CHAPTER 7

Energy systems and

physical activity
CHAPTER 7

The energy for muscular contractions comes from system has strengths and weaknesses when compared
adenosine triphosphate, which is found in several with the others, and specific sporting performances
sources including our food and drink. It may be exemplify each system’s majority contribution to the
released from carbohydrate, fat or protein, depending production of adenosine triphosphate. This chapter
on the body’s state of activity or health. explores the three basic chemical pathways towards
The body produces adenosine triphosphate via the production of adenosine triphosphate, along with
three energy pathways. Each is the main provider their relative characteristics. The lactate threshold is
under specific exercise conditions, but all contribute a major concept in energy system theory.
to energy across all degrees of activity. Each energy
Assessment tasks
Assessment tasks Topics Page
Written report Diet assessment (activity 2) 211
Oral presentation Multi-stage fitness test (activity 4) 218
Laboratory reports Phosphate recovery times (activity 3) 217
Multi-stage fitness test (activity 4) 218
Step test (activity 5) 221
Data analysis Phosphate recovery times (activity 3) 217

CHAPTER 7
Case study analysis Aerobic power test (activity 7) 225

Multimedia presentation Activity analysis – phosphate efforts (activity 6) 223

Report on participation Basketball analysis (activity 1) 211

in physical activity
Test Review questions 226

After completing this chapter, students should be able to:

• identify the three major energy systems • analyse how sports performance is controlled
that interplay during physical activity and predicted by their reliance on each of the
• describe the various ways in which three energy systems
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is created • outline the causes of fatigue including
within the three energy systems the lactate threshold, energy substrate depletion
• explain the advantages and limitations and inefficient recovery.
of each of the three energy systems
 Why energy?
Your body needs energy for basic body functions and activity during your
whole life — energy for breathing, sleeping, digesting, sitting in a chair,
sprinting for a bus, and everything else you do day and night.
The interaction between muscles and bones keeps the body upright and
under control. To allow this teamwork between the muscular and skeletal
systems (see chapter 5), the body needs energy sources that will permit
muscles to work, for example, the effort needed by the abdominal and back
muscles to enable good sitting posture, or by the muscles of the abdominals,
back, legs, torso and arms during a softball game.

Adenosine triphosphate
The chemical compound adenosine triphosphate (ATP) provides the
energy that allows muscular effort. ATP is the energy source for all
muscular effort, whether for a small subconscious movement such as the
blinking of an eye or a planned repetitious effort in weight training (see
chapter 9, Live It Up 2, second edition).

Sources of ATP
ATP is an end product of your diet. All the food, processed drinks and water
that you consume contain nutrients that your body requires for:
– healthy growth
– repair of body ‘wear and tear’ from everyday activities
– energy for all bodily functions.
The components of a healthy diet are carbohydrate, fat, protein, vitamins,
minerals and water. ATP can be created from carbohydrate, fat and protein.
Chapter 11, Live It Up 2, second edition more fully explores the processes by
which the body produces energy from food.

Carbohydrate
When carbohydrate is digested, it is broken down to glucose for blood trans-
portation and then stored as glycogen in the muscles and liver. Glycogen
can provide the energy for ATP production under both anaerobic (no oxygen
required) and aerobic (oxygen required) conditions.

Fat
Fat provides the major source of energy for long-term physical activity.
During a long team game or a marathon, fat (as either triglycerides or free
fatty acids) usually contributes to ATP production to meet sub-maximal
energy demands. Under special conditions, the athlete may be able to use fat
earlier in the activity to ‘spare’ the carbohydrate stores and therefore enable
longer high-level effort. During rest conditions, fat produces the majority of
the required ATP.

Protein
Protein only minimally contributes to ATP production. In extreme circum-
stances (such as starvation or ultra triathlon/marathon events) when the
body has severely depleted its supplies of carbohydrate and fat, protein can
become a viable source of ATP.

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Table 7.1
The body’s storage Food fuel Stored as Site
of food fuel Carbohydrate Glucose Blood
Glycogen Muscle and liver
Adipose tissue Around the body
(storage of excess carbohydrates)
Fat Free fatty acids Blood
Triglycerides Muscle
Adipose tissue Around the body
Protein Muscle Skeletal muscle
Amino acids Body fluids

Key knowledge Activity 1 Report on participation

• The cardiorespiratory in physical activity
system: structure of
Basketball analysis
the heart and lungs,
As a class, after an appropriate warm-up, play a hard game
mechanics of breathing,
of basketball or netball. Hand out to-scale court drawings on which
gaseous exchange,
player movements can be plotted.
blood vessels, blood flow
1. Have the class organised into these work groups:
around the body at rest
– players
and during exercise
– body parameter recorders; paired off one-on-one with the players
• Introduction to aerobic
– games analysis recorders; paired off one-on-one with the players.
and anaerobic energy
2. Play a number of 7–10 minute playing segments, each with
systems, including
an intervening 5 minute break. During the play, the games analysis
aerobic and anaerobic
recorders are to plot how far their partner has sprinted, jogged,
glycolysis
walked and for how long they stood still in the playing segment.
3. During the breaks, the body parameter recorders are to talk with,
Key skills assess and record their partners’ physical responses, including:
• Use correct terminology
– heart rates (polar heart rate monitors will be useful for this,
to describe the role of the
or do it manually with 10 second pulse counts)
body systems at rest
– respiration rates
and when undertaking
– observable perspiration amounts
physical activity.
– verbal reports of fatigue levels (easy, bit puffed, tiring,
• Observe and record how
struggling, had it . . .).
the body systems function
4. In your work groups, compile your results and address the following issues:
during physical activity.
a Present your findings in hard copy tables and/or
• Identify and discuss the
a multimedia presentation.
range of acute effects that
b How far did your player sprint, jog and walk?
physical activity has on
c What percentage of time did he or she spend in each
the body.
of sprint/jog/walk, and for how long were they stationary?
• Perform, observe,
d Plot their physical responses to the exercise segments
analyse, evaluate and
against the other players.
report on laboratory
e Establish a priority list of perceived fitness among the players.
exercises related to the
f List the bases for your decisions in question e.
body systems.
g List the information that the class has established from this exercise
that cover fitness, fatigue and energy.

Key knowledge Activity 2 Written report

• Introduction to aerobic
Diet assessment
and anaerobic energy
Record your total diet for three days. Estimate the percentages
systems, including
of carbohydrates, fats and protein by using packet labelling and nutrition
aerobic and anaerobic
guides supplied by your teacher. Have a class discussion to establish how
glycolysis
you could improve your diet to meet your energy needs.

CHAPTER 7 ENERGY SYSTEMS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

211
 Energy from ATP
ATP is stored in limited quantities within muscle, so each muscle fibre must
be able to create its own from the food fuels. Figure 7.1 illustrates how the
metabolism of food creates ATP which then provides energy for muscular
exertion.

Adenosine

P P P

ATP

Muscle
Food Energy Energy
activity

ADP + P

Adenosine

Figure 7.1:
P
Energy for muscular activity
— from food to ATP to muscles P P

ATP is an adenosine molecule with three phosphate molecules attached.

When muscular activity is needed, one of the phosphate molecules breaks
off, releasing energy and creating adenosine diphosphate (ADP) (see figure
7.1). This process is reversible: figure 7.2 shows how ADP can become
ATP. This reversal can occur continually during the activity as long as suf-
ficient energy substrates are available. Depending on the type of physical
activity (see chapter 8), energy substrates include phosphocreatine, glucose,
glycogen, lactic acid, fat, protein and oxygen. These are substances the body
can use to create ATP.
A muscle fibre stores only a small amount of ATP, so the force and
duration of a muscular effort is only as effective as the ATP replenishment
process. During and after physical exertion, the body uses several methods
of recovery to rebuild used supplies of ATP and food fuels.

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 Adenosine

1 P P P

Adenosine Brain
8 02 2
P
P P CNS
ATP for physical activity
Adenosine
1 Muscles have stores of ATP
Muscles
ready for activity.

P P P 2 Movement is initiated
by a message from the
Central Nervous System (CNS)
to the muscle.
3 The muscle releases calcium salts
into the muscle depths that activate ATP.
4 ATP loses one of its three phosphate
molecules and thereby releases energy
for muscle contraction.
5 Muscles contract.
7 3
6 ADP amounts build as ATP diminishes.
7 During aerobic effort or during rest, spare
oxygen allows the reattachment of loose
Adenosine P with the ADP, thus creating more ATP.
8 More ATP is constantly created during
Adenosine
P rest or during the activity depending on
P P Energy
the intensity of the exercise.
P
02 P P

6
P
P
Adenosine 4
Adenosine

P P
P P
5
Figure 7.2:
The cycle of ATP being broken down for muscle
movement, consequentially creating ADP, then being
reconstituted as ATP with the presence of oxygen

CHAPTER 7 ENERGY SYSTEMS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

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 Energy for rest and activity
The body can create energy (ATP) under two main conditions:
• rest conditions, where there is sufficient oxygen available
for the body to continue to function at a resting level
• active conditions, where physical exertion means there is
insufficient oxygen available for the body to continue to function at
a particular level without a marked increase in oxygen intake either
during or after the effort. These conditions occur during anaerobic
activity and aerobic activity.

ATP production during rest conditions

Rest is when the body is not under physical stress and when breathing and
heart rates are at resting levels. The body has an abundant oxygen supply,
so it produces approximately two-thirds of the ATP from fat stores within
the muscle and elsewhere in the body. Fat is a much richer energy source
than carbohydrates. To release this energy, the body must use much more
oxygen than it would in activating the supplies of ATP from glucose. When
at rest, you have an abundant supply of oxygen which is above the body’s
metabolic demands.
The other third of ATP needed under rest conditions comes from carbohy-
drate in blood glucose and glycogen stores within both the muscle and liver.
As with fat, glycogen is broken down in the mitochondria (structures within
the muscle cell, referred to as the ‘powerhouses’ of the cell) (see figure 7.8).
The end products of aerobic metabolism are carbon dioxide, water and
heat. No by-products limit body activity; only food fuels and the rate of
aerobic metabolism limit ongoing aerobic ATP production.

ATP production during activity

‘Activity’ in physical education is a broad term that covers any physical
state more exertive than rest. The level of activity is determined by factors
such as:
• how long the activity continues — activity duration
• how hard the body works during the activity — activity intensity
• the level of the individual’s aerobic fitness
• the level of recovery achievable between activity efforts.
When the body starts physical activity, it immediately demands an
increased oxygen supply to the working muscles. The respiratory and circu-
latory systems (see chapter 6) are unable to meet this immediate demand, so
the body uses two energy pathways to create ATP anaerobically (i.e. without
oxygen). These anaerobic pathways produce ATP quickly and powerfully,
but they have three disadvantages:
• they produce relatively small amounts of ATP
• they operate for only a short period
• they result in fatiguing by-products.
If the physical activity is at a reasonably sub-maximal level, then the body
is able to produce the required ATP aerobically because the body’s ability to
use oxygen can meet the muscles’ demands for extra oxygen for greater ATP
production. This aerobic pathway has opposite qualities to those of the two
anaerobic systems:
• it can produce ATP for sub-maximal efforts for long periods of time
• it cannot quickly produce energy for high intensity efforts
• it has no toxic by-products.
The body produces ATP under these varying levels of physical activity
via three energy pathways: the phosphate energy system, the anaerobic gly-
colysis system and the aerobic system.

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 Three energy systems
All three energy pathways operate at any one time, but the contribution of
each varies depending on the intensity of the activity. Figure 7.3 illustrates
the overlapping nature of the three energy systems that underpins their
‘interplay’. Note that the identified percentage contribution of each energy
system to exertions of different durations has changed with sports physi-
ology research over the years.

Phosphate energy system

The phosphate energy system provides the bulk of ATP during powerful or
explosive efforts. Such efforts may be once-off — such as a court-length pass
in basketball or a take-off in the high jump — or ongoing — such as a sprint
to position in netball or football. The phosphate energy is closely linked with
several fitness components (see chapter 5, Live It Up 2, second edition).
• muscular strength • anaerobic power • agility
• muscular power • speed • reaction time.
100
Energy contribution (%)

75
Aerobic energy

50

25
Anaerobic glycolysis

Figure 7.3: Phosphate energy

A graphic interpretation of the 0
three energy systems and their 0 10 30 60 90 120 180 240 300 360
periods of prominence Performance time (seconds)

Following about 10 seconds of maximal effort, the phosphate system is

largely depleted and the body needs to significantly reduce the activity’s
intensity as the anaerobic glycolysis system begins to become the dominant
provider of ATP. The phosphate energy system relies on muscle stores of
both ATP and a chemical compound called phosphocreatine.
If the activity requires a maximal effort for 5–10 seconds, such as an
elite 100-metre sprint event, then stores of ATP and phosphocreatine in the
working muscles jointly create most of the maximal effort for that activity.
After about 10 seconds of efforts, the muscles’ stores of ATP and phospho-
creatine are greatly depleted. Thus, with critically low stores the athlete must
either slow down or stop.
Once this maximal effort is over, the body is able to take in more oxygen
via puffing. This extra oxygen is able to create more ATP from ADP, and to
reconstitute phosphocreatine from the broken phosphate and creatine mol-
ecules remaining after the sprint (see figure 7.4).
Following a 10-second maximal effort, the body can take around
3–5 minutes to fully restore the ATP and phosphocreatine supplies to
pre-exercise levels within the working muscles. If the effort was less than
10 seconds, then the recovery time to pre-exercise levels is faster than
3 minutes. (Chapter 4, Live It Up 2, second edition contains more detail on
this recovery process.)

CHAPTER 7 ENERGY SYSTEMS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

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 Adenosine

P P

Adenosine

P
× C

6 P — C
1 P P P
P

The phosphate system

1 The power athlete at the start of
the event, muscles primed and full of
ATP and PC stores.
2 At the starting gun, the maximal explosive
effort to leave the starting blocks
Adenosine immediately uses up some of the stored Adenosine
ATP in the muscles, resulting in ADP. Energy

3 The muscle stores of PC split, P

P P P P
releasing energy.
P 4 This energy allows the single phosphate
5
Energy
molecules left from the spent ATP to be
reattached to the ADP creating more ATP
2 P — C

P
× C
5
that allows the maximal effort to continue.
This replenishing process continues
while the athlete completes the race
at maximal effort.
Adenosine 6 The athlete crosses the finish line
with muscle stores of ATP
P and PC depleted.
P P
P — C

×
Adenosine
Adenosine
P C

P P
P
Energy
P
× C
P P

4 3

Figure 7.4:
The cycle of ATP being broken down
and resynthesised for powerful
muscle movement centres around
the energy from PC splitting

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Key knowledge Activity 3 Laboratory report and
• The cardiorespiratory system: data analysis
structure of the heart
and lungs, mechanics of Phosphate recovery times
breathing, gaseous exchange, As a class, choose half the class to thoroughly warm up
blood vessels, blood flow and then attempt a series of 25-metre swimming sprints.
around the body at rest Allow gradually reduced recovery periods after each sprint:
and during exercise 5 minutes, 3 minutes, 1 minute and 10 seconds.
• Introduction to aerobic and Each subject should take their heart rate for 10 seconds
anaerobic energy systems, after each sprint. If you are not a test subject,
including aerobic and help organise and record the sprints.
anaerobic glycolysis 1. Graph (by plotting it on graph paper or by using
graphing software) and discuss the results.
Key skills 2. Write a report in which you explain the peak time for the
• Use correct terminology
phosphate energy system, its required recovery period and how
to describe the role of the
the laboratory demonstrated the theory.
body systems at rest and when
undertaking physical activity.
• Observe and record how the
body systems function during
physical activity.
• Identify and discuss the range
of acute effects that physical
activity has on the body.
• Perform, observe, analyse,
evaluate and report on
laboratory exercises related
to the body systems.

Anaerobic glycolysis system

The anaerobic glycolysis system is also known as the lactic acid system.
This system mainly provides the bulk of ATP production during high-
intensity, sub-maximal efforts. It may also become the dominant producer
of ATP during repeated phosphate efforts which have insufficient recovery
time to allow full phosphocreatine replenishment. Muscle stores of glycogen
are anaerobically broken down during effort to release energy for ATP to be
resynthesised from ADP.
The anaerobic glycolysis system operates as the dominant supplier of
ATP in the period from around 10 seconds of maximal effort to around
60 seconds. Most recent studies suggest that the overlap period — when the
body switches from using the anaerobic glycolysis system as the dominant
ATP producer to using the aerobic system — could start as early as 30 seconds
into high-level, sub-maximal activity (see figure 7.3).
The anaerobic glycolysis system is closely linked with several fitness
components (see chapter 5, Live It Up 2, second edition):
• anaerobic power
• local muscular endurance
• speed
• muscular power.

CHAPTER 7 ENERGY SYSTEMS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

217
 It is classically exemplified in the 400-metre run in secondary school
athletics, but it is also highly relevant in a team game when the performer
is required to undertake repeated sprints that do not provide sufficient
recovery time for the phosphate system. Most players in team games can
relate to a situation of having insufficient energy to allow continued top
effort, and thus needing a time-out or a rest on the substitution bench.
Because the anaerobic system operates without oxygen being used
for ATP production, lactic acid (LA) is produced as a by-product. This
affects the muscles’ ability to contract and creates fatigue in the per-
former. If the performer tries to continue exercising at the same anaerobic
intensity, the levels of lactic acid increase and will cause the individual to
either slow down or stop.
As the individual tries to continue exercising at this high anaerobic inten-
sity while fighting the fatigue caused by the lactic acid, they will reach what
is known as their lactate threshold. This is the level at which the lactic acid
levels prevent their ability to continue working at the same intensity.
During 20 minutes of a football or netball game, an involved player may
carry out over 100 power (or phosphate) efforts. Even if adequate oxygen-
rich recovery conditions are available between each effort, there is still only
around 10 seconds for recovery each time. Therefore, the phosphate energy
system usually becomes severely depleted in sources of ATP production,
and the next quickly available system (anaerobic glycolysis) takes over as
the dominant ATP supplier.
During a 400-metre run, lactate accumulation affects the runner during the
home straight but can generally be endured until the race finishes. A team
game is quite a different situation: the lactate threshold cannot be ignored.

Figure 7.5:
Jana Pittman running another 400-metres hurdles race.
Her efforts produce large amounts of lactic acid.

Key knowledge Activity 4 Laboratory report and oral

• Introduction to aerobic and presentation
anaerobic energy systems,
including aerobic and Multi-stage fitness test
anaerobic glycolysis As a class undertake the multi stage fitness test
(see chapter 6, Live It Up 2, second edition).
Key skills 1. Stop when you reach what you think is your lactate
• Use correct terminology to threshold.
describe the role of the body 2. Record your HR at this time.
systems at rest and when 3. Note the reasons why you have picked this stage of the test.
undertaking physical activity. 4. Could you have kept running? Give some reasons.
• Observe and record how the 5. For how long?
body systems function during 6. Was the level
physical activity. you reached
• Identify and discuss the range the best you
of acute effects that physical have done for
activity has on the body. this test?
• Perform, observe, analyse, 7. Write up your
evaluate and report on responses to
laboratory exercises the class’s
related to the efforts and
body systems. share these
with the class in
an oral report.

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 LA

ADP + glycogen
6 O2
ATP 1

The anaerobic glycolysis system

1 On blocks at start of 400 m race.
2 At 15–20m point. ATP–PC system
is depleted. Anaerobic glycolysis
system now becoming dominant ADP + PC
ATP supplier. ATP
3 End of back straight at 200 m mark.
Cruising, feeling good.
LA increasing in blood stream, but
not noticeable.
Adenosine
4 Entering home straight, about 80 m
from home. Increasing LA levels
beginning to be uncomfortable.

5
LA
5 Building LA levels do not prevent
finishing the race, but do cause
a slowing down during the last
P
× C
P P
2

80 m of the race.
ADP + glycogen 6 Much puffing after the race
No O2
ATP helps reduce LA levels to ADP + glycogen
resting values within the No O2
next half hour or so. ATP

LA
LA

ADP + glycogen
4 No O2
ATP 3

Figure 7.6:
Anaerobic glycolysis is best
exemplified in the 400 m run. It
provides most of the needed ATP
but produces lactic acid.

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 Aerobic energy system
The aerobic energy system is also known as aerobic glycolysis. It is relevant
to all of the fitness components because it provides either the basis for
recovery between strength and power efforts, or the bulk of energy for sub-
maximal efforts.
Aerobic glycolysis, as with all the energy systems, contributes to ATP
production under all conditions. However, it contributes the majority of ATP
during continuous sub-maximal activities that go beyond 1 minute.
With the rich oxygen supplies in the aerobic system, fat is able to become
a significant contributor to ATP production. Fat requires a complex series
of reactions that depend on oxygen within the muscle cell’s mitochondria.
Protein is similarly metabolised for ATP production, but only under extreme
conditions.
Figure 7.7: The body’s supply of fat exceeds even the physical requirements of a
Aerobic glycolysis is best highly trained athlete, so the aerobic system could theoretically operate for
exemplified in any longer an unlimited work period.
aerobic effort. It provides the
vast bulk of the required ATP.
1
Adenosine

P P

02

Adenosine
P Energy
P
The aerobic glycolysis system P P
5 2
1 Start of 20 minute cross-country race.
ADP + glycogen LA 2 Low sub-maximal effort with HR
O2 around 70–80 per cent of maximum.
ATP
3 Sufficient O2 levels allow ATP to be
continuously replenished from ADP.
4 Any periods of acceleration or hill work
will increase LA levels, but are generally
controlled by following periods of lower
exertion where O2 supplies become
ADP + glycogen
plentiful again.
O2
5 At end of race, fatigue is generally ATP
from joint fatigue, dehydration,
mental fatigue, higher than normal
LA levels or reduced muscle glycogen.
LA
4
ADP + glycogen
O2?
ATP

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 Mitochondrion

Glycogen

Glucose Fat Protein

ATP Carbon Oxygen
Figure 7.8: Pyruvic dioxide ATP
The mitochondrion acid Citric
acid Hydrogen Water
carries out aerobic glycolysis, Electron
cycle transport chain
involving glycogen breakdown
with oxygen present. Also, both fat
and protein may be metabolised.

Key knowledge Activity 5 Laboratory report

• Introduction to aerobic
and anaerobic energy Step test
systems, including aerobic If they are available use Polar HR monitors.
and anaerobic glycolysis If not, work in pairs and take HR manually.
• The cardiorespiratory system: Sit quietly on some benches in the physical education centre
structure of the heart at school, and put on a heart–rate monitor. Check the monitor is
and lungs, mechanics of displaying your heart rate. Do not talk or walk around. Concentrate
breathing, gaseous exchange, on breathing slowly and evenly. Take note of your heart rate after
blood vessels, blood flow sitting quietly for three minutes. Record your heart rate.
around the body at rest Begin the test under your teacher’s directions: step up and down on
and during exercise the bench at a set rhythm that allows you to complete a full stepping
sequence each five seconds, or 20 sequences per minute. Put your left
Key skills foot up, right foot up, left foot down, right foot down . . . and so on.
• Use correct terminology to When both legs are on top of the bench, both legs should be straight.
describe the role of the body Continue stepping until told to stop and then sit down
systems at rest and when on the bench.
undertaking physical activity. After 5–10 seconds record your heart rate and continue
• Observe and record how to record every 30 seconds for five minutes. Record all
the body systems function measurements on the sheet.
during physical activity. Complete the table below with your results after you
• Identify and discuss the range finish exercising.
of acute effects that physical Graph your results.
activity has on the body. Answer the following questions:
• Perform, observe, analyse, 1. What was your maximum heart rate at the end
evaluate and report on of the step-up exercise?
laboratory exercises related to 2. On the same graph draw the results of another subject.
the body systems. Clearly label both graphs.
3. Compare the two graphs. Which subject’s heart rate
dropped the greatest distance?
4. Who do you think is fitter for this exercise?
5. What evidence could you give to support this?
6. What factors control resting, exercise and recovery heart rates?

Time 00 sec 30 sec 1.00 min 1.30 min 2.00 min 2.30 min 3.00 min 3.30 min 4.00min 4.30 min 5.00 min

Heart
rate

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221
 Table 7.2
Summary of the Phosphate Anaerobic Aerobic
three energy systems Characteristic energy glycolysis glycolysis
1. Energy source Phosphocreatine Carbohydrate Carbohydrate
for ATP Glycogen Fat
production Protein
2. Duration of 5–10 Seconds 30–45 Seconds >60 seconds
dominant
energy
production
3. Recovery Phosphocreatine Removal of lactic acid Restoration
time until replenishment: to rest levels: of body
repeat effort 3–5 minutes • With active recovery: glycogen
– 95% removal: stores:
30 minutes • 6–48 hours
4. Limiting Depletion of Lactic acid • Lactic acid
factor when phosphocreatine accumulation accumulation
operating • Lower
maximally glycogen
stores
• Dehydration
5. Intensity and Maximal High, Sub-maximal
duration of intensity sub-maximal intensity intensity
activity where (>95% max hr) (85–95% max hr) (<85% max hr)
the system is and duration of and duration and duration of
the dominant 1–10 seconds of 10–30 seconds >30 seconds
ATP provider
6. Specific • any athletic • 200–400 m • marathon
sporting field event in athletics • cross-country
examples • elite 100 m • 50 m swim skiing
athletic sprint • consecutive • triathlon
• golf drive basketball fast breaks • AFL mid field
• gymnastic vault • high intensity • hockey wing
• volleyball spike 15–20 second • all elite team
• high mark squash rally players
and long kick • repeated leads • rowing
in AFL by AFL full forward 2000 m race
• tennis serve • elite netball centre • water polo
• water polo in close game game
centre • quadriceps in
forward- downhill skiing
centre back • water polo
contest consecutive fast
breaks and defends

7. Everyday • running up • running up four • shopping

activity one flight flights of stairs • going to the
examples of steps • running 200 m to cinema
• carrying heavy catch bus • gardening
shopping from • chopping wood • mowing lawn
car to house • moving heavy • dancing
• sprinting furniture • ironing
for train • studying

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 Key knowledge Activity 6 Multimedia presentation
• Introduction to aerobic and
anaerobic energy systems, Activity analysis — phosphate efforts
including aerobic and Watch a replay of any high-level team game,
anaerobic glycolysis then assign groups to record all phosphate efforts by the players.
1. Assess the average length of each effort and the average
Key skills recovery time between each.
• Observe and record how 2. Determine the relative importance of each of the three
the body systems function energy systems to the game.
during physical activity. 3. Display your percentages in pie charts and as a
• Identify and discuss the range PowerPoint presentation.
of acute effects that physical
activity has on the body.
• Perform, observe, analyse,
evaluate and report on
laboratory exercises
related to the body systems.

ATP production — different

exertion conditions
The length and intensity of physical exertion determine which of the energy
systems is the dominant contributor to ATP production (figure 7.9). As the
activity time increases, the influence of the aerobic system on ATP production
also increases. However, the relative contribution of each of the three energy
systems varies according to the intensity and duration of the activity.

ATP
6.3% 8%
Creatine-phosphate

Anaerobic glycolytic 50%

50% 50%
Aerobic glycolytic 65%
44.1%
Aerobic lipolytic

Figure 7.9:
92%
The average energy contributions
of different energy systems during
30%
high-intensity competition
Source: 50% 50%
49.6% 35%
Burke, L. and Hawley, J. 1998,
Peak performance: training
20%
and nutritional strategies
for sport, Allen and Unwin,
St Leonards, p. 47. 6 seconds 30 seconds 60 seconds 120 seconds 1 hour 4 hours

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 Onset of blood lactate accumulation
OBLA is the acronym for the onset of blood lactate accumulation. At rest,
everyone has lactic acid (LA) in their muscles. It is only when exercise
begins that the muscular levels of LA begin to rise. If the exercise or activity
is anaerobic in nature, then the levels of LA rise more significantly.
At the early stages of anaerobic work, the rising muscular concentrations
of LA easily flow from the working muscles through the capillary walls into
the circulatory system. This increase in blood levels of LA is the signal that
OBLA has occurred. This is easily measured at elite training venues such
as the AIS in Canberra where technological facilities and sports scientists
are available to quickly take and measure blood samples from athletes.
When these readings are combined with an athlete’s record of physiological
responses to exertion, training can be tightly geared around his or her lactate
threshold.

Lactate threshold
Lactate threshold is the common term used at the elite level of sports physi-
ology. It is the point above which lactic acid begins to rapidly accumulate in
the blood, and below which blood levels of lactic acid do not inhibit effort
at the desired level.
Beyond the lactate threshold, muscle and blood lactate levels exponentially
increase and the athlete has to reduce or stop muscle effort. For untrained
people, the lactate threshold is usually around 4 mmol/L, (mmol/L — the
measure of how many units of LA are present in one litre of blood).
Trained athletes can increase their tolerance to LA accumulation and are
able to continue effective performance or training with much higher lactate
levels in their working muscles and circulatory system.
At the AIS, athletes’ LA levels have been measured at above 20 mmol/L
while continuing to effectively train or compete anaerobically.
Once the athlete passes the lactate threshold and continues the activity
until reaching exhaustion, all energy systems are still functioning but the
body’s increasing reliance on the anaerobic glycolysis system results in lactic
acid levels that curtail the activity.
Figure 7.10 indicates there is no exact physical state at which the lactate
threshold occurs. It will differ with each individual, the individual’s state
of fitness and the intensity of the activity. However, some indicators (which
vary in their precision) provide coaches and athletes with a means of
assessing the effort required by a work-out (table 7.3).
LA accumulation mmol/L

Anaerobic systems
4

Figure 7.10:
The aerobic and anaerobic
contributions to ATP production
as exercise intensity increases. Aerobic system
The lactate threshold is the point
at which lactic acid production
affects performance.
Exercise intensity

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Table 7.3
Ways of determining the Method Determinant
lactate threshold
1. Percentage of maximum Untrained athlete — around 60%
heart rate Trained athlete — around 90%

2. Blood lactate levels Untrained athlete — 4 mmol/L

Trained athlete — more than 4 mmol/L

3. Conversation Ability to talk continues, but extended

during exercise conversation is uncomfortable.

4. Respiration Breathing rate is still comfortable at the onset

of blood lactate accumulation but becomes
more rapid as effort continues past it.

Key knowledge Activity 7 Case study analysis

• Introduction to aerobic
and anaerobic energy Aerobic power test
systems, including aerobic Select two high-level endurance athletes from the class
and anaerobic glycolysis and obtain a medical clearance for each.
1. Design an aerobic power laboratory test on bikes or treadmills
Key skills
that can be continued to maximal levels.
• Use correct terminology
2. Ensure you can record accurate heart rates. Use Polar HR monitors.
to describe the role of the
body systems at rest
3. Predict when the onset of blood lactate accumulation is likely
and when undertaking to occur for each of the two subjects.
physical activity. 4. Have the subjects perform the test until they have to stop,
• Observe and record how recording as many body responses as possible during the test.
the body systems function 5. Try to pinpoint when the onset of blood lactate accumulation
during physical activity. occurs. Give reasons for your decision.
• Identify and discuss 6. Try to notice when the lactate threshold occurs.
the range of acute effects 7. Assess the value of the test and answer questions your
that physical activity teacher will prepare. Some possible areas to investigate include:
has on the body. levels of oxygen consumption during the test; the percentage
• Perform, observe, analyse, contributions of each energy system; differences in the onset
evaluate and report on of blood lactate accumulation for each subject; reasons for
laboratory exercises related respiration rates and other body responses to the test.
to the body systems.

Lactic acid removal

Existing exertion levels determine the rate of lactic acid removal. An active
recovery provides the best conditions, with exertion levels less than the level
of the lactate threshold, and with a heart rate ideally 15–30 beats per minute
lower than that at the lactate threshold. With blood flow greater than at
rest levels, the blood flow through the muscle capillaries is still substantial
enough to disperse lactic acid.
The bulk of lactic acid is converted back to ATP inside the mitochondria
creating new ATP supplies. Once exercise is finished, the liver can also
reconvert lactic acid to glycogen. The body also deals with small amounts of
lactic acid through respiration, perspiration and excretion.

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 Key knowledge Chapter summary
Introduction
• to aerobic
and anaerobic energy • The energy for physical activity is released by adenosine triphosphate
systems, including aerobic (ATP).
and anaerobic glycolysis • This energy source is stored in only small amounts within muscles,
• The cardiorespiratory so the body must continually reproduce it for continued muscular effort.
system: structure of the • ATP is produced via three energy pathways:
heart and lungs, mechanics – the phosphate energy system, which uses phosphocreatine
of breathing, gaseous to create new ATP supplies without oxygen
exchange, blood vessels, – the anaerobic glycolysis energy system, which uses glycogen
blood flow around the body but no oxygen
– the aerobic energy system, which uses primarily glycogen and fats
CHAPTER REVISION

at rest and during exercise

(and protein under extreme conditions) to create ATP.
Key skills • The phosphate energy system can create ATP very quickly, with a major
• Use correct terminology energy contribution to powerful exertions of up to around 10 seconds
to describe the role of the duration. It depletes quickly, taking around 3–5 minutes to replenish.
body systems at rest • The anaerobic glycolysis system takes longer to create ATP. It is the major
and when undertaking contributor to high-level exertions of 10–60 seconds, but creates lactic acid
physical activity. as by-products.
• Observe and record how • The lactate threshold is the stage when lactic acid concentrations within
the body systems function the blood reach the level at which continued high-level muscle activity
during physical activity. cannot continue.
• Identify and discuss the • It can take up to 60 minutes to restore lactic acid to resting levels.
range of acute effects • The aerobic glycolysis system becomes the major contributor to muscle
that physical activity activity from around 60 seconds into a sustained sporting performance.
has on the body. It relies on an efficient circulo-respiratory system.
• Perform, observe, analyse, • The aerobic creation of ATP within the muscle occurs in the mitochondria.
evaluate and report
on laboratory
exercises Review questions
related to the 1. Define in your own words the key terms listed below, all of which appear
body systems. in this chapter. When you have finished, check your definitions with those
in the glossary on page 285:
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) lactate threshold
adipose tissue lactic acid (LA)
aerobic glycolysis mitochondrion
anaerobic glycolysis mmol/L of LA
carbohydrate (CHO) OBLA
energy substrates phosphate energy system
fat phosphocreatine (PC)
glucose protein
glycogen

2. In class, discuss the following sports or individual events and predict,

using pie charts, the relative importance of each of the three energy
systems in the successful completion of the activity. Assume they
are being performed by elite adult sportspeople:
(a) netball
(b) cricket
(c) Australian Football
(d) high jump
(e) gymnastics floor routine
(f) rowing — 2000 m race
(g) 400 m run
(h) 25 m swim.

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3. Explain the differences between OBLA and the lactate threshold.
4. What would be the recovery times between one elite performance
of the following efforts and a repeat effort?
(a) a long jump in athletics
(b) a clean-and-jerk lift in a weight-lifting competition
(c) an 800 m race in athletics
(d) a 100 m race in swimming
(e) an Olympic distance triathlon
(f) a 100 m athletic heat and the semi final
(g) a netball game
5. How does the body deal with the high lactic acid levels created
by a high level sub-maximal effort?

CHAPTER REVISION
Useful websites
Aerobic energy system —
www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/siteindx.htm
Energy systems, aerobic and anaerobic —
http://predator.pnb.uconn.edu/beta/virtualtemp/muscle/exercise-folder/muscle.html
Lactate physiology and sports training —
www.lactate.com/eslact1c.html
Body systems —
http://sln.fi.edu/biosci/systems/systems.html
The lactate threshold —
http://home.hia.no/~stephens/lacthres.htm
www.sport-fitness-advisor.com/anaerobicthreshold.html
Major muscle groups and microscopic structure —
www.anatomy.usyd.edu.au/mru/lectures/
Muscle biochemistry —
http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/muscle.html
Muscle physiology homepage —
http://muscle.ucsd.edu/musintro/struct.shtml
Muscles —
www.e-muscles.net/
Nismat exercise physiology corner: muscle physiology primer —
www.nismat.org/physcor/muscle.html

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