t = 940/10 = 94 J/S or 94 W.

• Power rating of the device is therefore, 94 W.

• Given the power we can always find out energy consumed by

manipulating the relationship P = W/t into W = Pt. 18
Circuit Elements
• Circuit element is a two terminal device characterized by voltage that
develop across it or/and current that passes through it.
• Circuit elements are employed in constructing electric circuits and are
broadly categorized into “Active” and “Passive” elements.
• The defining characteristics for classifying circuit elements into these
two categories is their energy transfer status.
• Elements that absorb energy are known as “Passive” elements and
most common of these are resistors, capacitors and inductors.
• “Passive” elements can NOT “generate energy”, we did not
deliberately use the term “supplying energy” as some of these
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“Passive” elements are capable of storing energy e.g. capacitor.
• “Active” elements generate energy e.g. batteries, generators etc .

• Energy to passive circuit elements is supplied by active element.

• Chief opposition to flow of current is posed by the material of

conducting wire employed to carry it around in the circuit.

• Opposition of material to the flow of current is called Resistance.

• Base unit for resistance is Ohms with symbol  and 1  = 1V/1A.

• Resistance converts electrical energy into undesired heat energy.

• There is extreme variation in the amount of resistance offered by

different conducting materials.

• It is possible for the material to have zero resistance.

• Superconductivity; is condition that describes this state. 20

• Resistance offered by a material depends on
1. Length of the object.
2. Height x width or cross sectional area of object.
3. Temperature of the object.
4. Type of the material the object is made of.
• Resistance is directly proportional to length (R  L) and indirectly
proportional to the cross sectional area (R 1/ A).
• Resistance of most of the materials increases with rise in temperature,
still there are materials whose resistance decreases as the temperature
increases such as carbon.

• Resistivity of material is resistance measured in its cubic volume at a

specific temperature and expressed as  . Cm,  . m or  . Ft. 21
• The most important, relationship between current, voltage, and
resistance is described by what is known as Ohm's Law.
• In simple words Ohm’s law says that “voltage across a fixed resistor
is directly proportional to current flowing through it”.
• Resistor is passive device providing specified amount of resistance.
• Resistor is represented by a symbol .
• Algebraic expressions of Ohm’s Law is V = I R, which can also be
expressed as I = V/R and R = V/I.
• Reciprocal of resistance is called conductance denoted by letter G
(i.e. G = 1/R), measured in Siemens and 1 S = 1 A/ 1V.
• Resistor controls the flow of current in a circuit, i.e. larger the resistor
less the current it allows to pass through and vice versa (I = V/R). 22
• Power consumed by a resistor i.e. P = VI, in terms of Ohm’s law can
also be expressed as P = I2R & P = V2/R OR P =V2G & P = I2/G.

• When ever current flows through resistor, a voltage develops across it.

• Voltage developed across the load (the resistive part of any circuit
element) when current is flowing though it is referred to as Voltage
Drop or Load Voltage.

• Voltage Drop is part of the Source Voltage but both are not same.

• Source Voltage provides the electrical energy to move electrons while

Voltage drop converts the electrical energy into another energy form.

• Current also determines voltage drop across a resistor (V = IR), hence

resistor also indirectly controls the voltage drop. 23
• Example 2.1; determine the current and power absorbed by 2 k 
resistor connected across a 12 V independent voltage source (fig. a)?

• Answer; I = V/R = 12/2k = 6 mA and P = VI = 12 x 6/K = 72 mW

• Power can also be found using variant equations, P = I2R and P=V2/R.

• Example 2.2; Determine the voltage and current that results in

delivering 3.6 mW of power across a 10k  resistor?

• We can employ I = P/R, as P = I2R and V = PR, as P=V2/R .

• Answer; I =  0.6 mA and V =  6 V (also P=VI or V=IR in 2nd step).

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• Example 2.3; Find the value of voltage across and power absorbed by
resistor in a circuit of fig. c above?

• Answer; Vs = I/G = 0.5 mA/50 S = 10 V.

• Also, as R = 1/G = 20 k, hence, Vs = IR = 0.5 mA x 20 k = 10 V.

• Power can be found as P = I2/G = I2R = V2/R = V2G = VI = 5 mW.

• Example 2.4; Find R and Vs in circuit of fig. d above?

• Answer; R = P/I2 = 80 mW/0.016 mA = 5 k.

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• Similarly Vs = IR = 4 mA x 5 k = 20 V.