A Treatise On Electricity and Magnetism

A TREATISE
ON
ELECTRICITY
AND
MAGNETISM
James Clerk Maxwel
IP
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A TREATISE
ON
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
MAXWELL
TOL. I. a
lottHon
MACMILLAN AND 00.
PUBLISHBJta TO THB UNIVMR8ITT OF
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A TREATISE
ON
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
BY
JAHES CLERK MAXWELIi, H.A.

UtP» MDIV., V. a. 88. LONDON AND EDINfiUBOn
OirOBABT tUXOW 09 TBIVITT COUMM,
Airo fsoiMWB ov azpnnmvAii nmiM
n TBB milTBBSITT OV CAMBBIMB
VOL. I
AT TU£ CLARENDON PRESS

1878
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PREFACE.
The fact that certain bodies, after being rubbed,
appear to attract other bodies^ was known to the
ancients. In modem times, a great variety of other
phenomena have been observed, and have been found
to be related to these phenomena of attraction. They
have been classed under the name of Electric phe-
nomena^ amber, ^^crrpoy, having been the substance
in which they were first described.
Other bodies, particularly the loadstone, and pieces
of iron and steel which have been subjected to certain
processes, have also been long known to exhibit phe-
nomena of action at a distance. These phenomena,
with othm related to them, were found to differ from
the electric phenomena, and have been classed under
tlie name Magnetic phenomena, the loadstone, M^yvtn,
being found in the Thessalian Magnesia.
These two classes of phenomena have since been
found to be related to each other, and the relations
between the yarious phenomena of both classes, so
fer as they are known, constitute the science of Elec-
tromagnetism.
In the following Treatise I propose to describe the
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1
•
PEEFACE.
most important of these phenomena* to shew how they
may be subjected to measurement^ and to trace the
mathematical connexions of the quantities measured.
Having thus obtained the data for a mathematical
theory of electromagnetism, and having shewn how
this theory may be applied to the calculation of phe-
nomena* I shall endeavour to place in as dear a light
as I can the relations ])ctween the mathematical form
of this theory and that of the tundamental science of
Dynamics* in order that we may be in some degree
.prepared to determine the kind of d^Tiamical pheno-
mena among which we are to look for illustrations or
explanations of the electromagnetic phenomena.
. In describing the phenomena, I sliall select those
which most clearly illustrate the fundamental ideas of
the theory, omitting others* or reserving them till the
reader is more advanced.
The most important aspect of any phenomenon fix>m
a mathematical point of view is that of a measurable
quantity. I shall therefore consider electrical pheno-
mena chiefly with a view to their measurement* de-

scribing the methods of measurement* and defining
the standards on which they depend.
In the application of mathematics to the calculation
of electrical quantities, I shall endeavour in tlie first
place to deduce the most general conclusions from the

data at our disposal* and in the next place to apply
the results to the simplest cases that can be chosen.
I shall avoid, as much as I can* those questions which,
though they have elicited the skill of mathematicians*
have not enlarged our knowledge of science.
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PBEF.ACE.
The internal relations of the different branches of

the science whichwe have to study are more numerous
and complex than those of any other science hitherto
developed. Its external relations, on the one hand to
dynamics, and on the other to heat» lights chemical
action, and the constitution of bodies, seem to indicate
the special importance of electrical science as an aid
to the interpretation of nature.
It appears to me, therefore, that the study of dec-
tromagnetism in all its extent has now become of the
first importance as a means of promoting the progress
of science
The mathematical laws of the different classes of
phenomena have been to a great extent satis&ctorily

made out
The connexions between the ditlerent classes of phe-
nomena have also been investigated, and the proba-
bility of the rigorous exactness of the experimental
laws has been greatly strengthened by a more extended
knowledge of their relations to each other.
Finally, some progress has been made in the re-
duction of electromagnetism to a dynamical science,

by shewing that no electromagnetic phenomenon is
contradictory to the supposition that it depends on

purely djTiamical action.
What has been hitherto done, however, has by no
means exhausted the field of electrical research. It
has rather opened up that field, by pointing out sub-

jects of enquiry, and ihmishing us with means of
investigation.
It is hardly necessary to enlarge upon the beneficial
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PBEFACE.
resnlts of magnetic research on navigation, and the
importance of a knowledge of the true direction of
the compass, and of the effect of the iron in a sliip.
But the labours of those who have endeavoured to

render navigation more secure by means of magnetic
observations have at the same time greatly advanced
the progress of pure science.
Gauss, as a meniljer of the German Magnetic Union,
brought his powerM intellect to bear on the theory
of magnetism, and on the methods of observing it,
and he not only added greatly to our knowledge of

the theoiy of attractions, but reconstructed the whole
of magnetic science as regards the instruments used,
the methods of observation, and the calculation of the
results, so that his memoirs on Terrestrial Magnetism
may be taken as models of ])hysical research by all
those who are engaged in the measurement of any

of the forces in nature.
The important applications of electromagnetisni to
telegraphy have also reacted on pure science by giving
a commercial value to accurate electrical measure-
ments, and by aftbrding to electricians the use of
apparatus on a scale which greatly transcends that
of any ordinary laboratory. The consequences of this
demand for electrical knowledge, and of these experi-
mental opportunities for acquiring it^ have been already
very great, both in stimulating the eneiês of ad-
vanced electricians, and in difilising among practical
men a degree of accurate knowledge which is likely
to conduce to the general scientific progress of the
whole engineering profession.
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PBEFACE.
There are seyeral treatises in which electrical and
magnetic phenomena are described in a popular way.
These, howeyer, aie not ^hat is wanted by those who
have been brought face to face with quantities to be
measured* and whose minds do not rest satisfied with
lecture-room experiments.
There is also a considerable mass of mathematical
memoirs which are of great importance in electrical
science, but they lie concealed in tiie bulky Trans-

actions of learned societies ; they do not form a con-
nected system ; they are of very unequal merits and
they are for the most part beyond the comprehension
of any but professed mathematicians.
I hare therefore thought that a treatise would be
useful which should have for its principal object to
take up the whole subject in a methodical manner,
and which should also indicate how each part of the
subject is brought within the reach of methods of
by actual measurement
verification
The general complexion of the treatise diflfers con-

siderably from that of several excellent electrical
works^ published, most of them, in Germany, and it
may appear that scant justice is done to the specu-

latious of several eminent electricians and mathemar
ticians. One reason of this is that before I began
the study of electricity I resolved to read no mathe-
matics on the subject till I had first read through
Faraday's JSoBperimenUd Eesearchea an Electricity. I
was aware that there was supposed to be a difference
between Fai'dday^s way of conceiving phenomena and
that of the mathematicians^ so that neither he nor
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X PREFACE.
they were satisfied with each other's language. I had
also the conviction that this (liscre])aiicy did not arise
from either party being wrong. I was first convinced

of this by Sir William Thomson * to whose advice and
assistance, as weW as to his published papers, I owe
most of what I have learned on the subject.
As I proceeded with the study of Faraday, I per-
ceived that his method of conceiving the plionomena
was also a mathematical on^ though not eiLhibited
in the conventional form of mathematical symbols. I
also found that these methods were capable of being

expressed in the ordinary mathematical forms^ and
thus compared with those of the professed mathema-
ticians.
For instance, Faraday, in his mind's eye, saw lines

of force traversing all space wliere the mathematicians
saw centres of force attracting at a distance Faraday :
saw a medium where they saw nothing but distance:

Faraday sought the seat of the plienomena in real
actions going on in the jnedium, they were satisfied
that they had found it in a power of action at a

distance impressed on the electric fluids.
When I had translated what I considered to be
Faraday's ideas into a mathematical form, I fbund
that in general the results of the two methods coin-
cided, so that the same phenomena were accounted
for, and the same laws of action deduced by both
methods, but that Faraday's methods resembled those
* I take this opportunity of acknowledging my obligations to Sir

W. Thomson and to Professor Tait for many Taluable soggeBtions made
during the printing of this work.
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PBEFACE. XI
in which we hegin with the whole and arrive at the

parts by analysis, while the ordinary mathematical
methods were founded on the principle of beginning
with the parts and building up the whole by syn-
thesis.
I also found that several of the roost fertile methods

of research discovered by tlic mathematicians could be
expressed much better in terms of ideas derived from
Faraday than in theur original form.
The whole theory, for instance, of the potential, con-
sidered as a quantity which satisfies a certain partial
differential equation, belongs essentially to the method
which I have called tliat of Faraday. According to
the other method, the potential, if it is to be considered
at all, must be regarded as the result of a summa-
tion of the electritied particles divided each by its dis-
tance from a given point Hence many of the mathe-

matical discoveries of Laplace, Poisson, Green and
Gauss find their proper place in this treatise, and their
appropriate expression in terms of conceptions mainly
derived from Faraday.
Great progress has been made in electrical science,
chiefly in Germany, by cultivators of the theory of
action at a distance. The valuable electrical measure-
ments of W. Weber are interpreted by him according
to this theoiy, and the electromagnetic speculation
which was originated by Gauss, and carried on by
Weber, Riemann, J. and G. Neumann, Lorenz, kc is
founded on the theory of action at a distance, but

depending either directly on the relative velocity of the
particles, or on the gradual propagation of something.
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zu PESFACE
whether potential or force, from the one particle to
the other. Tlie great success whicli these eminent
men have attained in the application of mathematicB
to electrical phenomena gfyes, as is natural, addi-
tional weight to their theoretical speculations, so that

those who, as stadents of electricity, turn to them as
the greatest authorities in mathematical electricity,
would probahlj imhibe, along with their mathematical
methods^ their physical hypotheBe&

These physical hypotheses, however, are entirely
alien from the way of looking at things which I

adopt, and one ohjeet which I have in view is that
some of those who wish to study electricity may, by
reading this treatise, come to see that there is another
way of treating the subject, which is no less fitted to
explain the phenomena, and which, though in some

parts it may appear less definite^ corresponds^ as I
think, more Mthfrdly with onr actual knowledge, both
in what it affirms and in what it leaves undecided.
In a philosophical point of view, moreover, it is
exceedingly important that two methods sliould be

compared, both of which have succeeded in explaining
the principal electromagnetic phenomena, and both of
which have attempted to explain the propagation of
light as an electromagnetic phenomenon, and have
actually calculated its velocity, while at the same time
the fundamental conceptions of what actually takes
place, as well as most of the secondary conceptions of
the quantities concerned, are radically different.
I have therefore taken the part of an advocate rather
than that of a judge, and have rather exemplified one
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PREFACE. xiii
method than attempted to give an impartial description

of both. I have no donbt that the method whidi I
have called the German one will also find its sup-
porters^ and will be expounded with a skill worthy
of its ingenuity.
I have not attempted an exhaustive account of elec-
trical phenomena, experiments^ and apparatus. The

student who desures to read all that is known on these
subjects will find great assistance from the TraitS
d*£lectricU4 of Professor A. de la Rive» and from several
German treatises, such as Wiedemann's Gcdvanimus^
Riess' Reibungsdektricitat, Beer's Einleitung in die Elek-
irosUUikf &c.
I have confined myself almost entirely to the ma-
thematical treatment of the subject, but I would
recommend the student^ after he has learned, experi-
mentally if possible, what are the phenomena to be
observed, to read carefully Faraday's Experimented
Researches in Electricity, He will there find a strictly
contemporary historical account of some of the greatest

electrical discoveries and investigations, carried on in
an order and succession which could hardly have been
improved if the results had been known from the
first* and expressed in the language of a man who
devoted much of his attention to the methods of ac-
curately describing scientific operations and their re-
sults "C.
It is of great advantage to the student of any

subject to read the original memoirs on that subject,
for sdence is always most completely assimilated when
* Life and Letters of Faradayy vol. i. p. 395.
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ziv PE£FAC£.
it is in the nascent states and in the case of Faraday's
Researches this is comparatively easy, as they are
published in a separate form, and may be read con-
secutively. If by anything I have here written I
may assist any student in understantling Faraday's
modes of thought and expression, I shall regard it as
the accomplishment of one of my principal ahns — ^to
communicate to others the same delight which I have

found myself in reading Faraday's Researches,
The description of the phenomena, and the ele-
mentary parts of the theory of each subject, will be
found in the earlier chapters of each of the four Parts

into which this treatise is divided. The student will
find in these chapters enough to give him an elementary
acquaintance with the whole science.
The remaining chapters of each Part are occupied
with the higher parts of the theory, the processes of
numerical calculation, and the instruments and methods
of experimental research.
The relations between electromagnetic phenomena
and those of radiation, the theory of molecular electric
cmrents, and the results of s])eculation on the nature
of action at a distance^ are treated of in the last four
chapters of the second volume.
Fih. 1, 1873.
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CONTENTS.
PRELIMINARY.
OK THE MKASUREMEXT OF QUANTITIEa.
Art. •
Pme
1. The expreeeion of a qaantity consists of two factors, the na-
merical value, and the name of the concrete unit 1
2. Dinieusiuus of derived units 1
3-5. The three fundamental units —Length, Time and Mass 2, 3

6. Derived units 5
7. Physical continuity and discontinuity 6
8. Discontinuity of a function of more than one variable .. .. 7
9. Periodic and multiple functions 8
10. Relation of physical quantities to directions in space 8
1 1 Meaning of the words Scalar and Vector 9
12. Division of physical vectors into two classes. Forces and Fluxes 10
13. Relation between correg|K)nding vectors of the two classes .. 11
14. Line-integration appropriate to forces, surface-integration to
fluxes ^ ^ ^ ^ 12
15. Longitudiual and rotational vectors 12
16. Line-integrals and potentials 13
17. lianiilton's expression for the relation between a force and its
potential 15
18. Cyclic regions and geometry of position 16
19. The potential in an acyclic region is single valued 17
20. System of values of the potential in a cyclic region 18
21. Surface-integrals 19
22. Surfaces, tubes, and lines of flow 21
23. Right-hauded and left-haiulod relations iu space 21
24. Transformation of a line-integral into a surface-integral .. 25
25. Effect of IlaiLiiltou's operation y on a vector function . .. 27
26. Nature of the operation y' 29
xvi CONTENTS.
PA RT T,
ELECTROSTATICS.
CH AFTER T.
DESCRIPTION OP PHENOMENA.
Art. Page
27. Electrificatit)n l)y friction. P^lcctrification is of two kiiuls, to
which the pamcs of Vitreous and ReainouB, or Positive an J
Ne|;rative, have been given 30
28. Klectrificntion ])y induction 31
20. Electrificution by conduction. Conîuctors anil insulators .. 32
30. In electrification by friction tho quantity of (lie positive elec-
trification is equal to that of the negative cicctrifiaition .. 33
31. To charge a vessel with a quantity of electricity equal and
opposite to that of an excited body 33
32. To discharge a conductor completely into a metallic vessel .. 34
33. Test of electrification by gold-leaf electroscope 34
34. Electrification, considered as a measurable quantity, may be
called Electricity 35
35. Electricity may be treated aa a physical quantity 36
36. Tlieory of Two fluids 37
37. Theory of One fluid 39
38. ^fcasurcment of the force between electrified bodies .. 10
39. lielation between this force and the quantities of electricity .. 41
40. Variation of the force with the distance 42
41,12. Definition of the electrostatic unit of electricity. — Ifat
dinicnsiuna 42
43. Proof of the law of electric force 4.^
44. Electric field ^ ^ ^ 4i

45. Electric potential 45
46. Equipotcntial surfaces. Example of their use in rca.«toning
about electricity 45
47. Lines of force ^ ^ ^ ^ „ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 42
48. Electric tension 47
49. Electromotive force 47
50. Capacity of a conductor 48
51. Propcrtios of IkkUcs. — Rosisianco 18
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CONTENTS. xvii
Art. Pape
52. Specific Inductive capiicity of a dielectric 50
53. '
Al)soq>tion' of electricity 50
54. Impossibility of an abBolutc charge 51
55. Disniptivc discharge. — Glow 52
5t;. Pniish 54
57. Spark 55
58. Electrical phenomeMa of Tourmaline 56
59. Plan of the treatise, and sketch of its resiUta 57
60. Electric polarization and displacement 59
61. The motion of electricity analogous to that of an incompressible
flmd ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 62
62. Peculiarities of the theory of this treatise 62
(:HAini-:R II.
ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICAL THEOKY OF ELECTRICITY.
()3. Defiiiitiou of electricity as u inatliematical (juantity 66

64. Voluiiie-dcnsity, surfacc-«lensity, and line-density 07
65. Definition of the electrostatic unit of electricity 68
66. Taw of force between electrified bodies 09
67. RoHultant force between two bodies .. ._. fi2
68. Resultant force at a point 69

69. Line-integral of electric force ; electromotive force 71
70. Electric potential 72
71. Resultant force in terms of the potential 72
72. The potential of all points of a conductor is the same .. .. 73
73. Potential due to an electrified system 74
74. Proof of the law of the inverse square 74
75. Snrfacc-integi-al of electric induction 77
76. Introduction through a closed surfuee duo to n single centre
of force ^ ^ ^ ^ 77
77. Foisson's extension of Laplace's equation 79
78. Conditions to be fulfillcHl at an electrified surface 80
79. Resultant force on on electrified surface 82
80. Tlie electrification of a conductor is entirely on tlie surface .. 83
81t A distribution of electricity on lines or points is pliysically
impossible ^4
82. Lines of electric, indurtion 84

83. Specific inductive ca|>acity 86
xviii CONTENTS.
CHAPTER Til
SYSTEMS OF noypiTrTfUM.
Art. Pngo
84. On the superposition of electrified systems 88
85. Energy of on electrified system 88
86. General theory of a system of conductors. CocflBcients of po-
tentiftl » jj u j_; f_. ;_s j_j 5_j j_j jj 89
87. Coefficients of induction. Capacity of a conductor. Dimensions
of these cocfficicntst ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
88. Reciprocal property of the coefticieiits 91
89. A theorem due to Green 92
90. Relative magnitude of the coefficients of potential 92
91. And of iiuluction 93
92. The resultant incclmnical force on a conductor ex])re.ssed in
terms of the cbar^jês of the different conductors of the system

and the variation of the coefficients of potential 94
93. The same in terms of the potentials, and the variation of the
coeffieicnta of induction 94
94. Comparison of electrified systems 96
CHAPTER I V .
OENERAL THEOREMS
95. Two opposite methods of treatinpf electrical qucstioDs .. .. 98

96. Characteristics of the potential fimction 99
97. Conditions under which the volume-integral
vanishes ..
^ ._ ^ ^ ^ 100
98. Thomson's theorem of the unique minimum of
^{a*'{'b*-\^c^)(fxdj^rh 103
f
99. Application of the theorem to the determination of the dis-
tribution of electricity 107
100. Green's theorem and its physical interpretation 108
101. Green's functions 113
102. Method of finding limiting values of electrical coefficients .. 115
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CONTENTS. xix
MKCHANIf!AI. ACTION BF.TWEKN ELECTRIFIED nODIK8.

Art. Pa«o
103. CompariBon of the force between different electrifie<l Bystems.. 119
101. Mcclinnu'ul iu-tioii on an clcniont an clt'ctritu d siii fiur 121
105. Comparison between theories of direct action and theories of
106. The kind of Btress required to account for the phenomenon ..

m
123
107. The hypothesis of stress considered as a step in electrical
126
108. The hypothesis of stress shewn to account for the equilibrium
of the medium and for the forces acting between electrified
bodies 123
109. Statements of Faraday relative to the lon^tudinal tension and
lateral ])rossun' of the linos offeree 131
110. Olijoctions to stress in a fluid considi red 131
111. Statement of the theory of electric i»olariz!iti()n 132
CHAPTER VT
POINTS AND LINKS OF EQUILIBRIUM.
135
136
114. At a point or line of equilibrium there is a conical i>oiiit or a
line of self-intersection of the equipotential surface 137
1 15. Angles at which an equipotential surface intersects itself .. 138
1 16. The equilibrium of an electrified body cannot be stable .. .. 139
CHAPTER VII.
FOBMS OF EQUIPOTENTIAL 8UBFACE8 AND LINES OF FLOW.
117. Practical importance of a knowledfê of these forms in simple

142
118. Two electrified points, ratio 4:1. (Fij?. I) 143
119. Two electrified points, ratio 4 : — 1. (Fig. II) 144
120. An electrified point in a uniform field of force. (Fig. Ill) .. 145
121. Three electrified points. Two spherical equipotential sur-
faces. (Fig. IV) 145
122. Faraday's use of the conception of lines of force 146
147
b 2
XX CONTENTS.
ClIArrKK MIT.
SIMPLE CASES OF ELECyTRTFlCATIPy.
Art. Page
124. Two parallel planes .. ..150
125. Two concentric spherical surfaces 152
12G. Two coaxal cylindric BuifaccB 154
127. Longitu<linal force on a cylinder, the cuds of which are sur-
rouudcd by cylinders at different potentials 155
CHAPTKR TX
SPIIKRICAL HARMONinR.
128. Sincûlar points at wliicli the potential liccomcs infinite .. .. 157

129. Singular points of different orders defined by their axes .. .. 158
130. Expression fur tlie potential due to a singular point rcfcmd
to its axes 1 fiO
131. Tltis expression is perfectly definite and rcprcsent.s the most

general type of tlie harmonic of i degrees 162
132. Tlie zonal, tesseral, and sectorial types 163
133. Solid harmonics of rwsitive degree. Their relation to those
of nogativo degree 165
134. Ai>plication to the theory of electrified Fpherical surfaces 166
133. Tiic external action of an elet^ trified sjiherieal surface compared
with that of an imaginaiy aint^ndar point at its centre .. 167
136» Proof that if F. and Yj ai-e two surface hannonics of different
degrees, the surface-integral jj Yj dS = 0, the integration

being extended over the spherical surface 1 69
137. Value of YjdS where Yj and 7, are surface harmonics

fj^ i
of the same degree but of different types 169

138. On conjugate hannonics 170
139. If Yj is the zonal harmonic and Yj any other type of the
same degree
where Y^^j) is the value of F, at the pole of 171

140. Development of a function in terms of 8])hcrieal surface har-
monics 172
141. Surface-integral of the square of a symmetrical liarmonic .. 173
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CONTENTS. XXI
Art. Pago
142. Difll rcnt methods of treatinp^ spherical harmonics 171
143. On the Jiaf^rams o( 3i>licrical haimunicB. (Fi^^s. V, Vf, VII,
YLU, IX) ..
•
175
144. If the i>otciitiul is constant throufyhout any finite portion of
space it is so tltroughout the whole region continuoua with it
within which I^tplace's equation is satisfied 176

145. To analyse a spherical harmonic into a system of conjugate
harmonics by means of a finite number of iiiciisurcmcntB at
selected points of the sphere 177
146. Application to spherical and nearly spherical conductors 178
C H APTE R X .
147. The lines of intersection of two systems and their intercepts

by the third system 181
148. The characteristic equation of V in terms of ellipsoidal oo-
ordiiiiUes 182
149. Expression of a, /3, y in terms of elliptic functions 183
150. Particular solutions of electrical distribution on the conFucal
surfaces and their limiting forms 184
151. Continuous transformation into a figure of revolution about
tlie axis of : 187
152. Transformation into a figure of revolution about the axis of x 188
153. Tniiisforniation into a system of cones and spheres 1 89
154. Confocal paraboloids 189
CHAPTER XI.
THKORY OP KT.KfrrRir TMAOKS.
156. When two points arc oppositely and unequally electrified, the
surface for which the potential is zero is a sphere 192
193
158. Distribution of electricity on the surface of the sphere .. 195
1 59. Image of any given distribution of electricity 19G
160. llesultant force between an electrified point and sphere .. 197
198
199
201
164. Application of the ractliod to the problem of Art. 158 .. 202
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XXll CONTENTS.
Art. I'lmo
165. Finite systems uf successive images 203

166. Case of two gpherical surfaces intersecting at an angle ~ .. 204
167. Enumeration of the cases in which the number of images is
finite 206
168. Case of two spheres intersecting orthogonally 207
169. Case of three spheres intersecting orthogonally 210
170. Case of four spheres intersecting orthogonally 211
171. Infinite series of images. Case of two concentric spheres .. 212
172. Any two spheres not intersecting each other 213
173. Calculation of the cuetHcienta of capacity and induction .. .. 216
174. Calculation of the charges of the spheres, and of the force
between them 217
175. Distribution of electricity on two spheres in contact. Proof
sphere 219
176. Thomson's investigtttion of an electrified spherical bowl .. .. 221
177. Distribution on an ellipsoid, and on a circular disk at po-
tential V ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ .. 221
178. Induction on an uninsulated disk or bowl by an electrified
point in the continuation of the plane or spherical surface .. 222
1 79. The rest of the sphere supposed unifonnly electrified . . . . 223
180. Tlic bowl main ttiiued at puteutiiil r and uuiutiueuceU .. .. 223
181. Induction on the bowl due to a point placed anywhere .. .. 224
CHAPTER XTT.
CONJUGATE FUNOTlOyS IN TWO DIMEWflTOWa.
182. Cases in which the quantities are functions of x and ;/ only .. 226
183. Conjugate functions 227
184. Conju^âtc functions may be added or subtracted 228
185. Conjugate functions of conjugate functions are themselves
conjugate 229
186. Transformation of Poisson's equation 231
187. Additional theorems on conjugate functions 232
188. Inversion in two dimensions 232
189. Electric images in two dimensions 233
190. Neumann's tnuisfonuation of this case 234
191. Distribution of electricity near the edge of a conductor formed
by two plane surfaces 236
192. Ellipses and hy|)erbolas. (Fig. X) 237
193. TriUisformation of tliis case. (Fig. XI) 238
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Alt. Page
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194. Application to two cases of the flow of electricity in a con-
ductiiiL,^ sheet 239
195. Api)licatioii to two cases of electrical iiuluction 239
19G. Capacity of ti cuudeuscr consisting of a circular disk between
two infinite planes 210
197. Case of a series of equidistant ])Ianes cut off by a plane at right
angles to them 242
198. Case of a furrowe<l surface 243
199. Case of a sin^^le strai;,^ht groove 243
200. Modification of the results when the groove is circular .. .. 244
201. Application to Sir W. Thomson's guard-ring 245
202. Case of two parallel plates cut off by a perpendicular plane.
(Fig. Xn) 246
203. Case of a grating of parallel wires. (Fig. XIII) 248
204. Case of a single electrified wire transformed into that of the
grating 218
205. The pptiting used as a shield to protect a body from electrical
influence 24ft
206. Method of approximation applied to the case of the grating .. 251
CHAPTER XTTT.
ELECTROSTATIC INSTIU M KNTS.
207. The ftictional electrical machine 254

208. The electrophoms of Volta 255
209. Production of electrification by mechanical work. — Nicholson's
Revolving Doubler 256
210. Principle of Varleys and Thomson's electrical machines .. .. 256
211. Tliomson's water-dropping machine 259
212. Holtz's electrical machine 260
213. Theory of regenerators applied to electrical machines .. .. 260
214. On electrometers and electroscopes. Indicating instruments
and null methods. Difference between registration and mea-
surement .« « « .. «» «« «. »» «« .. 262
215. Coulomb's Torsion Balance for measuring charges 263
216. Electrom'eters for measuring potentials. Snow Harris's and
Thomson's 266
217. Principle of the guard-ring. Thomson's Absolute El^trometer 267
218. Hcterostatic method 269
219. Self-acting electrometers.
—^Thomson's Quadrant Electrometer 271
220. Measurement of the electric potential of a small body .. .. 274
221. Measurement of the potential at a point in the air 275
xxiv CONTENTS.
Art. ^
Vttfô
222. M('a>iiroiiieiit uf the )>ott'ntial of a cuiiduttoi- without toucliinfr it 27G

223. Mou-suiTiiient of the su))ei tibial deiiHity of electrification. The
proof phiiio 277
221. A Iienii-î)hcre Uticd aa a test 278
225. A circular disk 279
226. On electric accumulators. The Lcyden jar 28
227. Accumulators of nieaauraljle ca])acity 282
228. The guard-ring accumulator 283
229. Comparison uf tlie capacities of accumulators 285
PART TT.
CHAPTER 1.
230. Current produced when conductors arc discharged 288

231. Transference of electrification 288
232. Description of the voltaic battery 289
233. Electromotive force • 290
234. Production of a steady current 290
235. Properties of the current 29
236. Electrolytic action 291
237. Exi^lnnation of terms connected with electrolysis 292
238. Dificront modes of passage of tiie current 292
239. Magnetic action of the current 293
210. The (>alvanonioter 294
CHAPTER TT
noTmnnTTON akd RRaTHTAvne.
241. Ohm's Law ^ ^ ^ ^ 29.'i
242. Generation of heat by the current. Joule's Law 296

243. Analogy Ix'twceu the coiuluction of electricity and that uf heat 297
244. Differences between the two classes of phenomena 297
245. Faraday's doctrine of the impossibility of an absolute charge .. 298
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CONTENTS.
CHAPTER TIT.
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE BETWEEN BODIES IS COVTAOT.
246. Volta's law of the contact force between tlifTurt!!)! inct.ils nt t\w.
same temperature 299

247. Effect of electrolytes 300
248. Thomson's voltaic ciirrent in which gravity performs the part
of cheniical action 300
249. Peltier's phenomenon. Deduction of the thermoelectric elec-
tromotive force at a junction 300

250. Seebeck's discovery of thermoelectric currents 302
251. Magnus's law of a circuit of one metal 302
252. Cumming's discovery of thermoelectric inversions 304
253. Thomson's deductions from these facts, and discovery of the
reversible tlicnnal efTects of electric currents in co|>})cr and
in iron ^ ^ ^ ^ .. .'^04
254. Tait's law of the electromotive force of a thermoelectric pair .. 305
THAPTFR TV
KLECTROLYSIS.
255. Faraday's law of electrochemical equivalents 307

256. Clausius's theory of molecular agitation 309
257. Electrolytic polarization 309
258. Test of an electrolyte by ]X)larization 310
259. Difficulties in the theory of electrolysis 310
260. Molecular charges 311
261. Secondary actions observed at the electrodes 313
262. Conservation of energy in electrolysis 315
263. Meaaurement of chemical affinity as an electromotive force 316
CHAPTER V.
KLKOTKOLYTIC FULARIZATION.
264. Difficulties of applying Ohm's law to electrolytes 318

2G5. Qlim's law nevertheless applicable 318
266. The effect of polarization distinguished from that of resistance 318
267. Polarization due to the presence of the ions at the electrodes.
The ions not in u free state 319
268. Relation between the elect romotive force of polarization and
the state of the ions at the electrodes 320
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XXvi CONTENTS.
Ark. Pure
269. Disbii)ation of the ions and loss of polarization 321
271. Ritter's secondary pile compared with the Lcydeu jar 322
272. Constant voltaic elements. — Dauiell's cell 325
CHAPTER VT.
MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS.
271. Ohm's Li\w .. 329
. .. 331
278. Dimensions of the quantities involved in Ohm's law p* 332
279. Specific resistance and conductivity in electromnji^netic measure 333
281. Reciprocal property of any two conductors of the system .. 335
284. Tlic heat is a minimum when the current is distrihutcd ac-

cording to Ohm's law 337
CHAPTER VII.
COKPUCTIQV TW TWnyy PIMEN'SIOWB.
338
338
287. Determination of the quantity which flows through any surface 339
340
289. Relation between any three systems of surfaces of flow .. 340
34Q
291. Expression for the components of the flow in terms of sorfaoes
341
292. Simplification of this expression by a proper choice of para-
341
293. Unit tub^ of flow used as a complete method of determining
341
294. Current-sheets and eurreut-functious 3(2
342
296. Quantity of electricity which flows through a given surface .. 344
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CONTENTS. xXidi
CHAPTER
— —— — —^ ..-
\—UJ.
: » f
RESISTANCE AND CONDUCTIVITY IN THBEE DIMENSIONS.

Art.
297. E<iiiations of resistance 345

346
346
AAA
347
n^v 4 T^ A* ^ 1**1* 1 ^«
301. Equation of continuity in a homogeneous medium 348
348
303. Theory of the coefficient T. It probably docs not exist 349
350
305. Iroof without symbols 351
306. Strutt's method applied to a wire of variable section.—>Lower
353
307. Higher limit
308. Lower limit for the correction for the ends of the wire .. 358
309. Higher limit 358
CHAPTER TX.
CONDUCTION THROUGH HETEROOENBOIIS MEDIA

1* 1*1*
3(50
311. bphoncal suniice 3G2
312. Splicrical shell 3G3
313. Spherical shell placed a held of uuifonn flow m 3G4
— aalfl* 1*1 11*
314, Medium m
* 11 */*
which small si)heres are uniforinly disseminated
1 * 1
3G5
31o. Imafês in a plane suriace 3GG
rt«/*^fj.1li** 1*11* il * 1* 1
316. Method or invei"sion not appUcal)le in three tlinicusions ..
*
3G7
317. Case of conduction through a stmtuni bounded by i)!irallel
planes 307
318. Infinite series of images. Application to magnetic induction .. 3G8
319. On 8tratine<l conductors. Coethcicnts of conductivity of a
conductor consisting of alternate strata of two different sul)-
369
320. If neither of the substances has the rotatory property denoted
370
321. If the substtmces are isotropic the direction of greatest resist-
1 A a1 _ Â i ^
371
322. Medium containing parallelepipeds of another medium .. 371
323. The rotatorj- ])roperty cannot be introiluced by means of con-
372
324. Constniction of an artificial solid ha\nng given coefficients of
373
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xxviii CONTENTS.
CONDUCTION IN DIELECTBICS.
An. Pmre
325. In a strictb' homogeneous medium there can be no internal
374
326. Theory of a condenser in which the dielectric is not a iwrfect
375
376
376
378
380
381
332. Theory of telegraph cables and comparison of the equations
with tliost; (»f the coiuhiction of heat 381
384
33-1. Mechanical inu.-3tnition of tlio proi)ertics of a (.liclcctric .. 385
CIIAPTKR XI.
MEASTTtKMENT OF THE ELECTBIC RESISTANCE OF CONDTTCTORS.
335. Advantage of using material standards of resistance in electrical

388
?t36 Diflforcnt Rtandivrds which have been used and different svstema
388
337. The clectroma^'netic system of units .. 389
338. Weber's unit, aiul llie British Association unit or Ohm .. 389
339. Professed value of the Ohm 10,000,000 metres per second 389
310. U('i>ro»l notion of btandards 390
311. Forms of resistance coils 391
392
\J 4J
343. Arraui^êment of coils in series 392

344. Arrangement in multiple arc 393
315. On the comparison of resistances. (1) Ohm's method 391
340. (2) By the differential galvanometer 391
347. (3) By Wheatstone's Bridge 398
399
349. Best arrangement of the conductors to be compared . . . 400
350. On the use of Wheatstone's Bridge 402
351. Thomson's method for small resistances 404
352. Matthiesscn and Hockin' 8 method for small resistances .. .. 406
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CONTJBNTS. xxix
Art. Pago
353. Compariflon of great resigtanoes by the electrometer .. 408
354. By aecuimilatiop in a condenBer 409
855. IMxoot electrostatic method 409
356. ThomBon's method for the resistance of a galvanometer .. .. 410
357. Kanoe's method of determining the resistance of a battery .. 411
358. Comparison of deetromotlTe forces 413
CHAPTER XU.
ELECTRIC &£81STAIiC£ OF SUBSTANCES.
359. Ketals^ dectrolytesi and dideefcrics 415

360. Besistanoe of metals 416
361. Beeistance of mercury 417
362. Table of resistanee of metals 418
363. Besistanoe of electrolytes 419
364. Eiperiments of Paalsow 419
365. Eiperiments of Kobliansch and Ni]^1dt 420
366. Besistanoe of dielectrics 421
367. Gutta-percha 423
368. Glass 423
369. Gases 424
370. Experiments of Wiedemann and Btihlmann 425
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ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.
Digitized
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.
Digitized
ELECTBICITT AND MAGNETISM.
PRELIMINARY.
ON THB MSASUBBinRT OF QnANTITIB&
^ Every expression of a Quantity consists of two factors or

1.]
componentfi. One of these is the name of a certain known quan-
tity of the same kind as the quantity to he expressed, which is
taken as a standard of reference. The other cx>mponent is the
number of times the standard is to be taken in order to make up
the required quantity. The standard quantity is technically called
the Unit, and the number is called the Numerical Value of the
quantiiy.
There must be as many different units as there are different
kinda of quantitiea to be measured, but in all dynamical sciences
it is possible to define these units in terms of the three fiind^
mental units of Length, Time, and Mass. Thus the units of aiee
and of volume aie defined reepeotively as the squaie and the cube
whose sides aie the unit of length.
Sometimes, however, we find sevenl units of the same kind
fimnded on independent considerations. Thus the gallon, or the
dume of ten pounds of water, is used as s unit of capaeify as well
as the cubic foot. The gallon may be a convenient measure in
some cases, but it is not a systematic one, since its numerical re-
lation to the cubic loot is not a round integral number.
2.] In framing^ a mathematical system we suppose the funda-
mental units of length, time, and mass to be given, and deduce
all the derivative units from these by the simplest attainable de-
finitions.
The formulae at which we arrive must be such that a person
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2 FRBLIMIKABT. [3.
of any nation, by obstitating for the diflforent i^mbolfl the nn-

merical value of the qnantLtiea as measored by hk own national
unite, would airive at a trae xesolt.
Henoe, in all aeientifio atndiee it is of the greatest importaaoe
to employ units belonging to a properly defined qrstem, and to
know the relations of these nntts to tiie fbndamental nnits, so that
we may be able at once to transform onr results fipom one system to
another.
This is most conveniently done by ascertaining the dimeMWM
of every unit in terms of the three fundamental unit«. When a
gfiven unit varies as the «th j)0\ver of one of these units, it is buid
to be of n dimeimons as regards that unit.
For instance, the soientilie unit of volume is always the cube
whose side is the unit of length. If the unit of length varies,
the unit of volume will vary as its third power, and the unit of
volume is said to be of three dimensions with respect to the unit of
length.
A knowledge of the dimensions of unite furnishes a test wliich
ought to be applied to the equations resulting from any lengthened
investigation. The dimensions of every term of such an equa-
tion, with respect to each of the three fundamental units, must
be the same. If not, the equation is absurd, and contains some
would be different according to the arbi-
errori as its interpretation
traiy aystem of unite which we adopt*.
The Three Fundamental Units,
3.1 (1) Lenglh. The standard of length for scientific purjxjsea
which is the third part of the standard

in this country is one foot,
yard preserved in the Exehequt r Cliainbers.
In France, and other countries which have adopted the metric
system, it is the metre. The metre is theoretically the ten mil-
lionth part of the length of a meridian of the earth measured
from the pole to the equator; but practically it is the length of
a standard preserved in Paris, which was constructed by Borda
to correspond, when at the tempeiatnre of melting ice, with the
value of the preceding length as measured by ]>elambre. The mdtre
has not been altered to oorreap<md with new and more aoenrate
measurements of the earth, but the arc of the meridian is estimated
in terms of the original m^tre.
* m thipgy ot dimfflwiniMi wm firtt rtated by FouriM-, TUwUin CAoImt, f leo.
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THE THRBB FUKDAMBIITAL mnm 8
In astfonomy the meaii distanoe of the earth fiom the son ii

•ometimeB taken as a unit of len^^
In the pxeaent state of aoienoe the meet nniyenal standaid of
length which we conld awDme wonld he the wave length in Tacaiim
of a partieokr kind of light, emitted hy some widely difihsed sob-
stance each as sodimn^ which has well-defined Unas in its spectrum.
Snoh a standard would be independent of any dianges in the di-
mensions of the earA, and shoaM be adopted by those who expect
their writings to be more permanent than that body.
In treating of the dimensions of units we shall call the unit of
length [i/]. If / is the numerical value of a length, it is under-
stood to be expressed in terms of the concrete unit [ii], so that
the actual leng-th would be fully expressed by /[i/].
4 ] (2) Tif/ie. The standard unit of time in all civilized coun-
tries is deduced from the time of rotation of the earth about its
axis. The sidereal day, or the true period of rotation of the earth,
can be ascertained with great exactness by the ordinary observa-
tions of astronomers and the mean solar day can be deduced
;
from this by our knowledge of the length of the year.

The unit of time adopted in all physical researches is one second
of mean solar time.
In astronomy a year is sometimes used as a unit of time. A
more might be found by taking the periodic
universal unit of time
time of Tibration of the particular kind of light whose waye length
is the unit of length.
We shall call the concrete unit of time [7^^ and the numerical
measure of time L
6.] (3) Man, The standard unit of mass is in thii countiy the
avoirdupois pound preserved in the Exchequer Chambers. The
grain, which is often used as a unit, is defined to be the 7000th
part of this pound.
In the metrical system it is the gramme, which is theoretically
the mass of a cubic centimetre of distilled water at standard tem-

perature and pressure, but practically it is the thousandth part
of a standard kilogramme preserved in Paris.
The accuracy with which the masses of bodies can be com-
pared by weighing is far greater than that hitherto attained in
the measurement of lengths, so that all masses ought, if possible,
to be compared directly with the standard, and not deduoed from

experiments on water.
In descriptive astronomy the mass of the sun or that of the
B z
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4 PRRLIMINABT. [5.
earth ii MmetmieB taken ae a unit, bnt in the dynamical theoiy

of aBtronomy the unit of maae is dednoed from the niiita <tf time
and loi^, combined with the fiet of miiTennd gnvitatum. The

astronomical nnit of mass is that mass which attracts another
body placed at the nnit of distance so as to produce in that body
the nnit of acceleration.
In framing a we may either dednce
nniversal system of nnits
the nnit of mass in this way from those of length and time
already defined, and this we can do to a rough approximation in
the present state of science or, if we expect* soon to be able to
;
determine the mass of a single molecule of a standard substance,

we may wait for this determination before fixing a universal
standard of mass.
We shall denote the concrete unit of mass hy the symbol [3f ]
in treating of the dimensions of other units. The unit of mass
will be taken as one of the three fundamental units. When, as
in the French svbtera, a j)articular substance^ water, is taken as
a standard of density, then the unit of mass
' is no longer inde«
pendent, but varies as the unit of volume, or as [7/^].
If, as in the astronomical system, the unit of mass is defined

with respect to its attractive power, the dimensions of [M\ are
For the acceleration due to the attraction of a mass si at »

distance r is by the Newtonian Law . Suppose this attraction
to act for a very small time ^ on a body originally at rest, and to

cause it to describe a space tiien by the formula of Galileo,
whence st = 2 -p- . Since r and 9 are both lengths, and ^ is a

time, this equation cannot be true unless the dimensions of m are
[/> ' The same can be sliewu from any astronomical equa-
T~'^'\.
tion in which the mass of a body appears in some but not in ail
of the terms f*
• Sea Pk«£ J. Loaelmiidt, * Zur OrtfMa der XnHtmoleeule.' AeaOmvg of Vienna,

Oct. 12, 1865; G. J. Stoney on -The Internal Motions of OaBeB/ I'hil. Mag., Aug.
1868 : and Sir W. ThomBoa on ' The Size of Atomg,' Nature, March 31, 1870.
t If a foot and * seoond are teken m
unita, the astroBoniml unit of niMi woold
be ftbottt dS2p000,000 pounda.
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60 D^RIYBD UmTS. 5
J)enved Units,
6.] The unit of Velocily u that velocity in whioh mdt of length

ii described in unit of time. Its dimensions are [X 2*"^].
If we adopt the units of length and time deiiTed bum the
vibiations of light, then the nnit of Tclooily is the velooiiy of
light
The nnit of Aeeele»tion is that aoceleiation in whidi the vdo-
oiiy increases hjr imity in nnit of time. Its dimensions are [Zl*''],
The nnit of Density is the density of a substance which oontains
unit of mass in unit of volume. Its dimensions are \ML~^\
The unit of Momentum is the momentum of unit of mass moving
with unit of velocity. Its dimensions are \MIjT~^'\.
The unit of Force is the force which produces unit of momentum
in unit of time. Its dimensions are [3/7)7'"*].
This is the absolute unit of force, and this definition of it is
implied in every equation in Dynamics. Nevertheless, in many

text books in which these equatiou^ are g'iven, a different unit of
force is adopted, namely, the Weigbib' of the national unit of mass
and then, in order to satisfy the equations, the national unit of mass
is itself abandoned, and an artificial unit is adopted as the d^'namical
unit, equal to the national unit divided by the nnmerical value of
the force of gravity at the plaee. In this way both the unit of force
and the unit of mass are made to depend on the value of the
fi>toe of gravity, whioh varies from place to place, so that state*
menti involving these quantities are not complete without a know*

ledge of the force of gravily in the places where these statements
were found to be true.
Hie method of mea-
abolition, for all sdentifie purposes, of this
suring forces mainly due to the introduction of a general lystem
is
of making obsenrations of magnetic force in countries in whioh

the force of gravily is diffisrent. All such forces are now measured
according to the strictly dynamical method deduced from our
definitions, and the numerical results are the same in whatever
country the experiments are made.
The unit of Work is the work done by tiie unit of force acting
through the unit of len^h measured in its own direction. Its
dimensions are \]^TIj'^T~^\
The Energy of a system, being its capacity of performing work,
is measured by the work which the system is capable of performing
by the expenditure of its whole energy.
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6 PBIL1MINABT. [7-
The defimtaons of other qnantHaei, And of the Quits to whioh

thej sre nfened^ will be given when we leqnife them.
In inuksforming the Talaee of physical quantities determined in
terms <ône nnit, so as to express tiiem in tenns of any other unit
of the same kind^ we have only to remember that every expres-
sion for the qnanttty consists of two ftetors, the unit and the nu-
merical part which expresses how often the mdt is to be taken*
Hence the numerical part of the expression varies inversely a>B the
magnitude of the unit, that is, inversely as the various powers of
the fundamental units which are indicated by the dimensions of the
derived unit.
On Physical Continuity and JJisconiinuity,
7.] A quantity is said to vary continuously when, if it jâsses
from one value to another, it assumes all the int<^rmediate values.

We may obtain the conception of continuity from a consideration
of the continuous existence of a particle of matter in time and space.
Such a particle cannot pass firom one position to another without
describing a continnoas line in space, and the coordinates of its
position must be continnons functions of the time.
In the so-called ' equation of continuity/ as gfiven in treatises
on Hydrodynamics, the fact expressed is that matter cannot appear
in or disappear from an element of volome without passing in or oat
throogh the sides of that element.
A qnantlfj is said to be a continnons feneticm of its variables
when, if tiie variables alter oontinaoasly, the quantity itself alters
eontinnondy.
Thus, if » is a fbnction otx, and if, while x passes eontinnoosly
from stq to » passes continnouBly from fig to but when •
passes from to x^, u passes from u{ iou^, «/ being diflbrent from
«i, then « is said to have a discontinuity in its variation with

respect to « for the valne because it passes abruptly from
to «/ while X passes continuously through a*,.
If we consider the differential coefficient of u with respect to x for
the value a; = or^ as the limit of the fraction
Xn Xq
when x.^ and r^, are both made to approach without limit, then,
if and x^ are always on opposite sides of x^^ the ultimate value of
the numerator will be w/— and that of the denominator will
be zero. If « is a quantity physically continuous, the discontiniuty
Digitized by Google
QOBTIKUITr AHD DISOONTINniTT. 7
can exist only with respect to tlie pavtieaW Ytriable #. We must

in tliie eaio admit that it has an infinite diifferential coeffidept
when m^BWi* If « is not phjacally contannoiiSj it cannot be dif-
ferentiated at alL
It is poenhle in physical questions to get rid of the ide% of
disoontintiity without sensibly altering the oonditions of the case.
If «^ is a than and j-^ a very Uttle greater than
"feiy little less
#i» then «0 willbe Tory nearly equal to «| and to u^. We %

may now sappose » to vary in any arbitrary bnt oontinuoas manner
from Uq to «2 between the limits Xq and x^. In many physical
questions we may begin with a hypolLesis of this kind, and then
investigate the result when the values of Xq and are made to
approach tliat of and ultimately to reach it. The result will
in most cases Ije independent of the arbitrary manner in which we
have supposed u to vaxy between the limits.
DUcotUinuUy a Function of more tka% One Variable.
8.] If we sappose the values of all the variables except to be

constant, the discontinuily of the function will occur for particular
values of #, and these will be connected with the values of the
other variables by an equation which we may write
<f>
= <p(x, y, z, &c.) = 0.
The discontinuity will occur when <^ = 0. When ^ is positive the

function will have the form F.^ (x, y, 2, &c.). When <^ is negative
it will have the form F^ {x, z, &c.). There need be no necessary
relation between the forms F^ and F.,.
To express this discontinuity in a mathematical form, let one of

the variables, say x, be expressed as a function of <^ and the other
variables, and let and F^ be expressed as functions of 4>, y. z, &c.
We may now ci|nesB the general form of the function by any
formula which is sensibly equal to F^ when ^ is positive, and to
Fx when ^ is negative. Such a formula is the following
^ - '
As long as « is a finite quantity, however great, F will be »

continuous function, but if we make n infinite F will be equal to
when ^ is positive^ and equal to when ^ is negative.
DueonHnuih/ of ike Perivattwi of a Qmiinuous Fundum.
The first derivatives of a coutmuous functiou may be discon*
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8 PBSLIMINABT. [9.
tmnoiui. Let tke viIimb of the ynriMm for winch tiie diiooii-
tinuity of the derivatiTW oooan be oonneoted by the equation
and let /\ and /!, be expressed in terms of <p and n — l other

variables, say (y, r . .
.).
Then, when <^ is negutive, /\ is to be taken, and when <f>

is
positive F2 is to be taken, aud^ since F is itself continuousj when

^ is zero, Fi = Fg,
Hence, when ^ is zero, the dermtiyee ^ and maj be
different, but the derivatives with respect to any of the other
dF
Tariables, each as --j^ and —j^ , must be the same. Ihe diaoon-
or
tiniiity is therefore confined to the derivatiye with leepect to all
the other derivativea being oontinoons.
Periodie and Multiple Fmuetumi,

9.] If u is a function of x such that its value is the same for
ar, r + a, x+na, and all values of x di(rerin^ by a, » is called a
periodic function of and a is called its period.
If X is considered as a ftinction of u, then, for a given value of
tt, there must be an infinite series of values of x differing by
multiples of a. In this case x is called a multiple function of tf,
snd « is called its cyclic constant.
dx
The differential coefficient has only a finite number of values
corresponding to a giTen Talue of a.
0» tke Belatian Pkyneal Quantiikt to Direelkma ta S^foee,
10. J In distintâishing the kinds of physical quantities, it is of

great imi)ortance to know how they are related to the directions
of those coordinate axes which we usually employ in defining tlie
positions of things. The introduction of coordinate axes into geo-
metry by Des Cartes was one of the greatest steps in mathematical
progress, forit reduced the methods of geometry to calculations
performed on numerical quantities. The position of a point is made

to depend on the length of three lines which are alwajra drawn in
determinate directions, and the line joining two points is in like
manner considered as the resultant of three lines.
But for many poiposes in physical reasoning, aa distinguished
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II.] YECrOB8» OB DIBBGTBD QUANTITIES. 9
from oslcolAidon, it ii deniable to avoid ezplioitiy introduciiig the

CSartenan ooordinatee, and to fix the mind at once on a point of
space instead of ite fhfee ooofdinates, and on the magnitade and
direction of a force instead of its three components. This mode
of contemplating geomefarieal and physical quantities is mora prim-
itive and more natural than tlie other, although the ideas connected
with it did not receive their full development till Hamilton made
the next great step in dealing with space, by the invention of his
Calculus of Quaternions.
As the methods of Des Cartes are still the most familiar to
students of science, and as they are really the most useful for
purposes of calculation, we shall express all our results in the
Cartesian form. I am convinced, however, that the introduction
of the ideas, as distinguished i'rom the operations and methods of
Quaternions, will be of great use to us in the study of all parts
of our subject, and especially in electrodjmamics, where we have to
deal with a number of physical qoantitieB, the relations of which
to each other can be expressed fiw more simply by a feir words of
Hamilton's^ than by the ordinary eqnatums.
11.] One of the most important features of Hamilton's method is
the division of q[nantities into Sealars and Vectors.

A Scalar quantify is capable of being completely defined by a
smgle nnmericsl specification. Its nnmericsl value does not in
any way depoid on the directions we assume for the coordinate
axes.
A Vector, or Directed quantity, requires ibr its definition tiiree
nnmericsl specifications, and these may most simply be understood

as having reference to the directions of the coordinate axes.
Scalar quantities do not involve direction. The volume of a
g^metrical figure, the mass and the energy of a material body,
the hydrostatical pressure at a point in a iluid, and the potential
at a point in space, are examples of scalar quantities.

A vector quantity has direction as well as magnitude, and is
such that a reversal of its direction reverses its sign. The dis-
placement of a point, represented by a straight line drawn from
its original to its final position, may be taken as the typical
name of Vector is derived.
vector quantity, from which indeed the
The velocity of a body, its momentum, the force acting on it,
an electnc current^ the magnetization of a particle of iron, are
instances of vector quantities.
There are physical quantities of another kind wliich are related
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*
10 PBIUMUrABT. [I2»
to directions in space, but which aro not veetom. Strane and

tiaioB in solid bodies are examples of these, and the propeitiea
of bodiei connderad in the theoiy of elaatieity and in the theoiy
of double lefraotion. Qnantities of thia claas leqniie Ibr their
definition «mm nnmerieal specificationa. Tliey are cxpio ed in the w
language of Qaaterniona by linear and Teofeor fimetions of a vector.
The addition of one vector quantity to another of the same kind
ia peiformed acoording to the mle given in Statioa to the com-
poaition of foreea. In Act, the proof which Poisson grvea of the
< paraUelogram of foioea' ia applicable to the composition of any
qnantities such that a reversal of €heir sign is equivdent to taming
them end for end.
When we wish to denote a vector quantity by a single symbol,
and to call attention to tlie fact that it is a vector, so that we must
consider its direction as well as its niagnitude, we shall denote
it by a German capital letter, as 33, iscc.
In the calculus of Quaternions, the position of a point in space

is defined by the vector drawn from a fixed jx)int, called the orig'in,
to that point. If at that point of space we have to consider any
physical quantity whose value depends on the position of the point,
that quantity is treated as a function of the vector drawn from
the origin. The function may be itself either scalar or vector.

The density of a body, its temperature, its hydrostatic pressure,
the potential at a point, are examples of scalar functions. The
resultant force at the point, the velocity of a fluid at that pointy
the velocity of rotation of an element of the fluid, and the couple
produeing rotation, are examplca of vector functions.
12.3 Physical vector quantitiea may be two daasesy
divided into
in one of which the quantity is defined with reference to a line,
while in the other the quantity is defined with reference to an
area.
For instance, tiie resultant of an attractive force in any direction
may be measured by findmg on a
the work which it would do
body if the body were moved a shOTt distance in that direction
and dividing it by that short distance. Here the attractive Ibroe
is defined with reference to a line.
On the other hand, the Hux of heat in any direction at any
point of a solid body may be definetl as the quantity of heat wliieli
crosses a small area drawTi ])erpendicular to that direction divided
by that area and by the time. Here the flux is detined with
reference to an area.
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F0BCB8 AHD FLUXB8. 11
. There aie oertain oases in whioli » qiuuititf may be meeaorod

with leferenoe to » line aa well aa with zefinenee to an aiea.
Thna, in treatiiig of the diaplaoements of elaatic aolida^ we may
direct onr attention either to the original and the aotoal poaition
of a partiole, in which caae the diaplaeement of the particle ia
measured by the line drawn tnm the firat poaition to the aeoond,
or we may consider a small area fixed in space, and determine
what quantity of the solid passes across that area during the dis-
placement.
In the same way the velocity of a fluid may be investigated
either with respect to the actual velocity of the individual parti-
cles, or with respect to the quantity of the fluid which flows through
any fixed area.
But in these cases we require to know separately the density of
the body as well as the displacement or velocity, in order to apply
the first method, and whenever we attempt to form a molecular
theory we have to use the second method.
In the case of the flow of electricity we do not know anything
of its density or its velocity in the conductor, we only know the
value of what, on the fluid theory, would correspond to the product
of the denaify and the velocity. Hence in all such cases we must
qpply the more general method of meaaorement of the flux acroaa
aiiarea.
In electriflal aoienoci eleetromotive force and magnetic force
belong to the fint chMa^ being defined with reference to linee.
When we wiah to indicate thia fimt, we may refer to them aa
Forces.
On the other hand, electric and magnetic induction, and electric
eorrents, bdong to the second daaa, being defined with reference
toanaa. Whenwewiah to indicate thia feet, we shall refer to them
as Fluxes.
Each of these forces may be considered as producing-, or tending
to produce, its corresponding tlux. Thus, electromotive force pro-
duces electric currents in conductors, and tends to produce them
in dielectrics. It produces electric induction in dielectrics, and pro-
bably in conductors also. In the same sensCj magnetic force pro-
duces magnetic induction.
13.] In some cases the flux is simply proportional to the force
and in the same direction, but in other cases we can only atlirm
thai the direction and magnitude of the flux are functions of the
dirsctaon and magnitude of the foroe.
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12 PBXUHINABT.
The oaie in whioh the oomponenti of the flux aie luMsr fimctioiis
of those of the foioe is disoassed in the ohapter on the Eqnetioiis
of Gondoetiont Art. 296. Theie are in genenl nine coeflloientB
which detennine the lektion between the foroe and the flax. In
certain oases we have reason to beiieTe that six of these coefficients
fym three pairs of eqnal quantities. In sndi cases the relation bo«
tween the iLie of direction of the fince and the normal jJane of the
flcnc is of the same kind as that between a diameter of an ellipeoid
and its conjugate diametral plane. In Quaternion language, the

one vector is said to be a linear and vector function of the other, and
when there are three pairs of equal coefficients the function is said
to be self-conjugate.
In the case of magnetic induction in iron, the flux, (the mag-
netization of tlie iron,) is not a linear function of tlie magnetizing
force. In all cases, however, the product of the force and the
flux resolved in its direction, gives a result of scientific import*
ance, and this is always a scalar quantity.
14.] There are two mathematical operations of frequent occur-
rence which are appropriate to these two clnonco of vectore, or
directed quantities.
In the case of forces, we have to take the integral along a line
of the product of an element of the line^ and the resolved part of
the force along that element. The result of this operation ia
called the Line-integral of the foroe. It represents the work
done on a hody carried along the line. In certain cases in which
the line-integral does not depend on the form of the line> bat
only on the position of its extremities^ the line-integial is called
the Potential.
In the case of flaxes, we have to take the integral, over a saifiuse,
of the flax throagh every element of the snrfiMse. The result of

this operation is called the SoHace-integral of the flax. It reprO"
sents the qaantity which passes through the surface^
There are certain surfaces across which there is no flux. If
two of these surfaces intersect, their line of intersection is a line
of flux. In those cases in which the flux is in the same direction
as the force, lines of this kind are often called Lines of Force. It
would be more correct, however, to speak of them in electrostatics
and magnetics as Lines of Induction, and in electrokinematics as
Lines of Flow.
15.1 There is another distinction between different kinds of
directed quantities, which, though very important in a physical
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i6.] LlKS-IirfBaBAL& 13
point of view, is not so nscessaiy to be observed for the sake of

the mathematieal methods. This is the distinction between loogi*
tndinal and rotational properties*
The direetion and magnitode of a qnantitj may depend upon
some aetion or effect which takes place entMy along a certain
line, or it may depend npon someiihiDg of the nature of rota-
tion about that line as an axis. The laws of combination of

directed quantities are the same whether they are lonpfitudinal or
rotational, so that there is no diflTerence in the niathcmatical treat-
ment of the two classes, but there may he physical circumstances
\^'hich indicate to which class we must refer a particular pheno-
menon. Thus, electrolysis consists of the transfer of certain sub-
stances along a line in one direction, and of certain other sub-
stances in the opposite direction, which is evidently a longitudinal
phenomenon, and there is no evidence of any rotational effect
about the direction of the force. Hence we infer that the electric
corrent which causes or accompanies electrolysis is a lougitodimd^
and not a rotational phenomenon.
On the other hand, the north and south poles of a magnet do
not differ as oxygen and hydrogen which appear at opposite
do,
places during electrolysis, so that we have no evidence that mag-
netism is a longitudinal phenomenon, while the eflSact of magnetism
in rotating the plane of polarized light distinctiy shews that mag-
netism is a rotational phenomenon.
On LineînUgnUi,
16.] The opeiation of integration of the resolved part of a vector
quantity along a line is important in physical science genenlly,
and should be clearly understood.
Let #, j^, s be tlie coordinates of a point P on a line whose
length, measured fifom a certain point is s. ^
These coordinates
will be functions of a single variable t.
Let J2 be the value of llie vector quantity at P, and let the
tangent to the curve at P make with the direction of R the angle e,
then i2cosc is the resolved part of R along the fine, and the
integral
is called the line-intc^^ral of R along the line t.
We may write this expression
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14 P&BLIMINABT. [16
where YtZm ttko components of £ parallel to d^, j^, f respect-

ively.
This qnantity is, in general, different for different lines drawn
between A and P* When, however, within a certain region, the
quantitv
that 18, ia an eiaet diiferential within that region, the ytlm niZ
beoomea z- p,
and is the same for any two forms of the path between A and /*,
provided the one form can he changed into the other by con-
tinuous motion without passing out of this region. *
0» Potentials,
The qnaniily 4^ is a acalar fnnotion of the position of the point,

and is tiierefore independent of the directions of reference. It ia
called the Potential Function, and the vector quantity whose com*
ponents are X, T, £u said to have a potential ^, if
^=-(f)' --(^);
When a potential function exists, surfaces for which the po-
tential is constant are called Equipotential surfaces. The direction
of li at any point of such a surface coincides with the normal to
the anrftce, and if « be a normal at the point P, then ss
The method of considering the componenta of a vector as the

first derivatives of a certain function of the coordinates with re-
spect to tliese coordinates was invented by Ijaplace* in his treat-
ment of the theon* of attractions. The name of Potential was first
given to this function by Green t» who made it the basis of his
treatment of electricity. Green's essay was neglected by mathe-
maticians till 1846^ and before that time most of its important
theorems had been rediscovered by Ganaa, Chasles, Storm, and
Thomson {.
In the theory of gmvitation the potential ia taken with the
oppoaite sign to that which ia here nsed^ and the reeoltant Ibtoe
in any direction ia then meaaored by the rate of inereate of the
• M^. Celeste, liv. iii.
i* Snajr on the Application of Mathematical AnaljBis to the Tlieohes of Electricitv

Mid Miignetilm, N ottinghMo, ISM. RepvinUd in Oimi§ Jommalt and in Ur. F«mn
edition of Green's Wcirka.
X Tbomson and Tait, Natiand Pbilo$opby, i 4SS.
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i;.] JUSLATIOK BBTWSBK FOBOS AND FOTKKTIAL. 15
potential function in that direction. Id electrical and magnetic

investigations the potential is defined so that the resultant force
in any direction is measured by the deereate of the potential in
that direction. This method of iuiDg the expression makes it
4X»Respond in sigpn with potential enei^, which always decreases
when the bodies an moved in the direction of the forces acting
on them.
17.3 geometrieal nature of the leUtion between the poten*
tial and tiie vector thus derived firom it receives great light from
Hamilton's discoveiy of the form of the operator bj which the vector
la derived from the potentiaL
The resolved part of the vector in any directkm is, as wo have
seen, the first derivative of the potential with respect to a co*
ordinate drawn in that direction, the sign being reversed.
Now if ft,
y, i are three unit vectors at right angles to each
other, and if X, JT, Z are the components of the vector ^ resolved
parallel to these vectors, then
S = iX+jr-^kZ; (1)
and by what we have said above, if ^ is the potential,
S=-{'Ji+J^+i-£y (2)
If we now write V for the operator^

. d . d . d
^ = -V4/. (4)
The symbol of operation V may be interpreted as directing us

to measorey in each of tiiree rectangular directions, the rate of
increase of %
and then, considering the qnantities thus fimnd as
vectors, to oomponnd them into one. This is what we are directed
to do by the expression (3). But we may also consider it as directing
118 first to find ont in what direction 4* increases fittest, and then
to lay off in that direction a vector representing this latet of
M. Lsm^ in his l^raitS det FtmdioM Imfenei, naes the term

IlifTerential Ftouneter to express the magnitode of this greatest
rate of increase, bat neither the term itself, nor the mode in which
Lame uses it, indicates that the quantity referred to has direction
as well as maguitude. On those rare occasions in which I shall have
to refer to this relation as a purely geometrical one, I shall call the
vector 9 the Slope of the scalar Amotion 4', using the word Slope
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16 PRKLIMINABY. [ 1 8.
to indicate the direction, aa well as the magnitade, of the most

rapid decrease of
18.] Tiicre are oaaeB, however, m which the conditions
dZ dr ^ dX dZ ^ ,
dY dX ^
which axe those of X<ir+r<4r4* J^dk being a oomplete differential,
are fulfilled thioughont a certain region of space, and jet the line^
integral from J to P
may be diflWent for two lines^ each of
which lies wholly within that region. This may be the case if
the region is in the form of a ring, and if the lines fhun A
two
to P pass through opposite segments of the ring. In this case,
the one path cannot be transformed into the other by continuous
motion without passing out of the region.
"We are here led to considerations belonging- to the Geometry
of Position, a subject which, thougli its importance was j)ointed
out by Leibnitz and illustrated by Gauss, has been little studied.
The most complete treatment of this subject has been given by
J. B. Listing *.
Let there be p points in space, and let I lines of any form be
drawn joining these points so that no two lines intersect each
other, and no point is left isolated. We shall call a figure com-
pcsed of lines in this way a Diagram. Of these lines, are
sufficient to jointhe p points so as to form a connected system.
Every new line completes a loop or closed path, or, as we shall
call it, a Cyde. Tlie number of independent cgrdes in the diagvam
is therefore < ss i9+ 1.
Any doeed path drawn along the lines of the diagram is com-
posed of these independent cycles, each being taken any number of
times and in either direction.
The existence of cycles is called Cydcsis^ and the number of
cydes in a diagram is called its Cydomatic number.
Oyelont in Surfaces and Bîoni.

Surfaces are either complete or bounded. Complete surfaces are
either infinite or closed. Bounded by one or
surfaces are limited
more closed lines, which may in the limiting cases become finite
lines or points.
A finite region of space is bounded by one or more closed
Burfiuies. Of these one is the external surface^ the others are
• JJcr Cetutti JZoSniUdUr Compine. OoU. Abh., Bd. z. S. 97 (1801).
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19*] CTOLIO BBOIOKS. 17
indnded in it and exclude each other, and axe called inteinal

Borfaces.
If the legion haa one bounding snrfiuse, we may foppoee that
snifiMse to contnMit inwaida without breaking ita continnity or
onttuig itaelf. If the region is one of aimple oontanniij^ audi aa
a aphere, thia proceas may be oontintied till it ia reduced to a
point; bat if the rôn is like a ring, the resolt will be a doeed
eorve; and if the region has mnltiple oonnezionsi tiie result will
be a diagram of lines, and the iômatio number of the diagram

will be that of the region. The space outside the region has the
same eyclomatic number aa the region itself. Hence, if the region
is bouDded by internal aa well as external surfiusee^ its eyclomatic
number is the sum of those due to all the surfaces.

When a region encloses within itself other regions^ it is called a
Perijihractic region.
The number of internal bounding' surfaces of a region is called
its peripliraclic number. A closed suriace is also periphractic, its
number being unity.
Tlie cveloraatic number of a closed surface is twice that of the
region which it bounds. To find the eyclomatic numl)cr of a
bounded surface, suppose all the boundaries to contract inwards,
without breaking continuity, till they meet. The surface will then
be reduced to a point in the case of an acyclic surface, or to a linear
diagram in the case of cyclic surfiuses. The eyclomatic number of
the diagram is that of the surfiice.
19.] Thbokem I. If throughout any acyclic region

Xdx+l'dy-^Zdz -^D<i',
the value of the tine-integral from a point A to a point P taken
along any jtath witkm the region will be the same.
We shall first ahew that the line-integral taken round any closed
ptUi within the region is zero.
Suppose the eûipotential snrfiuses drawn. They are all dther
dosed surbces or are bounded entirely by the surftoe of the region,
so that a dosed line within the region, if it cute any of the sup-
ftoes at one part of its path, must cut the same surfiuse in the
opposite direction at some other part of its path, and the corre-
sponding portions of the line-int^âl being equal and opposite,
the total value is zero.
Hence if AQP and AQ'P are two paths from A to F, the line-
integral for AQ'F is the sum of that for .^QP and the closed path
VOL. I. C
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18 P&fiLIMINABY.
AQ'PQA. But the line- integral of the closed path is zero^ there-
fore those of the two paths are equal.
Hence if the potential is g^ven at any one point of such a
region, that at any other point is determinate.
20.] Thsossm II. In a cyclic regum tn which the eguatitm
is everprhere fuljlUt'd, the Vine-iniegral from A to P, along a

line drawn within the region^ vnll not in general be determinate
unless the channel o/' commuuicali&a between A and P be specified.
Let K
be the oydomatic number of the region, then Bections K
of the region may be made by surfaces which we may call Dia-
phragms, so as to close ^K
ai the channels of communication,
and reduce the region to an acyelio condition withont destroying
its oontinoitjr.
Ibe lin»-mt6graL firom A to any point P taken along a line

which does not cnt any of these diaphmgms will be^ by the hwt
theorem, determinate in ^Taiue.
Now let A P be
taken indefinitely near to each other, but
and
on opposite sides of a diaphragm, and let JT be the line-integral
fiom ^ to P.
Let Jt and P^ be two other points on opposite sides of the same
diaphragm and indefinitely near to each other, and let be the
line-integral from .rf' to P'. Then A''= K.
For if we draw A A' and PP' , nearly coincident, but on opposite
sides of the diaphragm, tlie line-integrals along these lines will be
equal. Suppose each equal to X, then the line-integral of A P^ is
eijual to that of A' A -f AP ^- PF=i- h + K+ L = K z= that of AP.

Hence the line-integral round a cIowhI curve which passes through
one diapliragm of the system in a given direction is a constant
quantity AT. This quantity is called the Cychc constant corre-
sponding to the given cycle.
Let any closed curve be drawn within the region, and let it cut
the diaphragm of the first cycle p times in the positive direction
and y times in the negative direction, and let p^p'szn^. Then
the line-integral of the closed curve will be n^Ki,
Similarly the line-integral of any dosed cnrve will he
where iijr represents the excess of the nnmber of pontive pesiigee

of the cnrve thiongh the dii^hiBgni of the oyole K oYer the
number of negatiTe passages.
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21.] SUBFAOE-DfTSQBALS. 19
If two carves are snoh that one of them may be tzansfbnned

into the other by contimionB motion without at any time passing
tlirougli any part of space for which, the o(mdition of having a
potential ii not fulfilled^ these two curves are called Reooncileable
Corves for which this tnmsfonnation cannot be effected
are called Irreoonoileable corves *.
Tbe condition that Xdg+Y^-^ZdM is a complete diflbrantial
of some fbnetion ^ for within a certain region, oocnrs in
all points
sevenl physical inTCstigations in wbicih the directed qnantiiy and

the potential have difoent physicsl interpretatloDS.
In pore kinematics we may soppose X» JT, J? to be the com-
ponents of the displacement of a point of a continnons body whose
original cooidinates aie 9,y,g, then the condition expresses that
these displacements oonstitnte a mm-roiaUtmal ttiratn f.
1£ Xt Yt Z represent the components of the velocity of a fluid at

the point as, y, z, then the condition Qxpresoou that the motion of the
floid is irrotational.
If Xj Y, Z represent the components of the force at the point
a*, z, then the condition expresses that the work done on a
particle passing from one point to another is the difference of the
potentials at these points, and the value of this difference is the
same for all reconcileable paths between the two points.
21.] Let dS be the element of a sor&ce, and c the angle which

a normal to the surface drawn towards the positive side of the
surface makes with the direction of the vector quantity i?, then
Beo%td8 is called the $iirfae$»imi^prai ofR met ike tiufaee 8,
TmntiH nr. 'BtA etufaee'dtUeffral ^ tie Jhg tkrougk a ehted

iurfkee SMjr be esipretted at ike vohme-ini^fral of He eowergenee
taken vUkm ike eaitface. (See Arti 25.)
Let X, Z be the components of R, and let /, » be the
direction-cosines of the normal to 8 measored outwards. Then the
surface- integral of R over S is
jfReoa€d8 = Jfxid8-\- jfYmd8-\- JfZnd8
^JJxdyda^fjYdadn+JJzdenfyi (1)
• See Sir W. Thomson 'On Vortrx ^^<>tôn,• Trans. R. 8. Edim.,

t See Thomson aad Tail's Natural Philosophy, i 190 CO*
c a
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20 PBBLIMINABT. [21.
the values of X, Y, Z being those at a point in the siir£M)e, and

the intentions being extended over the whole surface.
If the sur&oe is a when y and z are g^vea,
olosed one^ then,
ihe ooordinate a an even niimher of valaes, suioe a Une
nrast have
paiaUel to m must enter and leave the enclosed space an equal
number of times provided it meets tiie snifiwe at alL
Let a pcnnt tmvelling from 0 — oo to # s +00 first enter
s
tile qpaoe when s
«|, tiien leave it when # as and so on
and let the valnes of Xat these points be X,, Jl^, kc, then
Tf X is a quantity which is continuous, and has no infinite values

between sBj^ and x^, then
where the integration is extended from the first to the second

intersection, that is, along the first segment of x which is within
the closed surface. Taking into account all the segments which lie
within the closed snr&oe, we find
jjxdÛ.=jjj^^d,dgdz. (4)
«
the double integration bemg confined to the dosed surfiwey but

the triple integration being extended to the whole enclosed space.
Hence^ if 2^ ^ are continuous and finite within a dosed surfiMse
the total suzfiuie-integral of R over that surfiwe will be
the triple integration being extended over the whole space within S.
Let us next suppose that X, Z are not continuous within the
closed sur&ce, but that at a certain surface F{Xf y^g) ss 0 ihe
values of X, Y, Z alter abruptly from X, JT, Z on the negative side
of the surface to X\ Y\ Z' on the positive side.
If this discontinuity oceors, say, between 9i and the value
of X| will be
where in tiie ezpnession under the integral sign only the' finite
wdnes of the derivative of Xare to be considered.
In this case therefore the total snxfiMe-integral of R over the
dosed snxfiMM will be expressed by
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22j 8OI1BVOIDAL DISTBIBUnOK. 21
•\-jj(r-Y)dzda-{'jj{Z'^Z)dBdî (7)
or, if m*, n' are the directioipoosniet of the normal to the surfiioe
of diBcontmrnty, and d8' an element of that Bor&ce^
where the integration of the last term is to be extended over the

Burface of discontinuity.
If at eveiy point wheie Jt, Y, Z are continuous
dX dY dZ ^
and at everjr sorfaoe where they are disoontinuoaa

rr-hw^rw^ « rx-^m'YW^, (lo)
then the surface-integral over every closed surface is zero, and the
distribution of the vector quantity is said to be Solenoidal.
We shall refer to equation (9) as the General solenoidal con-
dition,and to equation (10) as the SupcHicial solenoidal condition.
22.] Let us now consider the case in which at every point
within the suriace S the equation
dX dY dZ ^
is fiilfiUed. We have as a consequenoe of this the sur&oe-integral

over the closed surface equal to zero.
Now let the oloeed surfiuie 8 consist of three parts S^, S^, and
Let iSj be a surface of any form bounded by a closed line X|.
Let Sq be formed by drawing from eveiy point of X| always
lines
ooineidiiig with the directioii of J2. If I, m, « are the direction-
ooeiiies of the normal at any point of the snrfiuse 8^, we hare
JKcos e s X/+ Tm-^Bn = 0. (12)
Henoe this part of the sni&oe contributes nothing towaids the
alae of the sarfiMse-integnd.
Let 82 be another surface of any form bounded by the dosed
curve Z2 which it meets the surface Sq.
^t Qj, Qq, §2 ^the surface-integrals of the surfaces 8^,8^, Sgf
and let Q be the surface-integral of the closed surface S. Then
« = ei+«o+«« = 0; (13)
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22 PBEUMINABT.
and we know that Qo — î (^^)
tiierefore Q^^^Q^; (15)
or, in other words, the surface-integral over the surface is equal

and opposite to that over .9, whatever be the form and position
of S^y provided that the intermediate surface 8q is one for which H
is always tangential.
If we Puj)posc Li a closed curve of small area, Sq will be a
tubular surface having the property that the suifiMie-int^nl over
every complete section of the tube is the same.
Since the whole space can be divided into tubea of this kind
provided dX dY dZ ^
a diatrtbation of a vector quantity oonsiatent with thia eqnatioii is

oilled a Solenoidal Diatrilnition.
(H Tuhet and Linet of Flow,

If the space is so divided into tubes that the Barlkcc-integral
for every tube ia unity, the tubes are called Unit tubes, and the
8DrfiMse-intc{gial over any finite surface S bounded by a doeed
curve L is equal to the number of such tabes which pass through
8 what is the same thing, the number
in the positive direction, or,
which pass through the closed curve L,
Hence the sur&ce-integnd of 8 depends only on the form of
its boundary X, and not on the form of the suifaoe within its
bonndaiy.
On Periphractic RegiofU,
throughout the whole region bounded exteinaUy by the single

If,
closed surfiuse 8i, the solenoidal condition
dl dY dZ ^
the snxfiuse-integnl taken over any dosed snfiiee

is fblfiUed^ tiien
dfawn within this region will be sero^ and the sorfiMe-int^gial
taken over a bounded snifiwe within the region will depend only
on the form of the dosed curve whidi forms its boundary.
It is not, however, generally true tiiat the same results follow
if the region within which the solenoidal condition is folfilled is
bounded otherwise than by a single surface.
For if it is bounded by more than one continuous surfieice, one of
theso is the external suri'ace and the others are internal surfaces^
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22.] PSBIPHBACTIO REOIOKS. 28
nd the region 8m ti periphractic region, having wHihm ft other

regions whieh it completely encloses.
If within any of these enclosed regions, Sj^, the solenoidal con-
dition is not fulfilled, let
be the surface-integp^l for the surface enclosing this rôn, and

Qz' corresponding quantities for the other en-
closed regions.
Then, if a closed surface S' is drawn within the region S, the
value of its surface-integral will be zero only when this surface
S' does not include any of the enclosed regions S^, S^, &c. If it
includes any of these, the surface-intrgral is the sum of the sorfaoe-

integrals of the ditferent enclosed regions which lie within it.
For the same reason, the surface- integral taken over a surface
bounded by a closed curve is the same for such surfaces only bounded
by Uie dosed corve as are reconcileable with the given surface by
oontinuous motion of the surface within the region S.
When we have to deal with a periphractic region, the first thing
to be done is to reduce it to an aperiphractic region liy drawing
lines joining the different bounding snrfiices. Each of these lines,
provided which were not already in continnons
it joins sarfiuKs
connexion^ reduces the periplmetic nnmber by nnity, so that the

whole nnmber of fines to be drawn to remove the per^hrazy is
eqoil to the psriphrsotic nnmber, or the nnmber of internal sor-
fiioes. When tiiese fines have been drawn we may assert that if
the solenoidal condition is fblfiUed in the region^ any dosed sorfiuse
drawn entirdy within 8, and not cutting any of the fines^ has its
In drawing these lines we must remember that any line joining

which are already connected does not ^^niJt the peri-
snrfiMses
phraxy, but introduces cyclosis.
The most familiar example of a periphractic region within which
the solenoidal condition is fulfilled is the region surrounding a mass
attracting or repelling inversely as the square of the distance.
In this case we have
Xsi»-r> r=fli-^» ^=fll--~;

when SI is the mass snppoeed to be at the origin of cooidinates.
At any point where r is finite
dX dY dZ _
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24 PBILIICIHABT.
bat at the origin theie quantituB beoome infinite. For ai^ doaed
eorfiuje liot including the origin, the aoifiuse-intagfal ia aero. If
a dofled anifiMse indudee the origin, its snzfiKse-integnd ia 4 vak
If, for any reaaon, we wish to treat the region round ai aa if it
were not periphraotic, we mnat diaw a line from ai to an infinite

diatanoe, and in taking suifiun-integrala we mnat remember to add
4 vai whenever thia line eroesea from the negative to the poaitive
aide of tiie eorihoe.
0» Big/U-handed and Left-handed JieiatioM in Sjâce,
28.] In thia treatise the motiona of tranalation along any azia

and of rotation abont that be awmmed to be of the same
axis, will
sign when their directiona correspond to. those of the tianalation
and rotation of aii ordinary or right-handed eciew *.
For inatance, if the actual rotation of the earth firam west to east
is taken poaitive, the direction of the earth's azia from aoath to
north will be taken positive, and if a man walka finrward in the
positive direction, the positive rotation is in the order, head, right-
hand, feet, left-hand.
If wc place ourselves on the positive side of a surface, the positive

direction along' its bounding- curve will be opposite to the motion
of the hands of a watcli with its face towards us.
Tliis is the right-handed system which is adopted in Thomson

and Tait's Natural Philosoplii/, § 243. Tlie opposite, or left-handed
system, is adopted in Hamilton's and Tait's QntUe'ntions. The

operation of passing ixom the one system to the other is called, by
Listing, Pervertion.
The reflexion of an object in a mirror is a perverted image of the
object.
When we nse the GartesSsii axes of w, y, a, we shall draw them
• The combine'I action of the muscles of the arm when we turn the upper side of
*
the right-hand outwaniU* and at th« aiuiie time thrust the haod forwards, will
impress the right-handed toraw motloii on tlie awmory more flnnly than any edbal
definition. A
oommoD oovkaemr mi^ be need aa a malarial ^jmbol of toe lame
relation.
Ptofessor W. H. Miller hae auggested to me that as the tendrita of the irine are
right-handed scn^wg and thoae of the hop Ioft-hnn<}ed, the two svHtallia of rslatioiia IB
qiace might be called those of the vine and the hop rewectiveiy.
The system of the vine, which we adopt, is tiwt of LioiMeiis, aad of eBrew^nakers
in all civilized countriea except .Tapan. De Candolle was the firwt who called the
hopteudril right-handed, and in this be is followed by Lbting, and hy most writers
on the rotatory polarintkm of lioht. Sorears like the hop-teodril are made for the
OoapIingH of mil way-carriages, anrffor the fittings of whcoln on tlie left side of ordinaiy
canriagee» but they are always called left-handMi screws by those who use them.
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24.] UNS-INTSORAL AND SUBVAd-IirTIOBAIi. 26
BO Uiat the oidinaiy ooiiT«ntioiia about the ojdic order of the

symbok lead to a zightphaiided eyBtem of direetioiiB in BpaM Thns,
if « if diawn eastward and jr northward, g must be drawn npward.
The areea of eorfiuses will be taken positive when the order of
integration ooincides with the cydie order of the symbols. Thns^
the area of a closed curve in the plane of jey may be written either
Jstdj^ or —
the order of integration being a, y in the first expression, and y, x
in the second.
Tliis relation between the two products dx dy and dy dx may
be oompaied with that between the products of two perpendicular

vectors in the doctrine of Quaternions^ the sign of which depends
on the order of multiplication, and with the. revenal of the sign
of a determinant when the adjoining rows or oolnmns are ez-
changed.
Eor simihff reasons a volmne-integral is to be taken positive when
the order of integration the oyolio order of tiie variables «j
is in 5,
and native when the cyclic oider is reversed.
We now proceed to prove a theorem wbicli is ns^nl as esta-
blishing a connexion between the snrfiuse-integral taken over a
finite soi&ce and a line-integral taken round its bonndazy.
24.] Theorem IV, A line-integral Ird-en round a closed curve

viay be expressed in terms of a surj'ace-iutegral taken over a
surface bounded by the curve
Let X^Y^Zhe the components of a vector quantity ^ whose line*

integial is to be taken round a closed curve s.
Let S be any continnons finite sorfiMse bounded entirely by the

dosed curve 9, and let £ iy» ( be the components of another veetor
quantity 9$ related to X, JP^ Z by the eqoations
* ^ dy dz '
^ ^ dz dx* dx dy ' '
Then the surface-integral of 9 taken over the surface S is equal to

the line-integral of ^ taken round the curve 8. It is manifest that
fulfil of themselves the solenoidal condition
d( drj dC ^
Let m, a be the direction-cosines of the normal to an element
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26 PRBLIMINAftT. [24.
of the snrfiuse dS, leokoned in the positiye directkm. Then tlie
value of the flnfiwMiftignl of 9 may be wnttn

jjili-^mn^nQdS. (2)
In oidar to fonn a definite idea of the meaning of tlie dement

dSi we the valoes of die ooordinates w,y,z fn
thall suppose that
every point of the enxfiuse are given aa ftmctions of two inde-
pendent variables a and /9. If ^
oonstmt and a varies, the point
is
[xf y, z) will describe a onrve on the soifiuse^ and if a series of vakes
is given to a series of snoh carves will be traced, all lying on

the surfaoe 8. In the same way, by giving a series of constant
values to a, a second series of curves may be traced, cutting the
and dividing the whole surface into elementary portions,
first series,
any one of which may be taken as the element dS,

The projection of this element on the plane of ^, z is, by the
ordinary formula.
The expressions for mdS and ndS are obtained from this by sub-
stituting Xyy^ z m. cyclic order.
The surface-integral which we have to find is
{li-^mri-lrnOiS; (4)
cr, tabttitotuig the valnet of £ i|, (in tenns i£X,I,Z,
//('
The part of this which depends on X may be written
dX ^dz dcB ^ dz dxy.^dX rdx dy ^^y\\jaA
r
jj Idl^d^'^Tfid^^^ d^yj^d^'^d^TaH^ '
adding and snbtiaeting ^ , this becomes
dx ydX dx
^ dXdy ^ dX dz^
dfi ^dx da dy da dz da^
dx ^dX dx dX dy . dX dz\) ,^ ,
I / ,dX dx dX dx\
-lie
As we have made no assumption as to the form of the functions
a and j9, we may assume that a is a function of A', or, in other
words, tliat the curves for which a is constant are those for which
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as-] hamiuob's opibatob v. S7
JTUoonrtuit. In this c«»g=0,ai.d the expreaoon become.
1)7 integmtioa wHih raspeot to a,
where the integration is now to be performed ronnd the closed

curve. Since all the quantities are now expressed in terms of one
variable we may make
/3, the length of the bounding- curve, the
independent wiable^ and the expression may then be wiitten
*X^^, (10)
ds
where the integration ie to be peifonned roand the curve 9, We
may treat in the same way the parts of the surlaoe-integral whioh
depend upon Zand^ m
so that get finally^
//«+«,+«0^«=/(J:|+r|+2^)<i,; (u)
wbflre the fiist integral is ezkended over the eufiwe 4 the
aeoond vomid the bounding curve «*.
25.^ We
have seen that the operation denoted by V is that by
which a vector quantity is deduced from its potential. The same
operation, however, when applied to a vector function, produces
results which enter into the two theorems we have just proved
(III and IV). The extension of this operator to vector displacements,
and most of its further development, is due to Professor Tait f.
Let (T be a vector function of p, the vector of a variable point.

Let OS suppose, as usual, that
and <r s iX^JY+kZi

wfaero X, r, ^ are the compoDeati of 4r In the dneotioiis of the
We have to perfbrm on the operation
dm ^ dy dz
Performing this operation, and remembering the rules for the
• This theorem wu
given hy Pkofeasor Stokes, Smith' » Prite SxamifMtion, 186i»
qaestion 8. It is preyed in Thomson and TkIVs Natural PhiUmpkp, § 190 {j).
t See Proc. R. S. Edin., April 28, 1802. * On Green's and other allied Theorems.*
Tratu. R. 8. Edin., 1869-70. a very filnaU* piper; lad *0b Mmi
lot^pnk' Pnc A. 8, JBdin^ 1870-71.
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28 PBILUIIMABT. [25.
nniltipUoitioa of t^y, i, we find that oomiats of two putii

one Boakr and the other vector.
ThejMftlar part is
^^ *- + J + ^) »
^'^'"^"^
*
and tlie vector part is
..dZ dY. ..dX dZ. ^,dY dX.
If the relation between X, ¥, Z and ft 9« C i> that given hf

equation (1) of the last theoiem, we waj write
rv<r Bi(+yiy+i(C See Theorem IV.
It appears therefore that the fbnotbns 6t X^Y^Z which ooear
in the two theorems are both obtabed by the operation V on the
vector whose components are X, T, Z, The theorems themselves
may be written
and JSirdp ^JJs.VvUvdt; (IV)
where <7f is an element of a volume, <2» of a snrfiêj dp of a curve,

and Uv a nnit-veetor in the direction of the normal.
To understand the meaning of these fbnctions of a vector, let us
suppose that o-q is tiie value of at a point P, and let ns eiamine
the value of v~<ro ^ neighbonrfaood of P.
If we draw a closed sorfiuse round P^then^ if the
I
* surfiM»e-integral of o- over this Bor&oe is directed

inwards, 8Ve will be positivej and tiie vector
P <r— o-Q near the point P will be on the whole
L \^ directed towards P, as in the fig^nre (1).
I I propose therefore to call the scalar part of
I>|g. 1, V o- the convergence of <r at the point P.

To interpret the vector part of Vtr, let as
suppose ourselves to bo looking in the direction of the vector
whose components are ^, C ^d let us examine
the vector (t — o-q near the point P. It will appear
I
^ as in the figure (2), this vector being arranged on
I
the whole tangentially in the direction opposite to
^
_ the hands of a watch.
Fig. 8.
I propose (with great diffidence) to call the vector
part of V(r the car/, or the version of ^ at the point P.
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26.] CONOSNTBATION. 29
At Fig. 3 WB httve an illiutntum of enil oombiiMd with con-

eigenoe.
Let na now oonnder llie meaning of thaeqiiation .
rvir ss 0. . V
This impliea that Vtr is a icalar, or that the vector
\^
<r is the slope of some scalar fonction ^. These
applications of the operator V are due to Professor
^
Tait A more complete development of the theory-
^ ^
is given in his paper *

On Green's and other allied Theorems
to which I refer the reader for the pui'ely Quaternion investigation
of the properties of the operator V.
26.]One of the most remarkable properties of the operator V is
that when repeated it becomes
an operator ooonrring in all parte of Phydce, which we may refer to

aa I^qplace'a Opemtor.
Thia opemtor ia itself esBentiaUj acalar. When it acts on a
acalar fbnotion the leenlt is acalar, when it acta on a Teotor fbnction
the reanlt ia a vector.
J£, with any point P aa centre, we dmw a small sphere whose
radius is r, then if isthe valne of q at the centre, iîd q the
mean value of q for all pointe within the sphere,
80 that the value at the centre eioeeds or fails short of the mean
value according as q is positive or negative.
I propose therefore to call V'^ the concentration of q at the
point P, because it indicates the excess of the value of 4^ at that
point over its mean value nei^hourhood of the point.
in the
If ^ is a scalar function, the method of finding its mean valne is
well known. If it is a vector function, we must find its mean
value hj the rules for integrating vector functions. Hie result
of course is a vector.
• Fnemi/lm9»S»8,Siimn\Wi. t Aom. it A MAS 186S-70.
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PART L
£L£CT&OSTATICS
CHAPTEB I.
DBSC&IPTION OF PHSNOliENA.
27.] Experiment I *. Let a piece of glass and a piece of resin,

neither of which exhibits any electrical properties, be rubbed to-
gether and left with the rubbed surfaces in contact. They will
still exhibit no electrical properties. Let them be separated. They
will now attract each other.
If a second piece of glass be rubbed with a second piece of
resin, and if the pieces be then separated and suspended in the
neighbourhood of the fonner pieces of glass and resin, it may be
observed
(1) Thttt the two pieces of gium repel each other.

(2) Thftt each piece of gâsi attnusti each piece €i TeasL
(3) That the two peces of leein repel eaoh other.
These pheoomeiia of attraetion and repnkion are called Elec-

trical phenomena, and the bodies which dhibit them are said to
be electriJUd, or to be ckaryed wiik eleetncify.
Bodies may be electrified in many other ways, as well as by
friction.
The electrical properties of the two pieces of glass are similar

to each other but opposite to those of the two pieces of resin,
the glass attracts what the resin repels and repels what the resin
attracts.
• See Sir W. Tliomeon On the Mathematical TIlMiy of BlMtaUtf/

'
0MHdg9
and DvbUn, MathemaUeal Journal, MMob, 1848.
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2&] ELIOTBinOATIOK. 31
If a body electrified in any manner whatever behaves ae the

glass does, thatis, if it repels the glass and attracts the resin, the
body is said to be vUreously electrified, and if it attracts the glass

and repels the fetrin it is said to be resinously eleotiified. All
electrified bodiee are found to be either vitraoosly or reeboiuily
electrified.
. It is the established ptaetice of men of acienee to call thevitrecwM

deotrifieation poati?e, and the rennons eleetrifioatioii negative.
Tlie enetly opposite propertiee of the two kinds of eleotrification
jnetify ne in indicatmg them bj oppoatte ogne, bnt the applica-
tion of the positive sign to one rather than to the other kind mnat
he conaidered as a matter of aihitcaij oonvention, jnat aa a
it ia
matter of convention in mathematieai diagiama to reckon poaitiTe

diatanoee towaida the right hand.
No foroe^ either of attraction or of repnkion^ can he observed
between an electrified body and a body not electrified. When, in
any case, bodies not previously electrified are observed to be acted
on by an electrified body, it is because they have become electrified
bi/ induction,
BleHr^leaiUm by Induetkm,
28.] Experiment II*. Let a hollow vessel of metal be hung

up by white silk threads, and let a similar thread
be attached to the lid of the vessel so that the vessel
may be opened or closed without touching it.
Let the pieces of glass and resin be similarly sus-

pended and electrified as before*
Xiet the vessel be originally nneleotrified, then if
an electrified piece of glass is hung np within it by

its thread witiiout touching the vessel, and the lid
closed, the outside of the vessel will be found to

be vitreonsly eleotrified, and it may be shewn that
the electrification outside of the vessel is ecnotly the
^'
same in whatever part of the interior space the glass
is suspended.
If the glaas ia now taken out of the vessel without touohing il^
the dectrificatum of the glass will be the same as belbre it was

put in, and that of the vessel will have disappeared.
electrification of tiie vessel, which depends on the ghiss
* ThU, and several experiments which follow, are due to Faraday, ' On Stetio
Electrical Inductive Action.' Phil. Mag., 1843, or Exp. JU$.t vol. ii. p. 279.
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32 lIiBCTBOBTATIC PHXNOMSNA. [29.
being within and which TaniahaB when the ghus ia lemoved, ia

it^
called Electrification by induction.

Similar eflfocta would be produced if the glaaa were suspended
near the vessel on the outside, but in that case we should find
an electrifioation Titreoiia in one part of the outside of the vessel
and resinous in another. When the glass is inside the vessel
the whole of the ontside ia yitroonaly md the whole of the inaide
xMinooaly deotEified.
29.] EzpmixiNT m. Let tibe metal Teaad be electrified bj

induction, aa in the last e^qperiment, let a second metallic body-
be suspended by white wSk threads near it^ and let a metd wire,
similarly suspended, be brought so as to touch simultaneouuly the
electrified vessel and the second body.
The second body will now be found to be vitreously electrified,
and the vitreous electrification of the vessel will have diminished.
The electrical condition has been transferred from the vesst^l to
the second body by means of the wire. The wire is called a con-
ductor of electricity, and the second body is said to be electrified
bjf conductum,
Condueiori and Imulaion.

Experiment IV. If a glass rod, a stick of resin or gutta-percha,
or a white silk thread, had been used instead of the metal wire, no
transfer of electricity would have taken Hence these latter
place.
substances ace called Non-conductors of electricity. Non-conduc-

tors are naed in electrical expenmenta to support electrified bodies
without canying off their electricity. Thej are then called In-
sulators.
The metab are good oondoctors ;
air, glass, resins, gotta-percha,
Tolcanite, paraffin, ftc are good insolatora; bat, as we shall see
afterwarda, all anhetancea reaiat the paaaage of electricity, and all
anbatanoaa allow it to paaa, though in exoeedingly di£Eb«nt dcgreea.

l!lua anhjeet will be oonridered when we come to treat of ike
Motion of deetrimty . For the pieaent we ahall consider only two
dassee of bodies, good conductors, and good insolatora
In Experiment n
an electrified body produoed deetrification in
the metal yeaael while aepaiated firom it by air^ a non-condoetiag
medium* Snch a medium, conaideiedaBtnmamitting these eleetiioal
effects without omMhiotion, has been called by IWaday a Dideetrio
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SUMKATIOH OF BLBCTBIC BFFBOTB. 83
medium, and the actum which takes phuse through it ie called
Indaction.
In Experiment III the electrified TesBel produced electrification
in the second metallic hody throngh the medium of the wire. Let
us suppose the wive renunred, and the electrified piece of glass taken
out of the Tessel without touching it^ and removed to a suflficient
distance. The second hody will still exhibit vitreous dectrifica-

tion^ hut the vessel, when the glass is ranoved, will have resinous
electrification. If we now bring the wire into contact witli both
bodies, conduction will take place along the wire, and all electri-
fication will disappear iVom both bodies, shewing that the elec-
trification of the two bodies was equal and opposite.
30.] Experiment V. In Experiment II it wa*? shewn that if
a piece of glass, electrified ])y nibbinf'' it with resin, is hung up in

an insulate metal vessel, the electrification observed outside does
not depend on the position of the glass. If we now introduce the
piece of resin with which the glass was rubbed into the same vessel,
without touching it or the vessel, it will be found that there is
no electrification outside the vessel. From this we conclude that
the electrification of the resin is exactly equal and opposite to that
of the glass. By putting in any number of bodies, electrified in
any way, may be shewn that the electrification of the outside of
it
the vessel is that due to the algebraic sum of all the electrifica-
tions^ those being reckoned native which are resinous. We have
thus a practical method of adding the electrical effects of seversl
bodies without altering the eleotrifiGation of each.
81.] EsFKBiMiNT VI. Let a second insulated metallic vessel^
be provided, and let the deetrified piece of glass be put into the
first vessel A, and the eleetrified piece of resin into the second vessel
S. Let the two vessels be then put in communication by the metal

wire, as in Experiment III. All signs of electrification will dis-
appear.
Next, let the wire be removed, and let the pieces of glass and of
resin be taken out of the vessels without touching them. It will
be found that A is electrified resinously and B vitreously.
If now the glass and the vessel A be introduced together into a

larger insulated vessel C, it will be found that there is no elec-
trification outside C. This shews .that the electrification of A is
exactly equal and opposite to that of the piece of glassj and that
of J? may be shewn in the same way to be equal and opposite to that
oi the piece of resin.
VOL. I. D
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84 ILBCTBOflTATIC PHBNOmKA.
We have thas obtained a method of charging a vessel \^nth m

quantity of electricitj exactly equal and opposite to that of an
electrified body without altering t-he elect riHeation of the latter,
and we may in this way charge anj nnmber of vcdooId with exactlj
equal qnantitieB of electricity of either kind, which we may talce
for provirional mute.
82.] EzPBoaHT Vn. Let the teeael B, chaiged with » quan-
tity <^ positive dectricily, which we shall eall, for the prMent,
miity, be intiodnced into the laiger inewlated vessel C without
tonddng it It will produce a positive electrificataon on the oai-
sideofd NowktjShemadeto touditiie insideof (7. Nochange
of the external electrification will be observed. If B
is now taken
out of C without touching it, and removed to a sufficient distance,

it will be found that B is completely discharged, and that C has
become charged witli a unit of positive electricity.
We have thus a method of transferring the charge of B to C.
Let B be now recharged with a uuit of electricity, introduced
into C already charged, made to touch the inside of C, and re-
moved. It will be found that B is again completely discharged^
so that the charge of C is doubled.
If this process is repeated, it will be found that however highly
C is previously charged, and in whatever way B is charged, when
B is first entirely enclosed in C, then made to touch C, and finally
removed without touching C, the charge of B is completely trans-
C and B is entirely firee from electrification.
ferred to
This experiment indicates a method of ohaiging a body with
any number of units of electridty. We shall find, when we oome
to the mathematical theory of electricity, that the result of (his
experiment affi>rds an accurate test of the truth of the theory.
88.3 Before we proceed to the investigation of the law of
electrical force, let us enumerate the facts we have already est**
bKshed.
By placing any electrified system inside an insulated hollow con-
ducting vessel, and examining the resultant effect on the outside
of the vessel, we ascertain the character of the total electrification
of the system placed inside, unthout any communication of elec-
tricity between the different bodies of the system.
The electrification of the outside of the vessel may be tested
with great delicacy by putting it in communication with an elec-
troscope.
We may suppose the electroscope to consist of a strip of gold
Digitized by
34-] BLBCmUOITT AB A QVAKTITT. 35
kttf hanging between two bodies charged, one poeitm^, and the
other negatively. If the gold leaf beoomes electrified it will indine
towards the body whose electrification is opposite to its own. By
incieasiDg the electrification of the two bodies and the delicacy of
liie sospension^ an esoeedingly small electrification of the gold leaf
may be detected.
When we come to describe electrometers and mnltipUers we
shall find that there are still more delicate methods of detecting
electrilication and of testing the accuracy of our theorems, but at
present we shall suppose the testing to be made by connecting the
hollow vessel with a gold leaf electroscope.
Tliis method was used by Faraday in his very admirable de-
monstration of the laws of electrical phenomena*.
34.3 I. Tlie total electrification of a body, or system of bodies,

xemains always the same, except in so far as it receives electrifi-
cation from or gives eleotrification to other bodies.
In all electrical experiments the electrification of bodies is found
to change, but it is always found that this change is doe to want
of perfect insulation, and that as the means <^ insulation are im-
proTcd, the loss of electrification becomes less. We may therefore
assert that the electrification of a body placed in a perfectly in-
solating medium wonld remain perfectly constant.
II. When one body electrifies another by condnction^ the total
dectrification of the two bodies remains the samcj that is, the one
loses as mnch positiYS or gains as much negative electrification as
Hie other gains of positiTc or loses of negative etectiification.
For if the two bodies are endosed in the hollow Tesselj no change
of the total electrification is observed.
III. When electrification is produced by friction, or by any
other known method, equal quantities of positive and negative elec-
trificjition are produced.
For the electrification of the whole system may be tested in
the hollow vessel, or the process of electrification may be carried
on within the vessel itself, and however intense the electrification of
the parts of the system may be, the electrification of the whole,
as indicated by the gold leaf electroscope, is invariably zero.
The electrification of a body is therefore a physical quantity
d^ble of measorement, and two or more electrifications can be
combined oqpcrimentally with a lesnlt of the same kbd as when
* • On SUtic Electrical Inductive Action.' PkU. Mag., 1848, or £xp. JUs., vol. ii.
p.ii9.
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86 XLBCTBOSTATIO PHSNOMXNA, [35
two quantitiei an added algebnioally. We therafine AiG entitled

to use language fitted^to deal witii electrification as a qnantttj as
well as a qoalitj, and to speak of any electrified body as ' chaiged
with ft certain quantity of positiTe or negative eleetricity/
86.3 While admitting electricity^ as we hftTe now done, to the
rank of a physical quantity, we must not too hastily assume that
it is, or is not, a substance, or tluit it is, or is not, a form of
energy, or that it belongs to an} known category of physical

quantities. All that we have hitherto proved is tliat it cannot
be created or annihilated, so that if the total quantity of elec-
tricity within a closed surface is increased or diminished, the in-
crease or diminution must have passed in or out through the closed
surl'ace.
This is true of matter, and is expressed by the equation known as

the Equation of Continuity in Hydrodynamics.
It is not true of heat, for heat may be increased or diminished
within a closed surface, without passing in or out through the
sur&ce^ by the transformation of some other form of eneigy into
heat^ or <^ heat into some other fi>nn of eneigy.
we admit the imme-
It is not true even of energy in general if
diate action of bodies Ata distance. Fmr a body ontside the closed
surface may make an exchange of energy with » body within
the snifiMse. Bnt if all apparent action at a distance is the
result of the action between the parts of an intervening medium^
and if the nature of tins action of the ports of the medium fa
clearly understood, then it is conceivable that in all cases of the
increase or diminution of the energy within a closed surface we
may be able to trace the pajsâge of the energy in or out through
that surface.
There is, however, another reason which warrants us in asserting
that electricity, as a physical quantity, synonymous with the total
electrification of a body, is not, like heat, a form of energ-y. An
electrified system has a certain amount of energy, and this energy
can be calculated by multiplying the quantity of electricity in
each of its parte by another physical quantity, called the Potential
of that part, and taking half the sum of the products. The quan-»
tities * Electricity *
and '
Potential,' when multiplied together^
produce the quantify *£nergy.' It is impossible, therefore^ that
electricity and eneigy should be quantities of the same oategoiy, for
electricity is only one of the fiustors <^ enei^gyy the other fiustor
being * Potential.*
Digitized by Google
36.] vBXOvm OF XLBOTRicirr. ST
Energy^ which is the product of these factors, may also be con-
sidered as the piodiiet of sereial othflr paixa of fiuitorB, sadi as
A Force x A distance through which the force is to act.

A Mass X Gravitation acting- through a certain height.
A Mass X Half the square of its velocity.
A Pressure x A volume of fluid introduced into a vessel at

that pressure.
A Chemical Affinity x A chemical chanp;^, measured hy the number
of electro-cliemical equivalents which enter
into combination.
If W8 obtain distinot mecbaiucal ideas of ihe nature of electric

potentia],we may combine these with the idea of eneigy to
determine the physioal category in wbidi 'Electricity* is to be
placed.
86.] In most tiieories on the subject, Electricity is treated aa
a substance^ but inasmnch as there are two kinds of electrification
which, being combined, annul each other, and since we cannot
conceive of two substances annulling each other, a distinction has
been drawn between Free Electricity and Combined Electricity.
Tkeot^ 0/ Two Fiuidt,
In the theory called that of Two flmds^ all bodies, in their

unelectrified state^ are suppoeed to be charged with equal quan-
titicB of positive and negatiTe dectriciiy. These quantities are
auppcsed to be so great that no process of electrification has ever
yet deprived a body of all the electricity of either kind. The pro-
Ciess of electrification^ according to this theoiy, consists in taking
a certain qnantity P of positive electricity from the body A and
communicating it to or in taking a quantity N of negative
electricity from B and communicating it to or in some com-
bination of these processes.
The result will be that A will have P-^-N units of negative
electricity over and above its remaining positive electricity, which
is supposed to be in a state of combination with an equal quantity
of negative electricity. This quantity P-\-N is called the Free
electricity, the rest is called the Combined^ Latent, or Fixed elec-
tricity.
In most expositions of this theory the two electricities are called
' Fluids/ because they are capable of being transferred from one
body to another, and are, within conducting bodies, extremely
Digitized by Google
S8 BUnTBOffrATIO PHUrOXBlTA, [36
mobile. The other properties of fluids, such as their inertis,

weighty and elastieitjr, aro not attribated to them by those who
have need the theory for merely mathematical purposes ; but the
use of the word ûid has been apt to mislead the vulgar, including
many men of sdenoe who are not natnral philoflophen, and who
have eeised on the word Fhiid as the only term in the statement
of the theory which seemed inteDigible to them.
We shall see that the mathematioal treatment of the salgeot has
been greatly developed by writers who express themselves in terms
of the 'Two Fluids' the<«y. llieir results^ however, have been
dedooed entirely from data which can be proved by experiment,
and which must therefore be true, whether we adopt the tiieory of
two fluids or not. The erperimental verification of the mathe-
matical results therefore is no evidence for or against the peculiar
doctrines of tliis theory.
The introduction of two fluids permits us to consider the negative
electrification of A and the positive electrification of B as the effect
of any one nf three different processes which would lead to the same
result. We have already supposed it produced by the transfer of
P units of positive electricity from A to B, together with the
transfer of N units of negative electricity from B to A. But if
P+ N units of positive electricity had been transferred from A

to JB, or if P 4- iV^ units of negative electricity had lx>en t ransferred
from BtoA, the resulting ' free electricity' on A and on £ would
have been the same as before^ but the quantity of 'combined
electricity' in A would have been less in the seoond ease and greater
in the third than it was in the first.
It would appear therefore, according to this theoiy, that it is

possible to alter not only the amount of free electricity in a hody^
but the amount of combined But no phenommMi have
electricily.
ever been observed in electrified bodies which can be traced to the
varying amount of their combined electricities. Henoe either the
combined eleetricitieB have no observable properties, or the amount
of the combined electricities is incapable of variation. The first
of those alternatives presents no difficulty to the mere matliema-
tician, who attriljutes no properties to the fluids except those of
attractionand repulsion, for in this point of view the two fluids
simply annul one another, and their combination is a true mathe-
matical zero. But to those who cannot use the word Fluid without
thinking of a sul».stince it is diflicult to conceive that the com-
bination of the two fluids shall have no properties at all^ so that
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370 THSOBIBB OF ONI ASD OF TWO FLUIDS. S9
the addition of more or less of the combiaatioiL to a body shall not

in any way afiect it, either hy increasing its mass or its weight, or
altering aome of ite other propertiea. Heooe it haa been aappoeed
by some, that in eveiy prooees of eleetrification enctly equal qnan-
titiea ,of the two flnida 9xe bfansfiwred in opposite diiectiona, ao
that the total qoantity^ of the two fluids in any body taken to-
gether remains always the flune. By this new law they 'contrive
to saTe appeanmces/ foigetling that there would have been no need
of the law eicept to leooocile the 'two flnida' theory with fiMsts,
and to prevmt it from pradicting non-ôditent phenomena.
Tkeory of One Fluid.
87.] In the theory of One Fluid everything" is the same as in

the theory of Two Fluids except that, instead of supposing the two
substances equal and opposite in all respects, one of them, gene-
rally the negative one, has ]>een endowed with the properties and
name of Ordinary Matter, while the other retains the name of The
Electric Fluid. The particles of the fluid are supposed to repel
one another according to the law of the inverse square of the
distance, and to attract those of matter according to the same
law. Those of matter are supposed to repel each other and attract
those of electricity. The attraction, however, between units of the
different substaaees at unit of distance is sopposed to l)e a very little
greater than the repulsion between units of the same kind, so that
a unit of matter combined with a unit of eleotridiy will eiert a
foroe of attnMstkm on a simikr combination at a distancSj this
'
however, being exceedingly small compared with the force
finoe,
between two nnoomUned units.
This residual force is supposed to account for the attraction of
gravitation. Unelectrified bodies are supposed to be charged with
aa many units of eleetrieiiy as they contain of ordinary matter.
When they contain more electricity or less, they are said to be
positively or negatively electrified.
This theory does not, like the Two-Fluid theory, explain too
much. It requires us, however, to suppose the mass of the electric
fluid so small that no attainable positive or negative electriticatioii
has yet perceptibly increased or diminished either the mass or the

weight of a body, and it has not yet been able to apsig-n sufficient
reasons why the vitreous rather than the resinous electrification
should be supposed due to an excess of electricity.
One objection has sometimes been urged against this theory by
Digitized by Google
40 ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA.
men who ouj^lit to have reasoned better. It has been said that
the doctrine that the particles of matter uncombined with elec-
tricity repel one another, is in direct antagonism with the well-
established fact that every particle of matter attracts every other
If the theory of One Fluid were
particle tliroughoiit the universe.
truewe should have the heavenly bodies repelling one another.
But it is manifest that the heavenly bodies, according to this
theory, if they consisted of matter uncombined with electricity,
would be in the highest state of negative electrification, and would
repel each other. We
have no reason to believe that they are in
such a highly electrified state, or could be maintained in that
state. The earth and all the bodies whose attraction has been
observed are rather in an unelectrified state, that is, they contain
the normal charge oC electricity^ and the only action between them
is tiie residual force lately mentioned. The artificial manner, bow-
ever, in which this residaal fbroe is introdaced is a mndi more
valid objection to the theory.
In the present treatise I propose^ at difl^nt stages of the in-
vestigation, to test the diflferent theories in the light of additional
classes of phemmiena. For my own part, I look &r additional
light on the natore of electriei^ from a stndy of what takes place
in the space intervening between the electrified bodies. Such is the
essential character of the mode of investigation pursued by Faraday
in his Experimental Researches, and as we go on I intend to exhibit
the results, as developed by Faraday, W. Tliomson, &c., in a con-
nected and mathematical form, so that we may |ierceive what
phenomena are explained equally well by all the theories, and what
phenomena indicate the peculiar difficulties of each theory.
Meusuremenl of the Force bettceeii Electrified Bodies.
88 ] Forces may be measored in various ways. For instance,

one of the bodies may be suspended from one arm of a delicate
balance,and weights suspended from the other arm, till the body,
when unelectrified, is in equilibrium. The other body may then
be placed at a known distance beneath the first, so that tbe
attraction or r^mlsion of the bodies when electrified may incroaae
or diminish the apparent weight of the first The weight which
most be added to or taken firom the other arm, when expressed
in dynamical measure, will measore the force between the bodies.
This arrangement was used by Sir W. Snow Harris, and is that
W. Thomson's absolute electrometers. See Art. 317.
adopted in Sir
Digitized by Google
39.] MBASUBBMENT OF BLBOfBIO VOBCES. 41
It k aometimes more oonTetueiit to lue a tomon-balaaoe in

wbiofa a borimntal arm is sospended hy a fine wire or fibke^ so as
to be capable of vibnting about the Yertioal wire aa an aada, and
tbe body is attached to one end of the arm and acted on by the
force in tbe tangential direction, so ae to torn the arm round the
Tertical axie^ and bo twist tbe suspension wire through a certain
angle. The torsional rigidity of the wire is found by observing
the time of oscillation of the arm, the moment of inertia of the
arm being otherwise known, and from the ang-le of torsion and
the torsional rigidity the force of attraction or repulsion can be
deduced. Tlie torsion-balance was devised by Michcll for the de-
termination of the force of gravitation between small bodies, and
was used by Cavendish for this purpose. Coulomb, working in-
dependently of these philosophers, reinvented it, and successfully
applied it to discover the laws of electric aod magnetic foroesj
and the torsion-balance has ever since been used in all researches
where small forces haye to be measured. See Art. 215.
89.] Let us suppose that by either of these methods we can
measare the force between two electrified bodies. We shall suppose
tbe dimensions of the bodies small compared with the distance
between them^ so that the result may not be mncb altered by
any inequality of distribution of the electrification on either body,
and we shall suppose that both bodies are so suspended in air as
to be at a considerable distance firom other bodies on which they
might indoce electrification.
It is then found that if tbe bodies are placed at a fixed distance
and charged respectively with e and ^ of our provisional units of
electricity, they will repel each other with a force proportional
to the product of e and If either e or e' is negative, that is,
if one of the charges is vitreous and the other resinous, the force
will be attractive, but if both e and / are negative the force is again
repulsive.
We may suppose tbe first body, J, charged with m units of
itreous and n units of resinous electricity, which may be con-
eeived separately placed within the body, as in Experiment V.
Let the second body, B, be charged with is' units of positiye
and n' units of negative electricity.
Then each of the m positive units in A will repel each of the m'
poattire units in B with a certain force, say/, making a total efibot
equal to mmy.
Since the effect of negative electricity is exactly equal and
Digitized by Google
42 ILI0TBO8TATI0 PHIHOMIKA.
q»po0tto to ih$tt of pontile electrioHy, eaeh of tlie m podtiTS unite

in A will ttttiaet eftoh of the the Mune
megAtive units in B with
foice/, making a total effect equal to May.
Similarly the n negative units in A will attiaet the positive
nnits in B with a fotee »m'/, and will lepel the «f negatrre units
in B with a feroe nn'f.
The total repulsion will therefore be (flim'+ »»0/»
atbaotion will be (m«'4- m^n) f.
The resultant repulsion will be
(mm' + »»' — m n — « w')/ or {m—n) {m' — n')/.

Now m—n = is the algebraical value of the charge on A, and
m'—n'ss/ is that of the charge on jS, so that the resultant re-
pnlsion maj be written the quantities e and ^ being alwajrs
understood to be taken with tlftir proper signs.
FariaUoH ike Fotee wUk Ue JHeimue,

40.] Haying law of force at a fixed distance,
established the
we may measure the force between bodies ehaiged in a constant
manner and placed at different dietances. It is found by direct
measurement that the force, whether of attraetion or repulsion,
Taries inversely as the square of the distance, so that if / is the
repulsion between two units at unit distance, the repulsion at dis-
tance r will be J'r~^, and the gêncral expression for the repulsion
between e units and e' units at distance r will be
DeJinUion of the Eledroalatic Unit of Electricity.

41.] We have hitherto used a wholly arbitrary standard for our
unit of electricity, namely, the electrification of a certain piece of
glass as it happened to be electrified at the commencement of our
experiments. We are now able to select a unit on a definite prin«
ciple, and in order that this unit may belong to a general system
we define it so that/* may be unity, or in other words—
The eUdroitaiie unii of eleeiriei^ u (kat qwmUfy of eleMeify
wUek, when placed ai unii of dkianieefiom an egual quantity, repete
itwith unit tfforee.
This unit is cslled the Electrostatic unit to distinguish it fiom
the Electromagnetic unit, to be afterwards defined.
We may now write the general law of electrical action in the
simple form ^'=^^ ,.-2; or,
Digitized by
LAW or SLBCTRIC fOBOB. 43
l%e repulsiom 6eiw0e» iwo small hodiei ekofyedrapeeiioefyMMeand

/ wmt9 ^deeineify u numerieaUjf equal to tAe jirodaei Ûeciaiyet
divided tie eguare ike dittoMce,
JHmeneione of ike Meeifoeiaiie Vmt (jf Qawx^jr.

42.] If [Q] 18 the concrete dectiostfttie unit of qoantity itself,
and e^ / thf numerical valoes of particniar quantities; if [Z/] is
the unit of length , and r the nnmerieal value of the distanee ; and
if [jP] is the unit of force, and ^the numerical value of the force,
then the equation becomes
whence [Q] = \LF^^
This unit is called the Electrostatic Unit of eloctricity. Other

units may be employed for practical purposes, and in other depart-
ments of electrical science, but in the equations of electrostatics
quantities of electricity are understood to be estimated in electro-
static units, just as in physical astronomy we employ a unit of
mass which is founded on the ])henomena of gravitation, and which
diffezB from the units of mass in common use.
Prorfofike Law ^Meetrieal Fbne,

48.] The experiments of Coulomb with the torsion-balance may
be oonaklerod to have established the law of fbroe with a certain
appfonmatum to accnracf. Biqperiments of this kind, however,
m Tendered difBcnlt, and in some degree uncertain, hj several
distmbiiig caosee, which must be carefully traced and corrected for.
In Hie first phoe, the two electrified bodiee must be of sensible
dimensions relative to tiie distance between them, in order to be
capable of carrying charges sufficient to produce measurable* forces.
Tlie action of each body will then produce an effect on the dis-
tribution of electricity on the other, so that the charge cannot be
considered as evenly distributed over tlie surface, or collected at
the centre of gravity ; must be calculated by an
but its eflect
intricate investigation. This, however, has been done as regards

two spheres by Poisson in an extremely able manner, and the
investigation has been greatly simplified by Sir W. Thomson in
hia Tkeory of Eleclrical Images. See Arts. 172-174.
Another difficulty arises from the action of the electricity
induced on the sides of the case containing the instruments By
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44 SL1CTBO0TATIC PHBSTOHBNA. [44-
making Uie inside of the inatmment accurately cylindric, and

making its inner sorfiwe of metal, thie eflEbet oan be Tendered
definite and meaanrable.
An independent diffieolly ariees from the impeiftct insolation
of tbe bodies, on aooonnt of which the chaige oontinnally de-
oieaaes. Gonlomb inyestigated the law of dissipation, and made
ooneetums Ibr it in his experiments.
The methods of insnlating eharged oondnetors, and oi measuring
electrical effects, have been greatly improved since tbe time of
Coulomb, particularly by Sir W. Thomson ; but tbe perfect ac-
cnracv of Coulomb's law of force is establinlu'd, not l>y any direct
experimeuts and measurements (which may be used as illustrations
of the law), but by a mathematical consideration of the pheno-
menon described as Experiment VIT, namely, that an electrified
conductor B, if made to touch the inside of a hollow closed con-
ductor and then withdrawn without touchinp^ C, is perfectly dis-
(7
charged, in whatever manner the outside of C may be electrified.

By means of delicate electroscopes it is easy to shew that no
electricity remains on £ after the operation, and by the mathe-
matioal theory given at Art. 74, this can only be tbe case if the
force varies inversely as the square of the distance^ for if the law
had been of any different form £ woald have been electrified.
Xke Mectrie Field.
44.] The Eleotrio Field is the portion of spaoe in the neigh-
bonrhood of electrified bodies, considered with refiaraioe to eieetrie
phenomena. It may be oocopied by air or other bodieoj, or it
may be a so-called vacuum, from which we have withdrawn every
substance which we can act upon with the means at onr dis-
posal.
If an deetrified body be placed at any part of the electric field
it willbe acted on by a force which will depend, in general, on

the shape of the body and on its cliarg-e, if the body is so highly
charged as to produce a sensible disturbance in the previous elec-
trification of the other bodies.
But if the body is very small and its charge also very small,
the electrilicatioii of the other bodies wall not be sensibly disturbed,
and we may consider the body as indicating by its centre of gra\'ity
a certain j)oint of the field. The force acting on the body will
then be proportional to its charge, and will be reversed when the
charge is reversed.
Digitized by Google
BLBOTBIC POTENTIAL. 46
Iiefc e be tlie ehaige of the body, and F the force acting on the
hodj in a oertain difeotum, then when t ie êiy small F ib propor-
tional to tf, or J? — Jle,
where i2 is a quantity depending on the other bodies in the field.

If the charge e could be made equal to unity without disturbing
the electrification of other bodies we should have F— R.
We shall call R the Kesultant electric force at the given point
of the field.
EUeific Potential.
45.] If the small body carrying the small charge e be moved
fix)m the given point to an indefinite distance from the electrified
bodies^ it will experience at each point of its course a force He,
where H varies from point to point of the course. Let the whole
work done on the body by these electrical forces be Fe, then F is
the potential at the point of the field from which the body started.
If the charge e could be made equal to unity without disturbing
the electrification of other bodies, we might define the potential at
aoy point as the work done on a body charged with unit of elec-
tricity in moving from that point to an infinite distance.
A body electrified positively tends to move from places of greater

positive potential to places of smaller positive, or of negative
potential, and a body negatively electrified tends to moye in the
opposite direction*
In a oondoetor the deetrification is distribnted exactly as if
it were fi«e to move in the conductor aocoiding to the same kw.
If therefinre two parts of a conductor have different potentials^
positive dectrioity win move irom the part having greater potential
to the part having less potential as long aa that difference con-
tinoes. A conductor therefore cannot be in electrical eqnilibrinm
unless every point in it has the same potential. This potential is
called the Potential of the Conductor.
Equipotential Surfaces.
46.] If a surface described or supposed to be described in the

electric field is such that the electric potential is the same at every
point of the surface it is called an Equipotential suriaoe.
An electrified point constrained to rest upon such a surface will
have no tendency to move from one part of the surface to another,
because the potential is the same at every point. An equipotential
8arfiM)e is therefore a sorfiuse of equilibrium or a level sot&ce.
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46 XLSCVBOSTATIC FBlKOiaBirA,
The resoltant force at any point of the surface is in the direction

of tlic normal to the muSnoe, and the magnitude of the force is sudi
that the work done on an electrical unit in pasoDg firom the surfaoe
rtoiherax&oe rnF-F'.
No two equipoteniial sin&oee hftying different potentials can
meet one another, because the same point cannot have more than
one potential, bat one equipotential soifiuse may meet itself, and
this takes place at all points and lines of eqnilibrimn.
The snrfiuje of a oondoctor in deotrical equilibrium is necessarily
an equipotential snilhoe. If tiie electrification of the conductor is
positive over the whole suz&oe, then the potential will diminish as
we move away from the suHace on every side, and the conductor
will be surrounded by a series of surfaces of lower potential.
But if (o%ving to the aetion of external eleetrilied bodies) some
regions of the conductor are electrified positively and others ne-
gatively, the complete equiiiotential surface will consist of the
surface of the conductor itself together with a system of other
surfaces, meeting the surface of the conductor in the lines which
divide the positive from the negative regions. These lines will
be lines of equilibrium, so that an electrified point placed on one

of these lines will experience no force in any direction.
When the surface of a conductor is electrified positively in some
parts and negatively in others, theremust be some otiier electrified
body in the field besides itself. For if we allow a positively

electrified point, starting ftnm a positively electrified part of the
surfiAse, to moye always in the direction of tiie resultant fiwce upon
it, the potential at tiie point will continually diminish till llie point
reaches either a negatively electrified surfiuse at a potential less than
that of the first oondudior, or moves off to an infinite distance.
Since the potential at an infinite distance is lero, the Uttter case
can only occur when the potential of the conductor is positive.
In the same way a negatively electrified point, moving off from
a negatively electrifie<l i)urt iA' the surface, must either rea^h a posi-
tively electrified surface, or pass off to infinity, and the latter case
can only happen when the potential of the conductor is negative.

Therefore, if both positive and negative electrification exists on
a conductor, there must be some other body in the field whose
potential has the same sign as that of the conductor but a greater
numerical value, and if a conductor of any form is alone in the
field the electrification of every part is of the same sign as the
potential of the conductor.
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BLICTRIC TENSION. 47
Linet of Farce*
47.] The by a point moving always in the direc-

line described
tion of the resultant force a Line of force. It cuts the
is called
eqnipotential Burfiues at right angles. The properties of lines of

fcnoe will be more fiilly explained afterwards, because Fandfty has
espresaed many of the laws of eleclrical action in terms of bis
oonoepiioii of lines of foroe drawn in the electric fields and ™«>'^t»i^g
both the direction and the magnitiide of the force at every point*
EUetm Tenrion.
48.] Since the sui-face of a conductor is an iH]ui|)oti'ntial surface,
the resultant force is normal to the surface, and it will be shewn

in Art. 78 that it is proportional to the superficial density of the
electrification. Hence the electricity on any small area of the
surface will be acted on Ity a force tending J'rum the conductor
and proportional to the product of the resultant force and the
density, that isj proportional to the square of the resultant force.
This force which acts outwards as a tension on every part of
the conductor will be called electric Tension. It is measured like
ordinary mechanical tension, by the force exerted on unit of area.
The word Tension has been used by electricians in several vague
senses, and it has been attempted to adopt it in mathematical
kngoage as a Bywaiym for Potential ; bnt on eramininy the eases
m whidi the word has been nsed, I think it will be more con-
sistent with nsage and with mechanical analogy to nnderstand
by tendon a poUing force of so many pounds per square inch
exerted on the snrfiMC of a conductor or elsewhere. We shall find
that the conception of IVuraday, that this electric tension exists not
only at the electrified surface but all along the lines of force, leads
to a theory of electric action as a phenomenon of stress in a

medium.
£leekmotive Fofee,
49.] When two oondnctora at diffinent potentials are connected

by a thin conducting wire, the tendency of electricity to flow
along the wire is measured by the difference of the potentials of
the two bodies. Tlie difference of potentials between two con-
ductors or two points is therefore called the Electromotive force
between them.
Electromotive force may arise from other causes than difference
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48 BLBOTBOBTATIC PHSNOlOUfA.
of potential, but these causes are not considered in treating of sta-

tical eleetrieitjr. We eball eoneider them when we oome to chemical
aetSons^ motiooe of magneto, ineqnalitieB of temperatme, ftc.
QtpaeUjf if a QmduekMr.
60.] K one oondnctor ia insnlated while all the snrromiding oon-
dneton are kept at the sero potential hy being pat in comma-
nioation with the earth, and if the oondactor, when charged with
a qoantitf £ of electricity, has a potential F, the ratio d E to F
is called the Capacity of the condactor. If the conductor ia com-
pletely enclosed within a *condiicting vessel without teaching it,
then the charge on the inner conductor will be equal and op-
posite to the cliarge on the inner surface of the outer conductor,
and will he equal to the capacity of the inner conductor multiplied
by the diHerence of the potentials of the two conductors.
Electric Accum ulators.

A system consisting of two conductors whose oj»])osecl surfaces
are separated from each other by a thin stratum of an insulating
medium is called an electric Accumulator. Its capacity is directly
proportional to the area of the opposed surfaces and inversely pro-
portional to the thickness of the stratum between them. A Leyden
jar is an aoeomnlator in whi<^ glass is the insulating medium.
Accumulators are sometimes called Condensers, but I prefer to
restrict the term 'condenser' to an instrament which is osed not to
hold deotridty hat to increase ito saperfioial densily.
PROPE&TIES OF BODIES IN RELATION TO STATICAL ELECTRICITY.
Memtanee to iAe pMagie Meefyriei^ iknmgk a Bod^f,
51.] When a charge of electricity is communicated to any part

of a mass of metal the electricity is rapidly transferred from places
of high to places of low potential till the potential of the whole
mass becomes the same. In the case of pieces of metal used in
ordinary experiments this process is completed in a time too sliort
to be observed, but in the case of very long and thin wires, such
as those used in telegraphs, the potential does not become uniform
till after a sensible time, on account of the resistance of the wire
to the passage of electricity through it.
The resistance to the passage of electricity is exceedingly dif-

ferent in different substances, as may be seen from the tables at
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BLBOTRIC BB8I8TANCS.
Arts. 362, 366^ and 869, which will he explained in treaiang of

Electric Cunents.
All the metak are good eondnetors, though the resiatanoe of
lead is 12 times that of copper or sHver, that of iron 6 timei^
and that of meicniy 60 times that of copper. The resistance of all
metals increases as theur temperatnre zises.
Seleniom in its crystalline state may also he regarded as a con-

dnctor, though its resistance is 3.7x10^' times that of a piece
of copper of the same dimensions. Its resistance increases as the
temperatnre rises. Seleniom in the amoiphons form is a good
insolator^ like snlphnr.
Many liquids conduct electricity by electrolysis. This mode of
conduction will be considered in Part II. For the present, we may
regard all liquids containing water and all damp bodies as con-
ductors, far inferior to the metals, but incapable of insulating a
charge of electricity for a sufficient time to be observed.
On the other hand, the gases at the atmospheric pressure, whether
dry or moist, are insulators so nearly perfect when the electric tension
is we have as yet obtained no e^'idence of electricity passing
small that
through them by ordinary conductioD. The gradual loss of charge
by electrified bodies may in every case be traced to imperfect insu-
lation in the supports^ the electricity either passing through tiie
anbstance of the support or cieeping over its surface. Henoe^ when
tvfo charged bodies are hang np near each other, they will pieserve
their charges longer if they are electrified in opposite ways, than if
they are electrified in the same way. For thongfa the eleotromotivis
force tending to make the electricity pass through tiie air between
them is much greater when thej are oppositely electrified^ no per-
ceptible loas occnis in this way. The acfaal loss takes place throng^
the supports^ and the dectrmnotiYe fioroe through the supports is
greatest when the bodies are electrified in the same way. The result
appears anomalous only when we expect the loss to occur by the
passsge of electricity through the air between the bodies.
Certain kinds of glass when cold are marvelonsly perfect in-
sulators, and Sir W. Thomson has preserved charges of electricity
for years in bulbs hermetically sealed. The same glass, however,
becomes a conductor at a temperature below that of boiling water.
Gutta-percha, caoutchouc, vuh anito, paraffin, and resins are good
insulators, the resistance ot gutta-percha at 76* F. being about
6 X 10^^ times that of copper.
Ice, cr}'stal8, and solidified electrolytesj are also insulators,
VOL. I. R
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60 VLECTBOSTATIO PUSNOMBVA. '
[52.
Gertun liquids, such ae naphtha, turpentine, and aome oilsj aie

numlators, but inferior to most of ibe solid insulators.
The feaifltanoe of most substances, except the metals, and aeleninm
and oarhon, aeema to dimiiiiah aa the tempetatnre riaea.
DIILBCmOB*
StpcqfiiC Induetwe CajpaeUjf*
62.] AU hodiea irfaoae imnlating power ia aiioh that when they

afe phned hetween two coiidiioton at diflforent potentiali the deo-
trofniotiTe &foe acting on them doea not immediately dtatrihnte
theb eleotrieHy ao aa to redace the potential to a oonatant value, are
called by Faittday Bieleetrica.
Faraday discovered that the capacity of an accumulator depends
on the nature of the insulating medium between the two conductors,
as well as on the dimensions and relative position of the conductors
themselves. By substituting other insulating media for air as the
dielectric of the accumulator, without altering it in any other
respect, he found that when air and other gases were employed as
the insulating medium the capacity of the accumulator remained the
same, but that when shell-lac, sulphur, glass, &c., were substituted
for air, the capacity was inoreaaed in a latio which was diffiurent
for each substance.

The ratio of the capaeify of an aoemnolator formed of any di-
electric medium to the capacity of an accumulator of the same form
and dimensions filled with air, was named by Faraday the Specific
Indaetive Capacity of the dideetric medium. It is equal to unity
fi>r and other gases at all preasnxeSi and prohably at all tempe-
air
latoresj and it ia gieater than miity for all other liqiiid or aolid
dieleetriea which hm
been examined.
If the dideotric ia not a good inaoktor, it ia diflioolt to mea-
sure its inductiye oapaeily, because the aconmdator will not hold a
chaige for a soiBdent time to aUow it to he measared ; hut it ia
certain that inductive capadty is a property not confined to good
imnilatoni, and it ia probable that it ensfca in afl bodies.
Absorption of EleeirieUy,
53.] when an uccuniulator is formed of oertaili

It is found that
phenomena occur.
dielectrics, the following
When the accumulator has been for some time electriticd and is
then suddenly discharged and again insulated, it becomes recharged
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54.] BLBOTBIC ABflOSPTIOK. 61
in tlie flame leme tm at fixst^ but to a Bmaller degree, so tluit it may

be diechuged again aeveial times in eaooeesion, these disduurges
always diminishing. This phenomenon is ealled tiiat of the Be-
sidual Disdhaige.
The instantaneons disehaige appears ahvays to be proportional
to the difference of potentials at the instant of disebarge^ and the
ratio of these quantities is the true capacity of the accumulator;
but if the contact of the disclmrger is prolonged so as to include
some of the residual discharge, the apparent capacity of the accu-
mulator, calculated from such a discharge, will be too great.
The accumulator if charged and left insulated appears to lose its
charge by conduction, but it is found that the proportionate rate
of loss is much greater at first than it is afterwards, so that the
measure of conductivity, if deduced from what takes place at first,
would be too great. Thus, when the insulation of a submarine

cable is tested, the insolation appears to improve aa the electrifi-
cation continues.
Thermal phenomena of a kind at first sight analogous take place
in the case of the conduction of heat opposite sides of a when the
body are kept at In the case of heat we
different temperatures.
know that they depend on the heat taken in and given oat by the
body itself. Hence, in the case of the electrical phenomena^ it
has been supposed that electricity is absorbed and emitted by the
parts of the body. We shall see, however, in Art. 329, that the
phen<Hnena can be explained withont the hypothesb of absorption of
electricity, by supposing the dieleetric in some degree heterogeneoos.
That the phenomenon Electric Absorption is not an

called
by the substance may be shewn by
actual absorption of electricity
charging the substance in any manner with electricity while it is
surrounded by a closed metallic insulated vessel. If, when the
substance is charged and insulated, the vessel be instantaneously

discharged and then left insulated, no charge is ever communicated
to the vessel by the gradual dissipation of the electrification of the
charged substance within it.
54.] This fact is expressed by the statement of Faraday that

it is impossible to charge matter with an absolute and independent
charge of one kind of electricity *.
In fact it appears £rom the result of every experisBent which

lias been tried that in whatever way electrical actions may take
• Mm,, voL i. MriM sLIT ii. 'On tiM AtMliito GhMfsoTllafttar/ mid (1M4).
R 2
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62 SLBCTBOSTATIO PHBITOIIBKA. [55
place among a ojrstem of bodies surrounded by a metallic Teflsel, the

charge on the outside of that vessel is not altered.
Now if any portion of eleoirieitj could be forced into a body
BO as to be abeorbed in it^ or to become latent, or in any way
to eziet in it, without being connected with an equal portion of
the oj^ponto electricity by lines of induction, or it, after having
being absorbed, it could gradually emerge and return to its or-
dinary mode of action, we should find some diange of electrifica-
tion in the surrounding vesseL
As be the case, Iâxaday concluded that
this is never found to
communicate an absolute chaige to matter, and
it is impossible to
that no portion of matter can by any change of state evolve or
render lattMit one kind of electricity or the other. He therefore
reg-arded induction as ' the essential function both in the first
development and the consequent phenomena of electricity.' His

* induction' is (1298) a polarized state of the particles of the
each particle being- positive on one side and negative
dielectric,
on the other, the positive and the negative electrification of each

particle being always exactly equal.
Dmtiptvse IHtekar^^.
55.] If the electromotive force acting at any point of a dielectric
is gradually increased, a limit is at length reached at which there
is a sudden electrical discharge through the dielectric, generally
accompanied with light and sound, and with a temporary or per-
manent niptnre of the dielectric.
The intensity of the electromotive force when this takes place
depends on the nature of the dielectric It is greater, for instance,
in dense air than in rare and greater in glass than in air, but
air,
in every case, if the electromotive force be made great enough,

the dielectric gives way and its insulating power is destroyed, so
that a current of electricity takes place through it. It is for this
reason that distributions of electricity for which the electric resultant
force becomes anywhere infinite cannot exist in nature.
ne Electric Glow.
Thus, when a conductor having a sharp point is electrified,

the theor\', based on the hypothesis that it retains its charge,
leads to the conclusion that as we approach the point the super-
ficial density of the electricity increases without limit, so that at
the point itself the sur&ce-density, and therefore the resultant *
• See ]!^Madaj, JBx^ Bm,, voL U Mtiai xii. nd siil.
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55-] BLBOTRIO GLOW. 58
deetrical foroe, would be infinite. If the air, or oiher snnwrnding

dideeliric, bad an invinoible insoUting power, ibis resnlt would
aetoallj ooenr ; baft tbe fiMst ie, that as eoon as tbe xendtaat force
in the neigbbonibctod of the point has reached a certain limit, the
inealating power of the air gives w&y, so that tiie air close to
the point beoomee a oondaetor. At a certain distance firom the
poinlt the resultant force is not sufficient to break throngh the
insulatbn of the air, so that the dectrio current is checked, and
the electricity accumulates in tbe air round the point.
The point is thus surrounded by particles of air charged with
electricity of the same kind with its own. The effect of this charged
air round the point is to relieve the air at the point itself from
part of the enormous electromotive force which it would have ex-
perienced if the conductor alone had been electrified.In fact the
surface of the electrified body
no longer pointed, because the
is
point is enveloped by a rounded mass of electrified air, the surface

of which, rather than that of the solid conductor, may be regarded
as the outer electrified surface.
If this portion of electrified air could be kept still, the elec-
trified body would retain its charge, if not on itself at least in its
neighbourhood, but the charged particles of air being free to move
under the action of electrical force, tend to move away from the eleo^
trifiedbody because it is charged with the same kind of electricily*

The ehaiged partioles of air therefore tend to move off in the diree*
tion of the lines of force and to approach those sarronndmg bodies
which are oppositely electrified. Wh.en they are gone;, other un-
diarged particles take thev place round the pcnnt, and since these
cannot shield those next the point itself from the excessive do^
trie tension, a new dischaige takes place, after which the newly
charged partudes move off, and so on as long as the body remains
electrified.
In this way tbe following phenomena are produced :
— Ât and
close to the point there is a steady glow, arising from tbe con-
stant discharges which are taking place between the point and the
air very near it.
The charged particles of air tend to move off in the same general
direction, and thus produce a current of air from the point, con-
sisting of the eharge<l particles, and probably of others carried along
by them. By artificially aiding this current we may increase the
glow, and by checking the formation of the current we may pre-
vent the continuance of the glow.
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54 ELfiCT&OSTATlC FUSKOMKNA. [56.
The electric wind in the nei<^hbourhood of the point is sometimes

very rapid, but it soon loses its velocity, and the air with its charged
particles is carried about with the general motions of the atmo-
sphere,and oonstitutes an invisible electric cloud. When the charged
particlescome near to anj conducting siixfiKse, snch as a wall, they
induce on that surface an electrification opposite to their own, and
an tiien attracted towaxds the wall, but since the electromotive
focoe ia small thej may remain for a long time near the wall
without being drawn np to the sorfiuse and discharged. Tbfff
thus form an deotrified atmosphere clinging to oondootors, the pre-
sence of which may sometimes be detected tiie electrometer,
ê eileotricsl forces^ however, acting between charged portions
of air and other bodies are exceedingly feeble oompared with the
forces which pirodnce winds arising from inequalities of density
dne to di^rences of teo^ratorei so that it is very improbable
that any observable part of the motion of ordinary thnnder clouds
arises from electrical causes.
The passage of electricity from one place to another by the
motion of charged particles is called Electrical Convection or Cou-
vective Discharge.
The electrical glow is therefore produced by the constant passage
of electricity through a small portion of air in which the tension
is very high, so ag to charge the surrounding particles of air which
are continually swept off by the electric windj which is an essential
part of the phenomenon.
The glow is more easily formed in rare air than in dense air,
and more easily when the point is positive than when it is negative.
This and many other differences between positive and negative eleo*
trification must be studied by those who desire to discover some-
thing about the nature of electricity. They have not^ however,

been satisbctorily brought to bear upon any existing theory.
TAe Electric Brush,

66.]The electric brush is a phenomenon which may be pro-
duced by electrifjring a blunt point or small ball so as to produce
an electric field in which the tension diminishes, but in a less rapid
manner, as we leave the surface. It consists of a succession of
discharges, ramifying as they diveige from the ball into the air,
and terminating either by charging portions of air or by reaching
some other conductor. It is accompanied by a sound, tiie pitch of
which depends on the interval between the successive discharges^
and there is no current of air as in the case of the glow.
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57-] BLIOKBIO 8PABK. 65
*
7%e Meeiric Bpark.
57.] \^Tien the tension in the space between two conductors is
considerable all the way between them, as in the case of two balls
whose distance is not great compared with their radii, the discharge,
when it occurs, usually takes the form of a spark, by which nearly
the whole electrification is discharged at once.
In this case, when any part of the dielectric has g'iven way,
the parts on either side of it in the direction of the electric force
are put into a state of greater tension so that they also give way^
and 80 the discharge proceeds right through the dielectric, just as
ên a little rent is made in the edge of a piece of paper a tensioii
applied to the paper in the directign of the edge causes tiie paper to
be torn through, beginning at the rent, but diverging occasionally
wbere there are weak pkces in the paper. The electric spark in
the same my
begins at the point where the eleetrio tension first
oyeroomes the insolation of the dielectric, and pfoceeds from that
point, in an apparently irregular path, so as to take in other weak
points, waxh as particles of dust floatmg in air.
0» He Ehekk Jbnes t^mired to prodmce a 8pai^ la Jir,

In the experiments of Sir W. Thomson * the electromotive force
required to produce a spark across strata of air of various thick-
nesses was measured by means of an electrometer.
The sparks were made to pass between two surfaces, one of which
was plane, and the other only sufficiently convex to make the ârks
occur always at the same place.
The difference of potential required to cause a spark to pass was
found to increMC with the distance, but in a less rapid ratio, so that
the electric force at any point between the surfaces, which is the
quotient of the difference of potential divided by the distance, can
be raised to a greater value without a discharge when the stzatom
of air is thin.
When the stratum of air is very thin, say .00254 of a centimetre,

the resultant force required to produce a spark was found to be
027.7, in terms of eentimltres and granmies. This corresponds to
an electric tension of 11.29 grammes weight per square centimetre.
When the distance between the sur&ces is about a millimetie
the electric force is about 1 30, and the electric tension .68 grammes
weight per square centimetre. It is probable that the value for
* Froe. JL 1860 ; or, BefwlBt, dwp. xlx.
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58 BLBCTB08TATIC PUKMOM£NA< [58.
greater distances is not much less than this. The ordinary preasiue
of the atmosphere is about 1032 grammes per square centimetre.
It is difficult to explain why a thin stratum of air should require
a greater fovoe to produce a disruptive discharge across it than a
tiiioker atratam. Is it possible that the air very near to the sor-
fiuse of dense bodies is condensed, so as to become a better insn-
lator? or does tiie potential of an electrified oondnctor difEer from
that of the air in contaet with it by a quantity having a maximnin
valne jnst before dischaige, so that the observed difference of
potential of the oondnctors is in every case greater than the di£>
ferenoe of potentials on the two sides of the stratum of air by a
constant quantity eqoivalent to the addition of about .005 of an
inch to the thicêss of the stratum ? See Art. 370.
All these phenomena differ considerably in different gases^ and in
the same gas at diti'ereut densities. Some of the forms of electrical
discharge through rare gases are exceedingly remarkable. In some
cases there is a regular alternation of luminous and dark strata, so
thatif the electricity, for examj)le, is passing along a tube contain-
ing a very small quantity of gas, a number of luminous disks will

be seen arranged transversely at nearly equal intervals along the
axis of the tube and separated by dark strata. If the strength of
the current be increased a new and
disk will start into existence,
it and the old disks will arrange themselves in closer order. In
a tube described by Mr. Gassiot*^ the light of each of the disks
is bluish on the negative and reddish on the positive side, and
bright red in the central stratum.

These, and manyphenomena of electrical discharge, are
other
exceedingly important, and when they are better understood they
will probably throw great light on the nature of electrioify as well
as on the nature of gases and of the medium pervading space. At
present, however, they must be considered as outside the domain of
the mathematical theory of electricity.
EUeMe Phenomena cf Jhurmaline.
58.] Certain crystals of tounnaline_, and of otlier minerals, possess

what may be called Electric Polarity. Suj)poso a crystal of tour-
maline to be at a uniform temperature, and apparently free frora
electrification on its surface. Let its temperature be now raised,
the crystal remaining insulated. One end will be found positively
* Intd>Uctu4U Obaerver, March, 1666.
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«
59-] SLBCTBIFIOATION OF TOUBICALIKK. 57
•nd tbe other end iiQgstiTelj deetrified. Lefc the mi&oe be de«
piiTed of thie appaient electrifieatioii hj means of a flame or other-
he made still hotter, eleotrifioation of the
wise, then if the erTstal
same kind as before will appear, but if the crystal be cooled the
end which was podtive when the cfystal was heated will become
negative.
These deotriflcations are observed at the extremities of the ays-
tallographio ads. Some crystals are terminated by a dz-mded
pyramid at one end and by a three-sided pyramid at the other.
In these the end having the uixHsided pyramid becomes positive
when the crj'stal is heated.
Sir W, Thomson supposes every portion of these and other hemi-

hedral crystals to have a definite electric polarity, the intensity
of which depends on the temperature. When the surface is passed
through a flame, every part of the Burface l>ecomes electrified to
such an ext^^nt as to exactly neutralize, for all ext<*rnal points,
the effect of the internal polarity. The crystal then has no ex-
ternal electrical action, nor any tendency to cliange its mode of
dectrificatum. But if it be heated or cooled the interior polaiiza-
tion of each particle of the crystal is altered^ and can no longer
be balanced by the snperfidal dectrificatiop, so that there is a
xesahant eztemd action.
Plan ik%9 TreaiUe.
69.] In the following treatise I propose firrt to eiplain the ordinary

theoiy of dectrioal action, wbidi considers it as depending only
on the electrified bodies and on thdr rdatiTe podtion, withont
taking account of any phenomena which may take place in the
sorronnding media. In this way we shall establish the law of the
inverse sqnaie, the theory of the potential, and the equations of
Laplace and Bdsson. We shall neat consider the diarges and
potentiab of a system of electrified oondnctors as connected by
a system of equations, thecoefficients of which may be supposed
to be determinedby experiment in those cases in which our present
mathematical methods are not applicable, and from these we shall
determine the mechanical forces acting between the different elec-
trified bodies.
Wc shall then investigate certain general theorems by which

Green, Gauss, and Thomson have indicated the conditions of so-
lution of problems in the distriljution of electricity. One result
of these theorems is, that if Poisson's equation is satisfied by any
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58 XLBOTBOSFATIC PHEKOIOVA. [59-
fbnctioii, and ihe BOiftoe of evwy oondnetor the fimctkni

if at
has the of the potential of that oondaetor, tiien the fime-

valiie
tion expwwBOP the aetnal potential of the ejntcm at every point. We
alao deduce a method of findbg pfoUema a^ble of exaet eolation.
In Thomaon'a theorem^ the total energj of the lyatem ia es-
presaed in the form of the integral of a certain quantity extended
over the whole space between the electrified bodiea, and ahn in
the form of an integral extended over the electrified snrfiusee only.
The equation between these two expressions may be thus inter-
preted physically. We may conceive the relation into which the
electrified bodies are thrown, either as the result of the state of
the interveniTig" medium, or as the result of a direct action between
the electrified bodies at a distance. If we adopt the latter con-
ception, we may determine the law of the action, but we can go
no further in speculating on its cause. If, on the other hand,
we adopt the conception of action through a medium, we are led to
enquire into the nature of that action in each part of the medium.
It appears from the theorem, that if we are to look for the aeat
of the electric energy in the different parte of the dielectric me-
dium, the amount of energy in any small part must depend on
the -aqnaie of the intensily of the resultant electromotive force at
that place multiplied by a coefficient called the apecific inductive
capacity of the medium*
It ia better, however, in conaideiing the tiieoiy of dielectrica
in the moat general point of view, to diatingmah between the dec-
ttomotive force at any point and the electric polarizatioa of the
medium at that poinl^ dnce these directed qnantitiea^ though re-
lated to one another, are not, in some solid attbaftancse, in the same
direction*The meet general ezpieasion for the electric energy of
the medium per unit of volume is half the product of the electro-
motive force and the electric polarization multiplied by the cosine
of the angle between their directions.
In all fluid dielectrics the electromotive force and the electric
polarization are in the same direction and in a constant ratio.
If we calculate on this hyjK)thesis the total energy residing
in the medium, we shall find it equal to the energy due to the
electrification of the conductors on the hypothesis of direct action
at a distance. Hence the two hypotheses are mathematicaUy equi-
valent.
If we now proceed to investigate the mechanical state of the
mediwn on the hypothesis that the mechanical action observed
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6a] SnOflS TS DIXLBCTBIC8. 59
betfraen eleetfified bodies is exerted throagh and by means of

the medium, as in tbe &miliar instances of the action of one body
on another by means of the tennon of a rope or the pressure of
a rod, we find tiiat the medinm most be in a state of meehanieal
streaik
The nature of this stress is, as Euaday pointed out*, a fensioii

along^ the lines of ftfoe combined with an equal preBsme in all
directions at right angles to these lines. The magiiitude of these

stresses is proportional to the enei^ of the electrification, or^ in
other words, to the square of the resultant electromotive force mul-
tiplied by the specific inductive capacity of the medium.
This distribution of stress is the only one consistent with the
observed mechanical action on the electrified bodies, and also with
the observed equilibrium of the fluid dielectric which surrounds
them. I have therefore thou<>ht it a warrantable step in scientific
procedure to assume the actual existence of this state of stress, and
to follow the assumption into its consequences. Finding the phrase
electric tennon used in seYeral vague senses^ I have attempted to
confine it to what I conceive to have been in the mind of some
of those who have used it^ namely, the state of stress in the
dielectric medium which causes motion of the electrified bodies,
and leads, when oontinnaliy angmented, te disruptive dischaige.
Electric tension, in this sense, is a tension of enotly the same
kind,and measured in the same way, as the tension of a Tope,
and the dielectric medinm, which can support a certein tension
and no nune^ may be said to have a certain strength in exactly
the same sense as iJie rope is said to have a certain strength.
Thns^ fat example, lliomson has found that air at the ordinary
pressnre and temperatore can support an electric tension of 9600
grains weight per square foot before a spark passes.
60.] From the hypothesis that electric action is not a direct
action between bodies at a distance, but is exerted by means of
the medium between the bodies, we have deduced that this medium
must be in a state of stress. We have also ascertained the cha-
and compared it with the stresses which may
racter of the stress,
occur in solid bodies. Along the lines of force there is tension,
and perpendicular to them there is pressure, the numerical mag-
nitude of these forces being equal, and each proportional to the
sfjuare of the resultant force at the point. Having established
these results^ we are prepared to take another step, and to form
J^p. MviM XL m?.
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60 XLBCTBOflTATlO PHSITOMBirA.
an idea of the nature of the electrie poiarizatioii of the dideofcrie

medium.
An dementafj portion of a bodj may he and to be polarised
when it aoqmrea equal and opposite pioperties on two opposite
idee. The idea of internal pohuitjr may be etodied to the greatest
adTantage as exemplified in pennanent magnets, and it will be
ezphuned at greater length when we eome to treat of magnetism.
The eleotric polarization of an dementaiy portion of a dielectrie
is a foroed state into which the medium is thrown hy the aetion
of deetiomotive foroej and which disappears when that fovoe is

removed. We may conoeiye it to condst in what we may call
an electrical displacement, produced by the electromotive fi>roe.
When the electromotiye force acts on a conducting meffium it
prochices a cMirrent throiig'h it, but if the medium is a non-con-
ductor or dielectric, the current cannot flow through the medium,
but the electricity is displaced within the medium in the direction
of the electromotive force, the extent of this displacement de-
pending on the magnitude of the electromotive force, so that if
the electromotive force increases or diminishes the electric displace-
ment increases and diminishes in the same ratio.
The amount of the displacement is measured by the quantity
of electricity which crosses unit of area, while the displacement
increases from zero to its actual amount. This, therefore, is the
measure of the electric polarization.
The analogy between the action of electromotive force in pro-

ducing electric displacement and of ordinary mechanical force in
producing the displacement of an elastic body is so obvious that
I have ventured to call the ratio of the elect romotive force to the
eorresponding electric displacement the coefficient of eUdrie elatiieity
of the medium. This coefficient is different in different media, and
varies inveieely as the specific inductive oapacify of each medium.
The variations of electric displacement evidently constitute eleotrio
onnrents. These currents, however, can only exist during the
and therefore, since the displace-
variation of the displacement,
ment cannot exceed a certain value without causing disruptive
discharge, they cannot be continued indefinitely in the same direo-
tionj like the currents through oonductors.
In tourmaline, and other pyro-electric crystals, it is probable that
a state of dectric polarization exists, which depends upon tem-
perature, and does not requiro an external electromotive force to
produce it If the interior of a body were in a state of pennanent
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XUBOTBIC DIBPLACJnfrar. 61
electric fwlarisatioii, the ootnde would gndnally become diarged

in SDcli a nuumer as to jieatialize the action of the mtemal elec-
trification for an points oatside the bodj. Tbaa external sapeifioial
change could not he detected h^ any of the oidinaiy tests, and
could sot he lemoved hy any of the oidinaiy methods for dis-
chaxgi&g superficial eleotrification. The internal polarization of
the snbstance woold therefore nefer he discovered nnless by some
means, such as change of temperature, the amocmt of the internal
polarization could be increased or diminished; The external elec-
trilicutionwould then be no longer capable of neutralizing the
external effect of the internal polarization, and an apparent elec-
trification would be observed, as in the case of tourmaline.
If a charge e is uniformly distributed over the surface of a
sphere, the resultant force at any point of the medium surrounding
the sphere is numerically equal to the charge e divided by the square
of the distance from the centre of the sphere. This resultant force,
according to our theory, is accompanied by a displacement of elec-
tricity in a direction oatwaids firom the sphere.
If we now draw a concentric spherical surface of radios r, the whole
diq[>lacement, £, through this sorfece will be proportional to the
lesnhant force multiplied by the area of the spherical surface. Bat
the lesoltant force is diiectiy as the charge e and inyersely as the
square of the radins, while the area of the snrfiMse is directly as the
eqnare of the radius.
Hence the whole displacement, S, is proportional to the chaige
and is independent of the radius.
To determine the ratio between the charge e, and the quantity
of electricity, displaced outwards through the sphericsl sur&cej
let us eonrider the woric done upon the medium in the rôn
between two concentric spherical surfaces, while the displacement
is increased from E to E-\-bK If and denote the potentials
at the inner and the outer of these surfaces respectively, the elec-
tromotive force by which the additional displacement is produced
is F^—V^, so that the work spent in augmenting the displacement
iBiF^--F^)bE.
If we now make the inner surface coincide with that of the
electrified and make the radius of the other infinite, 7^
sphere,
becomes F, the potentinl of the s])here, and F^ becomes zero, so
that the whole work done in the surrounding medium is FÊ.
But by the ordinary theory, the work dona in augmenting the
chaige is Fte^ and if this is spent, as we suppose, in augmenting
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62 XLEGXSOSTATIC PHKNOMlfi [6i
the displaoemeut^ i£ s dtf, Mid aiiioe JS and e Yanish together,

e, or
TAs displacemmi outwards through any tpherieal iuâee wiMiUrie
with the inhere ii equal to the charge on the sphere.
To fix our ideas of eleotric displacement, let ns oonnder an aooa-
maklor formed of two condncting plates A and separated hj a
stestam of a dieleetrio (7. Let ^
be a condnoting wive joiiuiig
A and and let na si^poss that \fj the aotum of an eleotroiiiotive
fimse a qnantily Q of poaitiTe electrioitj is transfiBrred along the
wire from B to A, The positive electrification of A and tiie
negative electrificatkm of B wQl produce a certam dectramotive
Ibfce aetiiig from A towards B In the dieleetrio stratum, and this
will pvodnee an electric displacement from A towards B within the
dielectric The amomit of this disp3aceDieiit» as measured hf the
quantity of electricity forced across an imaginary section of the
dielectric dividing it into two strata, will be, according to our
theory, exactly Q. See Arts. 75, 76, 111.
It apj)ears, therefore, that at the same time that a quantity
Q of electricity is being transferred along the wire by the electro-
motive force from B towards so as to cross every section of
the wire, the same quantity of electricity crosses every section
of the dielectric from A towards B by reason of the electric dis-
placement.
The reverse motions of electricity will take place daring the
discharge of the accumulator. In the wire the discharge will be
Q from AU) B, and in the dielectric the displacement will subside,
and a quantify of electricity Q will cross CYeiy section from B

towards il.
Every case of electrification or discharge may therefore he oon«

ridered as a motion in a closed ciroait» sooh that .at eray section
of the circoit the same quantity of electricity crosses in the ssme
time, and this is the case, not only in the voltaio drenit where
it has always been recognised, hnt in those cases in which dee-
tridty has been generally supposed to he accomdated in certsin

places.
61.] We are thns led to a very remarkable consequence of the

theory which we are examining, namely, that the motions of eleo-
tricity are like those of an incompressible fluid, so that the total
quantity within an ima«j;-inary tlxed closed surface remains always
the same. This result appears at first sight in direct contradiction
to the iact that we can charge a conductor and then introduce
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62.] THIOBT PBOFOSID. 68
it into the doped space^ and §o alter the qaantity of electrioitgr

within that epaoe. But we must remember that the ordinaiy theoiy
takiea no account of the electric displacement in the subetanoe of
dieleetiioB which we have been inveitigating, bat oonfinee ite
attention to the electrification at the boonding saiihoeB of the
condacton and dideetriee. In the case of the charged condnetor
let ns snppoee the charge to be poeitiTe, then if the sorroimding
dielectric extends en all aides beyond the closed snrfiMC there will be
electric polarization, accompanied with dispbcement from within
cntwards all over .the dosed mahi^, and tlie snrfiuse-integral of
the displacement taken over the sorfiMse will be equal to charge
on the conductor within.
Thus when the charged conductor is introduced into the closed
space there is immediately a displacement of a quantity of elec-
tricity equal to the charge through the surface from within out-
wards^ and the whole quantity within the suriiAee remains the
same.
The theory of electric polarization will be discussed at greater
length in Chapter V, and a mechanical illustration of it will be
given in Art. 334, but its importance cannot be fully understood
till we arrive at the study of electromagnetic phenomena.
62.] The peculiar featores of the theory as we have now de-
veloped them are
That the energy of electrification resides in the dielectric medinm,
whether that medium be solid, Uqnid, or gaseous, dense or rare,
or even deprived of ordinary g^ross matter, provided it be still
capable of traosmittiDg electrical action.

That the enogy in any part <^ the medium is stored ap in
the fi>rm of a stttbe of constrsint called electric polariaation, the
amount of îch depends on the resultant electromotive Ibroe at
the place.
That electromotive force acting on a dielectric producee what
we have called the relation between the fince
electric displacement,
and the displacement being in the most general case of a kind
to be afterwards investigated in treating of conduction, but in
the most important eases the force is in the same direction as
the displacement, and is numerically equal to the displacement
multiplied by a quantity which we have called the coefficient ci
electric elasticity of the dielectric.
Tliat the energy per unit of volume of the dielectric arising' from
the electric polarization is half the product of the electromotive
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64 SL£CTSOSTATIC FHSNOMJ&NA.
force and the electric displacement multiplied, if neoesflaiy, by the

cosine of the angle between their directions.
That in fluid dielectrics the electric pobunzati<m is accompanied
hj a tenaon in the direction of the lines of force combined with
an equal presBiiie in all directions at right angles to the lines
of amount of the tension or pressare per unit of area
force, the
being nnmericaUy equal to the energy per unit of volume at the
same place.
That the snrfiuses of any elementary portion into which we may
conceive the yolume of the dielectric divided must be conceived
to be electrified, so that the sur&oe-density at any point of the
surfiuse is equal in magnitude to the displacement through that
point of the surface reekom§d tatMnfr, so that if the displacement
w in the positive the snr&oe of the element will be dec*
direction^
on the positive side and positively on the negative
trified negatively
side. These snpei&nal electrifications will in genend destn^ one

another when consecutive dements are considered, except where
the dielectric has m internal charge, or at the surfiuie of the
dielectric.
That what<?vcr electricity may be, and whatever we may under-

stand by the movement of electricity, the phenomenon which we
have called electric displacement is a movement of electricity in the
same sense a^j the transference of a definite quantity of electricity
throuiT-h a wire is a movement of electricity, the only difference
Ix'ing tliat in the dielectric there is a force which we have called
electric elasticity whicli acts anâinst the electric displacement, and
forces the electricity back wlien the electromotive force is removed;
whereas in the conducting wire the electric elasticity is continually
giving way, so that a current of true conduction is set np, and
the resistance depends, not on the total quantity of electricity dis-
placed from its position of equilibrium, but on the quantity which
crosses a section of the conductor in a given time.
That in every case the motion of electricity is subject to the
seme condition as that of an incompressible fluid, namely, that
at every instant as much must flow out of any given dosed space
as flows into it.
It follows from this that evety electric ouixent must form a

dosed circuit. The importance of this result will be seen when we
investigate the laws of electro-nuignetism.
Since, as we have seen, the theory of direct action at a distance
is mathematically identical with that of action by means of a
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62.] mSTHOD OF THI8 WORK. 65
mediiiDi, the actual phenomena may be explained hy ilie one

tlieoiy as well aaby the other, provided euitable hypotheeea be
introdnced when any diffienltj oocars. Thns^ Moeeotti has deduced
the matbemattcal tiieoiy of dielectrics horn the ordinary theory
of attraction by merely giving an electric instead of a magnetic
interpretation to the iymbols in the inyestigation by which Poisson
bas deduced the theory of roagnetie induction from the theory of
magnetic flnids. He assumes the existence within the dielectric of
small conduciinr^ elements, capable of having their opposite surfaces
oppositely electrifu'd l)y induction, but not capable of losing or
gaining on the whole, owing to their being insulated
electricity
from each other by a non-conducting niodium. This theoiy of
dielectrics is consistent with the laws of electricity, and may be
actually true. If it is true, the specific inductive capacity of a
dielectric may be greater, but cannot be less, than tliat of air or
vacuum. No instance has yet been found of a dielectric having
an inductive capacity less than that of air, but if such should
be disooTered, Moeaotti's theoiy must be abandoned, although his
formulae would all remain exact, and would only require us to alter
the sign of a coefficient.
In the theory which I propose to develope, the mathematical
methods are founded upon the smallest poesible amount of hypo-
thesis, and tiraa equations of the same form are found applicable to
phenomena which are certainly of quite different natures, as, for
instance, eleotric induction through dielectrics ; conduction through
oonduetors, and magnetio induction. In all these cases the re-
lation between the force and the effect produced is expressed by
a set of equations of the same kind, so that when a problem in
one of these subjects is solved, the problem and its solution may
be tmndated into the language of the other sntjeets and the
lefoltB in their new form will also be true.
VOL. I.
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CHAPTER U
BLSMSNTABY MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF STATICAL

BLECTBICITT.
BefiniHm qfEleeirieiiy at a MMemaiieal QuauHfy.

63.] Wo have s(H?n that tlie actions of electrified bodies are suck
that the electritication of one hody may be equal to that of another,
or to the sum of the electrifications of two bodies, and that when
two bodies are e([ually and op})ositely electrified they have no elec-
trical effect on external bodies when jjlaced together within a closed
iDBulated conducting vessel. We may express all these results in
a concise and consistent manner by describing an electrified body as
ekarffed with a certain quantity of Uectricity^ which, we may denote
bj tf. When the electrification is positive, that is, according to the
usual convention, vitreous, e will be a podtiTe qiuntitj. When the

eleotrifioation is negative or resinous, € will be negative, and the
quantity may be inteqpreted either as a negative quantity of
yitreooB eleetridty or ie a positive qosntity of resinous electricily.
The effiwt of adding together two eqnal and opposite duoges of
electricity, and — is to produce a state of no eleetriiicstiaii
expressed by zeio. We may therefore regaid a body not eleetrified

as virtoally charged with equal and opposite charges of indefinite
magnitude^ and an electrified body as virtoaUy chaiged with un-
equal quantities of positive and negative electricity, the algebndc
sum of these diarges constituting the observed eleebnfication. It is
manifest, however, that this way of regarding an electrified body
and may be compared to the conception of the
is entirely artificial,
velocity of a body as compounded of two or more different velo-

cities, no one of which is the actual velocity of the body. When
we speak therefore of a body being charged with a quantity e of
electricity we mean simply that the body is electrified, and that
the electrification is vitreous or resmous according as e is positive

or negative.
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SLSOTBIC BBNBITT. 67
ON SLECXEIC DENSITY.
DUlribution hi Three Dimensions.
64.] Definition. The electric volume-density at a given point

in qpace is the limiting ratio of the quantity of electricitj within
a iplieve whose centre is the given point to the volome of the
sphero. when its radius is diminished without limit.
We Bhall denote this ntio hy the sjrmbol which may be posi-

tive or negative.
Dittrtbution on a Sur/ace,
It is a result alike of theoty and of experiment, that, in oertain

cases, the electrification of a body is entirely on the surfiM)e. The
density at a point on the sorfiioe, if defined accoiding to the method
given above^ would be infinite. We therefore adopt a diflferent
method for the measurement of surface-density.

L^fmiHtm, The electric density at a given point on a snr&ce is
the limiting ratio of the quantify of electricity within a sphere

whose centre is the given point to the area of the surface contained
within the sphere, when its radius is diminished without limit.
We shall denote the surface-density by the symbol <t.
Those writers who supposed electricity to be a material fluid

or a collection of particles, were obliged in this case to suppose
the electricity distributed on the surface in the form of a stratum
of a certain thickness 6, its density being p^^, or that value of p
which would result from the particles having the closest contact
of which they are capable. It is manifest that on this theory
A»d = <r.
When 9 is negative, according to this theoiy, a certain stratum

of thickness $ is left entirely devoid of positive electricity, and
filled entirely with negative electricity.
Thereis, however, no experimental evidence either of the elec-
tricstratum having any thickness, or of electricity being a fluid

or a collection of particles. We
therefore prefer to do without the
symbol for the thickness of the stratum, and to use a special symbol
for surface^density.
JHttrîion aUmg a Line.

It is sometimes convenient to suppose electricity distributed
on a line, that is, a long narrow body of which we neglect the
r a
It
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«8 BLECTBOSTATIGB. [65-
thicknefls. In this case we may define the Ime-densily at any point

to be the limiting latio of fJie electricily on an dement of the
line to the length of that element when the element is diminished

without limit.
If A denotes the line-density, then the whole quantity of elec-
tricity on a carve jb e ^ I kds, where dt is the element of the eonre.
where dS is the element of surface.

If p is the volome-density at any point of qiaoe^ then the whole
electricity within a certain yolume is
e =
where dgdydgis the element of yolnme. The limits of integration
in each case are those of the carve, the sariace, or the portion of
space considered.
It is manifest that A, <r and p are qoantities differing in kind,
each being one dimension in space lower than the preceding, so that
if a he a line, the quantities tf, aX, aâ, and a^p will he all of the
same kind, and if a be the unit of length, and A, a, p oacli the
unit of the different kinds of density, a A, fl^<r, and a^p will each
denote one unit of electricity.
Defuiihon of the Unit of Electricity,
65.] Let A and JB be two points the distance between which

is the nnit of length.Let two bodies, whose dimensions are small
compared with the distance AB, be charged with equal qoantitieB
of positive electricity sad placed at A and nxpeetively, and B
let the charges be snch that the force with which tiiey repel each
other is the unit of foroe, measared as in Art. 6. Then the charge
of either body is said to be the unit of electricity. If the charge of
the body at B were a nnit of negative dectandty, tlien, since the
action between the bodies wonld be revemed, we shonld have an
attraction equal to the unit of force.
If the charge of A were also negative, and equal to unity, the
force would be repulsive, and equal to unity.
Since the action between any two portions of electricity is not
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68.] LAW OF SLROTBIO FOBGS. 09
affiseted by the presenoe of other portions, the fepakioa between

0 nnits of eleetridty at A and / nnite at j9 is the distance
AB being nnify. See Art 39.
Law Force between Eleetrified Bodiee,

66.] Coulomb shewed hy experiment that the force between
electrified bodies whose dimensions are small compared with the
distance between them, Yariee inverselj as the square of the dis-

tance. Hence the actual repulsion between two such bodies charged
with quantities e and / and phMsed at a distance r is
We law is the only one con-

shall pfoye in Art. 74 that this
sistentwith the observed fact that a conductor, placed in the inside
of a closed hollow conductor and in contact with it, is deprived of
all electricsl chaige. Our conviction of the accuracy of the law
of the inverse square of the distance may be consideied to rest
on experiments of this kind, father than on the direct measure-
ments of Coulomb.
Seeuliant Foree hefween Tieo BotUee,
67.] In order to find the resultant force between two bodies

we might divide each of them into its elements of volume, and
consider the repulsion between the electricity in each of the elements
of the first body and the elect ricitv in each of the elements of the
second body. We should thus get a system of forces equal in
number to the product of the numbers of the elements into which
we have divided each body, and we should have to combine the
effects of these forces by the rules of Statics. Thus, to find the
component in the direction oix we should have to £nd the value
of the sextuple integral
pp'{j' — y) (^J'
(^J/
dx thf dz'
*
{{w-dY^{y -yy + - ?f}^

where u*, y, z are the coordinates of a point in the first body at
which the electrical density is p, and / , //, and p are the
corresponding (juaiitities f(»r the second body, and the integration
is extended first over the one body and then over the other.
Resultant Force at a Point.
68.] In order to siiiij)lify the mathematical process, it is con-

veuieut to consider the action of an electrihed body^ not on another
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70 XLSCTB0STATIG8. [68.
body of any form, but on an indefinitely small Ixxly, charged with

an indefinitely small amount of electricity, and placed at any point
of the space to which the electrical action extends. B7 making
the charge of this body indefinitely small we render insensible its
disturbing action on the charge of the first body.
Let e be the charge of this body, and let the force acting on
it when placed at the point (9, g) be Me^ and let the direction-
ooBines of the force be I, m, n, then we may call M the resultant
force at the pinnt (ar, z).
In speaking of the xesdltant electrical force at a pomt, we do not

neoesearily imply that any force is actually exerted there> but only
that if an electrified body were placed there it would be acted on
by a force Me, where e is the charge of the body.
Definition, The Resultant electrical force at any point is the
force which would be exerted on a small body charged with the unit
of positive electricity, if it were placed there without disturbing the
actual distribution of electricity.
This force not only tends to move an electrified body, but to
move the electricity within the body, so that the positive electricity
tends to move in the direction of R and the negutive electricity
in the opposite direction. Hence the force R is also called the
Electromotive Force at the point (.r, z).
"When we wish to exj)res8 the fact that the resultant force is a

vector, we shall denote it by the German letter Q. If the body
is a dielectric, then, according- to the theory adopted in this
treatise, the electricity is dis])laced within it, so that the quantity
of electricity which is forced in the direction of @ across unit
of area fixed perpendicular to @ is
3D = J-M;
where SD is the dispkoement, 0 the resultant foroe^ and K the
specific inductive capacity of the dielectric. For air, JT s 1.
If the body is a conductor^ the state of oonstmint is conttnnally
giving way, so that a current of conduction is produced and main-
tained as long as the fovoe 8 acts on the medium.
Components of the ResuKanf Force,
liX,¥,Z denote the components of then

X^Rl, T^Rm, Z:sRn;
where I, n are the diiecdon-cosineB of R,
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69.] BLSCfFROMOTIYB FOBOB. 71
Imt^lntegraX of Jêetrie Ibrce, or EUetrmatiw Force aitmg

an Arc of a (krve.
69.] Tlie Electromotive force along- a given arc A2^ of a curve is
numerically measured by the work which would be done on a unit

of positive electricity carried along the curve £:om the beginning,
A, to the end of the arc.
If s is the length of the arc, meaaiired from A, and if the t»-
soltant force B at any point of the curve makes an angle e with
the tangent drawn in the positive direction^ then the work done
on unit of electiicily in moving along the element of the carve
and the total electromotive force F will be
-i:
tiie integiatimi being extended fiom the beginning to the end
(îhe aio.
If we malm nee of the components of the fbroe we find
If A'. )' and Z are such that X dx->(- Ydy-i-Zdz is a complete

diiierential of a function of ^, z, then
JA
where the integration ia performed in any way from the point A
to the point P, whether along the given curve or along any other
line between A and P.
In this case iT is a scalar function of the position of a point in
space, that is, when we know the coordinates of the point, the value
of V is determinate, and this value is independent of the position
and direction of the axes of reference. See Art. 16.
On Functions of the Position of a Point,
In what follows, when we describe a qnantitj' as a function of

the position of a point, we mean that for every position of the point
the frmction has a determinate value. We do not imply that this
value can always be expressed by the same formula for all points of
space, for it may be expressed by one formula on one side of a
given surfiice and by another formula on the other side.
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72 SLBOKBOSTATm
Oh Potential Functions.
70.] The quantity Xdx^Yd^-^-ZdM u an exaet diffiBrontial
whenever the force from attnustions or lepnkiona whoee in-

ariies
tenntjr ie * fonctaon of the dutanoe only from any nomher of

points. For if be the diitanee of one of the points from the point
(to, y, z), and if J2| be the xepnlsion, then
with aimihur eipreesionfl for and so that
X^dx-\- 1\ dy -f (h = /?j </r,
and since It^ is a function of ouly, ^dfr| is an exact differential

of some function of r^, say V^.
SimiJarly for any other force J2^, acting from a centre at dis-
tance igi
Bnt X= X|+ J^+fto. and T and Z are componnded in the eame

way, therefore
Xdj--\- Y,lj/-\-Z(l: = dV^ + dV,^kQ. = dr.
V, tlie integral of this quantity, under the condition that 0
at an infinite distance, is called the Potential Function.
The use of this function in the theory of attractions was intro-
jduced by Laplace in the calculation of the attraction of the earth.
Green, in his essay ' On the Application of Mathematical Analysis
to Electricity/ gave it the name of the Potential Function. Gauss,
working independently of Green, also used the word PotentaaL
GhMistas and others have applied the term Potential to the work
which woold be done if two bodies or systems were removed to
an infinite distance from one another. We shall follow the ose <^
the word in recent English works, and avoid ambigoity by adopting
the following definition due to Sir W. Thomson.
DefinUion Potential, The Potential at a Point is the woik
which would be done on a unit of positive electricity by the elec-
tric forces if it were placed at that point without disturbing the
electric distribution, and carried from that point to an infinite

distance.
71. J Expressions tor the llesullant Force and its components in

terms of the Potential.
Since the total electromotive force along any arc AB is
Fa- Vs.
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7a.] POTBHTIAL. 78
if we pat A for the aro AB we shall have for the ftvoe feeolved
in the diieetton of
U COS « = — -r-
whence, by aaBomiiig da parallel to eacih of the axes in snoeenion^

we get
dx*
Y^^^ 4|r
*
J^s-
^ —
dz
*
dFl" dV^^ dF\k
We flhall denote the force itself^ whoee magnitude is and whoee R

oompoaents are X, T, by the Geman letter 9, aa in Arts. 17
and 68.
Tke Fotential ai all Fomtt wiiJUn a Conductor it ijke tame.
72.] A conductor is
a body whieh aUows the electriciiy within
it to move fiom one part of the body to any other when acted on
by electromotive force. When the eleetrieify is in equilibrium
there can be no electromotiye force acting within the eondtictor.
Hence 22 = 0 throughoat the whole space occupied by the con-
ductor. From this it follows that
'
dx * dy * dz
and therefore for every point of the conductor
r= c,
where C is a constant quantity.
jPotetUial of a Qmduelor,
Since the potential at all pdnts within the sabstanee of the
conductor is C, C is called the Potential of the con-
the quantity
ductor. C may
be defined as the work which must be done by
external agency in order to bring a unit of electricity from an
infinite distance to the conductor, the distribution of electricity
being supposed not to be disturbed by the presence of the unit.
If two conductors have equal potentials, and are connected by
a wire so fine that the electricity on the wire itself may be neg-
lected, the totiil electromotive force along the wire will be zero,
and no eU'otricity will i)ass from the one conductor to the other.
If the potentials of the conductors A and B be and then
the electromotive force along any wire joining A and JB will be
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74 ELBCTBOOTATICa. £73.
in the direetioii AB, that positive eleetricily will tend to peei

from the conductor of higher potential to the oUier.
Potential, in electrical scieiioej haa the same lebMaon to Eleo-
trictty that Prenmre, in Hydrostatice, haa to Fluid, or that Tem-
peratoe, in Thefmodynainioa, haa to Heat Eleetrieitf, Unida,
and Heat all tend to paas firom one place to another, if the Poten-
tial, Preserore; or Temperature ia greater in the first pkoe than in
the second. A fluid is certainly a snhstanoe^ heat is as oerttinly
not a substance, so that though we may find assistance fW>m ana-
logies of this kind in forming clear ideas of formal electrical rela-
tions, we must be careful not to let the one or the othor analogy
suggest to us that electricity is either a substance like water, or
a state of tîtation like heat.
Potential due to any £leetrieai J^steu,
78.] Let there be a single electrified pobtchaigedwitii a quantity

e of electiicity, and let r he the distMioe of the point from it^
then F=l ^dr=j ±dr^^'

Let there be any number of electrified points whose coordinates
are (-'11^1,^1), (^2' y-i' '2)' their charges e^, c^, kc, and
let their distances from the point {x',y, *') be r^, &c., then the
potential of the system at x\y, / will be
r=s(l).
Let the electric density at any point (;r, y, z) within an dec-
. trified body be p, then the potential due to the body is
where r={{x-xy + (y-/)* -f (.--r'f}*

the integration being extended throughout the body.
On tie Proof of the Law eftke Inveree Square.

74.] 'J'hc tact that the forro between electrifie<i bmlies is inversely
as the square of the distance may be considered to be established
by direct experiments with the torsion-balance, llie results, how-
ever, which we derive from such experiments must be regarded
as affected l>y an error depending on the probable error of each
experiment, and unless the skill of the operator be very great.
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74.] PBOOF OF THE LAW OF FOSCB. 76
the probable error of an experiment with the torsion-balance is
eonsiderabie. As an argênt that the attraction is really, and

not merely as a rough approximation, inyenely as the square of the
distance,Experiment VII (p. 34) is fiir more condiudve than any
meaenremente of eleotrical foxoes can he.
In that experiment a condnctor JS, chaiged in any manner, iros
enelosed in a hollow oondncting Teesel 0, which completely sur*
roimded it. C was also electrified in any manner.
B was then phMed in electric commmiieation with and was then '
again insulated and removed from 0 without touchingit^ and ex-
amined by means of an eteotroscope. In this way it was shewn

that a conductor, if made to touch the inside of a conducting vessel
which completely encloses it, becomes completely discharged, so
that no trace of electrification can be discovered by the most
delicate electrometer, however strongly the condnctor or the vessel
has been previously electrified.
The methods of detecting the electrification of a body are so

delicate that a millionth part of the original electrification of B
could be observed if it existed. No experiments involving the direct
measurement of forces can be brought to such a degree of accuracy.
It follows from this experiment that a non-electrified body in the
inside of a hollow conductor is at the same potential as the hollow
conductor, in whatever way that conductor is charged. For if it
were not at the same potential, then, if it were put in electric

connexion with the vessel, either by touching it or by means of
a would pass from the one body to the other, and

wire, electricity
the conductor, when lemoved from the vessel^ would be found to be
electrified positively or negatively, which, as we have already stated, /
is not the case.
Hence the whole space inside a hollow conductor is at the same

potential as the conductor if no electrified body is placed within it.
If the law of the inverse square is true, this will be the case what-
ever be the form of the hollow conductor. Our object at present,
however, is to ascertain from this ikct the fonn of the law of
attraction.
For this purpose let us sappoee the hollow conductor to be a thin
q»herical shell. Since everything is symmetrical about its centre,
the shell will be uniformly electrified at eveiy pointy and we have

to enquire what must be the law of attraction of a uniform spherical
shell, so as to ftdfil the condition that the potential at every point
within it shall be the same.
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76 XUSGTBOSTATIOS. [74.
•
Let the force at a distance r from a point at which a quantity e

10 concentrated be i?, where R is some fiinetion of r.
of electricity
All oentnl Ibroes which are fonetioiis of the dietanoe admit of a
f[r)
potential^ let us write for the potential function due to a unit
of electrioity at a di'ittaiioe r.
Let the ladiae of the spherical diell he a, and let the 8iirfiMSfr>
density he 9, Let P be aoy pouit witiiin the shell at .a distance
jp from the centre. Tike the xadins through P as the aids of
spherieal coordinates, and let r be the distance ftom P to an ekment
iffoftheshelL Then the potential at P is
Now f* » a*— 2^ cos 0+ j^,

rdr = apm9d$.
Henoe iva ^ r'^y(r)dr;
and Tmust be constant for all values of j» less Uum a.

Moltiplytng both sides by p and differentiating with respect to
r= 2ircra {/(a + p) -jt))}.
Differentiating again with respect to p,
0 =/'(a+i>)-/'(a-/>).
Since a and p are independent*
/'(r)s C, a constant
Henoe /{r)^Cr+C,
and the potential function is
r r
The force at distance r is got by differentiating this expression
with respect to r, and changing the sign, so that
or the force is inversely as the square of the distance, and this

therefore is the only law of force which satisfies the condition that
llie potential within a oniform spherical shell is constant*. Now
* See Pntit's MechanictU i'kUoô^hi/, p. 144.
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BIiBCTRIO IHOUOnOlT. 77
thu oondition is shewn to be fulfilled by the electric forces with
the most perfect aocuracj. Hence the Uw of electric force is

'verified to a corresponding d^ree of aooaracy.
Suffkee-InU^rai ^MeeMe Induetumt and Sedrie JDkpheemetU

tkrouffh a Suffaee,
75.] Let R be the resultant force at any point of the surface,

and € the ansrle which R makes with the normal drawn towards the
positive side of the surface, then Rco8€ is the component of the
force normal to the surface, and if d8 is the element of the surface,
the electric displacement through dS will be, by Art. 68,
KR cos c dS.
Since we do not at present consider any dielectric except air, JTs i
We may^ however, avoid introducing at this stage the theoiy of
electric displacement, by c$XLmg BeoBtdS the Lidnetion throngh
the element dS, This qoantity is well known in mathematical
physics, bat tiie name of induction is borrowed from IWaday.
The surface-integ^l of induction is
JjRcoBtdS,
and it uppmtB by Art. 21, that if Z are the components of Jt,

and if tiiese qni^ntities are continuons within a region bounded by a
dosed smfiuie 8, the induction ledkoned from within outwards is
the integration being extended through the whole space within the
surface.
Induction ikrougk a Finite Closed Surface due to a Single Centre

of Force.
76.] Let a quantity e of electricity be supposed to be plac<>d at a
point 0, and let r be the distance of any p(nnt P from 0, the force
at that point is J2 = -p- in the direction OP.
Let a line be drawn fimn 0 in any direction to an infinite
distance. If 0 is without the closed surface this line will mther

not cut the sur&oe at all, or it will issue from the surfiMse as many
times as it enters. If 0 is within the snrfrce the line must first
78 SLaOTBOSTATICa. [76-
issue from the surfare, and then it may enter and iflme anj number
of times alternately^ ending by iMoing from it.
Let c be the angle between OF and the normal to tbe mirfiM)e

drawn ontwarde where OF cats it» then where the line inoee firani
the inrfiMse ooec will be podtiTe, and where it enten ooec will
be native.
Now let a ephere be deeoribed with oentre 0 and radios unity,
and let the line OF describe a conical sor&ce of small angular
apertare abont 0 as Tertez.
This cone wiU cot off a smali element dm from the snrfiMse of the
sphere, and small elements dS^, dS^, &c. from the closed sorfiHie at
the various places where the line OP intersects it.
Then, since any one of these elements dS int4?rsect8 the cone at a

distance r from the vertex and at an obliquity €,
d8 ^ r* aeo^dm;
and, since M = «f'', we shall have
RooBtdS = + edv
the positive sig^ being- taken when r issues from the surface, and
the negative where it enters it.
If the point 0 is without the closed surface, the positive values

are equal in number to the negative ones, so that for any direction
and therefore
jj Reo&tdS ^ 0^
the integration being extended over the whole dosed snrfiuie.

If the point 0 is within the closed surface the radius vector OP
first issues from the closed surface, giving a positive value of e dxa^
and then has an equal number of entrances and issues, so that in

this case 2 i2 cos € ^/.S' = edoi.
Extending the intcg^tion over the whole closed surface, we shall

include the whole of the spherical sur&ce, the area of which is 4ir,
so that
jjBco9€d8^ ^JJ^^"^ =
Hence we conclude that the total induction outwards through a
due to a oentre of force e placed at a point 0 is
closed snrfiice
aero when 0 is without the sur&ce, and 4ite when 0 is within
the surfiice.
Since in air the displacement is equal to the induction divided
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77*] EQUATIONS OF LAPLACB AKD P0I8S0N. 79
by Air, the displacement through a closed surface^ reckoned out-

wardsi is equal to the electricity within the surface.
Ckyrollary. It also follows that if the surface is not closed but
is bounded by a g^ven closed curve, the total induction throogli
it is where «» is the solid angle subtended by the closed ooire

at 0. This qiuu&tity, therefore, depends only on the elofled eurve^
and not on tiie form of the surfiMe of which it is the boundary.
On ike Bqitaiumf Laplace and Pouwn,
77.] Since the value of the total induction of a single centre

of foroe through a dosed sur£M» depends only on whether the
centre is witliin the surface or not, and does not depend on its
position in any other way, if there are a number of such centres
S|, &c. within the sni&oe, and e^, 0/, &o. without the surfiuse,
we shall have
JJjSeoBtdSÂve;
where e denotes the algebraical sum of the quantities of elec-

tricity at all the centres of foroe within the closed surface, that is,
the total electricity within the surfaocj resinous electricity being

reckoned negative.
If the electricity is so distributed within the surface. that the
deuBity is nowhere infinite, we shall have by Art. G4,
4ire = 4» JJJpdsodydgf
and by Artr 75,
If we take as the dosed surfiMC that of the element of volume

d^^dgf'we shall have^ by equating these expressions,
dZ dT dZ ^
and ii a potential exists, we find by Art. 71,

d^F d^r d^V
This equation, in the case in which the density is zero, is called
Laplace*8 Equation. In its more general form it was first given by

Poisson. It enables us, when we know the potential at every pointy
to determine the distribution of dectricity.
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80 SLBOTROSTATICS. [78.
We ehall denote, as at Art. 26, tlie qnaatity

d'^r d^r d^r.
and we may express Poisson's equation in words l)y sajdng that

the electric density multiplied by 4ir is the concentration of the
potential. Where there is no electrification, the potential has no
concentration, and this is the interpretation of Laplace's equation.
If we suppose that in the snpeificial and linear distributions of
electricity the volume-density p remains fioite, and that the elec-
tricity eodsts in the form of a thin stratum or narrow fibre, iiien,
hj increasing p and diminishing the depth of the stratnm or the
aectioB of the fibre, we may approach the limit of tme snpeificial
Of linear distribution, and the equation being true throngfaont the

process will remain trae at the limits if inteipiclied in acoordanoe
with the actual dicomsinnces.
On the ConditioM to be fuljUkd at an Electrified Surface,
78.] We shall consider the electrified surface as the limit to

which an stratum of density p and thickness v approaches
electrified
when p and v diminished without limit, the product pv

is increased
being always finite and equal to or the surfaoe-density.

Let the stratum be that included between the surfaces
F{,x,y,z)^F=a (1)
and i'ssa+i. (2)
dFf dF " dF I
If we put
*^
iJ* = T- + ,
ay dz
(«)
dx^
and if SI, « are the direction-cosines of the noraud to the snrftce,
^^^w
Now let ^ be the Talue of the potential on the negative side
of the surface F =1 its value between the surfaces F a and
F= a-\-h, and its value on tlie positive iside of F— a\h.
Also, let pj ,
p', and p., the values of the density in these three
portions of space. Then, since the density is everywhere finite,
the second derivatives of T are evervwliere finite, and the first
derivatives, and also the function itself, ai*e everywhere contiDUOUS

and finiti".
At any point of the sur£aoe F^ a let a normal be drawn of
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780 BLBOTRIFIBD SVRFACB. SI
lengih till it meets the Bozfistoe Fss a-k-A, then the value of F at
the estiemit]r of the nonnal is
.,dF dF dF. ^
or a+A s a+iriS+fte. (6)

The value of F at the same point is
or r,-.r, = -g^+&c. (8)
Since the fifrt derivatiTee of F continne always finite^ the aecond

aide of the equation Taniehea when A ia diminished without Umit,
and theiefine if and Fi denote the valaes of T on the ontaide
and inside of an electrified lar&ce at the point x,y, g,
r, = v,, '
(9)
If x^-dxy y-k-dy, z^dz be the coordinates of another point on
the electrified surface, F=.a and / j = at this point also ; whence
dF dF dF
and when it, ig, it viiiiih, we find the oonditioiis
*
dx dx
dr.
(12)
dz dz
where (7 ia a quantity to be determined.
dV
Next, let ns consider the variation of P and ^ alon^ the
ordinate parallel to x between the surfaces F = a and F = a+i.

«r , dF d'^F
Wehave «+ ^<fc+42^(dir)« + toj., (u)
^ , dF^ d^F'
^ = ^ + -S?r'fo+*-^W+*«-
,d^F\,^.^
(14)
Hence, at the second snxfiMe, where Fâ +4, and F becomes F^,
7DL. I. O
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82 ELSCTBOSTATICS. [79.
whence -^<ir+&c. =C/, (16)
by the6nt of equatioiifl (12).

Maltip^ring 1^ and remembering that at the aeeond sorfiMse
nidas^h (17)
we find ^'*=Ci?/«. (18)
Similarly
(19)
and = (20)
(-^+^ + 1?^)*==^^' (21)
^ d^v
'W
(PV
+
(Pr
=-4ir/, ^
and 4
,
= yiZ ; (22)
henoe Cs=:— 4irp'i> 4»<r, (23)
where o- is the surface-density; or, moltiplyiug the eqôationa

(12) by /, » respectively, and adding,
,rdv.y dK. Air. dr.. .dK '/r,. , ^
^(w-w) + 'H^-^)+«(-^--^)+^-=0. (24)
l%i8 equation is called the eharacteriitic equation of at a surface.

This equation may also be written
dV, dV^ ^
where Vj, are the normals to the snrface drawn towards the
and tHe second medium lespectiTely, and
first the potentials
at points on these normals. We may iJso write it
JiÔ0S€2+i^ cose, + 4ir<r s 0; (26)
where li^y are the resultant forces, and e,, the angles which
they make with the normals drawn J'rom the surface on either
side.
79.] Let us next determine the total mechanical force acting on

an element of the electrified surface.
The têueral expression for the force parallel to on an element
whose volume isdxdjf dz, and volume-density p, is
dXzs — dV
-^pdx r/y dz. (27)
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8o.] FORCE ACTING ON AN ELECTRIFIED SURFACE. 83
In the present case we luve for any point on the normal v
H'-ld-^' dJ^^' (28)
also, if the element of sur&ce is dS, that of the volume of the

element of the stratum may be written dSdv ; and if X is the whole
force on a stratum of thickness v.
Integrating with respect to v, we find
dr. dr. .
When V is diminished and p' increased without limit, the product

/jfremaining always constant and equal to the expression for
the force in the direction of 0 on the electricity v dS on the element
ofsnrfiMe</i9i8 ^ ^01/^^1 <^^2\ , .
that is, the force acting on the electrified element adSvx any given
direction is the arithmetic mean of the forces acting on equal
quantities of electricity placed one just inside the surface and the
other just outside the surface close to the actual position of the
element, and therefore the resultant mechanical force on the elec-
triiled is equal to the resultant of the forces which would
element
act on two portions of electricity, each equal to half that on the
element, and placed one on each side of the surface and infinitely
near to it.
80.] When a conductor ia in electrical equilibrium^ the wfwle of the

electricilif is on (he surface.
We have already phown that throughout the substance of the
conductor tlie potential V is constant. Hence y^^ zero, and
therefore by Poisson's equation^ p is zero throughout the substance

of the conductor, and there can be no electricity in the interior
of the ocmductor.
Hence a sup^cial distribution of electricity is the only possible
one in the case of conductors in equililjHum. A distribution
throughout the mass can only exist in equilibrium when the body
is a non-conductor.
o %
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84 BLBCTBOOTATICS.
Since the resultant force within a conductor ia zero, the resultant

force jnat ontride theomdoctor is along the normal and is eqnal to
4 vv, acting outwards from the condnctor.
81.] If we now snppose an elongated bodj to be electrified* we
B^r* hf diminishing its lateral dimensions, arrive at the conception
of an electrified line.
Let dlr be the length of a small portion of the elongated body,
and let « be its dicomferencej and <r the snperfidal density of the
electricity on its snrfiMse; then, if X is the electricity per onit of
length, A ss ev, and the resultant electrical force close to the
snifiuse will be , X
e
If, while X remains! finite, c be diminished indefinitely, the force
at the surfat'c will be increased indefinitely. Now in every di-
electric there is a limit bevond which the force cannot be increased
without a disruptive diseharg-e. Ilenee a distribution of electricity
in which a finite quantity is placed on a finite portion of a line
is inconsistent with the conditions existing in nature.
Even if an insulator could be found such that no discharge could
be driven through it by an infinite force, it would be impossible
to chaige a linear conductor with a finite quantity of electricity,
for an infinite electromotive force would be required to bring the
electricity to the linear conductor.
In the same way it may be shewn that a point charged with
a finite quantity of electricily cannot exist in nature. It is con-
and
venienty however, in certain cases, to speak of electrified lines
points,and we may suppose these represented by electrified wiree,
and by small bodies of which the dimensions are negligible com-
pared with the principal distances concerned.
Since the quantity of electricity on any given portion of a wire
diminishes indefinitely when the diameter of the wire is indefinitely
diminished^ the distribution of electricity on bodies of considerable
dimensions not be sensibly affected by the introduction of very
will
the field, so as to form electrical oonneiions
fine metallic wires into
between these bodies and the earth, an electrical machine, or an
electrometer.
On lAnet Foree.
82.] If a line be drawn whose direction at every point of its

coarse coincides with that of the resultant force at that point, the
line is called a Line of Force.
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82.] LINES Of lOBGS. 85
If ham of foroe be drawn from every point of a line thqr will

fonn a jnufiMe each that the foroe at any point ie parallel to the
tangent plane at that point. The eorfiMe-integral of the foice with
respeot to thie snrfiuse or any part of it will therefore be lero.
If lines of force are drawn from every point of a cloeed curve /^j
they will form a tubular surface S^,. Let the surface 5j, boundtd
by the closed curve L^, be a section of this tube, and let S.^ be any
other section of tlie tube. Let Qq, §j, be the suHace-integrals
over iSy, Sj, S.^, then, since tlie three suifaces completely enclose a
space in which there is no attracting matter^ we have
Bnt ^= 0, therafore Q^^-^Qi, or the smfiKse-integnd over

the eeeond aeetion ia eqnal and opposite to that over the firat : but
ainee the directions of the normal are opposite in the two cases, we
may say that the sorfiMse-int^grals of the two sections are equal, the
direction of the line of foroe being supposed positive in both.
Snch a tube is called a Solenoid^, and such a distribution of
force is called a Solenoiilal distribution. The velocities of an in-
compressible lluid are distributed in this manner.
If we suppose any surface divided into elementary portions such
that the surface- integral of each element is unity, and if solenoids
are drawn through the field of force having these elements lor their
bases, then the surface-intej^ral for any Dther surface will be re-
presented by the number of solenoids which it cuts. It is in this
sense that Faraday uses his conception of lines of force to indicate
not only the direction but the amount of the force at amy place in
the field.
We have used the phrase Lines of Force because it has been used
by Faraday and others. In strictness, however, these lines should
be called Lines of Electric Induction.
In the ordinary cases the lines of induction indicate the direction
and mag^tude of the resultant electromotive foroe at every point,
because the force and the induction are in the same direction and
in a constant ratio. Tbm are other cases, however, in which it
is important to remember that these lines indicate the induction,

and that the force is indicated by the eqnipotential sorfium, being
noimal to these snrfiuses and inversely proportional to the distances
of consecutive surfiuses.
• From raMr.ftinbe. Fandigr awt (S271) the turn 'fiiOioiMijloid' in Um mnm

eiue.
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86 BLBOTBOSTATICS. [83.
On Specific Inductive Capacity.
83.] In the preceding' investigation of surface-integrals I have

adopted the ordinary concej)tion of direct action at a distance,
and have not taken into consideration any effects depending on the
nature of the dielectricmedium in which the forces are observed.
But Faraday has observed that the quantity of electricity
induced by a g^ven electromotive force on the surface of a conductor
which bounds a dielectric is not the same for all dielectrics. The
induced electricity is greater fi)r most solid and liquid dielectrics
tban for air and gases. Hence these bodies are said to have a
greater specific inductive capacity tban air, which is the standard
mediom.
We may express the theory of IVuaday in mathematical language
by saying that in a dielectarie medium the indnction across any
surfiKse is the prodact of the normal electric foroe into the coefficient
of specific indnetiTe capacity <^ that medium. If we denote this
coefficient by
then in every part of the investigation <si sur-
fiwe-integrals we must multiply X, Y, and Z by AT, so that the
equation of Poisson wfll become
da' dx dy' dy dz' dz ^
At the sur&ce of separation of two media whose inductive capa-

cities are K^^ and K^^ and in whidi the potentials are Vi and V^y
the chafaoteristio equation may be written
where i> is the normal drawn from the lirst medium to tlie second,
and <r is the true surface-density on the surface of separation ;
that is to say, the quantity of electricity which is actually on the

surface in the form of a charge, and which can be altered only by
conveying electric ity to or from the spot. This true electrification
must be distinguished from the apparent electrification <r', which is
the electrification as deduced from the electrical forces in the neigh-
bourhood of the sur&ce, using the ordinary characteristic equation
dr^ dK ;
If a solid dielectric of any form is a perfect insulator, and if

its surfiMse receives no charge, then the true electrification remains
aero, whatever be the electrical forces acting on it.
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83.] spicifio nmuoTiYB capaoiit. 87
dF^ _ 4waK^ dV^ 4ir</Z'|

rfr Ky~K^ dv JT,—.A'2
Tlio surface-density is that of the apparent electrification

produced at the surface of the solid dielectric by induction. It
disappears entirely when the inducing force is removed, but if
during" the action of the inducing force the apjiarent electrification

of the surface is discharged by passing a flame over the surface,
then, when the inducing force is taken sway^ there wiU appear in
electrification oppodte to rr' ^.
In a heterogeneous dielectric in which K varies oontimumsly, if

/>' be the apparent volume-denaitj,
d^r ^ d^r ^d^r ^ ^ , ^
Comparing this with the etjuation above, we find
fJKJV (IKfJV JK>ir ^

^ ^ = 0.
,
^^
,
4.0>-Ap) + -f -f
The trae electrification, indicated by p, in the dielectric whose

variable inductive ciâcity is denoted by A', will produce the same
potential at every point as the apparent electrification, indicated by
p',would produce in a dieleetrie whose inductive capacity is ervery-
where equal to unity.
• S, 0 F:irada7*a *B«iiiai:ks on Stello LMbotiom* FnettHiigt Uvt BmtA Ihf-
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CHAPTER m.
SYSTEMS OF CONDUCTOBa
Oh tie QnperpotitUm of Eleeirieal Sjfttemt.
84] Let jS\ electrified flystem of which the potential

be a given
at a point P ii V^,
and let ^
he another electrified STstem of which
the potential at the same point would he if did not exist. ^
Then, if and exist together, the potential of the combined
system will be V^,
Hence, if T be the potential of an electrified system B, if the

electrification of every part of ^
be increased in the ratio of a to 1,
the potential of the new system nB will be a T.
Energy of
'
an Electrijkd System,
86.] Let STstem be divided into parts,

tlie &c. so small
that the potential in each part may be considered constant throngh-
out its extent. Let ^, &o. be the quantities of electricity in
each of these parts^ and let F,, T^, &c. be their potentials.
If now ^ is altered to ne^^ to ne^^ fcc., then the potentials will
become a^, &c.
Let us consider the effect of changing n into a+db in all these
expressions. It will be equivalent to charging with a quantity
of electricity e^dn, with e^driy &c. These charges must be 6up>
posed to be brought from a distance at which the electrical action
of the system is insensible. The work done in bringing- dn of 6'j
electricity to A^^ whose potential before the charge is n}\^ and after
the charge (» + </«) Tj, must lie between

n Fi dn and {n + dn) Vi e^ dn.
In the limit we may neglect the square of dn, and write the
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86.] GOXFflOIINTB OF FOTBNTIAL AND OF INDITOTlOtf. 89
Similiriy the work required to increase the charge of J, is

Vê^ndi^, so that the whole work done in inoreaabg the ohaige
of the ijBtem is
If we snppooe this procets repeated an indefinitely gnat nunher

of timee, each ehaige heing indefinitely small, till the total effect
becomes Bennhle, the woik done will be
where S ( Fe) means the sam of all the products of the potential of
eaoh element into the cjuantity of electricity in that element when
n = I, and is the initial and ti^ the final value of n.
If we make = 0 and = 1, we find for the work required to
charge an unelectrified system so that the electricity is e and the
potential F in each element,
General Theory of a Syttem of Conductors.
86.] Let A^^ J^,,,.A^ be any number of conductors of any

form. Let the charge or total quantity of electricity on each of
these be E^y E^, ... E^^ and let their potentiab be Ti, f^, ...
lespectiTely.
Let US suppose the oondnctocs to be all and originally
fireeof duuge, and at potential zero.
Now let Ay be charged with unit of eleotrioiiy, the otiier bodies
being without charge. The effect of this charge on A^ will be to
raise the potential of Ay to jû, that of AÛ^ pj^f and that af A^to
where ftc. are quantities depending on the form and rela-
tive position of the conductors. The quantity p^^ may be called the
Potential Coeflicient of Ay on itself, and j)^ may be called the Po-
tential Coefficient of on and so on.
If the charge upon A^^ is now made E^, then, by the principle of
superposition, we shall have
Now let A^ be discharged, and A^ charged with unit of electricity,

and let the potentials ot A^, A^, Pn^Pm •••Awl ^
potentials due to J?, on ^ will be
Similarly let us denote the potential of A, due to a unit charge

on Af by and let us call Potential Coefficient of A, on A,^
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90 SYSTEMS OF CONDUCTORS.
then we shall have the following e<jiiations detennimng tbe po-

tentials in terms of the charges :
We have here • linear eqiiati<ms oontBiniiig «' ooeflSoieiitB of

potentiaL
87.] By solving these equationfl ton Ei, E^, kc we should obtain
n equations of tbe fonn
El = 2nî...+?i,^... + ?i,^,
The coL'tTu ients in these eijuations may be obtained directly from

those in the former equations. They may be called Coeiticients of
Induction.
Of these is numerically equal to the quantity of electricity
on A-^ when is at potential unity and all the other bodies arc
at potential zero. This is called the Capacity of . It depends
on the form and position of all the conductors in the system.
Of the rest q^, is the charge induced on when A, is main-
tained at potential unity and all the other conductors at potential
zero. This is called the Coefficient of Induction oi Aîm A^,
The matheimatieal detennination of the coefficients of potential
and of capacity from the known fonns and positions of the oon-
dneton is in geneial difficult. We shall afterwards prove that they
have always determinate values, and we shall determine their values
in certain special cases. For the present, however, we may suppose
them to be determined by actual experiment.
IHmentumt rfikete CoefficimU,

Since the potential of an electrified point at a distance ris the
charge of electricity divided by the distance, the ratio of a quantity

of o] ectricity to a ])otential may be represented by a lino. Hence
all the coelhcients of capacity and induction {q) are of the nature of
lines, and the coefficiente of potential (jb) are of the nature of the
reciprocals of lines.
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88.1 BIBCIPBOOAL PBOPBBIFT OF THB OOlBFFIOIEinnS. 91
88.] Theorem I. The coejicients of A, relative to A, are equal to
• îoee of A, relative to A^.
If Jv> the ohaige on A^^ is inoreased by dJ^î "noik. spent in

bringîng hE^ from an infinite dietanoe to the oondnetor A^ whose
potential is Is the definition of potential in Art. 70,
and this expresses the increment of the electrie energy caused by

this increment of charge.
If the charges of the different conductors are increased by hE^^
&c., the increment of the electric energy of the system will be
hQ= ri8i5i+&c.+ F,5£;+&c.

If, therefore, the electric energy Q is expressed as a function
of tiie charges J^, E.^, &c., the potential of any conductor may be
expressed as the partial difibrential coefficient of this function with
respect to the ehaige on that conductor, or
Since the potentials are linear functions of the charges, the energy
must be a cûadratic function of the charges. If we put
for the term in the expansion of Q which involves the product

MfEî then, by differentiating with respsct to J^,, we find the term
of the expansion of F« which invdves to be CJv*
Differentiating with respect to J^, we find the term in the
expansion of which involves JS^, to be CB^,
Comparing these results with equations (1), Art. 86, we find
or, interpreting the symbols and p^^ :
The potential of A, due to a unit charge on ^ is equal to the

potential of A^ due to a unit charge on A^.
This reciprocal property of the electrical action of one conductor
on another was established by Ilelmholtz and Sir W. Thomson.
If we suppose the conductors A,, and ^ to be inde£jiitely small,
we have the following reciprocal property of any two points :
The any point

potential at due to unit of electricity placed
at A^ in presence of any system of conductors, is a function of the
positions of Af and A^ in which the coordinates of A^ and of A^
enter in the same manner, so that the value of the function is
unchanged if we exchange Af and J,.
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92 STSTBHB OF OONDUCTOHa. [89.
This fimotioD is known by the name of Ghwen's Function.

The and q„ are also equaL This is
ooefficients of indactioii q^,
easily seen from the process by which these ooefficients are obtaihed
horn the coefiBcients of potentiaL For, in the expression for q^t
p„ and jf^ enter in the same way as and jv^ do in the expression
for q^. Hence if all pain of coefficienti p„ and are equal, the
pairs q„ and q^ are also equal.
89.] Tbioubk 1L Lei a ciafêJS, 60 placed im A,, emd U$ aU

HeoiAer eomhcton he ai potemtial Mero, and let ike tkarge
induced enA^he — B^^ then ie ditdiarged and menlaiedf
and A, hrongkt io poieniial ^, ike aiker eondneiare kem^ ai
paienOal eero, iken ike poieniial efA^ will he ^n„J^,
For, in the drst case, if ^ is the potential of A^, we find by

equations (2)j
E. = q„K, and £,=^q„K,
Hence B.^Ê,, and
?rr iff
In the second caie, we have

B^^(i = q„K-\-qrJ,'
Henoe - ^ '
^=
From this follows the important theorem, due to Green :
If & charge unity, placed on the conductor A^ in presence of

conductors Ai^ A^, &c. at potential zero induces charges «j, —
— ft.^, &c. in these conductors, then, if ^
is discharged and in-
sulated, and these conductors are tnRinfaiin^ at potentials F|, f^,

&c.> the potential of A^ will be
Hie quantities (a) are evidently numerical qoantities, or ratios.

The conductor Aq may be supposed redoced to a point, and
J^, &e. need not be insulated from each other, but may be
different elementary portions of the surface of the same conductor.
We shall see the application of tliu» principle when we investigate
Green's Functions.
90.] Thbosbk m. The eoeffieienie of poieniial are all potOm^

hui none of ike eoeffleienls jo„ w greater ikanp„ orp„.
For let u charge unity be communicated to A^, the other con-
ductors being uncluirged. A system of equipotential suriac^ will
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91.] PB0P1BTIB8 OF THB CX>BFnCIBKT8. 93
befiirmed. Of thawoiiewillbetiieBiiifiuseofitr>Ai^di^P<'^^
will be p^. If ^ is placed in a hollow exoftTBted in so as to be
octmpletely encloeed by it^ then the potential of will also be p^.
If, howerefj 4. is ontride of A, its potential p^^ will lie between
p^ and aero.
For consider the lines of force issning from the charged eon-
doctor iCp. ^le charge is measared by the excess of the nnmber
of lines which issoe from it over those which tenninate in it.
Hence, if tiie condnctor has no charge, the namber of lines which

enter the conductor must be equal to the number which issne fW>m
it . The which enter the conductor come from places of greater
lines
potential, and those which issue from it go to places of less poten-
tial. Hence the potential of an uncharged conductor must be
intermediate between the highest and lowest potentials in the field,
and therefore the highest and lowest potentials cannot belong to
any of the uncharged bodies.
The highest potential must therefore be p„f that of the charged
body //^, and the lowcfit must be that of space at an infinite dis-
tance, which is zero, and all the other potentials such as must
lie between and zero.
If completely sorronnds A^^ then p^^ s p^,
91.] Theorem IV. None of the coefficients of induction are positive,
and ihe sum of all those helonginrf to a single conductor is not
numerically greater Hum ike coeffieieni of eapaeUy of that etm-
dueior, toAicA is always potiUve*
For let Af be maintained at potential nnity while all the other

condnctors are kept at potential zero, then the chaige ctnAfiM q^,
and that on any other conductor A^ is q^^.
The nnmber of lines of force which issoe fiom A,, is p„. Of these
some terminate in the other conductors, and some may proceed to
infinity, bnt no lines of force can pass between any of the other
conductors or from them to infinity, because they are all at potential

aero.
No line of force can issue from any of the other condnctors such
as A,f because no part of the field has a lower potential than A,.
If A, is completely cut otT from by the closed surface of one
of the conductors, then zero. If A, is not thus cut off, is a
negative quantity.
If one of the conductors A^ completely surrounds A^, then all
the lines of force from A, fall on A^ and the conductors within it.
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94 ST8TB1IS OF OOHDirGTOllS. [92.
and the sum of the coeflloieiits of induction of these conductors with

respect to be equal to q„ with its sign changed. But if
will
Af is not oompletelj torroanded by a conductor the arithmetioal

sum of the coeffidente of indoction q^^ fte. will be kie than
We have dedneed these two theorems independently by means
of electrical considenitions. We may leave it to the mathematical
student to detennine whether one is a mathematiiml consequence
of the other.
BetuUaut Meekamical Force am amy Conductor ta Urm of ike Ckargti,

92.] Let be any mechanical displaoement of the condoctor,
ft^
and kt^ be the the oomponent of the force tending to prodnce that
displacement^ then is the work done by the force during
the displacement. If this woik is deiived from the electrification

of the system, then if Q is the electric energy of the system,
Here C= («)
If the bodies are insulated, the variation of Q must be such that

E.^, &c. remain constant. Substituting therefore for the values
of the potentials, we have
(6)
where the symbol of summation 2 includes all tenns of the fonn

within the brackets, and r and 9 may each have any values fimn
1 to a. From this we find
as the expression lor the coiniônent of the force which produces

variation of the generalized coordinate ^.
Resultant. Mechanical Force in terms of the Potentials.
98.] The expression for 4» in terms of the ohaiges is
(8)
where in the sommation r and » have each every value in suc-

cession from 1 to a*
Now s where i may have any value from 1 to «,
so that
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93.] RESULTANT lOBCE IN TABMS OF P0TBNTIAL8. 95
— *S,S.X.(^^j„^). (9)
Now the coefficients of ])otential are connected witbi those of

induction by n equations of the form
Sr(Pîm)^l* (10)
and i n I) of the form
MP^9bt)-0. (11)
Differentiating witii respect to^weget t«(«+l) equations of
the form
'^^^\.^(^ '^^-\--.a
where a and b may be the same or different.

Uence^ putting a and b equal to r and a,
*-\î..s,{E.r,pJj'p, (13)
bat £, s ^> 10 that we may write

* = 4S,2,(^^^). (H)
where r and ^ may have each eveij valiie eoooenioa from 1 m
to n. This esprefldon givee the resoltant force in terme of the
potentials.
If each conductor is connected with a battery or other con-
trivance by which its potential is maintained constant during the
displacement* then this expression is simply
under the condition that all the potentiaU are constant*

The work done in this case during the displacement 8^ is <^ d^,
and the electrical energy of the system of conductors is increased
by 6Q; hence the energy spent by the batteries duriug the dis-
placement is
4»8</) + 6Q = 2<I>8<^ = (16)
It appears from Art. 92^ that the resultant force 4> is equal to
— , under the oonditiciL that the chaiges of the conductors are
constant. It is also, by Art. 93, equal to under the con-
dition that the potentials of the conductors are constant. If the

conductors are insdated, they tend to move so that their energy
is diminished, and the work done by the electrical forces during
the displacement is equal to the diminution of energy.
If the conductors are connected with batteries, so that their
96 SYSTEMS OF CONDUCTOBa [94.
potentials are maintained constant, they tend to move so that the

energy of the system is increased, and the work done by the
electrical forces during the displacement ia equal to the increment
of the energy of the system. The energy spent by the batteries
18 equal to double of either of those quantities, and ie spent half
in mechanical, and half in electrical work.
On iAe Oomparuan qf Similar EleUrified SgiUm,

94.] If two electrified systems are similar in a geometrical sense,
so that the lengths of corresponding lines in the two systems
are as to X', then if the dielectric which separates the conducting
bodies is the same in both systems, the coeffieiento of indaction
and of capacity will be in the proportion of £ For if we
te L',
consider corresponding portions, A and A', of the two systems, and
suppose the quantity of electricity on A to be E, and that on A'
to be E\ then the potentials V and f at corresponding points
B and due to this electrification, will be
^'
4.
r= AB ' — r=-
and '
A' IT
But AM is to A'£^ L to L\ so that we must have
But if the inductive (opacity of the dielectric is different in the

two systems, being K in the first and iT' in the second, then if the
potential at any point of the first system is to that at the cor-
responding point of the second as T to and if the quantities
of electricity on corresponding parte are as J9 te JIT, we shall have
By this proportion we may find the relation between the total
electrification of corresponding parts of two systems, which are

in the first place geometrically similar, in the second place com-
posed of dielectric media of which the dielectric inductive capacity
at corresponding points is in the proi>ortion of A' to K\ and in
the third place so electrified that the potentials of corresponding
points are a,s Tto T'.
From this it appears that if ^ be any coefficient of capacity or
induction in the first / the
system, and corresponding one in the
second, qi^::LK:l/K'i
and if p and y denote corresponding coefficiente of potential in
the two systems, i 1
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94.] COMPA£ISON OF SIMIULK SYSTEMS. 97
If one of the bodies be displaced in the first system, and the

corresponding body in the second system receive a .similar dis-
placement, then these displacements are in the proportion of L
to L\ and if the forces acting on the two bodies are as to F'^
then the work done in the two systems will be as FL to FL\
But the total electrical energy is half the sima of the quantities
of electricity multiplied each by the potential of the electrified
body, so that in the simikr sygtems, if Q and be the total
electrical eneigyj
and the difoenoe of eoeigy nmilar displaoementB in the two

after
sjrBtema will be in the Mme Henoe, since FL ia pro-
proportion*
portional to the deotrical work done daring the displaoement.
Combining these proix)rtions, we find that the ratio of the

resultant force on any bmly of the first system to that on the
corresponding body of the second system is
F ir iV^K r^K\
. i
F^
or Fx Fix
The first of these proportions shews that in similar systems the
force is proportional to the square of the electromotive force and
to the indootive capacity of the dielectric^ but is independent of the
actual dimensions of the system.
Hence two conductors placed in a liquid whose inductive capacity
than that <j£mr, and electrified to given potentials, will
is gpreater
attnet each other more than if they had been electrified to the
same potantiab in air. .
Hie seoond proportion shews that if the qnantilj of eleotrieity

on each body is giveuj the £>roes are proportional to the squares
of the electrifications and mwnelj to the squares of the distances,
and also inversely to the induetive capacities of the media.
Henoe, if two conductors with given chaiges ace placed in a
liquidwhose inductive capacity is greater than that of air, they
wOl attract eacb otiier less than if they had been surrounded with
air and electrified with the same charges of electricity.
VOL. I.
ClIAPTER IV.
OBNSBAL THSOEBlfB.
95.] In the preceding chapter we have calculated the potential

function and investigated its pro{)orties on the hypothesis that
there is a direct action at a distance between electrified bodies^
which is the resultant of the direct actions between the ytawaa

electrified parts of the bodies.
If we call this the direct method of investigation, the inverse
method will consist in assuming that the potential is a function
characterised by properties the same as tiiose which we have alivady
established, and investigmting tlie form of the function.
In the direct method the potential is calculated from the dis-
tribution of electrioify by a process of integration, and is found
to satisfy oertsin partial differential equations. In tiie inverse
method the partial difibrential equations are supposed given, snd
we have to find the potential and the distribution of electricity.
It is only in problems in which the distribution of deotridty
is given that the direct method can be used. 'When we have to
find the distribution on a oonduotor we must make use of the
inverse method.
We have now to shew that the inverse method leads in every
case to a determinate resalt^ and to establish certain general
theorems deduced from Poisson's ])artial difierential equation
d^F d-^F d'^r
'^-^d^-^d^-^^^'P'^^'
The mathematical ideas expressed by this equation are of a
different kind firom those expressed by the equation
In the differential equation we express that the values of the

secuud derivatives of V in the neighbourhood of any point, aud
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CHABACTEBI8TI0S OF THB POTENTUL. 99
tiie densitj at that point are related to each other in a oerUin

manner, and no relation is ezpreaeed between the valae of V at
that point and the Yalae of p at any point at a eensible distanoe
from it.
In the second ezpreeaion, on the other hand, the distance between
the point (x', z') at which p ezigts from the point (or, z) at
which V exists is denoted by r, and is distinctly recognised in the

ezpressbn to be integrated.
The integral^ therefore, is the appropriate mathematical expression
£>r a theory of action between particles at a distance, whereas the
difoential equation is the appropriate expression for a theory of
action exerted between cont ig uous parts of a medium.
We have seen that the result of the intey;iation satisfies the
differeiitiiil equation. We have now to shew that it is the only
solution of that equation fulfilling certain conditions.
We shall in this way not only establish the mathematical e(iui-
valence of the two expressions, but prepare our minds to pass from
the theory' of direct action at a distance to that of action between
contiguous parts of a medium.
Ckaraeteristics 0/ Ue PoientieU Fumetum,
The potential fonction F, considered as derived by integration

96.]
from a known distribution of dectricily either in the substance of
bodies with the Tolume-density p or on certain surfiuses with the
sur&ce^Lensity o-, p and a- being everywhere finite, has been shewn
to have tiie following characteristics :
(1) ViB finite and continuous throughout all space.

(2) Fvamshes at an infinite distance firam the electrified sjrgtem.
(3) The first derivatives of V are finite throughout all space^ and
continuous except at the electrified surfaces.
(4) At every jwint of space, except on the electrified surfaces, the
equation of Poisson
(PV d^F d^r
is satisfied. We shall refer to this equation as the General

Characteristic equation.
At every point where there is no electrification this equation
becomes the equation of Laplace,
d^r d^F d^F
dx* df ^ dz^ ~ ^*
H 2
100 OBNBBAL THB0BBM8. [97-
(5) At Ukj point of an eleotrified saiface at which the soiface^

density is a, tiie first derivative of F, taken with respect to the
normal to the surfiMse, changes its value abruptly at the snifroe^
80 that dF ,
where v and are the normals on either side of the surface, and
Fand / '
are the corresponding" potentials. We shall refer to this
equation as the Superficial Charaet<_^ristie equation.
(6) If F denote the pt)tential at a point whose distance from
any fixed point in a finite electrical system is r, then the product
Fr, when r increases indefinitely, is ultimately equal to the total
charge in the finite system,
97.] Lemttia. Let F be any continuous function of x, and
let u, V, w be functions of subject to the general solenoidal
condition du dv dw ^
where these functions are continuous, and to the superficial sole-

noidal condition
at any snrfiMO at which these functions become disoontinnous,

It m, n b«ng the direction-eoeines of the normal to the surfiuse,
and »x, t;j, and t^2) ^2 values of the fbnotions on opposite

sides of the surface, then the triple integral
dF dF dF..,.
vanishes when the integration is extended over a space bounded by

surfiuses at which either F is constant^ or
lu+mv^nw = 0, (4)
I, m, n, being the dizection-cosuies of the surfiMse.
Before proceeding to prove this theorem analytically we may
observe^ that i!tu,v,whe taken to represent the components of the
vdociiy of a homogeneous incompressible fluid of density unify,
and ifrbe taken to represent the potential at any point of space
of foiees acting on the fluid, then the general and superficial equa-
tions of continuity ((l) and (2)) indicate that every part of the
space is, and continues to be, full of the fluid, and equation (4)
is the condition to be fblfiUed at a surfiuse through which tlie fluid

does not pass.
Hie integral M represents the work done by the fluid against
the forces acting on it in unit of time.
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97-] LEIQCA. 101
Now, since the forces which act on the fluid are derived from
the potentiiil function F, the work which they do is sahject to the
law of consenration of energy, and the work done on the whole
fluid within a certain apace may he fotmd if we know the potential
at the pointa where each line of flow enters the space and where
it iasoes The excen of the second of these potentials over
from it^
the first, multiplied by the quantity of flnid which is transmitted

along each line of flow, will give the work done hy that portion
of the fluid, and the som of all such prodncts will give the whole
work.
Now, if the space be bounded hy a sorface for which VzsC, a
constant quantity, the potential will be the same at the place
where any and where it issues from
line <^ flow enters the space
ii, 60 that in this case no work will be done by the forces on the
fluid within the space, and = 0. M
Secondly, if the space be bounded in whole or in part by a
surface satisfying;' equation (4), no fluid will enter or leave the s])ace
throug-h this surface, so that no part of the value of J/ can depend
on t il is part of the surface.
The quantity is M therefore zero for a space bounded externally
by the closed surface r= C, and it remains zero thounch any part
of this space be cut off from the rest by sur&ces fulfilling the
condition (4).
The analytical expression of the process by which we deduce the

work done in the interior of the space from that which takes place
at the bounding snrfiuse is contained in the following method of
integration by parts.
Taking the first term of the integral if,
Jjju^daid^dz =^JJHur)d^dZ'' ^'^^dxdy ds,

jjj
where 2 (« F) = t^F^— UgF^'û^F^—u^F^ + &c.
and where *sâ> ^^
^® values of u and v at the points
whose coordinates are jr, {se^, y, z), ftc.,
»i, «s, &c. being the
values of s wheie the or^nate cuts the bounding surfiuie or surfiKses^
arranged in descending order of magnitude.
Adding the two other terms of the integ^ if, we find
ifs Jj:&{uF)dydg'{'JJl{vF)dzda+ Jj2(wF)digdy
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102 OBNBBAL THBOBBHS. [97.
J£ l,m,n are the direction-oosines of the normal drawn inwards

from the boonding soi&oe at any point» and d8 an element of that
BoifiMe, then we may write
the integration of the first term being extended over the bounding
Bnr&oe» and that of the eeoond thronghont the entire space.
For all spaces within which tf, i;^ « are oontinnons, the second
term vanishes in virtoe of equation (1). If for any sarfiu» within
the space « are disoontinuons but subject to equation (2)^ we
find for the part of Jf depending on this snrfece,
where tlie suffixes j and applied to any symbol, indicate to which

of the two spaces separated by the surface the symbol ])elonpfs.
Now, since is continuous, we have at every point of the sur&cej
we have also dS^ = d\ = dS;

but since the normals are drawn in opposite directions, we have
80 that the total tbIuc of Jf| so far as it depends on the surfiuse of

discontinuity, is
+ = — JJf (I («, — u^-^m (Vj — fj) + « (kî — w^) dS.

The quantity under the integral sign vanishes at every point in
virtue of the superficial solenoids] condition or characteristic (2).
HencCi in determining the value of M, we have only to consider
the surfiMe-integral over the actual bounding surlaoe of the space
considered, or
M = —Jj V {lu 4- m + nw) dS.

Que 1. If F'is constant over the whole sur&oe and equal to
3/ = — cjj{lu + + uw) dS,

The part of this expression under the sign of double integration
represents the surface-integral of the flux whose components are
V, w, and by Art. 21 this surfiice-integnl is zero for the closed
surfiice in virtue of the general and superficial solenoidal conditions
(1) and (2).
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98.] THOMSON'S THBOBIH. 103
Hence if ss 0 for a spaoe bomiided hy a angle eqnipoteDtial

•urlaoe.
If the spaoe u
bounded eztenially hy the smfiuse C, and
inteinallj by the C^, F=s
saiftces r=
&g., then the total Tslne
of If for the space so bounded will be
where Af is the vahie of the integral for the whole space within the
surface F = C, and M^, M.^ are the values of the intci*Tal for the
spaces within the internal surfaces. But we have seen that M,
M^y M^, &c. are each of them zero, so that the integial is zero also
for the peripbractic region between the sarfooes.
Case 2. If bi-^mv-\-nw is sero over any part of the bounding
sorfiwe, that part of the surface can contribute nothing to the value
of Jf, because the quantity under the integral sign is everywhere
zero. Hence M will remain aero if a surface fulfilling this con-
any part of the bounding sorfSMse, provided
dition is sabstitnted for
that the remainder of the sor&oe is all at the same pdtentiaL
98.] We are now prepared to prove a theorem which we owe to
Sir William Thomson *.
As we shall require this theorem in various parts of our subject,
I shall put it in a form capable of the necessary modifications.
Let c be any functions of x, y, z (we may call them the
components of a flux) subject only to the condition
da db dc ^ ^
where p has given values within a certain space. This is the general
characteristic of 0, c.
Let us also suppose that at certain snr&ces (S) a» and e are

discontinuous^ but satisfy the condition
/(dri-ff2)-f-m(*,— «2)+«(<?i— <?2)+4ir<r= 0; (6)
where /, we, n are the direction-cosines of the normal to the surface,

^1) ^1* ^1 ^^^^ values of a, b, c on the positive side of the surface, and
a.,, b„, Co those on the negative side, and cr a quantity given for
every point of the surface. This condition is the superiicial charac-
teristic of a, b, c.
Next, let us suppose that F is a continuous function of z,
which either vanishes at infinity or whose value at a certain point

is given, and let F satisfy the general characteristic equation
* Cambridge and Dublin Mathanatical Journal, February, 1848.
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104 ORNIBAL THBOBXMa. [98
d ^dV d ^dV d „dV ^ ^
and tlic superficial characteristic at the surfaces {S\
+ „(A-5-£.g)+4,.=0. (8)
K being a quantity which may be positive or zero but not negative,

given at every point of space.
Finally^ let 8 tt
Q represent the triple integral
8wQ^JJJ-^(a^+6*^c^)dxdjfdz, (9)
extended over a space bounded by soifiMee^ for eadi of which eitiier
F= constant,
or la
j^,dF ^ dr \- Kn-jj^
+ nib-{-Hc — Kl-^ + Km^
dV
= (10)
where tiie value of q is given at every point of the eor&oe ; then, if
a^bf c soppoeed to Tary in any manner, subject to the above

conditions, the value of Q will be a unique mMdmum^ when
..X^.
dm
e^Kf.
de
(11)
Proof.
If we put for the general values of a, c,
^dV . ^dV ^dV
(hen, by eabetitating these values in equations (6) and (7), we find

that 9, KT satisfy the general solenoidal condition
dit do dm ^
We also find, by equations (6) and (8), that at the surfaces of

discontinuity the values of v^, ft^^ and »g, fg, satisfy the
superiicial solenoidal condition
(2) flfs)+M(9i-92)+»(«^— tî) = 0.

The quantities «, Vy w, therefore, satisfy at every point the sole-
noidal conditions as stated in the preceding lemma.
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98.] UiriQUB MIKIlfUM OF 106
We may now Qxpnu Q in terms of u,v,w and F,
The Uurfc teim of Q may be written 2if, where Jf ia the quantity

oonaidered In the lemma» and which we proved to be zero when the
epaoe ia boonded hj which ia either equipotential
mxtStoat, each of
or satisfies the condition of equation (10), which may be written
(4) lii + mv + nw = 0.
Q is therefore reduced to the sum of the first and second terms.

In each of these terms the quantity under the sign of integration
consists of the smn of three squares, and is therefore essentially
positive or aero. Hence the result of integration can only be
positiTe or mro.
Let OS suppose the function F known, and let us find what values
of «, p, w will make Q a minimum.
If we assume tiiiat at evezy point tr ss 0, 9 0, and w 0^ these = s
values fulfil the solenoidal conditions, and the aecond term of Q
ia aero, and Q is then » minimum as r^gaids the variation of
»f
Ear if any of had at any pcsnt values differing
tiiese quantities
firam aero, the secondterm of Q would have a positive value, and

Q would he greater than in the case which we have assumed.
But if » s 0, 9 as 0, and w s 0, then
(11) a^K-^.
Hence these values of a, b, e make Q a minimum.
But the values of a, 6, c, as expressed in equations (12), are
perfectly general, and include all values of these quantities con-
sistent with the conditions of the theorem. Hence, no other values
€l[a,i,e can make Q a minimum.
Again, Q ia a quantify essentially positive, and therefore Q is
alwi^ capable of a minimum

by the variation of a, b, c.
value
Hence the values of a, h, e which make Q a minimum must have
a real esatence. It does not follow that our mathematical methoda
are suffidanUy powerful to determine them.
CmUari/ L If a, b, c and K are given at every point of space,
and if we write
106 OSNBBAL THBOBBMS. [98.
(12) az=.K-^û, 6 = A^-i-v, c^K^-k-w, ^
with the coiidttion (1)

du dp dw
^*
da dfi dz
then Vy u, v, w can be found without ambiguity irom theee four

equations.
QfroUaty II, The g«nenl chanusterietic eqofttion
where T is a finite quantity of single value whose first derivatives
are finite and continuous except at the surface and at that surface
fulfil the snperfioial characteristie
can be utisfied by one âlne of and bj one only, in the following

cases.
Ckae 1. When the equations apply to the space within any eloeed
sur&oe at eveiy point of which T= C
For we have proved that in this case , e have real and unique
valnee which determine the first derivatives of F, and henee^ if
di£Ebrent values of F ezist> they oan only differ by a constant. Bat

at the Burfiice F is given equal to (7, and therefore FiB detenninate
throughout the space.
As a particular case, let us suppose a space vritibdn which p 0 s
bounded by a closed surfiuse at which FssC, The characteristic
equations are satisfied by making Ts C tcfr every point within the
space, and therefore F=s C is the only solution of the equations.
Que 2. When the equations apply to the space witliin any closed
surface at every point of which Fis given.
For if in this case the characteristic equations could be satisfied
1)V two difTerent values of F, say T and / put U = F— J'\ then
subtracting- tlie eliariicteristic equation in / '
from that in we
find a characteristic equation in U. At the closed surface U= 0
because at the surface r=r', and witliin the surface the density
is zero because p = p. Ilcncc, by Case 1, U = 0 throughout the
enclosed space, and therefore / = f '
throughout this space.
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99 ] APPUCATIOV OF raOMflON's TBSORBM. 107
Que Wbfln fhe eqnatioDB apply to a spaoe bounded hy a

8.
doeed of two parte, in one of which V is given at

nirfiuse oonnstiiig
every point, and in the other
where q is given at every point.

For if there are two values of let U' represent, as before, their
difference, then we shall have the equation fulfilled within a dosed

snr&ce consisting of two parts, in one of whidi U'^ and in the %
other dU' dU' dU' ^
and since U'— 0 satisfies the equation it is the only solution, and
but one value of /'
therefore there is possible.
Note, — ^The function V in this theorem is restricted to one value

at each point of space. If multiple values are admitted, then,
if the considered is a cydic space, the equations may he
<:pace
by values of V containing terms with multiple values.

satisfied
Examples of this will occur in Electromagnetism.
99.] To apply this theorem to detennine the distribution of
deetridfy in an eleotrified system, we must make f= 1 throughout
the space occupied by air, and «o throughout the space occupied
by conductors. If any part of the space is occupied by dielectrics
whose inductive capadty diifera from that of air, we must make K
in that part of the space equal to the specific inductive capacity.
The value of T, determhied so as to fulfil these conditions, will
be the only posnble value of the potential in the given system.
Green's Theorem shews that the quantity Q, when it has its
minimmn value corresponding to a given distribution of deotricity,
represents the potential energy of that distribution of electricity.
See Art. 100, equation (1 1).
In the form in which Q is expressed as the result of integration
over every part of the field, it indicates that tlie energy due to the
electrification of the bodies in the field may be considered as the
result of the summation of a certain quantity which exists in every
part of the where electrical force is in action, whether elec-
field
trification 1)t' present or not in that part of the field.
Tlie mathematical method, therefore, in which the symbol

of electrical energy, is made an object of study, instead of p, the
symbol of electricity itself, corresponds to the method of physical
speculation, in which we look for the seat of dectrical action in
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t08 QSKSRAL THXOBBMS. [lOO.
every put of the fiald^ instead of confiniiig our attention to the

decfarified bodies.
Hie fiust that Q attains a mmimnm value when the oomponents
ni the eileotrio force ave expressed in teims of the first derivatim
of a potential, shews that» if it were possible for the eleetrie foroe
to be distributed in mj
other manner, a meehanieal foroe would
be bronght into play tending to bring the distribution of foroe
into its aotnal state. The actual state of the eleetrie fidd is
therefore a state of stable equilibrium, oonsidered with leferenoe
to all variations of that state consistent with the actual distribution
of free electricity.
Ofee»'s Xkeorm,
100.] ISie following remarkable theorem was given bf George

Green in his essay * On the Applieation of Mathematics to Eleetrieity
and Sîgnetum.'
I have made use of the eoeffieient K, introduced by Thomson, to
give greater generaliiy to the statement, and we shall find as we
proceed that the theorem may be modified so as to apply to the
most general constttntion of erystallized media.
We shall suppose that U and F are two functions of y, t,
which, with their first derivatives, are finite and continuous within
the space bounded by the closed surface S,
We shall also put for conciseness
1 d ^dV . d mmdV d ^dV , , .
where is a real quantity, given for each point of space, which

may be positive or zero but not negative. The quantities p and
oorrespond to volume-densities in the theory of potentials, but
in this investigation they arc to be considered simply as ab-
breviations for the functions of U and V to which they are here
equated.
In the same way we may put
/i:f+«irj' + .i:f=4,„ (s)
where /, » are the diiection-oosineB of the normal drawn inwards
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lOO.] OBRBN's THBOBBIC 100
firom the im&oe 8, The qnantitiee and oonreepond to taper-

fidal denntiet, bat at pfeeent we must ooiudder them ae defined hy
the above equations.
Gheen'e Theorem is obtained by int^gxating hy parts the ez-
proflHiOB
throngfaout the space within the snrfiMse 8,

dV
If we consider as a component of a force whose potential is
dU
and K a, component of a fluxj the expression will give the
work done by the force on the flux.
If we apply the method of integration parts, we find
or AvM^JJ^vi/rdS-Ji'JJfîtp'Fdg^dM, (7)
In precisely the same manner by exchanging U and F, we should
The statement of Green's Theorem is that these three ezpreesions

forIf are identical, or that
M ^fja' Fd8-^ jjj p' Fdm dgdg ^jjcUdS^

jjjpUdx dz
Correct <f Qrem*9 Theoremfir CyeUmt,

There are cases in which llie resultant feiee at any point of a
certain region fulfils the ordinary condition of having a potential,
while the potential itself is a many-valued fauction of the coor-
dinates. For instance, if
we find Tstan-'-, a many-Talned Amotion of x andjf, the
values of Tfonning an arithmetical series whose common difibrenoe
110 OKNIRAL THBOSBMS. [xoo.
h iw, and in oidor to define whicb of these is to be taken in

any pardcolar oaee we must make some reetriction as to the line
alon^ which we are to integrate the force from the point where
0 to the leqniied point.
In thia case the region in whidi the condition of hsving a
potential ia fblfilled ia the cyclic region annonnding the axis otz,
thia azia being a line in whidi the foroea aie infinite and therefore
not itaelf included in the region.
The part of the infinite plane of 9b for which w ia positive may
be taken as a diaphragm of this cyclic region. If we beîn at
a point close to the positive side of this diaphragm, and int^j^rate
along" a line which is restricted from passing through the diaphragm,
the liuc-int4?gral will be restricted to that value of / which is
positive but less than 2 ir.
Let us now suppose that the region bounded by the closed surface
S Theorem is a cyclic region of any number of cycles,
in Green's
and that the function T is a many- valued funcUou having any
number of cyclic constanta.
The quantitiea and ^ will have definite values at all
pointe within 8, so that the volume-integral

dUdV dUdV dUdK
UP^ ^dx dg dy djy dg dz^
has a definite value, v and p have also definite valnes, ao that if U
is a single valued fbnetion, the cxprcoeion
jj<TUd8-^ JJfpUdgtfydz
has also a definite value.

The ezpression involving F has no definite value as it stands,
for r isa many-valued function, and any expression oontaining it
is many-valued unless some rule be given whereby we are directed
to select one of the many values of F at each point of the region.
To make the value of F definite in arôn of n cycles, we must
conceive• diaphragms or surfiKses, each of which completely shute
one of the channek of communication between the parte of the
eydic rôn. Each of these diaphiagms reduces the number of
cyclesby unity, and when n of them are drawn the region is still
a connected rôn but acydio, so that we can pass jVom any one
point to any other without cutting a surfiwe, but only by reoon-
cileabk paths.
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lOO.] UnrEBPBBTATIOK OV OSEBH'b THXOBKIL 111
Let iS^ be the fint of thaw dii^xagmi, and lefc the line-integial
of the force for a line dmwn in the a<Ûe space from a point
on the pontic aide of this sorfiuse to the contiguous point on
the negative aide he , then is the first cyclic constant.
Let the other diaphragms, and thdr corresponding cyclic con-
stants, be distinguished hy suffixes from 1 to then, since the
rôn is rendered acyclic by these diaphragms^ we may apply to
it the theorem in its orig-inal form.
We thus obtain for the complete expression for the first member
of the equation
The addition of these temu to the eipression of Ghreen's Theorem,

in the case of many-Takied functions, was first shewn to be necessary
by Helmholtz and was first applied to the theorem by Thomson.
FAytieal luierpreiatum qf GrecH's Theorem,
The ezprsBBions vd8 and pdxdfdt denote the qnantities of

deofaneity existing on an element of the snr&oe 8 and in an
element of Tolmne respectively. We may therefore write for either
of these qnantities the sjrmbol e, denoting a quantity of electricity.
We dudl then exproas Ghreen's Theorem as followa
Jf = 2(r/) = 2(rV);
where we have two systems of electrified bodies, e standing" in
succession for ^j, e^, &c., any portions of the electrification of the
first system, and V denoting the potential at any point due to all
these portions, while e^ stands in succession for <?/, ^./, &c., ])ortions
of the second system, and V denotes the potential at any point
doe to the second system.
Hence denotes the product of a quantity of electricity at a
point belonging to the second system into the potential at that
point due to the first system, and 2 ( V/) denotes the sum of all
sodi quantities, or in other words, ^(V^ represents that part of
the energy of the whole electrified system which is due to the
action of tiie second system on the first.
In the same way 2 ( TV) represents that part of the energy of
• 'Ueber Integrale der Hydrodynamischen Gleiohungen welche den Wirbelbo-

Weguiigenent»«])rechen,' CrdU, 1858. Tr.mylatcd by Tait in Phil. Mag., 1S67* (0*
t On Vortex Motion,' Tram. R. 8. £din., xxv. jpart i. p. 241 (1868).
'
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112 OSNSBAL THBOBBIO. [lOO.
the whole eyetem whieh ie doe to the action of the hist eystem on
the aecond.
If we define Ftm where r ie the dietanee of the qnanthy e
of electricity from the given point, then the equality between these
two ^nee of Jf m$j be obtained as foUowa, without Green'a
Theorem
This mode of regarding the quest iou belongs to what we have

called the direct method, in which we begin by considering certain
portions of electricity, placed at certain points of space, and acting
on one another in a way depending on the distances between these
points, no account being taken of any intervening medium, or of
any action supposed to take place in the intervening s})ace.
Green's Tlieorem, on the other hand, belongs essentially to what
we have called the inverse method. The potential is not supposed
to arise from the electritication by a process of summation, but
the electrification is supposed to be deduced firom a perfectly
arbitrary function called the potential by a prooesi of difBnren*
tiation.
In the direct method, the equation is a simple extension of the

law that when any force acts directly between two bodies^ action
and reaction are equal and opposite.
In the inverse method the two quantitiea are not proved direetly
to be equal, but each is proved equal to a third quantity, a triple
integral which we must endeavour to interpret.
If we write S for the resultant electromotive force due to the
potential F, and I, m, n for the direction-cosines of JS, then, by
Art 71,
^^^Rl ^^^R«. ^^-72«
If we also write R" for the force due to the second system, and
la', n for its direction-cosines,
and the quantity M may be written

^^^^ ^""^ ^^^^
JvIIJ
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lOI.] osbbn's fuitgtiov. 113
where wBtssW-^ mm'+ nn\

c being the angle between the direotions of & and Jff*
Now if X is what we ha?e called the ooeflhnent of dectrio

indactiTe oqpacityj then KR will be tiie
eleotric duplaoement due
to the electromotive foioe and the product KBSfcxmt will
represent the work done by the force on acooont of the dis-
placement caused by the force or in other words, tiie amount
of intrinsic eneigy in that part of the field doe to the matnal
action of i2 and iS'.
We therefbre conclode that the physical inteipratation of Green's
theorem is as follows
If the energy which is known to exist in an electrified systoni
is due to actions wliicli take place in all parts of the field, and
not to direct action at a distance between the electrified bodies,
then that part of the intrinsic energy of any part of the field
upon which the mutual action of two electrified systems depends
is KRBf cos ( per unit of volume.
The energy of an electhiied system due to its action on itself is,
by Art. 85,
which is by Gieen's theorem^ putting CTs T,
and this is the uni(|ue minitniim value of the integral considered

in Thomson's theorem.
Green's Function,
101.] Let a closed sar&ce S be maintained at potential zero.

Let F and Q be two points on the positive side of the surface 8
'(we may suppose either the inside or the outside positive), and
let a small body charged with unit of electricity be placed at P;
the potential at the point Q will consist of two parts, of which one
is doe to the direct action of the eleotrioity on P» while the other
is due to the action of the electricity induced on ^9 by P. The
latter part of the potential is called Gieen's Fonctionj and is
denoted by
This qnanttty is a ftmction of the positions of the two points
P and Q, the form of whidi depends on that of the sorftce 8, It
has been determined in the case in ^Hiioh ^ is a sphere, and in
a yoy lew other cases. It denotes the potential at Q due to the
electricity induced on ^ by unit of dbotridty at P.
OL. I. I
iJiyiiizea by CjOOgle
114 OSN£RAL THEOEEMS. [lOI.
The actual potential at any point Q due to the electricity at £

and on Sia ^ n
when denotes the distance between P and Q.

At the snrfiMse Si, and at all points on the negmtiTe side of 4 the
potential is
where the BufHx « indicates that a point A on the surface S is taken

instead of Q.
Let <T^,„' denote the surface-density induced by P at a point J'
of the surface S, then, since G^^ is the potential at Q due to the
superficial distributionj
where îS' is an element of the sur&ce S at A', and the integration

is to be extended over the whole surface S,
But if unit of leotrioitj had been plaoed at Q, we should have
<
had by equation (1), i

—= -(?^ (»)
= (4)
where <r^ is the density induced by Q on an element dStiiA, and

r^y is the distance between A and if'* Substituting this value of
in the expression for (r^^, we find
Since this e]qpxesnon is not altered by changing ^ into ^ and

, into we find that ^ •
(6)
a result which we have already shewn to be necessary in Art. 88,
but which we now see to be deducible from the mathematical process
by which Green's function may be calculated.
If we assume any distribution of electricity whatever, and place
in the field a point charged with unit of electricity, and if the
surface of potential zero completely separates the point from the
assumed distribution, then if we take this surface for the surface 8,
and the point for F, Green's function, for any point on the same
P, will be the potential of the assumed dis-
side of the surface as
tribution on the other side of the surface. In this way we may
coQstroet any number of eases in which Green's function can be.
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I02.] MINIlinM 7AL1TB OF Q. 116
finind for a particokr pontion of P. To find tlio fotm of tiie

fimetioii when the Ibim of tiie sni&oe is given and fhe poeition
of P 18 talaitaaey, ie s problem of &r greater diffionllyj though,
as we have proved, it is mathemetically poanble.
Let ns suppose the problem solved^ and that the point P is
taken within the sorfiMse. Then for all external points the potential
of the snperfioial distribation is equal and opposite to that of P.
ê snpeijSeml distribation is tiienlbre eeiUfoBarie*, and its aetim
on all external points is the same as that of a onit of negative
electricity placed at F.
Method of Approximating to the Values of Coefficients of Capacity, Sfc,
102.]Let a region be completely bounded by a number of

surfaces Sq, 8^, 8^, &o.« and let be a quantity, positive or zero
but not negative, given at every point of this region. Let F
be a function salject to the conditions that its values at the
sin&oes Sly S^t &o. are the oonstant quantities Cg, &o., and that
at the snrfiuse dV . .
(1)
where v is a nonnal to the snrfiMse 8^, Then the integral
taken over the whole region, has a unique minimum when V satisfies
the equation d^^^ ^
d^^dV
^
d^dV^^
dm dm dji dy dz dz
throughout the region, as well as the original conditions.
We have already shewn that a function V exists which fiilfils the
conditions (1) and (3), and that it is determinate in value. We
have next to shew that of aU functions fulfilling the suifiuse-oon-
ditions it makes Q a minimum.
Let be the fbnetion which satisfies (1) and (8), and let
r= To+IT (4)
be a function which satisfies (1).
It follows fipom this that at the soifiuses B^^ B^^ ftc. ZTas 0.
The value of Q becomes
and lUfb IfoiuraX PhOoBopii^, | SM,

I a
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116 GBHIRAL THIOBBIIS. [l02.
Let m
oonfine our attention to the last of these thsw groups
of terms, merely observing that the other gnmps are essentially
positive. By Qxeen's theorem
the first integral of the second member being extended over the
snrfiMW of the region and the second throughout the enelosed space.
But on the surfiMses Si, S^, ko, U ss 0, ao that these oontribute
nothing to the sur&oe-integral.
dF
Again, on the surface Sq, = 0, so that this surfiK» contributes
nothing to the integral. Henoe the sur&oe-int^gral is lero.
The quantity within braokets in the Tolume-integnl also dis-
appears by equation (3), so that the Tolume-integral is also zero.
Henoe Q is reduced to
Both these quantities are essentially poaitiye« and therefore the

minimum value of Q is when
dU dU dU ^ ...
or when {/ is a oonstant. But at the surfiMses SykcUss o. Henoe

UssO everyvdiere> and gives the unique minimnm value of Q,
Cdleulaikm a Superior JAmt ike Coejkienia of Capadty,

The quantity Q in its minimum form can be expressed by means
of Green's theorem in terms of F^, F^, kc,, the potentials of 6^, 8^,
and E^, &c., the charges of these surfiuies,
Q^\{F,E,-^FÊ^+kc.)', (9)
or, makings use of the coefficients of capadiy and induction as defined

in Article 87,
C = i Wfo+^«*â + r,ft,+&o. (10)

The accurate det<?rmination of the coefficients q is in general
difficult, involving the solution of the general equation of statical
electricity, but we make use of the theorem we have proved to

'
determine a superior limit to the value of any of these coeihcients.
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I02.] METHOD OF APPROXIMATION. 117
To determme a superior limit to the coefficient of capacity ,
make Fj = l, and Fg, V^ykc. each equal to zero, and then take
any function F which shall have the value 1 at S^j and the value 0
at the other surfaces.
From this trial value of V calculate Q by direct integration,
and let the value thus found be Q'. We know that is not less
than the absolute minimum value Q, which in this case is i
Henoe is not greater than 2 Q[, (1 1)
If we happen to have cfaoeen the right valoe of the fonction
then fu ^ ^ ^
fonction we have dioeen diffina
dightly from the trae fonn, then, since Q is a mmW^mj wiU
0tiU he a dose approximation to the trae valne.
Superior JAmii of ike Caegteienii of PoieiUial,
We may also determine a superior limit to the ooeffidents of

potential defined in Article 86 by means of the minimum Talne
of the quantity Q in Article 98, ezpresBed in terms of a, b, c.
By Thomson's theorem^ if within a certain region bounded by the

tmSiMn S^, 8i, &c. the quantities a, « are snhjeot to the condition
da dt de
and if la -\- tnlt -\- nc ^ (13j
be given all over the surfiMe, where m, « are the diiection-oosines

of the normal^ tiien the integral
Q= ^fff ^ (a^-^b^-ê')d^dydM (14)
is an absolute and imique minimum when
"When the minimum is attained Q is evidently the same qnantiij

which we had before.
If therefore we can find any form for a» d, c which satisfies the
condition (12) and at the same time makes
jjqda,Ê^, jjqdS^Ê^kc.', (16)
and if Q" be the value of Q calculated by (14) from these values of

a, if c, then Q^' is not less than
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118 OXNBIUL THBOBBMB. [l02.
If we take the caoe in which one of the Bui&oeSy my Sg, gozw

xonndfl the rest at an we have the ordinaiy case
infinite dietaooe,
of condii^ton in an infinite legion; and if we make J^s— JB|, and

iâs 0 for all the other soiftoes, we have as 0 at infinitj, and
jPn is not greater than •
In the very important caee in which the electrical action is

entireljbetween two condooting sorfiuses 6^ and 8^, of which 8g
completely simonnda and is kept at potential aeco« we have
if^s^J^ and = 1.
Hence in this case we have
ftinofelesithan A,; (18)
and we had befbie

not greater than 2 Q' ; (19)
80 that we condnde that the tme valne of q^, the capacity of tiie
internal oondnctor^ lies between these Taloes.
This method of finding superior and inferior limits to the values
of these coefficients was suggested by a memoir On the Theory
*
of Resonance/ by the Hon. J. W. Strutt, FAiL Traiu,, 1871. See

Art. 308.
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CHAPTER V.
MECHAZraCAL ACTION WmXS BLlOTBinKD BODIBS.
108.] Let FssC he any dosed eqnipotential soxfiioe, C being

a puticiilar valiie of a fanction F, tiie fofcm of wlueh we suppose
known at every point of space. Let the value of Ton the oatside
of this snr&ce be and on the inside Then, by Poisson's
eqnatioB
a^r d^r a^v
we can determine the density Pi at every point on the outside, and

the density p.^.
every point on the inside of the surface. We shall
call the whole electrified system thus explored on the outside
and that on the inside F.^ The actual value of V arises from the
combined action of both tliese systems.
Let R
be the total resultant force at any point arising from
the action of JE^ and E^, H is everywhere nonnal to the equi-
potential surfiuê passbg through the point.
Now let us suppose that on the eqnipotential surfiuse V^ 0
electricity is distributed so that at any point of the surface at
which the resultant force due to and reckoned ontwaids
is B, the BotfiMe-density is <r, with the condition
i{s4v<r; (2)
and let us call this snpeifioial distribotion the electrified snrfiwe 4
then we can prove the following theorem relating to the action of
this electrified surfiuse.
If any eqnipotential sorfiuse belonging to a given electrified
flystem be coated with electricity, so that at each point the was&a^
density <r
R
s r— , where J2 is the resultant force, due to the original
system, acting- outwards Irom that point of the surface,

electrical
then the potential due to the electrified surface at any point on
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120 ELECTBIC ATT&ACTION. [103.
the outside of that surface will be equal to the potential at the

same point due to that part of the orig-inal system which was on
the inside of the surface, and the potential due to the electrified
surface at any point on the inside added to that due to the ])art of
the orig-inal system on the outside will be equal to C, the potential
of the surface.
For let us alter the original system as follows :
Let us leave everything the same on the outside of the surface,

but on the inside let us make everywhere equal to C, and let us
do away with the electrified system on the inside of the surface,
and substitute for it a smrfiice-densify a at every point of the
snrfiuie 8, each that J2 s4 ir <r. (3)
Then tfaie new aznmgement will satisfy the ohanoteristics ultV vX
eyery point.
For on the ontside of the surface both the distribution of eleo-
tricity and the value of F are unaltered, therefore, since V originally
satisfied Laplace's equation, it will still satisfy it.
On the inside V is constant and p zero. These values of V and p

also satisfy the characteristic equations.
At the surface itself, if J\ is the potential at any point on the
outside and that on the inside, then, if w/, ii are the direction-
cosines of the normal to the surface reckoned outwards,
da dy dz
and on the inside the dermtira of rvaaish, so that the saperfioial
chaiacteristie
is satisfied at every point of the surface.

Hence the new distribution of potential, in which it has the
old value on the outside of the surface and a constant value on
the inside, is consistent with the new distribution of electricity,
in which the electricity in the space within tlie surface is removed
and a distribution of electricity on the surface is substituted for
it. Also, since the oripfinal value of J\ vanishes at infinity, the
new value, which is the same outside the surface, also fulfils this
condition, and therefore the new value of F is the sole and only
value of F belonging to the new arrangement of electricily.
EQUIVALENT SLEOTRIFIBD SURFACE. 121
On the MechanicaL Action and Reaction of the Si/ntems and i?^.
104.] If we now suppose the eqnipotential surface TsC to

become rigid and capable of snsbuning the aotion of forces, we
may prove the following theorem.
If on eveiy element d8 of an eqnipotential nuftee a foioe
~ B?- dS be made to act in the direction of the normal reckoned
ontwards^ where B is the *eleetrical vesnltant fbroe' along the

nonnal> then the total statiQal e£fect of these forces on the
snifiMse considered as a rigid shell will he the same as the total
statical eflSsct of the electrical action of the electrified system
outside the shell on the electrified system inside the shell, the
ports of the interior system being suppoeed rigidly connected
together.
We have seen that the action of the electrified surface in the last
theorem on any external point was efjual to that of the internal

Bystt'm E,, and, since action and reaction are equal and opposite,
the action of any external electrified l>ody on the electrified surface,
considered as a rig-id system, is equal to that on the int*?rnal system
iKj. Hence the statical action of the external system E^ on the
electrified surface is equal in all respects to the action oi on the
internal system E^.
Bat at any point just outside the electrified surface the resultant
force is in a direction normal to the surface, and reckoned positive
when it acts outwards. The resultant inside the surface is aero,
therefore, by Art. 79, the resultant force acting on the element
dS of the electrified snx&oe is ^R^dS^ where v is the surface-
density.
Substitating the value of a- in terms of B from equation (2), and
denotrag by pd8 the resultant force on the eleetricitjr spread over
the dement dS, we find
pdS^-^R^dS.
This foioe always acts along the normal and outwards, whether
R be positive or negative, and may be considered as equal to a
pressure p=-^R^ acting on the surlace from within, or to a tension

of the same numerical value acting from without.
* See Sir W. Thomson '

On the Attractions of Ckinducting and Non-conducting
EU»ctrified Bofliet,' CMHdgt Mathmatkal /ovmoi. Hay 184S, and Btpnnl,
Art VII. f 147.
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122 BLBOTBIO ATTRAOnOK. [105
Now S u the xomltant due to the oombined action of the

external tfitem and the dectrification of the satfiuse 8. Henoe
the effect of the proionie p on each element of the inside of the eoxfiuse
conaidered as a rigid body is equivalent to this combined action.
Bat the actiona of the diffinent parts of the sorfiuje on each other
fonn a system in eqnilibrinm, therefore the eflbct of the pressure on
the rigid shell is equivalent in all respects to iihe electric attraction
of jP| on the sheB, and tiiis^ as we have before shewn, is equivalent
to the eleetnc attraction of on JE^ considered as a rigid system.
K we had supposed the pressure p to act on the outride of the
shell, the resultant effect would have been equal and opposite, that
is, it would have l>con statically c(iuivalent to the action of the
internal system E.j on the external system
Let us now take the case of two electrified systems and
^2 such that two equipotential surfaces F = C^ and F = C2, which
J
we shall call S^ and S.^ respectively, can be described so that JS^ is

exterior to S^, and surrounds and E.^ lies within S.j,.
Then if 7?i and 7i., represent the resultant force at any point of
Si and respectiveiy^ and if we make
the mechanical action between and Eg is equivalent to that

between the shells and S.^, supposing every point of ^ pressed
inwards, that is, towards with a pressure p^ and every point of
8g pressed ontwards, that is, towards with a pressors p^.
106.] According to the theoiy of action at a distance the action
between JB^ and Eg is really made up of a system offerees acting in
straight lines between the electricify in Ei and that in J^, and the
actual mechanical effect is in complete accordance with this theory.
There is, however, another point of view ficom which we may
examine the action between ^
and JS^. 'When we see one body
acting on another at a distance, before we assume that the one
acts difectly on the other we generally inquire whether there is
any material conneKion between the two bodies, and if vre find
strings, or rods, or fWnnewcnk of any kind, capable of accounting
for the observed action between the bodies, we prefer to explain
the action by means of the intermediate connexions, rather than
atlmit the notion of direct action at a distance.
Thus when two ])articles are connected by a straight or curvetl
rod, the action between the particles is always along the line joining
themj but we account for this action by means of a system of
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INTIBNAL FOBOBfl. 123
inlenial foxoes in the iobetanoe of the rocL The ezistenoe of these

mtemel forces is dedaced entirely from obsemtion of the effM
of ezternal foioes on the rod^ and the inteniel fofoes liieniselves
are genersUy assiuned to be the lesnltante of foroes whieh act
between partieles of the rod. ôs the observed action between
two distant particles is, in this instance, removed fimm the dass
of direct actions at a distance by referring it to the intervention
of the rod ; the action of the rod is explained bj the existence
of internal forces in its snbetance; and the intomal foroes are
explained bjr means of fbroes assumed to act between the particles
of which the rod is composed, that is, between bodies at distances
which though small must be finite.

The observed action at a considerable distance is therefore ex-
plained by means of a great number of forces acting between
bodies at very small distances, for which we are as little able to
account as for the action at any distance however great.
Nevertheless, the consideration of the phenomenon, as explained
in this way, leads us to iTivestigat<? the properties of the rod, and
to form a theory of elasticity which we should have overlooked
if we had been satisfied with the explanation by action at a distance.
106.] Let us now examine the consequence of assuming that the
action between electrified bodies can be explained by the inter-
mediate action of the medium between them^ and let us ascertain
what properties of the medium will account for the observed action.
We have first to determine the internal foroes in the medinm,
and afterwards to aoôunt for them if possible.
In order to determine the internal foroes in any case we proceed

as foUows:
Let the STstem if be in equilibrium under the action of the
system of external foroes F. Divide Jf by an imaginary sor&ce
into two parts, and J^, and let the systems of external foroes
acting on these parts respectively be Fi and F^, Also let the
internal foroes acting on Jl^ in oonseqnenoe of its connexion with
be called the system /.
Then, since is in eqdlibrinm onder the action of F^ and /,

it follows that / is statically eqaivalent to F^ reversed.
In the case of the electrical action between two electrified systems
and F^, we described two closed equipotential sorfiMes entirely
snrrounding and cutting it off from and we found that the
application of a certain normal pressure at every ]>oint of the inner
side of the inner surface, and on the outer side of the outer surface,
124 SLBOTBIC ATTBAOTION. [lo6.
would* if these surfiMset were esch rigid^ act on the outer nufiuse
with a vesidtaiit equal to that of the electrical finroee on the outer
sTitem and on the inner snrfiuse with a resultant equal to lhat

of the electrioal forces on the inner system.
Let us now consider the space between the surfoces, and let us
suppose that at every point of this space there is a tension in the
diieetion of E and equal to

8 TT
il* *per unit of area. This tension
will act on the two surfaces in the same way as tlie pressures on
the other side of the surfaces, and will therefore account for the
action between and E.^, so far as it depends on the internal force
in the space between 5, and S.^.
Let us next investi^te the equilibrium of a portion of the shell

bounded by these surfaces and separated from the rest by a surface
everywhere perpendicular to the wiuipotential surfaces. We may
suppose this surface generated by describing any closed curve on
Si, and drawing from every point of this cnnre lines of force till
they meet ^.
Hie figure we have is therefore bounded by the two
to consider
equipotential surfaces Si and 8^, and by a sur&oe through which
there is no induction, which we may call 8^,
Let us Brst suppose that the area of the dosed curve on isveiy ^
mall, call it dS^, and that Ci-i-dF. =
The portion of space thus bounded may be regarded as an element
of Tolume. If V ia the normal to the equipotential surfiwe, and
d8 the element of that surfiMC^ then the volume of this element
is ultimately d8dp»
The induction through is EdSi, and since there is no in-
duction through So, and no ftee electricify within the space con-
sidered, the induction throug^li the opposite surface dS^ will be
equal and opposite, considered with reference to the space within
the closed surface.
There will therefore be a quantity of electricity
on the first equipotential surfiuse^ and a quantity
on the second equipotential surface^ with the condition
= 0.
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lo6.] BBSULTAITT OF BLBCTBIO TJQTSIOBB. 126
Let xa next conoder the leniltuit force due to the aetkn of the
deotrified flystemson theie imaU electrified sniftoee.
The potential within the waahoB 8g ie eonetant and eqnal to
and without the tor&oe ^
it is oonetant and equal to C^, In the
shell between these sur&oes it is oontinnoiis from to C,.
Heiioe the resultant force is zero except within the shell.
The electrified surface of the shell itself will be acted on by forces
which are the arithmetical means of the forces just within and just
without the surface, that is, in this case, since the resultant force
outside is zero, the force acting on the superficial electrification is
one-half of the resultant force just within the surface.
Hence, if XdSdv be the total moving force resolved parallel
to X, due to the electrical action on both the electrified suriaces of
the element dSdv,
where the suffixes denote that the derivatives of ir axe to be taken

at dSi and dS^ respectively.
Let /, be the direction-cosines of the normal to the
eqoipotential snrfi»e, then making
dg = Idvt dy = mdvi and dz ^ ndif,
and since e, s ~S|, we may write the valae of X

vjoj d r.dV dV dr.,
Xd8d.î^^{l^-,m-^^+n^)dv.
1
Bat J2iW and (^^^^ ^ H
therefore XdSdv dSdv

8« da
or, if we write
1 1 (dr\^ dr^ dr\
then Xî%. ^=4^,

or the force in any direction on the element arising from the action
of the electrified system on the two electrified surfaces of the
element is equal to half the rate of increase of in that direction
moltiplied by the volume of the element.
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126 BLBCTBIC ATTBAOnOK.
This result is the same if we snbetitate for the forces acting on

the electrified surfaces an imaginary force whose potential is — i/>,
acting on the whole volume of the element and eolidting it to
move go as to increase ip,.
If wc now return to the bounded
case of a figure of finite size,
by the and
equipotentiftl sm^fiues 8^ and by the anrfiuie of no
induction we may divide the whole epnoe into dementi hy a
leries of eqnqwtential aoz&oes and two aeiiea of anrfiusee of no
induction. Thediatgeaof electridtyon thceefiMxeoftheelementB
which are in contact wiU be equal and opposite, so that tiie total
eflfeet will be that due to the electrical Ibices acting on tiie chaiges
on the suriaces ^S^ and S^^ and by what we have proved this will be
the same as the action on the whole volume of the figure due to a
system of foices whose potential is —ip.
But we have already ahewn that these electrical forces are
equivalent to a tension p applied at all points of the surfaces Si
and So. Hence the effect of this tension is to pull the figure in
the direction in which jj increases. The ligure therefore canuot be
in equilibrium unless some other forces act on it.
Now we know that if a hydrostatic pressure p is applied at every
point of the surface of any closed figure, the effect is equal to
that of a syst-em of forces acting on the whole volume of the figure
and having a potential p. In this case the figure is pushed in
the direction in which diminishes.
We can now arrange matters so that the figure shall be in
equilibrium.
At every point of the two equipotential surfaces iSj and let
a tension =zphe applied^ and at every point of the sur&oe of no
induction ^ let a prenwre s j» be applied. These forces will keep
the figure in equilibrium.
For the tension p may be considered as a pressure p combined
with a tension 2 p. We have then a hydrostatic pressure^ acting
at eveiy point of the suzfoce, and a tension 2 p acting on and 8^
only.
The effect <^ the tension 2p at eveiy pomt of Bi and ^ is double
of that which we have just calculated^ that is, it is equal to that
of forces whose potential is —ji acting on the whole volume of the
figure. p acting on the whole snrfiuse
13ie effect of the pressure
is by hydrostatics equal and opposite to that of this system of
forces, Mid will keep the figure in equilibrium.
107.3 We have now detenntned a STstem of internal forces in
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IO70 STBESS IN A DIELfiCTEIC MEDIUM. 127
the medium which is consistent with the phenomena so far as

we have examined them. "We have found that in order to account
for the electric attraction between distant bodies without admitting
direct action, we must assume the existence of a tenmon p at every
point of the medium in the directioii of the resultant force E at
that point. In order to aooonnt for the eqnilibiimn of the medium
itself we must farther sappoee that in eveiy diieeticni pecpendicolar
to B there is a pressure p*.
By establishing the necessity of asraming these internal forces
in the theoiy of an electric medium, we haTe adyanced a step in
that theoiy which will not be lost though we should fiul in
accounting for these internal forces^ or in explaining the nnwhaniiim
If which they can be maintained in air, glass, and other dielecfario
media.
We have seen that the internal sU usscs in solid bodies can be
ascertained with precision, though the theories which acftunt for
by means of molecular forces may still be doubtful.
these stresses
In the same way we may estimate these internal electrical forces
before we are able to account for tiiem.
In order, however, that it may we had no
not appear as if
'
explanation of these internal forces, we
shew that on the
shall
ordinary theory they must exist in a shell bounded by two equipo-
tential s-urfaces, and that the attractions and repulsions of the elec-
tricity on the surfaces of the shell are sufHcient to account for them.
Let the first surface he electrified so that the suriaee-density is
and the second surface 8^ so that the surface-density is
then, if we suppose that the value of T is at every point within

Sn and at every point outside of V between these
the value of
snrfiuses remaining as before, the characteristic equation of Fwili
be satisfied ereiywhere^ and V is therefore the true value of the
potential.
We have already shewn that the outer and inner surfaces of the
shell will be pulled towards each other with a force the value of
which referred to unit of surfoce is or in other words^ .there is a
tension j» in the substance of the ahdl in the duection of the lines
of force.
• 8m IWaday. Jto. (1SS4) sod (1S97).
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128 SLSOTUO ATTRACnOir. [io8
If we now
conceive the shell divided into two segments by a
surface of no induction, the two parts will experience electrical
forces the resultants of which will tend to separate the partB with
a force equivalent to the resultant force due to a pressure p acting
on every part of the surface of no indttction which divides them.
This illustration is to be taken merely aa an explanation of what
is meant by the tension and pressore, not as a physical theory to
accoant for them.
108.] We have next to consider whether these internal forces
are capable of accounting for the observed electrical forces in eveiy
case, as well as in the case where a closed eqmpotential snrfiuse can
he drawn sanonnding one of the electrified systems.
The theory of internal forces has been investigated by
statical
writerson the theory of elasticity. At present we shall require only
to investigate the eflbet of an oblique tension or pressure on an
element^f surface.
Let p be llie value of a tension referred to unit of a surface to
which it is normal, and let there be no tension or pressure in any
direction normal to p. Let the direction-cosines of /> be w, «.
Let dz be an element of surface normal to the axis of .r^ and let
the eileot of the internal force be to urge the parts on the positive
side of this element with u force whose components are
dy dz in the direction of 9,
Pw^dtfdz tf> ^
Pm^dz t.
From every point of the boundary of the element <iRprdk let lines
be drawn parallel to the direction of the tension j9, fonning a prism
whose axis is in the line of tensiouj and let this prism be cut by a
plane normal to ite axis.
The area of this section will be Idydx, and the whole tennon
upon it will be pldj/dx^ and rince there is no action on the sides
of the prism, which are normal to p^ the force on the base dydz
must be equivalent to the force pldydx acting* in the direction
(/, w, »). Hence the component in the direction of
Pam^y dz = pi^ dy dz\ or .
Similarly = plm, (1)

Pm =
If we now combine with this tension two tensions and p" in
direotiona (F, ikT, a*) and {r, m", a^ wspectively, we shall have
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I08.] GOMFONSMTS OF STftESS. 129
= y^fn'+yriw", (2)
In the ease of the electrical tension and pressure the pressures

are numericiiUy equal to the tension at every point, and are in
directions at right angles to the tension and to each other. Hence,
putting
(3)
/«+^+r» = i, ^+^11^+^1(1'' = 0, fe+^z+rn'^so, (4)
we find = (2 ^ — I)/',
= Împ^ (5)
p^ s %hp,
fur the action of the combined tension and pressures.
Ako, since p^ ^ B^^ where U denotes the lesaltant foroe^ and

since Rl = X, i2t» =: Y, liu = ^,
i*., = ^2Z7 = i»^, (6)
p^^^2XZ^pî
where A', i , if are the components oi' 11, the resultant electromotive
force.
The expressions for the component internal forces on surfaces
normal to ^ and z may be written down from symmetry.
To determine the conditions of equilibrium of the element dxdydz.

This element is bounded by the six planes perpendicular to the
axes of coordinates passing through the points {x^ z) and {x + dx^
+ z-^fh).
The force in the direction of x which acts on the first face dy dz
is —p^,d^dz, tending to draw the element towards the n^âtive
side. On the second face dlyde, for which x has the value jp-f<2s,
the tension p„ has the valoe
d
p„
and this tension tends to draw the element in the podtiye direction.
If we next consider the two faces dzjdx with respect to the
YOL. I. K
130 BLKCTRIC ATTRAOnOlT. [lo8.
tangential forces urging them in the direction of iv, we find the

foroe on the firat fiMse ^p^dz dx, and that on the second
p^dzdx+{^p^)dzdxdy.
Similarly for the faces dofd^, we find that a force — pggdxdy acts
on the iirst iace> and
on the second in the direction of x.

^dxdydz denotes the total effect of all these internal forces
If
actingpandlel totheazbof tfontiiesizfiioesof the element, we find
(dxdjfdz = (^Pm+ ^1»«)^^J'^^ J
or, denoting by ( the internal force, refened to unit of volume, and

resolved parallel to the axis of
with similar escpressionB for i| and £ the oomponent forces in the

other directions*.
Biflbrentiating the Talnes of PmiPfmt Pm given in equations
(6)» we find
Bntby Art 77
Hence ^ = pX.
Similarly n - (^0)
Thus, the resultant of the tensions and pressoros which we have

supposed to act upon the surface of the element is a force whose
components are the same as those of the foroe^ which^ in the
ctdinaij theory, is ascribed to the action of electrified bodies on the
eleetricity within the element.
If, therefore, we admit that there is a medium in which there
is maintained at every point a tension p in the direction of the
* Thfa investigation may bo compared with that of the 'equation of oontinui^

io hydrodynamics,' and with others in which tbo effect on an elemmt of Yolnm*
iadeduoM from tti« nlvm of oartein qiuuititiM at ita boundiiig muhco.
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no.] fabaday's thbobt. 181
resultant electromotive force and aooh that ssSvj), combined

with an equal piesanre p in every diieelioii at right angles to the
resultant tiien the mechanioal effect of these tendons and
pressures on any portion of the medium, however bounded, will be
identioal with the mechanical eflbct of the electrical forces according
to the ordinary theoiy of direct action at a distance.
109.] This dirtiibntion of stress to which Fua-
is precisely tiiat
day was led in his investigation of induction through dielectrics.

He sums up in the following words
* (1297) The direct inductive force, which may be ocnceived to
be exerted in lines between the two limiting and charged con*

ducting surfaces, is accompanied by a lateral or transverse force
equivalent to a dilatation or repulsion of these representative lines
(1224.); or the attracting force which exists amongst the par-
ticles of the dielectric in the direction of the induction is ac-
companied by a repulsive or a diverging force in the transverse
direction.
'(1298) Induction appears to consist in a certain polarizxKl state
of tlie particles, into which they are thrown by the electrified body
sustaining the action, the particles assuming positive and negative
points or parts, which are symmetrically arranged with respect
to each other and the inducting surfaces or particles. The state
must be a forced one, Ibr it is origiuaied and sustained only by
fbroe, and sinks to the normal or quiescoit state when tliat force
is removed. It can be continued only in insulators by the same
portion of electricity, because they only can retain this state of the
particles.*
This is an exact account of the conclusions to which we have

been conducted by our mathematical investigation. At every point
of the medium there is a state of stress such that there is tension
along the lines of force and pressure in all directions at right angles
to these lines, the numerical magnitude of the preasure being equal
to that of the tension, and both varying as the square of the
resultant force at the point.
The expression * electric tension' has been used in various senses
by different writers. I shall always use it to denote the tension
along the lines of force, which, as we have seen, varies from point
to point, and is always proportional to the square of the resultant
force at the point.
110.1 The hypothesis that a state of stress of this kind exists
in a Huid dielectric, such as air or turpentine, may at first sight
K 2
132 BLECTRIC ATTBAOTION. [ill.
appear at varianoe with the established principle that,at any point

in a fluid the pressures in all directions are equal. But in the
deduction of this principle from a consideration of the mobility
and equilibrium of the parte of the fluid it is taken for granted
no action such as that which we here suppose to take place
tiiat
along the lines of force exists in the fluid. The state of stress
which we have been studying is perfectly consistent with the
mobUity and equilibrium cf the fluid, for we have seen thatj if
any portion of the fluid is devoid of electric charge, it experi-
ences no resultant force from the stresses on its suriace, however
intense these may be. It is only when a portion of the fluid
becomes chaiged, that its equilibrium is disturbed by the stresses
on its Burfiuse> and we know that in this case it actually tends to
move. Hence the supposed state of stress is not inconsistent with
the equilibrium of a fluid dielectric.
The quantity Q, which was investigated in Thomson's theorem,
Art. 98, may be interpreted as the energy in the medium due to
the distribution of stress. It appears from that theorem that the
distribution of stress which satisfies the r»rdinary conditions also
makes Q an absolute minimum. Now when the energy is a
minimum for any configuration, that configuration is one of equi-
librium, and the equililirium is stable. Hence the dicleetric,
when subjected to the inductive action of electrified bodies, will
of itself take up a state of stress distributed in the way we have
described.
It must be carefully borne in mind that we have made only one
step in the theory of the action of the medium. We have supposed
it to be in a state of stress, but we have not in any way accounted
for this stress, or explained how it is maintained. This step^
however, seems to me to be an important one, as it 6]q»]ains, by
the action of the consecutive parts of tilie medium^ phenomena whii^
were formerly supposed to be explicable only by direct action at
a distance.
111.] I have not been able to make the next step, namely, to
aocom^t by mechanical considerations for these stresses in the
/dielectric I therefore leave the tiieoiy at this point, merely
stating what are the other parts of the phenomenon of induction
in dielectrics.
I. Electric Displacement. When induction takes place in a
dielectric a phenomenon takes place which is equivalent to a
displaoement of electricity in the direction of the induction. For
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III.] BLBCTBIC POLABUBATIOK. 133
instance, in a Leyden jar, of which the inner coatiog is charged

positiTely and the enter coating negatiyely, the diapUusement in
the enbfltance of the gUua is firom within outwards.
Any increase of this dispkoement is equivalent, during the time
of increase, to a current of poeitive electricity from within outwards^
and any diminution of the displaoonent is equivalent to a current
in the opposite direction.
The whole quantity of electricity digplaced through any area
of a surface fixed iu the dielectric is measured by the quantity which
we have already investigated (Art. 75) as the surface-integral of
induction through that area, multiplied hy / K, where K is the
specific inductive capacity of the dit'lfctric.
IT. Superficial Electrification of the Particles of tlie Dieh etric.

Conceive any portion of the dielectric, larê or small, to he sejjarated
(in imagination) from the rest hy a closed surface, then we must

suppose that on every elementary portion of this surface there is
an measured by the total displacement of electricity

electrification
throngh that element of surface reckoned inwards.

In the case of the Leyden jar of which the inner coating is
charged positively, any portion of the glass will have its inner
side chaiged positively and its outer side negatively. If this
portion he entirely in the interior of the glass, its superficial elec-
trification will he neutralized hy the opposite electrification of the
parts in contact with it, but he in contact with a conducting

if it
body which is incapable of maintaioing in itself the inductive state,
the superficial electrification will not be neutralized, but will con-
stitute that apparent electrification which is commonly called the
Electrification of the Conductor.
The electrification therefore at the bounding surface of a con-
ductor and the surrounding dielectric, which on the old theory
was called the electrification of the conductor, must be called in the
theory of induction the superficial electrificatiou of the surrounding
dielectric.
According to this theory, all electrification is the residual effect
of the polarization of the dielectric. This polarization exists

throughout the interior of the substance, but it is there neutralized
by the juxtaposition of oppositely electritled parts, so that it is only
at the surface of the dielectric that the eliects of the electrification
become apparent.
The theory completely accounts for the theorem of Art. 77, that
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134 £L£CTftlC ATT&ACTXON. [ill.
the total inductioD through a closed surface is equal to the total

quantity of electricity within the surface multiplied by 4 7r. For
what we have through the surface is simply
called the iDdaetion
the electric displacement multiplied by 4 and the total displace-
ment outwArdfl 18 neoeflBarily equal to the total eleotrifioation within
the surface.
The theory also acootmts for the impoesibility of oommunicating
an absolute charge to matter. For every particle of the dielectric
is electrified with equal and opposite charges on its opposite sides,
if it would not be more correct to say that these electrifications are

only the manifestations of a single phenomenon, which we may call
Electric Polarization*
A dielectric medium, when thus polarised, is the seat of electrical
energy, and the energy in unit of volume of the medium is nu-
merically equal to the electric tension on unit of area, both quan-
tities being equal to half the product of the displaoement and the
resultant electromotive feroe^ or
where p is the electric tension, J) the displacement, @ the electro-

motive force, and K the specific inductive capacity.
If the medium is not a perfect insulator, the state of constraint,
which we call electric polarization, is continually giving way. The
medium yields to the electromotive force, the electric stress is
relaxed, and the potential energy of the state of constraint is con-
verted into heat. The rate at which this decay of the state of
polarization takes place depends on the nature of the medium.
In some kinds of glass, days or years may elapse before the polar-
ization sinks to half its original value. In copper, this change
may occupy less thsn the billionth of a second.
We have supposed the medium after being polarized to be simply
left to itself. In the phenomenon called the electric current the
constant passage of electricify through tiie medium tends to restore
the state of polMization as fiwt as the conductivity of the medium
allows it Thus the external agency which maintains the
to decay.
current is always doing work in restoring tiie polarization of the
medium, which is continually becoming rekzed, and the potential
energy of this polarization is continually becoming transformed
inter heat, so that the final result of the energy expended in main-
taining the current is to raise the temperature of the conductor.
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CHAPTER VL
OV POnm AHD Llim of IQinUBRIUM.
112.] If at any point of the electric field the resaltaiit foroe u

zero, the point is called a Point of equilibriam.
If every point on a certain line ii a point of eqoilibiiiun, the line
a Line of equilibrimn.
is called
The oonditiona that a point shall be a point of equilibriiun ate

thai at that point
dF ^ dr ^ dr ^
At snch a pointy therefore, the value of is a maximum, or

a minimum, or is stationary, with respect to varijitions of the
coordinates. The potential, however, can have a niaxiniuni or a
minimum value only at a point charged with positive or with
negative electricity, or throughout a finite space bounded by a
surface electrified positively or negatively. If, therefore, a point
of equiliViriuni occurs in an unelectrified part of the field it must
be a stationary point, and not a maximum or a minimum.
In fact^ the hrst condition of a maiimum or minimum is that
d^F d^F , d^F
must be all negative or all posittve, if they have finite tbIims.

Now, by a pomt where there is no eleo-
Laplaee's eqnatiiniy at
trification, the sum of these three quantities is aeio, and therefore
this oondttion cannot be fulfilled.
Instead of investigating the analytical conditions for the cases
in which the components of the force simoltaneonsly vanish^ we
shall g^ve a general proof by means of the equipotentisl sorfiMses.
If at any point, P, there is a true maximnm value of F^ then, at
all other points in the immediate neighbonihood of P, the value of
F is less than at P. Hence P will be surrounded by a series of
186 POINTS AND UNBS OF EQUILIBRIUM. ["3-
closed equipotential suHaees, eaeh outade the one before it, and at
all pointo of any one of these sni&Qee the electrical force will be
directed ontwarde. Bat we haTS piored, in Art 76, that the sorfiMse-
integral of the electrical force taken oyer any closed Borlaoe gives
the total electrification within that soi&ee midtiplied by 4 «. Now,
in this case the force is eyerywhere ontwaids, so that the snrfiuse-
integral is necessarily positive, and therefore there is podtive elec-
trification within the snrfiu^^ and^ since we may take the sarfiuse as
near to P as we please, there is positive electrification at the point P.
In the same way we may prove that if tti a mimmnm at P,
then P is negatively electrified.
Next, let P he a point of equilibrium in a rcjaôn devoid of elec-
trification, and let us descril)e a wry small closed surface round
P, then, as we have seen, the potential nt this surface cannot be
everywhere greater or everywhere less than at P. It mu^st there-
fore he greater at some parts of the surface and less at others.
These portions of the surface are bounded by lines in whirh the
potential is equal to that at P. Along lines drawn from P to
points at which the potential is less than that at P the electrical
force is from P, and along lines drawn to points f)f greater po-
tential the force is towards P. Hence the point P is a point of
stable equilibrium for some difiplacements, and of unstable equili-
brium for other displacements.
113.] To determine the number of the points and lines of equi-

librium, let us consider the sorfiuê or surfaces for which the
potential is equal to C, a given quantity. Let us call the regions
in which the potential is less than C the negative regions, and
those in which it is greater than C the
positive regions. Let
be the lowest^ and the highest potential ezistbg in the
electric field. If we make C =
T,, the negative region will in-
clude only the electrified point or conductor of lowest potential,
and this is necessarily electrified negatively. The positive region
consists of the rest of space, and since it surrounds the negative
regîon it is periphractic. See Art. 18.
we now increase the value of (7. the negative region will
If
expand, and new negative regions wiU be formed round negatively
dectrified bodies. For every negative region thus formed the
surrounding positive region acquires one degree of periphraxy.
As the difl^rent negative regions expand, two or more of them
may meet in a point or a line. If w + negative regions meet, l
the positive region loses n degrees of periphraxy, and tlie point
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114.] VHBIB NUMBBB. 137
or the Una in which they meet is • poinfc or line of eqailibrimn

of the nth degree.
When C heoomes equal to Fi the positive region is rednoed to
the eleetrified point or oondnetor of highest potential, and has
therefore lost all its periphraxy. Hence, if each point or line of
equilibrium counts for one, two, or n according to it« deg^ê, the
number so made up l)y the points or lines now considered will
be one loss than the number of negatively electrified bodies.
There are other points or lines of et|uilibrium which occur where
the positive reo-ions become se])arated from each other, and the
negative region acquires }»eri])hraxy. The num})er of these, reck-
oned according- to their degrees, is one less than the number of
positively electrified bodies.
If we call a point or line of equilibrium positive when it is the
meeting-pkce of two or mora positive regions, and negative when
the regions which unite there an negative, then, if thera ara p
bodies positively and n bodies negatively electrified, the of mm
the degrees of the positive points and lines of equilibriom will be
p—\t and that of the negative ones » 1
Bat, besides this definite number of points and lines of equi-

librium arising firom the junction of di£fei«nt regions, theromay
be others, of which we can only affirm that their number must be
even. For if, as the native region expands, it meets itself, it
becomes a cyclic region, and it may acquire, by repeatedly meeting
itself^ any number of degrees of cydosis, each of which corresponds
to the point or Ime of equilibrium at which the cydosis was
eetabliflihed. As the negative region continues to expand till it
fills all space, it loses every degree of cydosis it has acquired, and
becomes at last acyclic. Hence there is a set of points or lines
of equilibrium at which c\closis is lost, and these are equal in
number of degrees to those at which it is acquired.
If the form of the electrified btxlies or conductors is arbitrary,
we can only assert that the number of these additional points or
lines is even, but if they are electrified points or spherical con-
ductors, thenumber arising in this way cannot exceed — 2),
where n number of bodies.
is the
114.] The potential close to any point F may be expanded in
the series
r= ro+i/i+//,+&c.;
where Hi, H^, &c. are homogeneous functions of y, ^, whose
dimensionB are 1, 2, &c. respectively.
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188 POINTS AND LINB8 OF EQUHiIBRIITIL [115.
Since the first derivatim of V vaniah at a point of eqiii]ibrinni>

= 0, if P be a point of equilibrium.
Let be the firat fonotion which does not vanish^ then dose to
the point P we may neglect all ionotione of higher degrees aa
compared with H^,
Now iTi s 0
ia the equation of a cone of the deg^ i, and this cone is the cone
of cloeeet contact with the equipotential snrftoe at 1*.
It appears, therefore, that the equipotential surface passing

through P has, at that pointy a conical point touched by a cone
of the second or of a higher degree.
If the point P is not on a line of equilibrium this cone
does not intersect itself^ but consists of i sheets or some smaller
number.
If the nodal line intersects itself, then the point P is on a line
of equilibrium^ and the equipotential surface through P cuts itself
in that line.
If there are intersections of the nodal line not on opposite points
of the sphere, then P is at the intersection of three or more lines
of equilibrium. For the equipotential aor&ce through P most cut
itself in each line of equilibrium.
116.] If two sheets of the same equipotential Burfiioe interaeot,
they must intersect at right angles.
For let the tangent to the line of intersection be taken aa the
axis of ^, then = 0. Also let the axis of be a tangent to
one of the sheets, then = 0. It follows from this, by Laplace's
equation, that =r 0^ or the azia of jr ia a tangent to the other

sheet.
This investigation assumes that is finite. If i/j vanishes, let
the tangent to the line of intersection be taken aa the axis of 2, and
let « as rooaB, andy = raind, then, ainoe
dr^ ^ r dr ^ d$^
'
the aolution of which eqoation in aaoending powera of r ia

rasro+i<ircoe(tf+a)+J,f«coa(2^+a,)+&c+i<,i'cca(t^+o,).
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THBIR PB0PEBTIB8. 139
At A point of equilibrium is zero. ^

If the first term that doee
not vaiiitb is that in r*, then
To = iîf'ooe (t0+oi)+tenn8 in higber powen ofr.
This gives i sheets of the ecjuiiwtential surface F= Fq, intersecting
at angles each eqnal to Z . This theorem was given by Bankine*.
It is only under certain conditions that a line of equilibrium can

exist ill free space, but there must be a
line of equilibrium on the
surface of a conductor whenever tlie electrification of the conductor
is positive in one portion and nc^tive in another.
In order that a conductor may be oppositely electrified in different
portions ofits surface, there must be in the field some places where
the potential is higher than that of the body and others where it is
lower. We must remember that at an infinite distanoe the potential

is zero.
Let ns beg^n with two condoctors electrified positively to the

same potential. There will be a point of equilibrium between the
two bodies. Let the potential of the first body be gradnally ndsed.
Hie point of eqnilibriam will approach the otJier body, and as the
process goes on it will ooindde with a point on its snr&oe. If the
• potential of the first body be now increased, the equipotential
sorfaoe round the first body which has the same potential as the
second body will cut the sur&ce of the second body at right angles
in a dosed curve, which is a line of equilibrium.
EanuJUiK^s Theorem,
116.1 ^ electrified body placed in a field of electric force' cannot
be in stable equilibrium.
First, let us suppose the electricity of the moveable body (//), and
also that of the system of surrounding bodies {B), to be fixed in
those bodies.
Let V be the potential at any point of the moveable body due to
the action of the surrounding- bodies {B), and let e be the electricity
on a small portion of the moveable body A surrounding this point.
Then the potential energy of // with respect to will be B
if s
when the summation is to be extended to every electrified portion
of A.
* * Saminary of the Properties of certain Strenm Lina,' Phil. Mag., Oct. 18M.
See also, Thomson and Tait'g Natural PhUomphif, § 780; and Rankine ami Stokes,
in th« Pnte, R. 8., 1867. p. 468 ; alio W. B. Smith, Pne, A. S. JBdm,, im-lO, p. 79.
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140 POINTS AND L1NB8 OF KQUILIBSIUM. [ll6.
Let a,b,c be the coordinates of any electrified port of A with

respect to axes fixed in J»and parallel to those of x, y, z. Let the
eoozdmates of the point fixed in the body through which these axes
pass be f , ii, f.
Let us suppose for the present that the body A is constrained to

move parallel to itself^ then the absolute ooordinates of the point
a, 6, e will be
The potential of the body A with respect to B may now be

expressed as the sum of a number of terms, in each of which V
is expressed in terms cia,h,c and and the sum of these
77, (j
terms is a fbnction of the quantities a, which are constant for

each point of the body, and of r), C> which vary when the body is
moved.
Since Lai)lace's equation is butisfied by each of these terms it is
satisfied by their sum, or

(P-M fPM d'^M _
"
di' dt}^ dC
Now let a small displacement be given to so that
d^sldtf dii^mir, d(^ndr;
dM.
then will be the increment of the potential of A with respect
to the surrounding system B,

If this be positiye, work will have to be done to increase and
tlu'ie will be a force

dM tending to diminish r and to restore A to
its former position, and for this displacement therefore the equi-
librium will be stable. If, on the other band, this quantity is
negative, the force will tend to increase and the equilibrium will
be unstable.
Now a sphere whose centre is the origin and whose
consider
radius is and so small that when the point fixed in the body
r,
lies within this sphere no part of the moveable body A can coincide
mth any part of the external system B, Then, since within the
sphere y'Jf s 0, the surface-integnd
// dr
taken over the surface of the sphere.
Hence, if at any part of the surface of the sphere

dM is positive,
there must be some other part of the surfiuie where tt is n^;ative^
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Il6.] BQUILIBBIUM ALWAYS UNSTABLE. 141
and if tiie body A be displaced in a direction in which is
negative, it will tend to move from its original position, and its
'
equilibrium is therefore necessarily unstable.

The body therefore is unstable even when constrained to move
parallel to itself, h forUori it is unstable when altogether free.
Now let us suppose that the body ^ is a conductor. We might
treat this as a case of equilibrium of a system of bodieti the move-
able dectridty being considered as part of that system, and we
might argue that as is unstable when deprived of so
tiie system
many degrees of freedom by the fixture of its electricity, it must
hfiHiori be unstable when this freedom is restored to it.
But we may consider this case in a more particular way, thus—
First, let tiie electrioity lie fixed in A, and let it move through
the small distance dr, Tlie Increment of the potential of A due to
...
this cause 18
. dM J
-y-ar,
ar
Next, let the electricity be allowed to move within // into its
position of equilibrium, which is always stable. Diirinof this motion
the potential will uecessarily be diminiihcd by a quantity which we
may call Cdr.
TIence the total increment of the potential when the electricity
is I'ree to move will be
and the force tending to bring A back towards its original position
wiUbe rfif
where Cis always positive.
Now we have shewn that is negative for certain direc-
tions off, hence when the electricity is free to move the instability
in these directions will be increased.
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CHAPTER VIL
FORldS OF TH£ EQUIPOTENTIAL SI7BFACES Al^D L12HE& OF
IITDUCTION IN SIIIPLB CASES,
117.] Wb have seen that the detenninatioii of the diBtribntion

of electricity on the eorftoe of eondnoton may be made to depend
on the solution of Laplace's equation
d^r d^r d^V
df dz^'
" ®*
being a function of a*, y, and r, which is always finite and con-
tinnoits, which vanishes at an infinite distance, and which hae
a given constant value at the surface of each conductor.
It is not in genenl poenble by known mathematical methoda
to solve this equation so as to fulfil arbitrarily given conditions,
but it is always possible to assign various fi>im8 to the function
F which shall satisfy the equation, and to determine in each case
the forms of the conducting surfiwies, so that the function V shall
be the true solution.
It appears, therefore, that what we should naturally call the
inverse problem of determining the forme of the conductors fiom
the potentialis more manageable than the direct problem of de-
termining the potential when the form of the conductors is given.

In &ct» every deotricBl problem of which we know the solution
has been eonrtructed by an inverse process. It la therefore of
great importance to the electrician that he should know what
results have been obtained in this way, since the only method by
which he can expect to solve a new problem is by reducing* it
to one of the cases in which a similar problem has been con-
structed by the inverse process.
This historical knowledg-e of results can be turned to account in
two ways. If we are required to devise an instrument for making

electrical measurements with the greatest accuracy, we may select
those forms for the elcL-trifiod surfaces which correspond to cases
of which we know the accurate solution. If, on the other hand,
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USB OF DIAQRAMS. 148
we ue raqaifed to estiimite what will be the eleetrificatioii of bodies

whoee forms are giyen, we may begin with some case in which one
of the eqoipotential snr&ces takes a form somewhat resembling the
given form^ and then by a tentative method we may modify the pro-
blem till it more nesrly corresponds to the given case. This method
is evidently very imperfect considered from a mathematical point
of view, but it is the only onewe have, and if we are not allowed
to choose our conditions, we can make only an approximate cal-
culation of the electrification. It appears, therefore, that what we
want is a knowledge of the forms of equipotential sor&ees and
lines of induction in as many different cases as we can collect
together and romcmher. In certain classes of cases, such as those
relating" to spheres, we may })ro('eed by mathematical methods. In
other eases wc cannot afi'ord to despise the huiiiMer method of
aetually (h-awinif tentative figures on paper, and selecting that
which appears least unlike the figure we re(iuirc.
This latter method I think may he of some use, even in cases in

which the exact solution has been obtained, for I find that an eye-
knowledr,'"e of the forms of the equipotential surfaces often leads to u
right selection of a mathematical method of solution.
I have therefore drawn several diagrams of systems of equipotent ial
snrfooes and lines of force, so that may make himself
the student
familiar with the forms of the lines. The methods by which such
diagrams may be drawn will be exphuned as we go on, as they
belong to questions of different kinds.
118.] In the first end of this volume we have the
figure at the
eqoipotential surfaces surrounding two points electrified with quan-
tities of electricity of the same kind and in the ratio of 20 to 5.
Here each point is surronnded by a system of eqoipotential

smr&ces which become more nearly spheres as they become smaller,
but none of them are accurately spheres. If two of these sorfiioes,
one sorronnding each sphere, be taken to represent the snr&ces
of two conducting bodies, nearly but not quite spherical, and if
these bodies be charged with the same kind of eleetricity, the
charges being as 4 to 1, then the diagram will represent the
equipotential snrfooes, provided we 6xi)unge all tiiose which are
drawn inside the two bodies. It appears from the diagram that
the action between the bodies will be the same as that between
two points luiving the same charges, these ]K)ints being not exactly
in the middle of the axis of each body, l)ut somewhat more remote
than the middle point from the other body.
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144 EQUIPOTBKTIAL SUBFACES 'L^^9'
The same diagram enables us to see what will be the distribution

of electricity (m one of the oval figôres, larger at one end than
the other, which surround both centres. Such a body, if electrified
with a charge 25 and free firom external influence, will have the
anxfiMse-densify greatest at the small end, less at the large end^
imd least in a circle somewhat nearer the smaller than the loxger end.
There is one equipotential soHaoe, indicated by a dotted line,
which consists of two lobes meeting at the conical point P. That
point is a point of eqnilibrinm, and the sox&oe-densilgr on a body
of the form of this surface would be zero at this point.
The lines of force in this case form two distinct systems, divided
firom one another by a surfiuse of the nxth degree, indicated by a
dotted line^ passing through the point of equilibrium, and some-
what resembling one sheet of the hyperboloid of two sheets.
This diagram may also be taken to represent the lines of force
and ef|iiii»otential surfaces belonging to two spheres of gravitating
matter whose masses are as 1 to 1
119.] In the second figure we have again two points whose

chargi's are as 4 to 1, but the one positive and the other negative.
In this case one of the equipotential surfaces, that, namely, corre-
sponding to potential zero, is a sphere. It is markwl in the diagram
by the dotted circle Q. The importance of this spherical surface
will be seen when we come to the theory of" Electrical Images.
We may see from this diagram that if two round bodies are
charged with opposite kinds of electricity they will attract each other
as much as two points having the same charges but placed some-
what nearer together than the middle points of the round bodies.
Here, again, one of the equipotential surfaces, indicated by a
dotted line, has two lobes^ an inner one surrounding the point whose
charge is 5 and an outer one surrounding both bodies, the two
lobes meeting in a conical point P which is a point of equilibrium.
If the Bur&ce of a conductor is of the form of the outer lobe, a
roundish body having, like an apple, a conical dimple at one end of
its axis, then, if this conductor be electrified, we shall be able to
determine the superficial density at any point. That at the bottom
of the dimple will be zero.
Surrounding this suifiuse we have others having a rounded
dimple which flattens and finally disappears in the equipotential
snifnce passuig through the point marked M,
The lines of force in this diagram form two systems divided by a
surfiice which passes through the point of equilibrium.
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121.] AND LIKBB OF INDUCTION 146
If we oonsider points on the axis on the fturther side of the p(nnt

Bf we find that the lesoltant force diminishes to the double point P,
whete it vanishes. It then ehanges sign, and reaches a maximum
at M, after which it continuallj Hi'mwialifltt.
This maadmum, however, is maximum relatively to other

only a
points on tilie axis, for if we dnw a surface perpendicular to the
axi8> If is a point of minimum force relatively to neighbouring
points on that suriaoe.
120.] Figure III represents the equipntential surfaces and lines
of force due to an electrified point whose charge is 10 placed at
J, and surrounded by a field of force, which, before the intro-
duction of the electrified point, was uniform iu direction and
magnitude at every part. In this case, those lines of force which
belong to A are contained wuthin a surface of revolution which
has an asymptotic cylinder, having its axis parallel to the un-
disturbed lines of force.
The equijx)tential each of them an asymptotic
surfaces have
plane. One by a dotted line, has a conical
of them, indicated
point and a ]ol)e surrounding the point A. Those below this surface
have one she«t with a depression near the axis. Those above have
a dosed portion sunonn^ng A and a separate sheet with a slight
depression near the axis.
If of the snrlaces below A as the snr&ce of a con-
we take one
ductor,and another a long way below A as the surface of another
conductor at a different potential, the system of lines and surfaces
between the two conductors vrill indicate the distribution of electric
force. If tiie lower conductor is very fiff firom A its surfiMe will
be very nearly plane, so that we have here the solution of the
distribution of electricity on two sur&ces, both of them nearly
plane and parallel to each other^ except that the upper one has
a protuberance near its middle pointy which is more or less pro-
minent according to the particular equipotential line we choose for
the surfiice.
121.] Figure IV represents the equipotential snr&ces and lines

of force due to three electrified points A, B and C, the charge of A
being 15 units of pontive electricity^ that of ^ 12 units of negative
electricity, and that of C 20 units of positive electricity. These
points are placed in one straight line, so that
AB =9, BC = IG, AC = 25.
In this case, the surface for which the potential is unity consists
of two spheres whose centres are A and C and their radii 15 and 20.
VOL. I. L
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146 SQUIFOTSNTUL SURFACES [122.
These spheres intersect in the circle which cuts the plane of the
paper in D and 7/, so that B is the centre of this circle and its
radius is 1 2. This circle is an example of a line of equilibrium, for '
the resultaat force vanishes at every point of this line.

If we suppose the sphere whose centre is ^ to be a conductor
with a charge of 3 units of positive deotriidtjr, and placed under
the influence of 20 units of positive electricity at the state of
the case will be represented by the diagram if we leave out all the
lines within the sphere A, The part of this spherical surfitoe within
the small eirde DJ/ will be negatively electrified by the influence
of C All the rest of the sphere will be positively electrified, and
the small cirde DI/ itself will bea line of no electrification.
We may also consider the diagram to represent the electrification
of the sphere whose centre is C, charged with 8 units of positive
electricity, and influenced by 15 units of positive electricity placed
at A,
The diagram may also be taken to represent the case of a con-
ductor wliose surlace consists of the larger segments of the two
spheres meeting in DJ/, charged with 23 units of positive elec-
tricity.
We shall return to the consideration of this diagram as an

illustration of Thomson's Ihcurif uf Eiecfncal linages. See Art. 1G8.
122.] I am anxious that these diagrams should be studied as
illustrations of the language <if Faraday in speaking ol" '
lines of
force,' the '
forces of an eleetiified i)ody,' &c.
In strict niatlieinatieal language the word Force 18 used to signify
the supposed cause of the tendency which a material body is found
to have towards alteration in its state of rest or motion. It is
indifierentwhether we speak of this observed tendency or of its
immediate cause, since the cause is simply inferred from the effect,
and has no other evidence to support it.
Since, however, wc are ourselves in the practice of directing the
motion of our own bodies, and of moving other things in this way,
we have acquired a copious store of remembered sensations relatai^
and therefore our ideas of force are connected in
to these actions,
our minds with ideas of conscious power, of exertion^ and of fatigue,
and of overcoming or yielding to pressure. These idess^ vriiich give
a colouring and vividness to the purely abstract idea of foroe, do
not in mathematically trained minds lesul to any practical error.
But in the vulgar laoguage of the time when dynamical science
was unknown, all the words relating to exertion, such as ibrce.
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*
123.] AND LINBS OF INBUOTIOK. 147
eneigy, power, ftc., were oonfonnded with each other, thongh some
of the eehoolmeD endeaTomed to intjrodQoe a greater preeinon into
their language.
The and popularization of correct dynamical ideas
ctdtivation
since the time of Galileo and Newton has effected an immense
change in the language and ideas of common life, but it is only
withhi recent times, and in consequence of the increasing imr
portance of machinery, that the ideas of force> energy, and power
haYe become aoonrately distinguished firom each other. Very few,
however, even of scientific men, are careful to observe these dis-
tinctions ; hence we often hear of the force of a cannon-ball wlion
either its energy or its momentum is meant, and of the force ol" un
electrificnl body when the quantity of its electrification is meant.
Now electri(?ity in a body is measured, according
the quantity of
to Faraday's ideas, by the number of lines of force, or rather of
induction, which proceed from it. These lines of force mu^t all
terminate somewhere, either on bodies in the neighbourhood, or on
the walls and roof of the room, or on the earth, or on the lieavenly
bodies, and wherever they terminate there is a quantity of elec-
tricity exactly equal and opposite to thaton the part of the body
from which they proceeded. By examining the diagrams this will
be seen to be the case. There is therefore no contradiction between
Faraday's views and the mathematical results of the old theory,
butj ou the contrary, the idea of lines of force throws great light
on these results, and seems to afford the means of rising by a con-
tinuous process from the somewhat rii^îd conceptions of the old
theoxy to noti(ms which may be capable of greater expansion, so
as to provide room for the increase of our knowledge by further
researches.
128.3 These diagrams are constructed in the following manner

First, take the case of a single centre of force, a small electrified
E
body with a charge The potential at a distance r is T as —
E
hence, if we make r=: -y ^ytQ shall find ;-, the radius of the sphere
for which the potential is T. If we now give to V the values.

1^ 2, 3, and draw the corresponding spheres, we dball obtain
a series of equipotential surfiuses, the potentials corresponding to
which are measured by the natural numbers. The sections of tiiese
spheres by a plane passing through their common centre will be
ctveles, which we may mark with the number denoting the potential
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123.] AND LINB8 OF INDUCTION. 149
a ooneBpondiiig aeries of values of 0, and if ^ be an in^ger, the

number of corresponding lines of force, including the axis, will be
equal to JB.
We have therefore a method of drawing lines of force so that

the charge of any centre is indicated by the number of lines which
oonyerge to it» and the induction througli any surfiu»e out otf in the
way described is measured by the number of lines of force which
pass through it. The dotted straight lines on the left hand side
of Fig. 6 represent the lines of force due to each of two electrified
points whoso charges are 10 and —10 respectively.
If there are two centres of force on the axis of the figure we
may draw the lines of force for each axis corresponding to values
of ^, and and then, by drawing lines through the consecutive
4*2,
which the value of ^'i + ^'j, is the

intersections of these lines, for
same, we may find the lines of force due to both centres, and in
the same way we may combine any two systems of lines of force
which are symmetrically situated about the same axis. Tlie con-
tinuous curves on the loft liand side of Fig. 0 represent the lines
of force due to the two electriiied jjoints acting at once.
After the eijuipotential surfaces and lines of force have been
constructed by this method the accuracy of the drawing may be
tested by observing whether the two systems of lines are every-
where orthogonal^ and whether the distance between consecutive
equpotential surfaces is to the distance between consecutive lines
of force as half the distance from the axis is to the assumed unit of
length.
In the case of any such system of finite dimensions the line of
forcewhose index number is ^ has an asymptote which passes
through the centre of gravity of the system, and is inclined to the
axis at an angle whose cosine is 1— 2 vr, where £ is the total
electrification of the system, provided ^ is less than £, Lines of

force whose index is greater than E are finite lines.
The lines of force corresponding to a field of uniform force parallel
to the axis are lines parallel to the axis, the distances from the
axis being the square roots of an arithmetical series.
The theory of equipotential sur&ces and lines of force in two
dimensions wiU be given when we come to the theory of conjugate
functions*.
• Be« a paper On the Flow of Eleotrioitj in Gondnciiqg SoiCmm,'

'
W. &.
Ehnlth,Proc R. 8. Edin., 1869-70, p. 79.
CHAPTER YIII
SIMPLE CASES OF ELECTRIFICATION.
7W Parallel Planet.
124.1 Wc shall consider, in the first place, two parallel plane

conducting" surfaces of infinite extent, at a distance c from each
other, maintained respectively at potentials A and B.
It is manifest that in this case the potential V will be a function
of the distance s from the plane A, and will be the same Ibr all
points of any parallel plane between A and B, except near the
boundaries of the electrified surfaces, which by the supposition
are at an infinitely great distance from the point considered.
Hence, Laplace's equation becomes reduced to
the integral of which is
and since when ^ s 0, V sÂ, and when zê, B,
Yor all ]>()ints ht'tween the planes, the resultant electrical force
is normal to the plaues, and its magnitude is
In the substance of the conductors themselves, =s 0. Hence

the distribution of electricity on the first plane has a surface-
= A^B
density where
4iro- == i2 •
e
On the other surface, where the potential is B^ the surfaoe-
density <r' will be equal and opposite to o-, and
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124-1 SIMPLE CA8BS. PARALLEL PLANES. 151
Let us next consider a portion of the first snrface whose ares

is S, taken so that no part of S is near the boimdary of the
snrface.
The quantity of electricity on this surface is = *S<r, and, by
Art. 70, tbo force acting on every unit of electricity is ^ bo that
the \vh( il(> force acting on the area and attracting it towards
the other plane, is
" 8 77 Sit
Here the attraction is expressed in terms of the area S, the

difTcrence (>f potentials of the two surfaces [A — B], and the distance
between them c. The attraction^ expressed in terms of the charge
E, on the area S, ia o„
The electrical emergf due to the distribation of electridtjr on the

area 8^ and that on an area 8' on the snrfiuse by projecting B dêd
i9 on the surfiMse ^ by a system of lines of force, which in this case
are normals to the planes, is
_,f8 U-B)^.
)
The first of these expressions is the general expression of elec-

trical energy.
The second gives the energy in terms of the 'area, the distance,
and the difference of potentials.
The third gives it in terms of the resultant force and the
volnme Sc included between the areas and S', and shews that theiS'
energy' in unit of volume is p where 8 Try; = Ji-.

The attraction between the planes is /jS, or in other words, there
is an electrical tension (or negative pressure) equal to p on every
unit of area.
Tlie fourth expression g-ives the energy in terms of the charge.
The fifth shews that the electrical encrt>y is cipial to the work
which would be done by Ihe electric force if the two surfaces were
to be bronnpht together, moving parallel to themselves, with their
electric charges constant.
152 SIliPLS CASES. [125.
To express the charge in terms of the did'erence of poteutialSj

we have 1 s
The coefficient
^8= 1
^ represents the charge due to a differ-
ence of potentials equal to unity. This coefficient is called the
CSapacity of the eoi&oe 8, doe to its position lelAtiTely to the
opposite vur&ce.
Let QB now sappoee that the medium between the two surfaces
IB no longer air bat some other dieleetrie sabstanoe whose specifio
indnotiTe eupudty is K, then the charge due to a giTon diflbrence
of potentials will be K
times as great as when the dielectric is air,
The total energy will be
The force between the surfaces will be
Sir c*
Hence the force between two sorfiuies kept at q^ven potentials

varies directly as the specific capacity of the dielectric, but the
force between two sur&ces charged with given quantities of elec^
tricitj Taries inversely as K,
Two ConeetUric Spherical Surfaoet.
125.3 Let two oonoentric spherical swffiioes of radii a and of

which d is the greater, be maintained at potentials A and B
respectively, then it is manifest that the potential Fis a function
of f the distance from the centre. In this case, Laplace's equation
becomes d^F 2 dF ^
The integral of this is

-1
r
and tlic condition that /'= A when r = a, and / = when r ^

gives for the space between the spherical siu-iaces,
125*] OOKCBNTRIC SPHBRICAL SmiPACBS. 153
y. Aa—Bb A'-JB J
j.^ ir^ A-B r
If o-j, cr^ are the surface-densities on the opposed surfaces of a

solid sphere of radius a, and a spherical hollow of radius ^, then
_ 1 A-B _ 1 B-A
If Ml and JS^ be the whole efaarges of electricity on these sorfium.
The capadty of the enclosed sphere is therefore -
If the outer surface of the sliell be also spherical and of nulius c,
then, if there arc no other conductors in the neighbourhood, the

charge on the outer surface is
= Be.
Hence the whole ehaige on the inner epheie is
and that of the oater

E^-\E^^-^^\Ji-A)->rBc,
If we put dsoo, we hsnre the caae of a sphere in an infinite

space. The electric capacity of sneh a sphere is a, or it is nu-
merically equal to its radius.
The electric tension on the inner sphere per unit of area is
The resultant of this tension oTor a hemisphere is 9a*p =F

normal to the base of the hemisphere^ and if this is halanoed by a
snrfaoe tension exerted across the cirenlar hoondaiy of the hemi-
sphere, the tension on unit of length being T, we have
F= 2iTaT.
16ira (*-«)•
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164 SIMPLE CASES. [X26.
If a spherical soap bobble ie electrified to a potential A, ihea, if
its radius is a, the charge wiU be Aa, and the sarfiMie-densify

wiU be •
_ JL ii
4ir a
The resultant electrical force just outside tlic surface will be 4ir(r,
and inside the bubble it is zero, so that by Art. 70 the electrical
force on unit of area of the surface will be 2ir<r*, acting outwards.

Hence the elect rification will diminish the pressure of the air
within the bubble by 2«aS or
But it may be shewn that if T is the tension which the liquid

film exerts across a line of unit length, then the pressure ficom
T
witiiin required to keep the bubble from oollapsing ie 2 - . If the
electrical force is just sufficient to keep the bubble in equilibrium

when the air within aud without is at the same pressure
A^ = IQitaT.
Ttoo InfiniU Coaxal CjÛndrie 8tufac&i.
126.] Let the radius of the outer surfiKse of a conducting cylinder

be a, and let the radius of the inner snrfiice of a hollow cylinder,
having the same axis with the first, be Let their potentials
be A and 7? respectively. Then, since tlie potential F is in this
case a I'u notion of r, the distance from the axis^ Laplace's equation
liccomes
whence V =. C^+C^logr.
Since A when r s a, and V when r =
log-
If <Tj,
0-ji
are the surface-densities on the inner and oater
surfaces,
4irgx = A-^B
a log-
^
»
^
4«"«j —
= BÂ
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127.] COAXAL CTLINDSB8. 155
If and are the obaiges on a porti<m of the two cylinden of

length meamiTed along the axie,
loff-
The capacity of a leng^ I of the interior cylinder is therefore
If the space between the cylinders is occupied hy a dielectric of

specific capacity K instead of air, then the capacity of the inner
cylinder is
^
IK _
The energy of the electrical distribution on the part of the infinite

cylinder which we have considered is
Fig. 6.
137.3 there be two hollow cylindric oondncton A and B,

Fig. 6, of indefinite lengthy having the axis of » fn their common
axis, one on the pontive and the other on the negative side of the
origin, and separated by a short interval near the origin of co-
ordinates.
Let a hollow cylinder C of length 2l be placed with its middle
point at a distance » on the positive side of the origin^ so as to
extend into both the hollow cylinders.
Let the potential of the positive hollow cylinder be A, that of
the negative one and that of the internal one C, and let ns put
a for tiie capacity per unit of length of C with respect to A^ and
/3 for the same quantity with respect to 3.
The capacities of the parts of the cylinders near the origin and
near the ends of tlio inner cylinder will not he affected by the
value of provided a considerable length of the inner cylinder
enters each of the hollow cylinders. Near the ends of the hollow
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166 SIMPLE CASES.
cylinders, and near the ends of the inner cylinder, there will be
distributions of electricity which we are not yet able to calculate,
but the distribution near the origin will not be altered by the
motion of the inner cylinder provided neither of its ends comes
near the origin, and the distributions at the ends of the inner
cylinder willmove with it, so that the only effect of the motion
will he to increase or diminish the length of those ports of the
inner cylinder where the distribution is similar to that on an in-
finite cylinder.
Hence the whole energy of the system will be, so &r as it depends
on
\a{l^-x)i,C-Af-\-^^{l-x){fi-B)' + quantities
independent of x ;
and the resultant force parallel to the axis of the cylinders will bo
X= = 4«(C-4«-i/S(<7-^.
If the cylinders A and B are of equal section, o = iS^ A&d
X = a{BÂ) ((7-4U-|-^)).
It appears, therefore, that there is a constant force acting on
the inner cylinder tending to draw it into that one of the outer
cylinders firom which its potential differs most.
If (7 be numerically huge and A-^B comparatively small, then
tiie force is approximately X = o (J?— J) C ;
so that the difference of the potentials of the two cylindci-s can be

measured if we can measure X, and the delicacy of the measurement
will be increased by raising C, the potential of the inner cylinder.
This principle in a modified form
is adopted in Thomaon's
Quadrant Klectrometer, Art. 219.

The same arrangement of three cylinders may be used as a
measnxe of capacity by connectincf 7? and C. If the potential of
A is zero, and that of B and C is }\ then the quantity of electricity
on ^ wiU be ^, « (/+»)) T;
80 that by moving (7 to the right till » becomes the capacity of
the cylinder C becomes increased by the definite quantity af, where
1
a and b being the radii of the opposed oylindric surfaces.
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CHAPTER IX.
SPHBBICAL HASMOKICS.
Oti Singular Foinii at which the Fotential becomes Infinile,
128.] We
have already shewn that the potential due to a
quantity of electricity e, condensed at a point whose coordinates
are (a, c), is
wliere r is the distaiiee from tlie point (</, c) to the point (a?, ^, r)»
and V is tlie putential at the point {x, z).
At the point {a, It, c) the j^tential and all its derivatives become
infinite, hut at eveiy other point they are finite and contiDUOUS,
and the second derivatives of F satisfy Laplace's equation.
Hence, the value of as given by equation (1), may be the
actual value of the potential in the space outside a closed surface
surroundincir the point (a, b, c), but we cannot, except for purely
mathematical purposes, suppose this form of the function to hold
up to and at the point («, 6, c) itself. For the resultant force close
to the point would be infinite, a condition which would necessitate
a discharge through the dielectric siirronnding the point, and
besides this would require an infinite expenditure of work to
it
charge a point with a finite quantify of electricity.

We shall call a point of this kind an infinite point of degree zero.
The potential and all its derivatives at such a point are infinite,
but the prodact of the potential and the distance from the point
is ultimately a finite quantity e when the distance is diminished
without lunit. This quantity e is called the ekarye of the infinite
point.
Tlus may be shewn thus. If P
be the potential due to otJier
electrified bodies, then near the point P
is eveiywhere finite, and
the whole potential is

F s Ph— ^ ^
f
whence Fr = F'r-^-e.
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158 SPUJS&ICAL UAfiMONlCS. [X29
WlitMi r is indcfioitely diminished V remains finite, so that

ultiinutely Yr = e.
129. J There are other kinds of singular points, the properties of

which we shall now inTestigate. but, before doing so, we most define
some expressions which we shall find usefol in emancipatiiig our
ideas from the thraldom of systems of coordinates.
An axi% is any definite direction in space. We may siqppose
it defined in Cartesian oooidinates bj its three direction-cosines
If fi, or, better still, we majr suppose a mark made on the sarfiê
of a sphere where the radius drawn/rosi the centre in the direction
of the axis meets the surface. We may call this point the Pole
of the axis. An axis has therefore one pole only, not two.
If through any point Xt^yZ a plane he drawn perpendienlar to
the axis, the perpendicolar from the origin on the plane is
jfi = Ix-^m^ -k-nz, (2)
The operation d d d d ^.
is called Differentiation with respect to an axis k whose direction-

cosines are /, n.
DifPerent axes are distmguished by different suffixes.
The cosine of the angle between the vector t and any axis h^
is denoted by A|, and the vector resolved in the directiop of the
Axis by where
•
A^r s /,«+si<jr+«<« - JB<. (4)
The cosine of the angle between two axes and is denoted by
fî where = lJj^mimj-\^niHj, (5)
From these definitions it is evident that
(6)
(7)
~~ (8)
dAj r
Now let us suppose tliat the potential at the point (i^,

y, *) due
to a singular point of any de<;^ree plneed at the origin is
If sucli a point be placed at the extremity of the axis A, the

potential at (iH,
y, z) will be
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INFINITE POINTS. 159
and if a point in all respects equal and of opposite sign be placed

at the origin^ the potential due to the pair of points will be
= — MA ^ F{set z) + tenns oontaining A'.

If we now diminish h and increase M without limit, their product
Mh remaining constant and equal to M', the ultimate value of the
potential of the pair of points will be
r=-M'-^^/{x,y,z). (9)
If /{'Fiy,z) satisfies Laplace's equation, then V, which is the

two functions, each of which separately satisfies the
difference of
equation,must itself satisfy it.
If we begin with an infinite point of deg^ zeiOj for which
r, = j/o^' (10)
we shall get for a point of the first degree
(„)
A point of the first d^ree may be supposed to consist of two

points of degree zero, having equal and opposite charges ^f^^ and
— ifg, and placed at the extremities of the axis A» The length
of the axis is then supposed to diminish and the magnitude of the
charges to increase, 80 that their product MfÂ is always equal to

Ml. The ultimate result of this process when the two points
ooineide is a point of the first degree, whose moment is Mi and
wBose axis is A^. A

point of the first degree may therefore be
called a Double point.
By plaomg two equal and opposite points of the first degree at
the extremities of the second axis ^, and making Mik^ = we
get by tlie same process a point of the second degree whose potential
dAi dh^ r
= ir, '*'V-''" . (12)

160 6PHBBICAL HABHONICa 1^3^'
We may call a point of the second degree a Cltiadruple p.)iiit>

because it is oonstmcted by makiiig four points approach eaoh
other. It has two axes, Ai and 4,, and a moment ifj. The du
reetiont of these two axes and the magnitmde of the moment com-
pletely define the nature of the point.
180.] Let OS now consider an infinite point of degree i haying
t axesj each of which is defined by a mark on a sphere or by two
angular coordinates^ and having also its moment Jf|, so that it is
defined by 2 1 independent quantities. Its potential is obtained

by diflbientiating 1'^ with respect to the f axes in snceflSPton, so
that it may be written
The result of the operation is of the form
r,m\i_M,XL,, (U)
where which is called the Surface Harmonic, is a function of the

I cosine;^, Aj ... A| of the angles between r and the / axes, and of the
1) cosines^ &c. of the angles between the dificrcnt axes

themselves. In what follows we shall suppose the moment Mi unity.
Every term of 1« consists of products of these cosines of the form
in which there are 9 cosines of angles between two axes, and i—29
cosines of angles between the axes and the radius vector. As each
axis is introduced by one of the i processes of differentiation, the
symbol of that axis must occur ouee and only once among the
suffixes of these cosines.
Hence in every h;uch product of cosiues all the indices occur
once, and none is repeated.
The number of difft'rent products of s cosines with double suffixes^
and i-—29 cosines with single suQixes, is

'
t
«. • o • (15)
For if we take any one of the N difiêrent terms we can form

from it 2' arrangements by altering the order of the suffixes of the
cosines with double suffixes. From any one of these, again, we
can form arrangements by altering the order of these cosines,
and from any one of these we can fonn »-2< arrangements by
altering the order of the cosines with single suffixes. Hence, with-
out altering the value of the term we may write it in 2*1/ •-2»
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IJO.] TRIOONOMSTBICAL BXPBES8I0N. 161
different ways, and if we do so to all the terms, we shall obtain

the whole permutations of i symbols, the number of which is
Let the sum of all terms of this kind be written in the ab-
breviated form 2 (K*^^
If we wish to express that a i)articular symbol J occurs among
the \'s only, or amontic the n's only, we write it as a sullix to the X
or the /A. Thus the eiûation
mx^-î,') = i;(A/-*>')+2;(x*-«>/) (16)
expresses that the whole system of terms may be divided into two
portions, in one of which the symhoiy ocean among the direetion-
cosines of the xadins vector, and in the other among the cosines
of the angles between the axes.
Let ns now assume that up to a certain value of t
+^^S(X*-«V)+&o. (17)
This is evidently troe when t = 1 and when t ss2. We shall shew

that if it is true for i it is true for i + 1* We may write the series
r,= 5{^^2(v-''v)}, (18)
where 8 indicates a summation in which all values of s not greater

than 1 1 are to be taken.
Multiplying by \j_r-^*'*'^^, and remembering that = rA<, we
obtain by (14), for the value of the solid harmonic of negative
degree, and moment unify,
^= ll-»{^..f«-«*-> SCy-^-M-)}. (19)
Ditlerentiating witli resptn t to a new axis whose symbol is
we should obtain with its si<^ reveriêd,

J,
-^m = 11^ {A.(2*-2»-l)H-"-3S(i»;-2'*V')

+k,.,f«-«*-i 2 (y-*-V/**)}. (20)
It* we wish to obtain the terms containing .v eosines with double
suihxes we must dimiuisli s by unity in the second term, and we find
- -i±S [^^(a«- 2»- 1) s (a'-"* V')

+ 2 (/»•-»••/«/)]} (21)
If we now make
^,,,(2*-2f-l) = A,,_, =-(t+l)^,+,., (22)
then = \i±lS {Aî^r^'-^^'^'^-' 2 {p*^'''^>')h (23)
and this value of f^+i is the same as that obtained by changing t
VOL. I. M
L yi. .- jd by Google
162 8PHEBICAL HARMONIOS,
into t+ 1 in the assnmed expression^ equation (19), for ^. Hence

the asBomed form of ^, in equation (19), if tnie for any value of t,
is true for the next higher yalne.
To find the value of put « s= 0 in equation (22), and we find
and therefore, since Ai q is unity,
^•0 = 2»
\T I
A *
^^^^
and from this we obtain, by equation (22), for the general value of
the coefficient 2i-2s
and finally, the value of the trigonometrical expression for }\ is
This is the most general expression for Ihe spherical surfiuse-
harmonie of d^^ree i. If i points on a sphere are given, then, if any

other point P is taken on the sphere, the value of 1^ for the point
P is a function of the i distance's of from the / ]X)ints, and of the
\ / (/—I) distances of the i points from each other. Tlies<' / points
may ])e called the Poles of the spherical harmonic. Each fxtle
may be defined by two anirnlar coordinnU*s, so that the spherical

harmonic of degree i has 2 1 independent constants, exclusive of its
moment, Mf.
131.] The theory of sidierical harmonics was first o-ivcii by
Laplace in the third lx)ok of his Mtranique Cdeaic. The harmonics
themselves are therefore often called Laplace's Coeilicicnts.
They have generally been expressed in terms of the ordinary
and 0, and contain 2 i + 1 arbitrary con-
spherical coordinates B
stants. Gauss appears* to have had the idea of the harmonic
being determined by the position of its poles, but I have not met
with any development of this idea.
In numerical investigations I have often been perplexed on ac-
count of tiie apjiarent want of definiteness of the idea of a Laplace's
Coefficient or spherical harmonic. By conceiving it as derived by
the successive differentiation of ^ with respect to % axes, and as
expressed in terms of the positions of its t poles on a sphere, I
• Gauss. WVjvte. bd.v. h. 361.
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I32.j STlflUBTBICAL 8TSTEM. 163
baTe made the conception of the general spherical harmonic of any

iDtegml degree perfectly definite to myself, and I hope also to those
who may have felt the yagoenen of some other forms of the ex-
pression.
When the poles are given, the value of the harmonic for a given
point on the sphere is a perfectly definite numerical qnantily.
When the foim of the function^ however, is given, it is by no
means so easy to find the poles except for harmoDics of the first
and second degrees and for particalar cases of the higher degrees.
Henoe, for many purposes it is desirable to express the harmonic
as the sum of a number of other harmonics, each of which has its
axes disposed in a symmetrical manner.
Sjfmmetrical Si/stem.
132,"] The particular forms of harmonies to whieh it is usual to

refer all others are deduced from the general harmonic by placing
2—0- of the poles at one point, which we shall call the Positive Pole
of the sphere, and the remaining v poles at equal distances round
one half of the equator.
In this case Aj, A.^, A, ^ arc each of them equal to costf, and
Xi^tî ... A,- are of the form sin ooe(^— jS). We shall write ft for
cos $ and p for sin $.
Also the value of nj/ is unity if j and are both less tiian t tr, / —
zero when one is greater and the other less than this quantity,
and cos n when both are greater.
When all the poles are concentrated at the pole of the sphere,
the harmonic becomes a zonal harmonic for which <r = 0. As the
zonal harmonic is of great importance we shall reserve for it the
symbol Q|.
We may obtain its value either from the trigonometrical ex-
pression (27), or more directly by differentiation, thus
^' 1.2.3... » r 2^2t-iy 2.4.(2»-l)(2»-3)^ )
( |2i-2a , . )
It is often convenient to express Q. as a homonîMieons function of

cos 0 and sin 6, which we shall write /a and v respectively,
M 2
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164 BFUEBICAL HARUOKICS. [132.
= S.{(-l)- ^,.,,|^|^, M'-">'"}- (30)
In this expansion the coefficient of fx^ is unity^ and all the other
terms involve v. Hence at the pole, where fiz= 1 and 1^ = 0, Qi= 1.
It is shewn in treat isos t»ii Laplace's Coeflicients that is the
coefRcient of /i' in the expansion of (1 — -f
The other harmonies of the symmetrical system are most con-

veniently obtained hy the use of the imaginary coordinates given by
Thomson and Tait, Natural FAilusopA^, vol. i. p. 148,
(=zs+ J^y, r\^m-- V^^y. (31)
The opemtioii of diffeientiatmg with respect to o- axes in suo-
oession, whose directions make angles - with each other in the

plane of the equator^ may then be written
" (3«)
The siir&oe hannonio of degree i aad type o> is found by

diflferentiating
^ with respect to t axes, <r of which are at equal
intiTvals in the plane of the equator, while the remainin<»' i— <r

coincide with that of ^, multiplying the result by r*^^ and dividing
by Hence
Now f+ij»-8f»»'o<»(ff^+^ (38)
Henoe = 2 ^J'g^ ^J" oos «, (37)
where the factor 2 must be omitted when (7 = 0.
The quantity 3 ^ function of (7^ the value of which is given

in Thomson and Tait's Natural PAUawpAy, yoI. i. p. 149.
It may be deriyed from Qt hy the eqmition
where Qi is expressed as a function of h only.
s
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133*] SOLID HARMOKIGS OF P06ITIYB DEGREE. 165
Perfonning the differentiattons on Q| as given in equation

we obtain
X=
r^M
^
{
0' oi-> 1
'
~
i l2»-2»
~- ~~7^ — ,
o-M*-'-*"}.
. )
(39)
We may also express it as a homogeneoas Action of fi and v.
In this ezpresmon the coefficient of the fint term is unity, and

the others may be written down in order by the a])pUaati<m of
Laplace's equation.
The following' relations will be found useful in Electrodynamics.
They may be deduced at once from the expansion of
MC-c«=,^.'f =^»3:. (4.)
(42)
On Solid Harmcnict (^FoiiUve IkgrH.

183.] We have hitherto oonndered the spherical snrfiuse harmonic
7i as derived fiom the solid harmonic
This solid harmonic is a homogeneous function of the coordinates

of the negative degree — Ite values vanish at an infinite
distance and become infinite at the origin.
We now shew that to every such fonction there corresponds
shall
another which vanishes at the origin and has infinite values at an
infinite distance, and is the corresponding solid harmonic of positive
degree /.
A solid harmonic in general may he defined as a homogeneous

function of x, ^, and which satisfies Laplace's equation
Let iSTi be a homogeneous function of the degree t, such that

ffi^\±Myr^=zf^*^Ft. (43)
Then ^= (2f + l)r«-»«^+f»<+i
^=(2i + I)((8i-l)«'+f»)r«-»»r+2(ai+l).«->»^' + f«^'^.
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166 8PH£RICAL HARMONICS. [134
Hence
Now, since ^ is a homogeneous ftmction of negative degree » + 1*
The fint two terms therefore of the right hand member of

equaitioii (44) destroy each other^ and, since satisfies Laphu»*8
equation, the third term is zero, so that JJ| also satisfies LapUoe's
equation, and is therefore a solid harmonic of degree ».
We shall next shew that the value of Hf thus derived from is
of the most general form.

A homogeneous function of 0, ^, z of degree i oontains
i (»+!)(*+ 2)
terms. But
is a homogeneous ftmction of degree — 2, and therefore contains

^/(/— 1) terms, and the condition V'^/f^ = 0 requires that each of
these must vanish. There are therefore ^ t(t-> 1) equations between
the coefficients of the ^(i +!)(/ + 2) terms of the homogeneous
function, leaving 2f+l independent constants in the most general
form of H^.
But we have seen that I, has 2»-|-l independent constants,
therefore the value of ff^ is of the most general form.
Afiplieaiiou of Solid Harmonics to tike TKeory of "EUeinfied Spheres.

134.] The function /, satisiies the condition of vanishing at
intiiiitv, but does not satisfy the condition of being everywhere

finite, for it becomes infinite at tlie origin.
The function //^ satisfies the condition of being finite and con-
tinuous at finite distances from tlie origin, but does not satisfy the
condition of vanishing at an infinite distance.
But if we determine a closed surfoce from the equation
^=J3;, (46)
and make 1I^ the potential function within tiie closed surface and
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135.] ELBCTRIFISD 8PHSRI0AL SUBFACB, 167
fi iJie potential oatnde it, then by making the enrfiuse-deneify a
eatisfir the ohaiacteristio equation
we shall have a distribution of potential which satiatiee all the

conditions.
It is manifest that if // and V. are derived from the same valae
of the surface If^ =
be a spherical enriace, and the
^' will
eurfaoe-density will also be derived from the eame valne of 1^.
Let a be the ladins of the sphere, and let
E^Âf'Y^, f^^B-^* 4r=(7r,. (48)
Then at the surface of the sphere, where r = a,
and
, dV dH ^
-= _--s-.4vo';
dr dr
or 5= 4»(7;
whence we find Hi and ft In tenns of (7,
We have now obtained an electrified system in which the potential

is eveijrwhere finite and continnons. This qrstem consists of a
spherical surfiuse of ladius a, eleetrified so that the sorfiuse-densiiy
is eveiywhere (7J^, where C is some constant density and JTi is a
sorfaoe harmonic of degree i. The potential inside this sphere,
arising from this electrification, is eyerywhere iTp and the potential
outside the sphere is ^.
These values of the potential within and without the sphere
might have been obtained in any given case by direct integration,
but the labour would have been great and the result applicable only
to the particular caee.
135.] We shall next consider the action between a spherical
surface, rigidly electritied aceor(lin<>' to a spherical harmonic, and
an external elt-ttritied system wliich we shall call //'.
Let / be the potential at any point due to the system and

F| that due to the spherical surface whoee suriace-density is <r.
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168 SPHBBIOAL HABHONICS. [135.
Then, bj Green's theorem, the potential energy of E on the

electrified surface is eqoal to that of the electrified eorfiice on ^, or
FadS^^F^dE, (50)
where the first mt<?gration is to be extended over every element dS

of the surfiice of the sphere, and the summation S is to be extended
to every part dE of which the electrified system E is composed.
fiat the same potential function may be produced by means
of a combination of 2* electrified points in the manner already
described. Let us theiefore find the potential energy of E on
such a compound point.
If Jl^ is the chaige of a single point of degree zero, thai M^F
is the potential energy of Fon that point.
If there are two sooh points, a positive and a negative one, at
the positive and negative ends of a line ii, then the potential energy
of E on the double point will be
and when increases and ii| diminishes indefinitely^ but so that
the value of the potential energy will be for a point of the first d^ree
ILf
Similarl} for a point of degree i the potential energy with respect

to £ will be ^< ^
Mi
'dAidAt..,dA^
This is E upon the singular

the value of the potential energy of
point of d^free That of the singular point on B is ^F-dE, and,
»,
by Green's theorem, these are equal. Hence, by equation (50j,
If (T s CTi where C is a constant quantity, then, by equations

(49) and (14),
^
M,^~ ^.
(61)
Hence, if T is any potential function whatever which satisfies

Lapkce^s equation within the spherical surface of radius a, then the
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137 ] SlTBFiLClMNTEOBAL OF THZ PRODUCT OF HABMONICS. 169
integral of FTtdS, extended over every element dSi of the sorface

of a sphere of radius a, is given by the equation
Jj
where the diflforentiations of V are taken witii respect to the axes
of the harmonic and the valae of the differential coe£Seient is
that at the centre of the sphere.
136.] Let us now suppose T is a
that solid harmonic of positive
degrae / of the form w
r=^r,. (63)
At the spherical sorfiKsei r s a, the valae of T is the surfiioe har-

monic iy, and equation (52) becomes
jjr,r,d8=jj~^^^^r—^* (64)
where the value of the differential coefficient is that at the centre

of the sphere.
When t is numerically different from J, the surface-integral of
the product J) Tj vanishes. For, when i is less than y, the result
of the differentiation in the second member of (54) is a homogeneous
function of dr, jr, and s, of degree y — t, the value of which at the
centre of the sphere is zero. If i is equal to j the result is a constant,
the value of which will be determined in the next article. If the
diflforentiation is carried further, the result is zero. Hence the
surfiuse-integial vanishes when t is greater than^.
187.] The most important case is that in whidi the harmonic
rJYj is differentiated with respect to t new axes in succession, the
numerical value of being the same as tliat of /, but the directions
of the axes being in general different. The final result in this case
is a constant quantity, each term being' the product of i cosines of

angles between tlie different axes taken in pairs. The general
form of such a product may be written symbolically
which indicates that there are « cosines of angles between pairs of

axes of the first system and « between axes of the second system,
the remaining {—28 cosines being between axes one of which
belongs to the first and the other to the second system.
In e4ich product the sufiix of every one of the 2i axes occurs
once, and once only.
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170 SPHERICAL HABMOKIGS. [138.
The number of different products for a given value of 9 is
The final result is easily obtained by the successive diffbren-

tiation of
OJi = « {( - ' )•
•
i7
Differentiating this 1 times in succession with respect to the new
axes, so as to obtain any given combination of the axes in pairsi,
we find that in differentiating r*» with respect to # of the new axes,

which are to be combined with other axes of the new system, we
introduce the numerical factor 2«(2«— 2) ... 2, or 2*{^. In con-
tiiiuinj^- the (liireicntiatii)n the p's become couverted iuto fi's, but
110 numerical factor is introduced. Hence
a^^'-^^^ = jT*{(-')*^7^^(^-M>/n>'-^')}. (56)
Substituting this result in equation (5 1) we find for the value of

the surfiuie-integral of the product of two surface harmonics of the
same degree, taken over the surfiice of a sphere of radius a,
This quantity differs from zero only when the two harmonics are
of the same degree, and even in this case, when the distribution of
the axes of the one system bears a certain reUtion to the distribution
of the axes of the other, this integral vanishes. In this case, the
two harmonics are said to be conjugate to each other.
Ou (Joujujfote Harmonics.
188.] If one harmonic is given, the condition that a second

harmonic of the same degree may be conjugate to it is expressed
by equating the right hand side of equation (57) to aero.
If a third harmonic is to be found conjugate to both of these
there will be two equations which must be satisfied hy its 2>
variables.
If we go on constructing" new harmonics, each of which is con-
jugate to all the former hartiionics, the variables will be continually
more and more restricted, till at last the (2/+l)th harmonic will
have all its variables determined by the 2i equatioui>, which must

139-] CONJUGATE HARMONICS. 17l
bo satisfied in order that it may be conjugate to the 2t preceding

harmonics.
Hence a system of 2i+l harmonics of degree i may be con-
structed, each of whicli is conjugate to all the rest. Any other
harmonic of the same decree may ho exj^rcsscd as the sum of this
system of conju^te haiiuofiics each nuilti})lit'd l»y a coeflicicnt.
The system descrilnil in Art. 132, consisting of 2/-I-1 har-
monics symmetrical about a single axis, of wliieh the first is zonal,
the next /'—I pairs tesseral, and the last pair sect<»rial, is a j)ar-
ticular case system of 2/-I-1 harmonics, all of which are

of a
conjugjitc to each other. Sir W. Thomson has shewn how to
express the conditions that perfectly general harmonics,
each of which, however, is expressed as a linear function of the
2»+l harmonics of this symmetrical system, may be ooxyugate
to each other. These conditions consist of /(2/-f 1) linear equa-
tions connecting the (2>+l)^ coefficients which enter into the
expressions of the general harmonics in terms of the symmetrical
harmonics.
Professor Clifford has ako shewn how to form a conjugate system
of 2»-f- 1 sectorial harmonica having different poles.
Both these results were communicated to the British Association
in 1871.
189.3 £or Yj the zonal harmonic Qî we obtain a
remarlmble form of equation (57).
In this case aU the azee of the second system coincide with each
other.
The cosines of the form n^j will assume the form X where X is the
cosine of the angle between the common axis of Qj and an axis of
the first system.
The cosines of the form fxjj will all become equal to unity.
The number of combinations of # symbols, each of which is
distinguished by two out of i suffixes, no sufHx being repeated, is
!»
« o ; (58)
and when each combination is equal to unity this number represents
the sum of the products of the cosines /u,^^, or 2 (Mi/)*

The number of perinutations of the remaining 2« symbols of
the second set of axes taken aU together is «'-2» Hence | .
2(M./^') = i«j::??2x'-«'. (59)
Equation (57) therefore becomes, when Jj is the zonal harmonic.
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172 SPHBRICAL HARMONICS. [14O.
'•A"- (si'iKi î*->'»'
where J^^^) denotes the value of in equation (27) at the commoD

pole of all the axes of
140.] This result is a very important one in the theory of
spherioal harmonics, aa it leads to the determination of the form
of aeeriee of spherienl harmonics, which expresses a function having
any arhitrarily assigned value at each point of a spherioal jnirfaoe.-
For let ^ he the valae of the fiinotion at any given point of the
sphere, say at the centre of gravity of the elonent of surface dS^
and let be the zonal harmonic of de gree t whose pole is the point
P on the sphere, then the surface-integral
extended over the spherical surfiice will be a spherical harmonic

of degree t, because it is the sum of a number of zonal harmonics
whose poles are the various elements d8, each being multiplied by
FdS, Hence, if we make
we may expand F in the form
F^ ^ro+ii,ri+i5c.+4r<, (62)
or
-P=â \jj 3jjFQ,dS+ke.-\^{2i^ \)jjFQ,ds\. (63)
This the celebrated formula of Laplace for the expansion in

is
a of spherical harmonics of any quantity distributed over

series
the surfiice of a sphere. In making use of it we are supposed to
take a certain point P on the sphere as the pole of the zonal
harmonic Q^, and to find the snrfiuse-integral
FQ,dS
over the whole surface of the sphere.The result of this operation

when multiplied by 2i+ 1 gives the value of A^Ti at the point P,
and by making P travel over the surfkoe of the sphere the value of
Ai )\ at any other point may be found.
9
141.] SPHBBtCAL HABUOKIC AKALT8I8. 173
Bat A^T^ is a genend sur&oe harmonio of degree and we wish

to break it ap into the som of a series of maltiples of the 2i+ 1
conjugate harmonics of that degree.

Let be one of these conjugate harmonics of a particular type,
and let Si Pi he the part of AiVi belonging to this type.
We must first find rr
M= P^P^dS,
, ,
(64)
which may be done by means of equation (57), making the socoud

set of poles the same, each to each, as the first set.
We may tljen find the coefficient from the eiûation
For suppose F
expanded in terms of spherical harmonics, and let
Sjlj he any term of this expansion. Then^ if the degree of JJ is
diflferent from that of I(, or if, the degree being the same, is ^
eonjogate to the result of the surfiMse-integration is zero. Hence
the result of the sur&ce-integration is to select the coefficient of the
harmonic of the same type as J^.
The most remarkable example of the actual development of a
function in a series of spherical harmonics is the calculation by
Gauss of the harmonics of the first fonr degrees in the expansion
of the magnetic potential of the earthy as deduced from observaiaons
in various parts of the world.
He has determined the twenty-four coefficients of the three
conjugate harmonics uf the first deg-ree, the five of the second,
seven of the third, and nine of the fourth, all of tlie symmetrical
system. The raetliod of calculation is given in his General Thtori/
of Terrtstrial MaijnciiHm.
141.] When the harmonic 1\ Ijclonf^s to the symmetrical system
we may determine the surliu c-intcfi^ral of its square extended over
the sphere by the following method.
The value of i^ is, by equations (34) and (36),
= ziffV (^-'- ^"'^"^

^'"^di+o"'^
and l)y equations (33) and (54),
Performing the dilforentiations, we find that the only terms

which do not disappear are diose which contain jt^'. Hence
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174 SPHBRICAL HARMONICa [142.
Jj
except when s 0, in which case we have, bj equation (60),
jjm = (67)
These expressions give the vahie of the 8urlac('-inte<2;Tal of the

square of any surfaee hariDonie (»f the symmetrical system.
We may deduee from this tlie value of the integral of the square
of the function 3*^'^ given in Art. 1 32,
This value is i<lentieal with that g'iven by Thomson and Tait, and is
true without execption for the ease in which o- = 0.
142.] The spherical harmonics which 1 have described are those

of integral degrees. To enter on the consideration of harmonics
of fractional, irrational, or impossible degrees is l eynnd my jnirpose,
which is to give as clear an idea as I can of what these harmonics

are. I liave done so by referring the harmonic, not to a system
of polar coordinates of latitude and longitude, or to Cartesian
coordinates, but to a number of points on the sphere, which I
have called the Poles of the harmonic Whatever be the type
of a barmonic of the degree t it is always roathematicallj possible
,
to find t points on the sphere which are its poles. Hie actual
calculation of the position of these poles would in general involve
the solution of a system of 2> equations of the degree t. The
conception of the general harmonic, with its poles phused in any
manner on the sphere, is useful rather in fixing our ideas than in
making calculations. For the latter purpose it is more convenient
to consider the harmonic as the sum of 2»+ 1 conjugate harmonies
of selected types, and the ordinary symmetrical system, in which
polar coordinates are used, is the most convenient. In this system
the first the zonal harmonic Q,, in which all the axes
type is
coincide with the nxis of polar coordinates. The second type is

that in which i — 1 of the poles of the harmonic coincide at the pole
of the sphere, and the remaining one is on the eipialor at the origiii
of lonpfitude. In the thiixl type the remaining pole is at 90° of
longitude.
In the same way the type in which /
— <t poles coincide at the
pole of the sphere, and the remaining a are placed with their axes
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FIOUBBS OF 8FHBBICAL HABUONICS. 175
at equal intervals — round the equator, is tKe type 2 (r, if one of tbe
poles is at the origin of longitude, or the type 2 <r+ 1 if it is at
longitude
148.] It appears from equation (60) that it is always possible

to express a harmonic as the sum of a system of zonal harmonics
of the same degree, having their poles distributed over the surface
of the sphere. Hie simplification of this system, however, does not
appear easy. I have however, for the sake of exhibiting to the
eye some of the features of spherical harmonics, calculated the zonal
harmonics of the third and fourth degrees, and drawn, by the
method already described for tbe addition of functions, the equi-
potential lines on the sphere for barmonics which are the sums of
two zonal harmonics. See Figures VI to IX at the end of this
volume.
Fig". VI re})rosents the sum of two zonal harmonies of the tliird
degree whose axes are inclined 120' in the plane of the paper, and
the sum is the harmonic of the second type in which o- = 1, the axis
being" perpendicular to the paper.
In Fig-. VII the harmonic is also of the third degree, hut the
axes of the zonal harmonics of which it is tlie sum are inclined
90", and the result is not of any tyjx? of the symmetrical system.
One is a great circle, but the other two which are
of the nodal lines
intersected by it are not circles.
Fig. VIII represents the diiierence of two zonal harmonics of
the fourth degree whose axes are at right angles. The result is a
tesseral harmonic for which = I, <t s 2.
«'
Fig. IX represents the sum of the same zonal hannonics. The

result gives some notion of one type of the more general har-
monic of the fourth degree. In this type the nodal line on the
sphere consists of six ovals not intersecting each other. Within
these ovals the harmonic is positiTC, and in the sextuply connected
part of the spherical sur&oe which lies outside the ovals, the har-
monic is negative.
All these figures are orthogonal projections of the spherical
sur&oe.
I have also drawn in Fig. V a plane section through the axis
of a spheiCi to shew the equipotential surfaces and lines of force
due to a spherical surface electrified according to tbe values of a
spherical harmonic of the first degree.
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176 SPHEBIOAL HABMOVICS. [144.
Within the sphere the eqtiipoieiLtial surfaoes are equidistant

planes, and the lines of force are straight lines pantllel to the axis,
their distanoes from tlie axis hvina; as the square roots of the
natural numbers. The lines outside the sphere may be taken as a
representation of those which would be due to the earth's magnetism
if it were distributed according to the most simple type.
144.] It appears from equation (52), by maJdng t =s 0, that if

r satidks Laplace's equation throughout the space occupied by a
sphere of radius a, then the integral
jjVdS=^4.-na^y\, (09)
where the integral is taken oyer the surfiuse of the sphere, d8 bemg
an element of that sur&ee, and is the yalue of V at the centre
of the sphere. This theorem may he thus expressed.

The value of the potential at tiie centre of a sphere is the mean
value of the potential for all points of its surface, provided the
potential be due to an electrihed system, no part of which is within
the sj)h<Te.
It follows from this that if / satisfies Laplace's equation throug-h-
out a certain continuous region of space, and if, throughout a
however small, of that space, / is constant, it will
finite portion,
be constant throughout the whole continuous region.

If not, let the space throughout which the potential has a
constant value C he separated by a surlace S from the rest of
the region in which its values differ from C, then it will always
be possible to find a finite portion of space touching S and out-
side of it in which F is either everywhere greater or everywhere
less than C.
Now describe a sphere with its centre within S, and with part
of its sur&ce outside Iût in a region throughout which the value
of /' is everywhere greater or eveiywhere less than C,
Then the mean value of the potential over the surfiuse of the
sphere will be greater than its value at the centre in the first case
and less in the second, and therefore Laplace's equation cannot
be satisfied throughout the space occupied by the sphere, contrary
to our hypothesis. It follows from this that if Vstb throughout
any portion of a connected region, r=s(7 throughout the whole
of the region which can be reached in any way by a body or
finite size without passing through electrified matter. (We sup-
pose the body to be of finite size because a region in which V is
constant may be separated from another rôn in which it is
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45-] THEOREM OF GAUSS. 177
variable by nn electrified surface^ certain points or linea of which

ate Dot electrified, so that a mere point might pass out of the
region through one of these points or lines without passing
throng electrified matter.) This remarkable theorem is dne to
Gauss. See Thomson and Tait*a Ndtund PMlosi^fy, § 497.
It maj he shewn in the same way that if thionghoot any finite
portion of space the potential hasa value which can he expressed

hy a oontinnons mathematical formok satisfying Laplace's equation,
the potential will be expressed by the same formula throughout
every part of space which can be reached without passing through
electeified matter.
For any part of this space the value of the fiinotion is F\

if in
different firom F, that given hy the mathematical framula, tiien,
since both F and F' satisfy^ Laplace's equation, U T'-- F does. s
But within a finite portion of the space UÔ, therefore by what
we have proved Z7 = 0 tiiroug^hout the whole space, or F'= F.
145.] Let be a spherical harmonic of * degrees and of any
type. Let any line be taken as the axis of the sphere, and let the
harmonic be turned into n positions round the axis, the angular
distance between conseentive positions being —2 IT

•
If we take the sum of the n harmonics thus formed the result

will he a hannonic of i degrees, which is a function of Q and of the
sines and cosines of n 0.
If n is less than / the result will be compoundi'd of harmonics for
which .5 is ziTO or a multijilc of n less than /, but if n is greater
than i the result is a zonal harmonic. Hence the following theorem :
Let any point be taken on the general harmonic J^, and let a
small circle be described with this point for centre and radius 0,
and let n points be taken at equal distances round tliis circle, then
if Qi is the value of the zonal harmonic for an angle and if Yl is
tiie value of at the centre of the circle, then the mean of the
n values of round the circle is equal to Q« Yl provided « is greater
than i.
« is greater than t
If and if the value of the hannonic at
each point of the circle be multiplied by sin «^ or cos «^ where
% is less than and the arithmetical mean of these prodoctii be
.i,, then if is the valne of ^/') for the angle $^ the coefficient
of sin #^ or COS «^ in the expansion of Y^ will be
VOL. I. K
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178 8PHBBIGAL HABMOKIGS. [146.
In this way we may analyse into its oomponent conjugate

harmonics by means of a finite number of aaoertained values at
selected points on the spheie.
^^kmeal Sarmonic Jnafym to tk» DeUnmmaikm
Oandiieion umder tke Mum rfknmm Bxtemal Eieeiriad Htnet,

146.] We shall suppose that every part of the electrified system
which acts on the conductor is at a greater distance from the
centre of tlio conductor than the most distant part of the conductor
itself^ or, if the conductor is Bpherical, than the ladius of the
sphere.
Then the potential of the external system, at points within this
distance, may be expanded in a series of solid harmonics of positive
degree r= 4o+-^rJi+&o+^Jif^. (70)
due to the conductor at poinit outside it may be

Tlie potential
expanded in a series of solid harmonics of the sime type, but of
negative degree
u=£,^+£,r^^+&c+£.r,^. (71)
At the surface of the conductor the potential is constant and

equal, say, to C. Let us first suppose the conductor spherical and
of radius a. Then putting r = a, we have U-^ F=Ci or, equating
the coefficients of the diticrent degrees,
=
-Bo fl
î=-aM„ (72)
The total charge of dectriciiy on tiie conductor is B^.

The suiftce-density at any point of the sphere may be found
from the equation
dr dU
a ^-3tt>Jif ri-&c-(2t+l)a«+»-4< r,. (73)
DUtrihuiion of EUdncity on a nearli/ Sj) fieri cal Conduclar.
Let the equation of the surface of the conductor be

r = a(l+jP). (74)
146.] NEARLY SFHSEICAL GOifDUCTOB. 179
where F is a function of the direction of r, and is a Qumehcal

quantity the square of which may be neglected.
Let the potential due to the external electrified system be ez*
pressed, as before, in a series of solid harmonics of positive degree,
and let the potential U he sl series of solid harmonics of negative
degree. Then the potential at the surface of the conductor is
obtained substitating the value of r from equation (74) in these
series.
Hence, if ^ is tlie value of the potential of the conductor and

£f^ the ohaige upon it^
- i?o - J^- 2 ^1 /T, + . . . - (» + 1 ) 3, a-« + 1) JT, + . .
* ...-(y4-l)^y«-W+i)OTi. (75)
Since F is very small compared uatb unity, we have first a set
of equations of the form (72), with the additional equation
0 = — i?o - 4- S^, fl -FT, + &c +(+ 1) ^ fl^ iT,

* +2(i9,a-U+i)J,)-S((y+l)5ya-U+»)W^). (76)
To solve this equation we must expand F, F}\ . . . FY^ in terms of
spherical harmonics. If F cim be expanded in t^rms of splierical
harmonics of de<^rees lower than X*, then F}\ can be expanded in .
spherical harmonics of degrees lower than i-î.

Let therefore
JPoii'-SiliflJ^r,-.., -(2i+ l)i£,a««JT,=2 (Bja-U+DTj), (77)
then the coeflieients Bj will each of them be small compared with

the coefficients j5y . . . on account of the smallness of F, and
therefore the latit term of equation (76), consisting of terms in
may be neglected.
Hence the coefficients of the form £j may be found hj eânding
equation (76) in spherical harmonics.
For example, let the body have a chaige B^, and be acted on by
no external finroe.
Let F be expanded in a series of the fonn
/i^css^rj + ftc+iS^rj. (78)
Then £^^8Ji-i-&c,-^£^^SJ^^l(jBja-U*')rj), (79)
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180 SPU£IUCAL HAIUfONIGS.
or the potential at any point outside the body is
r=l5,f- + pJ\+...+^s,r,)i (80)
and if 18 the muboe-daamty at any point
or 4ira<r= +8,7^+ ...+ {k-l)8j^Y^). (81)
Hence, if the surface diUers from that of a sphere by a thin

stratum whose depth varies according to the values of a spherical
harmonic of degree the ratio of the difference of the superficial
densities at any two points to their sum will he k— 1 times the
ratio of the difference of the radii of the same two points to their
snm.
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CHAPTER X.
OONFOCAL QUADfilC SURFACES
147.] Let the general equation of a con focal system be

a?«
f _
wliere a wiabiA pmuneter, whi<di we ihall distrngiDtli
X is the
suffix Aj forthe hyperboloids of two sheets, fiir the hyperbdloids
of one sheet, and A, for the ellipsoids. The qnaiitities

o, Aj, bf A2, Cy A3
are in ascending order of magnitude. The quantity a is introduced

for the sake of symmetiy, but in our results we shall always suppose
a = 0.
If we consider the three surfaces whose parameters arc Aj, A.^, A.j,
we find, by elimination between their equations, that the value of

at their point of intersection satisties the equation
«« (d«-a«) (c«-a«) a (Ai«-a«) {K^-a*) (A,«-a«). (2)

The Tallies of jf* and s* may be found by transposing a, c
flynunetrioaUy.
Differentiating this equation with fespect to A^, we find
^ = A,2^'-
If <ls^ is the length of the intercept of the curve of intersection of
A, and Ag cat off between the surfaces Aj and A^ -|- dk^^ then
dx
rfA^
'4. A
• Thfa inTMtigatioa ia ohiaAy borrowed from a very iatemting work«—XepoM «Mr
Fouctiont Imam dm Iinm§otndan tt§ et Im Bmfim IttUktnm, Bur O. Lub4.
Paiia. 1857.
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182 • OOKFOCAL QUADBIO 8UBFAGE8. [148.
The denominator of this firaotion k the product of the flqaans of

tiie semi-ezee of the sorfiuse A|.
If we pot
J),^ = K,^-K^\ i),^ = Aj'^-AiS and = A,«-A,«, (5)
and if we make a = 0, then
^- A ^8 (6)
It is and
easy to see that are the semi-axes of the central
section of which is conjugate to the diameter passing through
the given point, and that Do is parallel to ds,,, and to dtJ^^
If we also substitute for the three parameters Xj, A3 their
values in terms of three functions a, y, defined by the eiûations
A,= 0 when a = 0,
rfAi" -s/d«-AiVc«-A,«
dp c
A,= h when i9 s 0, (7)
VAj«-6Vc*-A,«
e
6 when y s 0
'v/Aj^'-dVAa^-C*
then = (8)
148.] Now let r be the potential at any point a, /, then the

reeultant fofoe in the direction of dt^ if
» «. ^'^^
— dV da _ dV c
Sinoe dt^, and aie at right angles to eaeh other, the

sarfiKse-int^gral oyer the element of area lii^dl^ is
^^£^dffay. (10)
Now eondder the element of yolume interoepted between the

and n+da, fi-^dfi, y+dy. There will be eig^t
enrfiusee a, fi,y,
ench elemente, one in eaeh octant of space.

We have found the sur&oe-integral for the element of sorfiuse
intercepted from the sorfiMse a by the sorfiuses fi and fi-^dfi, y and
yi. jd by Google
1490 T&ANSFOJUiATlON OF FOISSON's SQUATIOK. 18d
The sur&oe-integnL for the oonespoiidiiig eLemeiit of the snifiMse

a+<â will he
anoe i)| is independent of o. The snr&ce-integnU for the two

opposite fiKiee of the element of Tolume^ taken with xeepeot to the
interior of that Tolnme^ will he the difference of these quantities, or
•^^dad^dy.
Similarly the surface-integrals for the other two pairs of forces
will be
— -f-dadfidy and ^-j-dadfidy.

These six faces enclose an element whose volume is
d^^ d^2 ds^ = *

^
— 2- da dfi dy,
and if p is the volnme-density within that element, we find by

Art. 77 that the total sorfiuse-integial of the element, together with
the qnantity of eleetricity within it, multiplied by 4v ia aero, or,
dividing hy da dfi dy^
which is the form of Poisson'R extension of Laplace's equation re-

ferred to ellipsoidal coordinates.
If p = 0 Uie fourth term vanishes, and the equation is equivalent
to that of Laplace.
For the general discussion of this equation the reader is referred
to the work of Lame already mentioned.
149.] To determine the quantities we may put them in
o, ^, y,
the form of ordinary elliptic functions by introducing the anziliaTy

angles 0, ^ and ^, where
k^zsbme, (M)
A, = ^/c2lm2^TFco^, (13)
sm V
If we put b = l-c, and /t^ 4.^2 jây call I' and k' the two
complementaiy moduli of the confocal system, and we ^d
-/i-i«ain«a
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184 OONFOCAL QUADBIC BU&FACBS.
an elliptic integral of the first IdDd^ which we may write aoooidin^

to the usual notation F{kO).
In the same way we find
^ =/*
^0 -/r-f^?—
v/ — - COS- 1 A*
^=
</i
-^X*-)
where Fl^ is the complete function for modulus If^
•'0 vl— i^sin'^r

Hero a is represented as a fbnction of the angle B, whieh is a
function of the paiameter A^, /3 as a fonetion of ^ and thence of Ag,
and y as a function of ^ and thence of A3
But these angles and parameters may be considered as functions
of a, ^, y. The properties of such inverse functions, and of those
connected with them, are explained in the treatise of M. Lame on
that subject.
It is easy to sec that since the parameters arc periodic functions
of the auxiliary angles, they will be periodic functions of the
quantities o, ^, y : the periods of A^ and A3 are 4 F{Jc) and that of
is 2F{k').
ParHetUar SoUtHoiu.
150.] If /' is a linear function of a, or the equation is
/3, y,
satisfied. Hence we may deduce from the cciuatiou the distribution

of electricity on any two confocal surfaces of the same family
maintained at given potentials, and the potential at any point
between them.
Tie Ifyperbohids of Two BkeeU,

When a is constant the corresponding- surface is a hypcrboloid
of two sheets. Let us make the sign of a the same as that of x in
the sheet under considcmtiou. We shall thus be able to study one
of these sheets at a time.
Let a^, be the values of a corresponding to two single sheets,
whether of dilferent hyperboloids or of the same one, and let Fj,
be the potentials at which they arc maintained. Then, if we make
p^ ai^5i-««î + a(î-^2) (18)

fli-«s
the conditions will be satisfied at the two snifiuses and throoglioat
the space between them. If we make T constant and equal to
in the space beyond the surface a^, and constant and equal to
DIBTBIBUTIOH OF BLBCTRIGITT. 185
in the space beyond the soifMe a^, we shall have obtained the
complete solution of this partioular case.
The xeeiiltant force at any point of either sheet ie
V—V
= li-l? c
'
«r .
(20)
— a, U., 2/3
If be the perpendicular from the centre on the tang-ent plane

at any point, and the product of the semi-axes of the surface,
then Pi D., JJ^ = P^.
Hence we find î-^^s ^Pi foi\
«1—«S ''^l
or the force at any point of the sarfiMe is proportional to the per-

pendioolar from the eentre on the tangent plane.
The BOifiKse-dengity 9 may be found from the equation
4ir(r = iZi. (22)
The total quantity of electricity on a seg^ment cut off by a plane
whose equation is a; = a from one sheet of the hyperboloid is
The quantily on the whole infinite sheet is therefore infinite.
The limiting forme of the snrfiuse are :
(1) When a = F^^) the sarfiuse is the part of the plane of «j on

the positive side of the positive branch of the hyperbola whose
equation is jv*
(2) When a = 0 the surface is the plane of yz.

(3) When a = —^(4) the surface is the part of the plane of j-^ on
the negative side of the negative branch of the same hyperbola.
T/ie ]lyperljoloi(h of One ISheeL
By making /3 constant we obtain the equation of the hyperboloid

of one sheet. The two surfaces which form the boundaries of the
electric fieldmust therefore belong to two different hyperboloids.
The investigation will in other respects be the same as for the
hyperboloids of two sheets, and when the difference of potentiab
is given the density at any point of the surface will be proportional
to the perpendicnlar from the centre on the tangent plane, and the
whole quantity on the infinite sheet will be. infinite.
186 GONFOCAL QUAD&IC SURFACES.
Limiting Form.
(1) When 3 = 0 the gurface is the part of the plane of mm
between the two bmnohee of the hyperbola whoee equation Is
written above, (24).
(2) When )9 = F{^) the surface ig the part of the plane of
which 10 on the outside of the focal ellipse whose equation is
The mipmridt.
For any given elUpeoid y is eonstant. If two eHipsoids, and y,*
be maintained at potentials and then, for any point y in the
space between them, we have
f^^ yiî-y^^'i+yCî-î) (26)

71-72
The surface-density at any point is
^=«^^=:^^,
71—72 -Ps
(27)
where />3 is the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent plane,
and P3 is the product of the semi-axes.
Tlie whole ehaige of eleotrioitj <m eitfaer surfiMse is
eg=^^^=-«i, (28)
a finite quantify.
When y s F{k) the snrfiuss of the ellipsoid is at an infinite

distance in all directions.
.If we make s0 and y, = F0)t we find for the quantity of
electricity on an ellipsoid maintained at potential T in an infinitelj
Q^c^. (29)
Hie limiting form of the ellipsoids occurs when y = 0, in which

case the surface is the part of the plane of xjf within the focal
ellipse, whose equation is written above, (25).
Tlie surface-density on the elliptic plate whose equation is (25), and
whose eccentricity is i; is
«r s - - ^
, (80)
and its charge is r_ . .

StJBFACBB OF BiyOLUTIOV. 187
FaHiciUar Catet,
161.] If i 18 dimiiuBbed till it l>eoome8 nltimtttaly vaco, the
igrstem otwaaSaoM beoomee tnnsfoimed m
the foUowing maimer :
The and one of the imagmaiy axes of each of the
real axis
hjperboloids of two aheete ai«i indefinitely diminished, a^ the
saiftoe ultimately colneides witii two planes intersecting in the
axis of s.
Hie quantity a heoomes identieal with 0, and the equation of the
system of meridional planes to which the first system is rednoed is
y2
~" ^^^^
(sino)* (cosa)^
The qnantiiy is redaced to
i^ = logtant (33)
J 8m0 * 2
whence we find
If we call the exponential quantity the hyperbolic

cosine of ^9, or more concisely the hypocosine of ^, or cos i and if
we call \{ifi—e-^ the hyposine of or sm A ^
and if by the same
analogy we call
the hyposecant of A or sec i

the hypocoseoant of ^, or cosec h ^,
Bin A p
^'^^^ the hypotangent of /3, or tan A /3,
and the hypocotangent of or oot A)3
then = CBGcAfi, and the equation of the system of hyperboloids

of one sheet is
^ _^ (36)
The quantity y is reduced to \//, so that = c cosec y, and the

equation of the system of ellipsoids is
(seoy)«
+ jr^
(tany)«
« (36)
Ellipsoids of this kind, which are figures of leyolotion about their

cdgugate axes, are called Planetary ellipsoids.
188 OONVOCAL QUADBIG SUBFACES. [152.
The quantity of eI(K;tricity on a pkmetaiy ellipeoid tnainfftintt^ at

potential T in an infinite field, is
«= c^^, (37)
where caeey is the equatorial ndicu, and ctany ia the pokr radina.
If y as 0, the figure is a areolar diak of radina e, and
• (39)
152^] Seeond Cue, Let ft s then i ss 1 and = 0,

a slog tan -^^ — « whence A| s e tan ia^ (40)
and the equation of the hyperboloids of revolution of two sheets

becomes y'^+z^ .
(taii/*a)=^
~ (sec/ia)2 ^ '
The quantity ^ becomes reduced to ^, and each of the hyper-

boloids of one sheet ia rednoed to a pair of planes intersecting in
the azia of « whose equation is
(sin/3)»"'(eos/3)«~^'
This is a system of meridional planes m whieh fi is the longitnde.
The qoantitj y becomes log tan — whence A3 s 0 ooti y,

and the equation of the &milj of ellipsoids is
- ~ + -J^^±^— = c«. (43)

yf (eosec h y)-
(cot /i
These ellipsoids, in which the transverse axis is the axis of revo-

lution, are called Ovary ellipsoids.
The quantity of electricity on an ovary ellipsoid maintained at a
potential T in an infinite field is
(44)
y
If the polar radios is il s ecotAy, and the eqnatorial radiua ia
.9 s ecoseoily,
y = log—i-g^ (45)
CTLINDEB8 AHD PARABOLOIDS.
If the equatorial radius is very small compared U> the polar radius,
as in a wire with rouided ends,
y = \og^. and «= (46)
When lx)th 6 and c become zero, their ratio remaining finite,
the system of surfaces becomes two systems of confocal cones, and

a system of spherical surfaces of which the ratiius is inversely
proportional to y.
If the ratio of ^ to c is zero or unity, the system of surfaces
becomes one system of meridian planes, one system of right cones
having a common axis, and a system of concentric spherical surfaces
of which the radius is inversely proportional to y. This is the
ordinary system of spherical polar coordinates.
CÛndrie 9wfacei,
153.] When c is infinite the surfaces are cylindric, the generating

lines being parallel to z. One system of cylinders is elliptic, with
the equation
(cosAo)'* (smô)''
The other is hyperbolic, with the equation
(55^??
" = ^^^^
ThiB fyttem is repreaented in Fig. X, at the end ef this volnme.
Confocal Paraboloids.
154i.] If in the general equations we transfer the origin of co-

ordinates to a point on the axis of x distant i from the centre of
the system, and if we sahstitate for A, and <+A, i-^-h,
and iê nspectivelj, and then make t increase indefinitely, we
ohbnn, in the limit, the equation of a system of paiaholoids whose
foci are at the points x^h
and « = e
If the variable parameter is k for the first system of elliptic
paraboloids, yL for the hyperbolic paraboloids, and v for the second

system of elliptic paraboloids, we have A, 6, fi, tr in ascending
order of magnitadoj and
190 oomrocAL qvadbio bubfaobs. [154.
(50)
A 1 (A + c) — i (c — cos h a,
(61)
V
1(5 ^ c) i (0— (000 ily— OOB^— oosia),^
3/
= 2 (c— 6} am 4 - sin - cos h - >
(62)
z ~ 2 (tf
^
— 5) COS i ^2 COS ^2 sin 4 ^2
/
•
When ft s 0 ife liaTe the ease of pamboloids of levolatum about

the axis of and x — a {e^''—e^y\
y = 2ae'*y cos/3, (63)

z = 2atf*+>8ini8.
The surfaces for which ^ is constant are planes through the axis,
/3 being the angle which gueh a phme makea with a fixed plane
through the ads.
The snzfiweB for whioh a is constant aie conlbcal paraboAoids.
When asO the pamboloid ia reduoed to a stnught line terminating
at the origin.
Wemay also find the valnes of a, j9> y in terms of r, 0, and ^,
the spherical polar cocndinates referred to the ibcas as origin, and
the axis of the parabolas as axis of the sphere,
a = log(r* cos 4 6),
^ = ^1 (54)
y ss log(r* sin ^ 0).
We may compare the case in which the potential is eqnal to a,

with the zonal solid harmonic fi Q|. Both satisfy Laplace's equa-
tion, and are homogeneous functions of », jr, but in the case
derived from the paiaboloid there a discontinmly at the axis, and
is
f has a value not diflbring by any fiom zero. finite quantilgr
The suiftoe-densify on an electrified paraboloid in an infinite

field (including the case of a stnught line infinite in one direction)
is inversely as the distance horn the focus, or, in the case of
the line, from the extremity of the line.

CHAPTER XI
TmSOBT OF ELBCTBIC IHA0X8 AND BLBOTBIC 1N7BBSI0N.
155.] We have already ahewn that whoQ a oondnctiDg sphere

ii iiiid«r the inflnenoe of a known distribatioii of eketrioitjr, the
distribatioi) of electricity on the surface of the sphere can be
determined by the method of spherical harmonics.
For this purpose we recûire to expand the potential of the in-
fluencing system in a series of solid harmonics of positive (l('<j;'ree,
having the centre of the sphere as origin, and we then find a

corresponding series of solid harmonics of negative degree, which
express the potential due to the electrification of the sphere.
By the use of this very powerful method of analysis, Poisson
determined tlie electrification of a sphere under the influence of
a given electrical system, and he also solved the more difl'ieult
problem to determine the distribution of electricity on two con-

ducting spheres in presence of each other. These investigations
have been pursued at great length by Plana and others^ who have
confirmed the accuracy of Poisson.
In api)lying this method to the most elementary case of a sphere
under the influence of a single electrified ])oint» we require to expand
the potential due to the electrified point in a series of solid har-
monics^ and to determine a second series of solid harmonics which
cqyrosB the potential, doe to the electrification of the sphere^ in the
space outside.
It does not appear that any of these mathematicians obsenred
that this second series expresses the potential due to an imaginary
eleotitfied point*which has no physical existence as an electrified
point* bat which may be called an electrical image, because the
action of the surfiuse on external pointo is the same as that which
would be produced by the imaginary electrified point if the spherical
snrfiMje were removed.
Digitized by Google
192 SLBCTBIC I1IAGE& [156. .
This discovery seems to have been reserved for Sir W. Thomson,

who has developed it into a method of great power for the solution
of electrical problems, and at tbe same time capable of being pre-

sented in an elementarjr geometrical form.
His original investigations, which aie contained in the Cambri^
and JMlin MatikemaUetd Jounud, 1848, aie expreeaed in tenna of
the oidinaiy theoiy of attraction at a distance, and make no use of
the method of potentials and of the general theorems of Chapter IV
though th^ were probablj disoorered by these methods. Instead,
however, of foUowing the method of the author, I shall make free
use of the idea of the potential and of equipotential surfiKses, when-
ever the investigation can be rendered more intelligible by such
Thcori/ of Electric Images.

156.] Let A and B, Figure 7, represent two points in a uniform
dielectric medium of infinite extent.
Let the charges of A and B
and req)ectivcly. Let P be any
point in space whose distances from
A and B are and respectively.
Then the value of the potential at F
wiUbe yê^ê^^
The due to
equipotential snr&ces
this distribution of eleotrieiiy are represented in Fig. I (at theend
of this volume) when and are of the same sign, and in Fig. II
when they are of opposite signs. We have now to consider that
sur0Mse for which F=zO, which b the only spherical suiftce in
the system. When ^ and ^ are of the same sign, this snrfiuse is
entirely at an infinite distance, but when they are of opposite signs
there is a plane or spherical surface at a finite distance for which
the potential is zero.
The equation of this surface is
•^ + -^=0. (2)
Its centre is at a point C in AB produced, such that .
ACiBC i '.e^^ :e22 '
and the radius of the sphere is
AB
The two points A and B are inTcree points with respect to thia
INYXB8E POINTB. 193
sphere, that iB^to say, they lie in the same xadins, and the ndins is
a mean proportiooal between their distaneee from the eentie.

Since this spherieal snilace is at potential zero, if we si^fipose
it oonstmeted of thin metal and connected with the earth, there

willhe no alteration of the potential at any point either outside or
inside,but the electrical action eveiywhere will remain that due to
the two electrified points A and B.
If we now keep the metallic shell in connexion with the earth
and remove the point B, the potential within the sphere will become
everywhere zero, but outside it will remain the same as before.
For the surface of the sphere still remains at the same potential,
and no change has been made in the exterior electrification.
Hence, if au electrified point // be placed outside a spherical

conductor which is at potential zero, the electrical action at all
points outside the sphere will be that due to the point A together
with another point B within the sphere, which we may call the
electrical image of A.
In the same way we may shew that if ^ is a point placed inside
the spherical shell, the electrical action within the sphere is that
due to Bf together with its image A.
157.] Definition of an Electrical Imag0, An electrical image is
an electrified point or system of points on one side of a soifiuse
which would produce on the other side of that surface the same
electrical action which the actual electiifioation of that surface
really does produce.
In Optics a point or system of points on one side of a mirror
or lens which if it existed would emit the system of laya which
actually exists on the other side of the minor or lens, is called a
vtfâa/ image.
Electrical images correspond to virtual images in optics in hdng
zekted to the space on tbe other side of the suxfiMse. Th^ do not
correspond to them in actual position, or in the merely approximate
character of optical foci.
There are no teal eleotrical images, that is, imaginary electrified
points whidL would produce, in the region on the same side of tiie
an effect equivalent to that of the electrified surfiuie;
electrified surface,
For if the potential in any region of space is equal to that due

to a certain electrification in the same region it must be actually
produced by that electrification. In fact, the electrification at any
point may be found from the potential near that point by the
ap])lication of Poisson^s equation.
VOL. I. o
194 ELECTRIC ItfAQBS.
Let a he the radius of the sphere.

Let /*be the distance of the electrilied point A from the centre C,
Let e be the charg-e of this point.
Then the ima^ of the point is at .fi, on the same radius of the
sphere ftt a distance and the charge of the image is "^^"y

We have shewn that this image
will produce the same effect on the
<^po8ite side of the surface as the
actual electrification of the surface
does. We shall next determine the
snrfiuje-density of this electrifica-
tion at any point P of the spherical

snrfiKie, and for this purpose we shall
^. ^
^' '
make use of the theorem of Coobmb,
Art. 80, that if is the resultant fi>ioe at the sorfiuse of a oonduetor,
and (T Ihfi saperfidal densily,
It = 4v<r,.
R being measured away from the surface.

VYê may consider li as the resultant of two forces, a repulsiou
acting along AP^ uid an attraction ej. acting along PB,

Resoh'ing' these forces in the tliroctions of AC and CP, we find
that the components of the repulsion are
Those of the attraction are

««d
^ along CP.
a
— <f yT
\
JiC along AC, and
tf* 1
—tfyj^^ along CP.
Now BP s= yr^> BC^-y, so that the components of
the attraction may be written

1 1
Jps alonfir ^C, and -e^^ jjjr^ along CP.
The components of the attraction and the repulsion in the

direction of AC are equal and opposite, and therefore the resultant
force is entirely in the direction of the radius CP. This only
confirms what we have already proved, that the sphere is an eqoi-
potential sar£M», and therefore a surfiMe to which the resultant
force is eTeiywhere perpendicular.
DISTRIBUTION OF BLBGTBICITT. 195
The resultant force measured along CP, the normal to the surface
in the direction towaide the side on which A is placed, is
If A is taken inside the spheie/is less than a, and we mnst

measure It inwards. For this case therefore
In all cases we may write

AB.Ad 1
(5)
^^-'-cP~aF^'
where AD, Ad are the segments of any line throngh A catting the
sphere, and their prodnct is to be talwn positive in all cases.
158.] From this it follows, hy ConlomVs theorem, Art. 80,
that the surfiuse-densiiy at P is
^ AD.AA 1 ...
"^-'TTUpai^'
The dendty of electricity at any point of the w^bm vaiies
inyersely as the cube of its distance from the point A.
The effect of this superficial distribution, together with that of
the point J, is to produce on the same side of the surface as the
point A a potential equivalent to that due to e at J, and its image
— e-j at and on the other side of the snr&ce the potential is
everywhere sera Hence the effect of the superficial distribution

by itself is to produce a potential on the side of A equivalent to
that due to the image —e~ at and on the opposite side a
potoattal equal and opposite to that of e at A,

The whole charge on the surface of the sphere is evidently — «^
since it is equivalent to the image at B.
^
We have therefore arrived at the following theorems on the
action of a distribution of electricity on a spherical surface, the
snrfoce-density being inversely as the cube of the distance from
a point A either without or within the sphere.
Let the density be given by the equation
where C is some constant quantity, then by equation (6)

196 SLSCTRIC IMAOKS, [159
Th6 action of this superficiaL diitribution on may point separated

from A by the mir&oe it equal to that of a qnantily of electricity
— tf, or 4tt aC
AJD.Ad
concentrated at A,
Its action on any point on the same aide of the ear&ce ¥rith A ia
equal to that of a quantity of electricity
fAD.Ad
concentrated at B the imaê of J.
Tlie whole (juantity of electricity on the sphere is e(iual to the
first of these quantities if y£ is within the sphere^ and to the second
if A is without the sphere.
These propositions were established by Sir W. Thomson in his
original geometrical investigations with reference to the distribution
of electricity on qpherical conductoxsj to which the atudent ought
to refer.
159.] If a sj^tem in which the distribution of electricity ie
known is placed in the neighbourhood of a conducting sphere of
xadiuB a, which is maintained at potential zero by connexion with
the earth, then the electrificationa due to the aevenl parte of the
i^Btem will be snperpoaed.
Let Ai, A^, ftc. be the electrized points of the lyatem, /i,/^,
their diataneea from the centre of the sphere, e^, e^, fte. their
charges, then the images B^y J*,, ftc of these pointe will be in the
. a« a*
^ same radii as the points themselves, and at distances -7- > -7- &c.
from the centre of the sphere, and their charges will be
J\ J%
The on the outside of the sphere due to the superficial
potential
electrification will be the same as that which would be })roduced by
the system of images jô, &c. This system is therefore called
the electrical image oftlic system .-A,, &c.
If the sphere instead ol Ijeing at potential zero is at potential f,

we must superj)ose a distribution of electricity on its outer surface
having the uniform surface-density
<r = 7'
4ira
The effect of this at all points outside the sphere will be eqoal to
l6a] IMAGE OF AN ELECTRIFIED SYSTEM. 197
that of a quantity Va of electricity placed at its centre, and at

all points inside the sphere the potential will be simply increased
by r.
The whole charge on the sphere due to an external system of
influencing points Jj, A.^^ &c, is
^= ra-^,^-tf,-^-&0^ (9)
/l J%
from which either the charge ^ or the potential V may be cal-
culated when the other is given.
When the deotrified system is within tiie spherical snrfaoe the
induced charge on the surface is equal and of opposite sign to the
inducing charge, as we have before proved it to be for every closed
surface, with respect to points witliin it.
160. J The energy' due to the mutual action between an elec-

trified point <?, at a distance /' from the centre of the sphere greater
than a the radius, and the electrification of the spherical surface
due to the influence of the electrifled point and the charge of the
sphere, is
where T is the potential, and ^the charge of the sphere.

The repulsion between the dectrified point and the sphere is
therefore, by Art. 92,
Henoe the force between the point and the sphere is always an
attraction in the following cases
(1) When the sphere is unin.siilated.
(2) When the sphere has no charge.

(3) When the electrified point is very near the surface.
In order that the force may be repulsive, the potential of the
sphere mnst be positiye and greater than ^jj^r^^^^*

/•
*^ ^
charge of the sphere must be of the same sign as e and greater
than e J) ^, —^«
At the point of equilibrium the equilibrium is unstable, the force
Digitized by Google
198 SLBOTBIG IMAOBS. [l6l.
being an atteaefcion when the bodies are nearer and a

when thqr are fitrther off.
When the electrified point is within the spherical soiftoe the

fbroe on the electrified point is always away fiom the centre of
the sphere, and is equal to
'
The surface-density at the point of the sphere nearest to the

electrified point where it lies outside the sphere is
The soifiMse-density at the point of the sphere fiuthest from the

eleoCrified point is
When the charge of the sphere, lies between
7(f^ '/{/+')*
the electrification will be negative next the electrified point and
positive on the opposite side. There will bfe a cironlar line of division
between the positivelj and the negatively electrified parts of the
surfiuie, and this line' will be a line of equilibrium.
the cquipotential surface which cuts the sphere in the line of equi-
librium is a sphere whose centre is the electrified point and whose
radios is a*.
The lines of foree and equipotential snifiusee belonging to a case
of this kind are g^ven in Figure IV at the end of this volome.
Imaget im an Infinite Plane Conducting Surface.
161.] If the two electrified points A and B in Art. 156 are

electrified with equal charges of electricity of opposite signs, the
surface of zero potential will be the plane, every point of which is
equidistant from A and B.
162.] IMAGES IK AK IMFIKITB PLANS. 199
Uenoe, if ^ be an electarified point whose ohaige is and JJ)

a perpendicolar on the plane, produce AB
to ^ 80 tbat DB = AB, and plaee at B
a charge equal to —9, then this chaige
at B will be the image of A, and will
produce at all points on the same side of
the plane as an effect equal to that
of the aetnal electrification of the plane.
For the potential on the side of A doe
to A and B fhlfils the conditions that
0 eveiywhere eioept at A^ and

that Frs 0 at the plane, and there is only
one fbrm of Twhidi can folfil these conditions.
To determine the resultant force at the point P of the plane, we
obsenre that it is compounded of two forces each equal to *
one acting aloug AP and the other along PB. Hence the resultant
of these fofoes is a direction parallel to AB and equal to
in
e AB
AP* AP' '
Heuoe B, the resultant force messnxed from the surfiKse towards the
space in which A lies, is
2eAB
B =s- (15)
AP*
and the density at the point P is
eAB
(16)
On Bketrieal InvermoM*
162.]The method of electrical images leads directly to a method

of transformation by which we may derive from any electrical
problem of which we know the solution any number of other
problems wiUi their solutions.
We have seen that a distance r from the
the image of a point at
centre of a sphere of radius R same radius and at a distance
is in the
/ such that f/si2^. Hence the image of a system of points, lines,

or surfaces is obtained from the <»riginal qrstem by the method
known in pure geometry as the method of inversion, and described
by Chasles, Salmon, and other mathematicians.
200 BUEOTBIC IKAOBS. [162.
If A and B are two pomts, and R their images, 0 being the

centre of inversion, and M the ladim of the
spliere of invenion,
OA.OAT s iP s Oi^.O^.
Henoe the triangles OAB, OffA' are similar^
and AB : A'ff i.OA.OB':: OA.OB R\ :
If a qoantitjr of eleotrkity e be placed at A,

its potential at B will be ^
If 0' be placed at A' its potential at B will be
In the theory of eleotrioal imagee

ei^ -..OAiRiiR'. OA'.
Hence F:F'i:B:OB, (17)
or the potential at B dne to the electricity at ^ ie to the potential

at the image of ^ dne to the electrical image of ^ as iB is to OB.
Since this ratio depends only on OB and not on OA, tlie potential
at B dne to any system of electrified bodies is to that at B^ dne
to the image of the system as J? is to OB.
If r be the distance of any point A from the centre, and / that
of its image A', and if e he the electrification of A, and / that of" A',
also if Ly S, K be linear, superficial, and solid elements at A^ and

L\ S\ A'' their images at A', and A, cr,
p, A', a, p the corresponding
line-surface and volume-densities of ele<?tricity at the two pcnnts,
F the potential at A due to the original system, and / '
the potential
at A' due to the inverse system, then
€ " r ^ B* k" f^*

.1(18)
9' B^ p' f*
_ J?^
B ~ /•
If in the original system a certain snrfirise is that of a conductor,
* See Thomson and Tail's Natural PkUotophy, § 615.

1 63.] GEOMETKICAL THEOREMS. 201
and has therefore a constant potential F, tiien in the traosfomed
system the image of the sor&oe will haye a potential P -y

R • But
hy placing at 0, the eentie of inyendon, a qnantity of electricity
eqnal to —FM, the potential of the tnuisformed soi&oe is ledooed
to zero.
Henqe, if we know the diBtrihQtio& of electricity on a conductor
when insnlated in open space and charged to the potential P, we
can find by inversion the distribution on a conductor whose form is
the image of the iirst under the influence of an clectrifiini })oint with
a charge —PR placed at the centre of inversion, the conductor
being in connexion with the earth.
163.] The following geometrical theorems are useful in studying
cases of inversion.
Every sphere becomes, when inverted, another sphere, unless
it passes through the centre of inversion^ in which case it becomes
a plane.
If the distances of the centres of the spheres from the centre of
inversion are a and a', and if their radii are a and a', and if we
define the pmrer of the sphere with respect to the centre of in-
veision to be the product of the segments cut off by the sphere
from a line through the centre of inversion, tlien the power of the
first sphere is a'— a^, and that of the second is 4^^— a'^. We
have in this case
• ~ o "a^-a"" * (^^^
or tiie ratio of the distances of the centres of the first and second
spheres is equd to tiie ratio of their radii, and to the ratio of the
power of the sphere of inyersion to the power of the first sphere,
or of the power of the second sphere to the power of the sphere
of inverBion.
The centre of either sphere corresponds to the inTerae point of
the other with reipeet to the centre of inversion.
In the case in whieh the inverse sariaoes are a plane and a
sphere, the perpendicularfrom the centre of invermon on the plane
is to the radius of inversion as this radius is to the diameter of
the sphere, and the sphere has its centre on this perpendicular and
passes throufrh the centre of inversion.
Every eircl(> is inverted into another eircle unless it passes
through the centre of inversion, in which case it becomes a straight
line.
Digitized by Google
202 ELSCTBIG I1CA0B&
The angle between two siufiMWs, or two linee at their intenection^
is not changed by mverrion.

Every circle which pasaee throngh a point, and the image of that
jKnnt i^th respect to a ephere, oats the sphere at right anglee.
Hence, any circle which passes throngh a point and cnts tke
sphere at right angles passes through the image of the point.
164.] We may apply the method of inversion to dedaoe the
distribntion of electricity on an nninsnlated sphere under the
influence of an electrified point from tiie nniform distribution on
an insulated ephan not influenced by any other body.
If the electrified point be at A, take it for the centre of inversion,
and \i A is at a distance / from the centre of the sphere whose
radius is a, the inverted figure will be a inhere whose radius is a'
and whose centre is distant /\ whore
^=/:=-^-. (20)
The centre of either of these spheres corresponds to the inverse

point of the other with respect to ^ or C the centre and B the
if is
inverse point of the first sphere, C will be the inverse point, and B
the centre of the second.
Now let /
of electricily be communicated to the
a quantify
second sphere, and let be nninfluenced by external forces. It
it
will become uniformly distributed over the sphere with a sorfiMse*
Its action at any point outside the Rj)here will l>c the same as
that of a charge / jilaced at K the centre of the sphere.
At the spherical surlaoe and within it the potential is
P' = J. (2*)
a constant quantity.
Now let us invert this system. The centre Ji' becomes in the
inverted system the inverse point and the charge ^ tit, B

AB
becomes ^ at B, and at any point separated from B by the
aurikce the potential is that due to this chaige at B*

The potential at any point P on the spherical snrfiice, or on the
same side as i?, is in the inverted system
It
1 65.] 8TBTB1IB OF IMAOBS. 203
If we DOW soperpow on tbii flystem a ohaige « at it, wbere
(2])
the potential on the spherical rarfkce^ and at on the same

all points
side as i?, will be reduced to zero. At all points on the same side
as the potential will he that due to a chaige e at A, and a charge
But
^7 ' -'7 ' ~'r (24)
as wo found before for the eharoi'o of the imag-e at B.

To find the density at any point of the first sphere we have
(25)
Substituting for the vahie of a in terms of the quantities be-
longing to the first sphere, we find the same valne as in Art. 158,
(26)
Os lUiUe System ^Sueeemve Image*,

two conducting planes intersect at an angle which is
165.] If
a submultiple of two right angles^ there wiU he a finite sjrstem of
images whidi will completely detennine the electrification.
For let iÔ^ be a section of the two conducting planes per-
pendicular to their line of inter-
section, and let the angle of
mterBCCtion AOB s n
let P
be an electrifietl point, and let
PO = r, and POB = 6. Then,

if we draw a circle with centre 0
and radius Ol\ and find points
which are the successive images
of P in the two planes beginning
with OB, we shall find for the " Fig. lo.
image of P in OB, P., for the image of Q, in OA, for that of Jf,
in OB, P, for that of in OA, and Q, for that of P3 in OB.
If we liad begun with the image of P in AO we should have

found the same points in the reverse order Qg, Pg, Qj, i*„
provided AOB is a submultiple of two right anglss.
Digitized by Google
204 ELECTRIC IMAGES. [l66.
For the alternate images P,, P^, P3 are ranged round the circle
at anguhir intervals eqnal to 2A0B, and the in^rmediate images
Qt» Qi^ Q:\ intervals of the same majni-nitiide. Hence, if
2AOB is a subtnultii»le of 2 7r, there will be a finite number of
imacres, and none of these will fall within the angle AOIi. If,
however, A OB is not a submultiple of -n, it will be impossible to

represent the actual electrihcation as the result of a haite series of
electrified points.
IfAOB = - , there will be » negatiTe imagee Qi, Q,* ^*

equal and of opposite sig-n to B, and ;/ — 1 positive imagee P,,
P3, &c., each equal to JP, aud of the same sign.
2 Tt
The angle between looeesnye images of the same agn is ^- •
If we consider either of the conductin<:,'- planes as a plane of sym-

metry, we shall find the positive aud ne«;-alivt' iniag-es placed
sjTn metrically with regard to that plane, so that lor every positive
imaj^-e there is a negative imag« in the same normal^ and at an
equal distance on the opposite side of the plane.
If we now invert this system with respect to any point, the two
planes become two spheres, or a sphere and a plane intersecttng
at an angle -
H
, the influencing point P being within this angle.
The successive imagt?s lie on the circle which passes through P
and intersects both spheres at rig^ht ang-les.
To find the position of the images we may either make use of
the principle that a point and its image are in the same radius
of the sphere, and draw successive chorda of the circle beginning
at P and paesing through the centres of the two spherea al-
ternately.
To find the charge which must be attributed to each image, take
any point in the circle of intersection, then the charge of each
image is proportional to its dietance from thia point, and its sign
ia positive or negative aooording as it belonga to the first or the
second system.
166.] We have thus found the distribution of the images when
any space bounded by a conductor consisting of two spherical snrfiMee
IT
meeting at an angle - , and kept at potential zero, is influenced by
an electrified point.
We may by inversion deduce the case of a conductor consisting

1 66.] TWO UnSBSBCTINO 8PHXBBS. '
205
TT
of two spherical segments meeting at a re-entering angle - ,
charged
to potential unitj and placed in free space.

For this purpose we invert the system with respect to F, The
ciide on which the images foimerlj lay now becomes a straight
line through the centres of the spheres.
If the figure (11) represents
a through the line of
section
centres AB,and if J/ are the
points where the cirde of in-
tersection cuts the plane of the
paper, then, to find the suc-
cessive draw J)A a
images,
radius of the and first circle^
draw DC, JOB, &c, making
angles-,^, &c with DA.

n n
The points C, B, &c. at which they cut the line of centres will
be the positions of tlie ]X)sitive images, and the char<ê of eaoli
will he representtnl by its distances from JJ. The last of these

images will be at the C(*iitro of the second circle.
To find the negative images draw i>P, JJQ, &c., making angles
-
«
> —n , &c. with the line of centres. The intersections of these
lines with the line of centres \y\\] give the positions of the negative
images, and the charge of each will be represented by its distance
from D.
The surface-density at any \wmt of either sphere is the sum
of the surface-ilensities due to the system of images. For instance,
the surface-density at any point S of the sphere whose centre is
A, is
1 7)7? Df
where A, B, C, &e. are the positive series of images.

"When 8 is on the circle of intersection the density is zero.
To find the total charjê on eueli (»!' the spherical segments, we
may find tlie surface-integral of the induction through tliat segment
due to each of the images.
Tlie total charjê on the segment whose centre is A due to the
image at A whose charge is DA is
206 lUtCmC IMAOK [167.
where 0 is the centre of the drele of intersection.

In the same way the charge on the same segment dne to the
image at ^ is i (2>if + OJB), and so on, lines snch as OB measured
fix»m 0 to the left being reckoned negative.
Hence the total charge on the segment whose centre is J is
\ {DA + I)B + DC+ &c.) -\-^{OA + OB-h OC-^ &c.)»
167.] The method of eleetrical images may be applied to any

space bounded by plane or spherical sai&oes all of which cot one
another in angles which are sabmnltiples of two right angles.
In order that snbh a system of spherical sorfiMses may exist, every
solid angle of the figuremust be trihedral, and two of its angles
must be right angles, and the third either a right angle or a
submultiple of two right angles.
Hence the eases in which the number of images is finite are—
(1) A single spherical surface or a plane.
(2) Two planes, a sphere and a plane, or two spheres intersectibg

at an angle ^*
(3) These two surfaces wnth a third, which may be either plane
or spherical, cutting both orthogonally.
(4) These three surfiMses with a fourth eutting the first two
orthogonally and the third at an angle ^ . Of these four surfiices
one at least must be spherical

We have ahready examined the first and second cases* In the
first case we have a single image. In the second case we have
2»— 1 images arranged in two series in a circle which passes
through the influencing point and is oi-thogonal to both surfsuies.
In the third case we have, besides these images, their images with
respect to the third surface, that is, 4«— 1 images in all besides the
influencing point.
In the fourth case we draw through the influencing point
first
a circle orthogonal to thetwo surfaces, and determine on it

first
the positions and magnitudes of the n native images and the

1 positive images. Then through each of these 2n points,
including the influencing pointy we draw a circle orthogonal to
the third and fourth surfiês, and detennine on it two series of
Digitized by Google
1 68.] TWa 8PHBB88 CUTTING ORTHOGONALLY. 207
uoBgeB, in 6Bch leries. We shall olytaan in this waj, beddes the

ipflnftncittg point, 2ifi»'— 1 positive and 2ni^ native imageB.
These 4nn' points are the inteneetions of « cixeles with n' other
drdesj and these oirdes belong to the two systems of lines of
eorvatore of a cyclide.
If each of these points is charged with the proper quantity of
electricity, the snr&oe whose potential is zero will consist of
spheres, forming two series of whioh the soeoessiye spheres of the
IT
first set intersect at angles - , and those of the second set at angles
It
—7, while every sphere of the first set is orthogonal to every sphere
of the second set.
Case of Two Spheres cutting Orthogonally. See Fig. IV at the

end of this volume.
168.] Let A and B, 1 2, be the centres of two spheres cutting
each other orthogonally in I) and
jy^ and let the straight line DJ/ cut
the line of centres in C, Then C
is the image of A with respect to
the sphere and also the image
of B
with respect to the sphere
whose centre \b A. 1£ ADssa,
BD s fi, then AB = ya*+/3», and
if we place at A, B, C quantities Fig. 12.
of electricity equal iooffi, and

a/3
^ ^^2 respectively^ then both
V a- +
spheres will be equipotential surfaces whose potential is unity.
We may therefore determine from this system the distribution of
electricity in the following cases :
(1) On the conductor PDQI/ formed of the larger segments of

both spheres. Its potential is 1^ and its charge is
This quantity therefore measures the ca])aeity of such a figoie

when free from the indiietivo .'iction of other bodies.
The density at any point P of tlie sphere whose centre is A, and
the density at any point Q of the sphere whose centre is B, are
respectively
Digitized by Google
208 BLBCmiC IMAOSS. [l68.
At tlie pointfl of interseetioii, D, Iff the density is mo.

If one of the spheres is Toiy much hoger than the otJierj the
density at the vertex of the smidler sphere is ultimatelj three times
that at the vertex of the larger sphere.
(2) The lens T'BQ'I/ formed by the two smaller segments of
the spheres, charged with a quantity of electncitj = — -^^==1
and acted on by points A and charged with quantities a and
is also at potential unity, and the density at any point is expreswd
by the same formulae.
(3) The meniscus DPiyQ" formed by the difference of the
segments charged with a quantity a, and acted on by points B
and (7, charged respectively with quantities /S and — °— , ia also

V -f
in eqmlibriam at potential nnily.
(4) The other meniscus QDP^Bt mder the action of A and C
We may also deduce the distributien of electricity on the following
internal surfaces.
The hollow lens P'DQ'I) under the influence of the internal
electrified point C at the centre of the circle DIX.
The hollow nunuscus under the influence of a point at the centre
of the concave surface.
The hollow formed of the two larger segments of both spheres
under the inHuence of the three points //, B, C.
But, instead of working out the solutions of these.cases, we shall
apply the prinei])le of electrical iraagi's to determine the density
of the electricity induced at the point P of the external surface of
the conductor PD(^ by the action of a point at Q charged with
unit of electricity.
Let OAâ, OB = b, OF = r, BP^p,
ADr=:a, -5i>=/3, AB=^/a'^(i^.
Invert the system with respect to a sphere of radius unity and
centre 0.
The two spheres will remain spheres, cutting eadi other ortfao-
gonally,and having th^ centres in the same radii with A and J7.
If we indicate by accented letters the quantities corresponding to
the inverted system,
a' z=
^flU^' ^-^qa?' "-î:?' ^"W^'
L yi .^ jcl by Googl
I
l68.] TWO 8PHBRBS OUTTINa OBTHOQOKALLT. 209
If, in the inverted Eystem, the potential of the surfiMse is nnily,

tben the density at the point is
l£, in the original system, the density at is then

9 1
and the potential is

^ . By placing at 0 a negative charge of
electricity equal to unity, the potential will heoome ssero over the
P will be
nrfaoe, and tlie
î^H^Vl
density at
^ \
This gives the distribntion of electricity on one of the spherical

surfaces dne to a charge placed at 0. The distribution on the
other spherical surface may be found by CTchanging a and 6, a and
/9, and putting q or AQ instead of
To find the total charge induced on the conductor by the elec-
trified point at 0, let us eramine the inverted system.
In the inverted system we have a charge of at J^, and ^ at
and a neereitive chartje , at a point C in the line A'Ji',
such that AC CB : :: a* :
If OJf= a', 0^= 0C'= (fy we find
^= s^^hP
Inverting this system the charges become
a'
~ a b'
~ b
'
1 afi
and
Hence the whole charge on the conductor due to a unit of

negative electricity at 0 is
VOL. I.
Digitized by Google
210 ELECTRIC IMAGES. [169.
DUtributwn of Electricity on Three Spherical Sur/ace$ which

Intersect at Big /it Amjltit. ,
169.] Let the nwiii of the spheres be a, ^, y, then
Let FQIt, Fig. 1 8, be the feet

of the perpendioilan from
on the oppoeite sides of the tri-
angle, and let O be the inter-
section of perpendiealan.
ThenPis tiie image of 2^ in
the sphere y, and also the image
of Cin the sphere fi. Also 0 ia
the image of P in the sphere a.
Let charges a, ^, and y be
placed at A, B, and C.
Then the charge to be placed
Flff.U. at P is
+ a
Also ^s v;^V+^l£+f^^*^ ^ the chaige at 0, con-
sidered as the image of P, is

_ Q/^y 1
v^^V4V«*+^" /i T]^ 1
In the same way we may find the system oîmages which are
electrically equivalent to four spherical surfiM^s at potential nnity
interseetiug at right angles.
If the radios of tiie fourth sphere is ft, and if we make the diaige
at the centre of this sphere = ft, then the charge at the intereeetion
of the line of centres of any two spheres, say a and fi, with their
plane of intersection, is 1
The chargê at the intcrsn tion of the plane of any three centres
ABC with the perpendicular from D is
1
Digitized by Google
I70j FOUR 8PHBRB8 CUTTINO ORTHOOONALLT. 211
and the chaige at tiie inteneetion of the four perpendiedan is
VI T i
+
T*
„2 + ^2 + y2
Sîtem of Four iSpXere* IntemoUtiff ai Right Anglet wader tie

Action of an Electrifitd Point.
170.] Lot tlie four gpheres be A,B,CfDy and let the electrified point
be 0. Draw four spheres Ai, 7?,, C^, 7>, , of which any one, A^y
passes through 0 and cuts three of the splieres, in this case J?,
C, and at right angles. Draw six spheres (alf), (ac), (ad), (be),
(bd), (cd), of which each passes through 0 and through the circle
of intersection of two of the original spheres.
The three spheres B^, C^, will intersect in another point besides
0. Let this point be called A', and let B", C, and 1/ be the
intersections of Cj, J^j, A^ Ai, B^, and of A^, B^^ (\ re-
of
spectively. Any two of these spheres, A^, B^, will intersect one of
the six (od?) in a point {a'b*). There will be six such points.
Any one of the spheres, A^ , will intersect three of the six [ab),
{ac\ {ad) in a point a. There will be four such points. Finally^

the six spheres (ab), (oe), (ad)^ (cd), (dd), (be), will intersect in one
point 3,
If we now invert the eyatom with respeet to a sphere of mdina
S and centre 0, the four spheres A, B, C, J) will he inverted into
q»heres, and the other ten spheres will heoome planes. Of the
points of intersection the first four if, S^, C, Jf will become the
centres of the spheres, and the others will correspond to the other
eleven points in the preceding article. These fifteen points form
the image of 0 in the system of four spheres.
At tiie point which is the image of 0 in the sphere A, we
must place a charge equal to the image of 0, that is^ ~^ , where a
is the radios of the sphere J, and a is the distance of its centre

firom 0. In the same way we most pbKie the pfoper oharges at
C, Uf,
The oharges for each of the other eleven points may be foond fsxm
the expressions in the last article by sobstitoting a', ^, y, h' for
o> ^» V) ^>and multiplying the resnlt for each point by the distanoe
of the point firom 0, where
'^^-jsqp' >^=-?37s' *=-3IC9-

P z
212 ELBCTBIC mAQBS. [171,
Tico Spheres not Intersecting.
171.] TVhen a space is bounded by two qpherical surfaces which

do not intersect^ the successive images of an influencing point
within this spaoe form two infinite series, all of which lie beyond
the spheriosl and therefore fidfil the
sorfiusesj ooa4itioii of the
applicabitity of the method of electrieal images.
Any two non-inteisecting spheres may he inverted into two
oonoentrio spheres by assmning as the pomt of inversion either
of the two common inverse points of the pair of spheres.
We shall begin, therefore, with the ease of two nninsdated
concentric spherical snrftces, sabjeot to the induction of an elec-
trified point placed between them.
Let the Tadius of the first be b, and that of the second be'^, and
let the distance of the influencing point from the centre be r = b^.
Then all the sviccesbive images will be on the same radius as the
iullueneing point.
Let <2o, I'îf?. 14, be the image of P in the first sj)hcre, 1\ that
of Qq in the second sphere, that of in the first sphere, aud

80 on ; then
oi\.oq,=.b\
and 0P..0Q._i=Aatf2«^,
also Oq^ = be'\
OFi = «^+«^,
Hence OP, =
OQ, = fc-C+«-w).
If the charge of F is denoted by F,
Fig. 14. then
P, = Pc*^, Q, = _Ptf-("+»=»).
Next, let be the image of P in the second sphere, P/ that of
Qi in the first, &c.,
0P/=
0P/=
of;= /vt'"--'^,
F; = Pe-*w,
Of these images all the P's are positive, and all the Q's negative,
all the P^s and Q's belong to the first sphero, and all the P*s and
Q^'s to the second.
yi. jd by Google
172.] TWO 8PHXBB8 KOT UTFBBflEOTIKO. 218
The images withm the fint sphere foim a oonveigiDg series^ the
nm of which is
This theiefeie is the quantitjr of electricity on the fint or interior

sphere. The images
oatside the second sphere form a divergmg
series,but the snr&ee-integral of eseh with respect to the spherical
surface is zero. The charge of electricity ou the exterior spherical
surface is therefore
If we sabstiitote for these expressions their valoes in terms of

OA, OS, and OP, we find
charge ou ^ as —P ,
charge on j5 = —P -jg-
If we suppose the radii of the spheres to become infinite, the case

bectmies that of a point pkced between two parallel planes A and
In tiiis case these expressions become
PB
chaige on J s — AJJ'
charge on ss —P ^ •
172.] In order to pass from this case to that of any two spheres
not intersecting each
other, we begin by
fityiing
^ the two Com-
mon inverse points 0,
(/ throngh which all
circles pass that are
orthogonal to both
spheres. T1ien> invert-
ing the system with
respect to eitiber of
thesepoints^the spheres
become concentric, as Fig. 15.
in the first case.
The ladins OAFB on which the successive images lie becomes

an arc of a circle throngh 0 and and the ratio of CtP to OP is
214 SliBCTBIO 1MAQS8. [172.
equal to 6V where C is a numerical quantity which for simpUcitjr

we may make equal to unity.
We therefore put
,
aP ,
(YA , OB
t
Let ^— o » Wy u—a = 0,
Tlien all the successive images of P will lie on the arc OAPBC/,
The position of the imxige of in ^ is where
That of Qo in is Pi where
(yp
Similarly
«(P.) = «+2««r, = 2a->fli-2tfv.
In the same way if the successive images of P in P, B, &c.

we P/, &c.,
•(CoO = »(Pi')e«-2«r;
• (P,') = «— 2««, = 2^— »+a#«r.
To find the eliarg-e of any image P, we observe that in the
inverted figure its charge is
In the orififinal figure we must multiply this by CXP,. Hence the

charge of P« in the dipolar figure is
W OP.QP
'
If we make ^ = V OP.(/P, and call £ the parameter of the

point P, then we may write
or the charge of any image is pioporiional to its paiameter.

If we make use of the curvilinear coordinates u voA, 9, sach that
then « as 2 » !f
— 1
eosA«— oos« ^ oosin— oos« »
yi. jd by Google
172.] TWO 8PBBB18 NOT UfTEBBBOTIirG. 215
»
f ^
A/C08^tt— 0089
Stnoe the charge of etch knage is pzopovtioiial to its pammeter,
£ and is to he taken positlTeljr or negati^dy according as it is of
the form P or Q, we find
P^/ooeliirôoefr
p.'
\/c08 A (w 4- 2* w) — COS O
P \/ ('<
)S — COS r
\^008A(2a— »— 2««) — 00S9

P\/cos Aw — COSP
. ; »
V oos i • 2 « v) ^ COS o
I'V'oosilff— OOSV
«.'=-
-/cos/i (2/3— w-f 2*t3-) — C08P
We have now obtained the positions and charges of the two
infinite series of images. We have next to determine the total
charge on the sphere A
by finding the sum of all the images Irithin
it which are of the form Q or P". We may write this
1
J
PV00SAt(— C0S9 ^..1
—#1 - >
='
VcosA(»— 2#ix)T-coe»
— PVeOSilff— C06« ]2,.o / z /o

VC08A(2a— « — o2«9)~C069
X
'
In the same way the total induced charge on .0 is

^#«ao 1
• iBtlMMapniriocwiwaintriiiMiDlMrtlia*
2oo«A«»»^ + e~*» 2ginAu = e*— «"*,
and the other functiona of u are derived from theie by the aame definitiom th* m
correapomling trigonometriaU fiinotioiW.
Tilt! method of applying dipolar ooordiiuites to this case waR given by ThomHon in
LiouvUU'i Jottmal for 1S47. 8m11i0iiiMa'a reprint oiSUetrkol Papen» | 211, 212.
In the text I have made aie «f the feveatigation of Ptof. Betti, Nmv9 (Xmml9,
vol. XX, for the analytical method, but I have retiined the idea of elatetal iuafM
oaed hj Thoouon in hia original inveatigation, FhU, Mag., 1863.
216 BLBCTBIO IMAQB8. [173.
173.] We shall apply these results to the determmation of the

ooefficients of capacity and induction of two spheres whoie radii are
a and and the distance of whose centres is
In this case
2e
mm A > A ^
8m4.a =
•
- 1 8inil.Bs t *
Let the sphere 2^ be at potential iini1y> and the sphere B at

potential zerOt
Then the snooessive images of a charge a placed at the centre
of the sphere A will be those of the actual distribution of eleotridfy.
All tiie images will lie on the axis between the poles and the
centres of the spheres.
The yaloes of u and v finr the centre of the sphere A are
fit as 2a, 9 = 0.
Henoe we most sabetitate a ar k-^^r- for P, and 2a for «, and
sm A a
t?=0 in the equations, remembering that P itself forms part of the
charge of A* We ihuB find for the coefficient of capacity of A
^tmo sinA(«w— a)'

for the coefficient of induction oi Aon B or oi B on A
and for the coefficient of capacity of B

$sstt>
0 sm>i03+««)
To calenlate these quantities in terms of a and the radii of the
i^heresi and of e the distance between their centres^ we make use
of the following quantities
p = '- = V:? + '-r
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174«] TWO ELECTRIFIED SPHERES. 217
We may now write the hyperbolic sines in terms of jt;, q, r ; thus

2k
P
f
2f aoo
2il
Prooeeding to the actual calculation we find, either by this

process or by the direct calculation of the successive images as
shewn in Sir W. Thomson's paper, which is more convenient for
the earlier part of the series,
ob aH^
— &c.
.
. ^ .
174.] We have then the following equations to determine the

charge and ^ of the two spheres when electrified to potentials
and respectively,
whence P^^Pv^-Pa^ = i
then ihe equaitioiis to determme the poteatiak in tenns of the
^Pabâ-^ Phb^bt
and PaatPabi ftud/^ are the coefficients of potential.
The totid energy of the system is, by Art 86,
Digitized by Google
218 ILBOTHIC nCAOSBL [174.
The repulsion between the splieies is theraforo^ by Arts. 92, 93,
where e is the distuiee between the oenties of the spheres.

Of these two expressions for the repolsion, the first, whieh
oxprooDco it in terms of the potentials of tiie spheres and the
variations of the coefficients of capacity and induction, is the most
convenient for ealculation.
We have therefore to differentiate the ^'s \\ith respect to r.
These quantities are expressed as functions of k, a, /3, and iir, and

must be differentiat<,'d on the supposition that a and b arc constant.
From the equations
A3
,
i = amnAa s 6sini/3^ s= e sin
. , 1 . ,
.—
h a sin
smAvr
j ^»
we
. .
find
da
-3-
de
= oniacoaAB
—
xorAv
— I- 9
d^ ecmkamkfi
*
de itaniw
dv I
dk oosiaoo84/8,
*
"dc siniw
whence we find
^t»«> (<g -- a cos ^ /3) eos i

dq^ _ eosiltteoB^)3 w-> a)
de ~ siniw X ~ -^'-o c (8ini(«v— a))'
*
<fc sinier "F (sin Am)*

dq^ _ OPS Aaeosi^ qii, (#g+ ^ cos A a ) cos A (/3 -f Jw) ^
Sir William Thomson has calealated the force between two

spheres of equal radius separated by any distance leas than tiie
diameter of one of them. For greater distances it is not necessary
to use more than two or three of the suoressive imag'es.
The series for thi diiFerential coefficients of the q'u with respect
to c are easily obtained by direct differentiation
Digitized by Google
^75-] BFHSBBS IN OONTAOT. 219
dq^_ 2a*he 2a»3»g(2c«-2ft»-a^) »

Jfe (?3p)t •
dq^ _ 2fl>?»g _ 2fl»^»g(2c2-2o2-^2)
IHilfibuiion tfBleetneify cm lô SpAeret in Orntaet,
175.] If we suppose the two spheres at potentiftl unity and not

influenced by any other point, then, if we invert the 8yst4.'m with
respect to the point of^contactj we shall have two parallel planes,
dutant ^ and from the point of inyeirioii, and eleetrified by
the action of a unit of electricity at that point.

There will be a series of positiTe images, each equal to unity, at
distances '(^ + ^) from the origin, where « may hm any integer

value from — ooto +00.
There will also be a series of negative images each equal to — 1,
the diiitancee of which from the origin, leekoned in the direction of
1 A Iv
are--i-.Q + j).
When back again into the form of the

this system is inverted
two spheres in contact, we ham a coneeponding
series of negative
images, the distances of which from the point of contact are of the
form — ^
, where i is positive ibr the sphere A and negative
t<at the sphere B, Tlie chaxge of each image, when the potential
of the spheres is unity, is nmnerically equal to its distance from the
point of contact^ and is always negatiTe.
There will also be a series of positive images whose distances
^
from the point of contact measured in the direction of the centre

'
of a, axe of the form
Y
When * is zero, or a positive integer, the image is in the sphere A»

When « is a negative integer the image is in the sphere B,
Digitized by Google
220 ELBOTJUC nuoia [175.
The charge of each image is meieimd by its dietonce &om the

origin and is always positive.
total cliaige of the epheie A is theiefoie
<^«a« 1 ad
Each of these series is infinite, bat if we combine them in the form
the aeries beoomea converging.

In the same waj we find for the charge of the apheie B,
<^«saB ab ah ^*=-» 1
The valoes of and J^b I'o^^ so fiyr ae I know, expressible

in terms of known functions. Their differmoe, howeverj is easily
expressed, for
Trad ^ nb
cot
When the spherea are equal the charge of eadi tax potential onity
ia '
R V"*__L_
-^-i 2#(2#-l)*
= a log, 2 = 1.0986 a.
"When the sphere A is very small compared with the sphere B

the diarg^ on ^ is
^. = y 2i,.i ^ appronmstely
The charge on .fi is nearly the same as if ^ were removed^ or
The mean density on each sphere is fi>and by dividing tiie charge

by the sorfiuse. In this way we get
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177.] 8PHBRI0AL BOWL. 221
Hence, if a very small sphere is made to touch a very large one,

the mean dentiity on the small sphere is equal to that on the krge
sphere multiplied by or 1.644936.
4y^>caium cfEUeiirietU Iwvenkm to ike eon rfa J^pimeal JBcwl,

176.] One of the moat xenmrkable illiutntioiia of the power of
Sir 11uiiiuoD*8 method of Electrical Images is fomiahed by bia
mveatigatioii of the diatribntion of eleotricily on a portion of a

spherical surface bounded by a small circle. The resnlts of thia
investigation, without proof, were communicated to M. Liouville
and published in his Journal in 184 7. The complete investigation
is yiven in the reprint of Tliomson's Electrical Papers, Article XV.
I am not aware that a solution of the problem of the distribution
of electricity on a finite portion of any curved surface has been
given by any other mathematician.
As I wish to explain the method rather than U) verify the
calculation, I sliall not enter at length into either the geometiy
or the integration, bat refer my readers to Thomson's work.
DUtriOution of ElectricUy ou an Ellipsoid.
177.] It is shewn by a well-known method''^ that the attraction

of a shell bounded by two similar and similarly situated and
conoentric ellipsoids is such that there ia no resultant attraction
on any point within the shell. If we suppose the thiekneee of
the shell to diminiah indefinitely while its density increaaeai we
ultimately arrive at the oonceptkm of a anr&oe-denaiiy ynymg
aa the perpendionlar firom the oentie on the tangent plane,and
ainoe the resultant attnustion of thia anperfioial diatribntioa on any
point within the ellipaoid ia aero, deetrioily, if ao diatribnted on
the be in equilibrium.
anrfiuiej will
Henoe, the anrfaoe-denriiy at any point of an eUipaoid undia-

turbed by external influenoe variea aa the diatanoe of the tangent
plane from the centre.
• Tbomû aud Tait'a Natural PhUotophy, § 620, or Art. 160 of this book.
J-
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222 £L£CTRIC IMAOSS. [178.
Distributiim Electricity on a Disk.
By making two of the axes of the ellipsoid equal, and making

the third vanish, we arrive at the case of a eircalar disk, and. at an
expression for the surfiuse-density at any point jP of such a disk
when eleetfified to the potential VmA left nndistoxbed by external
inflnence. If he the enriaoe-denflity on one ride of the diski
and if KFL be a chord drawn throt^ tlie point then
r
AfipHeatkm of the Principle of Meetric Inversion.

178.] Take any point Q as the centre of inwsi(»i, and let B
be the radios of the sphere of inversion. Then the plane of the
disk becomes a spherical snrfiMse passing through Q, and the disk
itself becomes a portion of the spherical snrfiioe bounded by a cirde.
We shall call this portion of the surface the b&»L
If iff' is the disk eleetrified to potential F' and free from external
influence, then its dectrical image S will be a spherical segment at
potential zeroj and eleetrified by the influence of a quantity F*R of
electricity placed at Q,
We have therefore by the process of invermon obtained the
solution of the problem of the distribution of electricity on a
bowl or a plane disk when under the influence of an electrified
point in the surface of the sphere or plane produced.
Iiûeitee of em SUeiriJled PoiiU jâeed <m tke unoccupied jmrt cfihe

iBjpJUrieal Suifaee.
The form of the solution, as deduced by the principles already

given and by the geometry of inversion, is as follows :
If C is tlie central point or pole of the spherical bowl S, and

if a is tlie distance from C to any point in the edge of the segpoaent,
then, if a quantity q of electricity is placed at a point Q in the
surface of the sphere produced, and if the bowl S is maintained
at potential zerOj the density <t at any point P of the bowl will be
1_ /CQ^^
27i'' QF' A/ d^'-CP^*
CQt CP, and QP being the straight lines joining the points, C,
and P.
It is remarkable that this expression is independent of the radius
of the spherical surface of which the bowl is a part. It is therefore
applicable without alteration to the case of a plane disk.
Digitized by
BPHBBICAL BOWL. 223
Iiûeiice <âm^ Nmmber of EUdrififid PaiiUt.
two p«rt«> one of

liciw let VB oonrider the spliero as divided into
wliieh> tiie epherical segment on which we have detennined the
electric distribntion, we ehall call the botDl^ and the other the
remainder^ at nnocenpied part of the sphere on which the in-
flnencing point Q is placed.
If any number of inflaenoing points are phMsed on the xemainder
by these on any point of the
of the sphere, the eleotridly induced
bowl may be obtained by the Bummation of the densities induced
by each separately.
179.] Let the whole of the remaining siiriace of the sphere
be uniformly electrified, the surface-density being- p, then the
density at any point of the bowl may be obtained by ordinary
intef^ration over the surface thus electrified.
We shall thus obtain the solution of the case in which the bowl
is at potential zero,, and electritied by the iniluence of the remaining
portion of the spherical surlace rigidly electrified with density p.
Now let the whole system be insulated and placed within a

sphere of diameter and let this sphere be uniformly and rigidly
electrified so that its surface-density is p'.
There will be no resultant force within this sphere, and therefore

the distribution of electricity on the bowl will be unaltered^ but
the potential of all points within the sphere will be increased by
a quantity F where
Hence the potential at every point of the bowl will now be F.

Now let us suppose that this sphere is concentric with the sphere
of which the bowl forms a part, and that its radius exceeds that
of the latter sphere by an infinitely small quantity.
We have now the case of the bowl maintained at potential F and
influenced by the remainder of the sphere rigidly electrified with
superficial densily p+p^
I8O.3 We
have now only to suppose p+p'^ 0, and we get the
OMM of the bowl maintttued at potential F and free from external
influence.
If a is the density on either surfiwe of the bowl at a given point
when the bowl is at potential zero^ and is influenced by the rest
of the qthere electrified to dendty p, then, when the bowl is main-
tained at potential we must increase the density on the outside
of the bowl by the density on the supposed enveloping sphere.
224 BLSOT&IC IMAQEfl. [l8l.
The result of this investigation is that if / is the diameter of

the sphere, a the chord of the radius of the bowl, and r the chord
of the distance of P firom the pole of the bowl, then the surfiMie*
density ir on the imide of the bowl is
sod tiie smfiuse-dennly on the oatnde of the bowl at the sMiie

point 18 F
In the no opention ie employed more

oalcolation of thii nenlt
abetrnte than oidinaiy integmtion orer part of a spherical anrfiuse.
To complete the theoiy of the electrification of a spherical bowl
we odIj require the geometij of the inmrion of spherical saiAoes.
181.] Let it be required to find the smfiuse-densitj indaoed at
any point of the bowl by a quantity q of electricity placed at a
point not now in the spherical surface produced.
Invert the bowl with respect to Q, the radius of the sphere of
inversion being Ji. The bowl S will be invertc'd into its image S',
and the point P will have for its image. We have now to
determine the density a' at P^ when the bowl A" is maintained at
potential F\ such that q s= F^Ji, and is not influenced by any
external force.
The density a at the point P of the original bowl is then
this bowl being at potential zero, and intiuenced by a quantity q of

electricity placed at Q.
The result of this process is as follows :
Let the figure represent a section

through the centre, 0, of the sphere,
the pole, C, of the bowl, and the in-
fluencing point Q. i> is a point
which corresponds in the inverted
fi^rc to the unoccupied pole of the
rim of the bowl, and may be foond
by the following construction.
Draw through Q the chords HQS'
and FQF'f then if we suppose the
ndias of the sphere of inwsiDn to
be a mean proportional between the
segments into which a chord is divided at Q, JB'F' will be the
SPHXaiCAL BOWL. 225
image of EF. Bisect the arc F'CE' in I/, so that F'iy=iyE\ and
draw jyQ,!) to meet the sphere in D. JD is the point required.
Alao thiongh 0, the centre of the sphere, and Q draw JlOQir
meeting the sphere in Hand //'. Then if P be any point in the
P on the side which is sepazated i&om
bowl, the surfiBce-density at
Q by the completed spherical aar&oej induced by a quantity q of
electricity at will be
2%^ HE\Pq'
VOL. I.
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*
CHAPTER XII.
THfeOET 07 GOKJUOATK FUHOTIONS HT TWO DDBIIBIOKS.
182.] The number of independent cases in which the problem

of electrical eqnilibriuin has been edyed is very small. The method
of spherical harmonics has been employed for spherical oondactoni
and the methods of electrical images and of inverrion are still more
poweifal in the cases to which they can he applied. The case of
sinfiMMs of the second degree is the otdy one^ as fiur as I know,
in which both the eqoipotential snifiMses and the lines of force aie
known when the lines of force are not plane carves.
Bat there is an important dass of problems in tiie theoiy of
and in that of the oondaetion of conents,
electrical eqoilibriamj
in which we have to consider space of two dimensiomi only.
For instance, if throoghoot the part of the electric field onder
consideration, and for a considerable distance beyond it, the sorfiMses
of all the conductors are generated by the motion of straight lines
parallel to the axis of and if the part of the field where this
ceases to be the case is so far from the part considered that the
electrical action of the distant part on the field may be neglected,
then the electricity will be uniformly distributed along each gene-
rating line, and if we consider a part of the field bounded by two
planes perpendicular to the axis of z and at distance unity, the
potential and the distribution of electricity will be functions of x
and y only.
If p dx dy denotes the quantity of electricity in an elementwhose
base dxdy and height unity, and adit the ([uantity on an element
is
of area whose base is the linear element di and height unity, then
the equation of Poi^n may be written
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nOBLKMB IS TWO dhuksioks. 227
When there ie no free eleotrieilyj this is rednoed to the eqnatioii
The general problem of electric eûilibriam may be stated as

follows :
A continuous space of two dimensions, bounded by closed curves

C,, C^, &c. being given, to find the form of a function, F, such that
at these boundaries its value may be Fj, F^, &c. respectively, being
constant for each boundary, and that within this space F may be
everywhere finite, coatiiiaoaB, and single vidued^ and may satisfy
Laplaoe'e equation.
I am not awaie that any perfectly general solution of even this
question has been given, but the method of tnumfonnation given in
Art. 190 18 applicable to this case, and is much more powerful than
any known method applicable to three dimensions.

The method depends on the propertiee of eoigqgate fonetions of
two wiablee*
Definition of Conjugate
183.] Two quantities a and ^ are said to be conjugate functions

of and y, if 0+ V — 1 ^ is a function oix-^ V — ly.
It follows firam this definition that
da dfi da dfi
^ + s = ^0,
,
aud (I)
Henoe both fonetions satisfy Laplaoe's equation. Also
dadfi dadfi rfai* 5^* dfif dfi*

= J8». (8)
If # andy are rectangular coordinates, and if is the intercept

of the curve 03 = constant) between the curves a and a-^-da^ and
di^ the interoept of a between the carves /3 and fi+dfi, then
^
da
= ^= R
d^
(4)
^ '
and the eurves intersect at right angles.

If we suppose the potential F = FQ-^kay where k is some con-
stant, then /' will satisfy Laplace's equation^ and tlie curves (a) will
be equipotential curves. The curves (J3)

will be lines of force^ and
<12
22a CONJUGATB FUHCTIONS. [1B4.
the saifiMie-mt^ral of a surface whose projection oa the plane of

is the curve AB will he ^(^b—â)* where jS^ and jSs are the
values of /3 at the extremities of the curve.
If a series of carves oorreflponding to values of a in arithmetical
progfession is drawn on the plane, and another series corresponding
to a series of values of ^9 having the same common difference, then
the two siBries of curves will everywhere intersect at right a^nglaa^

and, if tiie common difference is small enough, the elements into
which the plane is divided will be oltimateLj little sqnares, whose
sides, in different parts of the field, are in different directions and of
different magnitnde^ being inverselj proportional to R.
If two or more of the eqaipotential lines (a) are closed carves
endodng a continuous space between them, we may take these for
the sar&ces of conductors at potentials (Jô-\-âi),(ô+^<0>
respectively. The quantity of electriciiy upon any one of these
between the lines of force fii and ^ will be ^

The number of eqaipotential lines between two conductors will
thereforo indicate their difference of potential, and the number of
lines of force which emerge from a conductor will indicate the
quantify of electricity upon it.
We must next some of the most important theorems

state
rdating to conjugate fhnctions, and in proving them we may use
either the equations (1), containing the diflbrential coeffidente^ or
the original definition, which makes use of imaginary symbob.
184.] Theorem I. J/' x' and are conjiujate funciiom with reaped
to X and y, and [f x" and y" are also cotijufjate/nncfknus with
respect to x and' //, iheii the functions x \-x" and ^' -VJl"
6e conjugate J'unctiom with respect to x atid y.
For *^ = *:
dy*
and ^=
dx dy
*
ax dif
Also
djf d»'
and —=
dy
--^ *
dx
•
Wore l(g:±^_-'^(///');
dy dx
or a? and y+y" are conjugate with respect to x andy.
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GKAPHIC METHOD. 229
Grapkie Bepretentation <^ a Function whkh is the Sum of Two

Gwe% Funetioiu.
Let a fbnetion (a) of m and y be graphically reprasented by a

eeries of eaires in the plane of eaoh of these onrvee oonre-
qpOiKling to a Taloe of a which belongs to a series of such valnes
incressmg by a common difference, 8.
'
Let any other function, fi, of x and be represented in the same
way by a series of corves corresponding to a series of values of
having the same common difference as those of a.
Then to represent the function a+/3 in the same way^ we must
draw a series of curves through the into'sections of the two former
series from the intersection of the curves (a) and (/3) to that of the
curves (o + S) and (/3 — 5), then through the intersection of (a + 2 8)
and (3 — 28), and so on. At each of these points the function will
have the same value, namely a + /3. The next curve must be drawn
through the points of interseetion of a and /3 + 8, of a + 5 and /3,
of a-f-2 5 and ^ — b, and so on. The function belonging to this

curve will be a -f- /3 + 5.
In this way, when the series of curves (a) and the series f/S) are
drawn, the series (a-\-p) may be constructed. These three series of
curves may be drawn on separate j)ieces of transparent paper, and
when the first and second have been properly superposed, the third
may be drawn.
The combination of conjugate functions by addition in this way
enables us to draw figures of many interesting cases with very
little trouble when we know how to draw the simpler cases of
which they are compounded. We have, however, a fiur more
powerful method of transformation of solutions, depending on the
following theorem.
186.] Theorem If x" and y" are conjugate functums witA

II.
respect to the variabUt ^
and y', and \f x' and if are conjugate
functions with respect to x and then ^' and he con- y iM
jugate functions with respect to x and y.
For — ="
dx d^ dx"^
û?"
dj(
d/
dx'
df daf
dy dy dx dy
_
- '
'a,
Digitized by Google
280 COKJVOAIS FUVCmNB. [185.
and
dif dm ds^ dx
'
dx
and tibese sre the oonditioiis ihst and y dioiild be eoigiigaAe
fimofcions of • and jr.
This may alio be ahewn from the origmal definition of coiqagate
ftmctaonB. For tf^'/^/' is a fonction of d<+ 'Z^ /, and
d^+y^y ii a fimction of + Ijr. ReooB, tT+V^jT
ifla Ibnetion of V'— Ijr.
In the aune way we may ahew that if y and jr^ ate oonjugate
frinctions of 9 and then 4r and jr aie ooi^ngate fonctiona of if
and
This theorem may be interpreted graphically as follows
Let x', y be taken as rectangular coordinates, and let the cnrves
corresponding to values of x* and of taken in regular arithmetical
seriesbe drawn on paper. A double system of curves will thus be
drawn cutting the paper into little squares. Let the paper be «lso
ruled with horizontal and vertical lines at equal intervals, and let
these lines be marked with the corresponding values of and if
Next, let another piece of paper be taken in which x and y are
made rectangular coordinates and a double system of curves x\ y
is drawn, each curve being marked with the corresponding value
oiaf or y'. This 83'stem of curvilinear coordinates will correspond,
point for point, to the rectilinear system of coordinates d^, on the
first piece of paper.
Hence^ ifwe take any number of points on the cnnre on the
first paper, and note the valaes of af and if at these points, and
mark the corresponding points on the second paper, we shall find
a nnmber of points on the transformed corre d\ Ifwe do the
same for all the cnrves y ,
^' on the first paper, we shall obtain on
the second paper a doable series of cnrves gi\ if' of a diflbrent form,
bat having the same property of catting the paper into little
squares.
i86.] 281
186.] TraOKBM m. yrUamgJjimelimirf^mtd/.aiid^t^

amdff am ctmjmgaU fimetimu cfm and iike»
the integratum being between the same limits.
For
dm" dsf drn'^'^H'
d^r dw fihf^ d^r dx'd/ d^Fd/
"^da^ ^ "d/d/ de dx^ d^^ dx
dVdâf dVd^/
dii de^ '^dgd^ '
d^r _d^r dy d^r djt'

— d'^vdu'i
—
and
df>
- daf^ dy
_^ 2
ds^ dy dy dy
-}- ,
(hf -
—
dy
dVdâf dVd^y
d^df '^dg'd?'
Adding the last two equations, and remembering the conditions
of conjugate functions (1), we find
d^ )
_ .(PT (Pr. .dx' d/ _d^ ///s

" W- dp-J \ix ~ dy dx>'
Hence
IS V \bsl potential, then, by Poisson's equation

d^r d^r
and we may write the leralt
jjpdxdy^jjp'd^'d/,
or file qmntily of eleotiricity in ooireeponding portione of two

systems is the same if the ooordinstee of one system are conjugate
functions of those of the other.
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282 [187-
Additional Theorenu on Conjugate Functions.
187.] Theorem IY. If ao^ and y^, and ako and y^t ^
jMâie /»neiiomi of » and jr, îtfn, if
X and T vill be eonjfugate /unctions of x and y.

For X+ */^T = jfj -v/^^J.
Thbobbm V. If ^ he a eoluUon of tie eqmdion

d^4» ,d^4»_a
_ d^
f
JB muf O imtf 60 eoiifuâie fimeHtm of x and y.
For J2 and B are conjugate fbnctioiia of

_j
and ^<t>
and tfaeae
aie oonjugate fbnctiona of x and ^.
^
EzAMPUB I. Invertiait,
188.] Ab an example of the general meChod of tninafinmation

let OS take the case of inTenion in two dimenfljone.
If 0 is a fixed point in a plane, and OA a fixed direction^ and
if r SB OP ss aef', and $ s AOP, and if ^ are the rectangular
coordinates of P with respect to 0,
mss ae^GoaOf yâefanBtj

p and 0 are coiyagate fbnctions of 0 and jr. *
J£ff sssnp and â / and ^ will be coigngste fiinetions of /»

and 0. In the case in whidi » s — l we have
/ = and e^=ê, (6)
whidi is the case of ordinary inmnon coinbined with tinning the

figure 180^ round OA.
IwoenUm im Tioo JHrnentioM.
In this case if r and / represent the distances of conespcoding

189.] ELECTBIC IMAGES IN TWO DIMENSIONS. 233
points from 0, e and ^ the total electrification of a body, S and

superficial elements, V and solid elements, o- and a surface-
densities, p and p Yolume densities, 4> and corresponding po-
tendalBj
8'
r 8 a' r
(7)
9 9 a9
ExAMPLB n. Medne Imaget m Dimetuiont.
I89.3 ^ centre of a circle of radius AQ s Mid let

J? bea charge at ii, then the potential
at any point P is
4> = 2E\og-^; (8)
and if the circle is a section of a hollow

oondoeting cylinder, the sorfiuse-density
any point Fig. 17.

at Q is "^2^*
Inyert the system with lespeet to a point 0, making
AO^mb, and = (la^-l)^^-
6
then we have a charge at A' equal to that at A, where AA'
The densily at is
E h^-AA'f
and the potential at any point within the ciide is
= ^ = 2E(\ogd-\ogAF),
= 2£ (log OP'-logii'P'-log»). (9)
This is eqniênt to a combination of a dbaige E at A^, and a

charge at 0, which is tiie image of A^, with respect to the
circle. Ihe imaginary charge at 0 is equal and opposite to that
at AT.
If the point JP^ is defined by its polar coordinates referred to the
centre of the drole, and if we put
p = log r — log by and p^ = log AA'--\og b,
then AF=ibe^, AAi^be^, AO^be'^-, (10)

234 '
coKJUGATB ruKcnovg. [19a
and fhe potential at the pomt (p>, ^ is
—E \og((!î^—2eêi'cos0-^€^f>) -|- 2 Ep^. (11)

Tliis is the potential at the point (p, 0) due to a charge E, placed
at the point (p^, 0), with the condition that when /> = 0, ^ = 0.
In this case p and 6 are the conjugate functions in equations (5)

p is the logarithm of the ratio of the radios vector of a point to
the radius of the circle, and d is an angle.
The centre is the only singular point in this q^stem of ooordinatee,
/do
d4 round a closed curve is zero or 2v,
aoooiding as the closed carve excludes or includes the centre.
ExAxns UL—Nmrn^s Hwiômaium qfUii Case*.

190.] Now a and /3 be any conjugate fbnctbns <^ 0 and
let
ench that the carves (a) are equipotential carvei, and tiie carves
03) are lines idhne due to a system ooansting of a ebaige of half
a unit at the origin, and an electrified system disposed in any
manner at a certain distance from the origin.
Let us suppose that the curve for which the potential is is
a closed curve, such that no part of the electrified system except the
half-unit at the origin lies within this curve.
Then all the curves (a) between this curve and the origin will be
closed curves surrounding the origin, and all the curves (/3) will
meet in the origin, and will cut the curves (a) orthogonally.
The coordinates of any point within the curve (a„) will be determ-
ined by the values of a and at that point, and if the ]w\nt travels
round one of the curves a in the positive direction, the value of
will increase by 2ir for each complete circuit.
If we now suppose the curve (oq) to be the section of the inner

aorfiuie of a hollow cylinder of any form maintained at potential
zero under the influence of a charge of linear density £ontk line of
which the origin is the projection, then we may leave the external
electrified system out of consideration, and we have for the potential
at any point (a) within the carve

^ s 2jP(a-0a)> (IS)
and on any part of the earve eg
for tiie qaantilgr of deotiicity
between the points conesponding to fii and fi^,
Q = 2^(/8,-W. (18)
• See CreUe's Jwmal, 1861.
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19a] VWJUAXnfB TRAmVOBMAVIOK. 235
If in thu wMjt or in aiqr otiher, we havo detemmied the dis-

trilnitioii of potaotiil finr (iie caie of a gmn onm of Metion friMn
the ohuge it plaoed at a grren point tnkoii aa origin^ we may-paai
to the case in which the ehaige ia pUwed at any other point bj an
application of the general metiiod of tnmafiiimation.

Let the valnee of a and )9 for the point at which the charge is
plaoed be oi and then anbetitidnig in eqnatioii (l l) a— og for p,

and fi—^ for 0, we find foft the potential at any point whon co-
ordinates are a and /3,
^ = ^ log (1 - 2 tf— » cos ()3 - /3i) -f

-i))
-JPlog (1— 2^+i-«**oosO-ft)+««(*+t-«^) + 3if(«i-ao). (14)
Tliis expression for the potential heoomes aero when asoo, and is
finite and contmuous within the cnrre Oq except at the point jSj,
at which point the first term becomes infinite, and in its immediate
neig^hbourhood is ultimately equal to 2J^log/, where / is the
distance from that point.
We have therefore obtained the means of deducing the solution
of Green's problem for a charge at any point within a closed curve
when the solution for a charge at any other point is known.
The charge induced upon an element of the curve between the
points and fi + d^hj a charge £ placed at the point Oiîs
^
2« l-atf<i-*i>coa09-/8J+s»(t-'»)
From tliisi expression we may find the potential at any point

OjjSi within the closed curve, when the value of the potential at
every point of the closed curve is given as a function of /3, and
there is no electrification within the closed curve.
For, by Theorem II of Chap, III, the part of the potential at
/3i,
due to the maintenance of the portion of the closed curve
at the potential F, is n V, where n is the charge induced on by
unit of electrification at aj/Sj. Hence, if V is the potential at a
point on the closed curve defined as a function of ^, and 4> the
potential at the point a, /3, within the closed corve^ there being no
within the oorve,
_ 1 (1— «*t«i-««»))r<ij8
^^^^
^ 2ir Jo 1 — 2 e(«i-«i) ooe + '
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236 GONJITGATB FUNGTIONa [191.
EzAMPiii IV. DUtriiuHon of Eleetfieity near a« Edê of a

Candnetor formed 6y T»o Plane Ibeet.
191.") In the case of an infinite plane face of a conductor charged

witli eleetricity to the surface-density o-^^, we find for the potential
at a distance ^ from the plane
where C ie the value of the potential of the oondoetor itMlf

Aesnme a etnilght line in the plane ae a polar axis, and tiansfonn
into polar coordinates^ and we find for the potential
and for the quantity of eleetricity on a parallelogram of breadth

unity^ and length aef* measured from the axis
Now let Toa make p = np' and 6 s n6^, then, since p' and ^ are
oonjogate to p and 6, the eqaations
and E s= vâe^f^
express a possible distribution of electricity and of potential.

If we write r for nef', r will be the distance from the axis, and
0 the angle, and we shall have
F'= C?— 4ir<ro^^Bin«tf,
V will be equal to C whenever »0 = tt or a multiple of tt.
Let the edê be a salient aniij^le of the conductor, the inclination

of the faces being a, then the ani^le of the dielectric is 27r— a, so
that when ^ = 2 tt — a the point is in the other face of the conductor.
We must therefore make
ii{2ir-a) = ir, or «=--^.
Then r=C'-4wcr,a(I)' *sin^^,
The sui&oe-density <r at any distance r from the edge is

g—
dE
an •
IT
.r-i:ir-«
ffy^
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192.] ELLIPSES AND HYPEKBOLAS. 237
When the ang^le is a salient one a is less than tt, and the surface-
density varies according' to some inverse power of the distance
from the edgê, so that at the edge itself the density becomes
infinite^ although the whole charpfe reckoned from the edge to any
finite distance from it is always finite.
Thus, when a = 0 the edge is infinitely sharp, like the edge of a
mathematical plane. In this case the density varies inversely as

the EMûare root of the distance from the edge.
ft
WheQ A= 3 the edge is like that of an eqnibiteial prism, and the
density varies inversely as the power of the distance.
When a = ^ the edge is a right angle, and the densify is in-
Tersely as the cube root of the distance.

-
When as —
2ir
the edge is like that of a regnlar hexagonal prism,
and the density is inversely as the fourth root of the distance.

=
When a ir the edge is obliterated^ and the density is constant.
When ass^v the edge is like that in the inside of the hexagonal
prism, and the density is direciiy as the sqnaie loot of the distance
from the edge.
When a=f v the edge is a re-entrant right angle, and the densily
is diieetlyas the distance from the edge.
When aasf ir the edge is a re-entrant angle of 60% and the
density is directly as the square of the distance from the edge.
In reality, in all eases in which the density becomes infinite at
any point, there is a discharge of electricity into the dielectric at
that point, as is explained in Art. 56.
ExAMPLB y. Wûet ami ffgperMas. Fig. X.
192.] We have seen that if
Xi^êoBir, jrjsstf^sm^, (1)
* and jf will be ooi\jngate functions of 0 and ^.

Also, if = e-<* cos yj/y — —er* sin ^, (2)
9^ and jr, will be conjugate functions. Hence, if
2«=ari+ir^= + cos x//, 2y=y^-\- y^-{(^~êr^) sin V', (3)
W and y will also be conjugate functions of </) and

In this case the points for wliich is constant lie in the ellipse
whose axes are + and c*—
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238 COlfJUOATE FUNCTIOlfa [193
The |x)ints for which xj/ is constant lie in the hyperbola whose
axes are 2 cob >/r and 2 sin ^.
On the axis of 9, between « s — 1 and 0 s + 1 ^

^^0, f scores, (4)
On the azii of beyond these limits on either side, ve have

jr,
^> 1, V' = 0» i>=\0g(x+y/s^--\), (5)
ar<— 1, = ^ = log( v/*^— 1 — «).

"""i
Henoe^ if ^ is the potential function^ and the function of flow, yfr
we have the case of electricity flowing from the negative to the

x through the space between the points
positive side of the axis of
—1 and +1, the parts of the axis beyond these limits being
impervious to eleetricity.
Sinoe^ in this osse« the axis of jr is a line of floir, we may suppose
it also impervious to eleetrioity.
We. may be sections of the eqni-
also oonsider the ellipses to
potential sor&oes dne to an indefinifedy long flat oondactor of
breadth 2, ohaiged with half a nnit of eleotrioity per nnit of lengUu
If we make ^ the potential inneCion^ and ^ tiie fonotion of flow,
the esse beeomes that of an infinite plane fiom whioh a strip of
breadth 2 has been cat nway and the plane on one side chaiged to
potential ir ndule the other remains at aero.
These oases may be considered as partioQiar oases of tiie qnadrio
surfaces treated of in Chapter X. The forms of the carves aie
given in Fig. X. <
Example VI. —Pig. XI.
198.] Let as next consider «^ and j< as functions of 0 and jf, where
=dlogyirj^, y«3ten-^f' («)
and y will be also coiyugate functions of 4> and

The curves resulting from the transformation of Fig. X with
respect to these new coordinates are ^ven in Fig. XI,
If 3^ and y are rectangular coordinates, then the properties of the
axis of X in the first figure will belong to a series of lines parallel
to in the second figoie for which j^s bn'v, where a' is any
integer.
The positive values of ^ on these lines will correspond to valnes
of w greater than unity, fiir which, as we have already seen,
^sav, =log(j?+V«*^)arlogG* + Ve^-l). (7)

195] XDOS 09 AN ILBOTftlVIlD FLATI. 239
The oegative values of af on the same ImeB will oomipoiid to

vbIqm of « Imb than nnity, Uxs which, as uro have seen,
^ = 0, ^= COS-* X = cos-*e*. (8)

The properties of the axis of y in the first fignre will belong to
a series of lines in the second figure parallel to d^, for which
/= *7r(«' + i). (9)
The value of along thcBC lines is ^ = ^) for all points
both positive and negative, and
^ = log(jr+/p+T) = logU^ + V** +1A (10)
194.] If we consider <^ as the potential function, and ^ as the

function of flow, we may consider the case to be that of an in-
definitely long strip of metal of breadth tsh with a non-conducting
division extending from the origin indefinitely in the positive
direction, and thus dividing the positive part of the strip into two
separate channels. We may suppose this division to be a narrow
slit in the sheet of metal.
If a current of electricity is made to flow along one of these
divisions and back again along the other, the entrance and exit of
the current being at an indefinite distance on the positive side of
the origin^ the distribution of potential and of <»iixent will be given
by the functions ^ and >/r req^wctively.
If, on the other hand, we make the potential, and ^ the
fonction of flow^ then the case will be that of a eorrent in the
general direction of flowing through a sheet in which a number
of non-conducting divisions are placed parallel to or, extending firom
the aads of y to an indefinite distanoe in tho negative direction.
195.] We maj also i^ly the resoltB to two important oases in
statical electricity.
(1) Let a condoctor in the finm of a plane sheet, boanded \sja

straight edge bat otherwise nnlimited, be placed in the plane of m»
on the positive side of the origin^ and let two infinite condneting
planes be placed parallel to it and at distances X-wh on eitlier side.
Then, if ^ is the potential function, its valve is 0 for the middle

oondactor and i « for the two planes.
Let ns oonsider the qnantity of electricity on a part of the middle
eondnotor, extending to a distanoe 1 in the direotioii of and firom
the origin to # s a.
The electricity on the part of this strip eKtending firom mÛi
240 C0NJUOAT£ FUNCTIONS. [196,
Hence from, the origin to ^= a the amount is
lo^ ie^ + \/ 1) . (1 1)
If a is large compared with h, tluB l>eoomeB
ô+dj^ (12)
Hence the quantify of on the plane bounded by the

electricity
straight edge is would have been if the electricity
greater than it
had been uniformly distributed over it with the same density that
it has at a distance from the boundary, and it is equal to the
quantity of eleotiicity having the same uniform sar&ce-denaifiy,

but extending to a breadth equal to 6 log, 2 beyond the actual
boundary of the plate.
This imaginary uniform distribntioii is indicated by the dotted
etraight lines in Fig. XI. The -vertical linee represent lines of
force, and the horizontal lines equipotential snrfiweB, on the hypo-
theds that the density is uniform over both planes, produced to
infinity in all directions.
196.] Electrical condensers are 'sometimes formed of a plate
placed midway between two parallel plates extending considerably
beyond the intermediate one on all sides. If the radius of curvature
of the boundary of the intermediate plate is great compared with
the distance between the plates, we may
boundary as treat the
approximately a straight and calculate the capacity of the
line,
condenser by supposing the intermediate plate to have its area

extencknl by a strip of uniform l)ieadth round its boundary, and
assumin*^ the surfacc-(Ien!«iiy on tlie extended plate the buine as
it is in the ]>arts not near the boundar}'.
Thus, if S be the actual area of the plate, L its circumference,
and B the distance between the large plates, we have
* = ij, IT
(13)
and the breadth of the additional strip is
« = iS?'i.2?. (14)
IT
so that the extended area is
5'=5+^xilog.2. (15)
IT
196.] DBNBIT7 HIAB THB XDOB. 241
Tba capaeiiy of the middle plate is
Correction for the Thickness of the Plate,
Since the middle plate

is g'enerally of a thickness which cannot
be n^lected in comparison with the distance between the plateiti

we may obtain a better xepresentatioa of the fiMsta of the case by
soppofling the seetaon of tlM intennediate plate to ooneapond with
the carve ^ a= ^^
The plate will be of nearly oniform thiekneasj = at a
diatanoe ixom the bomidaxy^ bnt will be rounded near the edge-
Hie position of the aotnal edge of the plate is fonnd by pntting
/sO, whence i<s aiogoosi^. (17)
The value of ^ at this edge is 0, and at a point for which dâs a

it ie a-k-h log>^ 2
b
Hence the quantity of electricity on the plate is the same as

if a strip of breadth , . -nfi.
had been added to the plate, the density being assumed to be ewy*
where the same as it is at a distance from the boondaiy.
Densitif near the Edge.
The sorfiue-density at any point of the plate is
\ d<^ _ \ e^
An (b{ ^ Avb J
= ^3U + 4* » + (19)
The quantity within brackets rapidly approaches unity as 1^

increases, so that at a distance from the boundary ecûal to n times
the breadth of the strip a, the actual density is greater than the
normal density by about Û+i ^ ^ normal density.

In like manner we may calculate the density on the infinite planes
m
= _!!_^ . (20)
Ve* + 1
When t/ssOg the density is 2'^ of the nonnal density.

yoL. I. ft
242 ooKJUOATB FUiroTXOKS. [197.
At fli tim€s the breadth of the rtrip on the positive ttde, the
density is less than the uornuil density by about •
At « times the breadth of the etrip on the negmtive side, the
density is about ^ of the normal density.
These resalts indieste the degree of accniaoj to be eipeoted in

applying this method to pktes of limited extent^ or in which
im^ltfities maj exist not Tory fiur fimm the boondaiy. The same
distribution would exist in the case of an infinite series of simikr
plates at equal distances, the potentials of these plates being
.
alternately —
+ V and V. In this case we must take the distance
between the plates equal to B.
197.] (2) The second case wo shall consider is that of an infinite
series of planes parallel to xz at distances B = ird, and all cut off by
the plane of yz, so that they extend only on the negative side of this
plane. If we make 0 the jwtential functiou, we may regard these
planes as conductors at potential zero.
Let us consider the curves for which <f>
is constant.
"Wlien y = nv6, that is, in the prolongation of each of the planes,
we have 4 log 4 (tf* + (21)
when (»+ 1)3 V, that is, in the inteimediate positions

=ftlog4(tf*-.r^). (22)
Hence, when </> is larg-e, the curve for which <f)
is constant is
an undulating line whose mean distance from the axis of y is
approximately
^ ^ ^ (^^hg, 2), (28)
and the amplitude of the undulations on either side of this line is
When <f>
is large this l>ecomes i<?~-*, so that the curve approaches
to the form of a straight line parallel to the axis of ^ at a distance
a from a6 on the positive side.
If we suppose a plane for which = a, kept at a constant
potential while the system of parallel planes is kept at a different
potential, then, since 64^ = a 6 log; 2, the surface-density of
the electricity induced on the plane is equal to that which would
have been induced on it by a plane parallel to itself at a potential
equal to that of the series of planes, but at a distance greater
than that of the edges of the planes by b log, 2.
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199-] A OSOOTXD 8USFAC1. 248
If 17 is the digtence between two of liie planes of the

^s 80 that tiie additional distance is
a^B^^. IT
(25)
Let us next consider the space included between two of

198.]
the equiiwtential snrfaros, one of which consists of a series of parallel
waves, while the other corresponds to a large value of and may
be considered as approximately plane.
If D is the depth of tliese undulations from the crest to the trough
of each wave^ then we find for the corresponding value of
D
^=*log^. (26)
The valne of ^ at the crest of the wave is
6 log i + e-*). (27)
Hence, if A is the distance from the crests of the waves to the

opposite plane, the capacity of the system composed of the plane
surface and the undulated sur&ce is the same as that of two planes
at a distance A-iâ' where
(28)
«^=T»<«.—Tf —w —
»
l + e
199,] If a Rin^'le <>T(>ove of this form he made in a conductor

having the rest of its surface plane, and if the other conductor is
a plane surface at a distance the ca]>a('ity of the one conductor

with respect to the other will be diminished. The amount of this
diminution will be less than the - th part of the diminntion doe

n
to n such grooves side by side^ for in the latter case the average
eleotrical Ibrce between the conductors will be less than in the
former case, so that the induction on the sur&ce of each groove wiU
be diminished on account of the neighbouring grooves.
If Z is the length, B the breadth, and D the depth of the groove,
the capacily of a portion of the opposite plane whose area is 8 will be
*
Alt A AvATaT^' ^
If A is large compare<l with B or a\ the correction becomes
1+e «
Ka
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244 COHTOOATB FUKOnOVS. [200.
and fiir a dit of infimte depth, puttbg D s oo, tihe ooneetion u
To find the surface-density on the series of parallel plates we

must find when 6
^ s= 0. We find
4ir Off
<r = r^-T —=i=r . (32)
The avenge density en the plane plate at distanee A fiom the

edges of the eenea of platee is 7= . Henee, at a distance from
the edge of one of the plates equal to aa the surface-density is

^
, of this avenge denaity.
v^22" -
200.] Let us next attempt to deduce from these results the
distribution of electricity in the figure formed by rotating the
plane of the figoie about the aads /sa —B, In this ease, Fdisson'a
equation will aesnme the fonn
d^r d^F 1 JF ,,,,
Let us assume F=<f>^ the function given in Art. 193, and determine
the value of p from this equation. We know that the first two
terms disappear, and therefore
1 1 d<p /•A\
If we suppose that, in addition to the surface-density already

investigated, there is a distribution of electricity in space aooorduig
to the law just stated, the distribution of potential will be lepie-
aented by the eurvea in Fig. XI.
Now from this figure it is manifest that

^ is generally very
small except near the boundaries of the plates, so that the new
distribution may be approximately represented by what actually
exists, name^ a certain aaperfieial distribution near the edges of
the plates.
If therefeie we integrate
j^J
pdat'd/ between the limits /sO and
y = ^6, and from ^0' = — oo to « ss +00, we shall find the whole
additional diarge on one side of the plates due (0 the cnrvataxe.
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201.] -THioBT or thoxson's OUABD^mrO. 245
Litmntiiig wMi iwpeet to m find
This is the total quantity of electricity which we must suppose

distributed in space near the positive side of one of the cylindric
plates per unit of circumference. Since it is only close to the edge
of the plate that the density is sensible, we may suppose it all
condensed on the surface of the plate without altering' sensibly its

action on the opposed plane surface, and in calculating the attraction
between that surface and the cylindric surface we may suppose this
electricity to belong to the cylindric surface.
The superficial charge on the positive surface of the plate per
unit of length would have been — i, if there had been no curvature.
Hence this charge must be multiplied by the fitotor (l +i
to get the total charge on the positive side.
In the case of a disk of radius Ji placed midway between two
infinite parallel plates at a distance £, we find for the capacity
of the disk p2 i«„ o
^ + 2l^J2 + li?. (38)
l%eorj/ of T^^MMnV Qmrd-riii^,
201.] In some of Sir W. Thomson's electrometers, a large plane

surface is kept at one potential, and at a distance a from this surface
is placed a plane disk of radius R surrounded by a large plane plate
called a Guard-ring with a circular aperture of radius R couoentrio
with the disk. This disk and plate are kept at potential zero.
The interval between the disk and the guard-plate may be
regarded as a circular groove of infinite depth, and of breadth
JX^Mf which we denote by JS.
246 covjvoATB nmonoKs. [^262.
The chaige on the disk doe to unit potential of the kige disk,
supposLDg the density uniform, would be

-jT*
The chaige on one side of a straight groove of bmdth M and
length =
£ 29B, and of infinite depth, would be
. BB
Bat nmoe the groove is not etnughty lnit has a ladina of corvatore
£f this must be multiplied by the £u:tor (l + i j^)*

The whole ohaige on the disk is therefore
B^ I
BB B \ /««\
AA • *^ + a ^ '
2B
B*4-B* B'^-B' a'
(40)
6 A 8 A A-i-a'
The value of a cannot be greater than
a = —w -® , = 0.22 B nearly.
IfBiM amall oompaied with either A or B this eiqpression will
give a sufficiently good approadmation to the chaige on the disk
dne to unity of difference of potential. The ratio of ^ to J2
may have any value, hot the radii of the large disk and of tiie
guard-ring most exceed B by several mnltiples of A.

Example VII.—Pig. XII.
202.] Helmholtz, in his memoir on discontinuous fluid motion *,
has pointed out the application of several formulae in which the

coordinates are expressed as functions of the potential and its
conjugate function.
One of tliese may be applied to the case of an electrified plate
of finite size placed parallel to an infinite plane snr&ce connected
with the earth.
Since »i = A^ and jr| ss ^ ^,
and also tt^stAêotyfr and = A^ma^,
are coiyugato functions of ^ and ^, the functions formed by adding
s^ to a^ and jf| to y, will be also conjugate. Hence, if
m ss A <l>+AêoBy^f
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202*] TWO EQUAL DISKS. 247
then X and y will be conjuscate with respect to ^ and and ^ and

^ will be conjugate with respect to r and y.
Now let X and y be rectangular coordinates, and let k\lr be the
potential, then ki^ will be conjugate Ui k^y k being any constant.
Iêt MM ^v, then y = v^tt, a? = ^ (</>— e*^).
put if
If ^ wiee
fiom —
oo to 0^ and then from 0 to +oo> yaries
from —00 to —A and from —A to — oo. Hence the equipotential
Bur&ce for which k-^îr is a plane parallel to » at a distance 6^9 A
from the onguky and extending from — oo to x = — A.
Let iu ooiurider a portion of this planej extending from
m = ^{A-â) to « s Â and from # = 0 to « s
let us suppose its distance = 6 = An,
from the plane of to be
and its potential to be iylr = kir. ^=
The charge of electricity on any portion of this part of the plane
is iouad by ascertaining the values of <^ at its extremities.
If these are ^
and <pg, the quantity of electricity is
~ck{(f>^-<t>i).
We hare tfaerafoie to detennine ^ from the equation

= — + = A — «),
a? (</)
<f)
will have a negative value <pi
and a positive value ^ at the edge
of the plane, where x — — A, <f>
= 0.
Hence the charge on the negative side is —ck4>i, and that on

the positive side is ck<Po.
If we suppose that a is large compared with A,
a , -5-1+**
<^>a
= log {j^ + 1 +log(^ + 1 + &c.)}
If we negleot the exponential terms in we shall find that tiie ^

chaxge on the negative smr&oe exoeeds that which it would have
if the eaperfidal denaiiy had been nnifonn and equal to that at a
diataooe from the bonndaiy, by a quantity equal to the charge on a
strip of breadth ^ = ^ with the uniform superficial density.

The total capacity of the part of the plane considered is
L yu.^ jd by Google
248 oov#iTOATB ruvcnom. [203.
The total chaige is CV^ aad the attadaoa towaids the iniinite
jâne ia
The equipotflotial Uhm aod ImeB of fince are given in Fig. Xli.
Example WU,—Theory of a Grating of FaraUel H ires, Kg. XIIL

206.] In many electrical inatramcots a wire grating is used to
prevent certain parts of Uie apparatus from being electrified by
indootioik. We
know that if a oondnctor be entirely surrounded
bj a same potential with itself no electricity
metallic vessel at the
can be indnced on the eozfiuie of the conductor by any electrified
boi^ ontnde the TeaBel. The condnetor, bowmr, when compkiely
eoRoimded by metal, cannot be seen, and therefi>ie, in certain CMea,
an apertoie is left which ia coveied with a grafting of fine wire.
Let ua inveetigato the effiset of this giating in diminishing the
dbct of We shall suppose the giating to
electrical indnction.
consist of a of parallel wires in one plane and at eqnsl
series
intervals, the diameter of the wires being small compared with the
distance between them, while the nearest pmtions of the electrified
bodies on the one side and of the protected conductor on the other
aie at distances finm the -plane of the screen, which are oonsiderable
compaied with the distance between consecutive wires.
204.3 Tlie potential at a distance / firmn the axis of a straight
wire of infinite lengtli charged with a quantity of electricity k |)er
unit of length is r = -2\log/ + C. (l)
We may express this in terms of polar coordinates referred tn an

axis whose distance &om the wire is unity, in which case we must
= l+2rcostf+f», (2)
and if we suppose that the ads of reference is also chaiged with
the linear density A'^ we find
r = -X log (1 -2r cos ^+ r2}-2 A' log r+ C. (3)
If we now make
rs=e •» tfs , (4)
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205 ] INDUCTION THBOUQH A 0BA9ING. 249
tbflo, by the theory of ooi^ngate fimctioiiSy
rs-XlogU-80*oos— a
2X'log0« +0, (5)
where x and ^ are rectaug'ular coordinates, will be the value of the

potential due to an infinite series of fine wires parallel to z in the
plane of j/r, and passing through points in the axis of x for which
a; is a multiple of a.
Each of these wires is charged with a linear density X.

. The term involving X' indicates an electrihcationj producing a
constant foiee — 4irX' in the direetion of ^v.

a
Tlie forms of the equipotential surfaces and lines of I'orce when
X'= 0 are gîven in Fig. XIII. The equipotential surfaces near the
wires are nearly cylinders, so that we may consider the solution
approximately true, even when the wires are cylinders of a dia-
meter which is finite but small compared with the distance between
them.
The equipotential surfaces at a distance from the wires become
more and more nearly planes parallel to that of the grating.
If in the equation we make jr = 6^, a quantity laige oompared
with we find ^proximately,
Tis-ili^CX + XO + C nearly. (6)
If we next make y =— where is a negatiTe quantify laige

compared with we find approzimatelyj
r, = (X -X') +C nearly. (7)
If e is the radios of the wires of the grating, e being small

compared with a, we may find the potential of the grating itself
by sapporing that the sorfiuse of the wiie coincides with the eqai-
potential suifiMse which cats the phme of ys at a distance e fipom the
aids of s. To find the potentiid of the grating we therefore pot
« s ^ andy ss 0, whence
r«-2Xlog28in^+a '
(8)
205.] We have now obtained expressions representing the eleo-

trioal state of a system consisting of a gmting of wires whose
diameter is small compared with the distance between them, and
two pUme conducting sozfiuses, one on each side of the grating,
and at distances which are great compared with the distance
between the wires.
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1$50 OONJUGATB FUNCTION& [205.
The surfiMe-densit^ a, on the first plane is got &om the equ*-
That on the second plane horn the equation (7)
4iT<r,= -^=-^(A-X0. (10)
If we now write a . . -ncy. ....

a^^^]og.(2Bm-), (11)
and elunmate A and from the equations (6), (7), (8)^ (9), (10),
we find
*»''.(*»+*•+ ^')='U» +4'^- ''ir'
*t.,r^(d,+i,+ ?ii)=_ri+r.(n-8^)-r!i. (13)
When the wires aie infinitely thin^ a beoomes infinite^ and the
tems in which it is the denominator disappear, so that the ease
is reduced to that of two parallel planes without a grating in-
teiposed.
If the grating is in metallie eommunioation with one of the
planes, say the first, and the right-hand side of the equation
for o-j becomes Vi—V^- Hence the density a-j induced on the first
plane when the grating is interposed is to that which would have
been induced on it if the grating were removed, the second plane
2
being maintained at the same potential, as 1 to 1 + ^
We should have found the same value for the efiect of the grating
in diminishing the electrical influence of the first surface on the
second, if we had supposed the grating connected with the second
surface. Tliis is evident since and b.^ enter into the expression
in the same way. It is also a direct result of the theorem of
Art, 88.
The induction of the one electrified plane on the other through
the grating is the same as if the grating were removed, and the
distance between the planes increased from ^^^^^ to
o
If the two planes are kept at potential zero, and the grating
electrified to a given pot<.'ntial, the quantity of electricity on the
grating will be to that which would be induced on a plane of equal
area placed in the same position as
2 ^ 63 is to 2 ^1 (^1+^.
2o6.] METHOD OF APPBOXIMATION. 261
This investigation is approximate only when d| and are Ifige

oompaied with 0, and when a is lai^ge oompand with 0. Hie
qnantily a is a line whieh may be of any magnitude. It beoomea
infinite when c is indefinitely diminished.
If we sappoae 0 k then will he no s|>ertuies between the
wires of the grating, and therefore there will be no indnetion
thnmgb it. We ought therefore to have for this ease a s 0. The
formula (11), however, gives in this ease
a s!-^ log. 2, = -0.11a,

whieh is evidently erroneous, aa the induction ean never be altered
in sign by meana of the gnting. It is easy, however, to proceed
to a higher degree of approximation in the case of a grating of
cylindrical wires. I shall merely indicate the steps of this process.
Method of Approximation.
206.] Since the wires are cylindrical^ and since the distribution
of electricity on each is qnaunetrical with respect to the diameter
parallel to jf, the proper expansion of the potential is of the form
C^logr+SCif^cosf^, (14)
where r is the distanoe firom the axis of one of the wires, and B the
angle between r and $, and, since the wire is a conductor, when
r is made equal to the radios V must be oonstant, and therefore
the coefficient of each of the multiple cosines of 6 must vanish.
For the sake of conciseness let us assume new coordinates ^, i^, &c.
such that
af=2?r«, oij = 2iry, ap = 2irr, flj8 = 2ird, &c. (15)
and let Fp^ log €-l'+«-2 cos fl. (16)
Then if we make
by ^ving proper values to the coefficients A we may express any

potential which a function of 1) and cos ^, and does not become
is
infinite except when -f-/3 = 0 and cos £ = 1.
When /3 = 0 the expansion of ^ in terms of p and 0 is

/"orr 2logp + -iVp^cos2d— TrjVirp*cos4d4-&0. (18)
For finite values of /3 tiie expansion of J' is
1^=^+2 log(l-<r-^)+|i^pcosd-jy-^^p2co820+fi^^ (19)
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262 ooHjuGATB rcnfGTiova.
In the case of the grating with two oondacting planes whow

eqaatioikB are = —^^ and i} = /3t, that of the pkDe dt the grating
bang 9=0, there will be two infinite series of images of the
gimting. The first series will cooiist of the grating itself together
with an infinite eerie* of images on both aides, equal and similarly
electrified. The aaus of these imegineij q^tndm lie in planee
wliflee equatioiie are of the finm
n=±2«03i+A). (20)
% bemg en mtflgw.
The leoond eeriee will ooneietof an infinite eeriee of imagee Ibr
whieh the ooefficiente A^^ J^Â^^^b^ wn equal and opporite to the
nme qnantitiee in the gfatiog itaelf» while d^t i^, te. aie eqnal
and of tiie nme eign. Tlieaxesof theae images are in pfauseswboee
eqnatiooeaieof the fivm
i,«2A±2fi03i + )3^. (21)
m being an integer.
The potential dne to any finite aeriea of endi imagee will depend
on whether the number of imagee ia odd or even. Henee tibe
potential dne to an infinite eeriee is indeterminate, bvt if we add to
it the fbnetum Jli| + the oonditbna of tiie problem wiU be aoflBei^
to deteemine tiie eleofaaeal diatribation.
We may fint determine and J^, tiie potentiab of the two

oondncting plaoes, in terms of the ooeiBcientB A^, &c., and of
B and C. We
moat tiien determine e^ and the enrfime-denaity
at any pmnt of these planes. The mean valnea of and e^ are
given hy the equations
i-naiÂ^-B, 4 IT <T.^ = B. (22)
We must then expand the potentials due to the gating itself
and to all the images in terms of p and cosines of multiples of 0,
adding to the result BpeoaB-^C.

The term* independent of 0 then give F the potential of the
grating, and the ooeiBcient of the ooaine of eaeh multiple of $
equated to zero gives an equation between the indetenninate co-
efficients.
In this way us many equations may be found as are euffidient

to eliminate all these coefficients and to leave two equations to
determine o-j and in t<?rms of F^, and V,
These equations will be of the form
4w<ri(*j + o-y)+4ir<r,(«+y),
r,-r= 4»*ri(tt+y)+4ira,(«,+o-y). (28)
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206.] XBTHOD OF appbozhcation. 268
The qiumtity of deotricity indnoed on one of the planes protected

hy tiie gnting^ the oUmt pline being at a given dilbrance of
potentialt will he the same ae if the platee had been at a distanee
The valoea of a and y aie approximately ae follows^
+ 2d • ll + tf «+r •+&c^+&c.J» (24)
\1— « • 1— e /
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I
CHAPTER Xm.
BLBGITBOSTATIO INSTBUMENTS.
On Electrostatic Instruments.
The instruments which we have to oonsider at ptesent nuy be

divided into the following classes :
(1) Electrical maehineii for the production and angmentation of

electrification.
(2) MnltiplierB, for inomeing electrification in a known ratio.
(3) Eleotrometere, for the meaenrement of eleotrie potentials and

cbafgee.
(4) Aocomnlatore, for holding laige electrical chaigeB.
Bleeirieal MaeJUnsi,
207.] Tn the common electrical machine a plate or cylinder of

glass is made to revolve so as to rub against a surface of leather,
on which is spread an amalp;tim of zinc and mereury. The surface
of the glass becomes electrified positively and that of the rubber
negatively. As the electrified surface of the <^lass moves away
from the negative electrification of the nibber it acquires a hi^h
positive potential. Tt then comes opposite to a set of sharp metal
points in connexion with the conductor of the machine. The posi-
tive electrification of the glass induces a negative electrification
of the points, which is the more intenee the sharper the points I
and the nearer they are to the glass.

When the machine works properly there is a discharge through
the air between the glass and the points, the glass loses part of
its positive charge which is transferred to the points and so to
the insulated prime conductor of the machine, and to any other
body with which it is in electric communication.
The portion of the glass which is advancing towards the rubber
has thus a smaller positive charge than that which ie leaving it
at the same time, so that the robber, and the condoeton in com-
mnnication with it, beoome negatively electrified.
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BLB0TR0PH0BU8. 266
The highly poeitiye surface of the glass where it loaves the

rubber more attracted by the negative charge of the rubber than
is
the partially discharged surface which is advanciiig towards the

rubber. The electrical forces therefore act as a resistance to the force
employed in turning the machine. The work done in taming the
machine is therefore greater than that spent in overooming ordinary
friction and other resietances, and the ezoeis is employed in pro-
ducing a state of eleetrifioatton whoee energy is equivalent to this
emeosD.
The work done in oveiooming finetion is at onoe oonverted into
heat in the bodies mbbed together. The electrical energy may
he also converted either into meehanioal energy or into heat.
If the machine does not store np mechanical energy, all the
energy will be converted into heat, and the only differenoe between
the heat due to firiction and that doe to deetrical action is that the
former is generated at the nibbing snrfiuies while the latter may be
generated in condnotors at a distance
We have seen that the electrical charge on the soriace of the
glass is attractedby the robber. If this attractbn were sofficiently
intense there woidd be a discharge between the glass and the
rubber, instead of between the glass and the collecting points. To
prevent this, flaps of silk are attached to the rubber. These become
negatively electrified and adhere to the gla4is, and so dimiuibh the
potential mar the rubber.
The potential therefore increases more gradually as the glass
moves away from the rubber, and therefore at any one point there
is less attraction of the charge on the glass towards the rubber, and
consequently less dant^-er of direct discharge to the rubber.

In some electrical machines the movint^^ part is of bonito instead t
of glass, and the rubbers of wool or fur. The mbber is then elec-
trified positively and the prime conductor negatively.
The EUctrophorm of Volt a.
208.] The electrophorus consists of a plute of resin or of ebonite

backed with metal, and a plate of metal of the same size. An
insnlatin^ handle can be screwed to the back of either of these
plates. The ebonito pUte has a metal pin whidi connects the metal
* It { probftble ih*t in numy omm where djmamical energy \» oonyerted into heat
by friction, part of tlio energy may ]je firnt tranHfonned into electrical energy and
then oonverted into heat mthe eleotiioal energy is spent in maintaining currants of
dioci ciradt cÂM to fbe rabbiiig larfMM. See Srw.Tlmiiioii. * On the Bleotio-
dywMBio QuHtiei oTMetale.* PiML IVww.. 18ffS, pbMO.
256 BLB0TB06TATIC IK8TRUMBNTB.
plate with the metal back of the ebonite plate when the two platei
are in contact.
The ebonite plate is electrified nesratively by rubbing^ it with
wool or cat's skin. The metal plate is then brought near the
ebonite by means of the insulating handle. No direct discharge
piMes between the ebonite and the metal plate, bat the potential
of the metal pbte is rendered negative by induction, 00 that when
it oomee within a certain dittance of the metal pin a spark passes,
and if the metal plate be now carried to a distance it is fonnd

to have a positive ehaige which may be oommmiietted to a oon-
dnetor. Tbe metal at the back of the ebonite plate is fomid to
haye a negatiTediaige equal and opposite to the charge of the metal
plate.
In using the inshnment to cfaaige a condenser or aocnmnlator
one of the plates is laid on a conductor in commnnicstion with
the earth, and the other is first laid on it^ then removed and applied
to the electrode of the condenser, then laid on the fixed plate and
the process repeated. If the ebonite plate is fixed the condenser will
be diarged positiTely. If the metal plate is fixed the condenser will
be charged negatively.
Hie work done by the hand in separating the plates is always
greater than the work done by the electrical attraction daring the
approach of the plates, so that the operation of charging the con-
denser involves the expenditure of work. Part of this work is
accounted for by the energy of the charged condenser, part is spent

in producing the noise and heat of the sparks, and the rest in
overcoming other resistances to the motion.
On Machines producing Electrification by Mechanical Work.

209."] In the ordinary frictional electrical machine the work done
in overcoming friction is far greater than that done in increasing
the electrification. Hence any arrangement by which the elec-
trification may be produced entirely by mechanical work against

the electrical forces is of scientific importance if not of ])ractical
value. The first machine of this kind seems to have been Nicholson's
Revolving Doubler, described in the Philosophical Transaclio?is for
1788 as 'an instrument which by the turning of a Winch produces
the two states of Electricity withoat friction or communication with
the Earth.'
210.] It was by means of the revolving doubler that Volta
saooeeded in developing from the electrification of the pile aa
THE BBTOLTINO BOUBLSB. • 257
electrification capable of aflfoctnig Im electrometer. Inatnimeiite

on the same principle have been mvented indepentetij hj Mr.
0. F. Valley and Sir W. Thomson.
Tliese instniments consist essentially of insulated oondnetofa of
Ysrions fonns, some fixed and others moveable. The moveable
oondnoton are called Carriers^ and the fixed ones may be called
Indnctors, Beodvers, and Regenerators. The indnctors and receivers
are so formed that when the carriers arrive at certain points in
their revolution they are almost completely sorronnded by a con-
ducting body. As the inductors and receivers cannot completely
surround the carrier and at the same time allow it to move freely
in and out without a complicated arrange meut of moveable pieces,
the instrument is not theoretically perfect without a pair of re-
generators, which store up the small amount of electricity which
the carriers retain when they emerg-e from the receivers.
For the present, however, we may suppose the inductors and
receivers to surround the carrier completely when it is within them,
in which case the theory is much simplified.
We shall suppose the machine to consist of two inductors A and
Cj and of two receivers B and jf, with two carriers F and G.
Suppose the inductor ^ to be positively electrified so that its
potential is A, and that the carrier Fia within it and is at potential

F, Then, if Q is the coefficient of induction (taken positive) between
A and F, the quantity of electricity on the carrier will be Q (FÂ),
If the carrier, while within the inductor, is put in connexion with
the earth, then F=0,
and the charge on the carrier will be QA, —
a negative quantity. Let the carrier be carried round till it ia
within the receiver ^, and let it then come in contact with a spring
BO as to be in electrical connexion with B. It will then, as waa
shewn in Art. 88, become completely discharged, and will conn
mnnicate its whole negative chaige to the receiver J?.
The carrier will next enter the inductor C, which we shall suppose
charged negatively. While within C it is put in connexion with
tiie a positive charge^ which it carries off
earth and thus acquires
and communieates to the receiver D, and so on.
In this way, if the potentiala of the inductors remain always
constant, the receivers B and D receive snooessive charges, which
are the same for eveiy revolution of the carrier, and thus eveiy
revolution produces an equal increment of eleetiiciliy in the re-
ceivers.
* Specifioatton of Ffttent, Jan. 27, 1860, Ko. 206.
VOL. I. B
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258 JHiBCTBOSIAIIO IKSTBUMXNT8. [210.
Bat by putting the inductor A iu communication with the re-
ceiver D, and the inductor C with the receiver B, the ix)tentials

of the inductora will be continually increased, and the quantity
of electricity communicated to the reeeiyexs in each revolution will
continually increase.
For instance, let the potential of A and 0 be U, and that of B
and C, F, and when the carrier is within A let the charge on A

and C he s, and that on the carrier s, then, since the potential
of the carrier is sero, being in contact with earth, its charge is
M^-^QU. The carrier enters with this charge and commnnicates

ittoJB. If the capacity of ^ and C7 is their potential will be
changed from F to F— U,
If the o4iher carrier has at the same time carried a charge ^QF
from C to D, it will change the potential of A and 0 from U to
U^^F, i£ isthe coefficient of induction between the carrier
and Cf and A the capacity of A and D. If, tiherefbre^ 27. and

be the potentials of the two inductors after n half revolutions, and
Uf^+i and F^^j^ after « + 1 half revolutions,
«:
A
If we write = ? and a- = ^, we find
Hence
It appears from these equations that the quantity pU-\-qF con*

tinaally diminishes, so that whatever be the initial state of eieo-
trifioation the receivers are ultimately oppositely electrified^ so that
the potentiahi of ^ and i? are in the ratio ofj0 to —
On the other hand, the quantity gFcontinnally ineroaseo,
so that, however little pU may ezoeed or fidl short of jFat firsts
the difference will be increased in a geometrical ratio in each
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211.] THS BKOIPBOCAL XLKCKROPHOBira 259
levolutioii till the eleetromotive forces become so giest that the

insuktion of the appaiatus is oTeroome.
Instmiiients of this Idndmay he used ibr Ysrions pniposes.
Eor producing a copious sapplj of eleotricily at a high potential,
as is done bj means of Mr. Vari^'s large machine.
For a^jostiDg the charge of a oondenser, as in the esse of
Thomson's electrometer, the ehaige of which csn be increased or
diminished by a few tons of a yeiy small mschine of this kindj
which is then called a Beplenisher.
For mnltiplying small di£forenoes of potential. The indnetors
may be chai^fed at first to an exceedingly small potential, as, for
instance, that due to a thermo-electric pair, then, by turning* the
machine, the difl'erence of potentials may be continually multiplied
till it becomes capable of measurement by an ordinary electrometer.
By determining by experiment the ratio of increaise of this difference
due to each turn of the maohine, the original electromotive force

with which the inductors were charpi'ed may be deduced from the
number of turns and the final electrification.
In most of these instruments the carriers are made to revolve

about an axis and to come into the proper positions with respect
to the inductors by turning an axle. The connexions are made by
means of springs so placed that the csrriers oome in contact with
them at the proper instants.
211.] Sir W. Thomson*, however, has constructed a machine for
multiplying electrical charges in which the carriers are drops of
water &lling out of the inside of an inductor into an insulated
receiYer. The reoeiver is thus continually supplied with electricity
of opposite sign to that of the inductor. If the indoctor is electrified
positively, the reoeiver will receive a continnaUy increasing charge
of negative electricity.
The water is made to escape ftom the receiver by means of a
fbnnel, the noaale of whidi is almost surroonded by the metal of
tiie reoeiver. The drops fidUng from this nossle are therefore
nearly free from electrification. Another inductor and receiYer of
the same construction are arranged so that the inductor of the
one sjrstem is in connexion with the reoeivisr of the other. Th»
rate of increase of charge of the receiYen is tfans no longer constant,
but increases in a geometrical progression with the time, the
charges of the two receivers being of opposite signs. This increase
goes on till the falling drops are so diverted from their course by
• Fnc. S., Jan« 20, im.
8 2
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260 BLBCTROBTATIO IirSTBUMBllTS. [212.
the eleoirical action that they ML outaida of the leoeiver or even

strike the inductor.
In this instrument the energy of the electrification is drawn
firom that of the falling drops.
212.3 Several other electrical machines have been constructed
in whidi the principle of electric induction is employed. Of theie
the most remarkable k that of Hoita, in which the cenier is a gUws
phte varnished with gnm-hM) and the indnctois are pieces of
pasteboard. Sparks are prevented from passing between the parts
of the appaiatos by mesns of two glass plates^ one on eadi side
of the revolving carrier plate. This machine is foond to be veiy
6flbctive>and not to be much aflfected by the state of the atmo-
sphere. The principle is the same as in the revolving doubler and
the instroments developed ont of the same idea, but as the carrier
is an insulating plate and the induetora are imperfect conductors,
the complete explanation of the action is more difficult than in

the case where the carriers are good conductors of known form
and are charged and discharged at definite points.
213. j In the electrical machines already described sparks occur
whenever the carrier comes in
contact with a conductor at a
diilerent potential from its
own.
Now we have shewn that
whenever this occurs there is
a loss of energy, and therefore

the whole work employed in
turning the machine is not con-
verted into electrification in an
available form, but part is spent
in producing the heat and noise
Fig. 17.
of electric sparks.
I have therefore thought it desirable to shew how an electrical
machine may be constructed which is not subject to this loss of
efficiency. I do not propose it as a nsefbl form of machine^ bat
as an example of the method by which the contrivance called in
beat-engines a regenerator may be applied to an electricsl machine
to prevent loss of work.
In the figure let A, C, J^, iT, C represent hollow fixed
conductors, so arranged, that the carrier P passes in succession
within each of them. Of these if, if and 3, J' nearly surround tlie
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213.] MACHINE WITHOUT SPARKS. 261
csnier when it is at the middle point of its passage^ but C, C do not

cover it so much.
We shall suppose A, B, C to be connected with a Leyden jar
of great capacity at potential F, and A\ C to be connected with
another jar at ]>otcntial — V.
P is one of the carriers moving in a circle from A to C\ &c.,
and touching in its course certain springs, of which a and a are
connected with A and A' respectively, and ^ are connected with
the earth.
Let us suppose that when the carrier P is in the middle of A
the coefficient of induction between P and A is —A. The capacity
of P in this position is greater than A^ since it is not completely
sarrounded by the receiver A. Let \ihe A-\-a.
Then if the potential of P ie 27, and that of A^ the charge
cm P will be {A-â)UÂF.
Now let P be in contact with the spring a when in the middle
of the receiver A^ then the potential of P is the flune as that
of At and its charge is therefore a V,
P now leaves the spring 0 it carries with it the chaige aV,
If
Ab P leaves A its potential diminishes^ and it diminishes still more
when it comes within the influenoe of (f, which is negatively
electrified.
If when P comes within C its coeflficient of induction on (7 is
— C', and its capacity is C-\-c*, then, if ZT" is the potential of P

the charge on P is
If ar^ «r.
then at this pcnnt U the potential of P will he redoced to sero.
Let P at this point come in contact witii the spring / which is
connected with the earth. Since the potential of P is equal to tiiat

cf the spring there will he no spark at contact.
This conductor C\ by which the carrier is enabled to be connected
to earth without a spark, answers to the contrivance called a
regenerator in heat-engines. We shall therefore call it a Re-
generator.
Now let P move on, still in contact with the earth-spring e\ till
it comes into the middle of the inductor B, the potential of which

is V. If —B
is the coefHcient of induction between P and ^ at
this point, then, since U= 0 the charge on P will be —BF.

When P moves away from the earth-spring it carries this charge
with it. As it moves out of the positive inductor M towards the
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262 BLSCTB06TATI0 INSTRUMBNTO. [214.
negative receiver A its potential will be increasingly negative. At

the middle of A, if it retained its charge^ ite potential would be
- JtW '
and if i?riB greater than its nnmerical value will be greater

than that of F*, Hence there is tome point before P reaches the
middle of jt where its potential is — F*, At this point let it oome
in contaot with the negative leodiver-epring a'. There will be no
apark aince the two bodies are at the same potential. Let P move
on to the middle of A% still in contact with the spring, and therefore
at the same potential with Jt, Daring this motion it eommonioates
a negative charge to A, At the middle of jt it leaves the spring
and carries away a charge —cfV^ towards the positive regenerator
C, where its potential is reduced to zero and it touches the earth-
spring e. It then slides along" the earth-spring into the negative
inductor B\ during which motion it acquires a positive charge J^V
which it finally communicates to the positive receiver and the
cycle of operations is repeattnl.
During this cycle the positive receiver has lost a charge oT and
gained a charge B'V, Hence the total gain of positive electricity
is jrV'âV.
Similarly the total gain of negative electricity is BV—a'V,
By making the inductors so as to be as close to the snrfiMse of
the carrier as is consistent with insolationj B and F may be made
laige^ and by making the reoeiTers so as nearly to sorronnd the
carrierwhen it is within them, a and a' may be made very small,
and then the charges of both the Leyden jars will be increased in
every revolution.
The conditions to be ftilfilled by the regenerators are
CV'âr, and CV^dr.
Since a and d are small the regenerators do not require to be
either large or Tory dose to the carriers.
On EUet/rmieUn and MeetroMpet,

214.] An electrometer is an instrument by means of which
electrical charges or electrical potentials may be measured. In-
struments by means of which the edste&oe of electric charges or
of diflferenc3s of potential may be indicated, but which are not
capable of affording numerical measures, are called Electroscopes.
An electroscope if sufficiently sensible may be used in electrical
measurements, provided we can make the measurement depend on
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coulomb's torsion balancs. 263
the absence of electrificatioii. For instance, if we have two charged

bodies A and B we may use the method described in Chapter I to
detennine which body has tbe gmter chaige. Let the body A
be carried by an inralating support into the interior of an inaidated
olosed TCBsel C.Let C be connected to earth and again insidated.
There will then be no eztemal electrification on C, Now let A
be removed, and B
introduced into the interior of and the elec-
trification of C tested by an electroscope. If the chaige of 3 is
equal to that of A Ihere will be no electrification^ bat if it is greater

or less there will be electrification of the same kind as that of or
the opposite kind.
Methods of this kind» in which tiie thing to be observed is the
non-ezistenoe of some phenomenon, are called niM or tero methods*
Hiey require only an instrument capable of detecting the existence
of the phenomenon.
In another class of instruments for the registration of phe-
nomena the instrument may be depended u})on to îve always the
same indication for the same value of the quantity to be registered,
but the readings of the scale of the instniment are not proportional
to the values of the quantity, and the relation between these
readings and the corresjwnding value is unknowTi, except that the
one is some continuous function of the otlier. Several electrometers
depending on the mutual repulsion of parts of the instrument
which are similarly electrified are of this class. The use of such
instruments is to register phenomena, not to measure them. Instead
of the true values of the quantity to be measured, a series of
numbers is obtained, which may be used afterwards to determine
these values when the scale of the instrument has been properly
investigated and tabulated.
In a still higher dass of instroments the scale readings are
proportional to the quantity to be measured^ so that all that is
reqnired for the complete measurement of the quantity is a know-
ledge of the coefficient by which the scale readings must be
. multiplied to obtain the tme value of the quantify.
Instruments so constructed that they contain within themselvee
the means of independently determining the tme values of quan-
tities are called Absolute Instrmnents.
Coul<mb'4 Tbrmn Balanee,
215.] A great number of the experiments by which Coulomb
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264 ELECTBOSTATIC INSTRUMENTS. [215
esta})lished the fundamental laws of electricity were made by mea-

suring- the foree between two small spheres charged with eU-ctrieity,
one of which was fix«'d while the other was held in equilibrium by
two forces, the electrical action between the Pjtheres, and the
torsional elasticity of a glass fibre or metal wire. See Art. 38.
Tlie balance of torsion consists of a horizontal arm of gum-lac,
suspended by a fine wire or and carrying at one end a
gla<;8 fibre,
little sphere of elder pith, smoothly gilt. The suspension wire is

fastened above to the vertical axis of an arm wh'ieh can be moved
round a horizontal graduated circle, so as to twist the upper eud
of the wire about its own axis any number of d^rees.
The whole of this appumtnt is Another little
enclosed in a case.
sphere mounted on an insulating stem that it can be charg^
is so
and introduced into the case through a hole, and brought so that
its centre coincides with a definite point in the horizontal circle
described by the suspended sphere. The position of the suspended
sphere ascertained by means of a graduated cirele engraved on
is
the cylindtioal glass case of the instmment.

Now suppose both spheres charged, and Uie suspended sphere
in equilibrinm in a known position such that the torsion-arm makes
an angle $ with tiie radius through the oentre of the fixed sphere.
The distance of the oenties is then 2a sin i tf, where a is the radios
of the torrion-arm, and if is the foroe between the spheres the
moment of this foroe about the axis of torsion iBFaeoB^B,

Let both spheres be completely discharged, and let the torsion-
arm now be in equilibrium at an angle ^ with the radius through
the fixed sphere.
llien the angle through which the electrical force twisted the
tondon-arm must have been d — 0, and if is the moment of M
the torsional elasticity of the fibre, we shall have the e(ûation
Facosê = M{e—<f>).
Hence, if we can ascertain 31, we can determine F, the actual
force between the spheres at the distance 2 sin 4 $»
To find M, the moment of torsion, let I be the moment of inertia
of the torsion>arm, and T the time of a double vibration of the arm
under the action of the torsiomd elasticity, then
In all electrometers it is of the greatest importance to know

what foroe we are measuring. The force acting on the suspended
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2 15-] IKFLUXNOE OF THB CASB. 265
phen is doe partly to the direct Mtion of the fixed spheie, but
partly alio to the electrification^ if snj, of the sides of the case.
If the case is made of glass it is impossible to determine the
than by Tery diffiealt mea-
eleetrification of its sorfSuse otherwise
amonents at every point. Tf, however^ either the case is made
of metal, or if a metaliie case which almost completely encloses the
apparatus is placed as a screen between the spheres and the glass
case, the electrification of the inside of the metal screen will depend
entirely on that of the spheres, and the electrification of the g-lass
case have no influence on the spheres. In this way we may

avoid any indcfiniteness due to the action of the case.
To illustrate this by an example in which wo can calculate all
the effects, let us suppose that the case is a sj^licrt' of radius d,
that the cent re of motion of the torsion-arm coincides with the

centre of the sphere and that its radius is n; that the char^^-es on
the two spheres are and E,, and that the ang-le between tlieir
positions is 0; that the fixed sphere is at a distance from the

centre, and that r is the distance between the two small spheres.
Neglecting for the present the eSeot of induction on the dis-
tribution of electridfy on the small spberesj the force between
them will be a xepnlaion
and the moment of this force xonnd a Tertical axis through the
centre will be
The image of dne to the spherical sur&oe of the case is a point
in the same radius at a distance — with a charge — ^ — . and the
moment of the attraction between B and this image about the azia
of suspension is
a — sm
b a.
If b, the radius of the spherical case^ is large compared with a
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266 BLEGTBOSTATIC IKSTRVIONTS. [216.
and 0|j the distonoes of lihe flpheres from the centre, we may neglect
the Bcoond and third terms of tiie fiustor in the denominator. The
whole moment tending to tnm the torrion-arm may then be written
EE, . sin ^
j
^- } = Jf
EleeiromeUnfor ike Meaiurmmi tfFotenUalt.
216.] In all electrometers the moveable part is a body eliarg-od

with electricity, and its potential is different from that of certain
of the fixed parts round it. When, as in Coulomb's methotl, an
insulated body having a certain charfre is used, it is the charq'e
whicli is the direct object of mensurcincnt. AVe may, however,
connect the balls of Coulomb's electrometer, by means of line wires,
with dilferent conductors. The charges of the balls will then

depend on the values of the potentials of these conductors and on
the potential of the case of the instrument. The charge on each
ball will be approximately equal to its radius multiplied by the
excess of its potential over that of the case of the instrument,
provided the radii of the balls are small compared with their
distances from each other and firom the sides or opening of the
case.
Coalomb*8 form of iq>paratas, however^ is not well adapted for
measmrements of this kind, owing to the smallness of the force
between spheres at the proper distances when tbe di0erence of po-
tentials is small. A more conTcnient form is that of the Attracted
Bisk Electrometer. The first on this principle were
electrometers
constructed by Sir W. Snow Harris*. They have sinoe been
brougbt to great perfection, both in theory and constmction, by
Sir W. Thomson t.
When two disks at different potentials are brongbt fhce to fece
with a small interval between them there will be a nearly uniform
electrification on the opposite faces and very little electrification
on the backs of the disks, provided tliere are no other conductors
or electrified bodies in the neighbourhood. The charge on the
positive disk will be approximatt'ly projwrtional to its area, and to
the difference of potentials of the disks, and inversely as the distance
between them. Hence, by making the areas of the disks large
* PhU IVaiu. 1884.

+ Sec an excellent re port on Eleotrometen by Sir W. ^numuon. Rtpori «/ OU
BrUith AuoeiaUon, Dundee. 1867.
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PRINCIPLE OF THE QUABD-BINO. 267
and the distance between them small, A small difference of potential

may g-ive rise to a measurable force of attraction.
The mathematical theory of the distribution of electricity over
two disks thus arranofod is given at Art. 202, but since it is im-
possible to make the case of the apjmratus so large tliat we may
suppose the disks insulated in an infinite space, the indications of
the instniment in this form are not easily interpreted numerically.
217.] The addition of the guard-ring to the attracted disk is one
of the chief improvements which Sir W. Thomson has made on the
apparatus.
Instead of suspending the whole of one of the disks and det«rm-
imag the force acting upon it, a central portion of the disk is
separated from the rest to form the attracted disk, and the outer
ring forming the remainder of the disk is fixed. In this way the
force is measured only on that part of the disk where it is most
r^gnbur, and the want of muformity of the electrification near the
Fig; 18.
e(l<:ô is of no importance, as it occurs on the guard-ring and not
on the suspended part of the disk.

Besides this, by connecting the guard-ring with a metal case
surrounding the back of the attracted disk and all its suspending
apparatus, the electrification of the back of the disk is rendered
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268 SLBCTBO0TATIC IirSTRUMBinia [217.
impoarible, for it is put of the inner snrfiMse of a doaed hollow

oondnotor all at the same potentiaL
Thomson's Absolnte Eleetrometer therefore consists essentially
of two parallel plates at different potentiab, one of which is made
so that a no pert of which is near the edge of the
certain area,
plate, is moveable under the action of electric force. To fix our
ideas we may suppose the attracted disk and g-uanl-ring" uppermost.
The fixed disk is horizontal, and is mountod on an insulating* stem
which has a measurable vertical motion given to it by means of
a micromct<?r screw. The g^la^d-ring' is at least as larg« as the
fixed disk; its lower surface is truly plane and parallel to the fixed
disk. A delicate balance is erected on the guard-ring- to which
is suspended a light moveable disk which almost fills the circular
aperture in the g'uard-ring without rubl)ing' agâinst its sides. The
lower surface of the suspended disk must l)c and we
truly plane,
must have the means of knowing when its plane coincides with that
of the lower surface of the guard-ring, so as to form a single plane
intermpted only by the narrow interval between the disk and its
goard-ring.
For this purpose the lower disk is screwed up till it is in contact
with the guard-ring, and the suspended disk is allowed to rest
upon the lower disk, so that its lower surface is in the same plane
as that of the guard-ring. Its position with respect to the goard-
ring is then ascertained by means of a system of fiducial marks.
SirW. Thomson genemlly uses for this purpose a black hair
attached to the moveable part. This hair moves up or down just
in fiont of two black dots on a white enamelled ground and is
viewed along with these dots by means of a piano convex lens with
the plane side nest the eye. If the hair as seen through the lens
appears straight and bisects the interval between the bladf dots
it is said tobe in its tigkUd pottHtm^ and indicates that the sus-
pended disk with which it moves is in its proper position as regards
height. The horizontalify of the suspended disk may be tested by
comparing the reflexion of part of any object from its upper surfiwe
with that of the remainder of the same object from the upper
surface of the guard-ring.
The balance is then arranged so that when a known weight is
placed on the centre of the suspended disk it is in equilibrium
in its sighted position, the whole apparatus being freed from

electrification by putting every part in metallic communication.
A metal case is placed over the guard-ring so as to enclose the
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ai8.] thohsok's abbolutb xlectbometsb. 269
iMlanoe and suspended diek^ sufficient apertures being left to see

the fiducial marks.
The goird-ring, case, and suspended disk are all In metallio
oommnnioation witii eadi other, but are insulated horn the other
parts of the apparatus.
Now be required to measure the difference of potentuds
let it
of two conductors. The conductors are put in communication witii
the upper and lower disks respectively by means of wires, the
weight is taken off the suspended disk, and the lower disk is
moved up by means of the micrometer screw till the electrical
attraction brings the suspended disk down to its sighted position.
We then know that the attraction between the disks is equal to
the weight which brought the disk to its sighted position.
If Jr be the numerical value of the weight, and ^ the force of
gravity, the force is /F^, and if A is the area of the suspended
disk, I) the distance between the disks, and K the diiierenoe of the
potentials of the disks.
or
If the suspended disk is oixcular, of radius J2, and if the radius of

the aperture of the guard-ring is JT, then
^=i,^(i^^4-i^'^)^ and V^
218.] Since there is always some uncertainty in determining the
micrometer reading corresponding to D s 0, and since any error
« Let TM denote tibe nkttne of ^

empepdeJ Ût by it, and tint of the iêrtare
of the f^'uard-ring by V! then the bratdth of the utBiihr interal betwoea the
,
cUak and the ring will be B^R-R.

It tiie dtrtnoe between the snspended SA
and the Urge fixed diak ii D, and
the difference of potentials l>etween these disks in V, then, by tho inveil|galion in
Art. 201, the quantity of electricity on the tiuHpcuded disk will be
^"'Înrs
where
sD i)+«r —
a^B^^^, or o- 0.220685 (JT-fi).
- If the mrbce of the guard-ring ! not exactly in the plane of the lurfaoe <if
the suspended disk, let lu suppose that the distanoo between the fixed disk and
the guanl-ring ia not D but J)-¥z — iy, then it appears from the invcHtigation in
Art, 226 that there will be an additiooal charge of electricity near the edge of
fba cUUc oo aeoount of its height z above the general aorftoe of the goard-ring.
The whole cbarge in this case is therefore
^ ^jJt'-^R'^ R^-R* a ^R±R.^ iw{R + R)\
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270 SLECTBOSTATIC mBTEUM£JNTS.
in the position of the suspended disk most important when B

is
is small^ Sir W. Thomson })rerer8 to make

all his measurements
depend on differences of the electromotive force V. Thus, if V and

V are two potentialsj and 1) and 1/ the corresponding diatances.
For inrtuioej in order to measure the eleotromotiTe force of a

galvanic batteiy, two electrometen are need.
By means of a condenser, kept charged if necessary by a re-
plenisher, the lower disk of the principal electiometer is maintained
at a constant potential. This is tested by connecting the lower
disk of the principal electrometer with the lower disk of a seoondaiy
electrometer, the suspended disk of which is connected with the
earth. The distance between the disks of the secondary elec-
trometer and the force required to bring the suspended disk to
its sighted position being* constant, if we raise the potential of the
condenser till the secondary electrometer is in its sighted position,

we know that the potential of the lower disk of the principal
electrometer exceeds that of the earth by a constant quantity which
we may call F.
If we now connect the positive electrode of the battery to earth,

and connect the suspended disk of the jirincipal electrometer to the
negative electrode, the difference of potentials between the disks

will be r+t>, if V is the eleotromotiTe force of the battery. Let
J) be the reading of the micrometer in this case, 1/ be the
and let
reading when the suspended disk is connected with earthy then
In this way a small eleotromotiTe foroe v may be measured

by the electrometer with the disks at conTeniently measurable
distances. When the distance is too small a small change of
absolute distance makes a great change in the force, since the
Mid in the «s|Nr«nioii fbr the attcMtfon W9 nmit milMtitote ht A, Hut araft of the
diak, th« oomotod qnaatity
whova R = radius of suspended disk,

/fsi rrnliuH of aperture in the ^niard-ring,
D«distnijco between fixed and Huspeuded diftkti,
D'a
distance between fixad cUak and goavd-ring,
a - 0.'220»335(/f-7.'V
When a is small compared with JJ wo may neglect the Bccuud term, and wbeu
II^^D la amall wa naj naglaoi tha laak tann.
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319.] OAITQB BLECTROMBTBB. 271
foioe TarieB iamtmAy tm the sqiuure of the distance^ so that any

erfor in the abeolute distance introduces a huge error in the result
unless the distance is Urge compared with the limits of error of
the micrameter screw.
The effect of small irrÛurities of form in the sor&oes of the
disks and of the interval between them diminiflh according to the

inverse cube and higher inverse powers of the distance, and what-
ever be the form of a oorrogated surface, the eminences of which
just reach a plane sni&ce, the electrical effect at may d i stance
which is considerable compared to the breadth of the cormgations,
is the same as that of a plane at a certain small distance behind
the ])lane of the tops of the eminences. See Arts. 197, 198.
liy means of the auxiliary electritication, tostod by the auxiliary
electrometer, a proper intervâl between the disks is secured.
The auxiliary electrometer may be of a simpler construction, in
which there is no provision for the determination of the force
of attraction in absolute measure, since all that is wanted is to
secure a constant elect rific4ition. Such an electrometer may be
called a gauge electrometer.
This method of using an auxiliary electrification besides the elec-
trification to be measured is called the Heterostatic method of
electrometry, in opposition to the Idiostatic method in which the
whole effect is produced by the electrificati<m to be measured.
In several forms of the attracted disk electrometer, the attracted
disk is placed at one end of an arm which is supported by being
attached to a platinum wire passing through its centre of gravity
and kept stretched by means of a spring. The other end of the
arm carries the hair which is brought to a sighted position by
altering the distance between the disks, and so adjusting the force
of the electric attraction to a constant value. Li these electro-
meters this force is not in general determined in absolute measure,
but is known to be eonstanti provided the torsional elasticity of
the platinum wire does not change.
The whole apparatus is placed in a Leyden jar, of which the inner
snrfiuse iicharged and connected witii the attracted disk and
guard-ring. The other disk is worked by a micrometer screw and
is connected first with the earth and then with the condnctor whose
potential is to be measured. The difference of readings raultiplietl

by a constant to be determined for each electrometer gives the
potential required.
219.] The electrometers already described are not self-acting.
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272 BLECTBOffFATIO IHSTBnillNTS.
but reqiiire for each obsenmtioii an adjustment of a micrometer

screw, or some other movement which must be made by the
observer. They are therefore not fitted to act as seif-r^gisteruig in-
struments, which must of themselves moye into the proper position*
This condition hy Thomson's Qnadrant Electrometer.
is fblfilled
The electrical principle on which this instroment is fbonded may

be thos expUined :
A and B are two fixed conductors which may be at the same

or at different potentials. (7 is a moveable conductor at a high
potential^ which is so plaoed that part of it is opposite to the
snr&ce of A and part opposite to that of and that the proportions
of these parts are altered as (7 moves.
For this purpose it is most convenient to make C moveable abont
an axisj and maice tlie opposed sor&oes of A, of S, and of C portions
of snr&oes of revolution about the same axis.
In this way the distance between the surface of C and the
opposed surfaces of yl or of B remains always the same, and the
motion of C in the positive direction simply increases the area
opposed to B and diminishes the area opposed to A.
If the potentials of A and B are equal there will be no force
urging C from to B, but if the potential of C differs from that
of B more than from that of A, then C will tend to move so as
to increase the area of its surface opposed to B.
By a suitable arrangement of the apparatus this force may be
made nearly constant for different positions of C within certain
limits, 80 that if C is suspended by a torsion fibre, its deflexions
will be nearly proportional to the difiTerenoe of potentials between

A and B multiplied by the difference of the potential of C irom
the mean of those of A and B.
C is maintained at a high potential by means of a condenser
provided with a replenisher and tested by a gauge electrometer,
and A and B are conneoted with the two eonductors the diflEerence
of whose potentials is to be measursd. The higher the potential
of C the more sensitive is the instrument. This electrification of
C, being independent of the electrification to be measured, places
this electrometer in the heterostatic dass.
We may apply to this electrometer the general theoiy of flystems
of oonductors given in Arte. 93, 127.
Let A, 3, C denote the potentials of the three condncton re-
epeetively. Let a, 6, c be their respective capacities, fi the coeflfioient
of indnction between B and C, q that between C sod A, and r that
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ai9.] QTJABRAKT SLSOXROMBTBB. 278
between A and B. AU theoe ooeffieiento wOl in geneial -nxj with

tbe pontion of C, and if (7 is so arranged that the eKtremitiee of A
and B aie not near thoae of C as long as the motion of C is eonfined
within certain limits, we may aseertain the form of these coefficients.
1£B repreeents the defleson ofC from A towards then the part
of the surface of A opposed to C will diminish as B inciesses.
Hence if ^ is kept at potential 1 while B and C are kept at potential
0, the charge on A will be a = a^— where and a are
constants, and a is the capacity of A.
If A and B are symmetrical, the capacity o{ B is b — hQ-\-a6.
The capacity of C is not alton-d by the motion, for the only
effect of the motion is to bring- a ditlerent part of C opposite to the
interval between A and B. Hence 0 = 0^,
Tlie quantity of electricity induced on C when B is raised to

potential unity is p = p^ — aO.
The coefficient of induction between A and C is q = + a0.
The coefficient of induction between A and B is not altered bj
the motion of C, but remains r s r^.
Hence the electrical energy of the system is
Q s iAÂ-^^B'î'^kCê-^BCp'^CAq'ÂBr,
and e is the moment of the force tending to increase $t
if
0= AfBfC being supposed constant,

,
=— a + i B'a~BCa+ CAa ;
or 0 = a{A-B) (C-\U^B)).
In the present form of Thomson's Quadrant Electrometer the
oondneton A and are in the form of
a cjlindricsl box completely divided
into fonr quadrants, separately insn-
latedj bnt joined by wires so that two
opposite qnadrants are oonnected with
A and the two others with B,
Hie conductor C is suspended so as
to be capable of tnming about a
Torticsl ads, and may consist of two
opposite flat quadnrntsl arcs supported
Fig. 19.
by their radii at their extremities.
In the position of equilibrium these quadrants should be partly
VOL. I.
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274 SLBCT&OSTATIC IHSTfiUMSNTS. [220.
within A and partly within li, and the supporting radii should
be near the middle of the quadrants of the hollow base, so that
the divisions of the box and the extremities and supports of C
may be as far from each other as possible.
Tbe oondoctor C is kept pennanently at a hi^h potential by
being connected with the inner coating of the Ley den jar which
forms the eaee of the instrument. B and A are connected, the first
with the earth, and the other with the body whose potential is to be
measured.
If the potential of this body is zero, and if the instrament be
in adjustment, there onght to be no force tending to make C move,
bnt if the potential of il is of the same sign as that of C, then
C will tend to move from A to 3 with a nearly uniform force, and
the anspennon apparatus will be twisted till an equal force ia
called into pilay and produces equilibrium. For deflexions within

oertain limits the deflexions of C will be proportional to the
P^™* {A-M) (C- i {A + B)) .
By tnereaaing the potential of C the sensibility of the instrument

may be increased, and for small values of ( + ^ the force will be
nearly proportional to {A—B) C,
On ihe Measuremeni 0/ Electric FoietiUaL
220.] In Older to determine large differences of potential in ab-

aolute measure we may employ the attracted disk deetrometer, and
compare (he attraction with the effect of a weight. If at the same
time we measure the difference of potential of the same conductors
by means of the quadrant electrometer, we shall ascertain the
absolute value of certain readings of the scale of the qiuulrant
electrometer, and in this way we nui>' deiluce the value of the scale
readings of the quadrant electrometer in terms of the p<.<tential
of the suspended part, and the moment of torsion of the suspension

apparatus.
To ascertain the potential of a chart^-ed conductor of finite size
we may connect the conductor with one electrode of the electro-
meter, while the other is coonected to earth or to a body of
constant potential. The electrometer reading will give the potential
of the conductor after the division of its electricity between it
and the part oi' the electrometer with which it is put in contact.
If K denote the capacity of the conductor, and that of this part
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221.] MBASUBIMBNT OF FOTBNTIAL. 275
of the electrometer, and if F, V denote the potentials of these

bodies before making oontaet, then their common potential after
making contact wilt be
Hence the origioal potential of the conductor was
If the conductor is not larg>e compared with the electrometer,

K' will be comparable with AT, and unless we can ascertain the
values of K
and A ' the second term of the expression will have
a doubtful Yalue. But if we can make the potential of the electrode
of the electrometer veiy nearly equal to that of the body before
making contact, then the uncertainty of the values of K and
will be of little consequence.
If we know the value of the potential of the body approximately,
we may charge the electrode by means of a replenisher' or other-
'
wise to this approximate potoitial, and the next experiment will

give a closer approximation. In this way we may measure the
potential of a conductor whose capacity is small compared with
that of the electrometer.
To Measure the Potential at any Point iji the Air.
221.] First Method. Place a sphere, whose radius is small com-

pared with the distance of electrified conductors, with its oentve
at the given pmnt. CSonnect itby means of a fine wire with the
earth, then insulate it, and carry it to an electrometer and ascertain
the total charge on the sphere.
Then, if T
be the potential at the given point, and a the
radius of the sphere, the charge on the sphere will be — FasQ,
and if P
be the potential of the sphere as measured by an elec-
trometer when placed in a room whose waUs are connected with
the earth, then n — v
whence r+ V = 0,
or the potential of the air at the point where the centre of the
sphere was placed is equal but of opposite sign to the potential of
the sphere after being connected to earthy then insulated^ and
brought into a room.
This method has been employed by M. Delmann of Creuznach in
T 2
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27e SLBOTBOfiTATIO INSTBinCXNTS.
meamring the potential at » oertam height abore the earth's

snrfiMie.
Second Method, We Ii«v8 sapposed the epheie placed at the

given point and first connected to earth, and then insulated, and
carried into a space surrounded witii conducting matter at potential
zero.
Now let us suppose a fine insnlated wire carried from the elec-
trode of the electrometer to the place where the potential is to
be measured. Let the sphere be first discharpi-ed completely. This
may be done by putting it into the inside of a vessel of the same
metal which nearly surrounds it and making- it touch the vessel.
Now let the sphere thus discharged be carried to the end of the
wire and made to touch it. Since the sphere is not electrified it
will l>e at the potential of the air at the place. If the electrode
wire is at the same potential it will not be affected by the contact,
but if the electrode is at a different potential it by contact
will
with the sphere be made nearer to that of the air than it waa
before. By a succession of such operations, the sphere beings
alternately discharged and made to touch the electrode, the poten-
tial of the electrode of the electrometer will continually approach
that of the air at the given point.
222.] To measure the potential of a conductor without touching
it» we may meaaoie of the air at
tiie potential point in the mj
neighbourhood of the conductor, and calculate that of the conductor
from the remit. If there be a hoUow nearly unrounded by the
conductor, then the potential at any point of the air in this hollow
willbe Tciy nearly that of the conductor.
In this way it has been aaoertained by Sir W. lliomaon that if
two hollow conductors, one of copper and the other of zinc, aie
in metallic contact^ then the potential of the air in the hollow
anrrounded by zinc ia poaitiTe with reference to that of the air
in the hollow anrrounded by copper. j
Third Method. If by any means we can cause a succession of

small bodies to detach themselves from tlie end of the electrode,
the potential of the electrode will approximate to that of the sur-
rounding air. This may be done by causing' shot, filings, sand, or
water to drop out of a funnel or pipe connected with the electrode.
The point at which the potential is measured is that at which
the stream ceases to be continuous and breaks into separate parts
or drops.
Another convenient method is to fasten a slow match to the
|
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THBOBT OF THE PBOOF PLAKB. 277
electrode. The potential ia very aoon made equal to that of the

aur at the bnrniog end of the match. Even a fine metalHc point
is sufficient to create a discharge by means of the particles of the
air when the di^renoe of potentials is considerable, but if we

wish to rednce this diffiaienee to zero, we must use one of the
methods stated above.
If we only wish to ascertain the sign of the difference of the
potentials at two and not its numerical value, we may cause
places,
drops or be discharged at one of the places from a nozzle
filings to
connected with the other place, and catch the drops or filings
in an insulated vessel. Each drop as it falls is charged with a
certain amount of electricity, and it is completely discharged into
the vessel. The charge of the vessel therefore is continually ac-
cumulating, and after a sufficient number of drops have fallen, the
charge of the vessel may be tested by the roughest methods. The
sign of the charge is positive if the potential of the nozzle is positive
relatively to that of the suxroonding air.
MEASU&EICBNT OF 8U&FAC£-D£NSITY OF ELECTRIFICATION.
l%eory 0/ the Froof Flam,

228.] In testing the results of the mathematical theory of the
distribution of electricily on the sorfiioe of conductors^ it is necessary
to he able to measure the surfiuje-dennty at diffisrent points of
the conductor. For this purpose Coulomb employed a small disk
of gilt paper fiwtened to an insulating stem of gom-lac. He ap*
plied this disk to various points of the conductor by placing it
so as to coincide as nearly as possible with tiie snrfiMe of tiie
conductor. He then removed it by means of the insnlatmg stem,
and measured the charge of the disk by means of his electrometer.
Since the surface of the disk, when applied to the conductor,
nearly coincided with that of the conductor, he concluded that
the surface-density on the outer surface of the disk was nearly
e(jual to that on the surface of the conductor at that place, and that
the charge on the disk when removed was nearly equal to that
on an area of the surface of the conductor equal to that of one side
of the disk. This disk, when employed in tliis way^ is called
Coulomb's Proof Plane.
As objections have been raised to Coulomb^s use of the proof
planej I shall make some remarks on the theory of the experiment.
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278 BLECTB06TATIG IN8TBUMBNT8. [224.
The experiment consists in bringing a small conductiiig body

into contact with the surfiMie of the condactor at the point where
the density is to be measured, and then remoTuig the body and
determining ite cfaaige.
We have first to shew that the charge on the small body when
in contact with the condactor is proportional to the sor&ce-
densily which existed at the point of contact before the small body
was placed there.
We shall suppose that all the dimensions of the small body, and
especially its dimension in the direction of the normal at the point
of contact, are small compared with either of the radii of carvatnre
of the conductor at the point of contact. Hence the variation of
the resultant force due to the conductor supposed rigidly electrified
within the space occupied by the small body may be neglected,
and we may treat the surface of the conductor near the small body
as a plane surface.
Now the charge whieli the small Vxxly will take by contact with
a plane surface will lie |)ro[)orti<>nal to the resultant force normal
to the surface, that is, to the surface-density. We shall ascei'tain
the amount of the charye for particular forms of the hody.
We have next to shew that when the small body is removed no
spark will pass between it and the conductor, so tliat it will carry
its charge with it. This is evident, because when the bodies are
in contact their potentials are the same, and therefore the density
on the parts nearest to the point of contact is extremely small.
When the small body is removed to a veiy short distance from
the conductor, which we shall suppose to be electrified positively,
then the electritication at the point nearest to the small body is

no longer zero but positive, but, since the charge of the small body
is positive, the positive electrification close to the small body will
be less than at other neighbouring points of the snrfiice. Now
the passage of a spark depends in general on the magnitude of the
resultant force, and this on the snr&oe-density. Hence, since we
suppose that the conductor is not so highly electrified as to be
discharging electricity from the other parts €i its sur&oe, it will
not discharge a spark to the small hodj firom a part of its snrfiioe
which we have shewn to have a smaller surfiuse-density.
224.] We shall now consider various forms of the small body.
Suppose it to be a small hemisphere applied to the conductor so
as to touch it at the centre of its flat side.
Let the conductor be a large sphere, and let us modify the Ibrm
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THE PBOOF PLANS. 279
of the hemisphere so that its surface is a little more t han a hemi-

sphere, and meets the surface of the sphere at rig'ht angles. Then
we have a case of which we have already obtained the exact solutioiu
See Art. 168. •
If A and B be the centres of the two spheres catting each other

at ri^ht angles, DI/ a diameter of the circle of intersection, and C
the centre of that circle, then if F is the ]>otential of a conductor
whose outer surface coincides with that of the two spheres, the
qumtiiy of electricity on the exposed siir&oe of the sphere A is
iF(AD+JBD+AC^CD-BC),
end that on the exposed surfiice of the sphere 3 is
{F{AD+£D-hBC-CJ)-AC),
the total charge being the sum of these, or
If o and (3 are the ladxi of the ^heres, then, when a is huge

compared with /3, the charge on i9 is to that on ^ in the zafcb of
4 a* ^ 3 a 6 o" ^
Now let <T be the uniform suifiice-density on A when ^ is re-
moved, then the chaige on ^ is

4 » a* o-,
and therefore the charge on is
3ir/3«<r(l +i^+&c.),
or, when B is very small compared with a, the charge on the
hemisphere B is e<pial to three times that due to a surface-density or
extending over an area ecûal to that of the circular base of the

hemisphere.
It ai)j)cars from Art. 175 that if a small sphere is made to touch
an and is then removed to a distance from it, the
electrified body,
mean surface-density on the sphere is to the surface-density of the

body at the point of contact as -n^ is to G, or as 1.645 to 1.
225.] Tlie most convenient form for the proof plane is that of
a circular disk. We shall therefore shew how the charge on a
circular disk laid on an electrified surface is to be measured.
For this purpose we shall construct a value of the potential
function so that one of the equipotential surfaces resembles a circular
flattened protnberanoe whose general form is somewhat like that of
a disk lying on a plane.
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280 ILICTB09TATIC INSTRinCBNTB. [^^S*
Let o- be the 8iirfiM)e-d0iinty of a plnie, whiek we shall wapfcm

to he that of dgr.
The potential doe to tfak deetrifioBtioa win he
Now let two disks of *iadiiis a he rigidly electrified wiUi smftee-

densities — 0^ and Letthefint of theeeheplaoedoatheidaDo
cfgy with its oentie at the <Nngin, and the seoond psxaUel to it at
the yeiy small distaiioe e.
Then it may be riiewn, as we shall see in the theoiy of mag^

netism, that the potential of the two diite at any point is «
where » is the solid angle sabtended by the edge of either disk at
the point. Hence the potential of the whole system will be
V = — AiT(TZ-^<it(r^c.
The forms of the oquipotential surfaces and Lines of induction
are given on the left-hand side of Fig. XX, at the end of Vol. II.
Let ns trace the form of the surfiuse for which F=0, Thia
surface is indicated by the dotted line.
Putting the distance of any point from the axis of « s= r, then,
when r is moch less than a, and m is small,
a
Henoe, for âes of r eonsiderahly less than a, the equation ef
the zero eqoipotential sor&oe is
a
or «o = — a c
2(r+<r'-
a
Henoe this equipotentkl snzfiuse near the aads is nearly flat
Outside the disk, where r is greater than a, «» is aero when m ia
zero, so that the plane of 0^ is part of the equipotential suifiuse.
To find where these two parts of the sozfiioe meet;, let ns find at
what point of this plane as 0.
"When r is veiy nearly equal to a

dV , 2 a a
Hence, when
-=- = 0, r^ssa-^-
^
dg • 2va
ThB eqoipotential sniftoe Tss 0 is therefi>re composed of a disk-
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226.] AOCmiVLATOBB. 281
like figure of ndios r^, and neftrlj uiulbrm iihielniiwii g^, and of tbe
part of the infinite plane of ^ ivbich lies bejond this figoze.
The eorfiuM-integpral over the whole didc gives -the chaige of
eleetridtj on it. It may be founds as in the theorjr of a eifealar
curent in Part lY, to be
Q = 4iraac{log-— -2)+w<rro«.
The ehavge on an eqnal area the plane sinfiMse is tvrî benoe
the charge on tbe disk exceeds that on an equal area of tbe pUne
in tbe ratio of . i « * 8irr ,
1+8-log-j-
.
to nnily,
where z is the thickness and r tbe radius of the disk^ z being sap-
posed small compared with r.
On Electric Accumulators and the Measurement of Capacity,
226.] An Accumulator or Condenser is an apparatus consisting

of two oondncting sarfiu»s separated by an insnlatang dielectrio
medium.
A Leyden jar is an accumulator in which an inside coating of
tinfoil is separated from tbe outside coating by the glass of wbicb
the jar is made. The original Leyden phial was a glass vessel
containing water which was separated by the glass from the hand
whidi held it.
Hie enter snrfiMse of any insulated conduetor may be considered

as one of the sorfiuses of an aooomnlator, the other being the earth
or the walls of the zoom in which it is placed, and the intervening
air being the dielectric medium.
The capacity of an aocomnlator is measured by the quantity of
dectridty with which the inner snifiMse must be chaiged to make
the di£finenoe between the potentials of the surftcea unity.
Since every electrical potential is the sum of a number of parts
found by dividing each electrical element l>y its distance from n
point, tiie ratio of a quantity dt dectridty to a potential must
have the dimensions of a line. Hence electrostatic capacity is a
linear quantity, or we may measure it in feet or metres without
ambiguity.
In electrical researches accumulators are used lor two principal
purposes, for receiving and retaining large quantities of electricity
in as small a compass as possible, and for measuring definite quan-
tities of electricity by means of tbe potential to wbicb they raise
the accumulator.
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282 SLECT&06TATIC iNSTKUMENTS.
For the retention of electrical charges nothing" has been devised

more perfect than the Leyden jar. The principal part of the loss
arises from the electricity creeping along the damp uncoated surface
of the glass from the one coating to the other. This may be checked
in a great degree hj artificially drying the air within the jar, and
by Tanushing the surface of the glass where it is exposed to the
atmosphere. In Sir W. Thomson's electroscopes there is a "very
small percentage of loss from day to day. and I believe that none
of this loss can be traced to direct conduction either through air
or through glass when the glass is good, but that it arises chiefly
from soperficial condnotion along the wioas insalating stems and

glass sorftoes of the instroment*
In fact, the same eleetrician has commonieated a ehaige to
sulphmic add in a. large bnlb with a long neck, and has then her-
metically sealed the neck by fbsing it, so that the chargewas com-
pletelysononnded by glass, and after some years the ehaige was
found still to be retained.
It is only, however, when cold, that glass insnlates in this
way, for the charge escapes at once if the glass is heated to
a temperature below 1 00*C.
When it is desiml to obtain g^reat capacity in small compass,
accumulators in which the dielectric is sheet caoutchouc^ mica, or
paper impregnated with j
arailin are convenient.
227.] For accumulators of the second class, intended for the

measurement of quantities of electricity, all solid dielectrics must be
employed with great caution on account of the property which they
possess called Electric Absorption.
The only safe dielectric for such accumulators is air, which has
this inconvenience, that if any dust or dirt gets into the narrow
space between the opposed surfaces, which ought to be occupied only
by air, it not only alters the thickness of the stratum of air, but
may establish a connexion between the opposed snr&oes, in whidi
case the accumulator will not hold a charge.
To determine in absolute measure, that is to say in feet or metres,
the capacity of an accamulator, we must either first ascertain its
form and and then soItc the problem of the distribution of
size,
electricity opposed snr&oes, or we must compare its capacity

on its
with that of another aoeomnlator, for whioh this problem has been
solved.
As tiie problem is a very difficult one, it is best to begin with aa
accumulator constructed <^ a form for which the solution is known.
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228.] ICSABUBBMSNT OF CAPACITT. 288
Thus the capacity of an inwilated sphere in an onlimited space is
known to be measured by the nulias of the sphere.

A sphere suspended in a room was aotoallj used hy MM. Kohl-
rausoh and Weber, as an absolute standard with wh^h thej com-
pared the capacity of other accumuktors.
The capacity, however, of a sphere of moderate size is so small
wlien conipared with the capacities of the accumulators iii common
use that the sphere is not a convenient standard measure.
Its capacity might be greatly increased by surrounding the
sphere with a hollow concentric spherical surface of somewhat
greater radius. The capacity of the inuer hurfaco is then a fourth
proportional to the thickness of the stratum of air and the radii of
the two surfaces.
Sir W. Thomson has employed this arrangement as a standard of
capacity, but the difTiculties of working the surfaces truly spherical^
of making them truly concentric, and of measuring their distance
and their radii with sufficient accuracy, are considerable.
We are therefore led to prefer for an absolute measure of capacity
a form in which the opposed surfaces are parallel planes.
The accuracy of the matuse of the planes can be easily tested,
and their distance can be measured by a micrometer screw, and
may be made capable of continuous yariation, which is a most
important property of a measuriug instrument.
The only difficulty remaining arises from the fi^t that the phmes
must necessarily be bounded^ and that the distribution of electricil^
near the boundaries of the planes has not been rigidly calculated.
It is true that if we make them equal circular disks, whose radius
is large compared with the distance between them, we may treat
the edges of the disks as if they were straight and odcnlate
lines,
the distribution of electricity by the method due to Helmholtz, and

described at Art 202. But it will be noticed that in this esse
part of the electricity is distributed on the back of each disk, and
that in the calculalion it has been supposed that there are no
conductors in the neighboorhood, which is not and cannot be the
case in a small instrument.
228.] We therefore prefer the following arrangement, due to
Sir W. Thomson, which we may call the Guard-ring arrangement,
by means of which the quantity of electricity on an insulated disk
may be exactly determined in terms of its potential.
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284 KLSCTKOSTATIC INSTBUUBNTS. [228.
The Guard-ring Accumulator,

Bb is a cylindrical vessel of condaotiD^ material of which tho
outer suifiMse of the upper fiuie is accurately plane. This upper
two parts,
surface consists of
a disk A, and a broad ring
BB surrounding the disk,
separated from it by a very
small interval all rounds just
sufficient to prevent sparka
If
passing. The upper sni&oe
of the disk is accurately in
the same plane with that of
I1g.20.
the guard-ring. Tbe disk ta
supported by pillars of insulating material OQ, (7 is a metal disk,

the under surface of which is accurately plane and parallel to BB,
The disk C is considerably larger than A. Its distance from A
is adjusted and measured by means of a micrometer screw, which
is not given in the figure.
This accumulator is used as a measuring instrument as follows :
Suppose C to be at potential zero, and the disk A and vessel Bb

both at potential V. Then there will be no electrification on the
back of the disk because the vessel is nearly closed and is all at the
same potential. There will be very little electrification on the
edges of the disk because BB is at the same jx)teutial with the
disk. On the face of the disk the electrification will be nearly
uniform, and therefore the whole charge on the disk will be almost
exactly represented by its area multiplied by the sur&ce-densily on
a plane, as given at Art. 124.
In £ftct, we learn from the investigation at Art. 201 that the
charge on the disk is
\ 8A SA J + aK
where JS is the radius of the disk, R that of the hole in the guard-
ring, A the distance between A and C, and a a qnantity which
cannot exceed {R — R) ^^^'^ .
If the interval between the disk and the guard-ring is small

compared with the distance between A and C, the second term will
be vecy small, and the charge on the disk will be nearly
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GOMPABISOH OJf CAFACITI£S. 286
Now let the vessel B6 he put in connexion with the earth. The
charge on the disk A
no longer be uniformly distributed, but it
will
will remain the same in quantity, and if wc now discharge A we
shall obtain a quantity of electricity, the value of which we know
in tenns of F, the original dilTeienoe of potentials and the measur-
able quantities i2, £^ and A.
On the Comparhon of the Capacity of Accumulators.

229.] The form of accumulator which is best fitted to have its
capacity determined in absolute measure from the form and dimen-
sions of its parts is not generally the most suitable for electrical
experiments. It is desirable that the measures of capacify in actual
use should be aocnmulators having only two conducting surfaces^ one
of which is as nearly as possible surrounded by the other. The
guard-ring^ aoonmnlator, on the other haud^ has three independent
oonduoting portions which must be charged and dischaiged in a
certain order. Hence it is desirable to be able to compare the
capacities of two accumulators by an dectHcal process^ so aa to test
accumulators which may afterwards serve as secondary standards .
I shall first shew how to test the equalilgr of the capacity of two
guard-ring accumulators.
Let A be the disk^ B the guard-ring with the rest of the con-
ducting vessel attached to it, and C the large disk of one of these
accumulators, and let .i', and (T' be the corresponding parts of
the other.
If either of these accumulators is of the more simple kind, having
only two conductors, we have only to suppress B
or jB', and to
suppose A to be the inner and C the outer conducting sur&CC. C
in this case being understood to surround A,
Let the following connexions be made.
Let B be kept always connected with C\ and vnih C, that is, F
let each guard-ring be connected with the large disk of the other
condenser.
(1) Let be connected with B and C and with /, the electrode
ot a Le) den jar, and let A! be connected with B and C and with
the earth.
(2) Let A, B, and C be insulated from •/.
(3) Let A be insulated from B and

and A' from B' and
6", C
(4) Let B tfnd C" be connected with B' and C and with the
earth.
(6) Let A be connected with A^,
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286 SUCTSOSTATIO INBTBUMUTTS. [229.
(6) Let A and Jt be ooimeotod with an eleotrosoope B,

We may cxpreei theae oonneiionB as follows :
(1) 0=(7=J'=ir A^B^C^J. I
(2) 0 = C = jr = A' A = B=C\J. I
(3) OssCs^ A\ B^C\I I
<4) OsCsJT \A^ A |^=(r=0. \
(5) o=6'=ir|j' = j|5=r=o.

(6) OsCsi^ ^'si^ssii jSsCr=0. I I
Hero the sign of equality expreaeee eleetrical oonnezioii, and the

ertioal stroke ezpreeaes insolatioii.
In two accmmikton aro chaiged oppositely, so that A is
(1) the
positive and negatiTe, the oharges on A and A^ being uniformly
distributed on the npper surfiice opposed to the large disk of each
accumulator.
In (2) the jar is removed, and in (3) the charges on A and Jt are
iusulutod.
In (1) the guard-rings are connected with the large disks, so that
the charges on A and A\ though unaltered in magnitude, are now
distributed over their whole surface.
In (5) A is connected with A\ If the charges are equal and of
opposite signs, the electrification will be entirely destroyed, and
in (6) this is tested by means of the electroscope E.
The electroscope E will indicate positive or negative electrification
according as A or A' has the greater capacity.
-By means of a key of proper construction, the whole of these
operations can be peifonned in doe succession in a very small
fraction of a second, and the capacities adjusted till no electri-
ficationcan be detected by the electroscope, and in this way the
capacity of an accumulator may be adjusted to be equal to that of
any other, or to the sum of the capacities of ssyeral accumulators,
so that a system of accumulators may be formed, each of whidi has
its capacity determined in absolute measnro, i e. in foet or in metres,
while at the same time it is of the construction most suitable for

electrical experiments.
Tliis method of compaiisoii will probably be found useful in
determining the specific capacity for electrostatic induction of
difoent form of plates or disks. If a disk of
dielectrics in the
the dielectric is interposed between A and C, the disk being con-
siderably larger than A^ then the capacity of the aeeomukitor will
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a29.] spioivio nrDucnvx oapaoitt. 287
be altered and made equal to tliat of the same aocnmnlator when A

and C are nearer together. If the aocnmoktor with the dielectric
pUtej and witJi A and C at distance jp, is of the same capacity as
the flame aocumohitor without the dielectric, and with A and C at
distance sf, then^ if a is the thickness of the pkte, and K
its specific
dielectric indnctiTC capacily referred to air as a standard,
a + af — »
The combination of three cylinders, described in Art. 127, has
been employed by Sir W. Thomson as an accumulator whose capa-
city may Ije increased or diminished by measurable (|uantities.
The experiments of MM. Gibson and Barclay with this ap-
paratus are described in the Proceedings of the lioijal Sociel^^, Feb. 2,
1871, and Phil. Trans., 1871, p. 573. They found the specific in-
ductive capacity of paraiiin to be 1.975, that of air being unity.
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PART n.
ELECTKOKINEMATICS.
CHAPTEB I.
THS ILBCTBIC CUBBBNT.
280.] Wi have seen, m Art. 45, that when a eondoetor is in

«3eetrical equilibriom the potential at every point of the conductor
must be the same.
If two conductors A and B are charged with electricity so that
the potential of A is higher than that of B, then, if they are put
in communication hy means of a metallic wire C touching both of
them, part of the charge of A will be transferred to B, and the
potentials of A and B will become in a very short time equalized.
231.] During this process certain phenomena are observod in
the wire C, which are called the phenomena of the electric conflict
or current.
The first of these phenomena is the transference of positive
electrification from A to B and of negative electrillcation from B
to A. This transference may be also ciTected in a slower manner
by bringing a small inaulated body into contact with A and B
alternately, £7 this process, which we may call electrical con-
eotum, saocessive small portions of the electrification of each body
are transfened to the other. In either case a certain quantity of
electricity, or of the state of electrification, passes from one place
to another along a certain path in the space between the bodies.
Whateyer therefore may be oar opinion of the nature of elec-
tricitj,we must admit that the ptrooeis which we have described
ooDstitntes a comnt of eleotricily. lliia eonent may be deeeribed
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THE VOLTAIC BATTEBY. 289
as a current of podtiTe electricity from J to J?, or a onrrent of

native eleetrieiiy firom J9 to ^, or as a ocMDoJUoiation <^ theee two
oorrents.
Aooordmg to Fecliner*8 and Weber's theory it is a combination
of a current of positive electricity with an exactly equal current
of negative electricity in the opposite direction throiig'h the same
substance. It is necessary to remember this exceedingly artificial
hypothesis reg'ardin*^ the constitution of the current in order to
understand the statement of some of Weber's most valuable ex-
perimental results.
If, as in Art. 30, we suppose P units of positive electricity
transferred from A to jff, and N units of negative electricity trans-
ferred from B to A in unit of time, then, according to "Weber's
theory, P=Nf and P or iV^ is to be taken as the numerical measure
of the current.
We, on make no assumption as to the relation
the contrary,
between P and N, but attend only to the result of the current,
namely, the transference of P-\-N of positive electrification from A
to By and we shall consider P+N the true measure of the current;
The carrent, theiefore^ which Weber would call 1 we shall call 2.
On Steady OurrenU,
282.] In the case of the current between two insnlated oon-

ductoxB at different potentials the operation is soon brought to
an end hy the equalization of the potentials of two bodies,
and the current is therefore essentially a Transient cnrrent.
But there are methods by which the dittcronce of potentials of
the conductors may be maintained constant, in which case the
current will continue to flow with uniform strength as a Steady
Current.
Tifi FoUaie Battery.

The most conyenient method of prodndng a steady ennent is by
means of the Yoltnio Battery.
For the sake of distinctness we shall describe Darnell's Constant
Batteiy :—
A solution of sulphate of sine is placed in a cell of porous earth*
enware^ and this cell is placed in a vessel containing a saturated
solution of sulphate of copper. A piece of sine is dipped into the
sulphate of zinc, and a piece of copper is dipped into the sulphate
of copper. Wires are soldered to the zinc and to the copper aboTC
-VOL. I. u
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290 THE BLECTBIC CURRENT.
the sarfaoe of the liquid. Thii oombinatiaii is called a cell or

element of Darnell's battery. See Art. 272.
233.] If the cell is insulated by being* placed on a non-con-
ducting' stand, and if the wire connected with the copper is put
in cont4ict with an insulated conductor A, and the wire connected
with the zinc is put in contact with B, another insulated conductor
of the same metal as A, then it may be shewn by means of a delicate
electrometer that the potential of A exceeds that of B by a certain
quantity. Tliis difference of potentials is called the Electromotive
Force of the Daniell's Cell.
If A and B are now disconnect^ from the cell and put in
communication by means of a wnre, a transient current passes
through the wire from A to B, and the potentials of A and B
become equal. A and B may then be charged again by the cell,
and the prooeaB repeated as long ns the cell will work. But if
A and B be connected by means of the wire C, and at the same
time 0(wnected with the battery as before, then the cell will main-
tain a constant conent through C, and also a constant differanoe
of potentials between A and B. This difference will not, as we
shall see, be equal to the whole electromotive force of the cell, for
part of this force is spent in maintaining the current through the
ceU itself.
A number of cells placed in series so that the sine of the first

cell is connected hy metal with the copper of the second, and
so on, is called a Voltaic Battery. Hie dectiomotiTe force of
such a battery is the sum of the electromotive forces of the cella
of which it IS composedi If the batteiy is insulated it may be
charged with electricity as a whole, but the potential of the copper
end will always exceed that of the jam end by the electromotive
force of the battery, whatever the absolute value of ather of these
potentials may be. Tha cells of the batteiy may be of very various
and different
construction, containing different chemical substances
metab, provided they are such that chemical action does not go
on when no current passes.
234.] Let us now consider a voltaic battery with its ends insulated
from each other. The copper end vnW be positively or vitreously
and the zinc end will be negatively or resinously electrified.
electrihed,
Let the two ends of the battery be now connected by means
of a wire. An electric current will commence, and will in a very
short time attain a constant value. It is then said to be a Steady
Current.
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236.] BUSOTBOLTHia 2dl
Projjertiejf of the Current.
286.] The current forms a closed circuit in the direction from

copper to zinc through the wires, and firom zinc to copper through
the solutions.
If the circuit be broken by cutting any of the wires which
connect tho copper of one cell with the zinc of the next in order, the
eurrent will be stopped, and the potential of the end of the wire
in connexion with the copper will ]>e found to exceed that of the
end of the wire in connezion with the zinc by a constant quantity,
namely, the total eleebPomotiTe force of the oiiouit.
EleeMj^ Aeium of ii$ OumitL

286.] As longas the drenit is broken no diemical action goes
on in the cells, but as soon as the circuit is completed, zinc is
dissolved from the zinc in each of the Daniell's cells, and copper is
deposited on the copper.
The quantity of sulphate of zinc increases, and the quantity of
sulpliate of copper diminishes unless more is constantly supplied.
The quantity of zinc dissolved and also that of copper deposited is
the same in each of the DanielJ's cells throughout the circuit, what-
ever the size of the plates of the cell, and if any of the cells be of a
different construction, the amount of chemical action in it bears
a constant proportion to the action in the Daniell's cell. For
instance, if one of the cells consists of two platinum plates dippe<l
into sulphuric acid diluted with water, oxygen will be given off
at the surface of the plate where the current enters the liquid,
namely, the plate in metallic connexion with the copper of Daniell's
cell, and hydrogen at the surface of the platewhere the oonent
leaves the liquid, namely, the pkte connected with the zinc of
Daniell*8 cell.
The olume of the hydrogen is exactly twice the volume of the
oxygen given same time, and the weight of the oiygen is
off in the
exactly eight times the weight of the hydrogen.
In every cell of the circuit the wei^t of âdi substance dissolved,
deposited, or decomposed is equal to a certain quantify called the
electrochemical equivalent of that substance, multiplied by the
strength of the cunent and by the time during which
it has
been flowing.
For the experiments whidi established this princ^le, see the
jeventh and eighth series of Faraday's EgperimiUal Setearekets
V9
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292 THE XUBCTRIO CUBBBNT. [237.
and an investigation of the apparent exceptions to the rulej see

for
Miller's Chemical Phi/sicsand Wiedemaiin's Galvanimm^
237.] Substances which are decomposed in this way are called
Eleebroljtes. The process is called Electrolysis. The places where
the oorrent enters and leaves the electrolyte ore called Electrodes.
Of these the electrode by which the carrent enten is called the
Anode, and that by which it leaves the dectrolyte is called the
Gaihode. The components into which the eleotrolyte is resolved
sore called Ions : that whidi appears at the anode is called the
Anion, and that wUch appears at the cathode is called the Cation.
Of these terms, which were, I believe, invented by Earaday with
the help of Br. Whewell, the first threej namely, electrode, eleo*
trolysis, and have been geneially adopted, and the mode

electrolyte
<^ conduction of the current in vrhich this kind of decomposition
and transfer of the components takes place is called Eleetrolytio
Conduction.
If a homogeneous electrolyte is placed in a tube of variable
section, and if' the electrodes are placed at the ends of this tube,
it is found that when the current passes, the anion appears at
the anode and the cation at the cathode, the quantities of these
ions being eleetroehemically equivalent, and such as to be together
equivalent to a certain quantity of the electrolyte. In the other
parts of the tube, whether the section be large or small, uniform
or varying, the composition of the electrolyte remains unaltered.
Hence the amount of electrolysis which takes place across every
section of the tube is the same. Where the section is small the
action must therefore l)e more intense than where the section is
large, but the total amount of each ion which crosses any complete
section of the electrolyte in a given time is the same for all sections.
The strength of the current may therefore be measured by the
amount of electrolysis in a given time. An instrument by which
the quantity of the eleetrolytio products can be readily measured
is called a Voltameter.
The strength of the current, as thus measured, is the same
at every pert of the circuit, and the total quantity of the elec-
trolytic producte in the voltameter after any given time is pro-
portional to the amount of electricity which passes any section in
the same time.
288.] If we introduce a voltameter at one part of the drcoit
of a voltaio battery, and break the circuit at another part, we may
suppose the measurement of the current to be condncted thus.
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XAONXnO AonoK. 298
Let the ends of the broken oiicait be A and and let be the
anode and B
the cathode. Let an insulated ball be made to toneh
B
A and alternately, it will cany from A\diB%. certain measareble
quantity of electricity at each journey. This quantity may be
measured by an electrometer, or it may be calculated by mnl-
tiplying the electromotiye force of tiie dieait by the eledarostatie
capacity of the ball. Electricity is thus carried from J to ^ on the
insulated ball by a process which may be called Convection. At
the same time electrolysis goes on in the voltameter and in the
and the amount of electrolysis in each cell may
cells of the battery,
be compared with the amount of electricity carried across by the

insulated ball. The quantity of a substance which is electrolysed
by one unit of electricity is called an Electrochemical equivalent
of that substance.
Tliis experiment would be an extremely tedious and troublesome
one if way with a ball of ordinary magnitude
conducted in this
and a manageable battery, for an enormous number of journeys
would have to be made before an appreciable quantity of the electro-
lyte was decomposed. The experiment must therefore be considered
as a mere illustration, the actual measurements of electrochemical
equivalents being conducted in a different way. But the experi-
ment may be considered as an illustration of the prooeas of elec-
trolysis itself, for if we regard electrolytic conduction as a species
of convection in which an electrochemical equivalent of the anion
travelB with negative electricity in the direction of the anode, while
an equivalent of the cation travels with positive electricity in
the direction of the cathode^ the whole amount of transfer of eleo-
tricily being one unit> we shall haye an idea of the piocees of
electroly«ia> whioh, so &r as I know, ia not inconsistent with known
fiusts, though, cm aooount of our ignorance of the nature of electricity
and of chemical compounds, it may be a very imperfect repre-
sentation of what really takes place.
Mxptetie AetUm <if ike CufreiU,
289.] Oersted disooyered that a magnet placed near a straight

electric current tends to place itself at rig^t angles to the plane
passing through the magnet and the current. See Art. 476.
If a man were to place his body in the line of the current so
that the cnnent from copper through the wire to sine should jQow
from his head to his feet, and if he were to direct bis face towards
the centre of the magmet» then that end of the magnet which tends
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294 THB BLBCTBIO CUR&ENT.
to point to the north would, whea the onrrant flows^ tend to point
towaidg the man's light hand.
The nature and laws of this electromagnetic action will be dis-
eosaedwhen we come to the fourth part of this treatise. What
we are coneemed with at present is the fact that the electric
current has a magnetic action which is exerted outside the current,
and by which its existence can be ascertained and its intensily
meaenred without breaking the circuit or introducing anything into

the current itself.
The amount of the magnetic action has been aaoertained to be

brictly proportional to the strength of the current as measured
by the products of dectroljrsu in the voltameter^ and to be quite
independent of the nature of the conductor in which the cunent
18 flowing, whether it be a metal or an electrolyte.
240.] An instarument which indicates the strength of an electric

ourrent by magnetic effects is called a Galvanometer.
its
Galvanometers in general consist of one or more coils of silk-

covered wire within which a magnet is suspended with its axis
horizontal. When a current is passed through the wire the magnet
tends to set itself with its axis perpendicular to the plane of the
coils. If we suppose the plane of the coils to be placed parallel
to the plane of the earth's equator, and the current to flow round
the coil from east to west in the direction of the apparent motion
of the sun, then the magnet within will tend to set itself mth
its magnetization in the same direction as that of the earth vnn-
sidered us a great magnet, the north pole of the earth being «imilAr
to that end of tlie compass needle which points south.
The galvanometer is the most convenient instrument for mea-
suring the strength of electric currente. We shall therefore assume
the possibility of constructing such an instrument in studying the
laws of these cnrrentS) reserving the discussion of the principles of
the instrument for our fourth part. When therefore we say that
an eleotric current is of a certain strength we 8iq»poee that the
meamuement is effected by the galvanometer.
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CHAPTER n.
COKDITOTZOK AKD BI8I8TAKCB.
241.] If by means of an electrometer we determine the electric

potential at different jK)ints of a circuit in which a constant electric
current is maintained, we shall find that in any portion of the
circuit consisting- of a single metal of uniform temperature throng'h-
out, the potential at any point exceeds that at any other point
&rther on in the direction of the current hy a quantity depending
on the Btreogtli of the onirent and on the nature and dimensions
of the intervening portion of the circuit. The difference of the
potentials at the extremities of this portion of the circuit is called
tbe External electromotive force acting on it. If the portion of

the cironit under consideration is not homogeneous, but contains
taranntions firom one substance to another^ firom metals to elec-
trolytes, or from hotter to colder parts, there may be, besides the
external eleetromotiTe force, Internal electromotive forces which
mnet be taken into acconnt.
The relations between Electromotive Force, Corrent, and Besist-
anoe were first investigated by Dr. G. S. Ohm, in a work published
in 1827^ entitled JHe Gahaniseke Kefte MdiJiemaiitek JBearMM,
translated in Taylor's Seient^ Mmokt. The result of these in-
vestigations in tiie case of homogeneoos condaetors is commonly
called < Ohm's Law.'
Ohm*$ Law,
Tke tHeetfomoUoe farce acting hdwcen ike cvtfcmdei of pari

<f a circuit i» tie product of tke eircngtA of tke current and tke
Betietanee of tkatpart qf tke eireuit.
Here a new term is introduced^ the Resistance of a condnctor,
which is defined to be the ratio of the eleetromotive force to
the strength of the current which it* produces. The introduction
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296 ooNDircmoH akd bbsibtakcb, [242.
of this term would have been of no scientific valae unle« Ohm

had shewn^ as he did experimentally, that it corresponds to a real
pbyneal quantity, that is^ that it has a definite ytlu» which is
alteied only when the nature of the conductor is altered.
In the first place, then^ the resistance of a condnctor is inde-

pendent of the strength of the oorrent flowing through it.
In the second pbKse the resistMice is independent of the eleotrie
potential at which the condnctor is maintained, and of the density
of the distiibntion of electricity on the sm&ce of the condnctor.
It depends entirely on the nature of the material of whieh tiie
condnctor is composed, the state of aggregation of its parts^ and its
tempezatore.
TtiB resistance of a condnctor may be measured to within cm
ten thousandth or even one hundred thousandth part of its vahiei,
and so many eonductors haê been tested that our assurance of the
truth of Ohm's Law is now very high. In the sixth chapter we
shall trace its applications and consequences.
Generaium (if Heat by tie Ourreni.
242.] Wc have seen that when an electromotive force causes

a current to flow through a conductor, electricity is transferred
from a place of higher to a place of lower potential. If the transfer
had been made by convection, that is, by carrying successive
charges on a ball from the one place to the other, work would have
betjn done ])y the electrical forees on the ball, and this might have
been turm-d to account. It is actually turned to account in a
partial manner in those dry pile circuits where the electrodes have
the form of and the
bells, carrier ball is made to swing like a
pendulum between the two them alternately. In

bells and strike
this way the electrical action is made
up the swinging
to keep
of the pendulum and to propagate the sound of the bells to a
distance. In the case of the conducting wire we have the same
transfer of electricity from a place of high to a place of low potential
without any external work being done. The principle of the Con-
servation of Energy therefore leads us to look for internal work in
the conductor. In an electrolyte this internal work consiBts partly
of the sepaiation of its components. In other conductors it is
entirely converted into heat.
The energy converted into heat is in this esse the product of
the electromotive force into the quantity of electricity which paooeu .
But the electromotive foroe is the product of the current into the
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244-] OOHPABISON WITH PHENOMENA OF HEAT. 297
leofltanee, and the quantity of eleotridfy n the product of the

CQirent into the time. Henoe the quantity of heat multiplied by
the meehanical equivalent of unit of heat is equal to the square of
the strength of fê enrrent multiplied into the xeeistanoe and into
the time.
The heat developed by eleetiio currenti in overooming the le-
sistance of oonduebns hae been determined by Dr. Joule, who
first established that the heat produced in a given time is pro-
portional to the square of the current, and afterwards by carelul
absolute measurements of all the quantities concerned, veriiied the
equation JH CHU, z=.
where / is Joule's dynamioal equivalent of heat, M the number of

units of heaty C the strength of the cunent, R the resistance of the
conductor, and i the time during which the current flows. These
rdations between electromotive force, work, and heat, were first fully
e^lained by Sir W. ômson in a paper on the application of the
principle of mechanical e^ct to the measurement of electromotive
forces*.
S48.] The analogy between the theory of the conduction of
electricity and that of the conduction of heat is at first sight almost
complete. If we take two systems geometrically similar, and such
that the conductivity fbr heat at any part of the first is proportional
to the conductivity for electricily at the corresponding part of the

second, and if we also make the temperature at any part of the
first proportional to the electric potential at the correspondini> point
of the second, then the flow of heat across any area of the first
will be proportional to the flow of electricity across the corre-

sponding area of the second.
Thus, in the illustration we have given, in which flow of elec-
tricity corresponds to flow of heat, and electric potential to tem-
perature, electricity tends to flow from places of high to places
of low potential, exactly as heat tends to flow £rom places of high
to places of low temperature.
The theor}-^ of potential and that of temperature may
244.]
made to illustrate one another ; there is, however, ono
therefore be
remarkable dififerenoe between the phenomena of electricity and
those of heat.
Suspend a conducting body within a closed conducting vessel by
a and charge the vessel with electricity. The potential
silk thread,
• 2m. Mag., Dec. 1851.
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298 coKDVcnoK A2n> bbsistaitoil [245,
of tlie Teesel and of all within it will he instantly raised^ bnt
however long and however powerfblly the Teseel be electrified, and

whether the body within be allowed to oome in contact with the
vessel or not^ no signs of eleetrifioation will appear within the
vessel, nor will the body within shew may electrical effect when
taken ont.
But if the vessel is raised to a high temperatarcj the body
within will rise to the same temperatore, bat only after a con-
siderable time, and if it is then taken out it will be found hot,
and will remain so till it has continued to emit heat for some time.
The ditlerence between the phenomena consists in the fact that
bodies are capable of abgorbin)^ and emitting heat, whereas they
have no corresponding' pro})erty with respect to electricity. A body
cannot be made hot without a certain amount of heat being
supplied to it, depending* on the mass and specific heat of the body,
but the electric potential of a body may be raised to any extent
in the way already described without communicating any electricity
to the body.
246.] Again, suppose a body first lieated and then placed inside
the closed vessel. The outside of the vessel will be at first at the
temperature of surrounding bodies, but it will soon get hot, and
will remain hot till the heat of the interior body has escaped.
It is impossible to perform a corresponding electrical experiment.
It is impossible so to electrify a body, and so to place it in a
hollow vessel, tliat the outside of the vessel shall at first shew no
signs of electrification bnt shall afterwards become electrified. It
was some phenomenon of this kind that Faraday songht in
for
vain under the name of an absolute charge of dectricily.
Heat may be hidden in the interior of a body so as to have no
external aetion; bnt it is impossible to isolate a qnantiiy of elec-
tricity so as to prevent it £h>m being constantly in inductive
relation with an eqnal qnaatily of electrieity of the <^vposite kind,
Th&» is nothing therefore among electric phenomena which
corresponds to the capacity of a body for heat. This follows at
once from the doctrine which is asserted in this treatise, that
electricity obeys the same condition of continuily as an incom-
pressible fluid. It is therefore impossible to give a bodily charge
of electricity to any substance by forcing an additional quantity of
electricity into it. See Arts. 61, 111, 329^ 334.
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CHAPTEB, ill
ELECTROMOTIVE FOBCE BETWEEN BODIES IN CONTACT.
The Potentials of Different Substances in Contact,
246.] If wc define the potential of a hollow conductdng vessel

Bs the potential of the air inside the yessel, we may ascertain this
potential hy means of ml electrometer as desozibed in Part I,
Art. 222.
If we now take two hollow yessela of different metals^ say copper
and zinc, and put them in metallic contact with each other, and
then test the potential of the air inside each vessel, the potential
of the air inside the zinc vessel will he positive as compared with
tiiat inside tlie copper vessel. Tlie difference of potentials depends
on the nature of the smfiuse of the insides of the vessels, beings
greatest when the zinc is bright and when the copper is coated
wiiih oxide.
It appears from this that when two different metals are in
contact there is in general an electromotive force aetbg from the
one to the oliher, so as to make the potential of the one exceed
that of the other by a certain quantity. This is Volta's theory of
Contact Electridfy.
If we take a certain metal, say copper^ as the standard^ iihen
if the potential of iron in contact witii copper at the zero'potential
is /, and that of zinc in contact with copper at zero is then
the potential of zinc in contact with iron at zero will Lc Z—I.
It appears from this result, which is true of any three metals,
that the differences of potential of any two metals at the same
temperature in contact is etjual to the difference of their potentials
when in contact with a third metal, so that if a circuit be formed
of any number of metals at the same temperature there will be
electrical equilil)rium as soon as they have acquired their proper
potentials, and there will be no current kept up in the circuit.
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800 CONTACT FOBOB.
2^7.] If, however, the Gizcuit consist of two metals and an cleo-
troljte, the electrolyte, acoording to Volta's theory, tends to reduce
the potentials of the metals in contact with it to equality, so that
the electromotive force at the metallic junction no longer balanced,
is
and a continuous current is kept up. The energy of this corrent

is gapplied by the chemical action which takes pUuse between the
electrolyte and the metals.

248.] The electric effset may, however, be prodnced without
chemical action if by any other means we can pirodace an eqnali-
sation of tiie potentials of two metals in contact. Thus, in an
experiment dne to Sir W. Thomson*, a copper fonnel is placed in
contact witii a vertical zinc cylinder, so that when copper filings
are allowed to pass through the fbnnel, they sepamte from each
other and fiom tiie ftmnel nesr the middle of the zino cylinder,
and then fiill into an insulated reoeiYer placed below. The receiver
is then found to be charged negatively, and the charge increases
as the filings conturae to poor into it. At the same time the zinc
cylinder wifh the copper fonnel in it becomes charged more and
more positively.
If now the zinc cylinder were connected with the receiver by a
wire, there would be a positive current in the wire from the cylinder
to the receiver. The stream of copper filings, each filing charged
negatively by induction, constitutes a negative current from the
ftinnel to the receiver, or, in other words, a positive current from
the receiver to the copper funnel. The positive current, therefore,

passes through the air (by the filings) from zinc to copper, and
through the metallic junction from copper to zinc, just as in the
ordinary voltaic arrangement, but in this case the foree which keeps
up the current is not chemical action but gravity, wliich causes the
filings to fall, in spite of the electrical attraction between the
positively chai^d funnel and the negatively charged filings.
249.] A remarkable confiimatiQn of the theory of contact deo-
tricity is supplied by the discovery of Peltier, that, when a carrent
of electricity crosses the junction of two metals, the junction is
heated when the current is and cooled when it

in one direction,
is in the other direction. It must be remembered that a current
in its passage thiongh a metal always produces heat, because it
meets with resistsnce, so that the cooling effect on the whole
conductor most always be less than the heating eibot. We most
Hheiefore distinguish between the generation of heat in each metal,
Jf9rthBntkhBeHmB,19U,^mi and iVve. JZ: 5., JTime 80, 1867.
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249-] PELTIEB'8 PHBirOMBMOH. 801
due to ordinaxy xesistanoe, and the generation or absorption of heat

at the junction of two metals. We shall call the first the firiotional
generation of heat by the current, and, as we haye seen, it is
proportional to the square of the corrent, and is the same whether
the current he in the positiYe or the negative direction. Hie second
we may call the Peltier elM» wlueh changes its sign with that
of the current.
The total heat generated in a portion of a compound conductor
consisting of two metals may be e^ressed by
where H is the quantity of heat, / the meelumieal equivalent of

unit of heat, li the resistance of the conductor, C the current, and
t tlie time ; n bein^ the coefficient of the Peltier effect, that is,
the heat absorbed at the junction due to the passage of unit of

current for unit of time.
Now the heat generated is mechanically equivalent to the work
*
done against electrical forces in the conductor, that is, it is equal

to the product of the current into the electromotive force producing
it. Hence, if ^ is the external electromotive force which causes
the cnixent to flow through the conductor,
/if ss OJBi = RC* iîn Ci,

whence
It appears from this equation tliat the external electromotive
force required to drive the current through the compound conductor
is less than that due to its resistance alone by the electromotive
force /n. Hence JH represents the electromotive contact force
at the junction acting in the positive direction.
This application, due to Sir W. Thomson *, of the dynamical
theory of heat to the determination of a local electromotive force
is of great scientific importanoe^ since the ordinary method of
connecting two points of the compound conductor with the elec-
trodes of a galvanometer or electroscope by wires would be usdess,
owing to the contact forces at the junctions of the wires with
the materiab of the compound conductor. In the thermal method,
on the other hand, we know that the only source of energy is the
current of electricity, and that no work is done by the current
in a certain portion of the circuit except in heating that portion
of the conductor. If, therefore, we can measure the amount of the
• iVoc. R. S. Edin , Dec. 16, 1851 ; and Tram. R. A Bdin., 1854.
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302 CONTACT FOBCE.
current and the amount of lieat produced or absorbed, we can

determine the electromotive force required to urge the current
through that portion of the conductor, and this measurement is
entirely independent of the effect of contact forces in other parts of

the circuit.
Tlie electromotive force at the junction of two metals, as de-
termined by this method, does not account for Volta's electromotive
force as described in Art. 246. The latter is in general far greater
tbaa that of this Article^ and is sometimes of opposite dgn. Hence

the assumption that the potential of a metal is to be measured by
that of the air in contact with it must be erroneoos, and the greater
part of Volta's electromotive force must be sought for, not at the
junctioii of thetwo metals, but at one or both of the surfaces which
separate the metals from the air or other medium which fomis the
third element of the circuit.
250.] The disooveiy by Seebeok d theimoeleetrio onxnntB in
oureniis of different metals with their jnnotioiis at difflarait tem-
peratnres, diews that these oontaet forces do not always bahmee
each other in a complete drouit. however, that
It is manlfiast,
in a complete circuit of different metals at uniform temperature the

contact forces must balance each other. For if this were nolT the
case there would be a current formed in the cirouit^ and this current
might be employed to work a machine or to generate heat in the
circuit, that is, to do work, while at the same time there is no
expenditure of energy, as the circuit is all at ihe same temperature,
and no chemical or other change takes place. Hence, if the Peltier
effect at the junction of two metals a and i be represented by
when the current flows from a to b, then for a circuit of two metals
at the same temperature we must have
and for a circuit of three metals a, c, we must have

Hj^+n^+n^ = 0.
It follows firom this equation that the three Peltier eibcte are not
independent, but that one of them can be deduced from the other
two. For instance, if we suppose c to be a stendaid metal, and
if we write P« s 711^ and Pf, =s JUi^t then
The quantity P„ is a function of the temperature, and depends on

the nature of the metal a.
251.] It has also been shewn by Magnus that if a ciicuit is
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251.] THfiBMOfiLfiCTiUC PHANOMSNA. 303
formed of a single metal no current will be formed in itj however

the section of the oondnctor and the tempeiatiue may vuy in
different parte.
Since in this case there ie conduction of heat and consequent
dissipation of energ'y, we cannot, as in the former case, consider this
result as self-evident. The electromotive force, for instance, between
two portions of a drouit might have depended on whether the
ounent was passing from a thick portion of the ooodiictor to a thin
onis* or the reverse, as well as on its passing rapidly or slowly from a
hot portion to a cold one> or the reverse, and this would have made
a cnnent possible in an unequally heated oiienit of one metal.
Hence, hy the same ressoning as in the case of Peltier's phe-
nomenon, we find that if ihe passage of a cuirent through a
conductor of one metal produces any thermal eflfoot which is re-
versed when the current is reverrad, this can only take pbMse when
the current flows from places of high to phMses of low tempemture,
or the revcTBe, and if the heat geneiated in a conductor of one
metal in flowing from a pUuse where tiie temperature is sr to a
pUice where it is jf, is H, then
and the electromotive force tending to maintain the cnirent will
be 8^*
If ar^ y, s be the temperatures at three points of a homogeneous
circuit, we must have
according to the result of Magnus. Hence, if we stqppose ir to be

the zero temperature, and if we put
q,^8„ and C, = iS,.,
we find S^^ = Q^-Q,,

where is a function of the temperature sr, the form of the
fhnction depending on the nature of the metal.
If we now consider a circuit of two metals a and b in which
the temperature is a where the current passes from a to 6, and
Jf where it passes from 6 to a, the electromotive force will be
where signifies the value of P for the metal a at the tempera-

ture or
Since in unequally heated circuits of difllerent metals ihere are in
Digitized by Google
804 GOirrACT FOBCE.
genend tbermodectric oonentB, it follows that P md Q aie in

genera] differant finr the same metal and same teinpenitiiro*
252.] The enatence of the quantity Q was first demonstrated by
Sir W. Thomson, in the memoir we have referred to, as a deduction
from the phenomenon of thermoi'lectric inversion discovered by
Gumming*, who found that the order of certain metals in the ther-
moelectric scale is different at hi<^h and at low temperatures, so that
for a certain temperature two metals may be neutral to each other.
Thus, in a circuit of ei)i)per and iron if one junction be kept at the
ordinary temperature while the temperature of the other is raised,
a current sets from copper to iron through the hot junction, and
th<' electromotive force continues to increase till the hot junction
has reached a temperature T, which, according to Thomson, is
about 284''C. When the temperature of the hot junction is raised

still further the electromotive force is reduced, and at last, if the
temperature be laiaed high enough, the current is reversed. The
levenal of the current may be obtained more eaaiiy by xaiaing the
temperature of the colder jtmction. If the tempemture of both
junctions is above T the current sets from iron to copper through
the hotter junction, that ia, in the revene direotaon to that ob-
eerved when both junctions are below T.
Hence, if one of the jonctiona ia at the neutral temperature T
and the other ia either hsMm or colder, the ourrent will aet firom
copper to iron through the janotion at the neatral temperature.
258.] From thia fiwi Thomaon reaaoned aa follow* :
Suppoae the other jonction at a temperature lower than 7.

The current may he made to work an engine or to generate heat in
a wire, and tiiia ezpenditare of eneigy most be kept up by the
tranaformation of heat into electric energy, that ia to say, heat
moat diaqipear somewhere in the drooit. Now at the tempera-
ture T iron and copper are neutral to each other, ao that no
reveraible thermal effect ia produced at the hot junction, and at
the cold junction there ia, by Beltierâ principle, an erohition of
heat. Hence the only place where the heat can disappear ia in the
copper or iron portions of the circuit, so that either a current in
iron from hot to cold must cool the iron, or a current in copper
from cold to hot must cool the copper, or both these effects may
take place. By an elaborate series of ingenious experiments Thom-
son succeeded in detecting the reversible thermal action of the
current in passing between parts of different temperatures, and
• Cambrid(fe TnnMactioM, 1883.
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254-] XXPSBIMSNTS OF TAIT. 305
he found that the cnnent pvodaced opposite effects in copper and

in iron *.
When a stream of a material fluid passes along a tabe from
a hot part to a cold part it heats the tube, and when it paxmoo
firom cold to hot it cools the tube, and these effects depend on
If we soj^toaed eleo-
the speeifio capacity Ibr heat of the flaid.
whether positive or negative, to be a material fluid, we
tiicity,
might measure its specific heat by the thermal effiNst on an nn-

eqnally heated conductor. Now Thomson's experiments shew that
positiye deotridly in oopper and negative dectridly in iron carry
heat with them from hot to cold. HencCj if we supposed eitiier
poritive or negative electricity tobe a fluid, capable of bein^
heated and cooled, and of communicating heat to other bodies, we
should find the supposition contradicted by iron for positive elec-
tricityand by copper for negative electricily, so that we should
have to abandon both hypotheses.
This sdentifio prediction of the reversible effect of an electric
current upon an nnequally heated conductor of one metal u another
instructive example of the application of the theory of Conservation
of Energy to indicate new directions of scientific research. Thomson
has also applied the Second Law
Thermodynamics to indicate
of
relations between the quantities which wc have denoted by P
and Q, and has investipâted the possible thermoelectric properties
of bodies whose stnicture is different in different directions. He
has also investigated experimentally the conditions under which
these properties are developed by pressure, magnetization, &c.
254.] Professor Tait f has recently investigated the electro-
motive force of thermoelectric circuits of ditl'erent metals, having*
their jimetions at different temperatures. He finds that the elec-
tromotive force of a circuit may be expressed very accurately by

the formula
where ti is the absolnte tcmpemture of the hot junction^ that

of the C(dd junction, and the temperature at which the two metals
are neutral to each other. The £Mstor a is a coefficient depending
on the nature of the two metals composing the circuit This law
has been verified through consideiable ranges of temperature by
Fkofessor Tlsit and his students, and he hopes to make the thermo-
electrio eirouit avaikUe as a thermometric instrument in his
* Oa tbe JGlectnxivnMaic QaaUties of Metala.' Phil.

' Trant^ 1866.
t Pne, R a, JMin^ Smdm WO-71, p. 808, alM Dee. 1871.
VOL. I. X
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806 00NTAC3T PORCH. [254-
flzperimeiitB on the oondaetioii of hfi*t» and in other oaaee in whkh

the menmrial thermometer ie not convenient or hae not a eoffident
range.
Aooording to Tufa theory, the qnantitj which Thomaon caUa
the apedfic heat of electricity ia proportional to the abaolnte tem-
perature in each pure metal, though ita magnitude and even ita
aign vary in different metala. Fromhe haa deduced hy ther-
thia
modynamic principles the foUowing reeolts. Let i;^, iitj k^t
be the epectfic heats of electricity in three metals a, b, c, and let
^h0i ^cay ^ the tanperatorea at which paira of theae metab are
neutral to each other, then the eqnationa
£0, = iK-h) iî-Q [T^-i i^-î^]

express the relation of the neutral temperatures, the value of the
Pettier effiMst, and the electromotive force of a thermoelectric cireait^
Digitized by Google
CHAPTER IV
ELECTROLYSIS.
I HAtB abmidj fteted that whea an eleotrio euMnt in

moj part of its eumnt paseea through certain oompoimd sahstanoea
called Electrolytes, the passage of the cturent is aocompanied by
a certain chemical process called Electrolysis, in which the substance
is resolved into two components called Ions, of which one, called
the Anion, or the electronegative component, appears at the Anode,

or place where the current enters the electrolyte, and the other,
called the Cation, appears at the Cathode, or the place where the
current leaves the electrolyte.
The complete investigation of Electrolysis belongs quite as much
to Chemistry as to Electricity. We shall consider it from an
electrical point of view, without discussing its application to the
theory of the constitution of chemical compounds.
Of all electrical phenomena electrolysis aj)pears the most likely
to furnish us with a real insight into the true nature of the elt * trie
current, because we find currents of ordinary matter and currents

of electricity forming essential parts of the same phenomenon.
It is probably for this very reason that, in the present imperfectly
formed state of our ideas about alectricily^ the theories of eleetro-
Ijrsis are so unsatisfactory.
The fundamental law of electrolysis^ which was established by
Faraday, and confirmed by the experiments of Beets, Uittorfi and
others down to the present time, is as follows :
The number of electrocfaemioal equivalents of an electrolyte which

are decomposed by the passage of an electric current during a giva
time ia equal to tiie number of units of eleotrioity which are trana*
IBsRed bj the current in the same time.
The deetroefaemioal equivakot of a snbetanoe ia that qnantilgr
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308 BLIOTBOLYSIS. [255-
of the substance which is electrolysed by a unit current passing

through the substance for a unit of timt', or, in other words, by the
passage of a unit of electricity. When the unit of electricity is
defined in absolute measure the absolute value of the electro-

chemical equivalent of each substance can be determined in grains
or in grammes.
The electrochemical equivalents of different substances are pro-
portional to their ordinary chemical equivalents. The ordinary
chemical equivalents, hcwcvor, are the mere numerical ratios in
which the substmces combine, whereas the electrochemical equi-
valents are quantities of matter of a determinate znagnitude^ de-
pending on the definition of the unit of electricity.
Every electrolyte oonsiste of two oomponents, which, during the
electrolysis, appear where the camnt enten and leaves the elec-
trolyte, and nowhere else. Hence, if we conceive a surfiswe described
within the substance of the electrolyte, the amount of electrolysis
which takes place through this sorfaoe, as measured by the eleo-
troehemical equivalents of the components transferred across it
in opposite directions, will be proportional to the total eleetiie

current through the surface.
The actual transfer of the iona through the snbstanoe of the
electrolyte in opposite diieetiona is therefore part of the phenomenon
of the conduction of an electric current through an eleetro^rte. At
every point of the electrolyte through which an eleetiio current
is passing thero aro also two opposite material ouirents of the anion
and the cation^ which have the same lines of flow with the eleotrie
current, and are proportiomil to it in magnitude.
It is thereforo extromely natural to suppose that the currents of
the ions ave convection currents of eleotricify, and, in particubav
that every molecule of the cation is charged with a certain fixed
quantity of positive electricity, which is the same ibr tiie molecules
of all cations, and that every molecule of the anion is charged with
an equal quantity of negative electricity.
The opposite motion of the ions through the electrolyte would
then ])e a complete |)hysical representation of the electric current.
We may compare this motion of the ions with the motion of gases
and liquids through each other during the process of diffusion,
there being this difference between the two processes, that, in
diffusion, the different substances are only mixed together and the
mixture is not homogeneous, whereas in electrolysis they are chemi-
cally combined and the electrolyte is homogeneous. In diffusion
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257'] THBORT OP CLAUSIUa. 809^
the detemiiniDg cause of the motion of a sabetanee in a given

diieetion ie a dtminntion of the quantity of that aabstanoe per
unit of Tolmne in that direction^ whereas in dectrolysis the motion
of each ion is due to tiie deotramotiTe foroe aeting on the charged
molecules.
256.] Clatisius *j who has bestowed much study on the theory
of the molwular agitation of bodies, supposes tluit the molecules
of all bodies are in a state of constant agitation^ but that in solid
bodies each molecule never passes beyond a certain distance from
its original position, whereas in fluids a molecule, after moving
a certain distance from its original position, is just as likely to
move still farther from it as to move back again. Hence the
molecules of a fluid apparently at rest are continually changing
their positions, and pa.ssing irregularly from one part of the fluid
to another. In a compound fluid he supposes that not only the

compound molecules travel about in this way, but that, in the
collisionswhich occur between the compound molecules, the mole-
cules of which they are composed are often separatctl and change
partners, so that the same individual atom is at one time associated
with one atom of the opposite kind, and at another time with another.
This process Clausius supposes to go on in the liquid at all times, but
when an electromotive force acts on the liquid the motions of the
molecules, which before were indifferently in all directions, are now
influenced by the electromotive force, so that the positively charged
molecules have a greater tendency towards the cathode than towards
the anode, and the n^;atively charged molecules have a greater
tendency to move in the opposite direction. Hence the molecules
of the cation will during their intervals of freedom struggle towards
the cathode, but will continuallj be checked in their course by
pairing for a time with molecnles of the anion, which are abo
BtruggUng through the crowd, but in the opposite direction.
267.] This theozy of Clansins enables us to understand how it is,
that whereas the actual deoomposttion of an electrolyte requires an
electromotive foroe of finite magnitude, the conduction of the
onnent in the electrolyte obeys tê law of Ohm, so that every
electromotive force within the electrolyte, even the feeblest^ produces
a current of proportionate magnitude.
According to the theory of Clausius, the decomposition and
recomposition of the electrolyte is otrntinually going on even when
there is no euirent^ and the very feeblest electromotive foroe is
• Fogg. An$i. bd. ci. s. 338 (1867).
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810 BLSCTBOLTBIB.
sufficient to giw this process a oertain degree of direction, and so

to produce the eorrents 'of the ions and the electric current^ which
is port of the same phenomenon. Within the electrolyte, however,
the ions are never set free in finite quantity, and it is thi£ liberation
of ^the ions which requires a finite electromotive force. At the
electrodes the ions aocumulate, for the successive portions of the
ionsj as they arrive at the electrodee, instead of finding molecules of
the opposite ion nadj to eombine with tiiem, are foieed into com-
pany with molecules of their own kind, wi& which they cannot
oombine. The electromotive force lequized to produce this effiMst
is of finite magnitude, and forms an opposing electromotive force
which produces a reversed current when other electromotive forces

ue removed. When this reversed electromotive force, owing to
the accumulation of the ions at the electrode, is observed, the
electrodes are said to be Polarized.
258.] One of the best methods of determining whether a body
is not an electrolyte is to place it between platinum electrodes
or is
and to pass a current througb it for some time, and then, die-'
engaging the electrodes from the voltaic battery, and connecting
them with a galvanometer, to obeerve whether a reverse current,
due to polarization of the electrodes, passes through the galvano-
meter. Such a current, being due to accumulation of different
substances on the two electrodes, is a proof that the substance has
been electro lytically detômposed by the original current from the
battery. This method can often be applied where it is difficult,
by direct chemical methods, to detect the presence of the products

of decomposition at the electrodes. See Art. 271.
259. j So far as we have gone the tlieory of electrolysis appi'ars
very satisfactory. It explains the electric current, the nature of

which we do not understand, by means of the currents of the
material components of the electrolyte, the motion of which,
though not visible to the eye, is easily demonstrated. It gives a
clear explanation, as Faraday has shewn, why an electrolyte which
conducte in the liquid state is a non-conductor when solidified, for
unless the molecules can pass from one part to another no elec-
trolytic conduction can take place, so that the substance must
be in a liquid state, either by fusion or by solution, in order to be
a conductor.
Bat if we go on, and assume that the moleonlea of the ions
within the electrolyte are actually chaiged with certain definite
quantities of electricity, positive and negative, so that the eleo-
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MOL£CULAB CHABQ£. 811
trolytic current is simply a current of convection, we find that this

tempting; hjôthesis leads us into very difficult ground.
In the first place, we must assume that in every electrolyte each
molecule ot" the cation, as it is liberated at the cutliode, commu-
nicates to the cathode a char«jfe of positive electricity, the amount
of which is the same for every molecule, not only of that cation
bat of all other cations. In the same way each molecule of the
anion when liberated, oommimicates to the anode a charge of
n^fative electricity, the numerical magnitude of which is the same
as that of the positive charge doe to a molecule of a cation, but
with sign reversed.
If, instead of a single molecule, we consider an assemblage of
molecules, oonstituting an electrochemical eqnivalent of the ion,
then the total charge of all the molecules is, as we have seen, one
nnit of electricity, positiye or native.
260.] We do not as yet know how many molecules there are
in an eleetrochemical equivalent of any anbstanoe, but the moleoolar
theory of chemistry, whieh is oonroboiatod by many physical eoiH
sideratioiisi, number of molecules in an elec*
supposes that the
troohemical equivalent is the same for all substances. We may
therefore, in molecular speculations, assume that the number of
molecules in an electrochemical equivalent is JV, a number unknown
at present, hot which we may hereafter find means to determine*.
Each molecule, therefore, on being liberated from the state of
combination, parts with a charge whose magnitude is , and is
positive for the cation and negative for the anion. This definite
quantity of electricity we shall call the molecular charge. If it
were known it would l)e the most natural unit of electricity.
Hitherto we have only increased the precision of our ideas by
exercising our imagination in tracing the electritication of molecules
and the discharge of that electrification.
The liberation of the ions and the passage of positive electricity
from the anode and into the cathode are simultaneous facts. The
ions, when liberated, are not charged with ehctricity, liciice, when
they are in combination, they have the molecular charges as above
described.
The elect rifieatiou of a molecule, however, though easily spoken
of, is not so easily conceived.
We know that if two metals are brought into contact at any
• 8m aolt to Ark. ff.
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312 SLSCTAOLYSia.
pmnt, the rest of their surfaoes will be electrified, and if the metals
are in the foim of two plates separated by a narrow interval of air,
the charge on each plate may become of considerable magnitude.
Something like thb may be euppoeed to occur when the two
components of an electrolyte are in combination. Each pair of
molecules may be supposed to touch at one point, and to have the
vest of their sor&oe chugged wiib electricity due to the electro-
motive force of eontaot
But to explain the phenomenon, we ooglit to shew why the
ohaige thus produced on each molecole is of » fixed amomitk and
why, when a molecule of chlorine is combmed with a mdecnle of
mno, the molecular charges are the eame as when a molecule of
chlorine is combined witii a molecule of copper, although the eleo-
tromotive force between chlorine and zinc is much greater than
that between chlorine and copper. If the charging of the mdeeoles
is the effect of the electromotive force of contact, why should
electromotive forces of different intensities produce exactly equal
charges ?
Suppose, however, that we leap over this difficulty by simply
asserting the fiict of the constant value of the molecular charge,
and that we call this constant moleculai- charge, for convenience in
description, one ?nolecule of elect ricif i/.
This phrase, gross as it is, and out of harmony with the rest of
this treatise, will enable us at least to state clearly what is known
about electrolysis, and to appreciate the outstanding difficulties.
Every electrolyte must be considered as a binary compound of

its anion and its cation. The anion or the cation or both may be
compound bodies, so that a molecule of the anion or the cation
miy be lormed by a number of molecules of simple bodies. A
molecule of the anion and a molecule of the cation combined to-
getlu r form one molecule of the electrolyte.
In order to act as an anion in an electrolyte, the molecule which
so acte must be charged with what we have called one molecule
of negative electricity, and in order to act as a cation the molecule
must be chaiged with one molecule of positive electricity.
These charges are connected with the molecules only when they
are combined as anion and cation in the electrolyte.
When tiie molecules are dectrolyBcd, they part with their charges,
to the eleotrodflfl(, and appear as undectrified bodies when set free
from combination.
If the same molecule^ is capable of acting as a cation in one
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26 1.] SBGOKDABT PBODUOTS OP SLS0TBOLTSI8. 313
eleotrolyte and as an anion in another^ and also of entering into

oomponnd bodies which axe not electrolytes^ then we most suppose
that it xeo^Tss a positiTe chaxge of eleetricify when it acts as a
cation, a negative charge when it acts as an anion, and that it
is withoat charge when it is not in an eleetroljte.
Iodine^ for instance, acts as an anion in the iodides of the metals

and in hydriodio add, but is said to act as a cation in the bromide
of iodine.
This theory of" molecular charges may serve as a method by
which we may remember a good many facts about electrolysis.
It is extremely improbable that when we come to understand the
true nature of electrolysis we shall retain in any form the theory of
molecular charges, for then we shall have obtained a secure basis
on which to form a true theory of electric currents, and so become
independent of these provisional theories.
261.] One of the most important steps in our knowledge of
electrolysis has been the recognition of the secondary chemical
processes which arise from the cYolution of the ions at the eleo-
trodes.
In many cases the substances which are found at the electrodes
are not the actual ions of the electrolysis, but the pzodocts of the
action of these ions on the electrolyte.
Thus, when a solution of sulphate of soda is electrolysed by a
current which also passes through dilute sulphuric acid, equal
quantities of oxygen are given off at the anodes, and equal quan-
tities of hydrogen at the cathodes, both in the snlphate of soda
and in tiie dilute add.
Bat if the electrolysis is conducted in soitable Tessels» such as
U-shaped. tabes or vessds with a poroas diaphragm, so that the
substance surrounding each electrode can be examined sepaiatdy,
it is found that at the anode of the sulphate of soda there is an
equivalent of solphuric add as wdl as an equivalent of oxygen,

and at the cathode there is an equivalent of soda as well as two
equivalente of hydrogen.
It would at first sight seem as if, according te the old theory
of the constitation of sslts, ike sulphate of soda w«re dectrolysed
into its constituents sulphuric acid and soda, while the water of the
solution is electrolysed at the same time into oxygen and hydrogen.
But this explanation would involve the admission that the same
current which passing throu^^h dilute sulphuric aeid electrolyses
one equivalent of water, when it passes through solution of sulphate
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314 BLBCTR0LT81S.
of lodA dectioljrBes one equivalent of the salt as well as one eqm-

valmt of the water, and tiik wouild be eontniy to the law of
electrochemical equivalents.
But if we suppose that the components of sulphate of soda are
not SO., and —
NaO but S0^ and Na, not sulphuric acid and soda
but suljiliion and sodium —then the sulphion travels to the anode
and is set free, but being unable to exist in a free state it breaks
up into sulphuric acid and oxygen, one equivalent of each. At
the same time the sodium is set free at the cathode, and there
decomposes the water of the solation, forming one equivalent of

soda and two of h\ drogen.
In the dilute sulphuric acid the gases collected at the electrodes
are the constituents of water, namely one volume of oxygen and
two volumes of hydro^-cn. There is also an increase of sulphuric
acid at the anode, but its amount is not equal to an equivalent.
It is doubtful whether pure water is an electrolyte or not. The
greater the purity of the water^ the greater the renatanoe to eleo-
trolytic conduction. Tlie minutest traces of foreign matter are
sufficient to produce a great diminution of the electrical resistance
of water. The electric resistance of water as determined bv different
observers has values ao different that we cannot oonaider it ae »
determined quantity. The purer the water the greater its resistanoef
and if we conld obtain really pure water it ia doubtfol whether it

would condnet at alL
Aa long aa water waa consSdeied an electrolyte, and waa, indeed,
taken aa the type of electrolytee^ there waa a ttoecag reaaon for
maintaining that it ia a binary compound, and that two Toluinea
of hydrogen are chemically equiyalent to one yolmne of oxygen.
If^ however, we admit that water ia not an electrdyte, we are fiee
to suppose that equal Tdnmea of oxygen and of hydrogen ava

chemically equivalent.
The dynamical theoiy of gasee leads na to suppose that in peifect
gases equal volumes always contain an equal number of moleooleay
and that the principal part of the specific heat, that, namely, which
depends on the motion of agitation of the molecules among each
other, is the same for equal numbers of molecules of all raises,
flenee we arc led to prefer a chemical system in \\lj:ch equal
volumes of oxygen and of hydrogen are regnrded as equivalent,
and in which \\ater is regarded as a compound of two equivalents
of hydrogen and one of oxygen, ami therefore probably not capable
of direct electrolysis.
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262.] DTITAICIOAL THXOBT, 816
While fbUy esteblkliei the dose reUtionship between

eleetzolyais
phenomena and thcee of dienuoal combination, the hct
electrical
that eveiy chemical compoond is not an electrolyte ahewa that
chemical combination is a prooeee of a higher order of oomplezily
than any purely electrical phenomenon. Thna the combinations of
the metals with each other^ though they are good coodoctors, and
their components stand at different points of the scale of electri-
fication by oontactk are not^ even when in a fluid state, deccnnpoeed
by the current. Most of the combinations of the snbstanoes which
act as anions are not conductors, and therefore are not electrolytes.
Besides these we have many compounds, containing the same com-
ponents as eleetfolytes, bat not in equivalent proportions, and these
are also non-condactors, and therefore not electrolytes.
Oh ike Comervaiion ofBnergy in Sleetroiyni,

262.] Consider any voltaic circuit consisting partly of a battery,
partly of a wire, and {)urtly of an electrolytic cell.
During- the passage of unit of electricity through any section of

the circuit, one electrochemic al C(iuivalent of each of the substances
in the cells, whether voltaic or clrctrolytic, is electrolysed.
The amount of mecliani<'al energy- ecjuivalent to any g'iven

chemical process can be ascertained by converting the whole energy
due to the process into heat, and then expressing the heat in
d}iiamical measure by multiplying the number of thermal unite by
Joule's mechanical equivalent of heat.
Where this direct method is not applicable, if we can estimate
the heat given out by the substances taken tirst in the state before
the process and then in the state after the process during their
reduction to a final state> which is the same in both cases, then the
thermal equivalent of the process is the difference of the two quan-
titiee of heal.
In the case in which the chemical action maintains a voltaic
circuit. Joule found that the heat developed in the voltaic cells is
lessthan that due to the chemical process within the cell, and that
the remainder of the heat is developed in the conneetiDg wire^ or,*
when there is an electromagnetic engine in the drcoit, part of tha
heat may be aooonnted for by the mechanical work of the engine.
For instance, if the eledxodes of the voltaic cell are Aek con-
nected by a short thick and afterwards by a long thin wire^
wire,
the heat developed in the cdl for each grain of sine dissolved is
greater in the first case than the second, but the heat developed
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316 -ELECTROLYSIS. [263
in the wire is ^jfreater in the second case than in the first. The
sum of the heat developed in the cell and in the wire for each grain
of zinc dissolved is the same in l>oth cases. This has been esta-
blished liy Joule hy direct experiment.
The ratio of tlie heat generated in the cell to that generated
in the wire is that of the resistance of the cell to that of the wire,
80 that if the w^re were made of sufficient resistance nearly the
whole of the heat would be generated in the wire, and if it were
made of sufficient conducting power nearly the whole of the heat
would be generated in the cell.
Let the wire be made so as to have great resiBtance, tbffli the
heat generated in it is equal in dynamioai measure to the product
of the qnantily of deetiicity which is transmitted, moltiplied by
the eleetiomotiTe forae under whioh it is made to pasB through
the wire.
268.] Now during the time in which an eleotrooheniioal equi-
valent of the suhstaaoe in the cell undergoee the dhemioal proccea
which gives rise to the cunrent, one unit of deotiioity passes
through the wire. Henoe, the heat developed by the passage
of one unit of electricity is in this ease measured by tiie eleelxo-
motive force. But this heat is that whieh one deoixoehemioal
equivalent of the substance generates, whether in the cell or in the
wire^ while undergoing the given chemical process.
Henoe the following important theorem, first proved by Thomson
{PkU, Mag. Deo. 1851):—
'The electromotive force of an electrochemical apparatus is in
aljsohite measure equal to the mechanical equivalent of the chemical
action on one electrochemical equivalent of the substance.'
The thermal equivalents of many chemical actions have been
determined by Andrews, Iless, Favre and Silbcrmann, &c., and from
these their mechanical equivalents can be deduced by multiplication
by th ' mechanical equivalent of heat.
This theorem not only enables us to calculate from purely thermal
data the electromotive force of different voltaic arrangements, and
the electromotive force required to effect electrolysis in different
cases, but affords the means of actually measuring chemical affinity.
It has long been known that chemical affinity, or the tendency

which exists towards the going on of a certain chemical change,
is stronger in some cases than in others, but no proper measure
of this tendency oould be made till it was shewn that this tendency*
in certain cases is exactly equivalent to a oertain electromotive
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263.] OALOULATIOK -OF ELSOTBOMOnYB VOROB. 817
force, and can therefore be measured according to the very same

principles used in the measnrement of electromotiye Ibroes.
Chemioal affinity being therefore, in oertain caeesj reduced to
the htm of a measnzable quantity, the whole theory of oheinical
pioceaeeff, of the rate at which thqr go on, of the diaphKMomt of
one anbatanee by another, Bee,, becomea mndi more intelligible than
when chemical affinity waa ri^g»rded as a quality nU generUf and
irredooible to nnmerioal meaanrement^
When the
Tolome of the prodoeta of electrolyna ia greater than
that of the eleotrolyte, work ia done dnring the eleotrotyaia in
overooming the preasure. If the volume of an electrochemical
equivalent of the electrolyte is increased by a volume v when
electrolysed under a preasure p, thffli the work done during the
passage of a unit of electricity in overcoming pressure w vp, and
the electromotive force required finr electrons must include a
part equal to which is spent in performing thia mechanical
work.
If the products of electrolysis are g^ses which, like oxy^n and
hydrogen, are much rarer than the electrolyte, and fulfil lioyle's
law very exactly, vj) will be very nearly Qonstant for the same
temperature, and the electromotive force required for electrolysis
will not depend in any sensible degree on the pressure. Hence it
has been found impossible to check the electrolytic decomjiosition

of dilute sulphuric acid by conEning the decomposed gases in a
small space.
When the products of electrolysis are liquid or solid the quantity
vp will increase as the pressure increases, so that if v is positive
an increase of pressure will increase the electromotive force required
for electrolysis.
In the same way, any other kind of work done during electro-
lysis will have an effect on the value of the electromotive force,
as, for instance, if a vertical current passes between two zinc
electrodes in a solution of sulphate of zinc a greater electromotive
force will be required when the current in the solution flows
upwards than when it flows downwards, for, in the first case, it
carries zinc from the lower to the upper electrode, and in the
second from the upper to the lower. The electromotive force
required for this purpose is less than the millionth part of that
of a DanieU'a cell per foot.
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CHAPTER V.
ELBCTROLTTIC POLARIZATION.
264.3 Whbi an dectrio cnmnt is pMnd tfarough eleetro^rte m

bonnded by metal electrodet, the aceamiilation of the ions at the
eleotvodee prodacee the phenomeniHi called Polarisatioiij whieh
oonaifite in an electromotive force acting in the opponte diieetkm
to the current^ and pfodncing an apparent increaoe of the raautanoe.

When a continnooa corrent is employed, the xesiatance appean
to increaae rapidly ficom the commencement of the current, and
at last reaches a Talne nearly constant. If the form of the Teasel
iu which the electrolyte is contained is changed, the resistance is
altered in the same way as a similar chaii**'o of form of a metallic

conductor would alter its resistance, but an additional apj)arent
resistance, depending on the nature of the electrodes, has always

to bo added to the true resistance of the electrolyte.
265.] Th<-se phenomena have led some to suppose that there is
a finite electromotive force required for a current to pass through

an electrolyte. It has been shewn, however, by the researches of
Lenz, Neumann, Beetz, Wiedemann*, Paalzowf, and recently' by
those of MM. F. Kohlrausch and W. A. NippoldtJ, that the con-
duction iu the electrolvte itself obeys Ohm's Law with the same
precision as in metallic conductors, and that the apparent resistance
at the bounding surface of the electrolyte and the electrodes is
entirely due to polarization.
266.] The phenomenon called polarization manifests itwlf in
the case of a continnons current by a diminution in the corrent^
indicating a force opposed to the current. Resistance is also per-
ceived aa a force opposed to the current, but we can distingnish
* OalcanUmuit bd. i. f Berlin Mimattbaickt^ July, 186S.

X Ton. Jim. bd. eaxm. a. S86 (Oetobor, 18W).
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267.] DISTINOUISHBD FROM BK8I8TAKCB. 319
between the two phenomena by inatantaneouBly removing or re-

ferring the eleotiomotiTe force.
The leneting force is alwaje opporite in direction to the current,
and extenal eleetromotiTe force required to overcome it is
tiie
proportional to the stmgth of the current, and changes its direc-

tion when the direction of the current is changed. If the external
eleetromotiTe force becomes zero the cuirent simply stops.
The electromotive force due to poUurizatton, on the other hand,
is in a fixed direction, opposed to the current which produced it.
If the electromotive force which produced the current is removed,

the polarization produces a current in the opposite direction.
The difference between the two phenomena may be compared
with the difference between forcing a current of water through
a long capillary tuhe, and forcing water through a tube of moderate
length up into a cistern. In the first case if we remove the pressure
which produces the flow the current will simj)ly stop. In the
second case, if we remove the pressure the water will begin to flow
down again from the cistern.
To make the mechanical illustration more complete, we have only
to suppose that the cistern is of moderate depth, so that when a
certain amount of water is raised into it, it begins to overflow.
Tills will represent the fact that the total electromotive force due
to polarization has a maximum limit.
267.] The cause of polarization appears to be the existence at

the electrodes of the products of the electrolytic decomposition of
the fluid between them. The surfaces of the electrodes are thus
rendered electrically different^ and an electromotive force between
them is called into action, the direction of which is opposite to that
of the current which caused the polarization.
The ions, which by their ]Hresence at the electrodes produce the
phenomena of polarization, are not in a perfectly free state, but
are in a condition in which they adhere to the surfiuie of the
electrodes with considerable force.
The electromotive force due to polarization depends upon the
densily with which the electrode is covered with the ion, but it
is not proportional to this density, for the electromotive force does

not increase so rapidly as this denaty.
This deporit of the ion is constantiy tending to become free,
and either to difibse into the liquid^ to escape as a gas, or to be
precipitated as a sdid.
The rate of this disripation of the pohmzation is exceedingly
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320 SLBCTBOLTTIO POLABtSATION. [26S
small for slight degrees of poUuizatioii, and exoeedingljr rapid near

the limiting value of polarization.
268.] We have seen. Art. 262, tiiat the electromotive forae acting
in any electrolytic process ia niimericaUy equal to the mechanical
equivalent of the result of that prooesi on one electrochemical
eqniTakiit <^ the' sobstanoe. If the process involves a diminiitioii
of the intrinsic energy of the sabstanees which take part in it,
as in the voltaic cell, then the electromotive force is in the direction

of the corrent. If the prooeas involves an increase of the intrinsic
energy of the sabstanees, as in the case of the electrolytic cell,
the electromotive force is in the direction opposite to that of the
cnnrentj and this electromotive force is called polarisation*
In the case of a steady corrent in which electrolysis goes on
continuously^ and the ions an separated in a free state at the
electrodes, we have only by a suitable prooess to measure the
intrinsic energy of the separated ions, and compare it with that
of the electrolyte in order to calculate the electromotive force
required fat the electro^rns. This will give tiie maadmum polari-
zation.
But during the first instants of the process of electrolysis the
ions when deposited at the electrodes are not in a free state, and
their intrinsic energy is less than their energy in a free state,
though greater than their energy when combined in the electrolyte.

In fact, the ion in contact with the electrode is in a state which
wlien the deposit is very thin may \yc compared with that of
chemical combination with the electrode, hut as the deposit in-
creases in density, the succeediiit^ portions are no longer so in-
timately combined with the electrode, but simply adhere to it, and
at last the deposit, if gaseous, escapes in bubbles, if liquid, ditfuses
through the electrolyte, and if solid, forms a precipitate.
In studying polarization we have therefore to consider
(1) The superficial density of the deposit, which we may call
<r. This quantity <r represents the numlx'r of electrochemical

equivalents of the ion deposited on unit of area. Since each
electrochemical equivalent deposited corresponds to one unit of
electricity transmitted by the current, we may consider or as re-
presenting either a surface-density of matter or a snr&oe-density of
electricity.
(2) The electromotive force of polarisation, which we may call p.

This quantity jd is the difference between the electric potentials
of the two electrodes when the current through the electrolyte
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270.] DISSIPATION OF THE DBPOSIT. 821
is 80 feeble ibit the proper reeifltaiioe of the eleotrolTte makes no

sensible differenee between these potentials.
The eLectromotiê force p at any instant is numerically equal
to the meehanical eqmTalent of the dectroljtic process going on at
that instant which corresponds to one electrochemieal equivalent of
This eledzolytie process, it must be remembered,
the eleetrolyte.
on the eleetrodes, and the state
oonsiets in the deposit of the ions
in which they are deposited depends on the actual state of the
surface of the electrodes, which maj be modified by previous
deposits.
Hence the electromotive force at any instant depends on the
previous history of the electrode. It is, speaking very rou«^hly,
a function of o-, the density of the deposit, such that = 0 when
<r =but p approaches a limiting value much sooner than o- does.
0,
The Btateinent, however, that j9 is a function of a cannot be
considered accurate. It would be more correct to say that /; is
a function of the chemical state of the superficial layer of the

deposit, and that this state depends on the density of the deposit
according to some law involving the time.
269.] (3) The third thing we must take into account is the
dissipation of the polarization. The polarization when left to itself
diminishes at a rate depending partly on the intensity of the
polarizatum or the density of the deposit^ and partly on the nature
of the surrounding medium^ and the chemical, mechanical, or thermal
action to which the surface of the electrode is exposed.
If we determine a time T such that at the rate at which
the deposit is dissipated, the whole deposit would be removed in
a time we may call T the modulus of the time of dissipation.
When the density of the deposit is very small, T is very large,
and may be reckoned by days or months. "When the density of
the deposit approaohes its limiting value T diminishes very rapidly,
and is probably a minute fraction of a second. In fiMi, the rate
of dissipation increases so rapidly that when the strength of the
current is maintained constant* tiie separated gas, instead of con-
tributing to increase the densify of the deposit, escapes in bubbles
as fiwt as it ii formed.
270.] There is therefore a great diffSsrenoe between {he state of
polarization of the electrodes of an eleetrolytio cell when tiie polari-
zation is Ibeble^ and when it is at its maximum value. For instance,

if a number of electrolytic cells of dilute sulphuric acid with
platinum electrodes are arranged in series, and if a small electro-
VOL. I. \
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322 XLBOTROLYTIC POLABIZATIOK.
motive force, such as that of" one DanielPs cell, be made to act
oil the circuit, the electromotive force will produce a current of
exceedingly short duration, for after a very short time the elec-
tromotive force arising iVom the polarization of the cell will balance
that of the Danicll's cell.
The dissipation will be very small in the case of bo feeble a state

of polarization, and it will take place by a vcrj' slow absorption
of the gases and diffusion through the liquid. The rate of this
dissipation is indicated by the exceedingly feeble current which
still continues to flow without any visible separation of gases.
If we neglect this dissipation for the short time during which
tho state of polarization is set up, and if we call Q the total
quantity of electricity which is transmitted by the current during
this time, then if A is the area of one of the electrodes^ and v
the density of the deposit, supposed uniform^
Q = A(r.
If we now disconnect the electrodes of the electrolytic appaiatna

from the Danieli's cell, and connect them with a galvanometer
capable of measuring the whole discharge through it, a quantity
of deetricity nearly equal to Q will be diMsharged as the polari-
zation disappears.
271.] Henoe we may compare the action of this apparatus, which
isa form of Ritter's Secondary File^ with that of a Leyden jar.
Both the secondary pile and the Ijeyden jar are capable of bring
charged with a certain amount of electririty, and of being after-
wards discharged. During the discharge a quantity of electricity
nearly equal to the charge passes in the opporite direction. The
difference between the charge and the discharge arises partly from
dissipation, a process which in the case of smaU charges is very
slow, but which, when the charge exceeds a certain limit, becomes
exceedingly rapid. Another part of the difference between the charge
and the discharge arises from the fact that after the electrodes
have been connected for a time sufficient to produce an apparently
complete discharge, so that the current has completely disap|x>ared,
if we separate the electrodes for a time, and afterwards oouneot
them, wc obtain a second discharge in the same direction as the
original discharge. This is called the residual discharge, and is a
phenomenon of the Leyden jar as well as of tlic sccondaiy pile.
The secondary pile may therefore be compared in several resj)ects
to a Leyden jar. There are, however, certain important differences.
The charge of a Leyden jar is very exactly proportional to the
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COMPARISON WITH LETDBN JAB. 823
eleetromotive force of the charge, that is, to the differenoe of

potentiab of the two and the charge oorrespondiiig to unit
snrfiuses,
of electromotiTe force ig called the capaciiy of the jar, a constant

quantily. The corresponding quantity, which maj be called the
oapacitj of the secondaiy pile, increases when the electromotiTc
force increases .
Hie of the jar depends on the area of the opposed
capaeltj'
on the distance between them, and on the nature of the
sorfiMseSj
sabstance between them, but not on the nature of the metallic

surfiMWs themselves. The cai)acity of the secondary pile depends
on the aiea of the sur&ces of the electrodes, but not on the distance
between them, and it depends on the nature of the surfiMse of tiie
electrodes, as well as on that of the fluid between them. The
maximum difference of the potentials of the electrodes in each
element of a secondaiy pile is very small compared with the maxi-
mum difference of the potentials of those of a charjêd Leyden jar,
8o that in order to obtain much electromotive force a pile of many

elements must be used.
On the other hand, the superficial density of the charge in the
secondary pile is immensely greater than tlie utmost superlicial
density of the charge which can be accumulated on the surfaces
of a Leyden jar, insomuch that Mr, C. F. Varley*, in describing
the construction of a condenser of great capacity, recommends a
series of gold or platinum plates immersed in dilute acid as prefer-
able in point of cheapness to induction plates of tinfoil separated

by insulating material.
The form in which the energy of a Leyden jar is stored up
is the state of constmint of the dielectric between the conducting
surfaces, a state which I have already described under the name
of electric polarization, pointing out those phenomena attending
tiiis state which are at present known, and indicating the im-
perfect state of our knowledge of what really takes place. See
Arts. 62,111.
form in which the energy of the secondaiy pile is stored
Tlie
up the chemical condition of the material stratum at the sur&oe
is
of the electrodes, consisting of the ions of the electrolyte and the

substance of the electrodes in a rdation vaiying from chemical
combination to snpeificial condensation, mechanical adherence^ or
simple juxtaposition.
The seat of this energy is dose to the smftces of the eleotzodes,
*
• 8p«Qifio»tion of C. F. VMrley. ' Ebctrie Telegraphs, &c.; Jm. 1860.
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324 SLECTBOLYTIC POLARIZATION. [271.
and not throughout the substance of the electrolirte, and the foim
in which it exists may be called electrolytic polarization.
After studying the secondary pile in connexion with the Leyden
jar, the student should again com])are the voltaic battery with
some form of the electrical machine, such as that described in
Art. 211.
Mr. Varley has lately * found that the capacity of one square
inch is from 175 to 542 microfarads and upwards for platinum
plates in dilute sulphuric acid, and that the capacity increases with
the electromotive force^ being about 175 for 0.02 of a Daniell's
cell, and 542 for 1.6 Daniell's cells.
But the oomparison between the Leyden jar and the secondary
pile VMJ be carried still farther, as in the following experiment,
due to Bufff. It is only whea the glass of the jar is cold that
it is capable of letaining a chaige. At a temperature below 100°C
the glass becomee a oondoctor. If a test-tube containing mercnrjr
is placed in a yessel of merouy, and if a pair of electrodes are
connected, one with the inner and the other with the outer portion
of mercniy, the anangement oonstitntee a Lejden jar which will
hold a diaige at orduiaiy temperatares. If the eleetrodes are con-
nected with those of a voltsic batteiy, no cnrrant will pass as long
as the glass is cold, hat if the appamtos is gradnaUj heated a
current will begin to pass, and will increase rapidly in intenstly aa
the temperature lises^ though the glass renuuns apparently as hard
as ever.
Tliis current is manifestly electrolytic, for if the electrodes are
disconnected from the battery, and connected with a galvanometer,
a considerable reverse current passes, due to polarization of the
surfaces of the glass.
If, while the battery is in action the apparatus is cooled, the
current is stopped by the cold glass as before, but the polarization
of the surfaces remains. The mercury may be removed, the surfaces
may be washed with nitric acid and with water, and fresh mercury
introduced. If the apparatus is then heated, the current of polar-
ization appears as soon as the glass is sufficiently warm to conduct it.
We may therefore regard glass at 100*'C, though apparently a

solid body, as an electrolyte, and there is considerable reason
to believe that in most instances in which a dielectric has a
slight degree of conductivity the conduction is electrolytic. Tha
, • Proe. R. S.,Jan. 12, 1871.
t AumaUn dtr Chum wnA PkMWMM, fad. so. 207 (18M).
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CONSTANT VOLTAIC SLBMBNTS. 326
existence of polarization may be regarded as oondoslTe evidence of

eleetioljsis^ and if the oondoctivity of a subetanoe increases as the
tempemtnve naes, we have good gronnde for aospeotiiig that it is
electrolytic.
On Conttani VoUaie SiewmU,
272.] When a series of experiments is made with a voltaio'
battery in which polarization occurs^ the polarization diminishes
during the time that the cnnent is not flowing, so that when
it begins to flow again the current is stronger than after it has
flowed for some time. If, on the other hand, the r^stance of the
circuit is diminished by allowing" the current to How through a
short shunt, tlion, when the current is again made to flow tlirough
the ordinary circuit, itits normal strength
is at first weaker than
on account of the great polarization produced by the use of the
short circuit.
To g«t rid of these irregularities in the current, which are
exceedingly troublesome in experiments involving exact measure-
ments, it is necessary to get rid of the polarization, or at least
to reduce it as much as possible.
It does not appear that there is much polarization at the surface
of the zinc plate when immersed in a solution of sulphate of zino
or in dilute sulphuric acid. The principal seat of polarization is
at the snifiuse of the negative metal. When the fluid in which
the negative metal is immersed is dilute solphnric acid, it is seen
to become covered with bubbles of hydrogen gas« arising from the
electrolytic decomposition of the fluid. Of course these bubbles,
by preventing the fluid from tondiing the metal, diminish the
surface of contact and increase the resistance of the drooit. Bnt
besides the visible bubbles it is certain that thero is a thin coating
of hydrogen, probably not in a free state, adhering to the metal,
and as we have seen that this coating is able to produce an elec-
tromotive force in the reverse direction, it must necessarily diminish
the electromotive foroe of the batteiy.
Various plans have been adopted to get rid of this coating of
hydrogen. It may be diminished to some extent by mechanical
means, sndi as stirring the liquid, or rubbing the surfiKse of the
negative plate. In Smee's battery the native plates an vertical^
and covered with finely divided platinum from which the bubbles of
hydrogen easily escape, and in their ascent produce a current of
liquid which helps to brush off" other bubbles as they are formed.
A far more efficacious method^ however, is to employ chemical
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826 BLSCTBOLTTIO POLARIZATION.
means. These sie of two kinds. In the bstteries of Qtoitb and

Bunsen the negatiTO plate is immersed in a flnid rich in oxjgtai,
and the hydrogen, instead of fonning a coating on the plate,
comhines with this snhstanoe. In Orove's hatteiy the plate is
of platinnm, immersed in strong nitrie acid. In Bunsen's first
• battery it is of carbon in the same add. Chromic acid m also used
for the same purpose, and has the advantage of being free from the
acid fbmes produced by the reduction of nitric add.
A different mode of gêtting rid of the hydrogen is by using
copper as the negative metal, and covering the surface with a coat
of oxide. This, however, rapidly disappears when it is used as
the negative eleetrode. To renew it Joule lias proposed to make
the copper plates in the form of disks, half immersed in the liijuid,
and to rotate them slowly, so that the air may act on the parts
exposed to it in turn.
The other method is by using as the li([uid an electrolyte, the

cation of which is a metal highly negative to zinc.
In Daniell's battery a copper plate is immemKl in a saturated
solution of sulphate of copper. When the current flows thrmii^h

the solution from the zinc to the copper no hydrogen appears on
the copper plate, but copper is deposited on it. When the solution
is saturated, and the current is not too strong, the copper appears
to act as a true cation, the anion SO4 travelling towards the zinc.
When these conditions are not fulfilled hydrogen is evolved at
the cathode, but immediately acts on the solution, throwing down
copper, and uniting with SO4 to form oil of vitriol. When this
is the case, the sulphate of copper next the copper plate is xeplaoed
by oil of vitriol, the liquid becomes colourless, and polarization by
hydrogen gas again takes place. The copper depodted in this way
is of a looser and more friable structure than that depodted by tme
electvolyds.
To ensure that the liquid in contact with the copper shall be
saturated with sulphate of copper, crystals of this substance must
be placed in the liquid dose to the cop{>er, so that when the solution
is nwde weak by the depodtion of tlie copper, more of the etystala
may be dissdved.
We have seen that it is necessary that the liquid next the copper
should be saturated with sulphate of copper. It is still more
necessary that the liquid in which the zinc is immersed should be
free from sulphate of copper. If any of this salt makes its way
to the surlace of the zinc it is reduced, and copper is de|)04»it€d
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272.] THOMSON'S FOBH OF DANISLL's GBLL. 827
on the zinc. The zinc, copper, and fluid then fona a little circuit
in which npid electrolytic action goes on, and the zinc is eaton
awaj by an actimi which oontribntes nothing to the nsefiil effiact
of the batteiy.
To pievent this, the sine is immened either in dilate snlphnric
add or in a solntion of eolphate of zinc, and to prevent the solntion
of enlphate of copper from mixing with this liqmd, the two liqnidi
are separated hy a division consisting of bhidder or porons earthen-
ware^ which allows electrolysis to take place through it, but
eflfeetnallj prevents mixture of the flnids by visible onrrents.
In some batteries sawdust is used to prevent currents. The
experiments of Ghaham^ however, shew that the process of dififusion
goes on nearly as rapidly when two liquids are separated by a
division of this kind as when they are in direct contact^ provided
there are no visible currents^ and it is probable that if a septum
is employed which diminishes the diffusion, it will increase in
exactly the same ratio tlie resistance of the element, because elec-
trolytic conduction is a process the mathematical laws of which
have the same form as those of diffusion, and whatever interferes
with one must interfere equally with the other. The only ditler-
ence is that diffusion is always going on, while the current flows
only when the battery is in action.
In all forms of Danieirs battery the final result is that the
sulphate of copper finds its way to the zinc and spoils the battery.
To retard this result indefinitely, Sir W. Thomson'^ has constructed

Darnell's battery in the following form.
Fig. 21.
In each cell the cc pper plate is placed horiaontally at the bottom

• Pnc B, 8^ Jan. 19. 1871.
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328 BLBOtBOLTTlG FOLABJZATIOK.
and a saturated solution of sulfate of zinc is poured over it. The

sine ia in the form of a grating and is placed horizontally near the
surface of the solutioii. A glass tube is placed vertically in the
solution with its lower end just above the floriaee of the copper
plate. Cr3rBtal8 of sulphate of copper are dropped down this tube,
and, dissolving in the liquid, form a solution of greater density
than that of sulphate of sine slone, so that it cannot get to the
zino except by diffusion. To letaid this procees of difiiision, a
siphon, consisting of a glass tnbe stnifed with cotton wick, is
placed with one eztEemity midway between the zinc and copper,
and the other in a vessel ontside the cell> so that the liqud is
very slowly drawn off near the middle of its depth. To snpply
its place, water, or a weak solution of sulphate of zinc, is added
above when required. In this way the greater part of the sulphate
of copper rising through the liquid by diffusion is drawn off by the
siphon before it reaches the zinc, and the zinc is snnounded by
liquid nearly free from sulphate of copper, and having a very slow
downward motion in the cell, which still further retards the upward
motion of the sulphate of copper. During the action of the battery
copper is deposited on the copper plate, and SO^ travels slowly
through tlie li(juid to the zinc with which it combines, forming
sulphate of zinc. Tlius the licjuid at the bottom becomes less dense
by the deposition of the copper, and the liquid at the tep becomes
more dense by the addition of the zinc. To prevent this action
from changing the order of density of the strata, and so producing
instability and visible currents in the vessel, care must be taken to
keep the tube well supplied with crystals of sulphate of copper,
and to feed the cell above with a solution of sulphate of zinc suffi-
ciently dilute to be lighter than any other stratum of the liquid
in the cell.
Daniells battery is by no means the most powerful in common

use. The electromotive force of Grove's cell is 192,000,000, of
Daniell's 107,900,000 and that of Bunseu's 188,000,000.
The resistance of Daniell's cell is in general greater than tiiat of
Grove's or Bunsen's of the same size.
These defects, however, are more than counterbalanced in all

cases where exact measnrements are required, by the hunt that
Daniell's cell exceeds every other known arrangement in constancy
of electromotive force. It has also the advantage of continuing
in working order for a long time^ and of emitting no gas.
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f
CHAPTER VL
UN£AS BLECTBIC CU2BBNTS.
0)1 Si/stenu of Linear Condnctort,
278.] Any conductor may

be treated as a linear conductor if it
is arranged so that the enrrent must always pttM in the same manner
between two portioiiB of its surface which are called its electrodes.
For instance^ a mass of metal of any form the surface of whi<3i is
entirely oovered with insulating material except at two places, at
which the exposed surfoce of the conductor is in metallic contact
with electrodes formed of a perfectly condnctiiig material, may be
treated asa linear condnctor. For if the current be made to enter
at one of these electrodes and eataag^ at the other the lines of flow
will be determinate, and the relation between electromotiTe foroe^
current and reaatanee will be expressed by Ohm's Law, for the

conent in every part of the mass will be a linear function of E,
Bat if thdo be mote possible electrodes than two, the condnctor
may have more than one independent conent thiongh it, and these
may not be ooijngate to each other. See Art. 282.
Ohwî Law.
274.] Let E be the electromotivo force in a linear conductor

from the electrode to the electrode A^. (See Art. 69.) Let
C be the strength of the electric current along the conductor, that
is to say, let C units of electricity pass across every section in
tlic direction A^ A^ in unit of time, and R be the

let resistance of
the conductor, then the expression of Ohm's Law is
E= CE. (1)
Linear Conductors arranged in Series.
275.] Let be the electrodes of the first condnctor and let

.i,
the second conductor be placed with one of its electrodes in contact
228 OOHJUQATB FUNCTIONB. [184.
the sarfiuse-integral of a surface whose projectaon on the plane of

9jf IB the curre AM will be i{fia—M» where and /3b are the
indues of /3 at the extremities of the curve.
If a series of corves corresponding to values of a in arithmetioal
progression is drawn on the planer and another series corresponding
to a series of values of fi having the same common difference, then
the two slBries of curves will everjrwhere intersect at right angles,
and, if the common difference is snudl enough, the elements into
which the plane is divided will be ultimately little squares, whose
sides, in different parts of the field, are in different directions and of
different magnitude^ being inversely proportional to R,
If two or more of the equipotential lines (a) are dosed curves
enclosing a continuous space between them, we may take these for
the of conductors at potentials (ô+^'î)^
surfiKses 0+^*^2)* ^*
respectively. The quantity of electricity upon any one of these
between the lines of force j9i and iSL will be —

The number of eûipotential lines between two eonduetors will
therefore indicate their difference of potential, and the number of
lines of force which emerge ftom a conductor will indicate the
quantity of electricity upon it.
We must next state some of the most important theorems

relating to conjufât^' functions, and in proving* them we may use
cither the equjitious (1), coutiuniiig' the (Hflerential coefficients, or
the original definition, which makes use of imaginary symbols.
184.] Theorem I. Ifx* and tf are conjugate fwndiuns with respect

to X and and if and y" are also conjugate funct'wns with
respect to x and y, then the funct'wns x' + x'' aiid y -{-i/* will
be conjugate functioM witA reaped to x and y.
J)W ^ = dy*
dx
and f^ = ^-
dx dy
*
dx dy
Also ^=:-^^
dy~ dm*
and — =" -^^-
dy dx
*
therefore
rf(x--Hx")
dy
^_ dx
Qtx-^gii' and / are coxyugate with respect to x andy.
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GliArmC METHOD. 229
Graphic BepretetUaium of a Function which is the Sum of Two

Given Functioiu.
Let a fonctaon (a) of m and y be gmphicaUy repieeented bj a
eries of carra in tbe plane of toy, eadb of tbese cnrves corre-
sponding to a Yalne of a wbich belongs to a series of such iralnes
increasing by a common difference^ d.
'
Let any other fnnction, /3, otx and'jr be represented in the same
way by a series of carves corresponding to a series of valnes of /9
baying the same common difference as those of a.

Tlien to represent the fbnction a+/3 in the same way^ we must
draw a series of corves through the intersectionB of the two former
seriesfrom the intersection of tiie curves (a) and 0) to that of the
curves {a+h) and 5), then through the intersection of (a + 2 5)
and 0—26), and so on. At each of these points the function

have the same value, namely a -f- /3. The next curve must be drawn
throuq-h the points of intersection of a uiul + of a-\-h and /3,
of a + 26 and fi
— h, and so on. The function belonging to this
curve will be a -f- ^ + 6.
In this way, when the series of curves (a) and the serios (/3j are
drawn, the series {a + li) may be constructed. These three series of
curves may be drawn on separate ]»iocos of transparent paper, and

when the and second have been properly superposed, the third
first
may bo drawn.
The combination of conjugate functions bv addition in this way
enables us to draw fi«ûres of many interesting cases with very
little trouble when we know how to draw the simpler cases of
which they are compounded. We have, however, a far more
powerfiil method of transformation of solutions, depending on the
following theorem.
185.] Theore>[ II. // x" and are coujuyate functions with

respect to the variafjles x and and if of and if are conjugate
funetiont with respect to x and y, then and %/' will he con-

jvgaie fumetUms with respect to x and y.
For —= d^'d£^^
" d^ dy"^ daf dy'

_ df^
" dy^
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280 COVJVOATS FUirCTIOVS.
dsf' dsf dx" d/

and
4r
d^ dm Wdm*
'
dx
and ibflse aie the eonditioos tliat ti' and ^' sboald be eoiyiigate
fimoiioni <^ # and jr.
Hue may also be ahewn from tbe original definition of coiyngate
fimctiona. For ^/— ly it a function of V— 1 ff, and
ia a fimetion of « + v^~ijr. Henoe, tf^-^JT^f
ia a ibnction of m-^'J—ly*
In fhe nme way we may ahew tliat if ^ and y aie eo^jngate
fitnctiona of a and y« then « and y are eonjogate ftanetiona of ^
and/.
Una iheoiem may be interprated graphically as foUowa :
Let a^, y be taken as rectangohr ooofdinatesi and let tiie earns

corresponding to values of ^' and of ^' taken in r^fular arithmetioal
Bcriesbe drawn on paper. A double system of curves will thus be
. drawn cutting the paper into little squares. Let the paper be also
ruled with horizontal and vertical lines at equal intervals, and let
these lines be marked with the corresponding values of and if.
Next, let anotlier piece of paper be taken in which x and y are
made rectangular coordinates and a double system of curves x\ y
18 drawn, each curve being marked with the corresponding value
of / or y . This systf-m of curvilinear coordinates will correspond,

point for point, to the rectilinear system of coordinates x\ if on the
first piece of paper.
Hence, we take any number of points on the curve x" on the
if
first and note the values of ^ and ^ at these points, and

paper,
mark the eoneq»onding points on the second |>aper, we shall find
a number of points on the transformed curve d*. If we do the
same for all the curves 3f\ y
on the first paper, we shall obtain on
the second paper a double series of curves of a different form,
bat having the same property of catting the paper into little
aqoares.
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l86.] THXOBUIS. 281
186.] THmnc m. f^Fit oi^/imeium tftt md^.a/nd^ti

ami / an eoiâgaU Jkmetumi efm amd Hem
Ike integratiou being between ike tame limitt,
dm^
- aai"^ Vda^ ^ ^
da^ d/ da dx d/^ dx
daf da^ ^1^ d^ '
and
d»F_d^Fdy d'^r dx' du' d^-rdfi
dg^ ito''*
^ " daf dy dy dy ^ dy - dy
Adding the kd: two equstioiifl^ and liDMniberLDg the oonditions

of conjugate fanctions (1), we find
d^r d^r_d^r(d^^ JP\ dr_idp
Henoe
\<tr» + dg*)'"'^ -JJ \<ix'' ^ d/') ^da dg dt dx>"^'
If Fie a potential, then, by Poisson's equation

d^v d^r
and we may write the result
JJpdxdy^JJp'd^d/,
or the quantity of eleetrictfy in ooneeponding portions of two
systeina is the same if the coordinates of one sjrstem are conjugate
fbiietioBs of those of the other.
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232 OONJUOAfB rnNCTION& [187
Additional Theorem on Conjugate Funciions,
187.] Thboshi Vf.ffm^ and dUo oxf jr,, am em-
Xrsz X^X^—y^y.,, and 1^= ^1 5^2 + ^2^1.

X and Y will be conjugate function* of x and y.
For X+ = jfj (%+ jrj.
Thbobbv y. If^ U a 9oMum cftU eqiiaiiom
.1
dy d^
R and 0 will be conjugate functioM of x and y.
For R and 9 are conjugate fonctiona of and and these

aie conjugate fimctions of x and y. ^
EzAMFUl I. Iiwenion.
188.] As an example of the genend method of tranafonnatioii

let UB take the case of inYersion in two dimensions.
If 0 is a fixed point in a plane, and OA a fixed direction, and
if r = OP = ae^f and 6 = AOP, and if jr, y are the rectangular
coordinates of P with respect to 0,
p = logi^/?+p, tfstan-if,
p and $ axe ooiyngftte fbnotions of « and jr.

If/f =
up and 6^ ssH$tff and tf' will be ooiyngste fonctions of p
and tf. In the case in which « ^1 we have =
and ^=-d, (6)
which 18 the case of oidimuy inveraion combined with tmning the

figoie 180*" lonnd OJ.
Imvenum im Tioo JHrnenaumt,
In this case if r and / represent the distances of corresponding
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t
I89.J ELECTRIC IMAGES IN TWO DIMENSIONS. 233
points from 0, e and / the total electrification of a body, 8 and 8*

superficial elements, and V V solid elements, o- and </ surface-
densities, p and p volume densities, 4> ^ corresponding po-
/ ^2 /a |5r/
a* /*
r r*~ a*'
ff^ r2 ,^2 r* a*
7 a« ~ '
p. a*
I-
ExAiCFLi H. MUeirie Imagei tn 2kw Dimennont.
189.] Let >^ be the centre of a circle of radius AQ = ftnd let

^ be a charge at A, then the potential
at any point P is
=r2Jl0g-A-; (8)
and if the circle is a section of a hollow

ocmdacting cylinder^ the sorfiMse-density
at any point Q is — Fig. 17.

2tt6
Invert the sTstem with leepeet to a point 0, making

AO^mh, and a* = ;
6
then we have a charge at A' equal to that at A, where AA'
The density at is
and the potential at any point within the ciide is
= ^ = 2^(lo-/>_log./P),
= 2E (log OP'-log^'P'-logw). (9)
This is equivalent to a combination of a charge B at Al^ and a

charge —"E at 0, which is the image of AH, with respect to the
circle. The imaginary charge at 0 is equal and opposite to that
at^.
If the point I' is defined by its polar coordinates referred to the
centre of the ciielej and if we put
p = l<^f — log and p^ = log AAt —log J,
then AF = be^, AA'= be^, AO = be'(^ ; (10)
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234 oovjUQATi Fuvcnom
aad tiie poteatnl «i tiie point tf) !•
— iPlogf^'^— 2*^tf*coB^+««0 + 2i5'p„. (11)

This is the potential at the point (p, 6) due to a char^ £, placed
at the point (p^,, 0), with the condition that when p = 0, <^ = 0.
In this case p and 0 are the conjugat*- functions in equations (5)
p in the logarithm of the ratio of the radios Tector of a p<N]it to

the radius of the circle, and $ is an angle.
Hie centre ia the oolj singûkr point in this system of ooordinntfls^
mid tlie fine-mtegnl of f foond a dosed curve is aero or 2v,
according as the closed curve excludes or includes the centre.
EzAMPUi UL—NemmaimU Tnmtformaiiom qfiJkit Que *.

190.] Now letbe any ooigiigate fimctionB of m and
a and
eodi ibst tiie corves (a) are eqnôtential carrei^ and <lie curves
09) are lines of fines dne to a system consisting of a dungeof bslf
a unit at the origin^ and an deetrified sjstem dispoesd in any
manner at a certain dirfaace llfom tiie origin.
Let ns suppose that tiie carve fi>r wludi ihe potential is Oq is
a closed curve, such that no part of the electrified system except the
half-unit at the origin lies within this curve.
Then all the curves (a) between this curve and the origin will be
closed curves surrounding the origin, and all the curves (/3) will
meet in the origin, and will cut the curves (a) orthogonally.
The coordinates of any jto'mt within the curve (a„) will be determ-
ined by the values of a and at that point, and if the point travels
ronnd one of the curves a in the positive direction, the value of /3
will increase by 27t for each complete circuit.
If we now supjx>se the curve (oq) to be the section of the inner
surface of a hollow cylinder of any form maintaine<l at potential
zero under the influence of a charge of linear density on a line of
which the origin is we may leave the external

the projection, then
electrified system out of consideiation, and we have fi>r the potential
at any point (o) within the carve
2JSia-a^, 4, = (12)
and on any part of the carve
for the qoantitgr of dectridty
between tbe pdnts conesponding to fii and fi^,
Q= 2^(ft-A). (IS)
• See Crelle's Journal, 1861.
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190.] NSUICAini's TBAirarOBMATIOH. 285
#
If in tfaiB w»y, or in mj other, wo have detennlned the dis-

tribotion of potontul hr the cue of a given eonre of oeetion when
tiie obaige ie placed at a giren point tdcen aa origin^ we may pass
to the eaie in which the ehaige ia pUused at any other point hj an
appUcition of the general method of tranafonnation.
Let the vatnes of a and /3 for llie point at which the charge is
placed be and /3j, then sahstitating in equation (11) a— Oq for p,
and ^1 for 0, we find for the potential at any point whoee co-
ordinates are a and /3,
^ si?log (1 -2d—1008 09-/3,) +tf«(—i>)

Slog (l-2#*+««-»-»coBO-ft)+e"C*t-«*i))+2JP(o,-aj). (14)
This expression for the potential becomes zero when a=ao, and is
finite and continuous within the curve except at the point Oj ,
at which point the first t^rm becomes infinite, and in its immediate
neighbourhood is ultimately ûal to 2i?log/, where / is the
distance from that point.
We have therefore obtained the means of deducings the solntion
of Green's problem for a charge at any point within a closed curve
when the solution for a charge at any other point is known.
The charge induced upon an element of the curve Of, between the
points /3 and fi+dfihj ^ charge £ placed at the point is
^^^^
2« I— 2eti-o)ooe08-/8,)+e«t«»-^^'
From this expression we may find the potential at any point
a, /3, within the closed curve, when the value of the potential at
every point of the closed curve is given as a function of j3, and
there is no electrification within the closed curve.
For, by Theorem II of Chap. Ill, the part of the potential at
a, due to the maintenance of the portion of the closed curve
at the potential F, is « F, where n is the charge induced on by
unit of electrification at aj/9j. Hence, if F is the potential at a
point on the closed curve defined as a function of fi, and <t> the
potential at the point a, /3, within the oloeed onrve, there being no
eleotofioBiMMi within the ciir?e,
^
^~2vJo l-2e(i-«^00B(/5-ftj + «>(i— ^
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236 covjCGATB Fuycnosa. [i9i«
EiAlfVLl IV^ IHttribuiiom if EUetrieity near mm Edge if m

Cnduetorformed fy Two Plane Faeee.
191.] In the case of an infinite plane face of a conductor charjoped
with electrieit\' to the surfaon- -density a,, we find for the potential
at m diHtanre £irom the plane
where Cis the value of the potential of the eondaeUir itKi£

Aatnme a stnigfat Hne in the plane as a pdar axis, and tzmsform
into polar coordinates, and we find for the potential
C^49oâe^m0j
and for the quantity of electricity on a jiarallelogTam of breadth
unity J and leng:th aef measured from the axis
Now let us make p = np and $ = n6^, then, since p' and 6^ are
oonjogate to p and tf, the equations
Ts C^4wtrâ^f^ miner
and E^vâî^
express a jK)r.sil»le distribution of electricity and of potential.
If we writ*' r for r will Ije the distance from the axis, and
$ the angle, and we shall have
£ ss ,
•
f will be equal to whenever a(? = tt or a multiple of tt.
Let the edf^' be a salient angle of the conductor, the inclination

of the fa^'es Wing a, then the am*le of the dielectric is 27r— a, so
that when $=211— a the point is in the other face of the conductor.
We most therefore make
• (2»-o) = », or « = 27^'
Then FzsC—ivaâ^^ sin^^^t

w
The guriace-density a at any distance r from the edge is
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192.] Klffjpgga AND HYP£&fiOLAS. 237
Whea the angle is a eaHent one a is less than tt, and the surface-
deaaty Taries aooording to some inverse power of the distance
from the edge, so that at the edge itself the density becomes
infinite^ although the whole charge reckoned from the edge to any
finite distance from it is always finite.

TkoB, when asO the edge is infinitely sharp, like the edge of a
matlifflnati*^ plane. In this case the density yaries inveraely as
the aqnaie root of the distanoe firom the edge.
When o = - the edge is like that of an equilateral prism, and the

3
deosiiy wies inTeraely as the f power of the distanoe.
When a = - the edge is a right angle, and the density is iu-
2
'
tersely as the cahe root of the distanoe.
When a»—~ the edge is hke that of a regular hexagonal prism,

3
snd the density is inmsely as the fonith root of the distanoe.
When a s v the edge is obliterated, and the density is oonslant.
When as:^ V the edge is like that in the inside of the hexagonal
prism, and the density is tUredfy as the square root of the distanoe
from the ed^.
When a = t TT tlie edge is a re-entrant right angle, and the density
is directly as the distanoe firom the edge.
Wheu a=|ir the edge is a re-entrant angle of 60% and the
density is directly as the square of the distanoe from the edge.
In reality, in all cases in which the density heoomes infinite at
any point, there is a discharge of electricity into the dielectric at
that point, as is expUiined in Art. 55.
ExjiirpUl V. Elliptes and lli/perholaM, Fig. X.
182.] We have seen that if
jfi«êost, yi=âinifr, (1)
X and y will l>e conjugate functions of <^ and >/r.
Also, if s^ss^^cosV', ya = -tf-*8ini^, (2)
9^ and ^2 ^''^ ^ conjugate fimctions. Hence, if
2«siri+^2= + COS y\f, 2y =yi + y2=(e*-tf-*) sin ^, (3)
X $ will also be conjugate functions of i> and t^.
In this case the points for which ^ is constant lie in the ellipse
whose axes are and
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238 OOHJUOATS FUNCnOHflL [193.
The points for which ^ is constaat lie in the hyperbola whose

axes are 2 coe t/r and 2 sin ^.
On the sdi of jr, betwMn « s — 1 and « s + 1,

âO, fsoor->«. (4)
On the azia of jr, bejond these Unuts on cither sida^ we hm

jr> 1, ^ = 0, 4>= log(x+yj:2^), (5)
a:< — 1, ^^ = 1^, ^ =log(v/x2^1-a?).

Henoe^ if ^ ia the potential function, and \^ the function of flow^
we have the case of electricity flowing from the n^;ative to the
poaitiTe side of the asds of x through the space between the pointa
—1 and +1, the parts of the aada beyond these Umtta being
imperviooa to deetricii|r.
Sinoe^ in this eMte, the Ana <iyiBtk line ef flow, we mnj suppose
it also mpemooa to electncity*
We. may be seetions of the eqid-
also eonsider the ellipses to
potential soi&oss dne to an indefinitely long fiat eonduetor of
breadth 2, diarged with half a nnit of eleetiieify per vnit of lenglih.
If we make ^ the potential fbnetioiiy and ^ the fimction of fiow,
the case beeomea that of an infinite plane fiom whieh a ati^ of
breadth 2 has been cot away and the phne cn one side chaiged to
potential v whUe the oliier remains at asro.
Ilieae oases may be considered as partinmbr eaaea of the qnadrie
surfaces treated of in Chapter X. The forma of the enr?es are
given in Fig. X. •
Example VI. — Fig. XI.
198.] Let nsnezt oonaiderii^ and j< as functions of as wad where
and y will be also conjugate functions of 4> ^*

The curves resulting from the transformation of Fig. X with
respect to these new coordinates are g^ven in Fig. XL
If and y are rectangular coordinates, then the properties of the
axis of X in the first figure will belong to a series of lines parallel
to y in the seoond ^gaxe for whieh in^w, where «^ is any
integer.
The positiire Talues of tf' on these lines will ooneq;K>nd to valoes
of « greater than unity, finr which, as we have already seen,
ir^nw, ^«log(jf+v'i^ri)--U)gGT+4ytfV_i). (7)
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1 95 -J OF AN £L£CT£1FI£D PLAT£. 239
The negative valnM of ^ on the same lines will correspond to
values of a less than unity, for which, as we have seen.
The piopeities of tbe aads of y in the fint figue will belong to

a flcriee of lioee in the eeoond figure panUel to s/^ for which
/= (9)
The valoe of ^ along these lines ie ^s -f |) for all points
both positive and negative, end
^ = log(y+'>/y^ + i) = iogU'* + Vd* +iA (10)
19i.] If we consider ^ as the potential fonetion, and rfr as the

fimetion of flow» we may oonsider the case to be that of an in-
definitely long strip of metal of breadth with a non-oondnoting
division extending firom the origin indefinitely in the positive
direction, and thns dividing the poritive part of the strip into two
separate channeb. We may suppose this division to be a narrow
dtt in the sheet of metal.
If a corrent of electricity is made to flow along one of these
divirions and back again along the other, the entmnce and exit of
the conent being at an indefinite distance on the positive side of
the origin, the distribution of potential and of current will be given
by the fnnctions ^ and ^ respectively.
If, on the other hand, we make yjf the potential, and 4> ^he
function of tlow, then the case will be that of a current iu the

general direction of flowing throu<^h a sheet in which a number
of non-eonduetiug divisions are placed parallel to jr, extending from
the axL8 of y to an indefinite distance in the negative direction.
195.] We may also apply the results to two important cases in
statical electricity.
(1) Let a conductor in the form of a plane sheet, bounded by a

straight edge but otherwise unlimited, be placed in the plane of xz
on the positive side of the origin, and let two infinite conducting
planes be placed parallel to it and at distances ^-nd on either side.
Then, if yjf is the |X)tential fnnction, its value is 0 for the middle
conductor and ^ tt for the two planes.
Let us consider the quantity of electricity on a part of the middle
conductor, extending to a distanne 1 in the direction of m, and from
the origin to or = a.
The deotricity on the part of this strip extending ficom «| to «^
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240 CONJUQAT£ FUNCTIONS. [196.
Hence from the origin to ^= a the amount is
(H)
If a is large compared with b, this becomes
(IS)
Hence the quantify of on the plane bounded by the

electricity
straight edge is would have been if the electricity
greater than it
had been uniformly distributed over it with the same density that
it has at a distance from the boundary, and it is equal to the
quantity of electricity having the same uniform snrfiMe-density,
but extending to a breadth equal to 51og«2 beyond tibe actual
boundary of the plate.
This imaginary uniform distribution is indicated by the dotted
straight lines in Fig. XI. The yeriacal lines represent lines of
force, and the horizontal lines equipotential surfiuses, on the hypo-
thesis that the density is uniform over both planes, produced to
infinity in all directions.
196.] Electrical condensers are sometimes formed of a plate
placed midway between two parallel plates extending considembly
beyond the intermediate one on all sides. If the radius of curvature
of the boundary of the intermediate plate is great compared with
the distance between the plates, we may treat the boundary as
approximately u and calculate the capacity of the
strai<,^ht line,
condenser by supposing;' the intermediate plate to have its area

extended by a strip of uniforiii breadth round its boundary, and
assuiuin^^ the surface-density on tlie extended plate the same as
it is in the parts not near the boundary.
Tluis, if iS' l)f the actual area of the ])late. L its circumference,
and B the distance between the large plati^, we have
(13)
and the breadth of the additional strip i
(14)
80 that the extended area is
5'= S-\-BL-\os,2. (15)

IT
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19^.] DBNBITT HBAB THE BDGB. 241
The oapaoiiy of the middle plate is
CorreeiUmfor ike Tkieineti ijfike Flaie.

Sinoe the middle plate ia generallj of a thiekDMi whidi anmot
be negleeted in comparieon with tiie distance between the platesi
we may obtain a better xepresentation of the fiiots of the oaae by
supposing the section of the intermediate pkte to correspond wi<^
the curve ^s
The pkte will be of nearly uniform thiekness^ /9 = at a
distance from the boundary^ but will be rounded near the edge.
The position of the actual edge of the plate is found by putting
/= 0, whence * log cos V^'. (17)
The value of ^ at this edge is o, and at a point for which a

it is a-k-h log^ 2
Hence the quantity of electricity on the pUte is the same as

ifa strip of breadth , J9 , , -n^.
a=-log.(2co«2^) . (18)
had been added to the plate, the density being assumed to be every-
where the same as it is at a distance ham the boundary.
Deiuify near the Edge.

The sur&oe-density at any point of the pkte is
V(f^-1
= ^^ll + t* » + !• »-&»J. (19)
The quantity within brackets rapidly approaches unity as x'

increases, so that at a distance from the boundary e(jual to n times
the breadth of the strip a, the actual density is greater than the
normal density by about -p^rr ^ ^ normal density.

In like manner we may calculate the density on the infinite planes
m
* ^ (20)
V6 t
s/e^ +1
When t{ TsO, the dmsitf is 2'^ of the normal density.
TOL. I. B
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242 coKJUQATB FUKonons. [197.
At » times the breadth of the strip on the poeitiTe side^ the
density is less than the normal density by about •
At n times the breedth of the strip on the negative side, the
densit<y is about ^ of the normal density.
These resdlts indicate the degree of acouraojr to be expected in

applying this method to plates of limited extent^ or in whidi
irregnlarities may exist not very fiur from the boandaiy. The same
distribution would exist in the case of an infinite series of simikr
plates at equal distances, the potentials of. these plates being
alternately + Fand — T. In this case we must take the distance
between the plates equal to B.
197.] (2)The second case we shall consider is that of an infinite
series of planes parallel toex at distances B^nb, and all cut off by
the plane of yz, so that they extend only on the negative side of this
plane. If we make 0 the potential function, we may regard these
planes as conductors at potential zero.
Let us consider the curves for which ^ is constant.
When y = n-nb^ that is, in the prulongution of each of the planes,
we have fl^=dlogi(er* + <r*) (21)
when jf^s (»+ that is, in the intermediate positions

flr=Akg4(d*-d-*). (22)
Hence, when 4> is which ^ is constant
large, the curve for is
an undulating line whose mean distance from the axis of y is
approximately ^ ^ (^-log. 2),

^ (23)
and the amplitude of the nndnlations on either side of tiiis line is
When <^ is large this becomes be~^^, so that the curve approaches
to the form of a straight line parallel to the axis of y at a distance
a from ab on the positive side.
If we suppose a ])lane for which x' = a, kept at a constant

potential while the system of parallel planes is kept at a ditferent
potential, then, since if/) = a -\- b log^ 2, the surface-density of
the electricity induced on the plane is equal to that which would
have been induced on it by a plane parallel to itself at a potential
equal to that of the series of planes, but at a distance greater
than that of the edges of the planes by h log. 2.
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199*] ^ QBOOYID SUBFACS. 248
If j9 if tlie distaaoe between two of the planee ni the 8eriee»

B ssv6,90 that the addititmal distance is
(86)
It
198.] Let us next consider the space included between two of

the etjuipotential surfaces, one of which consists of a series of parallel
waves, while the otlier corresponds to a large value of 4^, and may
be considered as approximately j)lane.
If I) is the depth of these undulations from the crest to the trOQg'h

of each wave> then we find for the corresponding value of 0,
D
*=*log^. (26)
The value of ^ at the orest of the wave is
b log i + e-^). (27)

Hence, if A is the distance from the crests of the waves to the
opposite plane, the capacity of the system composed of the plane
surface and the undulated 8ur£M» is the same as that of two planes
at a distance A-i-a where
= (28)
199.] If a sinpfle groove of this form be made in a conductor

having the rest of its surface plane, and if the other conductor is
a plane surface at a distance A, the capacity of the one conduct^)r
with respect to the other will be diminished. The amount of this
diminution will be less than the - th part of the diminution dne

n
to n such grooves side by side, for in the latter case the average
electrical force between the conductors will be less than in the
former case, so that the induction on the surfiuse of each groove will
be diminished on account of the neighbouring grooves.
If is the length, B the breadth, and J) the depth of the groove,
the capaoify of a portion of the opposite plane whose area is 8 will be
S LB a'
AvA AitA.AW'
If A is large compared with B or a', the correction becomes
2^ log. —-5, (30)
K4
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244 oovjuoATB ruHonoH& [200.
and for ft Blit of infinite depHi, putting D s 00, tiie cocraotion k
To find the surface-density on the series of parallel plates we

mart find a- =: — ^ when A s 0. We find
«r«-L^J=^. (88)
-2-
V/ <j 1
Tlie avenge dauaiiy on the plane plate at diirtanoe A from the

edges of the aeries of plateeia 7s Henoe, at a distance from
the edge of one of the plates equal to na the sur&ce-density is
of this arrange deneitj.

^^^^ ^
200.] Let us next attempt to deduce from these results the

distribution of electricity in the figure formed by rotating the
plane of the figure about the axis y= — In this case, Poisson's
equation will assume the form
(Pr (PF \ dV ^ '
,,,,
= ^''^
Let us aasome Ts^, the fimction given in Art. 193, anddetemune

the value of p from this equation. We know that tiie fiiat two
terms disappear, and therefore
If we suppose that, in addition to the surface-density already

investigated, there is a distribution of electricity in space according
to the law just stated, the distribution of potential will he repre-
sented by the curves in Fig. XI.
small except near the boundaries of the plates, so that the new
distribution may be approximately represented by what actually
exists, namely a certain superficial distribution near the edges of
the plates.
If thevefime we integrate yy*pA^4K between the fimita/ssO and

y=z-b, and from a>' = — oo to a; = +oo, we shall fiiud the whole
additional ohaige on one ode of the platea doe to the enrvatofe.
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201. j THBO&T 09 THOHSON's OUA&D-lUlirO. 246
d4^ dy^
Integiating with respect to we find
_ 1 ^ 1 ^2 ,
Êliis is the totil quantify of eleetnoify whieh we must 8ix{»pOBe

duftribnted m space near the positive side of one of the cylindrie
phtes per unit of oircomftreDoe. Since it is only close to tiie edge
of the plate that the densiij is sensihle, we may suppose it all
condensed on the sorfiioe of the plate without altering sensibly its

actionon the opposed phme smftce^ and in calculating the attraction
between that stu&oe and the oylindiic Biiifiu)e we may sappose this
electricity to belong to the cylindrie sorfiMse.
The snperfidal charge on the positive sorfiMse of the plate per

unit of length would have been — |, if there had been no eunratuie.
Hence this charge must be multiplied by the fiustor (l +i
to get the total charge on the positiye side.
In the case of a disk of radius it placed midway between two
infinite paraUel plates at a distance we find for the capadfy
of the disk m «
^^2^^^^^B^\B. (38)
201.3 In some of Sir W. Thomson's eleetrometefSj a hurge plane

surfiuse is kept at one potential, and at a distance a fimn this surfiMse
is B surrounded by a large plane plate
placed a plane disk of radius
called a Guard-ring 'iMth a circular aperture of radius B» concentric
witii the disk, lliis disk and plate are kept at potential zero.
The interval between the disk and tiie guard-plate may be
regarded as a circular groove of infinite depth, and of breadtii
B^^B, which we denote by £,
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246 CO>^JUGAT£ FUNCTIONS. [202.
The charge on the disk due to unit potential of the large disk,
mxppoBag the deniity miiform, wcmld be -r-j-'
The charge on one side of a straight groove of breadth Ji and

len^h Jj = 2vJR, and of infinite depth, would be
. HB
But sinoe the groove is not straight, but has a radius of curvature
Bf this most be multiplied by the fiMstor (l + i

•
The whole charge on the disk is therefore
The value of a cannot be gieutor than
a' _o.22Jn«riy.
If B is small comimred with either A ox H this expression wnll
gfive a sufficiently good approximation to the cliargo on the disk
due to unity of diHerence of potential. The ratio of .4 to ^
may have any value, but the radii of the large disk and of the
guard-ring must exceed K by several multiples of A,
EZAMPLB YII.->Fig. XII.
202.] HelmholtK, in bis memoir on disoontinnoiis fluid motion*,
has pointed oat the application of sevend ibrmulae in which the
coordinates are expressed as functions of the poiential and its
conjugate function.
One of these may be applied to the case of an electrified plate
of finite size ]^laced parallel to an infinite plane surface connected

with the earth.
Since a?j = (/> and =A \fr,
and also = Ae^ cos y^r and //j = Ae^sin

are conjugate functions of 0 and x^/, the functions formed by adding
Xi to so^ and y| to jr, will be also conjugate. Hence, if
m = A^+Aei* cfM^,
• KOnigL Akad. der WUteiuchaJten, zu Berlin, April 29, lUS.
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202.] TWO SQUAL DISKS. 247
then X and y will be conjugate with respect to ^ and and <^ and
y^f will be conjugate with respect to x and y.
Now let X and y be rectangular coordinates, and lei k-^ be the

potential, then ki^ will be conjug-ate to ytv/r, X* being any constant.
Let us put \lf = IT, then // = Att,x = A {(p — e^).

If (p varies from — cc to 0, and then from 0 to -f-oc, a: varies
from — oo to —A and from —A to — oc. Hence the equi potential
surface for which kxj/^T: is a plane parallel to :r at a distance d s= 'gA
from the origin, and extending from — oo to a? = — A,
Let us consider a portion of this plane^ extending from
0 s ^{Aâ) to 0 s —A and from « s 0 to s ir 0,
kt iM suppose its distanoe from the plane oSwztohey^b^ Av,

and its potential to be r= s iit.
The diarge of eleetrieily on any portion of thla part of the plane
is found by aeoertaining tlie valaes of ^ at its eitiemities.
If iiMse m^ and ip^, the quantity of electricity is
We have therefore to determine ^ from the eqoation
(p will have a negative value (p^ and a positive value at the edge
of the plane, where x = —A, (P
= 0.
Hence the charge on the negative side is '-ckipi, and that on

the positive side is c kip^-
If we suppose that a is large compared with J,
a _ -4— l+lw.
^ = log + 1 +log(^ + 1 + &C.))

If we negleefc the exponential teims in ^ we shall find that the
ohaige on the negative surface exceeds that which it would have
ifthe siqierfidal densiliy had been unilbrm sod equal te that at a
distance from the boundary, by a quantity equal to the charge on a
strip of breadth =~ the uniform superficial density.
The total capacity of the part of the plane considered is
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248 covuGATB nr^cnojm [203.
Tlie toul cLiiktgt is 6'^ nd tibe attzactioxi towards the mfiaile
Tke eqnipotential linM and imM of finee aie givea in Kg. XIL
EZAMFU YUL—^nUoTf Oralin^ (f Parallel Wwm. Kg. XIIL

203.] In many electrical instruments a wire grating Is u»ed to
prevent certain parts of the apparatus from beinj^ electrified by-
induction. We know that if a conductor be entirely surrounded

by a metallic vessel at the same potential with itself, no electricity
can be induced on the gurlkce of the conductor by any electrified
body outside the vessel. The conductor, however, when completely
Burrounded by metal, cannot l>e seen, and therefore, in certain cases,
an a[>erture is k-ft which is covered with a grating of fine wire.
Let us investigate the effect of this grating in diminishing the
effect of electrical induction. We shall sappoee the grating to
OODflict of a series of parallel wires in one plane and at equal
intenrals^ the diameter of the wires being mU compared with the
distance between them, while the nearest portions of the electrified
bodies on the one side and of the protected conductor on tbe other
ave at distances from the plane of the icieen, which are conaiderable
compared wnth the distance between consecutive wires.
204." The potential at a distance / from the axis of a straight
wife of infinite length charged with a qnantily of electndlj X per
mut of length ia r=-2Alog/ + C. (1)
We may express this in tenna of polar coordinates referred to aa
axis whose distance from the wire is nnity, in which case we must
= + 2rco8<? + r2,
l (2)
and if we suppose that the azii of reference ia alio chaiged with

the linear denaily A'^ we find
rB-.Alog(l»2fC0s^+f')-2X'logr+C. (8)
IT wu now make
tsze •> tf = 9 (4)

a
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205 ] UroUOTION THBOUOH A OBATIKO. 249
then, hj the theozy of ooi\jiigate ibnctioiiBy
Ts— Xlog Vl-2e* OOB—

a
/— 2X'log0 * +C; (6)
where x and y are rectangular coordinates, will be the value of the

potential due to an infinite series of fine wires parallel to j in the
plane of yz, and passing through points in the axis of x for which
ar is a multiple of a.
Each of these wires is charged with a linear density A.

. The term involving \' indicates an electrification^ producing a
oonstent foioe — a
in the direolaoin of ^
r.
The forms of the equipotential surfaces and lines of force when

X'= 0 are given in Fig. XIII. The equipotential surfaces near the
wires are nearly cylinders, so that we may consider the solution
approximately true, even when the wires are cylinders of a dia-
meter which is finite but small compared with the distance between
them.
The equipotential surfaces at a distance from the wires become
more and more nearly planes parallel to that of the prating.
If in the o(]tiation we make ^ = a quantity large compared
with a, we find approximately,
« - tlh (X 4- A-) + e nearly. (6)
If we next make = — 5, where is a negative quantity laige

compared with a, we find appiozimAtely,
r,=: ^ tlh (A-A') + C nearly. (7)
If c is the radine of the wires of the grating, e bang small

compared with a, we may find the potential of the grating itself
by supposing that the suriaoe of the wire coincides with the eqni-
potential sui&oe which cnts the plane of jf s at a distance e from the
axil of jp. To find the potentiid of the grating we therefore put
« s tf, and jr 0, whence
r«-2Alog28in^+a (8)
205.] We have now obtained eipiessions representing the elec-

trical state of a system consisting of a gratbg of wires whose
diameter is small compared with the distance between them^ and
two plane conducting sorfiuies, one on each side of the grating,
and at distances which are great compared with the distance
between the wires.
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^0 OONJUOATS FtmCTIONS. [205.
Tlie sui&oe-densitjr on the first plane is got from the eqnft-
4,..= ^ = -V"(A + X0. (9)
That on the seoond plane from the equation (7)
i,<r.= -^«-i^(A-A'). (10)
If ve now write « , . »C\
and eliminate A and X' from the equations (6), (7), (8)^ (9), (10),
we find
4,..(4i+4.+ '-^)=r.(i + 2^0- r,- ri^. (12)
When the wires are infinitely thin, a beeomes infinite, and iJie
terms in which it is the denominator disappear, so that the case

is redueod to that of two parallel planes without a grating in-
terposed.
If the grating is in metallic communication with one of the
planes, say the first, F= Fj , and the right-hand side of the equation
for becomes V^^ — V^. Hence the density o-j induced on the hrst
plane when the grating is interposed is to that which would have
been induced on it if the grating were removed, the second plane
being maintained at the same potential, as 1 to 1 +

We should have found the same value lor the etfect of the grating
in diminishing the electrical influence of the first surface on the
second, if we had supposed the grating connected with the second
surface. This is evident since and b.^ enter into the expression
in the same way. It is also a direct result of the theorem of
Art. 88.
The induction of the one electrified plane on the other through
the grating is the same as if the grating were removed, and the
distance between the planes increased from ^j+d, to
4,+«, + 2*ji'.
a
If the two planes are kept at potential zero, and the grating
electrified to a given potential, the quantity of electricity on the
giating will be to that which would be induced on a plane of equal
placed in the same position as
2^ is to 2 ^1 ^s+a (^+^*
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2o6.] METHOD OF ARPBOXIMATIOK. 25t
This investigation is approximate only when ^ and are liirge

ooD^ptfed with a, and when a is laige oompared with e. The
quantity a ii a line which may be cf any magnitude. It heoomes
infinite when e is indefinitely diminiehed.
If we eappoae c s |a there will be no apertoiee between the
wires of the gratings and theiefi>re there will be no indnetion
thiongh it. We ought therefore to have for this ease a s 0. The
formoU (1 1), however, gives in this
a =!-^ log. 2, =-.0.11a,
whieh ia evidently erroneous, as the induction oan never be altered

in sign by means of the grating. It is easy, however, to proceed
to a higher degree of approcdmation in the case of a grating of
cylindrical wires. I shall merely indicate the steps of this process.
Method of Approximation.
206.] Since the wires are cylindrical, and since the distribution
of electricity on each is symmetrical with respect to the diameter
parallel to y, the proper expansion of the potential is of the form
Ts C^\ogr-i-2C^f*coBi0, (14)
where r is the distance fiom the axis of one of the wires, and 0 the
angle between r and and, since the wire is a conductor, when
r is made equal to the ladios F must be constant, and therefore
the coefficient of each of the multiple cosines of 0 must vanish.
For the sake of conciseness let us assume new coordinates (, ti, &o.
such that
af=2vjP, aij = 2 7ry, ap = 2'nr, a/3 = 2ird, &c. (15)
and let = log (c«-^'+c-(«Â~2 ooeO- (16)
Then if we make
r=A,F+A^'^ + A,'^+&^. (17)
by giving proper values to ooefficientB A we may express any

potential which is a function of and cos and does not become
infinite except when rj + /3 = 0 and cos f =
1
When ^ = 0 the expansion of F in terms of p and 0 is
FqS:2 l0g/) + T^p=*C0S2a-y^p*C08 4d + &C. (18)
For finite values of /3 the expansion of ^ is

i^;, =/3 + 2 log (1 -e-/^) p cos ^-^j-^^ ^
252 OOHJUOATB f mrcnona.
In the case of the gratin^^ with two condocting planes whose

equationB arer] = ^fi^ and r]= that of the plane of the grating
being 17 = 0, there will be two infinite serkfi of images of tiie
grating. The fint team will eimmt of the grating iteelf together
with an infinite w&am of imagai en botb sides, equal and omilarly
dectvified. The sub of these imngniaij cjliiiden lie in plenee
iHioie equtioiie are of the finm
9«±««Wi+«, (20)
« bemg an mtcger.
The aeoond eeriea will oondat of an infinite aoiee of imagea fiir
whifih the ooeffieieoti 4»> In. aie eqoal and oppoote to the
8Mne qoanCitiea in tiie gnting itMlf, iHule 4i» ît Aeo. aie eqiud
and of tiie aame dgn. The axea of then images an in phnesnfaoae
efaatione aie of the fimn
i|sa/S|±2«(A-i-/y, (21)
» being an intiger.
The potential due to any finite eeriea of sndi images win depend
on whether the nnmber of images k odd or even. Henoe the
potential doe to an 'w flfl i t aeries is iftdftfrp**'**^! but if we add to
ff
it the fonetion J9]|+ €>the eonditioneof the problem will be aoflident

to detetmine the electrical distribation.
We may first detennine ^ and T,, the potentiab of the two
eondncting planes^ in terms of the ooeflieients 4»> 4i* ^> <^
B and C. We
must then detennine and ir,, the snrfiwe-density
at any point of these planee. The mean valnes of and are
given by equations
4»<r, = 4o— 4ir<72 = ^+-S- (22)
We must then expand the potentials due to the grating itself
and to all the images in terms of p and cosines of multiples of 0,
adding to the result BpeMB-h C.

The tenns independent of 0 then give F the potential of the
gntingy and the coefficient of the cosine of eseh multiple of $
equated to zero gives an equation between the indeterminate co-
efl&dttits*
In this way as many may be found as are soffieient

equations
to eliminate and to leave two eqoatiinis to
all flieee coefficientB
detennine ai and <r^ in terms of F^, T^, and F,

These equations will be of the form
4ir(ri(a+y) + 4»«r,(i,+o-y). (23)
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306.] METHOD or APPfiOZIHATION. 268
Tlw quuitily of dectrieity indnoed on one of tiie planes pniteeted

by tiie gntiiig, tlie otber plane being at a given diflSaranoe of
potential, will be the Mune as if the plates had been at a distance
(«-y)ft4^ + ftft-4ay ^
a4-y
The values of a and y are approximately as follows.
4-20 « + &cj+&c.l» (24)
(25)
CHAPTER Xin
BUB0TB08TATI0 IN8TEUMBNTS.
On Electrostatic InatrutnenU,
The infltraments whicli we have to oonsider at present may be

divided into the following classes :
(1) Electrical mafihinee for the production and aogmentation of

eleotanfioation.
(2) Mnltiplien, for incmairing dectrificatbn in a known ratio.

(3) Electrometers, for the measarement of electric potentials and
chaiiges.
(4) Aocomnlators, for holdmg large electrical charges.
EUeirieal Maekinet.
207.] Tn the common electrical machine a plate or cylinder of

glass is made to revolve so as to rub ji gainst a surface of leather,
on whicli is spreatl an anialfâni of zinc and mercury. The surface
of the glass becomes electrified positively and that of the rubber
negatively. As the electrified surfiice of the glass moves away
from the negative electrification of the nibber it acquires a high
positive potential. It then comes opposite to a set of sharp metal
points in connexion with the conductor of the machine. The posi-
tive electrification of the glass induces a negative electrification
of the points, which is the more intense the sharper the points
and the nearer they are to the glass.
When the machine works properly there is a discharge through
the air between the glass and the points, the glass loses part of
its positive chaige, which is transferred to the points and so to
the insulated prime condactor of the machine, and to any other

body with which it is in electric communication.
The portion of the glass which is advancing towards the rubber
has thus a smaller positive charge than that which is leaving it
at the same time, so that tbe rubber, and the oondueton in com-
munication with it^ become negatively electrified.
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8LB0TBOPHOBUS. 265
The highfy pomtm tmrfiwe of the gbun where it leavee the

rabber » more ftttractod hy fhe negatiiTe ehaige of the rabber than
the partially dischuged enr&oe which is advaoeixig towards the
rabber. The eleotrical forces therefore act as a resistaiioe to the fiiroe
employed in toniiDg the maehine. The work done in taming the

machine is therefore greater than that spent in overooming ordinary
fUetion and other resistances, and the ezoees is employed in pro-
dadng a state of electrification whose energy is eqaivalent to this
The work done in overooming friction is at once converted into,

heat in the bodies nibbed together. The electrical energy may
be also conyerted either into mechanical energy or into heat.
If the machine does not store up mechanical energ^y, all the
energy will be converted into heat, and the only difTerenee between
the heat due to friction and that due to electrical action is that the
former is generated at the rubbing surfaces while the latter may be
generated in conductors at a distance*.
We ha ve seen that the electrical charge on the surface of the
glass is attracted by the ru])ber. If this attraction were sufficiently
intense there would be a discharge between the glass and the
rubber, instead of between the glass and the collecting points. To
prevent this, flaps of silk are attached to the rubber. These become
negatively electrified and adhere to the glass^ and so diminish the
potential near th(* rubltcr.
The potential there lore increases more gradually as the glass

moves away from the rubber, and therefore at any one point there
is less attraction of the charge on the glass towards the rubber, and
consequently less danger of direct discharge to the rubber.

In some electrical machines the moving part is of ebonite instead
of glass, and the rubbers of wool or fur. The rubber is then elec-
trified positively and the prime oondootor natively.
Tie Electrophone of FoUa,
206.]The electrophoms consists of a pUte of resin or of ebonite

backed with metal, and a plate of metal of the same size. An
insalating handle can be screwed to the back of either of these
pbtes. 13ie ebonite plate has a metal pin which connects the metal
* It ia probable that in many cases where dynamioal energy is converted into heat
by MelioB, pwrt of the misy may be fint traiwlbnned into eleotrioal eneigy and
then convertetl into heat the electrical energy Rpent in maint-vining currents of
ahort circuit cloea to the nibbing lorfaces. iSee Sir W. Thomson. On the Electro-
'
^jaanic QnalUki oTMotali.' PML Tmm., 186S, ik«0O.
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256 BLBCTBO0TATIC IHflTRUlfSNIIS,
plate with the metal back of the ebonite plate when the two plates
are in contact.
The ebonite phite is electrified negatively by rubbing it with
wool or cat's skin. The metal plate is then broaght near the
ebonite by means of the insolating handle. No direct discharge
passes between the ebonite and the metal plate, bat the potential
of the metal plate is lendered negative by inductiony so that when
it comes within a certain distanee of the metal pin a spark passes,
and if thfi metal plate be now a distance it is found
carried to
to hsYe a positive charge îch may be communicsted to a con-
ductor. The metal at the bade oC the ebonite plate is found to
have a negatiTe charge equal and opposite to the charge of the metal
plate.
In nsiBg the instrument to charge a condenser or accumulator
one of the plates is laid on a conductor in communication with
tiie earth, and the other is first laid on it, then removed and applied
to the deotrode of the condenser, then laid on the fixed plate and
tiie process repeated. If the ebonite plate is fixed the condenser will
he charged podtively. If the metal plate is fixed the condenser wSi
be chaiged negatively.
The woik done by tiie hand in sepaimting the plates is slwajs
greater tlm the work done by the electrical attraction daring ^
approach of the plates, so that the operation of charging* the con-
denser involves the expenditure of work. Phrt of this work is
accounted for by the energy of the charged condense part is spent

in producing the noise and heat of the sparks, and the rest in
overcoming other resistances to the motion.
Oa Maehinet producing EledrifieaHon, 6y Meeiameal Work.

209.] In the ordinary frictional electrical machine the work done
in overcoming friction is far greater than that done in increasing
the electrification. Hence any arrangement by which the elec-

trification may be produced entirely by mechanical work against
the electrical forces is of scientific importance if not of practical
value. The first machine of tliis kind seems to have been Nicholson's
Revolving Doubler, described in the VhUomphical Trajtsaciions for
1788 as 'an instrument which by the turning of a Winch produces
the two states of Electricity without friction or communication with
the Earth.'
210.] It was by means of the revolving doubler that Volta
succeeded in developing from the electrification of the pile an
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2IO.] THB XBYOLYmO DOVBLSB. • 257
eleetrificatioB capable of aflfectbg his electrometer. IngftnimeiitB

on the same principle have been mTcnted independently by Mr.
C. F. Yailegr*^ and Sir W. Thomson.
These tnstniments consist essentiallj of insulated condnetors of
wions forms, some fixed and others moveable. The moveable
oondnctoTB are called Carriers, and the fixed ones may be called
Indoetors, Receivers, and Regenerators. The inductors and receivers
are so formed that when the canien arrive at certain points in
their revolution they are almost completely surrounded hy a con-
ducting body. As the inductors and receivers cannot completely
surround the carrier and at the same time allow it to move freely
in and out without a complicated arrangement of moveable pieces,
the instrument is not theoretically perfect without a pair of re-
generators, which store up the small amount of electricity which
the carriers retain when they emerge from the receivers.
For the present, however, we may suppose the inductors and
receivers to surround the carrier completely when it is within them,
in which case the theory is much simplified.
We shall suppose the machine to consist of two inductors A and
6', and of two receivers B and U, with two carriers F and G.
Suppose the inductor ^ to be positively electrified so that its

potentialis A, and that the carrier F is within it and is at potential
F. Then, if Q is the coefficient of induction (taken positive) between

A and F, the quantity of electricity on the carrier will be Q {FÂ)»
If the carrier, while within the inductor, is put in connexion with
the earth, then FÔ, and the charge on the carrier will be — QA^
a negative quantity. Let the be caixied round till it is
carrier
within the receiver j9, and let it then come in contact with a spring
80 as to be in electrical connexion with £. It will then, as waa
hewn in Art 82, become completely discharged, and will cquh
mnnicate whole negative chaige to the receiver
its
The carrier will next enter the inductor C, whidi we shall suppose
diaiged natively. While within (7 it is put in connexion with
the earth and thus acquires a positive charge, which it carries oif
and communicates to the receiver 2>, and so on.

In this way, if the potentials of the inductors remain always
constant, the receiveni B and D
receive successive charges^ which
are the same Ibr eveij revolutbn of tiie carrier, and thus eveiy
revolution produces an equal inevement <^ eleetrieily in the re-
ceivers.
* Spedfioation of Patent, Jan. 27, I860, No. 206.
VOL. I. 8
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258 .£L£CT£OSTATIC IfiSTBUMSNTS. [2IO.
Bat by putting- the inductor A in commuuicatiou with the re-

ceiver D, and the inductor C yrith. the receiver By the potentials
of the inductors will be continually increased, and the quantity
of electricity commonicated to the receivers in each revolutioa will
continually increase.
For instance, let the potential of A and 0 be U, and that of B
and C, Ff and when the carrier is within A let the charge on A
and C he X, and that on the carrier z, then, since the potential
of the carrier is zeio, being in contact with earth» its charge is

z^z — QU. The carrier enters B with this charge and communicates
it to jS. If the ospocity of Ji ami C is their potential will be
changed from Fior-Û,

If the other carrier has at the same time carried a charge —QF
firom CtoJ), it will ehange the potentisl of A and 0 from U to
(y
U— -^F, .
i£
.
is the coefficient of induction between the carrier
and C, and A the capacily of A and B. U, therefore, U^, and

be the potentials of the two indncton after n half revolutions, and
Uftî and F^î after «+ 1 half levolotionsj
If wewritei)> = and ^ sî we find
Hence
^'i = »i ((1 -pqT+ (1 + f ^0 ((1
It appears from these equations that the quantity jci -f «7 F con-

tinually diminishes, so that whatever be the initial state of elec-
trification the receivers are ultimately oppositely electrified^ so that
the potentials of A and B ore in the ratio of to —q.
On the other hand, the quantity /)?7—^r continually increases,
so that, however little pU maj exceed or ML short of ^ Fat first,
the difllhrenoe will be incieased in a geometrioal ratio in each
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211.] THB BIOIPBOGAL KIjgCTBOPHOBU& 259
nvolutioii till the dectramotiTe foroee becsome bo gnrt tliftt the

insolation of the apparotns is overoome.
InBtroments of this kind may be nsed for Yarions purposes.
For piodncing a copious supply of eleotricily at a high potentia),
as is done by means of Mr. yarley*s large machine.
For adjusting the charge of a condenser^ as in the case of
Thomson's electrometer, the chaige of which can be increased or
diminished by a few turns of a yeiy small machine of this kind,
which is then called a Beplenisher.
For multiplying small diffisrences of potential. The inductors
may be duuged at first to an exceedingly small potential^ as, for
instance, that due to a thermo-electric pair, then, by turning the
machine, the difference of potentials may be continually multiplied
till itbecomes capable of measurement by an ordinary electrometer.
By determining by experiment the ratio of increase of this difference
due to each turn of the machine, the original electromotive force
with which the inductors were charged may be deduced from the
number of turns and the final electrification.
In most of these instruments the carriers are made to revolve

about an axis and to come into the proper positions with respect
to the inductors by turning an axle. The connexions are made by
means of springs so placed that the carriers come in contact with
them at the proper instants.
211.] Sir W. Thomson^, however, has constructed a machine for
multiplying eleotncal charges in which the carriers are drops of
water fellintv out of the inside of an inductor into an insulated
receiver. The receiver is thus continually supplied with electricity
of opposite sign to that of the inductor. If the inductor is electrified
positively, the receiver will receive a continually increasing charge

of negative electricity.
Hie water is made by means c£ a

to escape from the receiver
fhnnel, the noazle of which is ahncst surrounded by the metal of
the receiver. The drops fidling firom this nomde are therefore
nearly free firom electrification. Another inductor and receiver of
the same construction are arranged so that the inductor of the
one system is in connexion with the receiver of the other. The
rate <^ increase of charge of the receivers is thus no longer constant^
but increases in a geometiical progression with the time^ the
charges of the two receivers being of opposite signs,
llus increase
goes on till the filling drops are so diverted iiom their course by
« l*roc. R. S., June 20, 1867.
S 9
260 BLBCTBOBTATIO mflTRUlONTB. [212.
the electrical action that they &11 outside of the leoeiyer or emt
strike the inductor.
In this instrument the energy of the electrification ie drawn
from that of the fidling drops.
212.] Several oilier deotrical machines have heen oonstmetel
in which the principle of eleotrie induetson is employed. Of these
the most remarkable is that of Holta, in which the carrier U a glass
plate varnished with gnm-ko and the inductors are pieces of
pasteboard. Sparks are prevented firom passing between the parts
of the apparatus by means of two glass pktes^ one on each side
of the revolving carrier plate. This machine found to be very
is
and not to be much affected

eflfeetivej the state of the atmo-
sphere. The
principle is the same as in the revolving doubler and
the instruments developed out of the same idea, but as the carrier
is an insulating plate and the induotoTs are imperfect conductors,
the complete explanation of the action is more difficult than in

the case where the earners are good conductors of known form
and are charged and discharged at definite points.
213.j In the electrical machines already described sparks occur
whenever the carrier comes in
contact with a conductor at a
different potential from its
own.
Now we have shewn that
whenever this occurs there is
a loss of energy, and therefore

the whole work employed in
turning the machine is not con-
verted into electrification in an
available form, but part is spent
in producing the heat and noise
of electric sparks.
I have therefore thought it desirable to shew how an electrical
machine may be oonstmeted which is not subject to this loss of
I do not propose it as a usefol finm of machine^ hot
eflBeien<7'.
as an example of the method by which the contrivance called in

heat-engines a regenerator may be apiêd to an electrical machine
to prevent loss of work.
In the figure let J9, C, Jf, C represent hollow fixed
ocmductors, so arranged that the carrier P passes in succession
within each of them. Of these A, and JT nearly surround the
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213.] MACHINE WITHOUT SPARKS. 261
carrier when it is at the middle point of its passage^ but C, C do not

cover it so much.
We shall suppose A, li, C to be connected with a Leyden jar
of great capacity at potential and A\ C to be connected with
another jar at potential — F\
P is one of the carriers moving in a circle from A to C\ &c.,
and touching' in its course certain springs, of which a and a are
connected with A and A^ respectively, and e, ^ are connected with
the earth.
Let us suppose that when the carrier P is in the middle of A
the coefficient of induction between P and ^ is —A. The capacity
of P in this position is greater than A, since it is not completely
surrounded by the receiver A. Let iihe A-\- a.
Then if the potential of P is 27, and that of J, T, the chaige
<m P will 1)0 (Aâ)U-AV,
Now let P be in contact with the spring a when in the middle
of the receiver A, then the potential of P is the same as that
of Ay and its charge is therefore a V,
If P now leaves the with it the charge aV,
spring a it carries
As F leaves A and it diminishes still more

its potential dimipiahes^
when it oomes within the inflnenoe of which is negatively
electrified.
If when P exmtm within C its coefficient of indoction on (7 is

— (T, and its capadly is Cê', then, if is the potential of P
the charge on P is
{C'¥if)U-{'(rrâr.
If Cr^ aF,
then at this point U the potential of P will he reduced to zero.
Let P at this point come in oontaet with the spring / which is
connected with the earth. Since the potential of P is eqnal to that

of the spring there will he no spark at contact.
^fRira conductor by which the carrier is enabled to be connected
to earth without a spark, answers to the contrivance called a
regenerator in heat-engines. We shall therefore call it a Re-
generator.
Now let P move on, still in contact with the earth-spring till
it comes into the middle of the inductor P, the potential of which

IB F. If — ^ is the coefficient of induction between P and P at
U = 0 the charge on P will be —PV.
this point, then, since
When P moves away from the earth-spring it carries this charge
with it. As it moves out of the positive inductor B towards the
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262 BLSCTBOSTATIC IN8TBU1USKTS. [214.
negative receiver A its potential will be increasingly negative. At

the middle of if it retained its charge, its potential would be
" A'W *
and if .^ris greater than aF' its numerical valae will be greater
than that of F'. Hence there is some point before P reacheB the
middle of A
where ite potential ii — F\
come At this point let it
in contact with the negative receiTer-epring of. There will be no
apark since the two bodies are at the same potentiaL Let P move
on to the middle of A% still in contact with the spring, and therefore
at the same potential with Jt. Daring this motion it eommnnicateB
a native charge to Jt, At the middle of it leaves the spring
and carries away a charge ^t(T* towards the poeitiTe regenerator

where its potential is reduced to aero and it touches the earth-
spring
inductor
which
It then slides along the earth-spring into the negatiTe
daring which motion
it finally
it aeqnires
conmranicates to the positive receiyer

a poaitiTe charge W
and the
cycle of operations is repeated.
Durinf^ this cycle the positive receiver has lost a charge aFand
gained a cliarge B'F' . Hence the total gain of positive electricity
is RF'-aF.
Similarly the total gain of negative electricity is BF—aF\
By making the inductor.s so as to be as close to the surface of
the carrier as is consistent with insulation, B and R may l)e made
large, and by making the receivers so as nearly to surround the
carrier when it is within them, a and a may be made very small,
and then the charges of both the Leyden jars will be increased in
every revolution.
The oonditions to be fulfilled by the regenerators are
(rr' = ar, and CF=a'F\
Since a and a' are small the regenerators do not require to be
either huge or yery dose to the carriers.
On Ekcirmeten and Eleetroscqpei,
214.] An electrometeran instrument by means of which

is
electrical charges or electrical potentials may be measured. In-

struments by means of which the enistenoe of electric chaiges or
of diflbrencss of potential may be indicated, but which are not
capable of affording numerical measures^ are called Electroscopes.
An electroscope if suffidentiy sensible may be used in electrical
measurements, provided we can make the measurement depend on
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coulomb's tobsiok ealancb. 263
tiie ftbmoe of deotrifioatioii. Eor uutanoe, if we hm

two oluurged
bodies A and B we may use ihe method deeeribed in Chapter I to
deteimine which bodj has the greater charge. Let the body A
be carried by an insidating support into the interior of an insnhited
dosed Tcssel C. Let C be connected to earth and again insaUted.
Ihere will then be no external electrification on C, Now let A
be removed, and B introduced into the interior of C, and the elec-
trification of C tested by an electroscope. If the charge of J9 is
equal to that of A^m
will be no electrification^ but if it is greater
or less there will be electrification of the same land as &at of jBj or
the opposite kind.
Methods of this kind, in which the thing to be observed is the
non -existence of some phenomenon, are called nu/l or zero methods.
They require only an instrument capable of detecting the existence
of the phenomenon.
In another cluss of instruments for the registration of phe-
nomena the instrument may be depended upon to give always the
same indication for the same value of the quantity to he registered,
hut the readings of the scale of the instrument are not proportional
to the values of the quantity, and the relation between these
readings and the corresponding value is unknown, except that the
one some continuous function of the other. Several electrometers

is
depending on the mutual repulsion of parts of the instrument

which are similarly electrified are of this class. The use of such
instruments is to raster phenomena, not to measure them. Instead
of the true values of the quantity to be measured, a series of
numbers is obtained, which may be used afterwards to determine
these values when the scale of the instrument has been properiy
investigated and tabulated.
In a still higher dass of instruments the scale readings are
proportional to the quantity to be measured^ so that all that is
required for the complete measurement of the quantity is a know-
ledge of the coefficient by which the scale readings must be
. multiplied to obtain the true âlne of the quantity.
Instruments so constructed that they contain within themselves
the means of independently determining the true yalues of quan-
tities are called Absolute Instruments.
Coulomb's Tornon Balance,
316.] A great number of the experiments by which Coulomb
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264 ELECTBOSTATIC 15STBUMENTS.
Mtablished the fundamental laws of electricity were made bj mett-

eunng the foree between two »mall spheres charged with electricity,
one of which was fixe<l while the other was held in equilibrium by
two forces, the electrical action between the spheres, and ihe
torsional elasticity of a g-lass fibre or metal wire. See Art. 38.
Tlie balance of torsion consists of a horizontal arm <jf gvim-lac,
8uspende<i by a fine wire or j^lass fibre, and carry ing at one end a
little sphere of elder pith, smoothly s,nlt. Tlie suspension wire is
fastened above to the vertical axis of an arm wliich can Ix* moved
round a horizontal graduated circle, so as to twist the upper end
of the wire about its own kob any number of degrees.
The whole of this appuatoi is enclosed in a case. Another little
Bphere mounted on an insulating stem that it can be charged

is so
and introduced into the case through a hole, and brought so that
its centre coincides with a definite point in the horizontal circle
deeeribed by the suspended sphere. The position of the saspended
sphere is ascertained by means of a grsdnated eirele engraTsd on
the (ylindrieal glass case of the insimmeni.
Now suppose both spheres chaiged, and the saspended sphere
in eqnOibrinm in a known position snch that the torsion-am makes
an angle $ with the radios throngh the centra of the fixed sphere.
The distance of the centres is then 2amki$, where a is ihe rsdins
of the torsion-ann^ and if is the force between the spheres ihe
moment of this force about the axis of tornon is iâcos f $,

Let both spheres be completely discharged, and let the torsion-
arm now be in eqnilibrinm at an angle with the radios throogh <f>
the fixed sphere.

Then the angle through which the electrical force twisted the
torsion-arm must have been 0 — (ft, and if If is the moment of
the torsional elasticity of the fibre, we shall have the equation
Fa cos ie = M{e—4>).
Hence, if we can M, we can determine F, the actual
ascertain
force between the spheres at the distance 2ami\$,
To find M, the moment of torsion, let J be the moment of inertia
of the torsion-arm, and T the time of a double vibration of the arm
under the action of the tonional elasticity, then
In all electrometers it is of the greatest importance to know

what force we are measuring. The force acting on the suspended
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2 1 5-] UTFLUBNGB OP THB CASE. 265
spWe is doe portij to the direct actiofi of the fixed sphere^ bat
partly also to the electrifiofttionj if any, of the sides of the case.
If the case is made of glass it is impossible to deteimine the
electrifioatioii of its snrfiKse otherwise than by very difficult mea-
sorements st every point. If, however, either the case is made
of metal, or if a metallic case which almost completely encloses the
apparatos is placed as a screen between the spheres and the glass
case, the electrification of the inside of the metal screen will depend
entirely on that of the spheres, and the electrification of the glass
case will have no influence on the spheres. In this way we may
avoid any indefiniteness due to the action of the case.
To illustrate this hy an example in which we can calculate all
the effects, let us suppose that the case is a sphere of radius d,
that the c(>ntre of motion of the torsion-arm coincides with the

centre of the sphere and that its radius is a; that the cliarp:os on
the two spheres are and and that the angle between their
positions is 0; that the fixed sphere is at a distance from the
centre, and that r is the distance between the two small spheres.
Neglecting for the present the effect of induction on the dis-
tribution of electricity on the small spheres, the force between
them will be a repukion
and ilie moment of this force roand a vertical taoB through the
oentze will be
BEi aOi sin $
The image of Ei due to the spherical snrfinoe of the case is a pidint
in the same radius at a distance — with a charge — —6 . and the
moment of the attraction between £ and this image about the axis
of suspension is
b
a — sin B
If b, the radius of the spherical case, is large compared with a
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266 BLBCTBOflTATIC INOTBUMSlfTS. [216.
ftod a^, the dierfcanoes of the spberes from the centre, we may neglect
the seoond and third temiB of the factor in the denominator. The
whole moment tending to tun the toraion-enn msj then be wntten
Elecirometenfor the Meaturemenl of PoleniiaU.
216.] In all dectrameten iiieis s body cfaniged

mo?eeble pnrt
with deetrieityj and fiom tiiat of eertaiii
iti potential ie different
of the fixed parte nmnd it. When, ae in Coulomb's mediod, an

insnlated bodj having a eertain diaige is used, it is tiie diaige
whieh is the direct object of measoiement. We maj, however,
connect the balls of Coolomb's electrometer, bj means of fine wizei^
with different condnoton. 'Hie charges of the balls will then
depend on the valiies of the potentials of these oandoetors and on
the potential of the case of the instrmnent. The charge on eadi
ball wni be approximately equal to its radius multiplied by the
excess of its potential over that of the case of the instrument,
provided the radii of the balls are small compared with tlieir
distances from each other and from the sides or opening of the
case.
Conlomh's form of apparatus, however, is not well adapted for
measurements of this kind, owin<^ t<» tlie smallness of the force
between spheres at the proper distances when the ditlerenee of po-
tentials is small. A
more convenient form is that of the Attracted
Disk Electrometer. The first elect ronieters on this principle were
constructed by Sir W. Snow Harris*. They have since been
brought to great perfection, both in theoiy and oonetmction, by
SirW. Thomson f.
When two disks at different potentials are bronght face to fiuse
with a small interval between them there will be a nearly uniform

eleetrifieation on the opposite faces and yery little electrification
on the backs of the disks, provided there are no other oondnctoTB

or electrified bodies in the neighbourhood. The charge on the
positive disk will be approximately proportional to its area, and to
the difference of potentials of the disks, and inversely as tlie distance
between them. Hence, by making the areas of tiie disks huge
• PhV Travg. 1831.

i* 8e« AQ excellent report on Electroiueters hy Sir W. Thomson. Report of the
BrUkk Auodaibm, DnndM* 1867.
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21;.] PBIKCIPLB OF THB OUARD-RIHO. 267
and the disUnoe between them small, A amall difBsrenoe of potential

may give rise to a meararable force of attraction.
The mathematical theory of the distribation of electridtf over
two disks thus arranged is given at Art. 202, bnt since it is im-
possible to make the case of the apparatus so large that we may
suppose the disks insolated in an infinite space, the indications of
the instrument in this fonn are not easily interpreted numerically.
217.] The addition of the guard-ring to the attrac ted disk is one
of the chief improvements which Sir W. Thomson has made on the
apparatus.
Instead of suspending" the whole of one of the disks and determ-
ining- the force acting* upon it, a central portion of tlie disk is
separated from the rest to form the attracted disk, and the outer
ring forming the remainder of the disk is fixed. In this way the
force is measured only on that part of the disk where it is most
regular, and the want of uniformity of the electrification near the
edge is of no importance, as it ocean on the gmod-ring and not

on the suspended part of the disk.
Besides this, by connecting the guard-ring with a metal case
surrounding the l)ack of the attracttnl disk and all its suspending:
apparatus, the electrification of the back of the disk is rendered
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268 SLECfHOBfAnO IlTBTBiniKm [217.
impofliible, for it is part of ih» imier smfiMse of » dosed hollow

oondoctor all at the same potentia]*
Thornton's Absolute Electiometer therefore consists essentially
of two parallel plates at diflfevent potentials, one of which is made
so that a certain area, no part of which is near the ed^ of the
plate, is moveable under the action of electric force. To fix our
ideas we may suppose the attracted disk and guard-ring uppermost.
The fixed disk is horizontal, and is mounted on an insulating stem
which has a measurable vertical motion given to it by means of
a micrometer screw. The guard-ring is at least as largo as the
fixed disk; its lower surface is truly plane and parallel to the fixed
disk. A delicate balance is erected on the guard-ring to which
is suspended a light moveable disk which almost fills the circular
aperture in the guard-ring without rubbing against its sides. The
lower surface of the suspended disk must be truly plane, and we
must have the means of knowing when its plane coincides with that
of the lower surface of the guaxd*iing, so as to form a single plane
intermpted only by the naiiow interval between the disk and its
guard-ring.
For this purpose the lower disk is screwed up till it is in contact
with the guard-ring, and the suspended disk is allowed to rest
upon the lower disk, so that its lower surface is in the same plane
as that of the goaid-ring. Its position with respect to the guard-
ring is then ascertained by means of a system of fiducial marks.
Sir W. Thomson a black hair
generally uses for this purpose
attached to the moveable part. Tim hair moves up or down just
in front of two black dots on a white enamelled ground and is
viewed along with these dots by means of a piano convex lens with
the plane side nest the eye. If the hair as seen through the lens
appears straight and bisects the interval between the black' dots
it is said tobe in its tighted potUion, and indicates that the sus-
pended disk with which it moves is in its proper position as regards
height Tlie horizontality of the suspended disk may be tested by
comparing the reflexion of part of any object from its upper sur&ce
with that of the remainder of the same object from the upper
surface of the guard-ring.
The balance is then arranged so that when a known weight is
placed on the centre of the suspended disk it is in equililirium

in its sighted position, the whole apparatus being freed from
electrification by putting every part in metallic communication.
A metal case is placed over the guard-ring so as to enclose the
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ft 1 8.] Thomson's abbolutk slbctroiisteb. 269
balaiice and siupeiided dkk^ aufficieiit apertures being left to see

the fiducial marks*
The guard-ring, case, and suspended disk are all in metallio
oommnnioation with each other, but are insolated fiom the other
parts of the apparatos.
Now let it be required to measure the di£forenoe of potentials
of two conductors. The conductors are put in communication with
the upper and lower disks respectively by means of wires, the
weight is taken off the suspended disk, and the lower disk is
moved up by means of the micrometer screw till the electrical

attraction brings the suspended disk down to its sighted position.
We then know that the attraction between the disks is equal to
the weight which brought the disk to its sighted position.
If W he the numerical value of the weight, and ff the force of
g^vity, the force is /F<7, and if A is the area of the suspended
disk, D the distance between the disks, and ? the diii'ereuce of the
potentials of the disks.
or r
A
If the suspended disk is circular, of radius J2, and if the radius of
the aperture of the guaid-ring is then ^
A^k-nifi^^K^)*, and r=4J>,y^^.
218.] Since there is always some uncertainty in determining the
micrometer reading corresponding to i> = 0, and since any error
* Let us denote the mdiuH of the suspended dink by i?, and that of the aperture
of the guard-ring by K, then the broiuiih of the annular interral befcweeii tbo
disk and the ring will be B»Jt-~R.
If the distance between the Huspended disk and the large fixe<l dUk is D, and
the difference uf potentials between these diaks is F, then, by tho iareitigwtioii in
Art. 201, tho quantity of electricity on the laspended disk wfll bt
^"•^l^^ 8J> !>+./'

wbm a^'B^Ssl^ IT
or «-0.9806S5(ir-II).
-If tiM sarikce of the guarJ-ring is not exactly in the piano of the surface of
the suspended disk, let us suppose that the distaneo IwiWMii the fixed disk and
the guard-ring Ih not D but I) + z - />', then it appears from the investigation in
Art. 225 that there will be an additiooai charge of electricity near the edge of
the diKk on account of its height z above the gonoral nifflMW of tiw gnantidng.
The whole charge in this cam is therefore
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270 ELBcnoCTATic nannfEsm [aiS.
m ihe pontion of the inn>eiidfd diik ii
w flnall^ Sir W. TbomMn pnlcn to Hake afl bi«
depend OB diflbcaees of tbe cketioiiioftife Com Thoiîfrand

are two potentiala, and i> and It iht cotmpoBdmg dMtiacin,
Tot instance, in order to measure the electromotiTe £oroe of a

galvanic battcrj', t\vo elt-ctrjineters are used.
By D3<:ani» of a condeiis*r, kept charged if nec*.^»ar^' by a re-
plenlfeher, tlic lower di>-k of the principal electrometer is maintained
at a constant potential. Tliia is tested hy c-onnecting^ the lower
difek of the principal electrometer with the lower disk of a secondary
eleclrometer, the su^nded dij:k of which is connected with the
earth. The diiitance between the disks of the eoondary elec-
trometer and the force required to bnog the suspended disk to
Hs sighted positioii being constant, if we raise the potential ^ f the
oondeneer till the teoondarj electrometer is in ha sifted position^
we know thai the potential of the lower disk of the principal
aleetfomeCer exceeds that of the earth hj a ooastaat quantify which
we may cafl F,
If we now connect the positife electrode of the hatteiy to earth,
and connect the siupeDded disk of tiie principal electrometer to the
negatime electrode, the difference of potentials between the disks
will be if 9 is the electnnnotiTe ibree of the batteij. Let
i? be the reading of the micrometer in tiiis case, and let 2^ be the
reading when the sospended disk is connected wilh earth, then
In tluH way a hmall electromotive force v may be measured

by the electrometer with the disks at conveniently measurable
distances. When the distance is too small a small change of
absolute distance makes a great change in the force, since the
Mill in the exprcHttion for the ftttnctiou we moat subatitute for A, tha area of the
diak, tlM eemotad qtuuitity
^. { jr»-(j?»- jp) + scJi+iOCiy-^) log. -^'^'/^

where B => radiua of auniieDiled diak,
JFa radloa of aperture in the goaid'fiifg,
Tt = (li-taii< »^ 1" twcen fixed anrl Huspcndccl disks,
V= diiiUtice between fixed diak and guArd-ring,

« - 0.820635 (/r- /I).
W\\en a U hiii.iII rcriiimred with D we may n^gleol tbs SeOOOd tens. Mid wh«n
JZ-'JJ u amali wu umy neglect the laat term.
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OAUOB BLBCTBOHETBB. 271
force varies inversely as tiie square of the distance^ so that any

error in the absolute distance introduces a large error in the result
unless the distance is laige compared with the limits of error of
the micrometer screw.
The effect of small irregularities of form in the Burfiices of the
didu and of the interval between them diminish according to the
inverse cube and higher inverse powers of the distance, and what-
ever be the form of a corrugated sur&oe, the eminences of which
just reach a plane surfiwe, the dectrical effect at any distance
which is conddeiable compared to the breadth of tiie corrugations,
is the same as that of a plane at a certain smaU distance behind
the plane of the tops of the eminences. See Arts. 197, 198.
By means of the auxiliary electrification, tested by the auxiliary
electrometer, a proper interval between the disks is secured.
The auxiliary electrometer may be of a simpler construction, in
which there is no provision for the determination of the force
of attraction in absolute measure, since all that is wanted is to
secure a constant electrification. Such an electrometer may be
called a gauge electrometer.
This method of usinj^ an auxiliary electrification besides the elec-
trification to be measured is called the Heterostatic method of
electrometry, in opposition to the Idiostatic method in which the
whole effect is produced by the electrification to be measured.
In several forms of the attracted disk el<H trometer, the attracted
disk is placed at one end of an arm which is supported by being
attached to a platinum wive passing through its centre of gravity
and kept stretched by means of a spring. The other end of the
arm carries the hair which is brought to a sighted position by
altering the distance between the disks, and so adjusting the force
of the electric attraction to a constant value. In these electro-
meters this force is not in general determined in absolute measure,
but is known to be constant, provided the torsional ehutieity of
the platinum wire does not change.
The whole i^pacatus is placed in a Leyden jar, of which the inner
sur&ce is charged and connected with the attracted disk and
guard-ring. The other disk is woriced by a micrometer screw and

is connected first with the earth and then with the conductor whose
The difference of readings multiplied
potential is to be measured.
by a constant to be determined for each electrometer gives the
potential required.
219.] The electrometers already described are not self-acting.
272 £L£CT£08TATI0 UrSTBUlCINTS. [ÎP*
but require for each observation an adjustment of a micrometer

screw, or some other movement which must be made bj the
observer. They are therefore not fitted to act as self-ngiBtermg in-
strtuneDts, which must of themselves move into the proper poaitioii.
This condition is fulfilled by Thomson's Quadrant Electrometer.
The electrical principle on which this imtmment is founded msy
be thus explained :
A and B are two which may be at the sune

fixed oondnctori
or at different potentials. a moveable conductor at a high
(7 is
iwtential^ which is so placed that part of it is opponte to the

aorfiwse of A and part opponte to that of j9» and that the proportiona
of these parts axe altered as Cmoves.

For this purpose it is most oonTcnient to make C moveable about
an axis, and make the opposed smftoes of A, otB, and of C portions
of sorfiwes of revolution about the same axis.
In this way the distance between the surftoe of C and tiie
opposed suifiuses B
A at oi remains always the same, and the
motion oi 0 in. the positive direction simply increases the area
opposed to B and diminishes the area opposed to A,
If the potentials of A and B are equal there will be no force
urging C from A to B, but if the pottutial of C difiers from that
of Ji more than from that of A, then C will tend to move so as
to increase the area of its surface opposed to B.
By a suital)le arrangement of the apparatus this force may be
made nearly constant for different positions of C within certain
limits, so that if C is suspended by a torsion fibre, its deflexions
will be nearly proportional to the difference of potentials between
A and B multiplied V)y the diiference of the potential of C from.
the mean of those of A and B.
C is maintained at a high potential by means of a condenser
provided with a lepleDisher and tested by a gauge electrometer,
and A and £ are connected with the two conductors the difference
of whose potentials is to be measured. The higher the potential
of C the more sensitive is the instrument. This electrification of
C> being independent of the electrification to be measured, places
tins electrometer in the heterostatic class.
We may apply to this electrometer the general theory of systems
of conductors given in Arts. 93, 127.
Let At B,^ C denote the potentials of the three oondnetors re-
spectively. Let a, ft, be their respective capacities, p the coefficient
of induetion between B
and C, q that between C and J, and r that
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ai9.] QUABBABT KLRCTBOlfXTRB. 278
between A and B» All these ooeffidente will in general vuy witli

the position of C, and if is so arranged that the estiemities of A
and âie not near those of (7 as kng as the motion of Cis oonfined
within certain limits, we may ascertain the form of these ooeflfeients.
If tf iepiesents the defleadon of C from A towards then the part
of the sufiMse of A
opposed to C will diminish as B inereases.
Henoe jSAw kept at potential 1 while and C are kept at potential B
0, the charge on A will be a = a^—aB, where and a are
constants, and a is the capacity of A.
If A and B are symmetrical, the capacity of B is b =. h^-^-aS.
The capacity of C is not altered by the motion^ for the only
effect of the motion is to bring- a different part of C opposite to the
interval between A and B. Hence c = c^.
Tlie quantity of electricity induced on C when B is raised to

potential unity is p = p^ — aO.
Tlie C(X'fficient of induction between A and C is ^ = q^-^-aO,
The coefficient of induction between A and B is not altered by
the motion of C, but remains r = r„.
Hence the electrical energy of the system is
Q= \AH^kBH + \CH^ BCp -vCAq-\- ABr,

and if O is the moment of the foree tending to increase 0,
dO
0 5= , AtBjC being supposed constant,
s— a + i i?>a— j9(7a+ CAa ;

or e = a(A-B) {C- i (J + B)) .
In the present form of Thomson's Quadrant Electrometer the

conductors A and B are in the form of
a cylindrical box completely divided
into fimr quadrants, separately insn-
lated, hnt joined hy wires so that two
opposite qnadrants are connected with
A and the two otfaen with B.
Hie condnctor C is snspended so as
to he capable of taming aboat a
vertical aads, and may consist of two
opposite flat qnadrantal arcs supported
by their radii at their eztramities.
^*
In the position of equilibiinm these quadrants should he partly
VOL. I. T
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874 BLBCTBOSTAnC QimirillBTB.
within A aad pvtljr witiiin i?, and tiie mpportiBg ndii ahiMld
be new the middle of of the hollow hmt^ ao tint
tiie qudnnts
the dirifloiM of the hoz and the eztremttaee and sapporti of C
may be ae fiv from eadi other aa poanble.
The eondnetor kept pennanentlj at a high potential bj
C ia
being cooneeted the inner coating of the Leyden jar which

whh
finrma the caee of the inatrament. B
and am coDnected, the first
with the earth, and tiie other with the body whoae potential ia to be
meaanred.
If the potential of this body ia lero^ and if the inatroment be
ill adjustment, there ought to be no force tending to make C mor^
but if the potential of ^ is of the same sign as that of C, then
C will tend to move from A to B with a nearly uniform force, and
the suiijênaion apparatus will be twisted till an e<jual force is
called into play and producer e*|uilibrium. For deflexions within

certain limiUi the deflexions of C will Ini proportional to the
product
(J-jB)(<7-i(J+J)).
By increasing the potential of C the sensibility of the instmment
may be increased, and for small Tallies of 4 + B) the force will be
nearly proportional to (J— j5) C.
Oa ike Meuwment ofEUetric PoUuUaL

220.] In order to determine lar'ê dilien neej: of potential in al>-
solute measure we may employ the attracted disk electrometer, and

compare the attraction with the eti'ect of a wei«^'ht. If at tin- .-ame
time we measure the difference of potential of the same conductors
by means of the quadrant electrometer, we shall ascertain the
absolute value of certain readings of the scale of the quadrant
electrometer, and in this way we may deduce the value of the scale
readings of the quadrant electrometer in terms of the potential
of the soapended part, and the moment of torsion of the anêDaion
apparatus.
To ascertain the potential of a chaiged conductor of fmite size
we may connect the conductor with one electrode ui the electro-
meter, while the other is connected to earth or to a body of
constant potentiaL Hie electrometer reading will give the potential
of the eondnetor after the division of its electrieity between it
and the part of the eieetrometer with which it is pat in oontaet.
If JT denote the CMspmtf of the oondnctor^ and K' that of thia part
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221,] MXABUBBMBNT OF POTENTIAL. 275
of the electrometer, and if V* denote the potentiaki of these

bodies before makiDg oontaot, then their common potential after
making contaot wilt be
Henoe the original potential of the oondoctor was
If tlio conductor is not large compared with the electrometer,

A' will be comparable with and unless we can ascertain the
values of K and A' the second term of the expression will have
a doubtful value. But if we can make the potential of the electrode
of the electrometer very nearly equal to that of the body before
making contact, then the uncertainty of the values of K and
will be of little consequence.
If we know the value of the potential of the body approximately,
we may charge the electrode by means of a replenisher' or other- •
wise to this approximate potential, and the next experiment will

giye a doeer approximation. In this way we may measure the
potential of a conductor whose capacity is small compared with
that of the electrometer.
Meamre ike PatenHal at any Point in ike Air.
221.] First Method. Place a sphere, whose radius is small com-

pared with the distance of electrified conductors, with its centre
at the given point. Connect it by means of a fine wire with the
earth, then insulate it» and carry it to an electrometer and ascertain
the total charge on the sphere.
Thai, if V be the potential at the given point, and a the
radius of the sphere, the charge on the sphere will be — Fa=sQ,
and if be the potential of the sphere as measured by an elec-
trometer when placed in a room whose walls are connected with
^
the earth, then ^ =
Q
,
/ a,
whence V-^- V = 0,
or the potential of the air at the point where the centre of the
sphere was placed is equal but of opposite sign to the potential of
the sphere after being connected to earth, then inauhted, and
brought into a room.
This method has been employed by M. Debnann of Grenanaeh in
T%
276 ELSCTBOSTATIC I178TBUMEKT8.
measuring the potential at a certain height above the earth

niriace.
Second Method. We have suppc>>t'<l tin- «]>here plac^l at the
g^ven point and first connected to earth, and then insulated, and
carried into a space surroojided with conducting matter at potential
zero.
Now let us suppose a fine inFnlate<l wire carried from the eleo-
trode of the electromet^T to the place wliere the potential is to
be measured. Let the sphere be first discharged completely. Tliis
may l>e done by putting it into the inside of a Tessel of the same
metal which nearly surrounds it and «"»^"g it touch the Teasel.
Now let the sphere thus discharged be carried to the end of the
wire and made to touch it. Since the sphere is not electrified it
will be at the potential of the air at the place. If the dectiode
wire is at the same potential it will not be affected by the contact,
but if the electrode ia at a different potential it will by contact
with the fpheie be made nearer to that of the air than it waa
before. Bj a neeeeeion of sooh operatione, the sphere being
altenietelj dischaiged and made to touch the eleetrode, the poten-
tial of the eleetrode of the dectrometer will continaalljr ^pproaeh
that of the air at the giron point.
222.3To maemre the potential of a oondnctor without tondiing
it) we may meaeore the potential of the air at any point in the
neighboorhood of the oondoctor^ and calcolate tiiat ^ the condoctor
from the reenlt. If there he a hollow nearfy lorroimded bj the
eoadiietorj then the potential at any point of the air in tlna hollow
win be veiy nmAj tiiat of the condactor.
In this way it has been ascertained by Sir W. Thomson that if
two hollow condnctors, one of copper and the other of zinc, are
in metallic contact, then the potential of the air in the hollow

8urround» <i by zinc is positive with reference to that of the air
in the hollow surrounded by copper.
Third Method. If by any means we can cause a succession of
small bodies to detadi themselves from the end of the electrode,
the j)otential of the electrode will approximate to that of the sur-
rounding' air. This may be done by causing shot, filings, sand, or
water to drop out of a funnel or pipe connected with the electrode.
The j)oint at which the potential is measured is that at which
the stream ceases to be continuoiis and breaks into separate parts
or drops.
Another oonTenient method is to £wten a slow match to the
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THEOKY OF THE PKOOF i'LANB. 277
electrode. The potential is very soon made equal to that of the

air at the burning" end of the match. Even a fine metiiUic })oiut
iH sufficient to create a discharge by means of the particles of the
air when the diti'erence of jiotcntials is considerable, but if we
wish to reduce this difference to zero^ we must use one of the

methods stated above.
If we only wish to ascertain the si^ of the difference of the
potentials at two places, and not its numerical value, we may cause
drops or tiling-s to be discharged at one of the places from a nozzle
connected with the other place, and catch the drops or filings
in an insulated vessel. Each drop as it falls is charged with a
certain amount of electricity, and it is completely discharged into
the vessel. The charge of the vessel therefore is continually ac-
cmnolating, and after a sufficient number of drops have fallen, the
ebarge of the vessel may be tested by the roughest mcfthods. The
dgn of the charge is podtive if the potential of the nozzle is positiTe
vdatiTely to that of the soxroimding air.
MEASUREMENT OF SUJUfACS-DENSIXY 09 SLBCIftIFICA,TION.
Tkeory o/tJke Froqf£la$i0.
228.] In testing the reenlts of the mathematical theory of the

distribution of eleotricity on the sorfiMe of condaotors^ it is neoessaxy
to be able to measoie the sar&oe-density at di£R»eiit points of
the conductor. For this purpose Coulomb employed a small disk
of gilt paper fiutened to an insulating stem of gumolae. He ap-
plied this disk to Yarious points of the conductor by placing it
so as to coincide as nearly as possible with the surface of the

conductor. He then removed it by means of the insulating stem,
and measured the charge of the disk by means of his electrometer.
Since the surface of the disk, when applied to the conductor,
nearly coincided with that of the conductor, he concluded that
the surface-density on the outer surface of the disk was nearly
equal to that on the surface of the conductor at that place, and that
the charge on the disk when removed was nearly equal to that
on an area of the surface of the conductor equal to that of one side
of the disk. This disk, when employed in this way^ is called
Coulomb's Proof Plane.
As objections have been raised to Coulomb's ose of the proof
plane^ I shall make some remarks on the theoiy of the experiment.
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278 XLBCTB08TATIG IKSntUMXNTS. [224.
Hie experiment concdste in brining a small oonducting body

into contact with the sor&oe of the conductor at the point where
the deneitjr is to be meamred, and then removing the body and
determining its charge.
We have first to shew that the chaige on the small b<>dy when
in contact with the condnctor is proportional to the sni&oe-
densily which existed at the point of contact before the small body
was placed there.
We shall sappoee that aU the dimensions of the small body, and
especially its dimension in the direction of the normal at the point
of contact, are small compared with either of the radii of cmratore
of the condnctor at the point of contact. Hence the variation of
the resultant force due to the condnctor BU|)po:;ed rigidly electrified
within the space occupied by the small body may be neglected,
and we may treat the sorfiice of the conductor near the small body
as a plane surface.
Now tlie char^ which the small body will take by contact with
a plane surface will be proportional to the resultant force normal
to the surface, that is, to the surfacc-densitv. We shall ascertaiu
the amount of the char<>e for particular forms of the body.
We have next to shew that when the small body is removed no
spark will pass between it and the conductor, so that it will carry
its char|:ê with it. This is evident, because when the bodies are
in contact their potentials are the same, and therefore the density
on the parts nearest to the point of contact is extremely small.
When the small body is removed to a very short distance from
the condnctor, which we shnll suppose to be electrifietl positively,
then the electrification at the point nearest to the small body is
no longer zero but positive, but, since the charg-c of the small body
is positive,the positive electrification dose to the small body will
be than at other neighbouring points of the surface. Now
less
the passag-e of a spark depends in general on the mag-nitude of the
resDltaot force, and this on the surfiMse-density. Hence, since we
soppose that the conductor is not so highly electrified as to be
discharging electricity from the other parts of its snrfoce, it will
not discharge a spark to the small body from a part of its sorfiioe
which we have shewn to have a smaller snrfiMse-density.
224.] We shall now consider vsrions forms of the small body.
Suppose it to be a small hemisphere applied to the conductor so
as to touch it at the centre of its flat side.
Let the conductor be a large sphere, and let us modify the form
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225.] PROOF PLAÊ. 279
of the hemisphere so that its surface is a little more than a hemi-

sphere, and meets the surface of the sphere at right angles. Then
we have a case of which we have already obtained the exact solutioiL
See Art. 168.
If A and B be the centres of the two spheres catting each other
at right angles, Dlf a diameter of the circle of intersection, and G
the centre of that circle, then if V is the i)otential of a conductor
whose outer snrfaoe coincides with that of the two spheres, the
quantity of eleotricify on the ezpoaed surfiMse of the sphere A ia
and that on the exposed snrfkoe of the sphere B is

\ V {A D + BD^ BC - CD -AC),
the total charge being the sum of these, or
FiAB-^BB^CB).
If a and /9 are the radii of the spheres^ then, when a is laige
compared with /3, the charge on j9 is to that on J in the ratio of

3 fl^ ^ 1/3 1 fl' « \ ^
4 a* ^ 3 a 60* '
Now let <T he the uniform sur&ce-densify on A when B is re-
moved^ then the chaige on is
4 w o* <r,
and therefore the charge on j9 is
3ir/3««r(l +i^+&c.),
or, B is very small compared with a, the charge on the
when
hemisphere B is equal to three times that dae to a surface-density cr
extending over an area equal to that of the circular base of the

hemisphere.
It appears from Art. 175 that if a small sphere is made to touch
an electrified body, and is then removed to a distance from it, the
mean surface-density on the sphere is to the surface-density of the
body at the point of contact as -n^ is to 6, or as 1.645 to 1.
225."' The most convenient form for the proof plane is that of
a circular disk. We shall therefore shew how the charge on a
circular disk laid on an electrified surface is to be measured.
For this purpose we shall construct a value of the potential
function so that one of the equipotcntial surfaces resembles a circular
flattened protuberance whose general form is somewhat like that of
a disk lying on a plane.
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280 ILS0VRO8TATIC UraVBUMEITTS. L^^S-
Let <r be the snr&oe-dennty of a pkoei which we shall siqppoaa

to be that of xy.
The potential due to this dectrificsatioii will be
NowlettwodukBof'iadiaea be rigidly eleetrified wiA em&oe-

dnuitiies — oând +9^. Letthefint of theee be placed on the plane
of jTf with its oentra at the origin^ and the aeoond putaUel to it a*
the fery emaD dietanee e.
Then it may be ahewn, as we shall see in the iiieoiy of mag^
netiam, lliat the potential of the two diaka at any point ia m^c,
wheie « ia the aoiid angle aabtended bjr the edge of mther disk at
the point. Henee the potential of the whole ajratem will be
F^ = — 4ir<r^-f-**<T'<r.
The forms of the equipotential surfaces and lines of induetioa
are given on the left-hand side of Fig. XX, at the end of Vol. II.
Let us trace the form of the surface for which ^=0. This
surface is indicated by tlie dotted line.
Putting the distance of any point from the axis of then^ =
when r is much leas than a, and z is small,
m s 2ir— 2ir-a
Henoe^ for values of r consideiably less than a, the equation ef
the xeto eqoipotential soifiaoe ia
or Zq =r
Hence this equipotential surface near the axia ia nearly flat.

Outside the disk, where r is greater than a, ct ia zero when s ia
zero, so that the plane of sy ia part of the eqnqiotential aoifiMe.
To find îdiere these two parta of the aoxfiiioe meet^ let ns find at
(IF
what point of this plane ^ =: 0.
"When r ia wery nearly equal to «
-3- as— 4»<r+ •
Henooj ^riien
dF ^ a^c
The equipotential auifiMe 0 ia therefore oompoeed of a diak^
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2260 AOCUMULATOBfi. 281
Uke figure of zadiiu r^, and nearly umfonn thiclme«8 s^, and of the
part of the infinite plane of ay which lies beyond this figure.
The sai&oe-integral over the whole dialc gim the charge of
on it. It may be.fi>nnd^ as in the theoiy of a ciieolar
eleotricitj
eoiient in Ptot IV, to be
Q = 4»a<r'c{log—
^^^^
2}+ir<rro'.
The charge on an eqnal area oS the plane snrfiuse is vvr^, henoe

the diarge on the disk exceeds that on an equal area of the phme
in the ratio <^ , Swr ,
1 + 8 - log - to umtyj
J-
where z is the thickness and r the radius of the diskj z being sup-
posed small compared with r.
On EUeMe Aeemnmlaion and tike Meoiurmeiif of Capacity.

226.] An Accumulator or Condenser is an apparatus consisting^
of two conducting suriaces separated by an insulating dielectric

medium.
A Leyden an accumulator in which an inside coating* of
jar is
from the outside coating by the glass of which

tinfoil is separated
the jar is made. The original Leyden phial was a glass vessel
oonlaimng water which was separated by the glass from the hand
which held it.
The outer surface of any insulated conductor may be considered
as one of the surfaces t& an accumulator, the other being the earth
or the walls of the room in which it is placed, and the interveung
air being the dielectric medium.
The capacity of an aoenmnlator is measored by the quantity of
eleotrietty with which the inner snrfiMse most be ehaiged to make
the diffinence between the potentials of the snrftces nnity.
Since evsiy electrical potential is the sum of a nnmber of parts
found bj dividing each electrical element byfrom aits distance
a qnantily of electricity to a potential must

point» ilie ratio of
have the dimensions of a line. Hence electrostatic capacity is a
linear quantiliy, or we may measure it in feet or metres without
ambiguity.
In electrical nsearehes acenmnlatow are used fer two principal
purposes, for receiving and retaining large quantities of electricity
in as small a compass as possible, and for measuring definite quan-
tities of electricity by means of the potential to which they raise
the accumulator.
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282 UilCfBOCTATIC nreTBUlUNTBb
For the retention of electrical charges nothing has been deposed

more perfiBct than the Leyden Jat. The principal put of the loos
arises from the electncityeiMpiiig along the damp nncoated surface
oC the glaM from the one coating to the odier. This may be checked
m a great d«giee hj aitifieially diying the av within the jar, and
hy glam where it is exposed to the
varniriiing the enrfiMse of IJie
atmosphere. In SirW. Thcmison's electroeoopes there is a rery
•mall peroentage of loss horn daj to day. and I beliefe that none
of this loss can he traced to diraet eondaction etther through air
or through glass when the glass is good, hut that it arises duefly
from soperfidal condnetion akog the various ff""^^«"g stems and
glam sufroes of the instniment.
In fret, the same electrician has oommimicated a diarge to
snlpharic add in a large bulb with a long nedcy and has then her*
metically sealed the neck by fbsing it, &o that the charge was com-
pletely surrounded by gUws, and Mfter some yeaia the charge was
found still to be retained.
It is only, however, when cold, that ^lass insulates in this
way, for the charge et^capes at once if the glass is heated to
a temyêrature below lOO^'C.
VVhf'n it is dettire<l to o])t:iin threat capacity in small compass,
accuijiulalors in which the dielectric is ^heet caoutchouc^ mica, or
paper impreijnated with j araliin are convenient.
227.] For accumulators of the second class, intended for the

measurement of quantities of electricity, all solid dielectrics must be
employed with great caution on account of the property which they
possess called Electric Absorption.
The only is air, which has
safe dielectric for such accumulators
this inconvenience, that if any dust or dirt gets iato the narrow
space Ijctween the opposed surfaces, which ought to be occupied only
hy tatg it not only alters the thickness of the stratum of air, but
may establirii a connexion between the opposed snrfrces, in whidi
case the aoeomiilator will not hold a charge.
To determine in ahsolnte measnrej that is to say in fret or metres,
the capacity of an aoeamnlator, we must either first asoertaui its
form and and then soItc the problem of the distribation of
size,
electricity opposed sorfrcesj or we most compare its capacity

on its
with that of another accomulator, for which this problem has bem
solved.
As the problem is a cry difficult one^ it is best to begin with an
accnmdator constructed <^ a form for which the eolation is known.
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228.] MBASUBBMBNT OP OAPACITT. 283
Thus the capacity of an insulated ephere In an nnlimited space is
known to be meaeored by the xadina of the sphere.

A sphere suspended in a room was actually used by MM. Kohl-
lauseh and Weber, as an absolute standard with which they com-
pared the capacity of other acennralators.
The capacity, however, of a sphere of moderate size is so small
when compared with the capacities of the accumulators in common
u>:i' tliat the sphere is not a convenient standard measure.
Its capacity mij^lit be greatly increased by surrounding the
sphere with a hollow concentric spherical surface of somt what
greater radius. The capacity of the inner surface is then a fourth
proportional to the thickness of the stratum of air and the radii of
the two surfaces.
Sir W. Thomson has emj)loyed this arrangement as a standard of
capacity, but the difficulties ofworking the surfaces truly spherical,
of making them truly concentric, and of measuring their distance
and their radii with sufficient accuracy, are considerable.
We are therefore led to prefer for an absolute measure of capacity
a form in which the opposed surfaces are parallel planes.
The accuracy of the snifiMse of the planes can be easily tested,
and their distance can be measured by a micrometer screw, and
may be made capable of continuous variation, which is a most
important property of a measuring instrument.
The only difficulty remaining arises from the fact that the planes
mnst necessarily be bounded, and that tiie distribution of electricity
near the boundaries of the phines has not been rigidly calenlated.
It is tme that if we make them equal ciieular disks, wbose ladiua
is laige compared with the distance between them, we may treat
the edges of the disks as if they were stra%ht lines, and calculate
the distribution of electricity by the method due to Helmholta, and
described at Art 202. Bat it will be noticed that in this ease
part of the electricity is distributed on the back of each disk, and
that in the calculation it has been supposed tiiat there are no
conductors in the neighbonrbood, which is not and cannot be the
case in a small instrument.
228.] We therefore prefer the following arrangement, due to
Sir W. Thomson,
which we may call the Guard-ring arrangement,
by means of which the quantity of electricity on an insulated disk
may be exactly determined in terms of its potential.
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284 KLBOTROSTATIO IHBTRUIIBMTB. [228.
GnardTing Jeeumulaior,
B6 iM M qrUmdrical Tessel of condnctiDg material of wbidi the
outer im&oe of the vpjper fiMse is aocoiatelj plane. This upper
Boriaoe consiste of two parts^
a disk J, and a broad rin^
BB soRonnding the disk*
separated from it hjr a Teij*
small intenral all rounds just
suiBScient to prevent sparks
17
passing^. The upper surface
of the disk is aecuratclv in
Q:
the same plane with that of
Fig. 20.
the guard-ring". The disk is
supported by pillars of insulating material GG. C is a metal disk,
the under surface of which is accurately plane and parallel to BB.
The disk C is considerably larger than A. Its distance from A
is adjusted and measured by means of a micrometer screw^ which
is not given in the figure.
This accumulator is used as a measuring instrument as follows :—
Suppose C and the disk A and vessel Bb
to be at potential zero,
both at potential F. Then there will be no electrification on the
back of the disk because the vessel is nearly closed and is all at the
same potential. There will be very little electrification on the
edges of the disk because BB is at the same potential with the
disk. On the face of the disk the electrification will be nearly
nniform, and therefore the whole charge on the disk will be almost
exactly represented by ite area multiplied by the suifiKse-densify on
a planSj as given at Art. 124.
In fikct^ we kam from the investigation at Art 201 that tlie
charge on the disk is
( SA 9A A-â
where J{ is the radios of the disk, R that of tiie hole in the guard-
ring, A the distance between A and C, and a a qnantity which
cannot exceed
If the interval between the disk and tiie guard-ring is small

compared with the dutance between A and C, the second term will
be very small, and the charge on the disk will be nearly
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COMPAEISON OF CAPACITIES. 286
Now let the vessel Bb be put in connexion with the earth. The
charge on the disk A will no longer be uniformly distributed, but it
will remain the same in quantity, and we now discharge A we

if
shall obtain a quantity of electricity, the value of which we know

in terms of V, the original diiTerenoe of potentials and the measur-
able quantities ^ And A,
On the Comparimi of the dipacity of Accumulators.
229.] The form of accumulator which is best fitted to have its
capacity determined in absolute measure from the form and dimen-
sions of its parts is not generally the most suitable for electrical
experiments. It is desirable that the measures of capacity in actual
use should be accumulators having only two conducting surfaces, one
of which is as nearly as possible surrounded by the other. The
guard-ring accumulator, on the other baud, has three independent
conducting portions which must be charged and dischaiged in a
certain order. Hence it is desirable to be able to compare the
capacities of two accumulators by an electrical prooeas, so as to test
accumulators which may afterwards serve as secondary standards.
I shall firrt shew how to test the equality of the capacity of two
gnaid-ring aconmnlators.
Let be the disk, B the guard-ring with the rest of the con-
dncting vessel attached to it, and C the large disk of one of these
acemnnlators, and lei and be the oorreqionding parts of
the other.
If either of these aconmnlators is of the more simple kind, having
only two condnctors, we have only to nippress B or .5^, and to
suppose ^ to be the inner and C the enter conducting surfiMse. C
in tins case being nnderstood to sorronnd J.
Let the fbUowing connexions be made.
Let B be kept always connected with C\ and B with that is,
let each guard-ring be connected with the large disk of the other
condenser.
(1) Let A be connected with B and 6" and with /, the electrode
of a Leyden jar, and let £ be connected with and C and with
the earth.
(2) Let A, B^ and C be insulated from /.
(3) Let A be insulated from B
and C\ and A! from and C. B
(4) Let B and Q' be connected with and C and with the
earth.
(6) Let A be connected with Jl,
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£95 nmsiMfrATic mmnam. [229.
(fi, Lei J nd ^ be eoMMctod widi sb

We flunr fûwi tlMM cowmkmim «• Miam
(2) 0=6 = /f = J' I

J=^=C"|/.
(3) osCsir I I
J ^scr.
I
(4) OsCs^ ^ I I
i< I
B^CÔ.
(6) 0»Cs^ I
^'ss ^ ^sCsO.
I
Here the ngn of equality expnaMs eleetrial eotmerioB, and the

Terticel ftroke eiprowM insaUitioii.
In (1) the two aecmmihiton ne charged oppontelj, so that ^1 ii
pcnntive and if' negatnre, the ehargce on A and bemg onifbrmlj ^
distributed on the upper sur&ce opposed to the Urge disk of each
accumulator.
In (2) the jar in removed^ and io (3j the charges OH A and A' are
iuMiiiatxI.
In ( i) tht* ^^lard-rings are connected with the large disks, so that

til*' <-)mri^<-^ on A and yi\ though unaltered in magnitude, are now
distributed ov^-r th<-ir whole surface.
In (5) A m connected with A'. If the cliargês are equal and of
oppo*»it<; sij^, the elect rifK-at ion will be entirely destroyed, and
in (i'>) thin ih teste*! by means of the electroscope £.
The electroscope £' will indicate positive or negative electrification
according aa A or A' haH the greater capacity.
-By meam of a key of proper constroctioD, the whole of these
operations cao be [)erfonned in due snccession in a very small
fraction of a second, and the capacities adjusted till no electri-
fication can be detected by the electroscope, and in this way the
capacity of an aoeamdnior may be adjosted to be equal to that of
any other, or to the sum of the capaeities of sereral aocnmolaton,
0 that a lyatem of aoenmalatora may be formed, each of which haa
Ha capacity determined in abaolnte measure, i e. in foet or in metres,
while at the same time it is of the constraction most suitable for
electrical experiments.
This method of oomparison will probably be found useful in
determining the specsific capacity for electrostatic induction of
diilhrent dielectrics in the form of plates or disks. If a disk of
the dieleetrie is interposed between A and C, the disk being con-
siderably larger than then the oqiacify of the accumulator will
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a29«] 8PE01F10 IKDUOTIYB GAPACITT. 287
be altered and made equal to that of the same accumulator when A

and C are nearer together. If the accumulator with the dielectric
plate, and with A and C at distance r, is of the same capacity as
the same accumulator without the dielectric, and with and C at
distance si, then, if a is the thickness of the pkte, and K its specific
dielectiio inductive capacity referred to air as a standard,

—-°
a4df— sr
•
Tlie combination of three cylinders, described in Art. 127, has

been employed by Sir W. Thomson as an aoenmnUtor whose capa-
city may be increased or diminished by measoiable quantities.
The experiments of MM. Gibson aud Barclay with this ap-
paratus are described in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, Feb. 2,
1871, and P/iil. Trans., 1871, p. 573. Tliey found the specific in-
ductive capacity of paraffin to be 1.975, that of air being unity.
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P A U T U.
£L£CTBO£I>.EMATICS.
GHAFTEB L
THE ELSCTBIC CUSRKNT.
230."! We have seen, in Art. 45, that when a conductor is in

electrical e<|uilihrium the potential at eveij point of the condactor
must be tlie same.
If two conductors A and B are charged with electricity so that
the potential of A is higher than that of By then, if they are pnt
in comrrmnication by means of a metallic wire C touching both of
them, part of the charge of A will be transferred to B, and the
potentials of and B will become in a veiy short time equalized.
A
231.] During this process certain phenomena are observed in
the wire C, which are called the phenooMD* of the electric conflict
or current.
The first of these phenomena is the transference of positive
dectrification from A to M and of negative electrification tnm B
to A. This tnuDiference may be also efilbcted a slower manner
i&
hj bringing n tmaU inwilatfid body into oontnct with A and B
•Iternatelj. Bj tfaii prooest, whidi we may odl electrical con-
vection, focoewiTe smaU poHaons of the electrification of each body
are transfeired to the ether. In eitiier case a certain qnantiiy of
dectricily, or of the atate of electrification^ paaaeo firom one place
to another along a certain patii in the apace between the bodiea.
'Whaterer therefore may be our opinion of the nature of elec-
tricity,we moat admit that the proceM which we have deacribed
eonatitiitea a conent of electricity. Thia conent may be deacribed
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THS TOI/FAIC BATTBBT. 289
as a oanent of podtiTe dedricitj from to or a onnent of

negative eleotrieily from ^ to if, or as a oombiiiatioii of tlieae two
correDts.
Aooordlng to Feclmer's and Weber'a theoxj it is a oombiiiatioii
of a current of positive electricity with an exactly equal current
of negative electricity in the opposite direction through the same
sahstance. It is necessary to remember this exceedingly artificial
hypothesis regarding the coDstitntion of the current in order to

onderstand the statement of some of Weber's most valuable ex>
perimental results.
If, as in Art. 36, we suppose P units of positive electricity
transferreel from A to and N units of negative electricity trans-
ferred from B to // in unit of time, then, according to "Weber's
theory, P=Nf and F or N ia to be taken as the numerical measure
of the current.
We, on make no assumption as to the relation
the contrary,
between F
and N, but attend only to the result of the current,
namely, the transference of P-\-N of positive electrification from A
to B, and we shall consider P-\-N the true measure of the current.
The current, therefore^ which Weber would call 1 we shall call 2.
0% Steady OurretUi.
282.] In the case of the current between two insulated oon-

dncton at different potentials the operation is soon brought to
an end bj the equalization of the potentials of the two bodies,
and the current is therefore essentiallj a Transient current*
But there are methods bj which the difference of potentials of
the conductors may be maintained constant, in which case the
curmt will continue to flow with uniform strength as a Steady
Cunent.
TAe Voltaic Baiter^.
Hie moat o(mv«iient method of producing a steady ennent ia by
means of the Ydtaio Battery.
For the sake of distinotness we shall describe Baniell's Constant
Battery
A solution of sulphate of zinc is placed in a cell of porous earth-
enware, and this cell is pUMsed in a vessel containing a saturated
solution of sulphate of oopper. A piece of zinc is dipped into the
sniphate of zinc, and a piece of copper is dipped into the sulphate
of copper. Wires are soldered to the zinc and to liie ccîper above
.VOL. I. V
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290 THB KLBOTBIC CURBSNT.
the surface of the liquid. This combination is called a cell or

element of Damell's battery. See Art. 272.
233.] K the
cell is insulated by being* placed on a non-oon*
duotiiig ftand, and if the wire connected with the copper is pnt
in contact with an inimlatod conductor Ay and the wire connected
with the ssinc ie pnt in contact with £, another inimlated oondnctor
of the same metal as A, then it may be shewn by means of a ddieate
electrometer that the potential otA exceeds that of by a certain
quantity. This difibienoe of potentials is called the EleetromotLve
Force of the Darnell's Cell.
If A and B aie now disconnected firom the cell and pnt in
oommnnication by means of a wire, a transient eoixent passes
through the wire from A U> B, and the potentials of A and B
become equal. A and B
may then be charged again by the cell,
and the process repeated as long as the cell But if
will work.
A and B be oonnected by means of the wire and at the same
C,
time connected with the battery as before, then the cell will main-
tain a constant current throngh C, and also a constant difference
of potentials between A and B. This difference will not, as we
shall see, be equal to the whole electromotive force of the cell, for
part of this force ii» Bpent iu muiutaining the current through the
cell itself.
A number of cells placed in series so that the zinc of the first
cell is connected by metal with the copper of the second, and

so on, is called a Voltaic Battery. Tlie electronKjtive force of
such a battery is the sum of the electromotive forces of the cells
of which it is composed. If the battery is insulated it may be
charged with electricity as a whole, hut tlie potential of the copj^wr
end will always exceed that of the zinc end by the electromotive
force of the battery, whatever the absolute value of either of these
potentials may be. The cells of the battery may be of very various
construction, containing different chemical substances and different
metals, provided they are such that chemical action does not go
on when no current passes.
284.3 ^ consider a voltaic battery with its ends insulated
from each other. The copper end will be positively or vitreously
electrified,and the zinc end will benegatively or resinously electrified.
Let the two ends of the battery be now connected by means
of a wire. An electric current will commence, and will in a very
short time attain a constant value. It is then said to be a Steady
Current.
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236.] ELEOTROLTSIS. 291
Properties of the Current.
S^.] The coirent forms a closed circuit in the direction from

copper to zinc throogh the wires, and from zinc to copper throngh
the solutions.
If the oircuit be broken cutting any of the wires which
connect the copper of one cell with the zinc of the next in order, the
cuirent will be stopped^ and the potential of the end of the wire
in connexion with the copper will be found to exceed that of the
end of the wire in connexion with the zinc by a constant qnantatjr,
namely^ (he total electromotive force of the oiieidt.
Meeirolytie Jetion cfUe Current

286.] As long as the ebeuit is broken no diemical action goes
on in the cells, bnt as soon as the circnit is completed, zinc is
dissolved fr^m the zinc in each of the Darnell's cells, and copper is
deposited on the copper.

Tlie quantity of sulphate of zinc increases, and the quantity of
sulphate of copper diminishes unless more is constantly supplied.
The quantity of zinc dissolved and also that of copper deposited is
the same in each of the DanielJ's cells throughout the circuit, what-
ever the size of the plates of the cell, and if any of the cells be of a
different construction, the amount of chemical action in it bears
a constant proportion to the action in For
the Daniell's cell.
instance, if one of the cells consists of two platinum plates dipped

into siilphnric acid diluted with water, oxygen will be given off
at the Hurfaee of the ])lat<' where the current enters the liquid,
namely, the plate in metallic connexion with the copper of Danicira
cell, and hydrogen at the surface of the plate where the current
leaves the liquid, namely, the plate connected with the zinc of
Daniell's cell.
The volnme of the hydrogen is exactly twice the volome of the
oi^gen given off in the same time, and the weight of the oxygen is
exactly eight times the weight of the hydrogen.
In every cell of the circuit the weight of âch sabetance dissolved,
deposited, or decomposed is equal to a certain quantity called the
electrochemical equivalent of that substance, multiplied by the
strength of the ouient and by the time during which it has
been flowing.
For the experimente which established tiiis principle, see tiie
seventh and eighth series of Eaiaday's EtpenmmM Beteareketj
Va
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292 THB BLEOTBIO CUBSBNT. [237
and for nn investigation of the apparent exceptions to the rule» see

Miller's CAemical Fhi/sics and Wiedemann's Galvanitmnu.
237.] Substances which are decomposed in this way are called
Eleotroljtes. The process is called Electrolysis. The places where
the oonent enters and leaves the electrolyte aie called Electrodes.
Of these the deetrode by which the onxient enters is called the
Anodes and that hy wiudi it leaves the electrolyte is called the
Qatfaode. The components into which the electrolyte is resolved
are called Ions : that which appears at the anode is called the
Anion, and that which vpptaaB at the cathode is called the Gation.
Of these terms, which were, I believe, invented by Fsraday with
the help of Dr. 'Whewell, the first three, namely, electrode, elec-
trolysis, and electrolyte have been generally adopted, and the mode
of conduction of the current in which this kind of decomposition
and transfer of the components takes place is caUed Electrolytic
Conduction.
If a homogcneoos electrolyte is placed in a tube of variable
section, and if the electrodes are placed at the ends of this tube,
it is found that when the current passes, the anion appears at
the anode and the cation at the cathode, the qnaiililies of these
ions being eleetrochemically equivalent, and such as to be together
etjuivalent to a certain quantity of the electrolyte. In the other
parts of the tube, whether the section be large or small, uniform
or varying, the composition of the electrolyte remains unaltered.
Hence the amount of electrolysis which takes place across every
section of the tube is the same. Where the section is small the
action must therefore be more intense than where the section is
large, but the total amount of each ion which crosses any complete
section of the electrolyte in a given time is the same for all sections.
The strength of the current may therefore be measured by the
amount of electrolysis in a given time. An instrument by which
the quantity of the electrolytic products can be readily measured
is called a Voltameter.
The strength of the current, as thus measured, is the same
at every part of the circuit, and the total quantity of the elec-
troljrtio products in the voltameter after any given time is pro-
portional to the amount of electricity wluudi passes any section in
the same time.
288.] If we introduce a voltameter at one part of the circuit
of a voltaic battery, and break the circuit at another part, we may
suppose the measurement of the current to be conducted thus.
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MAGNETIC ACTION. 293
Let the ends of the bxoken oSxcoit be A and 3, and let J be ih»
anode and B the catbode. Let an inscdated ball be made to toneb
B
A and alternately, it will cany from AtoBa. certain measvinble
quantity of eleetriciiy at each journey. Tbii quantity may be
measured by an electrometer, or it may be calculated by mul-
tiplying tbe electromotive force of tiie circuit by the eieetnwtatio
capacity of the ball. Electricity is thus carried firom J to on the
insulated ball by a process which may be called Convection. At
the same time electrolysis goes on in the voltameter and in the
cells of the battery, and the amount of electrolysis in each cell may
be compared with the amount of electricity carried across by the
insulated ball. The quantity of a substance which is electrolysed
by one is called an Electrochemical equivalent
unit of electricity
of that substance.
Tliis experiment would ])e an extremely tedious and troublesome
one if conducted in this way with
a ball of ordinary magnitude
and a manageable battiMy, for an enormous number of journeys
would have to be made before an appreciable quantit}^ of the electro-
lyte was decomposed. The experiment must therefore be considered
as a mere illustration, the actual measurements of electrochemical
equivalents being conducted in a different way. But the experi-
ment may be considered as an illustration of the process of elec-
trolysis itself, for if we regard electrolytic conduction as a species
of convection in which an electrochemical equivalent of the anion
travels with negative electricity in the direction of the anode, while
an equivalent of the cation travels with positive electricity in
the direction of the cathode, the whole amount of transfer of eleo-
trieity being one nnit, we shall have an idea of the process c/t
eleebolysis, which, so &r as I know, is not inconsistent with known

fiusts, though, on account of our ignorance of the nature of eleotiiciiy
and of chemical compounds, it may be a very imperfect repre-

aentation of what really takes place.
Magnetic Aeiion ^ tie Current.

289.] Oersted discovered that a magnet pbM)ed near a straight
electric current tends to place itself at right angles to the plane
passing through tiie magnet and the current. See Art. 475.
If a man were to place his body in the line of the current so
that the cnnent firom copper through the wire to zmc should flow
from his head to his feet, and if he were to direct his fiuse towards
the centre of tbe magnet, then that end of the magnet which tends
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294 THE SLSCTRIC CUIUIENT. [240.
to point to the north would, when the current flows^ tend to point
towards the man's right hand.
The nature and laws of this electr«:>magnetic aetion will be dis-
cussedwhen we come to the fourth part of this treatise, Wliat
we are concerned vnth at present is the fact that the electric
current has a magnetic action which is exerted outside the current,
and by which its existence can be aaootained and its intensity
measnied without breaking ihe eheuit or introdneiiig anything into
the CDirent itself.
The amount of the magnetic action baa been aaoertained to be

atrietly proportional to the etrengCh of the omrrent as measured
by the prodnets of electrolyBia in the Toltameterj and to be qmte
independent of the natore of the oondnctor in which the cmient
is flowing, whether it be a metal or an electrolyte.
240.] An tiie sbrength of an dectrio
instroment whidi indicates
enrrent by its magnetic a Galvanometer.
eflfeets is called
Galvanometers in general consist of one or more coils of silk-
coveted wife within which a magnet is sospended with its aada
horizontaL When a corrent u passed through the wire the magnet
tends to set itself with its axis perpendicolar to the plane of the
coils. If we suppose the plane of the coils to be placed parallel
to the plane of the earth's equator, and the current to flow round
the coil from east to west in the direction of the apparent motion
of the sun^ then the niaji^net within will tend to set itself with
its magnetization in the same direction as that of the earth con-
sidered as a great magnet, the north pole of the earth being similar
to that end of the compass needle which points south.
The galvanometer is the most convenient instrument for mea-
suring the strength of electric currents. We shall therefore assume
the possibility of constructing such an instrument in studying the
laws of these currents, reserving the discussion of the principles of
the instrument for our fourth part. "Wlien therefore we say that
an electric current is of a certain strength we suppose that the
measurement is effected by the galvanometer.
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CHAPTER U.
comvcmoK and sesistancb.
241.] If by means of an electrometer we detennine tbc electric

potential at diiferent points of a circuit in wbieha oonstant clectrio
current is maintained; we sball find tbat in any portion of the
circuit consigtiDg of a single metal of uniform temperatoie thiough-
ont, the potential at any point esoeeda that at any other point
fiurther on in the diieotion of the eaxient hf a quantity depending
on the etrength of the conent -and on the nature and dimensions

of the intervening portion of the eirenit. The difference of the
potentiab at the extremities of this portion of the eironit is oalkd
tiie External electromotire force acting on it. If the portion of
the curcnit under consideration Is not homogeneonsi hot contains
transitions firom one sabstanoe to another, from metals to deo-
trolytes, or from hotter to colder parts, there may he, besides the
external eleetromotiTe foroe. Internal electromotive forces which
must be taken into acconnt.
The relations between Electromotive Eorce, Cnrrenty and Resist-
ance wm first investigated by Dr. G. S. Ohm, in a vmA published
in 1827, entitled Die Galvanisehe Kette Mathmatiieh BearheHet,

translated in Taylor's Scientifc Memoirs. The result of these in-
vest ig-at ions in the case of homogeneoua conductors is commonly
called *
Okm's Law/
Okn^$ Lam,
The eU^romUve force aeUng between the egiremHUi if any pari

of a eirewii It Ue product ef ike Hrengik ef ihe ewteiKt and ike
Seeieiaitee of ikat part of the eireuit.
Here a new term is introduced, the Hesi stance of a conductor,
which is defined to be the ratio of the electromotive force to
the strength of the current which it produces. The introduction
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296 coNDuerioN and RSBISTAKCE.
of this term would have been of no scientific value unless Ohm

had shewn, as he did exjx.'rinientally, that it eonresp<îKls to a real
pliysical quantity, that is, that it has a definite value which is
altered only when the nature of the eonduct-i^r is altered.
In the first place, then, the resistance of a conductor is inde-

pendent of the streng-th of the current flowing through it.
In the second place the resistance is independent of the electric

potential at which the conductor is maintained, and of the density
of the distribution of electricity on the surface of the conductor.
It depends entirely on the nature of the material of which the
conductor is composed, the state of aggregation of its parts^ and its
temperatoxe.
The ranstanoe of a conductor may be measoied to within one
ten thonsandth or even one hmidred thousandth part of its value,
and so many conductors have been tested that our assurance of the
truth of Ohm's Law is now very high. In the sixth chapter we
shall trace its applications and coneeqiieiices.
OeneraHtm of Heat 6jf tie Current.
242.] We have seea that when an electromotive force causes

a euirent to flow tbrongh a conductor, electriciiy is transferred
from a place of higher to a place of lower potential. If the transfer
had been made by conyeetion, that is, by carrying sacoessiye
chaiges on a ball from the one place to the other, work wonld have
been done by the electrical forces on the baU, and this might have
been tamed to acconnt. It is actually turned to accoimt in a
manner in those dry pile circuits where the electrodes have
partial
the form of bells, and the carrier ball is made to swing like a
pendnlmn between the two bells and strike them alternately. In
this way the deotrical action is made to keep up the swinging
of the pendulum and to propagate the sound of the beUs to a
distance. In the case of the conducting wire we have the same
transfer of electricity from a place of high to a place of low jwtential
without any external work being done. The principle of the Con-
servation of Energy therefore leads us to look for internal work in
the conductor. In an electrolyte this internal work consists partly
of the separation of its components. In other conductors it is
entirely converted into heat.
The energy converted into heat is in this case the product of
the electromotive force into the quantity of electricity which passes.
Bat the electromotive force is the product of the current into the
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244*] COMPARISON WITH PHBHOHXNA OF HBAT. 297
xedstBiice, and tiie qtiantity of eleotridly is the product of the

cnnent into the time. Hence the quantify of heat multiplied bj
the mechanical equivalent of unit of heat is equal to the square of
the streng^ of the current mnltiplied into the resistance uid into
the time.
The heat developed hy overcoming the re-
electric currents in
sistance of condactors has been determined by Br. Joule, ivho
first established that the heat prodaced in a given time is pro-
portional to the square of the current, and afterwards by careful

absolute measurements of all the quantities ooncemed, verified the
equation JE = C^Rt,
where / is Joule's dynamical equivalent of heat, H the number of
units of heat> C the strength of the current, JR the resistance of the
oonductor, and i the time during which the current flows. These
and heat, weie first fully
relations betweoi electromotive force, work,
explained by Sir W. Thomson in a paper on tiie application of the
principle of mechanical eflbet to the measurement of electromotive
forces*.
248.] The analogy between the theory of the conduction of
electricify and that of the conduction of heat is at first sight almost
complete. If we take two systems geometrically similar, and such
tiiat the conductivity for heat at any part of the first is proportional
to the conductivily for electricity at the corresponding- part of the
second, and if we also make the temperature at any part of the
first proportional to the electric potential at the corresponding point
of the second, then the fiow of heat across any area of the first
will be proportional to the flow of electricity across the corre-

sponding area of the second.
Thus, in the illustration we have piven, in which flow of elec-
tricity corresponds to flow of heat, and electric potential to tem-
perature, electricity tends to flow from places of high to places
of low potential, exactly as heat tends to flow from places of high
to places of low temperature.
244.] Tlie theory of potential and that of temperature may
therefore be made to ilhistrate one another; there is, however, one
remarkable diflerence between the phenomena of electricity and
those of heat.
Suspend a conducting body within a closed conducting' vessel by
a and charge the vessel with electricity. The potential
silk thread,
• PAir. Hey., Bee. 1651.
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298 oovDUcnoH avd rbsistajtcb. [245.
of the rasel and of all wUfain it will be instuitly raised^ bat

however long and however powerfbllj the veewl be dectrified, and
whether the bodj within be allowed to come in oontaefc with the
e«el or not, no dgns of electrifieatioa will appear withm the
vend, nor wiU the bodj within shew any electrical edfect when
taken out.
Bat if the TeaaeL is laiaed to a high temperature^ the bodj
within will riae to the same tempeiatare, bat onlf after a eon-
aideiable time, and if it is then talcen oat it will be found bot»
and will remain so till it baa continoed to emit heat Ibr aome time.
The difference between the phenomena conaiste in the fact that
bodies are capable of absorbing and emitting heat, whereas they
have no corresponding property with respect to electricity. A body
cannot be made hot without a certain amount of heat being
supplied to it, dejwndinc;' on the mass and specific heat of the body,
but the electric potential of a l»i.ily may be raised to any extent
in the way abready described without communicating any electricity
to the body.
245.] Agiiin, supjwse a body first heated and then placed inside
the closed vessel. The outside of the vessel will be at first at the
temperature of surround ini,'- Vuxlies, but it will soon f>et hot, and
will remain hot till the heat of the interior body has escaped.
It is impossible to perform a corresponding electrical experimî.
It is impossible so to electrify a body, and so to place it in a
hollow vessel, that the outside of the vessel shall at first shew no
aigns of electrificatioiL bat shall afterwards become olectrifitd. It
was for some phenomenon of this kind that Faraday sought in
vain under the name of an ab^lute charge of electricity.
Heat may be hidden in the interior of a body ao as to have no
external action; bat it ia impoeaible to isolate a quantify of eleo-
tricity 80 aa to prevent it from being constantiiy in indoctive
lektion with an eqoal qaantity of eleotridty of the oppoaite kind.
There ia nothing therefore among electric phenomena which
coneeponda to the capadly of a body for heat. Thia follows at
once from the doctrine which ia aBierted in thia treatiae^ that
deotricify obeys tiiie same condition of continaifj aa an incom-
pressible fluid. It ia therefore impossible to give » bodily charge
of dectricity to any sabstanee by forcing an additional quantify of
dectricity into it. See Arts. 61,111, 329| 334.
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CHAPTER m
BLECTBOMOTIVB FOBCB BETWEEN BODIES IN CONTACT.
Tke P<f§etUiah qflHffermi Suhianeei m Cdniaei,

246.] If we define the potential of a hollow conductiiif^f voi^Hfl
as the potential of the air inside the vessel,we may ascertain this
potential by means of an electrometer as described in Part I,
Art. 222.
If we now take twohollow vessels of different metals, say copper
and zinc, and pnt them in metallic contact with each other, and
then test the potential of the air inside each vessel, the potential
of the air inside the zinc vessel vnW be positive as compared with
The difference of potentials depends
that inside the copper yessel.
on the nature of the surface of the insides of the vetseb^ being
greatest when the zino is bright and when the copper is coated
with oxide.
It appears from this that when two di&rent metak are in
contact there is in general an electromoti^ force acting horn the
one to the other, so as to make the potential of the one exceed
that of the otherhj a certain quantity. This is Yolta's theory of
Contact Electficily.
If we take a certain metal, say copper, as the standard, then
if the potential of iron in contact with copper at the zero'potential
Is J, and that of sine in contact with copper at zero is then
the potential of zinc in contact with iron at zero will he iT— J.
It appears from this result^ which is tme of any three metals,
that the differences of potential of any two metals at the same
temx)eratiire in contact is equal to the difference of their potent iuls
when in contact with a third metal, so that if a circuit be formed
of any number of metals at the same tcmj)erature there will be
electrical equilibrium as soon as they have acquired their proper
potentials, and there will be no current kept up in the circuit.
800 OONTAOT FOBCB.
247.] If, however, the oiroiiit consist of two metals and an eleo-
trolyte, the electrofyte, aixsoiding to Volta's theoiy, tends to rednoe
the potentials of the metala in omitaet witii it to eqoaliiy, so that
the electromotive force at the metaDic jnnction is no longer halanoedj
and a oontinnons current is kept np. The energy of this corrent
is siqyplied by the chemical action which takes place between the
electrolyteand the metals.
The electric effect may, howe?er, be produced without
248.]
chemical action if by any other means we can prodooe an equili-
zation of the potentials of two metals in contact Thus, in an
esperiment due to Sir W. Thomson*, a copper fonnel is placed in
contact with a vertical zinc qrlinder, so that when copper filings
are allowed to pass through the fbnnel, they sepaiate fh>m each
other and from the flmnel near the middle of the zinc cylinder,
and then fall into an insulated receiver placed below. The receiver
is then found to be charged nâtively, and the charge increases
as tlie filings conliuue to pour into it. At the same time the zinc
cylinder with the copper funnel in it becomes charged more and
more positively.
If now the zinc cylinder were connected with the receiver by a
wire, there would be a positive current in tlie wire from the cylinder
t^ the receiver. The stream of copper filings, each filing charged
negatively by induction, constitutes a negative current from the
funnel to the receiver, or, in other words, a positive current from
the receiver to the copper funnel. Hie positive current, therefore,
passes through the air (by the filings) from zinc to copper, and
through the metallic junction from copper to zinc, just as in the
ordinary voltaio arrangement, b\it in this case the force which keeps
up the current is not chemical action but gravity, which caiues the
filings to fall, in spite of the electrical attraction between the
positively charged funnel and the negatively cbaiged filings.
249.] A remarkable confirmation of the theory of contact elec-

tricity is supplied by the discovery of Peltier, that, when a current
of electricity crosses the junction of two metals, the junction is
heated when the corrent is in one direction, and cooled when it
is in the other direction. It mnst be remembered that a cnrrait

in its passage through a metal always produces heat, because it
meets with resistance^ so that tiie cooling eflbct on tiie whole
conductor mnst always be less than the heating eflfoct. We must
tiierefore distinguish between the generation of heat in each metal,
NorthBriMBtUtm,lWi,p.mi and JL- A, June 20, 1867.
249.] peltibr's pebvominok. 301
due to ofdiiuuy ranstanoe, and the generation or abeoiption of heat

at the junetion of two metals. We shall call the fiist the frietional
generation of heat bj the oonent, and, as we hare seen, it is
proportional to the sqaare of the current^ and is the same whether
the coRent be in the positive or the negative direction, llieseoond
we may caU the Peltier eflfect, which changes its sign with that
of the cmrent.
The total heat generated in a portion of a compound conductor
consisting of two metals may be expressed by
where II is the quantity of heat, / the mechanical equivalent of

unit of heat, li the resistance of the conductor, C the current, and
/ the time ; Fl being the coefficient of the Peltier effect, that is,
the heat absorbed at the juuctiou due to the passage of unit of

current for unit of time.
Now the heat generated is mechanically equivalent to the work
done against electrical forces in the conductor, that is, it is equal
to the product of the current into the electromotive force producing
it. Hence, if E is the external electromotive force which causes
the current to flow through the conductor,
whence S^RC-^JU,
It appears from this equation that the external electromotive
force rcHiuiied to drive the current through the compound conductor
is less than that due to its resistance alone by the electromotive
force /n. Hence JU represents the electromotive contact force
at the junction acting in the positive direction.
This application, due to Sir W. Thomson *, of the dynamical
theory of heat to the determination of a local electromotive force
is of great scientific importance^ since the ordinary method of
connecting two points of the compound oonductor with the elec-
trodes of a galvanometer or electroscope by wires would be uselc^^s,
owing to the contact foioes at the junctions of the wires with

the materials of the compound conductor. In the thermal method,
on the other hand, we know that the only source of energy is the
current of electricity, and that no work is dono by the current
in a certain portion of the circuit except in heating that portion
of the conductor. If, thereforoj we can measura the amount of the
• Proe. Jt B, Xm., Deo. Iff, 18S1 ; «id Tnn». R. 8. EHm^ 1854.
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302 CONTACT FO&CS. [250
current and the amount of heat produced or absorbed, we can

delerniini' the eleotromotive force required to urge the current
through that portion of the conductor, and this measurement is
entirely independent of the effect of contact forces in other parts of

the circuit.
The electromotive force at the junction of two metals, as de-
termined by this method, does not account for Yolta'a electromotive
force as described in Art 246. The latter k in general far greater
than that of this Article, and is sometimes of opposite sign. Henoe
the assumption that the potential of a metal is to be measured by
that of the air in contact with it most be erroneous, and the greater •
part of Yolta's eleetranotive force mnst be sought for, not at the

two metals, bat at one or both of the surfaces which
junction of the
aepamte the metak firom the air or other medium which fcfms the
third element of the eiieiut.
S50.] The diaooTeiy bjr Seebeck of theimoeleetrie onrrenta m
eiicuiia of different metals with theur junotkms at difoent tem-
peratures, ahewB that these contact foroea do not alwaya balanoe
each other in a oomplete drcuit. It is mani&st^ however, that
in a complete cueuit of different metals at uniform temperature the
contact forces must balanoe eaeh other. For if tiiia were nolT the
case there would be a euirent formed in the cireuitk and this ounent
might be employed to work a maehine or to generate heat in the
circuit, iliat is, to do work, while at the same time there is no
expenditure of energy, as the circuit is all at the same temperature,
and no chemical or other change takes place. Hence, if the Peltier
effect at the junction of two metals a and i be represented by n,,^
when the current flows from a to b, then for a circuit of two metals
at the same temperature we must have
n„,.+n^^ = 0,
and for a circuit of three metals a, by c, we must have

n»«+n^+nrt = o.
It follows from this equation that the three Peltier effbcts are not
independent, but that one of them can be deduced from the other
two. For instance, if we suppose e to be a standard metal, and
if we write P. = 7n« and » lU^ , then
The quantity P„ is a function of the temperature, and depends on

the nature of llie metal a.
251.] It has also been shewn by Magnus that if a circuit is
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251J THBBXOELEOTBIO PHSNOMBKA. 303
formed of a single metal no current will be fonned in it, however

the section of the condnotor and the temperature may vtay in
difoent parts.
Since in this case there is conduction of heat and conseqnient
dissâtion of energy, we cannotj as in the former case, consider this
result as self-evident. The electromotive foice, for instance, between
two portions of a circuit might have depended on whether the
current was passing firom a thick portion of the conductor to a thin
on its passing rapidly or slowly irom a
one, or the reverse, as well as
hot portion to a cold one, or the reverse, and this would have made
a current possible in an unequally heated dreuit of one metal.
Hence, by the same reasoning as in the case of Peltier's phe-
nomenon, we find that if the passage of a currant through a
conductor of one metal produces any thermal effect which is re-
versed when the current is reversed, this can only take place when
the current flows from places of high to places of low temperature,
or the reverse, and if the heat generated in a conductor of one
metul in flowing Ironi a place where the temperature is a? to a
place where it is is 11, then
. and the electromotive force tending to maintain the current will

be 8^,
If dT, y, be the tenqperatures at three points of a homogeneous
circuit, we must have
according to the result of Magnus. Hence, if we suppose to be

the aero iemperatnie^ and if we put
(i,^S„ and Q, = S,„
we find S^, — Q^—Q^,
where Q« is a function of the temperature 0, the form of the
function depending on the nature of the metal.
If we now consider a circuit of two metals a and b in which
the temperature is « where the current passes fiom d to 5, and
y where it passes foom ^ to a, the electromotive force will be
where signifies the value of P for the metal a at the tempera-

ture X, or
Since in unequally heated eircmts of different metals there are in
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304 ODVTACT FOECl. [252
g-eneral thermoelectric currents, it follows that P and Q are in

general dilferent f«jr the same metal and same tt-rajHirature.
252.] The existence of the quantity Q was first demonstrated by
Sir W. Tli< in>'<n. in the memoir we have referred to, as a deduction
from the phenomenon of thermoelectric inversion discovered by
Cumming-^, who found that the order of certain metals in the ther-
moelectric scale is dilferent at hig-h and at low temperatures, so that
for a certain temperature two metals may be neutral to each other.

Thus, in a cin tiit of copper and iron if one junction be kept at the
ordinar}' temperature while the temperature of the other is raised,
a current sets from copper to iron through the hot junction, and
the electromotive force continues to increase till the hot junction
has reached a temperature T, which, according to ThomMn^ is
about 284°C. When the tempentme of the hot junction is raised

still farther the electromotive force is reduced, and at last, if the
temperature be raised high enoiigfa, the canrent is reveraed. The
reversal of the current may be obtained more easily by iaising the
temperature of the colder jnnctioii. If the temperature of both
jonctioiis is above T the current sets from iron to copper through
the hotter jimctioii, that is, in the reverse direetioii to that ob-
served when both jnnctions are below T,
Henoe, if one of the junctions is at the neatial tempemtore T
and the other is either hotter or colder, the cnnent will set from
copper to iron through the junction at the neatial temperatoie.
268.] From tiiis &ct Thomson reasoned as follows
Snppose the other junction at a tanperature lower than T,
The current may be made to work an engine or to generate heat in
a wirCj and this eipenditure of energy must be kept up by the
transformation of heat into electric energy, that is to say, heat
mast disappear somewhera in the drcuit. Now at the tempen^
tare T iron and copper are neutral to each other, so that no
reversible thermal effect is produced at the hot junction, and at
the cold junction there is, by Peltier's principle, an evolution of
heat. Hence the only place where the heat can disappear is in the
copper or iron portions of the circuit, so that cither a current in
ir(»n from hot to cold must cool the iron, or a current in copper
from cold to hot must cool the copper, or hoth these effects may
take place. By an elaborate series of ingenious expei inieuts Thom-
son succeeded in detecting;' the reversible thermal action of the
current in passing between parts of different temperatures, and
• CaiMigt TroMtaetioiu, 1628.
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254-] EXPBBIUBNTS OF TAIT. 305
he fbinid that the cnnent produced opposite eflbetB in copper and

in iion'*^.
When a stream of a material fluid paflaes along a tube from

a hot part to a cold part it heats the tnbe, and when it passes
fipom cold to hot it cools the tube, and these effects d^nd on
the specifio eiîadly he heat of the fldd. If we supposed deo-
tridty, whether podtive or negative, to he a material flaid, we
might measure its specific heat by the thermal effect on an im-
equally heated conductor. Now Thomson's experiments shew that
positive electricity in copper and negative electricity in iron carry
heat with them from hot to cold, Henoe, if we supposed either
positive or neg'ative electricity to be a lluid, capable of being
heated and cooled, and of connnimicating' heat to other bodies, we
should find the supposition contradicted by iron for positive elec-
tricity and by copper for ncfâtive electricity, so that we should
have to abandon both hy|)othesps.
This scientific prediction of the reversible effect of an electric
current upon an unequally heated conductor of one metal is another
instructive example of the application of the theory of Conservation
of Energy to indicate new directions of scientific research. Thomson
has also applied the Second Law of Tlierniodynaniics to indicate
relations between the quantities which we have denoted by P
and Q, and has investigated the possible thermoelectric properties
of bodies whose structure is different in diflerent directions. He
has also investigated experimentally the conditions under which
these properties are developed by pressure, ma^'^netization, &c.
254.] Professor Taitf has recently investigated the electro-
motive force of thermoelectric circuits of different metals, having
their junctions at diflTerent tempexatures. He finds that the elec-
tromotive force of a circuit may be expressed eiy accniately by
the formula
where ^ b the absolute temperature of the hot junction^ ^ that

of the cold junction, and ^ the temperature at whidi the two metals
are neutral to each other. The fiujtor a is a ooeffident depending
on the nature of the two metals composing the ciiouit This law .
has been verified through condderable ranges of temperature by

Professor Tait and his students, and he hopes to make the tiiermo-
deetrio ciroait available as . a thermometric instrument in his
• « On the Electrodjmamic Qualities of Metals.' Phil. Tran$., 1856.

t Proc. R. 8. £dM., Seiaion 1870-71. p. 308, also Dec. 18, 1871.
VOL. I. X
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806 CONTAOP fOBCS. [254-
eiperiiDaiitf cm fbe oondnction of hetlk, and in other owes in wlaA

the menmrial thennometer ie not oooTonient or hae not a enfficient
iBoge.
Aooordiiig to Tut*i theory, the qaantiiy idiidi Thomeon cdk
the epedfic heat of eleetricity is proportumal to the absoliite tem-
perature in each pore metal, thon^ magnitude and even ite
tta
sign vary in dil!brent metab. From he has dednoed hy ther-
this
modjnamic principles the following results. Let k^t, k\t, k^t
be the specific heats of electricity in three metals a, b, c, and let
T'bc, T^^, be the temperatures at which pains of these metals are
neutral to each other, then the equations
£^ = ih-^ [^--4
express the relation of the neutral tempefatures, the value of the
Peltier effeot» and the electzomotive force of a thermoeleotrie oironit.
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CHAPTER IV.
BLSCT&OLYBia.
EUdrol^ftie Condueium,
255.] I HAVE already stated that when an electric current in

any part of its circuit passes through certain compound substances
called Electrolytes, the passage of the current is accompanied by
a certain chemical process called Electrolysis, in which the substance
is resolved into two coni})onents called Ions, of which one, called
the Anion, or the electronegative comj>onent, appears at the Anode,
or place where the current enters the electrolyte, and the other,
called the Cation^ appears at the Cathode, or the plaoe where the
current leaves the electrolyte.
The complete investigation of Electrolysis belongs quite as miioll
to Chemistry as to Electricity. We shAll consider it from an
electrical point of view, without discusnng tte application to the
theory of the constitution of chemical compounds.
Of all electrical phenomena electrolysis appeftn the most likely
to famish ns with a real insight into the tiiie natnre of the electric
eorrenty because we find currents of ordinaiy matter and canwnts
of eleetricitj forming essential parts of the same phenomenon.
It is probably for this veij raaaon tiuiti in the present imperfectly
fbnned state of our ideas about eleotricityi the theories of eleetro-
Ijrsis are so misatisfiustoiy.
The fhndamfintal law of eleotrolysiai which was established by
Eaiaday, and confirmed by the experiments of Beets, Hittorf, and
others down to the present time, is as follows :
The number of deotrochemieal equiyalents of an electrolyte which

are decomposed by the passsge of an electric current during a given
time is equal to tiie number of units of eleotriciiy which an trans-
fisned by the current in the same time.
The eLeotroohMnieal equivalent of a snbstanoe is that quantify
X%
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308 XLIOTBOLTBIB. [255-
of the sabttoiioe wluoh ii electiolyied by a untt eonent panhig

through the sabsUnoe &r a imit of time, or, in other words, by the
passage of a. unit of eleotrieitjr. When the unit of eleelriinty is
defined in absolute measure the absolute value of the electro-
chemical equivalent of each substance can be deteimined in grains
or in grammes.
The electrochemical equivalents of different substances are pro-
portional to their ordinary chemical equivalents. Uie otdinaxy
chemical equivalents, however, are the mere numerical ratios in
which the substances comlmie, whereas the deotrochemical equi-
valents are quantities of matter of a determinate magnitude, de-
pending on the definition of the unit of electricity.
Every electrolyte consists of two components, which, during the
electrolysis, appear where the current enters and leaves the eleo-
trolyte, aiul nowhere else. Hence, we conceive a surface described
if
within the subsitance of the electrolyte, tlic amount of electrolysis
which takes place through this surface, as measured by the clec-

troeheniical ecûivalents of the components transferred across it
in opposite directions, will be proportioual to the total electric

current throtii>h the surface.
The actual transfer of the ions throug'h the substance of the
electrolyte in opposite directions is therefore part of the phenomenon
of the conduction of an electric current throug'h an electroHix?. At
every |>oint of the electrolyte throug-h which an electric current
is passing- there are also two opposite material currents of the anion
and the cation, which have the same lines of flow with the dectrio
current, and are proportional to it in magnitude.
It is therefore extremely natural to suppose that the currents of
the ions are convection currents of electricity, and, in particular,
that every molecule of the cation is charged with a certain fixed
quantity of positive electricity, which is the same for the molecules
of all cations, and that every molecule of the anion is charged with
an equal quantity of negative electricity.
The opposite motion of the ions through the electrolyte would
then be a complete physical representation of the electric current.
We may compare this motion of the ions with the motion of gases
and through each other during the process of difltasion,
liquids
there being this difference between the two in
difibsion, the different substances are only mixed together and tike
mixture is not homogeneous, whereas in electrolyns they are chemi-
cally combined and the electrolyte is homogeneous. In diflAunon
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257.] THBOBT OF CLAUSIUB. 809
the detemuniDg cause of the motion of a anbstiaiioe in a given
direction is a diminotion of the quantity of that sabstanoe per

unit of volame in that direction^ wheieas in dectrolyBie the motion
of each ion is due to the eUotromotiTe force acting on the chaiged
molecnlee.
2^6.] Chrarins*, who has heetowed mnefa etndj on the theory
of the molebular agitation of bodies, supposes that the molecules
of all bodies are in a state of constant agitation, bat that in solid
bodies each molecule never passes beyond a certain distance from
its original position, whereas in fluids a molecule, after moving
a certain distance from its original position^ is just as likely to
move still farther from it as to move back aâin. Hence the
molecules of a fluid apparently at rest are continually chang-ing^
their positions, and passing irregularly from one part of the ihud
to another. In a compound fluid he supposes that not only the
compound molecules travel about in this way, but that, in the
cnllisionswhich occur between the compound molecules, the mole-
cules of which they are composed are often separated and change
partners, so that the same individual atom is at one time associated
with one atom of the opposite kind, and at another time with another.
This process Clausius supposes to go on in the liquid at all times, but
when an electromotive force acts on the liquid the motions of the
molecules, which before were indifferently in all directions, are now
influenced by the electromotive force, so that the positively charged
molecules have a greater tendency towards the cathode than towards
the anode, and the negatively charged molecules hare a greater
tendency to move in the opposite direction. Hence the molecules
of the cation will during their intervals of freedom struggle towards
the cathode, but will continually be checked in their course by
pairing for a time with molecules of the anion, which are also
straggling through the crowd, but in the opposite direction.
257.] This theory of Clansins enables ns to understand how it is,
that whereas the actnal decomposition of an eieetrolyte requires an

electromotive force of finite magnitade, the conduction of the
enrrent in the electrolyte obeys the law of Ohm, so that every
deetromotive force within the electrolyte, even the feeblest^ prodooes
a enrrent of proportionate magnitude.
According to the theory of Glausinaf the decompoeition and
reoomposition of the electrolyte is oontinually going on even when
there is no current, and the very HBeblest electromotive fbroe is
• Fogg. Ann. bd. u. li. 338 (1867).
SIO ILBCTBOLTIB. [258.
gsfficsent to gim tlm proces a cstein degree of daectaon, and so
the ions an nerer aet free in fintia qoMttitj, and it is this liberation
of .the iona which reqniiea a finite electromotiTe Ibroe. At the
olacUud wthe iona aoenmnlate, far the snooessiye portions of the
uma, ao tiiqr aime aft the eieetiodM^ mafiad of finding nMdecnka of
tho oppoaite Ion nadj to oomhiBa with ttam, am fiMoed into eona-
pnnj with molaeolaa of their own kind, with which thcj cannot
oombine. The dectromotive finoe leqnind to pfodnee thia effisot
ia of finite nagnitode, and fimna an oppoaing electromotife foraa
whidi piodncaa a xemacd ciinent when other dectranotiYa finwaa
aie xemoved. When this nifoiaod eloctroinoti ye fiM<ee» owipg to
the aoeomnktion of the iona at the eleetiode, ia ohoerfed, the
electrodea are «ud to be Polarized.
258.] One of the beat methoda of determining whether a bodj
ia or ia not an electrolyte ia to place it between pbtinam elaetrodea
and to paaa a enrrent tibfoagli k fisr aome tfane, and then, dia-'
engaging the electrodes from the Toltaic battery, and connecting
them with a <;;tilvanometer, to observe whether a reverse current,
due to polarization of the electrodes, passes throu^'li the ^Mlvano-
meter. Such a cuiTtnt, Uing- due to accumulation of ditieront
substances on the two electrodes, is a proof that the substance has
been electnjlytically decomposed by the original current from the
l)attcry. Tliis method can often be applied where it is ditiicult,
by direct chemical methods, to detect the presence of the products

of decomposition at the electrodes. Se<' Art. 271.
259.J So far as we have ij-onc the the<»ry of electrolysis appears

very satisfactory. It explains the electric current, the nature of
which we do nnt understand, by means of the ciurents of the
material components of the electrolyte, the motion of which,
thouj^h not visible to the eye, is easily demonstrated. It gives a
clear explanation, as Faraday has shewn, wh}- an electrolyte which
conducts in the liquid state is a non-conductor when solidified, for
unless the molecules can pass from one part to another no eleo-
trolytic conduction can take phwe, so that the substance must
be in a liquid state^ either hy fusion or by solution, in order to be
a conductor.
But if we go on, and assume that the molecules of the ions
within the electrolyte are aetoally ohaiged with oertain definite
qnantitiea of electricity, poeitive and negstiTey so that the elec-
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MOLECULAR CHARGE. 311
trolytic current is simply a current of convection, we find that this

tempting hypothesis leads us into very difficult ground.
In the first place, we must assume that in every electrolyte each
molecule of the cation, as it is liheratod at the cathode, commu-
nicates to the cathode a charge of positive electricity, the amount
of which is the same for every molecule, not only of that cation
but of all other cations. In the same way each molecule of the
anion when liberated, communicates to the anode a charge of
negative electricity, the numerical magnitude of which is the same
as that of the positive charge due to a molecule of a cation, but
with sign reversed.
If, instead of a single molecule, we oonsider an aesemblage of
molecules, constituting an electrochemical equivalent of the ion^
then the total charge of all the molecules is, as we have seen, ono
unit of electricity, positive or negative.
1^.] We do not as yet know how many molecales there are
in an electrochemical equivalent of any substance^ bat the molecnlaF
theory of chemistijj which isby many physical con*
corroborated
siderations, supposes that the number of molecnlee in an eleo-
tioohemical equivalent ia the same for all substanoes. We nmj
therefore, in moleciilar apecolationex aasome that the number ci
molecnlefl in an eleotrochemioal equivalent is iV, a number unknown
at pieeentk but which we may hereafter find means to determine*.
Eaeh molecule, therefore, on being liberated firom the state of
combination, parts with a charge whose magnitude is ^,,and is
positive for the oation and negative for the anion. This definite
quantity of electricity we shall call the molecular ohaige. If it
were known it would be the most natural unit of electricity.
Hitherto we have only increased the precision of our ideas by
ezeioising our imagination in tracing the electrification of molecules
and the discharge of that electrification.
The liberation of the and the passage of positive eleetricify
ions
horn the anode and into the cathode are simultaneous facts. The
ions,when liberated, are not charged with electricity, hence, when
they are in combination, they have the molecular charges as above
described.
The electrification of a molecule, however, though easily spoken
of, is not so easily conceived.
We know that if two metals arc brought into contact at any
* See note to Art. 6.
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312 SL1CTA0LT8I& [260.
point, the rest of their sor&oes will be electrified, and if the metals
are in the finrn of two platei lepnnitod by n narrow internal of air^
tho chuge on each plate may beeome of eoneideiable magnitude.
Somediiii^ like this maj be ufymd to oceor when the two
eomponenti of an dectndyte are in combinaHon. Each pair of
molecales may be snppoeed to toaeh at one point, and to have the
rart of their aoifiwe duuged wilh deetricit^ doe to the eleetro-
motiTe finee of contact.
Bnt to e]q^lain the phmomenoB, ^
ought to ihew why the
duBge thna prodnoed on each moleeole ia of s fixed amonnti and
why, when a moleeole of dilorine ia combined with a radeenle of
zinc, the mohwolar chaiges are the ame as when a moleonle of
ddorine ia combined with a moleeole of copper^ akhoagh the eleo-
tranotiYe force between chlorine and sine is much greater than
that between chlorine and copper. If the chaiging of the molecoleB
ia the effisct of the deetramoti¥e fime of contact, why shonld
deetromotiTe foroea of different intenaitiea prodooe enctly equal
charges ?
Snppoeey however, that we leap over thia diffienlty by simply
asserting the fiust of the constant of the mokcolar duurge,
-value
and that we call this constant molecular charge, for convenience in
description, one molecule of electricity.
This phrase, gross as it is, and out of harmony with the rest of
this treatise, will enable us at least to state clearly what is knowu
about electrolysis, and to appreciate the outstanding diOleulties.
Every electrol}'te must be considered as a l>inary compound of
its anion and its cation. The anion or the cation or both may be
toinp<»und bodies, so that a molecule of the anion or the cation
miy be lorraed by a number of molecules (if simple lx>dies. A
molecule of the anion and a mole<Mile of the cation combined to-
gether form one molecule of the electrolyte.
In order to act as an anion in an electrolyte, the molecule which
80 acts must be charged with what we have called one molecule
f»f negative electricity, and in order to act as a cation the molecule
must Ije charged with one molecule of positive electricity.
These charges are connected with the molecules only when they
are combined as anion and cation in the electrolyte.
^yhen the molecules are electrolyaed, they part with their chaiges.
to the electrodes, and appear as nndectrified bodies when set free
from combination.
If the same molecule is capable of acting as a cation in one
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26 1.] 8B00NDART PBODUOTS OF SLBCTBOLTBI& 813
electrolyteand as an anion in another^ and also of entering into

oompoond bodies whioh are not electrolytes, then we most suppoee
that it leoeiTeB a positiTe charge of electricity when it acta as a
cation, a negative charge when it acta aa an anion, and that it
ii withoat charge when it is not in an electrolyte.
Iodine, for instance, acts as an anion in the iodides of the metals

and in hydriodic acid, but is said to act as a cation in the bromide
of iodine.
Tliis theory of molecular chargpes may serv'c aa a method by
which we may remember a g-ood many facts about electrolysis.
It is extremely improbable that when we come to uiuierstand the
true nature of electrolysis we shall retain in any form the theory of
molecular charg'es, for then we shall have obtained a secure basis
on which to form a true theory of electric currents, and so become
independent of these provisional theories.
261.] One of the most important steps in our knowledge of
electrolysis has been the recog-nition of the secondary chemical
processes which arise from the evolution of the ions at the elec-
trodes.
In many cases the substances which are found at the electrodes
are not the actual ions of the electrolyaisj but the products of the
action of these ions on the electrolyte.
Thus, when a solution of sulphate of soda is electrolysed by a
corrent which also paoaeo through dilute sulphuric acid, equal
quantities of oxygen are glTcn off at the anodes, and equal quan-
tities of hydrogen at the cathodes, both in the sulphate of soda
and in the dilute acid.
But if the electrolyBisis conducted in smtable voaoob, such as
U-shaped. tabes or vessels with a porona diaphragm, so that the

anbstanoe sommnding each electrode can be examined separately,
it is fonnd that at the anode of the sulphate of soda there is an
eqnivalent of aolphuric aoid as well as an eqnivalent of oa^^gen,

and at the cathode there is an eqaivalent of soda as well aa two
equivalents of hydrogen.
It would ai firat sight seem as if^ according to the old theory
of the oonstitntion of salta, the sulphate of soda were electrolysed
into its constituents sulphuric acidand soda, while the water of the
same time into oxygen and hydrogen.
solution is electrolysed at the
But this eiplanation would involve the admission that tiie same
current which passing through dilute sulphuric acid electrolyses
one equivalent of water, when it passes through solution of sulphate
314 ILICTB0LTBI8.
of aodm electiolyMS one equivalent of the nit as well as one eqni-

Talent of the water, and thia would be coatiary to the law of
Bat If we tompimmU of aalphate of soda aie

eoppoae that the
not SO, and NaO —
bnt 8O4 and Na^ not solphiirio aeid and aodn
—
but aolphion and oodiom then tiie eolpfaion (nTola to the anode
and is set fiee^ but being unable to exist in a ftee state it breaks
np into solphiiric acid and axygat, one equivalent of each. At
the same tune the sodimn is set fiee at the cathode, and there
decomposes the water of the aolntioiia ftnning one equivalent <^
soda and two of hydrogen.
In the dflate solphnrie acid the gases collected at the electrodes
aie the oonstitaents of water, namelj one vohmie of oxygen and
two TolnouB of hydrogen. There is also an increase of solphnrie
acid at the anode, bnt its amount is not equal to an eqaivalent.
It is douhtful whether pare water is an electrolyte or not. The
greater the parity of the water, the greater the resistance to elec-
tmlytic fftnductiou. The minutest traces of foreign matter are
sutiicient to produce a groat diminution of the electrical resistance
of water. The electric resistance of water as determined by ditlerent

observers has values so different that we cannot consider it as a
determined quantity. The purer the water the greater its resistance,
and if we could obtain really pure water it is doubtful whether it

would c<jnduct at all.
As long as water was considered an electrolyte, and was, indeed,
taken as the type of electrolytes, there was a strong reason for
maintaining that it is a binary compound, and that two volumes
of hydrogen are chemically equivalent to one volume of oxygen.
If, however, we admit that water is not an electro!} te, we are free
to suppose that eqoal volumes of oxygen and of hydrogen are
chemically equivalent.
The dynamical theory of gases leads ns to suppose that in perfect
gases equal volumes always contain an equal number of molecules,
and that the principal part of the specific heat, that, namely, which
depends on the motion of agitation of the molecules among each
other, is the same for equal numbers of molecules of all gases.
Henoe we are led to prefer a chemical system in which eqnal
volumes of oxygen and of hydrogen are regarded as equivalent^
and in which water is regarded as a compound* of two equivalents
of hydrogen and one of oj^gen, sad therefore probably not cîahle
of direct electrolysis.
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262.] DTKAMIOAL TBBOBT. 315
While electroljus fully establishes the close relationship between

dflctrical pheDomena and those of cbemioftl combination, the fiust
that eveiy ohemioaL oompoand is not an dectrolyte shews that
chemioal combination is a pxooees of a YoffMBt ofdsr of omplezily
than any poiely electrical phenomenon. Thns the combinations of
the metsls with each other, though they axe good ooDdncton^ and
their components stand at different p<nnts of the scale of eleetri*
fication by contact, are not, even when in a fluid state, decomposed
by tiie correut. Most of the combinations of tiie snbstances which
act as anions are not condnctors, and therefirae are not electrolytes.
Besides tiiese we have many compounds, contuning the same com-
ponents as electrolytes, but not in equivalent proportions, and these
are also non-condnotors, and therefiire not electrolytes.
On Ue QmiervaiioM qfBMrgy ta Electfo^Mt*

262.] Consider any voltaic circuit consisting partly of a battery,
partly of a wire, and partly of an electrolytic cell.
During the passage of unit of electricity through any section of

the circuit, one electrochemical cquivak'ut of each of the substances
in the cells, whether voltaic or electrolytic, is electrolysed.
The amount of mechanical energy equivalent to any given
chemical process can be ascertained by converting the whole energy
due to the process into heat, and then expressing the heat in
dynamical measure by uiultij)lying the number of thermal units by
Joule's meclianical equivalent of lieat.
Where this direct method is not applicable, if we can estimate
the heat given out by the substances taken first in the state before
the i^rocess and then in the state after the process during their
reduction to a final state, which is the same in both cases, then the
thermal equivalent of the process is the difference of the two quan-
tities of heat.
In the case in which the chemical action maintains a voltaic
circuit, Joule found that the heat developed in the voltaic cells is
less than that due to the chemical process within the cell, and that
the remainder of the heat is developed in the connecting wire, or,*
when therean electromagnetic engine in the circuit, part of the

is
heat may be accounted for by the mechanical work of the engine.

For instance, if the decfxodes of the oltaic ceU are firat con-
nected by a diort thick wire, and afterwards by a long thin wire,
the heat developed in the cell for each grain of sine dissolved is
greater in the first case tiian the second^ bnt the heat developed
Diyilizea by VoOOglc
w<i02 l^t ^nBtfitiJ im i&e ecu.
Wat ^nented m is ii m drBMsaol mmbr to the prodnei

of tLc ^fonrthf cf deetridSf vfcidk ii luMiiriinI, nhiifed b
the il«^roaK«if» foee vadcr wfeieh it ii Bade to ftm ^baoofjk
tike wire.
Xov daring the time in wliidi an deetmcfceBinl equip

vilent of the stj-^*^ in the imdersrws the dtemieal proeev
which jfives n.*e to the curren:. '
r.- '^nit of electricity pMOCi
throiagh thft wTr*>. Hence, the heat dcvel- ped hj the passage
of one unit of electricity is in this case meaûre-i by the electro-
motiire force. But this heat is th^t which one electrochemical
e^ûivalent of the sul/stance g-enerate*. whether in the cell or in the
wire, while undergoing the given chemical process.
llt ticf th«' follovring important theorem, first proTed by Thomson
d'AU. ]h i . 1851):—
' 'Hk; elfj^lromotive force of an electrochemical apparatus is in
ahwoliitc rrif-a'-tire e<jnal to the mechanical equivalent of the chemical
action on on*- • IcrtrochemifTil equivalent of the substance.'
The thermal equivalents ol" many chemical actions have been
(\t'\*Tw'imAby Andrews, Hess, Favre and Silbermann, &c., and from
theMc their mechanical equivalents can he deduced by multiplicatioii
by th '
mechanical equivalent of heat.
TliiH f hcorom not only enables us to calculate btan. purely Uiermal
dnia the electromotive force of different voltaic arrangements, and
the electromotive foroe required to effect electrolysis in different
cafl4)s, but affords the means of actually measuring chemical affinity.
It has lonf|» been known that chemical affinity^ or the tendency

which exiite towardi the going on of a certain chemical change,
k itronger in iome caeei than in otiieie, bat no proper meaenre
of ihii tendency conld be made till it was ahewn that thia tendency
in certain coeei ii exactly equiyalent to a certain electromotive
Diyiiized by Google
263O CALCULATION -09 ELKCTEOMOTIVE FOBCB. 317
force, and can therefore be measured according to the yery same

principles used in the measurement of electromotiTe forces.
ChonioBl affinily being therefore^ in certain cases> lednced to
the finrn of a measniable qoantily, the whole theory of chemical
prooesBes^ of the rate at which they go on, of the displacement of
one snbstance by another, 9do,, becomes mneh more intelligible than
when chemical affinily was regarded as a qnality sui genmi, and
irredoeible to nomerical measarement.
When the Tolnme of the products of electrolysis is greater than
tiiat of the electrolyte, work done during the electrolysis in
is
overcoming the pressnro. If the volume of an electrochemical

equivalent of the electrolyte is increased by a Tolume v when
electrolysed under a preasuro j>, then the work done during the
passage of a unit of electricity in overcoming preasnro w vp, and
the electromotive force required hr electrolysis must include a
part equal to vj), which is spent in performing this mecbanical
work.
If the products of electrolysis arc gases which, like oxy^n and
hydrogen, are much rarer than the electrolyte, and tultil Boyle's
law very exactly, vp will be very nearly qonstant for the same
temperature, and the electromotive force required for electrolysis
will not depend in any sensible degree on the pn»ssure. Hence it
has been found impossible to chook the electrolytic decomposition

of dilute sulphuric acid by coniining the decomposed gases in a
small space.
When the products of electrolysis are li(piid or solid the quantity
V p will increase as the pressure increases, so that if v is positive
an increase of pressure will increase the electromotive force required
for electrolysis.
In the same way, any other kind of work done during electro-
lysis willhave an efifect on the value of the electromotive force,
as, for instance^ if a vertical current passes between two zinc
electrodes in a solution of sulphate of zinc a greater electromotive

force will be required when the current in the sohition flows
upwards than when it flows downwards^ for, in the first case, it
carries zinc from the lower to the upper electrode, and in the
second from the upper to the lower. The electromotive force
required for this purpose is less than the millionth part of that
of a Darnell's cell per foot.
CHAPTER V.
ELBCTBOLTTIC POLARIZATION.
864.] Wmni an dectrio cumnt is pawed through an daetro^yte

hoanded by metal electrodea, the aoeamdatioii of the iona at the
electvodea prodnoea the phenomenon called Pohuriiation, whiek
oonauita in an electromotiTe force acting in the oppoaite diieotuni
to the current, and producing an apparent inoreaae of the reiiatanoe.
When a continnona current is employed, the reeutance uppmn
to increase rapidly from tiie oommencement of the correntj and
at last reaches a value nearly constant. If the form of the yessel
ill which the electrolyte is cH)ntained is ehang-ed, the resistance is
altcTed in the same way as a similar chang-e of form of a metallic
conductor would alter its resistance, but an additional apparent
resistance, depending" on the nature of the electrodes, has always
to be added to the true resistance of the electrolyte.

265.1 These phenomena have led some to suppose that there is
a finite electromotive force required for a current to ])ass through

an electrolyte. It has been shewn, however, by the researches of
Lenz, Neumann, Beetz, Wiedemann*, Paalzow f, and recently' by
those of MM. F. Kohlrausch and \V. A. Nipjx)ldtJ, that the con-

duction in the electrolyte itself obeys Ohm's Law with the same
precision as in metallic conductors, and that the apparent resistance
at the bounding surface of the electrolyte and the electrodea is
entirely due to polarization.
266.] The phenomenon called polarization manifests itself in
the case of a continnons current by a diminution in the coirenl^
indicating a force oppoeed to the corrent. Resistance is also per-
ceived aa a force oppoaed to the cnrrent^ but we can diatingniah
* (ialvanUmtu, bd. i. f Berlin Monaidtcricht. July, 1868.

t ^m- M. oxuvffL I. 886 (Oetobor, 1869).
Diyiiized by Google
267.] DI8TINOUI8HBD FBOM RBSIflTANGB. 819
between the two phenomena by iratantaneouBlj removing or re-

versing the eleotromotive foioe.
The xesistiiig force is always opposite in directioii to the onrrent^
and the extenial electiomotiye Ibroe required to overcome it is
proportional to the strength of the current, and changes its direo-
tion when the direction of the cnrrent is changed. If the external
electromotive force becomes sero the current simply stops.
The electromotive force dne to polarizationj on the other hand,
is in a fixed direction, opposed to the cnrrent wbieb produced it.
If the electromotive force wbicfa prodnoed the current is removed,
the polarization produces a current in the opposite direction.
Tbe di£Ebrenoe between the two phenomena may be compared
witb the difference between forcing a current of water through
a long* capillary tabe, and forcing water through a tabe of moderate
length up into a dstem. In the first esse if we remove the pressure
which produces the flow the current will simply stop. In the
we remove the pressure the water will begin to
second case, if flow
down again from the cistern.
To make the mechanical illustration more complete, we have only
to suppose that the cistern is of moderate depth, so that when a
certain amouut of water is raised into it, it begins to overflow.
This will represent the fact that the total electromotive force due
to polarization has a maximum limit.
267.] The cause of polarization appears to be the existence at

the electrodes of the products of the electrolytic decomposition of
the fluid between them. The surfaces of the electrodes are thus
rendered electrically ditferent, and an electromotive force between
them is called into action, the direction of which is opposite to that
of the current which caused the polarization.
Tlie ions, which by their presence at the electrodes produce the
phenomena of polarization, are not in a perfectly free state, but
are in a condition in which they adhere to the sui&oe of the
electrodes with considerable force.
The electromotive force due to polarization depends upon the
density with which the electrode is covered with the ion, but it
is not proportional to this density, for the eleotromotive force does

not increase so rapidly as this density.
This deposit of the ion is constantly tending to become free,
and either to diffuse into the liquid^ to escape as a gas, or to be
precipitated as a solid.
The rate of this dissipation of the polariation is exceedingly
320 BLBCFROLTTIO POLABIZATIOK. [268.
small for slight degrees of polarization, and exoeedingly n^fnd near

the limiting- value of polarization.
268.] We have seen, Art. 262, that the electromotive force acting
in any electrolytic process is nnmericaUy equal to the mechanical
equivalent of the ranilt of that proeeei on one electrochemical
equivalent of the enhstanoe. If the prooeee involves a diminution
of the intrinaio eneigy of the lubstanoee which take part in it,
ae in the voltaic cell, then the electromotive force is in the direction

of the current. If the process involves an increase of the intrinsic
eneigy of the snhstsnoes, as in the case of the electrolytic cell,
the electromotive finoe is in the direction opposite to that of the
current, and this electromotive force is called polarisation.
In the case of a steady current in which electrolysis goes on
continuoudy, and the ions are separated in a free state at the
electrodes, we have only by a suitable proeess to measure the
intrinsio energy of the separated ions, and compare it with that
of the electrolyte in order to calculate the electromotive force
required for the electrolysis. This will give the maximum p<dari-
zation.
But daring the first instants of the process of electrolysis the
ions when deposited at the electrodes are not in a free state, and
their intrinsic energy is less than their energy in a free state,
though greater than their energy when combined in the electrolyte.
In fact, the ion in (.outact with the electrode is in a state which
when the deposit is very thin may be compared with that of
chemical combination with the electrode, but as the deposit in-
creases in density, the succocding portions are no longer so in-
timately combined with tlie electro<le, but sim])ly adhere to it, and
at last the deposit, if gaseous, escapes in bubbles, if liquid, diffuses
through the electrolyte, and if solid, forms a precipitate.
In studying polarization we have therefore to consider
(1) The superficial density of the deposit, which we may call
0-. This quantity 9 represents the number of electrochemical
equivalents of the ion deposited on unit of area. Since each
electrochemical equivalent deposited corresponds to one unit of
electricity transmitted by the current, we may consider <r as re-
presenting either a surface-density oi matter or a surfiuse-density of
electricity.
(2) The electromotive force of polarization, which we may call p.

This quantity p is the difference between the electric potentials
of the two electrodes when the current through the deetrdlyte i
Diyiiized by Google ^
270.] DISSIPATION OF TBI DXFOBIT. 821
is 80 feeble tliat ibe proper resigtanoe of the deetrolyte makes no

sensible diflbtenee between tbese potentials.
The eleetromotive force p at anjr instant is nomerically equal
to the mechanical eqniTalait of the dectroljtic process going on at
that instant which corresponds to one electrochemical equivalent of
the electrolyte. This electrolytic process, it must be remembered,
consists in the deposit of the ions on the electrodes, and the state
in which they are de])()sited depends on tlie actual state of the
surface of the electrodes, which may be modified by previous
deposits.
Hence the electromotive force at any instant depends on the
previous history of the electrode. It is, speaking very roug-hly,
a function of cr, the density of the deposit, such that jo = 0 when
(T = 0, but p approaches a limiting value much sooner than <t does.
The statement, however, that is a function of cr cannot be
considered accurate. It would be more correct to say that p is
a function of the chemical state of the superficial layer of the

deposit, and that this state depends on the densit>y of the deposit
according to some law involving the time.
269.] (3) The third thing we must take into account is the
dissipation of the polarization. The polarization when left to itself
diminishes at a rate depending partly on the intensity of the
polarization or the density of the deposit, and partly on the nature
of the surrounding medium, and the chemical, mechanioal, or thermal
action to which tiie sur&oe of the electrode is exposed.
If we determine a time T snch that at the rate at which
the deposit is dissipated, the whole deposit would be removed in
a time T, we may call T the modnlns of tiie time of dissipation.
When tiie density of tiie deposit is very small, T is very large,
and may be reokoned by days or months. "When the density of
the deposit approaehes its limiting Yalne T diminishes veiy rapidly,
and is probably a minute fraction of a second. In fiust, tiie rate
of dissipation increases so rapidly that when the strength of the
current is maintained constant, tiie separated gas, instead of con*
tribnting to increase the density of the deposit, escapes in bubbles
as &st as it is formed.
270.] There is therefore a gêat difference between the state of
polarization of the electrodes of an electrolytic cell when the polari-
zation is feeble, and when it is at its maximum value. For instance,
if a number of electrolytic cells of dilute sulphuric acid with
platinum electrodes are arranged in series, and if a small electro-
VOL. I. T
Diyiiized by Google
322 XLBCTBOLTnC POLARIZATION. L^7^-
motiye foroe, such as that of one Daniel I's be tnide to act

cell,
on the circuit, the electromotive force will produce a current of

exceedingly short duration, for after a very short time the elec-
tromotive force arising from the polArizatioii of the cell will bftlanoe
t!iat of the Daniell's celL
The dissipation will be very small in the caae of 00 feeUe a state
of polarization, and it will take place by a very dow absorption
of the gases and di£fusion thxoii^lL the liquid. The rate of this
dissipation is indicated bj the exeeedinglj feeble cnmat which
tiU oontinaea to flow without any^ Tiedble eeparatioii of gases.
If we neglect this dissipation for the short time daring whieh
the state of polarizatioa is we call Q the totsl
set np^ and if
quantity of electricity which is transmitted by the current daring
tikis timey then if J is the ana of one of the electrodes, and v
the denatijy of the deposit, snpposed nniform,

Q= Aa.
If we now disconnect the electrodes of the electrolytic apparatus
from the Daniell's cell, and connect them with a galvanometer
capable of measuring the whole discharge through it, a quantity
of electricity nearly equal to Q will be disehaiged as the polari*
cation disappears.
271.] Hence we may compare the action of this apparatus, which
is a form of Ritter's Seeundaiy Pile, with that of a Leyden jar.
lioth the sectjiularv jiile and the Leydeii jar are capable of being
cliar^'ed with a ctrtaiii amount of electricity, and of being after-
wards discharg-ed. During- tlie dischar^ê a (juantity of electricity
nearly equal to the charge pa-yes in the opposite direction. The
ditference l)ot\veen the charge and the discharge arises j>artly fr(»ni
dissi[)ation, a process which in the case of small char<^'-es is very
slow, but which, when the charge exceeds a certain limit, l)eeumes
exceedingly rapid. Another j)art of the dilierence between the charge
and the discharge arises from the fact that after the electrodes
have been connected for a time sufficient to produce an apparently
complete discharge^ so that the current has completely disappeared,
if we separate the electrodes for a time, and afterwards iX)nnect
them, we obtain a second discharge in the same direction as the
original discharge. This is called the residual discharge^ and is a
phenomenon of the Leyden jar as well as of the secondary pile.
The secondary pile may therefore be compared in several respects
to a Leyden jar. Tla re are^ howcTer, certain important differences.
The charge of a Leyden jar is very exactly proportional to the
Diyiiized by Google
00MPABI80K WITH LETDBN JAB. 323
electromotive force of the charge, that is, to the difference of

potentialB of the two surfiices, and the charge corresponding to nnit
of eleetvomotiYe foroe is called the capacitj of the jar, a constant
qnantitj. Hie oonesponding quantity, whicb may be called the
capacity of the secondary pile^ increases when the dectromotiTe
force increases.
The capacity of the jar depends on the area of the opposed
surfaces^ on the distance between them^ and on the nature of the
substance between them, bat not on the nature of the metallic
surfiMses themselves. The capacit} of the secondary pile depends
on the area of the surfiiMses of the electrodes, but not on the dbtance
between them^ and it depends on the nature of the snrfiuse of the
electrodes, as well as on that of the fluid between them. The
imnrimnm difihrence of the potentials of the electrodes in each
element of a secondary pile is very small compared with the maxi-
mum difference of the potentials of those of a charged Leyden jar,
so that in order to obtain much electromotive force a pile of many

elements must bt; used.
On the other hand, the superficial density of the charge in the
secondary pile is immensely greater than the utmost superficial
density of the charg-e which can be accumulated on the surfaces
of a Leyden jar, insonmch that Mr. C. F. Varley *, in describing
the construction of a corulenser of <^roat capacity, recommends a
series of gold or platinum plates iuunersed iu dilute acid as prefer-
able in point of cheapness to iuductiou phites of tinfoil separated

by insulating material.
The form in which the energy of a Leyden jar is stored up
is the state of constraint of the dielectric between the conducting
surfaces, a state which I have already described under the name

of electric polarization, pointing out thoee phenomena attending
this state which are at present known, and indicating the im-
perfect state of our knowledge of what really takes place. See
Arts. 62, 111.
The form in which the energy of the secondary pile is stored
up is the chemical condition of the material stratum at the sur&ce

of the electrodes, comdsting of the ions of Uie electrolyte and the
substance of the electrodes in a relation varying from chemical
combination to superficial condensation, mechanical adherence^ or
simple juxtaposition.
The seat of this energy is dose to the snrfiuses of the electrodes,
*
• Rpodftoitkm of 0. F. Varley, •
Bboferio XWlegrapha, fte.,* Jan.
12 •
Diyiiized by Google
824 ELBCTBOLTnO F0LABI2ATI0K.
and not throngfaoot the saMmoe of the eledxoljte, and the form
in which it cxistB maj be called electEoljtic pohuncation.
After Btadyingr th6 eeoondaiy pile in connexion witii the Lejdem
jar» the student ahonld again compare the voltaic batteiy with
some form of the electrical madiinei aneh aa that deieribed in
Art. 211.
Mr.yarle7 has lately* found that the opacity of one eqinaxe
inch is from 175 to 542 microfiuads and upwards for platinum
plates in dilute salphnric add, and that the capacity increases with
the electromotiTe force^ being about 175 for 0.02 of a BsnieH's
cell, and 542 for 1.6 Darnell's cells.
But the comparison between the Leyden jar and the secondary
pile may be carried still farther, as in the following' experiment,
due to Bulff. It is only when the glass of the jar is cold that
it is capable of retaining* a charge. At a temperature below lOO'^C
the gflass becomes a conductor. If a test-tube containing mercury
is i)lai't'd in a vessel of mercury, and if a pair of electrodes are
connected, one with the inner and the other with the outer portion
of mercury, the arrangement constitutes a Leyden jar which will
hold a charge at ordinary temperatures. If the electrodes are con-
nected with those of a voltaic battery, no current will pass as long
as the glass is cold, but if the aj)paratus is gradually heated a
current will begin to pass, and will increase rapidly in intensity as
the tempezatuxe rises, though the glass remains apparently as hard
as ever.
This current is manifestly electrolytic, for if the electrodes are
disconnected from the battery^ and connected with a galvanometer,
a considerable reverse cnnent passes, due to polarisatibn of the
surfiices of the glass.
If, while the battery is in action the apparatus is cooled, the
cnnent is stopped by ihio cold glass as before, but the pdariistion
of the surfaces remains. The mercury may be lemoTed, the suifoces
may be washed with nitric add and with water, and fresh meroury
introduced. then heated, the current of polar-
If the apparatus is
isation appears as soon as the glass is suffidentiy warm to conduct it.
We may though apparently a
therefore regard glass at 100"C,
solid body, as an and there is considerable reason
electrolyte,
to believe that in most instances in which a didectric has a
slight degree of conductivity the conduction is eleotrolytiD. Iha
• • Proc R. 8., Jftu. 12, 1871.
t AmuOm dtr Okmie wul Phamacief bd. xo. 2117 (1854).
272,] OOH8TA2IT VOLTAIC BLSMBNTS. 325
existence of polarization may be regarded as oondudye eividenoe of

electrolyBis, and if the condiicti'vity of a substance increases as the
temperature naea, we have good gioiuids for gaapedang that it is
electiolTtic.
Q» Oomiant FoUaic BUmmtU,
272.] When a series of experiments is made with a yoltaio*
hatteiy in which polarization ooecm, the poUucization diminiahee

daring the time that the eomnt ia not flowing, so that when
it begins to flow again the euient is stronger than after it has
flowed for some time. If, on the other hand, the vesSstance of the
circuit is diminished by allowing the current to flow thiongh a

short shunt, then, when the current is again made to flow through
the ordinary circuit, it is at first weaker than its normal strength
on account of the great polarization produced by the use of the
short circuit.
To get rid of these irregularities in the current, which are
exceedingly troublesome in experiments involving exact measure-
ments, it is necessary to get rid of the polarization, or at least
to reduce it as much as possible.
It does not appear that there is much polarization at the surface
of the zinc plate when immersed in a solution of sulphate of zinc

or in dilute sulphuric acid. The principal seat of polarization is
at the surface of the negative metal. When the fluid in which
the negative metal is immersed is dilute sulphuric acid, it is seen
to become covered with bubbles of hydrogen gas, arising from the
electrolytic decomposition of the fluid. Of course these bubbles,
by piOTenting the fluid from touching the metal, diminish the
surface of contact and increase the resistance of the ciroQit. But
besides the visible bubbles it is certain that there is a thin coating
of hydrogen, probably not in a free state, adhering to the metal,
and as we have seen that this coating is able to produce an elec-
tromotive force in the reverse direction, it mnst necessarily diminish
the electromotive force of the battery.
Varioos plans have been adopted to get rid of tiiis coating of
hydrogen. It may be diminished to some extent by mechanical
means, snoh as stirring the liquid,' or robbing the soxfoce of the
native plate. In Smee's battaiy the native plates are vertical,
and covered with finely divided platinvm from which tlie bubbles
hydrogen easily escape, and in their ascent produce a ounent of
liquid which helps to brush off other bubbles as they are formed.
A for more effieadous method, lumever, is to employ chemical
326 £IiBCTROLTTIG POLARIZATION.
means. These are of two lands. In the batteries of Grove and

Bunsen the negatiTe pinto is immersed in a fluid rich in oxygen,
and the hydrogen, instead of forming a eositing on the plate,
combines with this substance. In Grove's battery tbo plate is
of platinum immersed in stron|^ nitric acid. In Bunsen's first
• battery it is of carbon in the same acid. Chromic acid is also used

for thesame purpose, and has the advantage of being free from the
aeid fumes produced by the reduction of nitric add.
A different mode of getting rid of the hydrogen is by using
copper as the native metal^ and covering the sutfiuse with a coat
of oxide. This, however, »iddly disappears when it is used as
the negative electrode. To renew it Joule has proposed to make
the copper plates in the form of disks, half immersed iii the liquid,
and to rotate them slowly, so that the air may act on the parts
exposed to it in turn.
The by usbg as the liquid an electrolyte, the
other method is
cation of which a metal highly negative to sine.
is
In Daniell's battery a copper plate is immersed in a saturated

solution of sulphate of copper. When the current flows through
the solution from the zinc to the copper no hydrogen appears on
the copper \*\sLte, but copper is deposited on it. When the solution
is saturated, and the current is not too strong, the copper appears
to act as a true cation, the anion SO4 travelling towards the zinc.
When these conditions are not fulfilled hydrogen is evolved at
the cathode, but inimediutely acts on the solution, throwing down
copper, and uniting with SO4 to form oil of vitriol. When this
is the case, the sulphate of copper next the copi>er plate is replaced
by oil of vitriol, the liijuid becomes colourless, and polarization by
hydrogen gas again takes place. The copper deposited in this way
is of a looser and more friable structure than that deposited by true
electrolysis.
To ensure that the liquid in contact with the copper shall be
saturated with sulphate of copper, crystals of this substance must
be placed in the li(|uid close to the oapper, so that when the solution
is made weak by the deposition of the copper, more of the crystals
may be dissolved.
We have seen that it is necessary that <he liquid next the copper
should be saturated with sulphate of copper. It is still more
neeessaiy that the liquid in which the zinc is immersed should be
free from sulphate of copper. If any of this salt makes its way
to the surface of the sine it is reduced, and copper is deposited
Diyiiized by Google
272.] Thomson's fokh op daniell's cell. 827
OIL the lino. The sine, copper, and fluid then form a little ebonit
in which rapid eleetrolytic action goes on, and the zinc ie eaten
away by an action which contribntei nothhig to the nseM effiMst
of the battery.
To prevent this, the zinc is immersed either in dilute snlphoric
acid or in a solution of sulphate of zinc, and to prevent the solution
of sulphate of copper from mixing with this liquid, the two liquids
are separated by a divijîon consisting- of bladder or porous earthen-
ware, which allows electrolysis to take place through it, but
effectually prevents mixture of the fluids by visible currents.
In some batteries sawdust is used to prevent currents. The

experiments of Graham, however, shew that the process of diffusion
goes on nearly as rapidly when two liquids are separated by a
division of this kind as when they are in direct contact, provided
there are no visible currents, and it is probable that if a septum
is employed which diminishes the diffusion, it will increase in
exactly the same ratio the resistance of the element, because elec-
trolytic oondnotion is a process the mathematical laws of which
have the same form as those of diffusion, and whatever interferes
with one most interfere equally with the other. The only differ*
ence is that diffusion is always gfoing on, while the current flows
only when the battery is in action.
In all forms of Daniell's battery the final result is that the
sulphate of copper finds its way to the zinc and spoils the battery.
To retard this result indefinitely, SirW. Thomson* has constructed
Daniell's battery in the following fonn.
Fig.ai.
In each cell the ccpper plate is placed horizontally at the bottom

• Froc. A ii., J«n. 19, 1871.
328 £L£CT£OLYTiC FOLAEIZATION. [272-
And a satnrat'ed solution of sulphate of zinc is poured over it. Tlie

zinc is in the form of a grating and is placed horizontally near the
Burface of the 8/>lution. A j^lass tube i^ placed vertically in the
solution with its lower end just above the surface of the copper
plate. Crystals f»f sulphate of ••••pper are drop|K'd down this tulje,
and, dissrdvinjLj' in the li(|uid, form a solution of greater density

than that of sulphate of zinc alone, so that it cannot pet to the
zinc except by diffusion. To retard this process of diffusion, a
siphon, consititiiig of a glass tube stuffed with cotton wick, ia
placed >\ith one extremily midway between the zinc and copper,
and the other in a Teswl outside the cell, so that the liquid is
very slowly drawn off near the middle of its depth. To supply
its placOj water, ^r a weak solution of stdphate of zincj is added
above when required. In this way the greater part of the sulphate
of copper rising through the liquid by difinsion is drawn off by the
siphon before it reaches the sine, and tiie sId0 is snnoonded by
liqnid neeily fiee from sulphate of copper, and having a very slow
downward motion in the cell, which still further retards the npwaid
motion of the sulphate of copper. During the action of the batteiy
copper is deposited on the copper plate, and SO4 traveb sloidy
through the liqnid to the sine with which it combines, forming
solphate of zinc Thus the liquid at the bottom becomes less dense
by the deposition of the copper, and the liquid at the top becomes
more dense by the addition of the sine. To prevent this action
from changing the order of density of the strata, and so producing
instability and visible currents in the vessel, care must be taken to
keep the tube well supplied with crystals of sulphate of copper,
and to feed the cell above with a solution of sulphate of zinc suffi-
ciently dilute to be lighter than any other stratum of the liquid
in the cell.
Daniell's battery is by no means the most powerful in common

use. The electromotive force of Grove's cell is 192,000,000, of
Daniell's 107,900,000 and that of Bunsen's 188,000,000.
The resistance of Daniell's cell is in general greater than that of
Grove's or Bunsen's of the same size.
These defects, however, are more than counterbalanced in all

cases where exact measurements are required, by the fact that
Daniell's cell exceeds every other known arrangement in constancy
of electromotive force. It has also the advantage of continuing
in working order for a long time, and of emitting no gas.
Diyiiized by Google
CHAPTER VL
LINEAR ELECTRIC CURRENTS.
0» SyHem cflAnear Qmduehrs,

273.] Any conductor may be treated as a lineîr conductor if it
is arrang-cd so that the current must always pass in the same manner
between two portions of its surface which are called its electrodes.
For instance, a mass of metal of any form the surface of which is
entirely covered with insulating material except at two places, at
which the exposed surface of the conductor is in metallic contact
with electrodes fonned of a perfectly condnctiiig material, may be
treated as a linear conductor. For if the cnrrent be made to enter
at one of these electrodes and escape at the other the lines of flow
will be determinate, and the relation between electromotive force,
enxrent and leeiBtance will be expressed by Ohm's Law, for the
current in every part of the mass will be a linear function of JS*
But if there be more possible electrodes than two, the condnctor
may haye more than one independent conent throngh it, and these
may not be ooi\)ngate to each other. See Ait 282.
Okm*s Law.
274.] Let E
be the electromotiTe force in a linear conductor
from the electrode ^
to the electrode A^. (See Art 69.) Let
C be the strength of the electric current along the conductor, that
is to say, let C units of electricity pass across every section in
the direction A.y in unit of time, and let U be the resistance of
the cuuductor, then the expression of Ohm's Law is
B= cn, (1)
Linear Conductors arranged in Series,
275.] Let Ai, be the electrodes of the first conductor and let
the second conductor be phêd with one of its electrodes in contact
330 LINKAB ELBCTRIC CURBSNTB. [^J^.
with A.,, so that the second conductor hag for its electrodes A^, A^,
The electrodeB of the third conductor may he denoted bjr 4t
and A^.
Let the elect rn motive force along each of thflBe conductors be
denoted by J^m* ^ other conductors.
Let the resistance of the conductors be
-Rbi J^m*
Then, since the condnetors are arran<?ed in series so that the same
current C flows through each, we have by Ohm's Law,
^12 = C'î2» ^23 — ^^^» — ^^M'
If ^ is the resultant electromotive foroe, and R the resultant
Tesistance of the system^ we must have by Ohm's Law,
E^CM.. (3)
Now JP=î,+^+J?^, (4)
the sum of the separate electromotive forces,
= C (iZu + ^+ by equations (2).
Comparing this result with (a), .we find
Or, tie reshfance of a series of conductors w lAe sum of the resistances
of the conductors taken sejparatel^.
Potential at an^ Point of the Series.
Let A and C be the electrodes of the series, B a point between

them, Of e, and i the potentials of these points
respectively. Let
Bi be the renstanoe of the part finom ^ to ^, iS^ that of the part
from BtoC, and B that of the whole from ^ to ^ then, since
a^b s B^Ct h^c s B^C, and a— c s BC,
the potential at ^ is » , n
4 . M+A'. . (6)
which detennines the potential at B when those at A and C are

given.
Retiatance of a Mulliple Conductor,
276.] Let a number of conductors ABl, AC3S, ADZ be arranged

side by side with thor extremities in contact with tiie same two
points A and Z, ThBj are then said to be arranged in multiple
arc.
^ Let the resistances of these conduiBtors be B^^R^^B^ respect-
JJiyiiizea by CjOOgle
277*] SPBCinO BEBIBTANCB AND OONDUOTITITT. 881
Mijt 9ikd ih0 cuirentB and let the lenbiteiice of the

multiple oondaetor Be and the tobd eomnt C, Then, dnoe the
J2,
potentialB at A and Etae the same for all the oondnoton, they have
the mme diiftranoe, which we may call B, We then have
but C=
L
whence
1111
J»
= M|
Ci-fCjtJ-C,,
» + A|
Or, //{ff reciprocnl of the resUtunce of a multiple conductor U the sum
of the reciprocals of the component conductors.
If we call the reciprocal of the resistance of a comluctor the
conducti\'ity of the conductor, tlien we may say that the con-
ductivifi/ of a multiple conductor is the sum of the conductivities <^
ike component conductors.
Current in any Branch of a Multiple Conductor,
From the equations of the preceding article, it appears that if

Cg is the current in any bianeh of the mnltiple conductor, and
J8^ the resistance of lhat bianch,
C. = C|, (8)
where'C is the total current, and J2 is the resistance of the multiple

conductor as previously determined.
Lanffiiudinal lUtisikmce of Qmdueiors ^ Unôrm SeeHau.

277. ] Let the resistance of a cube of a given material to a current
parallel to one of its edges be p, the side of the cube }>eing unit of
length, p is called the '
specific resistance of that material for unit
of volume.'
Consider next a prismatic conductor of the same material whose
length is /, and whose section is unity. This is equivalent to £
cubes arxanged in series. The resistance of the conductor is there-
fore Ip.
Finally, consider a conductor of length I and uniform section f.
This is equivalent to s conductors similar to the last ammged in

multiple arc. Ihe resistance of this conductor is therefore
t
When we know the resistance of a uniform wire we can determine
332
the specific resistauce of the material of which it is made if we can

measure its leng-th and its section.
The sectional area of small wirea is most accurately determined

by calculation from the length, weight, and specific gravity of the
specimen. The determination of the specific gravity is sometimes
inconvenient, and in such cases the resistance of a wire of unit
length and unit mam is naed aa the *
specific rasistenoe per nnit of
weight.'
If r isthiarenstance, ^ the length, and si the maw of a wire^ then
On ike JHmentUm tf Ue QuanUtia involved in iAete EqutUiom,
278.] The resistance of a conductor is the ratio of the electro-

motive force acting on it to the current produced. The conduct-
ivity of the conductor is the reciprocal of this quantity, or in
other words, the ratio of the current to the electromotive force
producing it.
Now we know that in the electrostatic system of measurement

the ratio of a quantity of electricity to the potential of the con-
ductor on which it is spread is the capacity of the conductor, and
is measured by a line. If the conductor is a sphere placed in an
unlimited field, this line is the radius of the sphere. Tlic ratio
of a quantity of electricity to an electromotive force is therefore a
line, but the ratio of a quantity of electricity to a current is the
time during which the conent flows to transmit that quantity.
Hence the ratio of a current to an electromotive force ia that of a
line to a time, or in other words, it is a velocity.
The fact that the condoctivity of a conductor is expressed in the
electrostatic system of measurement by a Telooii^jr may be verified
by sapposing a sphere of and then
radios r charged to potential V,
connected with the earth by the giTen condoetor. Let the sphere
contract^ so that as the dectridfy escapes through the conductor
the potential of the sphere is always kept equal to V* Then the
charge on the sphere is rF at any instant, and the conent is
^(r/^), but, since V is constant, the current is ^d the
eleotromotiye force throogh the conductor is V,

The cooduetivity of the conductor is the ratio of the current to
the electromotive foroe^ or that is, the velocity with which the
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28a] 0TSI1M OF IiUnUB COKDUOTOBS. 883
ndiu of the sphere must diminieh in oider to nuuntun the potential

eonstant when the chaige ie allowed to pass to earth throngfa the
oonduotor.
In the electraetatio ayitem, tiicvefere^ the oondueti'vilijr of a eon*
dnetor is a ^doeitXt and of the dimenaiona [XT*^].
Tlie reeiatanoe of the oonduotor ia therefore of tiie diineneima
The apeoifie reaistanee per unit of Tolome ia of the dimenrion of

[T], and the specifie ooodnettvity per unit of yolnme ia of the
dimenaionof [r-'].
The nomerieal magnitade of theae ooeffi(»enta dependa only on
the unit of time, which ia the same in different countries.
The specific resistance per unit of weight is of the dimensions
279. j We shall afterwards find that in the electromagnetic

system of measurement the resistance of a conductor is expressed
by a velocity, so that in this s^'stem the dimensions of the resist-
ance of a conductor are
The conductivity of the conductor is of course the reciprocal of
this.
The specijSc resistance per unit of volume in this system is of the

dimensions [Z^T^'^j^ and the specific resistance per unit of weight
is of the dimensions [Z~^r~îf].
On, Linear SjîUmt of Conductors in general,
880.] The moat general oaae of a linear ajrstem ia that of n

points^ 4t> ••••4it oonnected together in paiia hjr \n{n—l)
linear oondnetora. Iiet the oondnetiviiy (or reoiprooal of the re-
atstance) of that eondnctor which oonneeta any pair of points^ aay
and A^, be called and let the eorrent horn Aîo A^he C^.
Let and ^ be the eleotrio potentiala at the pointa A^ and
leapeetively, and let the intefnal deetromotiTe Ibroe^ if there be
aajt along the oonduotor fkom ^ to 4c ^ -^m*
The eorrent from to is, by Ohm's Law,
Among- these quantities we have the following" sets of relations :
The oonductiTil^ of a conductor is the same in either direction,

or X„ a= K^. (2)
The flleotromotEve foroe and the onnent are directed qnantitiea

aothat J!f^=-^^, and (8)
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834 UBMAM MSMTmC CUBBm& [280.
Let P,, P^^...P^ be the potoDtials at A^, A^, ... respectively,

and letQ^, Qti ... Q. be the qoantitiee of eleefcrioty iriiidi enter
tlie system in unit of time at each of these points respectifisly.
Tlieee ive neoeMuilj lobjeei to the oanditioii of * oontmaity
inoe electricity ma neidier be indefimftely toeaanilifeed nor pro-

dneed within the system.
The oondition of continoity ' ' at any point A^ is
Qp = ^>i+^.2+&c. + c;,. (5)
Substitating the valoee of the enmntB in teime of equation

(1), this beoomes
+(^„2;,+&e.+A;,z;.). (6)
The symbol A'^ does not occur in this equation. Let us therefore
give it the value
= -(A-,, + a;, + &c. + iT,,) ; (7)
that is, let K^^ be a quantity equal and opposite to the sum of
all the conductivities of the conductors which meet iu A^. We
may then write the condition of continuity for the point A^,
îPi+z^Pj+&c.+jr^p^+&c.+£;.i>,
= Jl^,J?,,+&c.+A,,^,,-Q,. (8)
By substituting' 1, 2, &c. n for p in this equation we shall obtain

71 equations of the same kind from which to deteimine the h
potentials P,, Pg* -^^n*
Since, however, there is a necessary condition, (4), connectinf> the

values of Q, there will be only n — 1 independent equations. These
will be sufficient to determine the difierenoes of the potentials of the
pointe^ but not to determine the absolute potential of any. Thi%
however, is not required to calculate the eurrente in the system.
If we denote by J) the determinant
îl» -^Wf -^KlH-l)*

K21, ^21> ^2(»-l)* (9)
and by 7>j„^, the minor of A"^,, we find for the value of P^—P^y
(P^-PJi/ = (^,^+ &c. - QO^pi + {K,, E,, + &c. - Q.^D^, + &c.
In the same ivay the eieess of the potential of any other pointy
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28 1.] 8T8TSM OF LIHSAB COKDUCTOBS. 335
say A^, over that of may be determined. We may then de-

termine the curreat between and £rom equation (1), and so
•olve the problem completelj.
281.] We shall now demonstrate a reciprocal property of any
two oondaotors of the system, answering to the reciprocal property
we have already demonstrated for statical eleotrioity in Art^ 88.
The coefficient of in the expression ior i^^ is . That of
in the eoqwession for is

D •
Now differsfrom D^p only by the substitution of the sytiilwls

such as A'^p for K^^. But, by equation (2), these two symbols are
e(|ual, since the conductivity of a conductor is the same both ways.
Hence 1)^^ = 2)^^. (11)
It follows from this that the part of the potential at arising"
from the introductif)n of a unit current at is equal to the part of

the potential at A^ arising from the introduction of a unit current
at A^.
We may deduce from this a proposition of a more practical form.
Let //,Bf C, JD be any four points of the system, and let the
effect of a current Q, made to enter the system at A and leave it
at be to make the potential at C exceed tliat at D by P. Then^
if an equal current Q be made to enter the system at C and leave
it at the potential at A will exceed that at .0 by the same
quantity P.
We may also establish a property of a similar kind reUting to
the eôt of the internal electromotive force E^, acting along the
oondoctor which joins the points J^. and A^ in prodncing an ex-
ternal eleotromotive force on the condnetor from Api^b A^^ that is

to say, a differenee of potentials Pp^F^. For since
the part of the value of Fp which depends on this electromotive

force is
^ (2>^-2>JJ?«
and the part of the value of is
Therefore the coefficient of in the value of P, is
{D^^+JD^-D^-DJ, (12)
This ia identical with the ooeflicient of J?^ in the value of P^-P,.
8d6 LDTIAB SUKTBIO CURRENTS. [2S3.
If tlnwfoic Ml deetromotiTe Ibroe JB be introdnoed. actme in the

oondiietor from A to B, and if this omm the prtwitkl at C7 to*
/fceed tinifrtifrmy^ liien the eKê eleetramotive fi»oe JP intm-
dnoed into the condaetor from G^tovStwiU OMue the pcieBtialr<>^
t» eroeod thtt et B by the eeme qweiiti^^ * r..^ .«.,>w • — :
—^ {.
The electromotiYe fince i? inaj be that of a Toltaie batfceiy intio-

dnoed between the pointi named, care befaig taken that the lesiet-
aoce of the oondoetor is the same befofe and after the introdiietioii
of the battery.
282.] If D,, + i),. - 7>,. - /V = 0, (13)
the conductor JpA^ is said to be conjugaie to AÂ^t and we have
seen tliat this relation is reciprocal.
An electromotive force in one of two conjugate conductors pro-

duces no electromotive force or current along the other. We shall
End the practical application of this principle in the case of the
electric bridge
The theory of conju2;iite conductors has been investigated by

Kirchhoff,who has stated the conditions of a linear system in the
following manner, in which the consideration of the potential is
avoided.
(1) (Conditum of * continuity.*) At any point of the flystem the
sum of all the corrents which flow towards that point is zero.
(2) In any complete circuit formed by the conductors the sum

of the electromotive forces taken roimd the circuit is equal to the
sam of the products of the current in eadi eondoctor multiplied by
the resistance of that conductor.
We obtain this result by adding equations of the form (1) for the
complete einmit, when the potentials necessarily disappear.
Eeat Oeneroied m ike Sjyitm,

283.] The mechanical e(|uivalent of the quantity of heat gene-
rated in a conductor whose resistance is ^ by a current C in unit of
time is, by Art. 242, jff _ jj^â.
(14j
We haye therefoie to detennine the sum of snch quantities as
SC* i[» all the conductors of the system.
For the conductor from .i^ to 4f the condnctiyity is K^, and the
resistance 7E„, where
^^^^ R„ = l. (15)
The current in this conductor ia, according to Ohm's Iaw,
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284.] OBKKRATIOir OF HBAT. 387
We shall loppofle, however, that the value <^ the onnent k not
that given by Ohm*8 Law, bat X^, where
To determine the hcftt generated in the sygtem we have to find

the mm of aU the quantities of the form
or /jy = S {It^C^„+2R^C,J,,-^-R,J\,}. (18)
Giving its valoe, and remembering the leUtion between

and this becomes
2(P,-p,)(c^+2rj+ij„r»„. (19)
Now nnce both C and Xmnst satisfy the condition of oontinnity
at A,, we have » ^ c,^ ^ &c. + C^,, (20)
e„=-^»x+ii«+&c.+j^, (21)
therefoxe 0 s Tn+T^+kc-^T^, (22)
Adding together therefore all the terms of (19), we find
Now since R is always positive and is essentially positive, the

last term of this equation must he essentially positive. Hence the
first tenn is a iwinimnm when T is zero in eveiy conductor, tliat isj
when the current in every oonduotor is that given by Ohm's Law.

Hence the following theorem
284.] In any system of conduetors in which there are no internal
electromotive forces the heat generated by currents distributed ii^
accordance with Ohm's Law is less tiian if the currents had been
distrihated in any other manner consistent with the aotoal con-
and outflow of the currant.
ditions of supply
The heat aotnaUy generated when Ohm's Law is iblfilled is
mechanically equivident to 2P,
Q,, that is> to the snm of the
products of the quantities of electricity siij^Hed at the different
external electrodes^ each multiplied by the potential at which it is
supplied.
VOL. I.
CHAPIEB TEL
OOVDUCTIOV or THSEB OUOBSIOHS.
NoUttiau of Electric CurrenU,
386.] Ar nj point lefe a doBMit of ate* ^ be laken nonnal

to the sni of lad let Q vniti of eleetrieity pen eenw tbis ana
Iroiii the negative to the pontiTe aide io unit ol tnne^ then, if
^ becomes ultimately etûal to u when (/«S' is indelmitely (limiiushed,
« is nid to be the Component of the deetrie eunent in the dixection

of at the g^ven pcnnt.
In the Mune ivay may detennine 9 and w, the components of
the enrrent in the directions of y and s nspeetlvfly.
286.] To detennine tiie component of the eonent in any other
direction OM tiivoogh the given pomt 0,
Let /, • be the diieetion-coeines of OE, then cutting oiF from
the azee of ^, z portions equal to
7» -» and X
respectively at B and C7, the triangle ABC
will be normal to OR.
The area of this triangle ABC will be
Imn
and by (fiminishing r this area may be diminished without limit.
Tlie quantity of electricity which leaves the tetrahedron ABCO
by the triangle ABC must be equal to that which enters it through
the three triangles OBC^ OCA, and 0A£.
mm ^
The axea of the triangle OBC is i — , and the component of
Diyiiized by Google
287.] OOMPONRNT AND RESULTANT CUBRENTS. 339
the emxent normal to its plane is «, go that the quantity which
enters through this triangle ia i r^ •
Tlie quantities which enter through the triaugles OCA and OAB
respectively are « ^ »
, .
tr*-7, and ^r*—*
If y is the component of the velocity in the direction OH, then
the quantity which leaves the tetrahedron through is ABG
Since this is eqnal to the quantity which enters through the three
other triangles^
Îmn ^ ls»» ^ + ImV

multiplying by , get
y = lu-^mv-^nv, (1)
Ifwepat =
and make W such tliat
u=iVTi r = wT, and iiJ = »T;
then y = r(/^ 4- »^ + (2)
Hence^ if we define the resultant current as a vector whose

magnitude is and whose direction-cosines are ^, wl^ i^^ and if
y denotes the current resolved in a direction making an angle B

with that of the resoltant onnent^ then
/sroos^; (3)
shewing tiiat the law of reaolntion of oimrentB is the same as that
of yelooitiea^ forces, and all other veetors.
S87.] To detennine the condition that a given snr&oe may
be a snrfiMie of flow.
Let F{x,ff,z):^\ (4)
be the equation of a family of surfaces any one of which is given by

making A constant, then, if we make
dk^ dk^ \
the direoticn-oosines of the normal, reckoned in the directioii in

which \ inoreaeesi are
z %
840 OOVDUCTIOH IH THBSB DIMBF8I0F& [288.
Henoe, if 7 is the oomponent of the eimeikt normal to thesnrfiMM^
1£ y s 0 there will be no current through the surface, and tlie
enrfiMse may be called a Siuface of Flow, because the lines of motion

are in the snr&oe*
288.J The equation of a snrfiMse of flow is therefore
dk dk dk ^
(8)
If this equation is true for all values of A, all the snrfiMies of Hie
family will be surfaces of How.
289.] Let there be another family of surfaces, whose parameter
is A'j then, if these are also surfaces of iiow^ we shall have
dk' dk' dk' ^
It -y- -H 1;
-J-
dy
+ W -J- B 0.
dx dz
If there is a third fiunily of sorfiMses of flow, whose parsmeter

is then jx" dk'' dk" ^ tMv\
ax
+t dy
4.?^,
dz
-0. (10)
Eliminating between these three equations, 9, and w disappear

together, and we find
dX dk dk
dk' dk'
Ik
= 0;
dk" dk dk"
da: dz
or ^(A, A'); (12)

that is, A'' is some ftinction of A and X'.
290.] Now
consider the four sai&oes whose parameters are A,
and A'+dA'. These four snrfiuses endose a qoadrilatersl
A',
tnhoj which we may oaU the tube dA.dA'. Since tins tube is
boonded by surfiuses across which there is no flow, we may cell
it a Tabs of Flow. If we take any two sections across the tube,
the quantify which enters the tnbe at one section must be equal
to the quantify which leaves it at the other, and since this quantily
is therefore the same for erery section of the tnbe, let us call it
Lhk . h)iL where is a function of A and A^ the parameters which

determine the particular tube.
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293*] TUBIS OF FLOW. 841
201.] If denotes the section of a tube of flow If a plane

normal to a, we have hj the theoij of the change of the inde*
pendent variables,
«x.*v=a5(|f-£^). (18)
and bjr the definition of the components of the eonent

ubS=Lbk.b\\ (14)
—
rdK d\"
X i^du
d\ dW
fffflfH^ a ss
'dy dz dz
V
dy ^
du
— /dk'dK' d\d\\
a*
Smubrly
n 1
t, = Z(__-__), (16)
"~
\dm dy dm* -
292.] It is always possible when one of the functions X or A' is

known, to determine the other so that L may be equal to unity.
For instance, let us take the plane oi yz, and draw upon it a series
of equidistant lines parallel to y, to represent the sections of the
family A' hy this plane. In other words, let the function A' be
determined by the condition that when » = 0 A'= If we then
make ir = 1» and therefore (when = 0)
sjudy;
tiien in the plane (« = 0) the amount of eleotrioitj whidi passes
through any portion will be
JJudydz=JJdKdK\ (16)
Having determined the nature of the sections of the surfiaoes of

flow bj the plane of yg, the form of the snrftoes elsewhere is
detemdned by the conditions (8) and (9). The two innetions X
and y thns detemtined are sniBeient to determine the corrent at
every point by eqnations (16), nntty bcii^ snbstitnted for L,
0» Limei (jfFhw,
298.3 Let a series of values of X and of X' be chosenj the suc-

cessive diiforenoes in each series bemg unity. Ihe two series of
suriaees defined by these values will divide space into a system
of quadrilateral tubes through each of which there will be a unit
current. By assuming the unit suffieiently small, the details of
the current may be expressed by these tubes with any desired
amount of minuteness. Then it' any surface be drawn cutting the
*hui •nrfb^ w il h* «xpnMM«i w tiie aMi^ «f
•iww ^.h*^ *arrieii oniiy -if nKrwac
r<.w, îuni f*h« nait m Xûm nfieundT di« naktr of
iii}mh«!T 4/ fivK^ 4€ flov ent is, » tB«t «« nn^ ombIv
Knt it* fif^mdik, Mttee caeb Eizie of iov thxoiigft s gliu

wnniy^nA^ t» s imit earnest.
_
A <ttra^ -rn of a «i*md'io*.or con'ainrti between two «»-
li^y^f jy** »nrfa/'>rfl of flow of oni? fvatem. ây tLat ':t a', 'j? called
a (I'irT'Ttt-Htk*^,. The tn?^ of flow within thL-? shret an? d^Ccr-

tfi\u*^\ \>j tlie frinc-tion a. If and A^ denote the Tallies of A aft
fh** yAfk^n A and P r^p*-f,-tivfl y. thf-n the cnment from rig^tt to

l*-ft, iifrf^*!* anv ]jnfr drawn on th<^ -h^^-t fr' m ^ to P is Ap — A.^.
Tf ///' an i-\i xu('-M\, dn, of a curve drawn on the fbaet, the corraii
m\iuM erfmcst tbta element from right to left ia
T\i'in function A, from which the distnbation of the carrent in

ihn nhftfit can be completely determined^ la called the Ciumni*
Fnttiiium,
Any thin sheet of metal or condacting matter boimdcd on both
aidea by air or fiome other non-condacting medinm may be treated
aa * camrit-sheety ui wfiich the diairibatkm of the current mqr
ha alpreMed by meaiia of a eiin«nt-limctk>iL See Art 647.
Bquaium if * Omtmmljf*
205.] If we dliferentiate the three equations (15) with respect to
0, j^, t respectively, remembering that JD is a function of A and A',
Tlio correspond inq^ ffjnation in Hydrodynamics ia called the

K<iuaiion of *
Continuity.' The continuity which it expresses ia
the continuity of ezigtence, that ia, the fact that a material sub-
atanoa cannot leave one part of space and arrive at another, without
flying through the ipaoo between. It cannot aimply mnieh in the
Diyiiized by Google
^95*] BQUAflOV OP OOKTIVinTT. S48
one plaoe and mjpj^mt in Hkt oiher, bvk it miut tmvet aloiig » eon-
tiniioiis path^ so tbafc if a closed
diawni inolndiiig tiM
mirfiM»e l>e
one plaoe and ezdading the other, a material anbstanee In paaaingf
from the one plaoe to the other mnat go throngh the dosed mstSmot*
The most general form of the equation in hydrodjrnamics is
d{pu) d{pv) d(pw) .dp .-g.
where p signifies the ratio of the qnantitj of the anhitenoe to the

olome H oeenpies, that volume being in this case the dUfemntaal
dement of vohune, and {pu), {pv), and (pw) signify the ratio of the
quantity of the substance which crosses an element of area in unit
of time to that area, these areas being normal to the axes of x, and
z respectively. Thus understood^ the equation is applicable to any
material substance, solid or fluid, whether the motion be continuous
or discontinuous, provided the existence of the parts of that sub-
stance is continuous. If anything, though not a substance, is
subject to the condition of continuous existence in time and space,

the equation will express this condition. In other parts of Physical
Science, as, for instance, in the theory of electric and magnetic
quantities, equations of a similar form occur. We shall call such
equations '
Cijuations of continuity' to indicat«? their form, though
we may not attribute to these quantities the properties of mattMTj
or even continuous existence in time and space.
The equation (17), which we have arrived at in the case of
electric currents, is identical with (18) if we make f>
= 1, that is,
if we suppose the substance homogeneous and incompressible. The

equation^ in the case of fluids^ may also be established by either
of the modes of proof given in treatises on Hydrodynamics. In
one of these we trace the course and the deformation of a certain
element of the fluid as it moves along. In the other, we fix our
attention on an element of space, and take acoennt of all that
enters or leaves it. The former of these methods cannot be applied
to eleotric cnnents, as we do not know the velocity with which the
eleetrioily passes through the body, or even whether it moves in
the positive or the negative direction of the current. All that we
know is the algebraical value of the quantity which crosses onit
of aiea in unit of time, a quantity conesponding to (/»«) in the
equation (18). We have no means of ascertaining the value of
either of the fiMstors p or u, and therefore we cannot follow al'par-
tienlar portion of electridty in its course through the body. The
other method of investigation, in which we consider what pas ses
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844 coHDucnoF nr thiei bimxhsiohs. [296.
iJuoqgli the wills of an element of Yolame, ieâpplicable to deetrie

eiimnti, and is perhaps prefenble in point of fonn to that which
we have given, but as it may be foond in any treatise on Hydio-
dynamics we need not repeat it here.
Quantify €f BleetricUy which pattet through a ginen Surface,
296.] Let r be the resultant current at any point of the surface.

Let dS he 931 element of the surface, and let € be the ang-le between
r and the nonnal to the surface, then the total onrxent through
the sorfiuie will be rr
rcoBf dS,
JJ
the integration being extended oyer the soxfiMse.
As in Art. 21, we may transform this integral into the form
/A— =///(£
in the case of any closed surface, the limits of the triple inte<>ration
being those included by the surface. This is the expression for
the total c'fHux from the closed surface. Since in all cases of steady
corrents this must be zero whatever the limits of the intcigtatioii,
the qoantity under the int^ral sign must vanirii, and we obtain
in this way the equation of oontinaity (17).
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CHAPTER Vm.
BISISTANC£ AND CONDUCTIVITY IN THBEE DIMENSIONS.
0» ike moH General RelaHone between Ourreni and Eleeiro-

motwe Ibree,
297.] Let the components of the current at any point be «, v.

Let the components of the electromotive ibrce be X, V, Z.
The electromotive force at any point is the resultant force on
a unit of positive electricity placed at that point. It may arise
(1) from electrostatic action, in which case if ^ is the potential,
X=-^,
dm
r=-l^, djf
^ = -f;
dM
(1)
or (2) firom eteotrotnagnetic indnotioii, the laws of wbioh we shaU

afterwaidi examine; or (3) from tibermoeleetric or eleetroehemioal
action at tbe point itMlf, tending to prodooe a corrent in a given
direction.
We shall in general suppose that X, Z represent the com-
ponenti of the actoal eleotromotiTe force at the point, whatever
he the origin of the>ibroe, but we shaU oocaaonaUj examine the
remit of supposing it entirely due to variation of potentiaL
By Ohm's Law the current is proportional to the electromotive
force. Hence X, Y, Z must be linear functions of a, v, w. We
may therefore assume as the equations of Resistance,
We may call the coefficientB B the coefBoients of longitodinal

leuBtence in the direotione of the axes of coordinates.
The coefficients P and Q may be called the co^foients of trans-
verse resistance. They indicate the electromotive force in one
direction required to produce a current in a different direction.
846 BSSISTAKCR AND OONDUCnYITT.
If we were at liberty to assume that a solid bodjr may be treated

as a system of linear oondnctors^ then, fkom the lecipiocal properiy
(Art. 281) of any two conductore of a linear system, we might shew
that the electromotive forae along z required to produce a unit cnrrent
parallel to jr most be equd to the electromotive force along jr le-
qnired to produce a nnit corrent parallel to x. This would shew
that q^, and similarly we should find P, as Q„ and s Q,.
When these conditions are satisfied the system of coeffidents is said
to be Symmetrical. When they are not satisfied it is called a
Skew iystem«
We have great reason to believe that in every aetnal case the
system is symmetrical, bat we shall examine some of the con-
sequences of admitting the possibilify of a skew system.

298.] Hequantities u, w may be expressed as linear functions
«f Xf Z hy A system of equations^ which we may call Equations
of Conductivity,
U:sr^X+p^r+q.,Z, \
9^q,X-\-r,Y^p,Z, (3)
w = p.. A' 4- q^ y -f Z; I
5
we may call the coefficients r the coefficients of Longitndinid con-

ductivity, and p and q those of Transverse conductivity.
The coefficients of resistance are inverse to those of oondnetivily.
may be defined as follows
This relation
Let [PQR] be the determinant of the ooeflkients of rasistanoe,
and [p^r] that of the coefficients of conductivity, then
IPQR] = P,P,P, + Q,Q,Q, + li,B,n,-PrQ,Ji^-P^q^R^-P^q^R,, (4)
[PCiq [pqi\ « 1, (6)

\PqK\p, = (P.p.- qji^), Ipqr^ P, = (p^^-q^ rj, (7)
&c. &c.
The other equations may be formeil by alt^^ring- the symbols
Pi Qt ^> Pi q» r, and the suffixes 1, 2, 3 in cyclical order.
Hale of Generation of HeaL

209.] To find the work done by the current in
unit of time
in overcoming resistance, and so generating heat, ws multiply the
components of the current by the corresponding components of the
electromotive force. We thus obtain the following expiossions fiir
W, the quantity of work expended in unit of time
Diyiiized by Google
300.] OOSTFICIHRn OF OOHDUOnyiTT. 847
rsXv+rtF+^w; (8)
+ 7?,.2 ^B,w^îP,+ Q,)vw + {P^+ Q^fou + iP^+ Q,)uv; (9)
= r,X2+rgrHr3Z2+(;,^+jjr^+(^,+^^Z+(i>,+jrJJ:r. (10)
By a proper ohotoe of «ibb, either of the two latter equations may

be deprived of the terms iaTolvnig the prodaete of m,v,w <a of
X, T, Z, The eystoin of azei, however, whkh rednoeB JFto the form
is Qot ill general the same as that which reduces it to the form
It ii only when the ooeffidente P|, P,, are equal respedavely

to Q|, Q,, Q, that the two ajitenu of axes coincide.
If with Thomeon * we write
and jp s + 1, q
then we have
and [PQ7i!]ri = 722^3- V+^'A

)
[PQR]t^^ T^T,+S,S,-Il^8,, [ (13)
If therefore we cause 8^, 8g, 8^ to disappear, will not also dis-

appear onless tiie coefficients T
are aero.
Conditum of Stability.
300.] Since the equilibrium of electricity is stable, the work

spent in maintaining the current must always be positive. The
conditions that W must be positiTe are that the three coefficients
BiÊ^tM^ and the three eaEpressions
47^3i^l-(P,+ Q2)^ (H)

[
4J2|i2i-(P,+ «a)S'
must all be positive.
There are similar conditions for the coefficients of conductivity.
• Tnm, A8, Bdim., 1868-4, p. 185.
Diyiiized by Google
348 BESIflfTAirCK AND OOHDVCnYITT. [301.
Equation of Continuity in a Homogeneous Medium,
801.] If we express tBe oomponenti of the electromotive foioe

«8 the derivatiTee of the potential the eqnatioii of oontiniiitjr
dm dv dw ^
becomes in a homogeneous medium

<PF dT (in- „ d^r „ d^r „ a*r „ ,,,,
If the medium is not homogeneoas there will be terms aiiiui^

from the variation of the coefficients of conductivity in passing
from one point to another.
This ecûation corresponds to Laplace's ecûation in an isotropic
medium.
302.] If we put
[r#] = ri r, r3 + 2 8^ k s, -r^g^^^r.^ _ (i 7)
and [AJai] = 2(i4|J,+ 2î^s^— ^.S,*-4ti^S (18)

where Mî = r^ f^—î^^
)
[rs]£, = s^s^^r.iJ (19)
and so on, the system A, B will be inverse to the system r, 9, and

if we make
îar2-}-/45f2_j.^,2^2i^j^« + 2^,«» + 2i?3^= \A£\p^, (20)
we shall find that
'^=4^,-
is a solution of the equation.
In the case in which the coefficients T are zero, the coefficieDts A
and B become identical with J2 and 8, When T eiiete this Is not
the case.
In the case therefore of electricity flowing out from a centre in an
infinite homogeneous, but not isotropic^ medium, the cquipotential
are ellipsoids, for each of which p is constant. The axes of
sorfiMies
these ellipsoids are in the directions of the principal axes of oon-

duotiviiy, and these do not ooinoide with the principal axes of
resistance unless the Bystem is symmetrical.
By a tnuufermatioii of this equation we may take fbr the axes
of the principal axes of conductivity. Theooeffidentsof the
forms 9 and B will then be reduced to zeio« and eadi coefficient
Diyiiized by Google
3O30 '
8KSW 878TKH. 849
of the form A will be the reoiprootl of the conespooding ooeffi-
ci«nt of the foim r. The ezpfeMon for p will be
i^+t+il=J'l.. (22)
rj fj ^l^î^S
803.] Tlie theory of the complete system of equations of resist-

ance and of conductivity is that of linear functions of three vari-
ables, and it is exemplified in tlie theory of Strains *, and in other
parts of physics. The most appropriate method of treating it is
that by which Hamilton and Tait treat a linear and vector function
of a vector. We shall not, however, expressly introduce Quateraion
notation.
The coefficients T^, T.^, may be regarded as the rectangular
components of a vector T, the absolute magnitude and direction
of which are fixed in the body, and independent of the direction of
the «fi8 of reference.The same is true of ^, ^, t^, which are the
components of another vector L
The vectors T and I do not in general coincide in direction.
Let us now take the axis of so as to coincide with the vector
T, and transform the eqoations of resistance accordingly. They
will then hayc the form
Y Sû+Ji^v-^S^w-i-TuA (23)
It appears from these equations that we may consider the eleo-

tn>moti?e force as the resultant of two forces, one of them depending
only on the coefllcients JR and S, and the other depending on I' alone.
Tlie part depending on R and 8 is related to the current in the
same way that the perpendienlar on the tangent plane of an
ellipsoid is related to the radius vector. The other part, depending
on T, is equal to the product of T into the resolTcd part of the
current perpendicular to the axis of T, and its direction is per-
T and to the current, being always in the direction in
pendicular to
which the resolved part of the current would lie if turned 90° in
the positive direction round T.
Considering the current and T as vectors, the part of the
electromotive force due to J is the vector part of the product,
T X current.
The coefficient T may be called the Botatory coefficient. We
• 8m TbooMoa and Tsit's iVolura/ Phdctopkp, f 15L
jJiyilizeo by VoOOglc
860 UBI8PAHGS Am OOHDVCTIYITT. * [304.
kftTe rOMon to enrt in anj known gnb-

believe thii it does sot
tmoe. aaywlMN^ in iwîietti wliieli hsm
It slKNild be fiiandy if
ft polariatiaii In one dindaon, ptobiUy doe to ft rotetional plie-
nomenon in the sobituioe.
804.] Let OS noct ooDader ihe geacnl diaaetaistio equation
of r,
d , dF dV dF. d f dF dF dF.
+^^^)-^ ^('^^^ ^^^^7 ^^^^^
d . dF dF dF. , ^
where the coefficients of condnctiTity ]j, q, r maj bftve mny positive

values, contiuuous or discontinuous^ at any point of space, and F
vanishes at iniinity.
Also, let a, ^, c be three fuuctions of x, z satisfying the condition
da db dc
(26)
aud let a = dF
r.
dF dF
d9
dF dF dF
(26)
d9
dF dF dF ,
Finally, let the
+ (A + Ci) + (A + « 2) + (P, + CJ ad } (27)
be extended over epftcee bounded as in tbe ennneiAtion of Art. 97»

where the ooefficients aie ihe ooeffioients of wisfcanoe.
Then WwSi have a nniqiie mininram iraloe when a^bfCwn snob
that IP axe each eveiywhere xero, and the chaneteristic eqaation
(24) will theiefinie, as shewn in Art. 98> have one and only ime
solution.
In this case W represents the menhaninal equivalent of the heat
generated by the eorrent in the system in unit of tune, and we hftve
to prove that there is one way, and one only, of maldng this heat
ft mininram, and that the distribution of enrrents {abc) in that case
is that which arises from the solution of the charaoteristic equation
of the potential F.
The (ûaulity IF may be written in terms of equations (25) and (26),
Diyiiized by Googl
305.] SXTIN810K OF THOMSON'S THflO&EM. 351
.2 nr'i
///(• =
Since T- + J- + J- = 0, (29)
AT ay oi;
the thud tenn of vuuiImi within the limiti.

The eeoond term^ heing the nte of eonTeimoii of electrioal eaeigy
into heetk is ahw enentially pontiYO. Its minimnm value is leco,
and thie ii attained only when u, and w aie evoEywhere aero.
The valne of ia in this eaae redneed to the fbcat tenn, and is
then a mimmiim and a unique nmumnm.

806.] Ab this proposition is of great importance in the theory of
cleetricity, itmay he nsefiil to present the fcdlowing proof of the
most general case in a form &ee from analytical operations.
Let us consider the propagation of electricity through a condnotor
oi" any form, homogeneous or heturogeueous.
Then we know that

(1) If we draw a line along the path and iu the direction of
the electric current, the line must pass from places of high potential
to places of low potential.
(2) If the potential at every point of the system be altered in
a given uniform ratio, the currents will be altered in the same ratio,
according to Ohm's Law.
(3) If a certain distribution of potential gives rise to a certain
distribution of currents, and a second distribution of potential gives
rise to a second distribution of currents, then a third distribution in
which the potential is the sum or difference of those in the first

and second will give rise to a third distribution of currents, such
that the total conent passing through a given finite surface in the
third case is the sum or di&rance of the currents passing through
it in the and second cases. For, by Ohm's Law, the additional
first
current due to an alteration of potentials is independent of the

original current due to the original distrihntion of potentials.
(4) If the potential is constant over the whole of a dosed suifiwe,
352 RESISTANCE AUD COKDUCTIYITY. [305
and ii' there are no electrjnles or intrinsic electronaotive forces

within it, then there will be no currents within the closed surfece,
and the potential at any point within it will be equal to that at the
Borface.
If there aie cnrrentB within the cloeed surface they must either
be closed curves, or they must be^ and end either within the
closed sur&ce or at the surface itself.
But since the current must pass &om places of high to places of
low potential^ it csnnot flow in a dosed curve.
Since there are no electrodes within the snr&oe the current
csnnot begin or end within the closed sui&oe, and since the
potential at all points of the snrfiu» is the same^ there can be
no current along lines psssing from one point of the suiftoe to
another.
Hence there are no currents within the sui&ce, end therefore
there can be no difoence of potential^ as such a difforence would
produce currents, and therefore the potential within the closed
surfiuie is everywhere the same as at the surfiuse.
(5) If there is no electric current through any part of a closed

sui&oe, and no electrodes or intrinsic electromotive feroes witldn
the surface, there will be no currents within the surface, and the
potential will be uniform.
We have seen that the currents cannot form closed curves, or
beg-in or terminate within the surface, and since by the hypothesis
they do not pass throug-h the suriace, there can be no currents, and
therefore the potential is constant.
(6) If the potential is uniform over j)art of a closed surface, and
if there is no current through the remainder of the surface, the
potential within the surface will be uniform for tlie same reasons.
(7) If over part of the surface of a body the ])otential of every

point is known, and if over the rest of the surface of the body the
current passing through the surface at each point is known, then
only one distribution of potentials at points within the body can
exist.
For if there were two any
different values of the potential at
point within the body, let these be and / ^ in
in the first case
the second esse, and let us imagine a third case in which the
potential of every point of the body is the excess of potential in the
first case over that in the second. Then on that part of the sorfiuse
tat which the potential is known the potential in the third case will
be zero, and on that part of the surfiuse through which the currents
Diyiiized by Google
306.] BBBISTAHCB OF A WISB OF VAKUBLB SECTION. 363
are known the currents in the third case will be zero, so thftt by
(6) the potential everywhere within the surface ivill be zero, or
there k no excess of }\ over F^, or the reverse. Henoe there is
only one possible distribution of potentialB. This proposition is
troe whether the solid be bounded by one dosed sorfiuie or

serenL
Om tie JgprotnmaU QUeulaiion of the BetiiUmce qfa Qmdueior

qfaîven Ibm.
806.] The conductor here oonndered has its sur&ce divided into
three portions. Over one of these portions the potential is main-
tained at a constant value. Over a second portion the potential has
a constiint value different from the first. Tlie whole of the remainder
of the surface is impi'rvious to electricity. We may suppose the
conditions of the first by applying
aud second portions to be fulfilled
to the conductor two electrodes of perfectly conducting material,
and that of the remainder of the surCace by coating it with per-
fectly non-conducting material.
Under these circumstances the current in every part of the
conductor is simply proportional to the difierence between the
potentials of the electrodes. Calling this difference the electro-
motive ioTCf, the total current from the one electrode to the other
is the product of the electromotive force by the conductivity of the
conductor as a whole, and the resistance of the conductor is the
reciprocal of the conductivity.
It is only when a conductor is approximately in the oircumstanoes
above defined that it can be said to have a definite resistance, or
conductivity as a whole. A resistance coil, oonsisting of a thin
wire terminating in larg^ masses of oagipet, approximately satisfies
these conditions, for the potential in the massive electrodes is nearly

oonstantk and any differences of potential in different points of the
MOie electrode may be neglected in conqiarison with the diffinenoe
of the potentiala of the two electrodes.
A
yeiy nsefid method of <ailffn1ating the resistance of soeh con-
dnctors has been given^ so &r as I know^ for the first time> by
the Hon. J. Stmtt, in a paper on the Theory of Resonance*.
It is founded on the following oonsidenitions.
If the specific resistanoe of any portion of the condnetor be
changed, that of the remainder being nnehanged, the resistanoe of
• SVwMn ISn. p. 77. Sm Actios.

VOL. I. Aa
364 KISI8TANCB AND OOKDUCnVITT. l306.
the whole oondnctor will be increased if that af the portion it

increased, ud diimiiiiiAied if that of the portion be diminished.
This principle may be regarded as self-evident, but it may easily
be diewn that the valne of the erpKssioa for the resistance of a
sjrstem of oondoctors between two points selected as electrodes^
increases as the resistance of each member of the system in*
It fiiUowB from this that if a smfiuse of any fimn be

in the snbstanoe oi the eondnetor, and if we farther suppose this
•aifrce to be an infinitely thin sheet of a perfectly condneting
anbstmies^ die naistanee of the eondnctor as a whole will be
diminished mdem one of the eqnipotential smfeoes
the sorfiMW is
in the natonl state of the condQetor» in whidi ease no eftct will

be prodnoed by making it a perfect conductor, as it is aliea^ in
eleotricBl eqdEbrinnL
If tiierefora we draw within the condocior a series of soifiMsesy
the first of which coincides with the fiist electxodeb and the last
with the seoond, while the intermediate snrfeces are bounded by
the non-conducting erur&ce and do not intersect each other, and
if we suppose each of these surfaces to be an infinitely thin sheet
of perfectly conducting" matter, we shall Lave obtained a system
the resistance of which is certainly not greater than that of the
original conductor, and is equal to it only when the surfaces we
have chosen are the natural equijwtential surfaces.
To calculate the resistance of the artificial system is an operation
of much less difficulty than the original problem. For the resist-
ance of the whole is the sum of the resistances of all the strata
contained between the consecutive surfaoes, and the resiBtance of
each stratum can be found thus :
Let dS he an element of the surface of the stratum, p the thick-

ness of the stratum peipoidicular to the element, p the specific
lenstanee^ £ the dilBBnace of potential of the perfectly conducting
suxfecesy and dC the cnnent through dS^ then
dCÊ±-da,
pv
(1)
and the whole current through the stratum is
the integration being extended over the whole stratum bounded by

the non-oonducting surfiwe of the condootor.
Diyiiized by Google
3o6.] &GSISTANCE OF A WIBE OF VARIABLE SECTION. 355
Hence the conductivity of tlie stratum is
and the leastonoe of tbe sfxatam it the leeiprocal of this quantify.

If the Btmtnm be that bounded bj tiie two sorfiusee for which
the innction F has the valnes FvbA F-^dFTeBpecâmHj, then
and tbe resistance of the stratum is
dF
(»)
ff
To find the resistance of the whole artificial condnotor, we have
only to integ^te with letpeet to F, and we find
dF
(6)
\7FdS
P
The resistance R of the conductor in its natural state is greater
than the value thus obtained, unless all the surfaces we have chosen
are the natural cquipotential surfaces. Also, since the true value
of li is the absohiti' maximum of the vahios of which can thus
he obtained, a small deviation of the clioson surfaces from the true
equipotential surfaces will produce an error of It which is com-
paratively small.
This method of determining a lower limit of the value of the
resistance is evidently perfectly general, and mijr be applied to
oondoctors of any form, even when the qpeeifie renatanoey varies
in any manner within the conductor.
The most familiar example is the ordinary method of determining
the rr î'^t.ince of a straight wire of variable section. In this case
the surfiMses chosen are planes peipendicular to the axis of the
wire^ the strata have parallel £Eioes, and the resistance of a stratum
of sectioa 8 and thieknets d$ is
and that of the whole wire of loigth « is
î^.-/^?. (S)
where S' is the transverse section and is a function of h

A a 2
Digitized by Google
866 BBSISTANCB AND OONDUOTiyiTT. [307.
Thk method in the case of wixes whoee seetion varieB doirly

witii the length givee a leenlt veij near the troth, hat it ie xeally
obIj a lower limit, for the true resiataiioe ia alwaya greater than
*
this, except in the oaae where the section is perfectly miilbrm.
807.] To find the higher limit of the resistance, let ns snppoee
a sorfiuse drawn in the condnctor to be rendered impermeable to
eleotricitr|r. The eifoct of this most he to increase the resistance of
the conductor nnleas the one of the natural snrfiioee of
sarfiMse is
flow. By means of surfaces we can form a set of
two systems of
tubes which will completely regulate the flow, and the ^Rsct, if
there is any, of this system of impermeable surfaces must be to
increase the resistance above its natural value.
The resistance of each of the tubes may be calculated by the
method already given for a fine wire, and the resistance of the
whole conductor is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of
the resistances of all the tubes. The resistance thus found is greater
than the natural resistance, except when the tubes follow the
natural lines of flow.
In the case already considered, where the conductor is in the
form of an elongated solid of revolution, let us measure x along the
axis, and let tlie radius of the section at any point be b. Let one
set of impermeable surfaces be the planes through the axis for each
of which 4» is constant, and let the other set be sur&oes of reyolution
for which ^_ (9j
where ^ is a numerical quantity between 0 and 1

Let us consider a portion of one of the tubes bounded by the
surfaces and<f>
\/r and
\l/-\-d\l/, x and x-\-dx.
The section of the tube taken perpendicular to the axis is
i/d^d(\> = ^b^d\lfd<t>, (10)

If 0 be the angle which the tube makes with the axis
t»nd = Vr*^. ill)
The true length of the element of the tabe ia dxaeeB, and its
trae section is
so that its resistance is
(12)
Let ^ B=J4^ (13)
Diyiiized by Google
307.] HIOHEE ASD LOWER LIMITS. 357
the integration l>eing extended over the whole length, a, of the

conductor, then the resistance of the tube d\^d<p ia
and its conductivity is

d\lf d<f)
'
2(Z+ V'iO
To find the conductivity of the whole oondnotor, which is the
sum of the oonductdvities of the sepante tobes, we mntt integrni'te
this ezpiearion between ^ = 0 and ^ s 2v, and between ^s0
and ^ as 1. The leeolt is
which may be less, but cannot be greater^ than the true con-
ductivity of the conductor..
When ^- is alwaya a amall quantity -j will alao be amall, and we

may expand the expression for the oondoctivity, thus
IT
The first term of this expression, ~2» ^ which we should
have fimnd by the fbnner metiiod aa the enpeiior limit of the eon-
dnotiTity. Henoe the trae eondootivity is leas tiiaa the fiiat tena
bnt greater than the whole aeriea. The wapmin valne of the
resistance ia the redpiocal of this, or
If, besides anppoaing the flow to be gnided by the amfiMsea <f> and
^, we had aasnmed that tbe flow throngh eaoh tabe is proportional

to d^lrd^, we ahonld haye obtained aa the value of the redatanee
under tiua additional oonatraint
(17)
which is evidently greater than the former value, as it ought to be,

on account of the additional constraint. In Mr. Strutt's paper this
is the supposition made, and the sii])(Tior limit of the resistance
there jn;>ivcn has the value (17), which is a little greater than that
which we have obtained in (16)*
S59 KJBsmiJiCB ASD coyiiccm iTT. £3oA.
We tb^xU DOW apply the same ra'-tb'>i ?ir. i ' •-orreetiofi
why:h mfint \ttt applied Xo the length < f a <-vHnin'^ o:D<i»:-li(>r oi

nvlin.* a wh*-n it- extremity is placed in mt::j..:e contact with ft
MUUrtiv*; *:i».-<:tr<^xi».', which we may suppose of a different metaL

For the lower limit of the resi-rtanoe we shall suppose that an
infirjitely tiiin disk of perfectly c-^mducting' matter is jilaeed Wtwe^n
the end of the cylinder and the massive eWtrode, &<> as to bring
the enrl of the cylinfli-r to one and the isame potential througboot.
The fK^tential u-ithin tl;*- cylinder will then be a function of its
length only, and if we tuppose the surface of the electrode wherxj
tbe cylinder meets it to be approximately plane, and all its dimen-
Mont to be Urge cf>m pared with the diameter of the cylinder, the
djjitnbution of potential will be that due to a conductor in the iaxm

of a di«k placed in an infiaite medium. See Arts. 152, 177.
If E is the difierenoe of the potential of the dii^k from that of
the dietant [jarts of the electrode, C the current '"^"g from the
eoHace of the dkk into the deetrode, and the epeeifie ifintenfi
of the deetrode, f^CÂaR (18)
H' ri':<-, if the length of the win? from a given point to the
eicetivxie ih />, and its specific resistance p, the resistance from that
point to any point of the electrode not near the junction ia
nd thia maj he written
where the eeoond term within hnuskets ia a qnantity which must

he added to the length of the cflinder or wire in calculating ite
wnatnnce, and thia is certainly too small a correction.
To understand the nature of the outstanding error we may
obHcrve, that whereas wo have 8ui)[xjsed the flow in the wire up
to the disk to be uniform throughout the section, the flow from
tile disk to the electnjde is not uniform, but is at any point iu-
versely [)ro[)ortional to the minimum chord through that point. In
the actual (•;i.s<' the flow throug-h the disk will not be uniform,
but it will not vary so much from point to point as in this sup}>osed
case. The potential of the disk in the actual case will not be
uniform, but will diminish from the middle to the cdi^:*'.
809.J We shall next determine a quantity j^reater than the true

resistance by constraining the flow through the disk to be uniform
Diyiiized by Google
309 ] GOBBBOnOV FOB THB BND6 OW THB WIBB. 859
at ereary poiiit. We may aappoee eleefaromotiTe forces Introdnoed

perpendumkr to the snifiKse of the diek.
for this poipoee actiiig
The rensbuioe within the wire will he the same as hefore, hut
in the deetrode the rate of generation of heat wiU he the iiir&oe-
int^gral of the product of the flow into the potentiaL The rate of
flow at any point is , and the potential is the sune as that of
an eleetrified sm&oe whose snzftoe-dendfy is where
2«*r=^» (20)
p' hmng the specific resistance.

We have therefore to determine the potential energy of the
electrification of the disk with the uniform surface-density <r.
The potential at the edge of a disk of uniform density <r is easily
found to be 4 a a. The work done in adding a strip of breadth

da at the circumference of the disk is 2 tt a a da . i a a, and the
whole potential energy of the disk is the integral of this,
or P=?fa»a«. (21)
Jxi the case of electrical conduction the rate at which work is
done in the electrode whose resistance is iS' is
C^R^^P, (22)
P
whence, by (20) and (21),
and the correction to be added to the length of the cylinder is
P' 8
this correction being greater than the true value. The true oor-
rection to be added to the length is therefore — a», where » is a

^
number lying between - and
IT
4
—
8
Sir
, or between 0.785 and 0.849.
Mr. Strutt, by a second approximation, has reduced the superior

limit of » to 0.8282.
CHAPTER IX.
V »
OOKDirOTIOK THBOUOH HITEIIOOE]!nK>irS MEDIA.
Om the Conditions to he Fulfilled at the Surface rfSejparaiw*

ieiweem Two CondueHn^ Media.
810.] Thbbb are two condiiim which the distribution of emreniB
must fulfil in general^ the oondition that the potential most be
oontinnons, and the oondition of ' oontinntfy' of the electric cmnentB.
At the snr&ce of sepamtion between two media the first of these
conditions leqniree that the potentials at two points on opposite
sides of the sur&ce, bat infinitelj near each other, shall be equal.
The potentials are here understood to be measured by an elec-
trometer put in connexion with the given point by means of an
electrode of a jîven metal. IS the potentials arc measured b\' the
method described in Arts. 222, 24G, where the electrode terminates
in a cavity of the conductor fdled with air, then the potentials at
contiîfuous points of dilierent metals measured in this way will
by a quantity depending on the temperature and on the

diil'er
nature of the two metals.

The other condition at the surface is that the current through
any element of the surface is the same when measured in either
medium.
Thus, if Fi and are the potentials in the two media^ then at
any point in the sorfiice of separation
r^^r,, (1)
and if Ug, i^, Wg and Mg,p^, w, are the components of coirsnts in the
two medi% nA.i, m, n the direction-coeines of the normal to the
sorfiuse of separation,
In the most general case the components u, v, io sae linear
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3IO.] SUBFAOB-OOKDmOXrS. 861
fimetums of tlie deriTatiTes of T, the htam of which are given in

theecioifeioD.
,^r^x^p,Y^g,Z,s
V = q^X+r,r^p,zA (3)
v=fi^X-{-q^r+r^Z,)
vihare X, ¥, Z the derivatiTeB of F with lespeet to w,ytg
lespeetiTelj.
Let OS take the oaae of the nizftee whidi sepamtee a mediiun
having tiieee ooeffieieiite of oondnotion from an isotropio medinm
having » coefficient of condnetion eqnal to r.
Let X', 7', he the values of X, J*, ^ in the iaotropic mediiun^
then we have at the eoiftce
r= r, (4)
or Xdx+Ydy-i-Zdz = rdx+Y'd^+Z'dB, (6)
when Idx-^mdy-^ndg = 0. (6)
This condition gives

TssX^4v<rl, J'=r+4»<r«, Z' ^Zîwvn, (7)
where o- is the surface-donsity.

We have also in the isotropic medium
«'=rX', t;'=rr, v/^rZ\ (8)
and at the boondaiy the condition of flow is
i^/+t<fli+i/« as (9)
or r{lX-{-7nY-irnZ-\- iittr)
^HfiX-^PzY+q^Z) +»(foX+r,r+/>i^) q^Y^ r^Z), (10)

whence
4«<rf s P(i'i-f)+«fe+«iB^X+(4Pi+i»(f,-r)+«ft)r
+ fe + w/7, + »(r3-r))^. (11)
The quantity o- represents the surface-density of the charge

on the surface of separation. In crystallized and organized sub-
stancesit depends on the direction of the surface as well as on
the force perpendicular to it. In isotropic substances the coeflS-
cients p and q are zero, and the coefficients r are all equals so that
4«<rs l)(/X+«i7+»^ (12)
where is the condnotivify of the substance, r that of the external

mediom, and m, « the diieotion-coeines of the nonnal drawn
towaids the medium whose condnetivilj is r.
When hoth media are isotropic the conditions may be greatlj
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862 OOKDUCTIOK IK HBmOOBNlOUS MXDIA.
rimplified, for if i k tiie ipeciiio mistuiM per unit of volimie^ tliea

IdV IdF IdV f. ,v
and if p is the normal drawn at any point of the surface of separation

from the first medium towards the second, the conduction of con-
tinuity ifl 1 </r, _ 1 dV^
jj^j
dv k , dv
If $Y and $^ are the angles which the lines of flow in the first and
eeoond media reipectively make with the normal to the sorfaee
of separation, then the tangents to these lines of iloNv arc in the
same plane with the normal and on opposite eidea of it, and
iitstt^jsi^tantf,. (15)
This may be called the law of refraction of lines of flow.
811.] As an example of the conditions which must be fblfilled
when electricity crosses the surfece of separation of two media,
let us suppose the surface spherical and of radius «, the specific
resistance being within and A, without the surface.
Let the potential, both within and without the surface, be ex-
panded in solid harmonics, and let the part which depends on
the surîce harmonic 6", l>e
}\ = {A,r^B^r-<'^^^)S,, (1)
r, = (J,,^+^,r-(*+i))^, (2)
within and without the sphere respectively.
At the Bur&oe of separation where r s « we must have
r,^V, and ^^^ = ^--8. (3)
From these conditions we get the equations
- - A- 1^ A) + 1) =
(i i ^) (' 0.
j
Hiese equations are sufficient, when we know two of the foor

quantities Ai, A.,, B^, B.^, to deduce the other two.
Let us suppose and known, then we find the following
expressions for A.^ and B.^
^ V(ai+i)
'
(5)
_ {k, - k.^ i
A, * 4. {k^ i -h a +l))B^
3".] 8PHEBICAL SHBIiL. 868
In this way we oaa find thA oondition8 wbich eabh term of the
harmmiie espMuion of tbe potential most ntisfy for any number of
stmta boonded by eonoentrie spherical snrfiMiee.
812.] Let us suppose the radius of the first spherical soifiuse
to be o^, and let there be » second spherical sarfiuse of radius

greater than Oi, beyond which the speoifie resistance Is i^. IftherQ
are no sources or sinks of electricity within these spheres there
will be no infinite Talnes of and we shaU have Bi s 0.
We then find fi>r and the coefficients fiyr the outer medium,
The value of the potential In the outer medinm depends partly

on the ertemal sources of which produce currents in-
deetrioity^
dependently of the existence of the sphere of heterogeneous matter
within, and partly on the disturbance caused by the introduction of
the heterogeneous inhere.
The first part must depend on solid harmonics of poritive degrees
only, because it cannot haTO infinite values within the sphere. The
second part must depend on harmonics of negative degrees^ because
itmust vanish at an infinite distance from the centre of the sphere.
Hence the potential due to the external electromotive forces must
be expanded in a series of solid harmonics of positive degree. Let
^ be the coefficient of one these, of the form
Then we can find A^, the corresponding coefficient for the inner
sphere by equation (6), and from this deduce J,, B^, and Of
these jl?3 represents the effect on the potential in the outer medium
due to the introduction of the heterogeneous spheres.
Let us now suppose =
i^, so that the case is that of a hollow
shell fi>r which i= k^, separating an inner fifom an outer portion of

the same medium fi>r which ilsl^.
, If we put
1
(7 =
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864 CONDVCnOK IN HBTBB00KHX0V8 MBDUL [313
thai âsiî^(2t+l)<(7^,
^= (2 f + 1) (*i (t + 1)+ M ^^8>
(7)
The difference between the undisturbed coefficient^ and Ai ita

iralne in the hollow within the spheiieal shelly is
jl,-A, = <(i+ l)(l - ^')CJ,. (8)
Since this quantity is always positive whatever be the vahics

of i\ and /tj, it follows that, whether the spherical shell conducts
better or worse than the rest of the medium, the electrical action
within the shell is less than it would otherwise be. If the shell
is a better conductor than the rest of the medium it tends to
^nalize the potential all round the inner sphere. If it is a wone
conductor, it tends to preiyent the electrical cnnents from iwwhiwg
the inner sphere at all.
The case of a solid sphere may l)e deduced &om this by making
Hj = 0, or it may be worked ont independently.
313.] The most important term in the hannonie eipansion is
that in which t s 1, for which
(9)
The case of a solid sphere of resistance may be deduced from

this by making = 0. We then have
(10)
k. —k
It is easy to shew from the general expiesrions that the Tilne

of ^3 in the case of a hollow sphere having a nndeos of lesistuMse
sorroonded by a shell of resistance k^, is the same as that of
a vnifonn solid sphere of the radios of the outer sazfiuie, and of
resistance JT, where
(ok,^-k.)o,^ + ik,-k.^)n,^
(2^+i^)V-2(^-^V^'
314.] KBDIUM OOMTAINIHO SMALL 8PHBUBB. 365
814.] If there are n epheres of radius «| and raristanoe i^, plaoed

in a medium wbeae reaietanoe is at such distances from eaeh
otber tbat thdi effects in disturbing the course of the currant
may be taken as independent of each other, th^n if these spheras
aro sll contained within a sphere of radius a,, the potential at n
great dirtanoe from the centre of this sphere will be of the form
r=(^ + iiJB^)oosd, (12)
where tiie value of J? is
The ratb of the volume of the • small epheres to that of the

sphere which contains them is
The value of the potential at a great distance from the sphere

may therefore be written
Now if the whole sphere of radius had been made of a material

of epeoific resistance we should have had
r^\A+^'/-^lJ4oo,0. (16)
That the one expression should be equivalent to the other,
This, therefore, is the specifie reostanoe of a compoimd medium

consisting of a substance of specific resistance Jk^^ in which are
disseminated small spheres of specific resistance the ratio of the
volume of all the small spheres to that of the whole being j». In
order that the action of these spheres may not produce e£focts
depending on their interforenoej their radii must be small compared
with their distances, and therefore |» must be a small fraction.
This result may be obtsined in other ways, but that here given
involves only the repetitum of the result already obtained for a
single qihere.
WhiiBik the distance between the spheres is not great compared
with their radii, and when }^ is considerable, then other
terms enter into the result, which we shall not now consider.
In consequence of these terms certain systems of arrangement of
366 OOVDUCTION IN HETEROGENEOUS MEDIA. [iÔ-
tile spheres cause the resistance of the compound medium to be
ditTerent in Uiirerent directions.
JfipUcoHm €fih£ Prineiple oflma^,

815.] Let us take as an example the case of two media separated
by a plane surface, and let us suppose that there is a source S
of electricity at a distance a from the plane surface in the first
medium, the quantity of electricity tic wing from the source in unit
of time being H.
If the first medium had been infinitely extended the current

at any point P would have been in the direction and the
potential at P wonid \am l>een — wbere B ss -—^ and r, s

In the actual case the conditions may be satisfied by taking"
a point /, the image of S in the second medium, such that IS
is normal to the plane of separation and is bisected by it. Let
be the distance of any point from/, then at the surface of aeftaratioa
n= (1)
Let the potential at any point in the first medinm be that

dne to a quantity of eleetridty E placed at 5, together with aa
imaginary quantity at 7, and let tiie potential at any point
of (lie 0eoond medium be that due to an imaginary quantity at
.,thenif
+ 5 ..dr.^S, (3)
the superficial condition Vy=^ V,^ gives

E^B^Êy, (i)
and the condition
\ dp ~ dv
(5)
(6)
whence E^^Jl^£, £^^^Ê. (7)
The potential in the first medium is therefore the same as would

be produced in air by a charge E placed at S, and a cbarg(^
at / on the eleetrostatic theory, and the potential in the second
medium u the aame as that which would be produced in air by
a charge at S.
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317*] BTItATITM WITH PABALLBL SIDI8. 867
TheeoRent at any pmnt of the first medium is the hudq^ as would

k — /t
have been produced by the source IS together with a source ^ 8
phoed at / if the first medium had been iiifinite» and the cnnent
at any point of the second medinm is the same as would haye heen
2k^ 8
produced by a source . placed at if the second medium had
been infimte.
We have thns a complete theory of electrioal images in the oaae
of two media separated by a plane boundary. 'Whatever be the
nature of the electromotive forces in the first medium, the potentiifl
they produce in the first medinm may be found by combining their
direct effect with the effect of their image.
If we suppose the second medium a perfect conductor, then
= 0, and the image at J is equal and opposite to the course
at 8, This is the case of electric images, as in Thomson's theoiy
in electrostatics.
If we suppose the second medium • perfect insuhtor, then
cOf and the image at / is 8 and of the
eûal to the source at
same sign. Thisthe case of images in hydroldnetics when the
is
fluid is bounded by a rigid plane surface.

316.] The method of inversion, which is of so much use in
electrostatics when the bounding surface is supjwsed to be that
of a perfect conductor, is not applicable to the more general case
of the surface separatin<c two conductors of unequal electric resist-
ance. The method of inversion in two dimensions is, however,
applicable, as well as the more general method of transformation in
two dimensions given in Art. 190
Conduction through a Plate ieparating Two Media,
817.3 Let us next consider the effect of a plate of thickness <^ of

a medinm whose resist-
ance is i^, and separating %
two media whose resist-
ances are and i^, in ^ B
| J"
altering the potential due

to a source iff in the first
The potential will be
• See Kirchhoff, Fogg. Awih. Ixiv. 497, and Izvii. 344 ; Qainok«, Pogg. xcyU. 882;
Mid Smith, Proe. R. 8. Sdm., 1869-70, p. 79.
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868 ooHDUcnov nr HmBOOBHions midu. [318.
eqwd to that doe to » sTstem of charges placed in air at

pointa along the noimal to the plate thmigh 8,
Hake
JIâA, BI^^SB, JJîÎÂ, BI^^J^B, JJ^^l^^kci
then we have two aeriea of points at distanees from eadi other equal
to twioe the tWiAness of the plate.
818.] Hie potential in the first medium at any point P is equal to
that at a point in the second
+ ^+ ^+iScc, (9)
and that at a point P' in the thbd
where /, st^nt the imaginary charges placwl at the

&c. reprt
points /, &c.j and the accents denote that the potential is to be
taken within the plate.
Then, by the last Article, for the surface through A we have^
k —i 9 Ir
^2 + ATj '^2~T'
For the surface through £ we find
Similarly for the snrfiioe through A again,
and for the surface tb rough i^,
j^^hzihj'^ J^ = -^J{. (14)
If we make _ k^—k^ ^_
^""^2
^
we find foot the potential in the first medimnt

TT
^
^ ^
=P^-''^
/ "s / ^ ft o\
j^+z" (i-r)pp
/
w+ o_
«c•
+/''(l-/)(p/'')"-'^• ('5)
319 ] 8TBATIFIBD OONDXTCTOB&L 369
For the potential In tlie thiid medium we find
r=(l+pO(l-/>)*{;py + ^+&c+^"}. (16)
If thu tirst medium is the same as the third, then = and

p =z p\ and the potential on the other side of the pkte will be
If the plate is a very much better conductor than the rest of the
medium, p is very nearly equal to 1 . If the plate is a nearly perfect
insulator, p is nearly equal to — 1 , and if the plate differs little in
conducting power from the rest of the medium, /> is » small quantity
positive or negative.
The theory of this case was first stated by Green in his ' Theory
of Magnetic Induction* (Ettay, p. 65). His result, however, is
oonect only when p is nearly equal to 1 The quantity g which
he uses is connected with ^ by the eqaations
2/) _ k^-k^ o-J^
If we put ps ' * solution of the problem of
^
tlic niaf^netic induction excited by a magnetic pole in an infinite

plute whose coefficient of magnetization is ic.
On SkaHfied QmSueion.
319.] Let a conductor be composed of alternate strata of thick-
ness c and (f of two substances whose coefficients of conductivity
are different. Required the coefhcients of resistance and conduc-
tivity of the compound conductor.
Let the plane of the strata be normal to Z. Let every symbol
relating to the strata of the second kind be accented, and let
eyory symbol relating to the compound conductor be marked with

a bar thus, X Then
(<?+0 Z= cZ+cZ\ w = to = vf.

We must first determine v, rf^ Z and Z' in terms of
^ Y and v from the equations of resistance^ Art. 297, or those
* See Sir W. Tbonuon's Noi« on Induced Mugnetiam in a

'
Plate,' C'unti. a.%\d
DiA. Jfott. Joiini.» Nov. 1846, or B^prhU, ark is. f IM.
TOL. I. Bb
870 ooNDUcnoN in hitbboobneous media. [320.
of oondnotmigr, Art. 298. If we put J) for the cLetenninaot of the

coefficients of rerietanee, ve find
Similar eqimtions witli the wymMla accented give the yalaes

of t?' and /. Having found u, v and w in terms of A', Y and Z,
we may write down the e<j[uatiouB of conductivity of the stratiEed
conductor. If we make — and K^ — ^ we find
'
(4+^0 («+<0
_ gr^ + gV/ hh'{p.-p,[){q,-q;)
320.] If neither of tlie two sul^stanees of which the strata are

formed has the rotatory property of Art. 303, the value of any
P or p will be equal to that of its corresponding Q or q. From
this it follows that in the stratified conductor also
or there is no rotatory property developed by stratification, unlesi

it exists in the materials.
821.] If we now suppose that there is no rotatory property, and
also that the axes of y and s aie the principal aaras, then the
p and q coefficients vanish, and
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322.] STRATIFIED OOKDUCTOBS. 871
If we begin with both sabstaiicee isotropie, but of di£SBient

condactiyitiee, then the result of etratification will be to make
the reeistanoe greatest in the diieetion of a nonnal to the stntta^
and the reejetanoe in all directions in tiie plane of the strata will
be equaL
822.] Take an isotropie snbstanoe of condnotiyitj r, cut it into
exceedingly thin slices of thickness a, and phMse them alternately

with slices of a substance whose condoctiTily is 4, and thickness
Let these slices be normal to «. Then cut this componnd eon-

doctor into thicker slices, of thickness b,normal to and alternate
these with dices whose condQctivity is s and thiclmcse 1^6,
Lastly, cat the new conductor into still thicker dices, of thick-
ness normal to ^, and alternate them with
c, slices whose con-
ductivity is s and thickness i^c.
The result of the three operatious will be to cut the substance
whose conductivity is r into rectanfi;-ular parallelepipeds whose
dimensions are a, b and 6*, where b is exceedingly small compared
with c, and a is exceedingly small compared with b, and to embed
these parallelepipeds in the substance whose conductivity is s, so
that they are separated from each other k\a in the direction of a*,
k^b in that of y, and k.^c in that of z. The conductivities of the

conductor so formed in the directions of «, y and z are
^ {lM(l+^2)(l+^s)}>--K^2-f
,
* (1+/&2)(1+^*3)(>^*1'' + ^
_ (1 -f 4-
h >^3) ^+ (^1 -1^
h-^K K -»-
K K-^KK^* ^
The accuracy of this investigation depends upon the three

dimensions of the parallelepipeds being of different orders of ma§^
nitude, so that we may neglect the conditions to be fulfilled at
their edges and angles. If we make and each nnity^ then
^ 6f+3£ 8f->-5# 2r-t-6 #

•^^-ITTi;'' '•-aT???*' '«"T+7r''
If r = 0, that is, if the medium of which the parallelepipeds
are made is a perlect insulator^ then
fi b 2
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d72 OOHDUCnOV IN HBTHBOGSNKOnS MIDIA. Cj^S-
If r B 00, that iS| if the parallelepipeds aie perfect oondocior%
In every ease, provided Jty = i^ = ^3, it may be shewn thai

r^, r.^ and r, are in ascending order dT magnitode, so tliat the
greatest conductivity is in the direction of the longest dimensiona
of the parallelepipeds, and the greatest resistance in the direcôn
of their shortest dimensions.
323.] Ill a rectangular parallelepiped of a conducting solid, let
there be a conducting channel made from one angle to the opposite,
the channel being a wire covered with insulating material, and
let the lateral dimensions of the channel be so small that the
conductivity of the solid is not affected except on account of the
current conveyed along the wire.
Let the dimensions of the parallelej)iped in the directions of the
coordinate axes be a, d, c, and let the conductivity of the chauuely
extending from the origin to the point {nfj''), l>e abcK.

The electromotive force acting between the extremities of the
diannei is
eX+^J+c^,
and if C be the corrent along the channel
C"= Kabc{aX-[fjy+cZ).
The current across the face be of the parallelepiped is bcn^ and
this is made up of that due to the conductivity of the solid and
of that doe to the conductivity of the channel^ or
or « = (/-J -f
A'a - j A + (y>3 + A'u /y ) r+ + Kc a) Z.
In the same way we may find the values of v and i^. The
eoefficients of conductivity as altered by the effect of the channel
will be
Pi+Kbe^ Pg-^Kea, p^-^Kab,
g^ + Kbc, ^2 Xea, + Kab.

In these expressions, the additions to the values of py, &c., due
to the eflTect of the channel, are e<|ual to the additions to the values
of q^, &c. Hence the values of jJi and qi cannot be rendcrM
unequal by the introduction of linear channels into every element
of volume of the solid, and therefore the rotatory property of
Art. 303, if it does not exist previously in a solid^ cannot be
introduced by such means.
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324-] 00MP06ITS OONDUOIOB. 873
824.] 2b eotutruct a framework of linear eonducton lokiek shall

have given eoejfidmtte ef eouîeimfy fwrmmg a egmmeUrieal
syeUm,
"Let the wgmee be divided into equal small
cubes, of wUeh let the figoie xepfesent one.
Let the ooordinates of the points 0, L, M,
and their potentials be as foUows:
w y z PoUiUuU,
0 0 0 0 0
L 0 1 1 0+7+^,
M 1 0 1
N 1 1 0 0+x+r.
Let these four points be oonneoted by six oonductors,
OL, OM, ON, MN, NL, LM,
of which the conductivities are respectively
A, B, C, P, «, n.
The electromotiYe forces along these condnotors will be
r+j^, j?+x, jT+r, j-jgr, ^-x, x— x,
and the curfonts
A{Y^Z), B{z^x\ c(x+i). P(r-^), q{z-X), R{x-r),
Of these currents, those which convey electricity in the positive
direction of « are those along LM, LN, OM and ON, and the
quantity conveyed is
u ^ (^+(?+«+J8)X+(<7-J8)r +(-8-®^.
Similarly
V = {C-1{)X ^{C+A-\-R + P)Y + {A-P)Z,

w = (B'-Q)X HA-P)r •\-{A-^B + F+Q)Z;
whence we find by comparison with the equations of conduction.
Art. 298,
4J = r2+f3-n + 2jE)„ 4i> = r,+r,-fi-2/)„
4^ = r^ + r^-r^ + 2p^, 4 Q= ra + rj-rj-ajDj,
4 (7 = ri+rg-/,+ 2jt;3, 4-8 = rj + r,— r,— 2j»,.
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CHAPTER X
CONDUCTION IN DIELECTBICS.
826.] Wb htkve teen that when electromotive force acts on s

dielectric medium it produces in it a state which we have called
electric polarization, and which we have descrihed as consisting
of electric displacement within the medium in a direction which,
in isotropic media, coincides with that of the electromotive foroe^
combined with a superlioial charge on everf element of volume
into which we may suppose the dielectric divided, whidi is negative
on the side towards which the force acts, and positive on the side
from which it acts.
When electromotive force acts on a conducting medium it also
produces what is called an electric current.
Now dielectric media, with very few, if any, exceptions, are
alsomore or less imperfect conductors, and many media which are
not good insulators exhibit phenomi na of dielectric induction.
Hence we are led to study the state of a medium in which induction
and conduction are {ôing on at the same time.
For Bimplieity we shall sup])Ose the medium isotropic at every
point, but not necessarily homogeneous at dillercnt points. In this
case, the equation of Poisson becomes, by Art. 83,
where K is the *
specific inductive capacity,'
Tlie * equation of continuity' of electric currents becomes
dx V dxi^dy^r dy) dz V l^z^" di ~ ^'
where r is the specific resistance referred to unit of volume.

When iT or r is discontinuous, these equations must be trans-
formed into those appropriate to surfrces of discontinuity.
iJiyiiized by
326.] THiOBT or A comomraut. 376
In a strictly homogttiieoiit medium f and K aie both constanty 00

that we find
whence p = Ce ; (4)
or, if we pot T^~,

4 TT
p^Ce'r, (5)
This result shews that under the action of any external electric
forces on a homogeneous medium, the interior of which is originally
charged in any manner with electricity, the internal charges will
die away at a rate which does not depend on the external forces,
so that at length there will be no charge of electricity within
the medium, after which no external forces can either produce or
maintain a charge in any internal portion of the medium, pro-
vided the relation between electxomotiye foroej electric polarization
and conduction remains the same. When disruptive disohaige
occurs these relations cease to be tme^ and internal chaige maj
be produced.
On CondueHtm tAnmÂ a Condeiuer,
826.] Let C be the capacity of • oondenser, R its ledstance, and

JB the eleetromotiTe force which acts on it, that is, the difference of
potentials of the sorfiuses of the metallic dectrodes.
Ihm the qaantity of electrieilj en the side fiom whidi the
electromotive force acts will be CJB, and the current throug^h the
substance of the condenser in the direction of the electromotive
force wiU be
If the electrification is supposed to be produced by an electro-
motive force £ acting in a circuit of which the condenser forms
part, and if
^ repiesents the current in that circuit, then
Let a battery of electromotive force £q and resistance be

circuit, then
introduced into this
dq_E,ÊÊ^^d^ (7)
dt r, R ^ dt
Henccj st any time ^,
{l-A) when. 7. = ;^- (8)
Diyiiized by Google
876 cx>HDircfino9 IN DnBLiOTBics. [327.
Nezfc^ lei the ciicnit fi be broken for a time ^,
£{=,£^=Eie'Tt where OR. (9)
Finally, let the earfiuwe of the oondenier be conneoted by means

of a wire whose renstance is for a time ^,
£(=£^=£ê~^ where 2i= (10)
If is the total discharge through this wire iu the time t^^
('-'"*>•"*(-"*>• '"•
this way we may find the discharge through a wire which

In
is made to connect the surfaces of a condenser after being charged
for a time ^, and then insalated for a time ^. If the time of
charging is sufficient, as it generally is, to develops the whole
charge, and if the time of discharge is sufficient for a complete
dischargCj the discharge is
CL = £,
'^-^•(J8+r^(J^+fV)*
— e'cR- (12)
327.] In a condenser of this kind, first charged in any way, next

discharged through a wire of snmll resistance, and then insulat<>d,
no new electrification will appear. In most actual condensers,
however, we find that after discharge and insulation a new eharge
is gradually developed, of the same kind as the original charge,
but inferior in intensity. This is called the residual charge. To

account for it we must admit that the constitution of the dielectric
medium is difTfrent from that which we have just described. We
shall find, however, that a medium formed of a conglomeration of
small pieces of different simple media would possess this property.
Theorjf of a Comjwsite Bieleciric,

328.] We shall suppose, for the sake of simplicity, that the
dielectric consists ofa number of plane strata of different materials
and of area unity, and that the electric foices act in the direction
of the normal to the strata.
Let flj, a^y &c. be the thicknesses of the different strata.
JT}, J!^, &c. the resultant electrical force within each stratum.
Pi,Poj &c. the current due to conduction through each stratum.
/u/%> ^* electric displacement.
flii, «|, &c the totsl current^ due partly to conduction and partly
to variation of displacement.
Diyiiized by Google
328.] SntATIFIBD DIELBOTBIC. 877
rj, r.,, &c. the epeoific resistance xeferred to unit of volume.

Ki, K2, &c. the specific inductiTe oapacity.
k^, &o. the reciprocal of the specific inductive capacity.
B the electromotive force doe to a voltaic batteiy, placed in
the part of the cirooit leading firom the b»t stratom towaida the
fireti which we shall si^ppoee good conductors.
Q the total qnantily of electridty whidi has paopcd thiovigh this
part of ifae cmmit np to the time t,
ii^ the resiBfiKnoe of the hatteiy with its oonneciiiig wires.
9^ the soxfiuse-density of eleclnicHj on the sorfiuse which separates

the first and second strata.
Then in the first strstam we have, hj Ohm's Law,
Xi = (1)
Bj the theory of electrical displacement,
Xi=4uVi. (2)
By the definition of the total current^
•. = A+f. (3)
wiiJi similar eqnataons for the other strata, in eadi of which the
qoantities have the suffix helonging to that stratom.
To determine the sarfiMse-density on any stratum^ we have an
equation of the form = _y; ^
and to determine its variation we have
It
By diflferentiating (4) with respect to #, and equaiang the result
to (5), we obtain
i>i+^/=i>a+^- = «>say, (6)
or, by taking account of (S)^

«i = ff, s &0. s a. (7)
That is, the total current u is the same in all the strata^ and is
equal to the current through the wire and battery.
We have also, in virtue of equations (1) and (2),
from which we may find by the inverse operation on «,
^ / 1 1 d^-^
378 COJSDUCTION IN DIBLECT&ICS. [d^Q.
The total electromotive force E is

a|Zi+a,J^+&c., (10)
an eqnatioii between E, the external electromotive force, and », the

external current.
If the ratio off to i is tiie same in all the stiftta, the equation
rednoes itself to
T (IE
^ + = K''i + «»''a + &c.)«, (12)
wfaieh is the ease we have already examined, and in whudij as we

found, no phenomenon of residual charge can take plaoe.
If there are n substances having different ratios of r to tiie
general equation (11), when cleared of inverse operations, will be

a linear differential equation, of the «th order with respect to E
and of the (»— l)th order with respect to i being the independent
variable.
From the form of the equation it is evident that the order of
the different strata is inditferent, so that if there arc several strata
of the same sul)stanee we may suppose them united into one
without altering the phenomena.
329.] Let ns now sn])pose that at first /J, &c. are all zero,
and that an eleetromotive force E is suddenly made to act, and let
08 find its instantaneous effect.
Integrating (8) with respect to i, we find
Q sjudi = yjX^di-\- ^^Xj + const. (IS)
Now, since is always in this case finite,

J dt must be in-
sensible when i is insensible, and therefore, sinoe X| is originally

sero, the instantaneous ^foct will be
Xi=s4irîC. (14)
Hence, by equation (1 0}^
4ir(*,tf,+it,fl,+&c.)C, (15)
aud if (7 be the electric capacity of the system as measured in this

instantaueous way,
(7=-^
E
= —
47r(Xiai+itja, + &c.)
(16)
Diyiiized by Google
329-] BLICTSIC *ABSOBFTIOir.' 379
This is the same result that we should haTe obtained if we had

neglected the oondnotivity of the strata.
Let UM nest suppose that the electromotive force B ia eontinved
uniform for an indefinitely long time, or till a nnifonn currant of
oondnotion equal iopk established throngb the system.
We have then Xi s r, j), and therefora
JP s (fj rt, + «2 + p. (1 7)
If Ji be the total resistance of the system,
fia,+r,«,+&o. (18)
In this state we have by (2),
BO that = (19)
If we now suddenly connect the extreme strata by means of a

conductor of small resistance, E will be suddenly changed from its
original value to zero, and a quantity Q of electricity will pass
through the conductor.
To determine Q we observe that if A'/ be the new value of Xj,
then by (13), x,'=: X, + 4 vifei (20)
Hence, by (10), puttiog Ess 0,
0 = <liX, + &C. + 4 7r(<7ii-i + a2^2 + &cO C (21)
or 0 « + fi- (22)
Hence Q = — CE^, where C is the capacity, as given by equation

(16). The iustantaneous discharge is therefore equal to the in-
stantaneous chariê.
Let us next suppose the connexion broken immediately after this
discharge. We shall then have » = 0, so that by equation (8),
4irik|
Xi=rX'* 1 , (23)
where X' is the initial value after the discharge.
Hence,- at any time
The value of £ at any time is therefore
J? = ii - 4 itaî'iC) r^'* + -47rag>tj,C) +&c. | , (24)

I
380 OONDUCTIOH IN DIBLBCTBIGS. [33a
and the instantaneous disehaige after any tune ^ 10 £C. This is
called the lesidiiaL disehaige.

If the latio of r to k
is the same for sll the stiatSy the value of S
willbe redaced to zero. If, however, this ratio is not the same, let
the terms he ananged aooording to the valaes of this ratio in
descending order of magnitnde.
The som of all the coefficients is evidently zero, so that when
^ s 0, £ as 0. The coefficients are also in descending order of
magnitade, and so are the exponential tenns when i is positive.
Hence, when i is positive, S will be positive, so that the residual

discharge is always of the same sig-n as the primary discharge.
When t is indefinitely great all the terms disappear unless any
of the strata are perfect insulators, in which case is infinite lor
that stratum,' and E is infinite for the whole system, and the final
value o{ £ IB not zero but

E z= FîlînoiiiC). (25)
Hence, when some, but not all, of the strata are perfect insnlatoza,
a residual discharge may be permanently preserved in the system.
880.] We shall next determine the total discharge through a wire
of resistance J!^ kept permanently in connexion with the extreme
strata of the system, snpposing tiie aystem first charged by means
of a long-continned application of the electromotive force £.
At any instsnt we have
JBss r^p^ + r.ji^ + &c. + i?o = 0, (26)
and slso, by (8), a^^ + g. (27)
Hence (i2+iya « Ojr,^ +<i,r,^ +&e. (28)
Integrating with respect to ^ in order to find we get

{R-^Ro) «= «i (//-/i) +«2 rî if2-A) (29)
whereî is the initial^ andy^' the final value o^fy,
Inthi.cMe/i'= 0. and /.-i^Qj^^^-C).
Henoe (R+it^)q = A^(^+'h^+i^)-E,CB, (30)
= -f S.[a.a.M.(i-^)l. (31)
where the summation is extended to all (.quantities of thia form

belonging to every pair of strata.
iîyuiûd by Google
SBSIDITAL DISOHABOB. 381
It Appears from this that Q is always negative, that is to say, in

the opposite direction to that of the conent employed in charging
the system.
This investigation shews that a dielectric composed of strata of
di£B9rent kinds may phenomena known as electric
ekhihit the
absorption and reddoal none of the substances
discharge, although
of which it is made exhibit these phenomena when alone. An
investigation of the cases in which the materials are arranged
otherwise than in strata would lead to similar results^ though
the calculations would be more complicated, so that we may
conclude that the phenomena of electric ahsorption nuiy be ex-
pected in the case of substances composed of parts of different
kindSj even though these individual parts should be microscopically
small.
It by no means follows that every substance which exhibits this
phenomenon is so composed, for it may indicate a new kind of
electric jwlarization of which a homogeneous substance may be
capable, and this in some cases may perhaps resemble electro-

chemical polarization much more than dielectric polarization.
The object of the iiivestifâtion is merely to point out the true
mathematical character of the so-culled electric absorption, and to
shew how fundamentally it ditl'ers from the phenomena of heat
which seem at first sight analogous.
881.] If we take a thick plate of any substance and heat it
on one side, so as to produce a flow of heat through it, and if
we then suddenly cool the heat«d side to the same temperature
as the other, and leave the plate to itself, the heated side of the
plate will again become hotter than the other by conduction from
within.
Now an electrical phenomenon exactly analogous to this can
be produced, and actuaDy occurs in telegraph cables, but its mathe-
matical laws, though exactly agreeing with thoee of heat, differ
entirely from those of the stmtified condenser.
In the case of heat there is true absorption df the heat into
the substance with the result of making it hot. To produce a truly
analogous phenomenon in eleetriciiy is impossible, butwe may
imitate it in the following way in the form of a lecture-room
experiment.
Let A^, A, &c. be the inner conducting surfaces of a series of
condensers, of which 7?„, B^, /y^, &e. are the outer surfaces.
Let Ai, A^, &c. be connected in series by connexions of resist-
iîyuiûd by Google
882 GOHDUCnOK IN DIELBOTRIG&
aaoe and let a onmnt be paoecd along ihia aeriea from left to
right.
Let us fint suppose the plates î* -^2* inenlatecl and
free from charge. Then the total quantity of eleetricitj on each of

the plates B must remain zero, and since the electricity on the
platee A ia in each case equal aud opposite to that of the oppoeed
^0
I''ig. 25.
snrfaee they will not he electrified^ and no alteration of the corrent

ynSX be obaeired.
Bnt let the plates ^ he all connected together, or let each be
connected with the earth. Then, since the potential of is
positive, whik' that of the plates JJ is zero, will be positively

electrified and neg-atively.
If Pj, Pg, &c. are the potentials of the plates A^, A2, &c., and C
the capacity of cach^ and if we suppose that a quantity of electricity
equal to Qq passes through the wire on the left, through the
connexion P^, and so on, then the quantity which exists on the
plate Ai is Q^— and we have
Similarly Qi-Qi=C^^^,
and so on.
But by Ohm's Law we have
dt
If we suppose the values of C the same for each plate, and those
of P the same for each wire, we shall have a series of equations of
the form
iîyuiûd by Google
XmOBT or KUOTBIO 0ABLI8. 888
If there are n quantities of electricity to be determined, and if

either the total electromotive force, or some other equivmlent con-
ditions be given, the differential equation for determuung any one
of them will be linear and of the nth. order.
By an apparatus arranged in this way, Mr. Yarley socoeeded in

imitating the electrical action of a cable 12^000 miles long.
When an electromotiye force is made to act along the mre on
the left hand, the electricity which flows into the system is at first
principally oceapied in charging the different condensers beginning
with Ji, and only a Yeiy small fraction of the cnrrent appears
at the right hand till a considerable time has elapsed. If galvano-
.meters be placed in eiroait at B^, R^^ &c they will be affected
by the cnrrent one after another^ the interval between the times of
equal indications being greater as we proceed to the right.
882.} In the case of a telegraph cable the condaotiDg wire is
separated from conductors outside by a cylindrical sheath of gutta-
percha, or other insulating' material. Each portion of the cable
thus becomes a condonser, the outer surface of which is always at
potential zero. Hence, in a given portion of the cable, the quantity
of free electricity at the surface of the conducting wire is equal
to the product of the potential into the capacity of the portion of
the cable considered as a condenser.
If a^, ^3 are the outer and inner radii of the insulating sheath,
and if K is its specific dielectric capacity, the capacity of unit of
length of the cable is^ by Art. 126,
(1)
2log3
Let « be the potential at any point of the wire, which we may

consider as thesame at every put of the same section.
Let Q be the total quantity of electricity which has passed
through that section since the beginning of the current. Then the
quantity which at the time t exists between sections at w and at
and this is, by what we have said, equal to evhm.

384 OOHDUOnOK IK DULECTBIGS. [333-
Hence =— ^ • (2)
Agâin, the electromotive force at any section *® ^7

Ohm's Law, ^
where h is tbe raristaiioe of unit of length of the eondnetor, and
ties
is the strength of the current. Eliminating Q between (2) and
(8), we find ^l^^ (a\
This is the partial differential equation which must be solved

in order to obtain the potential at any instant at any {X)int of the
cable. It is identical with that which Fourier gives to determine
the temi)erature at any point of a stratum through which heat
is flowing in a direction normal to the stratum. In the case of
heat c represents the capacity of unit of volume, or what Fourier
calls CDy and represents the reciprocal of the conductivity.
If the sheath is not a perfect insulator, and if is the resist*
ance of unit of length of the sheath to conduction through it in a
radial direction, then if is the specific leeistance of the insulating
material, ^
The equation (2) will no longer be true, for the electricity is

expended not only in charging the wire to the extent represented
hj C9, but in escaping at a late represented • Hence the late

J^
of expenditare of electricity will be
whence^ by comparison with (3), we get
and this is the equation of condnetion of heat in a' rod or ring

as given by Fourier*.
888.3 ^^
had supposed that a body when raised to a hig-h
potential becomes electrified throughout its substance as if elec-
tricity were compressed into it, we should have arrived at equa-
tions of this very form. It is remarkable that Ohm himself,
iîyuiûd by Googl
334-] HYDR06TATICAL ILLU8TRATI0K. 386
misled by the analogy between electridfy and heat, entertained

an opinion of this kind, and was thus, by means of an enoneoos
opinion, led to employ the equations of Fonrier to expiess the
tnie laws of conduction of electricity through a longf wire, long
before the real reason of the appropriateness of these equations had
been suspected.
Meekanieal lUuettaUon of the Properties of a Dieleeirie,
334.] Five tubes of equal sectional area B, C, J) And P are

arranged in circuit as in the figure.
A, B, C and B are vertical and equal, Xp Tp Tp
and P is horizontal. 1_
The lower halves of Ay B, C, D
are fille<l with mercury, their upper
halves and the horizontal tube P are - c -
filled with water. #
A tnbe with a stopcock Q con-

- e -
3
nects the lower part of A and B - s0 - - c -

0
-D -
with that of C and D, and a piston

P is made to slide in the horizontal -a -
tnbe.
Let ns begin by supposing that
the level of the mercnry in tiie four
tubes is the same, and that it Is
indicated by Aq, Bq, Co, B^^, that

the piston is at P^, and that the
stopcock Q is shut.
Now let the piston be moved from P^ to Pj, a distance a. Tlien,
since the sections of all the tubes are ecûal, the level of the mercury
in A and C will rise a distance fi, or to J^ and C^, and the mercury
in B and I) will sink an equal distance a, or to V/j and B^.
The differenec of pressure on the two sides of the piston will
be represented by 4 a.
This arrangement may serve to represent the state of a dielectric
acted on by an electromotive force 4 a,
The excess of water in the tube B may be taken to represent
a positive charge of electricity on one side of the dielectric, and the
excess of mercury in the tnbe A may represent the negative charge
on the other side. The excess of pressure in the tnbe P on the
side of the piston next D will then represent the excess of potential
on the positive side of the dielectric.
TOL. I. 0c
386 CONDUCTION IN DISLBCTBICB. [334.
If the pirton is free to move it will move Wk to and be

in eqailibrinm there. This represents the eomplete diediaige of
the dieleetrio.
During the discharge there is % reversed motion of the liquids
thronghout the whole tube, and this represents that chnnge of
electric displacement whi(di we have supposed to take place in a
dielectric.
I liavo supposed every part of the system of tubes filled with

incompressible liquids, iu order to represent the j)roperty of all
electric disphicement that there is no real accumulation of elec-

tricity at any place.
Let lis now consider the effect of opening the stopcock Q while
the piston P is at P^.
The Ai and B^^ will remain unchanged, but that of
level of B and
C will beeome the same, and will coincide with Bq and C^^.
The opening of the stopcock Q corresponds to the existence of
a part of the dielectric which has a slight conducting power, bat
which does not extend through the whole dielectric so as to form
an open channel.
The charges on the opposite sides of the dielectric remain in-
sulated, but their difference of potential diminishes.
In fiust, the difference of pressure on the two sides of the piston
sinks from 40 to 2 a during the passsge of the fluid through Q.
If we now shut the stopcock Q and allow the piston P to move
freely, it will come to equilibrium at a point P,, and the discharge
will he apparently only half of the charge.
The level of the mercury in A and B will be \a above its
original level, and the level in the tubes C and D will be \a
below its original level. This is indicated by the levels A^^ B^,
If the piston is now fixed and the stopcock opened, n.crcury will
flow from B to C till the level in the two tubes is again at B^^ and
Cq. Tliere will then be a dilicn nce of pressure = a on the two
sides of the piston J\ If the stopcock is then closed and the piston
P left free to move, it will aîn come to equilibrium at a {xjint P^,
half way between P^ and Pq. This corresponds to the residual
charge which is observed when a charged dielectric is first dis-
charged and then left to itself. It gradually recovers part of its
charge, and if this is a<în discharged a third charge is formed, the
successive charges diminishing in quantity. In the case of the
illustrative experiment each charge is half of the pieceding, and the
iîyuiûd by Googl
334-3 HTBBOSTATICAL ILLUSTRATIOK, 387
diflchaiges^ whioh are 1, i, &c. of the original cliaige, form a series

whose sum is equal to the original chaige.
If, instead of opening and dosing the stopcock, we had allowed it
to remain nearly, hut not qnite, dosed dnring the whole experiment,
we shonldf havehad a case resemhling that of the eleetrifioation of a
dielectric which is a perfect insnlator and yet exhibits the phe-
nomenon called ' deetrio absorption/
To repiesent tiie case in whidi there is tme condnction through
the dielectric we must either make the piston leaky, or we must
establish a communication between the top of the tube A and the
top of the tube D.
In this way we may construct a mechanical illustration of the
properties of a dielectric of any kind, in which the two electricities
are represented by two real fluids, and the electric ]Kttential is
represented by fluid pressure. Charge and discharge are repre-

sented by the motion of the piston Jp, and electromotive force by
the resultant force on the piston.
c c a
iîyuiûd by Google
CHAPTER XI.
THE MEASUREMENT OF ELECTBIG RESISTANCE.
885.] In the present state of eleetrieal seieiioe, the detennination

of the electric resistance of a conductor may be ooneidered as the
cardinal operation in electricity, in the same sense that the deter-
mination of weight is the cardinal operation in chemistry.
The reason of this is tliat the determination in absohite measure
of other electrical nia]Lfnitude8, sueh as quantities of electricity,
electromotive forces, currents, &c., requires in each case a com-
plicated scries of operations, involving generally observations of
time, measurements of distances, and determinations of moments
of inertia, and these operations, or at least some of them, must
be repeated for every new determination, because it is impossible
to preserve a unit of electricity, or of electromotive force, or of
eonent, in an nnchangeable state, so as to be available for direct
comparison.
But when the a properly shaped conductor
electric resistance of
of a properly chosen material has been once determined, it is found
that it always lemains the same for the same temperatare, so that
the oondnctor may be nsed as a standard of resistance, with which
that of other conductors can be c<»npared^ and the comparison of
two resistances is an operation which admits of extreme accuracy.
When the unit of electrical resistance has been fixed on, material
copies of this unit, in the form of ' Resistance Coils/ are prepared
for the use of electricians, so that in every part of the world
electrical resistances may be expressed tn terms of the same unit.
These unit resistance coils are at present the only examples of
material electric standards which can be preserved, copied, and used
for the purpose of measurement. Measures of electrical capacity,
which are also of ^rcat importance, are still defective, on account

of the disturbing influence of electric absorption.
336.] The miit of resistance may be an entirely arbitrary one,
as in the case of Jacobi's Etalon, which was a certain copper
wire of 22.4932 grammes weight, 7.61975 metres length, and 0.667
iîyui^cd by Google,
3390 STANDARDS OF RB8I8TAN0B. 889
millimetres diameter. Copies of this have been made by Leyser of

Leipsig, and are to be found in different places.
According to another method the unit may be defined as the
resistance of a portion of a definite substance of definite dimensions.
Thus, Siemens' unit is defined as tiie resistance of a column of
mercury of one metre long, and one square millimetre section, at
the temperature CC.
887.] may be defined with reference to the
Finally, the unit
tbe electromagnetic system of units. In practice
electrostatic or
the electromagnetic system is used in all telegraphic operations,
and therefore the only sybtematic units actually in use are those
of tliis sytiU'in.
In the electromagnetic system, us we shall shew at the i)roper

place, a resistance is a quantity homogeneous with a velocity, and
may therefore be expressed as a velocity. See Art. 628.
338.] The first actual measurements on this system were made
by Weber, who ('m])loyed as his unit one millimetre per second.
Sir W. Thomson afterwards used one foot per second as a unit,
but a largo number of electricians have now agreed to use the
unit of the British Association, which professes to represent a
resistance which, expressed as a velocity, is ten millions of metres
per second. The magnitude of this unit is more convenient than
that of Weber's unit, which is too small. It is sometimes referred
to as the B.A. unit, but in order to connect it with the name of
the discoverer of the laws of resistance, it is called the Ohm.
889.] To recollect its value in absolute measure it is useM
to know that ten millions of metres is professedly the distance
from the pole to the equator, measured along the meridian of Pisris,
A body, therefore, which in one second travels along a meridian
from the pole to the equator would have a velocity which, on the
electromagnetic system, is professedly represented by an Ohm.
I say piofossedly, because, if more accurate researches diould
prove that the Ohm, as constructed from the British Association s
material standards, is not really represented by this velocity, elec-
trieians would not alter their standards, but would apply a cor-
rection. In the same way the metre is jirofessedly one ten-millionth
of a certain quadrantal arc, l)ut tliough this is found not to be
exactly true, the length of the metre has not been altercnl, but the
dimensions of the earth are expressed by a less simple number.
According to the system of the British Association, the absolute
value of the unit is originallj/ ckoten so as to represent as nearly
890 MKiUIUBBKBNT OP BESISTAKCB.
as possible a quantity derived from the electromagnefeic absolute

system.
840.] When a material unit representing this abstract qoantil^
has been made, other standards are constmcted by copyiDg* this unit,
a proce<?s capable of extreme accuracy —of much greater accuracy
than, for instance, the coppng of foot-rules from a standard foot.
These copies, made of the most permanent materials, are dis-
trihuUMl over all parts of the world, so that it is not likely that
any ditlieulty will be found in obtaining copies of them if the
original standards should he lost.
But such units as that of Siemens can without very gri»at
labour be reconstructed with considerable accuracy, so that as the
relation of the Ohm to Siemens unit is known, the Ohm can be
reproduced even without having a standard to copy, though the
laliour is much gpreater and the accuracy mach less than by the
method of copying.
Finally, the Ohm may be reproduced
by the deetromagnetic method by which
itwas originally determined. This method,
which is considerably more laborious than
the determination of a foot from the seconds
pendulum, is probably inferior in aocaracy
to that last mentioned. On the other hand,
the determination of the eleetromagnetio
unit in terms of the Ohm with an amount
of accuracy corresponding to the progress
of electrical science, is a most important
physical research and well worthy of being

repeated.
The actual resistance coils constructed
to represent the Olnn wi-re made of an
alloy of two parts of silver and one f»f jda-
tinuni in tlie form of wires from .5 milli-
metres to .8 millimetres diameter, and from
one to two metres in length. These wires
wore soldered stout copper electrodes.
Kg. 87.
was covered with two layers
The wire itself
of silk, imbedded in solid paraflin, and enclosed in a thin brass

case, so that it can be easily brought to a temperature at which
its resistance is accurately one Ohm. This temperature is marked
on the insulating support of the coil. (See Fig. 27.)
iîyuiûd by Google
KSSISTAKCE 001L8. 391
On the Form oj' Mesuiance CoiU,
841.] A Resistance Coil is a ocmductor capable of being easily

placed in the voltaic ciieait, so as to introduce into the circnit
a known resistance.
The electrodes or ends of the coil mnst be sneh that no appro-
ciable error may
from the mode of nuddng the connexions.
arise
For resistances of considerable magnitude it is sufficient that the
electrodes should be made of stout copper wire or rod well amal-
gamated with mercury at the ends, and that the ends should be
made to press on flat amalgamated copper surfaces placed in mercury
cups.
For very great resistances it is sufTieient that the electrodes
should be thick j>ieces of brass, and that the connexions should
be made by inserting" a wedge of brass or copper into the interval
between them. This inetl)(Kl is found very convenient.
The resi.stance coil itself consists of a wire wêll covered with
silk, the ends of which are soldered permanently to the elec-
trodes.
The coil must be so arranged that its temperature may be easily
observed. For this purpose the wire is coiled on a tube and
covered with another tube, so that it may be placed in a vessel
of water, nnd that the water may have access to the inside and the
outside of the coil.
To avoid the electiomagnetie effects of the carrent in the coil
the wire is first doubled back on itself and then coiled on the tube^
so that at every part of the coil there are equal and opposite
currents in the adjacent parts of the wire.
When it is desired to keep two coils at the same tempoature the
wires are sometimes placed side by side and coiled up together*
This method is espeoiany useful when it is more important to
secure equality of resistance than to know the absolute value of
the resistance, as in the case of the equal arms of Wheatstone's
Bridge, (Art. 347).
When measurements of resistance were first attempted, a resist-
ance coil, consisting of an uncovered wire coiled in a spiral groove
round a cylinder of insulating material, was much used. It was
called a Rheostat. The accuracy with which it was found jiossible
to conijiaie resistances was soon found to be inconsistent with the

use ol" any instrument in which the contacts arc not more perfect
than can be obtained in the rheostat. The rheostat, however, is
392 MSASU&KKEKT Of ££S1STANG£. [342-
still used iot adjusting the resistance where aocmate measurement is

not required.
Besistanoe coils are generally made of those metals whose resist-
ance is gpreatest and which vary least with tenqieratnre. German
silver fulfils these conditions very well, but some spedmene art
found to ofaaage their properties during the lapse of yean. Henoe
for standard coils, several pure metals, and also an alloy of platinnm
and silver, have been employed, and the relative resistance of theee
during several yean has been found constant up to the limits of
modem accuracy.
843.] For very great resistances, such as several millions of
Ohms, the wire must be either very long or very thin, and the
construction of the coil is expensive and difficult. Hence telluriam
and selenium have been proposed as materials for constructing'
standards of great resistance. A very ing-enioiis and easy metluxl
of construction has btvii lately ])roposcil by Pkillips*. On a })iece
of ebonite or ground glass a fine pencil-line is drawn. Tlie ends
of this filament of plumbago are connected to metallic electrodes,
and the whole is then covered with insulating varnish. If it
should be found that the resistance of such a pencil-line remains

constant, this will be the best method of obtaining a resistance of
several millions of Ohms.
343.] There are various arrangements by which resistance coils
may be easily introduced into a circuit.
For instance, a series of coils of which the resistances are 1, 2,
4, 8, 16, &c., arranged according to the powers of 2, may be placed

in a box in series.
Fig. 28.
The electrodes consist of stout brass pktes, so arranged on the

outside of the box that by inserting a brass plug or wedge between
• JPkiL Mag,, Julj, 1870.
iîyuiûd by GoogU:
344.] RBSISTAVOE BOXIS. 393
two of them as a shunt^ the reslstaaoe of the corresponding- coil

may be pat This arrangement was introduced
oat of the circuit.
by Siemens.
Each interval between the electrodes is marked with the resist-
ance of the corresponding coil, so that if we wish to make the
resistance box equal to 107 we express 107 in the binarjr scale as
64 + 32-1-8 + 2 + 1 or 1101011. We then take the plugs out
of the holes corresponding to 64, 32, 8, 2 and 1, and leave the
plugs in 16 and 4.
This method, founded on the binary scale, is that in which the
smallest number of separate coils is needed, and it is also that
which can be most readily tested. For if we have another coil
equal to 1 we can test the e([u:ility of 1 and l', then that of 1 + l'
and 2, then that of 1 4- r+2 and 1, and so on.
The only disadvantage of tlie arrangement is that it requires
a familiarity with the binary scale of notation, which is not
generally possessed by those accustomed to express every number
in the decimal scale.
344.] A box of resistance coils may be arranged in a different
way for the purpose of mea-
suring conductivities instead of
resistances.
The coils are placed so that
one end of each is connected
with a long thick piece of
metal which forms one elec- ^ ^
Fig. 29.
trode of the box, and the other
end is connected with a stout piece of brass plate as in the former
The other electrode of the box is a long brass plate^ such that
by inserting brass plugs between it and the electrodes of the coils
it may be connected to the first electrode through any given set of
coils. The eonduotiTify of the box is then the sum of the con-
ductivities of the coils.
In the figure, in which the resistances of the coils are 1, 2, 4, &c.,
and the plugs are inserted at 2 and 8, the conductivity of the
box is i + i = ^1 imd the resistance uf the box is therefore -f
or 1.6.
Tliis metliod of combining resistance coils for the measurement
of fractional resit-tancos was introduced by Sir W. Thomson under
the name of the method of multiple arcs. See Art. 276.
iîyuiûd by Google
394 MEASUBfiUENT OF BE81STANGB. [345-
On Ue Comparuan €f Beiiitaneei.
846.] If ^ 18 the electromotive foioe of a batteiy, and Jl the
Teeistance of the hatteiy and its connexions, indudii^ the galvan-
ometer used in measuring the corrent, and if the strength of the
current is / when the hattery connexions are closed, and 7^,
when ndditioual resistances fj, are introduced into the circuit,
tbeu, by Ohm's Law,
E=IR = I,{lUr,) = l,(R + r^).
Eliminating the elcctromotiv*' force of tlic battery, and 7?
the resistance of the battery and its connexions, we get Ohm's
fonnuhi
^ U-î) h
This method requires a measurement of the ratios of /, /j and

and this implies a galvanometer graduated for ahsolirte mea-
surements.
If the resistances r, and are equal, then 7, and I^^ are equal,
and we can test the equality of currents by a galvanometer which
is not capable of determining their ratios.
But this ii5 rather to be taken :is an example of a faulty metlnKl
than as a practical method of determining resistance. Tl)c electro-
motive force E cannot bo maintained rigorously constant, and the
internal resistance of the battery is also exceedingly vaiiable, so
that any methods in which these are assumed to be even for a short
time constant are not to be depended on.
346.J The comparison of resistances can be made with extreme

c
e
Fig. 80.
accuracy by either of two methods, in which the result is in-

dependent of variations of M and £,
iîyuiûd by Google
346.] GOHPABUON OF BB8I8TAN0E8. 395
The first of these methods depends on the use of the differential

galTsnometer, an instrument in which there are two coils, the
carrente in which are independent of each other, so that when
the cnrrents are made to flow in opposite directions they act in
opposite directions on the needle, and when the ratio of these
currents is that of si to » they have no resultant effect on the
galvanometer needle.
Let /j, be the currents through the two coils of the galvan-
ometer, then the deflexion of the needle may be written
Now let the battery current / be divided between the coils of

the galvanometer, and let resistances B
A and be introduced into
the first and second coils respectively. Let the remainder of the
and their connexions be a and ^ respect-
resistance of their coils
ively,and let the resistance of the battery and its connexions
between C ami IJ be r, iind its electromotive force E.
Then we find, l»y Ohm's Liaw, for the diil'erenee of potentials
between C and U,
and since I^-\-Ig=It
/i = ^-j-, /a = ^-2r' JJ
—
where 2> = (.i + o) (j5+/3) + r (^+a+5+i8).
The deflexion of the galvanometer needle is therefore
«= ^/*(i^ f^)-»U-ho)},
and if there is no observable deflexion, then we know that the

quantity enclosed in luackets eannt-t diflcr from zero by more than
a certain small qnanlity, depending? on the power of the battery,
the suitableness of the arraniêment, the delicacy of the galvan-
ometer, and the accuracy of the observer.
Sup}H)sc that M has been adjusted so that there is no apparent
deflexion.
Now let another conductor J' be substituted for A, and let
yf' be adjusted till no api)areut deflexion.

there is Then evidently
to a first approximation A'st A.
To ascertain the de<^ree of accuracy of this estimate, let the
altered quantities in the second observation be accented, then
iîyuiûd by Google
396 MBABUBBHSNT OF BBSISTANCE. [346.
•i(^+/3)-»(J' + a)=:^fi'.
If h and h', instead of being' both apparently zero, had been only
observed to be equal, then^ unleflS we alflo ooold assert that E= E*,
the right-hand side of the equation might not be zero. In fact,
the method would be a mere modification of that already described.
The merit of tiie method consists in the fact that the thin^
observed is the absence of any deflexion, or in other words, the
method is a Null method, one in which the non-existence of a foxee
is assertedfrom an observation in which the force, if it had been
differentfrom zero by more than a certain small amount, would
have ])rodnced an observable effect.
Null methods are of great value whevs they can be employed, but
they can only be employed where we can cause two equal and
opposite quantities of the same kind to enter into the experiment
together.
In the case before us both 6 and 6' are quantities too small to be
observed, and therefore any change in the value of E will not aii'cct
the accuracy of the result.

The actual degree of accuracy of this method might be ascer-
tained by takiug a number of observations in each of which A*
is se]>arately adjusted, and comparing the result of each obiservation
with the mean of the whole series.
But by putting A' out of adjustment by a known quantity, as,

for instance, by inserting at ^ or at ^ an additional resistance
equal to a hundredth part of A or of B, and then observing
the resulting de\dation of the galvanometer needle, we can estimate
the number of degrees corresponding to an error of one per cent.
To find the actual degree of precision we must estimate the smallest
deflexion which could not escape observation, and compare it with
the deflexion due to an error of one per cent.
*If the comparison is to be made between A and and if the
positions of A and B are exchanged, then the second equation
becomes
• lUs invwtlgaftioa is takm from WaWa tmtiM on ChJvaaometiy. GWimgm

TranaiuHom, x. p. 66.
iîyuiûd by Google
346.] DIFFBBBNTIAL OALVANOHBTSB. 897
whence {B-A) = J)
-g, a - jy
^ y.
If m and u, A and B, a and /3 are approximately equal, then
B-A = 2^(^ + a) M + a4-2r)(S-6').

Here ft— y maj be taken to be the smaUest obsenrable deflexion
of the galvanometer.
If the galvanometer wire be made longer and thinner, retaining
the same total mass, then n will vary as the leng-th of tl)e wire
and a us the ^(juare of the length. Hence there will be a minimum
^« of <i±^±t^?r)
n
wh«i
If we suppose r, the battery resistancoj small compared with A^
or, the retiatance of each coil cf ike galvanometer should be one-third

of fJir resistance to he measured.
We then find o m
If we allow the current to flow throiipfh one only of the coils

of the galvanometer, and if the deflexion thereby ])rmluee(l is A
(supposing the deflexion strictly proportional to the deflecting
force), then
A = -2 a+r
i£ +
r- = - —r
A A
if I* = 0 and a « -tA,
3
B-A
— 2 8-5'
Hence
A = 3« A *
In the difl'erential galvanometer two currents are made to

produce equal and opposite effects on the sus])ended needle. Tlie
force with which either current acts on the needle depends not
only on the strength of the current, but on the position of the
windings of the wire with respect to the needle. Hence, imless
the coil is very carefully wound, the ratio of m to ;/ may cliange
when the position of the needle is chang^, and therefore it is
neoessaiy to determine this ratio by proper methods during each
iîyuiûd by Google
398 M£A6UB£M£KT OF BESISTAKCE. [347.
course of i xjteriments it' any alteration of the position of the needle

is suspct ti'd.
The other method, in which Whoatstone's Bridge is used,
null
roqnires only an ordinary galvanometer, and the ofaeerved zero
deflexion of the needle is due, not to the opposing action of two
currents, but to the non-existence of a current in the wire. Henoe
we have not merely a null deflexioui but a nuU current as the
phenomenon observed, and no errors can arise from want of
regularity or change of any kind in the coils of the galvanometer.
The galvanometer is only required to be sensitive enough to detect
the existence and direction of a current, without in any way
determining its value or comparing its value with that of another
current.
847.] Wheatstone's Bridge consists essentially of six conductors
connecting four points. An electromotive
force B is made to act between two of the
points by means of a voltaic battery in-
troduced between JJ and C. Tlie current
])€tween the other two points 0 and A is
measured by a galvanometer.
_ ~jfr"5lSH?^ô Under certain circumstances this current
' becomes zero. The conductors B^' and OA
f^'i^'
then said to bo conjiKjafe to each other,
which implies a certain relation between tlie resistances of the
other four conductors, and this relation is made use of in measuring
resistances.
If the current in OA is zero, the potential at 0 must be equal
to that at A. Now when we know the potentials at B and C we
can determine those at 0 and A by the rule given at Art. 274,
provided there is no current in OA^
^
C/ SS
By+Cfi
/3 + y
— , if
.
SB
Bb-\-Ce
1
a+<?
»
whence the condition is = ey,

where b, c, )3, y are the resistances in CA^ AJB, BO and OC re-
spectively.
To determine the degree of accuracy attainable by this method
we must ascertain the strength of the current in OA when this
condition is not fulfilled exactly.
Let J, B, C and 0 be the four points. Let the currents along-
BC, CA and AB he x, y and z, and the resistances of these
iîyuiûd by Google
343.] whbatstonb'b bridob. 399
conductors a, h and c. Let ibe etinentB along OA^ OB and OC be

17^ and the resistances a, /3 and y. Let an eleotromotive force
3 act along BC. Required the current ( along OA,
Let the potentials at the points A^ C and 0 be denoted
by the syinbols J» C and 0. The equations of conduction are
ax= B^C-\-E, a( = 0-A,
hif^C-A, ^ri=0-B,
ezÂ-B, yCÔ-Ci
with the equations of continuity
^+ y-^ = 0,
T] Z—X = 0,
By considering the system as made up of three circuits OBC,

OCA and OAB in which the currents are z respectively, and
applying Kirchhoff's rule to each cycle, we eliminate the values
of the potentials 0, A, B, and the currents (, 11, C toiA obtain the
following equations for 0, y and #,
(a + /3 + 7)a?-yy — ^* = E,
— yx +{6 + y + a)y—az =0,
—â —ay +(c + a + /3)« = 0.
Hence, if we put
—y ^4-y + a —a
7^
we ftnd ^ ~B
and ^--3 {(*+y)(«+/3)+«(* + <^+^+y)}-

348.] The value oi D may be expressed in the symmetrical form,
D= fl^r + (/3 + y) -f (y 4- a ) -f «i ( a -f /3) -f (^/ 4- ^ f i-)
Oy + ya 4- a
or, since we suppose the battery in the conductor a and the

galvanometer in a, we may put B the battery resistance for a and
O the galvanometer resistance for a. We then find
B = Jflt(4 + C+j8+y)+JJ(* + y)(|f+^)

+ + (/3+y) + *c(^H.y) + ^y(d + r).
If the electromotive force E were made to act along OA, the
resistance of OA being still a, and if the galvanometer were placed
iîyuiûd by Google
400 MEASUBBUBNT OF BEBI8TAKCB. [349.
in BC, the Tesistaace of BC being still a, then the value of D

wonld remain the same, and the conent in BC due to the electro-
motive force B acting along OA wonld be equal to the cuReni
in OA due to the electromotive force acting in BC. B
But if we sioiply disconnect the battery and the galvanometer,
and without altering their respective resistances connect the battery
to 0 and A and the galvanometer to B and C, then in the value of
J) we must exchange the values of B and G, If be the value
of J) after this exchange, we find
Let us suppose that the resistance of the galvanometer is greater

than that of the battevy.
Let us also suppose that in its original position tlie gtilvanometor
connects the junction of the two condiutors ot least resistance /3, y
with tlie junction of the two conductors of greatest resistance 6,0,
or, in other words, we shall suppose that if the quantities 6, c, y, ^
are arranged in order of magnitude, b and c stand together, and
y and j9 stand together. Hence the quantities b—fi and e—y are
of the same sign, so that their product is positive, and therefore
J/—D is of the same sign as BÔ,
If therefore the galvanometer is made to connect the janction of
the two greatest resistances with that of the two least, and if
the galvanometer resistance is greater than that of the battery,
then the value of D will be less, and the value of the deflexion
of the galvanometer greater, than if the connexions are exchanged.
The rule therefore fi>r obtaining the greatest galvanometer de-
flexion in a given system is as follows
Of the two resistances, that of the batteiy and that of the
galvanometer, connect the greater resistance so as to join the two
greatest to the two least of the four other resistances.
349.j We sliall suppose that we have to dettTniine tlie ratio of
the resistances of the C(uiductors AB and AC, and that this is to he
done by hndinq- a point 0 on the conductor HOC, such that when
the points ./ and 0 are connected V>y a wire, in the course of which
a galvanometer is inserted, no sensible detlexion of the galvano-
meter needle occurs when the battery is made to act between B
and C.
The conductor BOC may be supposed to be a wire of uniform

resistance divided into equal parts, so that the ratio of the resist-
ances of BO and OC may be read off at once.
iîyuiûd by Googl
349-] wbbatstoke's bridge, 401
Initead of the whole oondnetor beiDg a nnifonn wiie^ we may

make the part near 0 of such a wire, and the parts on each side
may he ooile of any form> the resistance of which is accurately
known.
We shall now use a different notation instead of the symmetrical
notation with which we commenced.
Let the whole resistance of BAG he M,
Let e =s mR and 6 as (l^m) R.
Let the whole resistance of BOC be 8,
Let ^ = fiS and y = (1 — w) S.

The value of w is read off directly, and tliat of /// is deduced from
it when there is no sensible deviation of the galvanometer.
Let the resistance of the batterv an<l its connexions be jb. and
that of the galvanometer and its connexions G,
We find as before
J)^G {JBR-^JBS-^ RS}-^m{l -m)R^ {B 5) + « (l --h)SHB+R)

-\-{m + n^2Mn)BR8,
and if ( is the corrent in the galvanometer wire
c ^^^^
In Older to obtain the most accurate results we must make the

deviation of the neeidle as great as possible compared vrith the value
of (a— si). This may be done by properly choosing the dimenaions
of the galvanometer and the standard resistance wire.
It will be shewn, when we come to Galvanometry, Art. 71G,
that when the form ot a galvanometer wire is changed while
its mass remains constant, the deviation of the needle for unit
current is proportional to the length, but the resistance increases
as the square of the length. Hence the maximum deflexion is
shewn to occur when the resistance of the galvanometer wire is
equal to the constant resistance of the rest of the circuit.

In the present case, if d is the deviation,
where C is some constant, and 0 is the galvanometer resistance

which varies as the square of the length of the wire. Hence we
find that in the value of J), when 8 is a maximum, the part
involving G must be made equal to the rest of the expression.
II' w e also put m = w, as is the case if we have made a correct
observation, we find the best value of G to be
yoL. I. Dd
402 MBASUBBMSNT OF BBSISTAITGE. [55a
Hiis ranilt ie easily obtained by coDsideriDg the leaifitAiioe from

Ato 0 througli tbe Bystem, remembering tbat £0, being ooojngate
to AO, baa no effect on tbia lesiatance.
In tbe same way we sbould find tbat if tbe total area cf the
acting auifiusea of tbe battery ia given, tbe most advantageona
arrangement of tbe battery ia wben
Finally, we shall determine the value of S sueh that a giyea

cbange in the value of n may produce tbe greatest galvanometer
deflexion. By differentiating tbe ezpreasion for ( we find
If we have a great many determinations of resistance to make

in which the actual resistance has nearly the aame value^ then it
may be worth while to prepare a galvanometer and a battery in
this purpose. In this ease we find that the beet arrangement ia
and if a =i = ii7.
On ike Use of Wheatstoiie's Bridge.
350.] We
have already explained the general theory of Wheat-
stone's Bridge, we shall now consider some of its applications.
The comparison which can be effected with the greatest exact-

ness is that of two equal resistances.
..id
350.] USB OF wheatstonb's bridge. 40d
Let 118 suppose tluit ^9 is a standard resistaooe coO^ and that

we wish to adjust y to be equal in resistance to fi.
Tvro other coils, 6 and c, are prepared which are eqnal or nearly
equal to each other, and the four coils are placed with their deetrodes'
in mercniy cups so that the current <^ the battery is divided
between two branches, one consisting of and y and the other
of 6 and e. The coils 6 and e are connected by a wire PM, as
unifofin in its resistance as possible, and ibmished witii a seala
of equal parts.
The galvanometer wire connects the junction of /3 and y with
a point Q of the wire /Vi", uud the point of contact at Q is made
to vary till on closing first the battery circuit and then the
galvanometer cireuit, no dellexiou of the galvanometer needle is
ol)served.
The coils /3 and y are then made to change places, and a new
position is found for Q. If this new position is the same as the
old one, then we know that the excliange of /3 and y has produced
no change in the proportions of the resistances, and therefore y
ia rightly adjusted. If Q has to be moved, the direction and
amount of the change will indicate the nature and amount of the
alteration of the length of the wire of y, which will make its
resistance equal to that of ^.
If the resistances of the coils b and e, each including part of the
wire PB up to its aero reading, are equal to that of 6 and c
divisions of the wire respectively, then, if » is the scale reading
of Q in the first case, and y that in the second,
'
b-x y
'
T^y ^
whence 71 =1+ (^(p^.

Since 6—j is nearly equal to 0-fd7, and both are great with
respect to » or jr, we may write this
When y is adjusted as well as we can, we substitute Ibr b and e

^
other coils of (say) ten times greater resistance.
The remaining difference between /9 and y will now produce'
a ten times greater differenoe in the position of Q than with the
Dd2
iîyuiûd by Google
404 M£ASUR£M£NT OF RESISTANCE.
original coils h and r, and in this way we can continually increase

"
the accuracy of the comparison.

The adjustment by means of the wire with sliding- contact piece
is more quickly made tlian by means of a resistance box, and it is
capable of continuous variation.
The battery must never be introduced instead of the "galvano-
meter into the wire with a sliding contact, for the passage of a
powerful current at the point of contact would injure the sur&oe
of the wire. Hence this arrangement is adapted for the case in
which the zesistaiice of the galvanometer is greater than that of the
hattery.
On ihe MeaturemetU cf Small BesiUameet.
351.] When a short and thick conductor is introduced into a
circuit its resistance is so small compared with the resistance
occasioned bv unavoidable faults in the connexions, such as want
of contact or imperfect soldering*, that no correct value of the
resistance can be deduced from experi-
ments made in the way described aVjove.
The object of such experiments is
generally to determine the specific
sistance of the substance, and it is
sorted to in cases when the substanoe

cannot be obtained in the form of a
long thin wire^ or when the reaistanoe
to transverse as wdl as to longitudinal
oondnction has to be measured.
Sir W. Thomson* has described a method applicable to such

eases, which we may take aa an example of a system of nine
oondttctoTB.
• Proe. R. 8^ June 6, 1861.
iîyuiûd by Google
35.i0 Thomson's method fob small RBSisTANCBa 405
The most important past of the method consists in mewnring

the resistanee, not of the whole length of the oondnctor, hnt of
the pert between two marks on the conductor at some little dis-
tance from its ends.

The resistance which we wish to measure is that experienced
hy a carient whose intensitjr is uniform in any section of the
conductor, and which flows in a direction parallel to its axis.
Now close to the extremities, when the current is introduced
by means of electrodes, either soldered, amalgamated, or simply
pressed to the ends of the conductor, there is generally a want of
uniformity in the distribution of the current in the conductor.
At a short distiinee from the extremities the current becomes
sensibly uniform. The student may examine for himself the
investigation and the diagrams of Art. 193, where a current is
introduced into a strip of metal with parallel sides through one
of the sides, but soon becomes itself parallel to the sides.
The resistance of the conductors between certain marks 3, 8'
and TT is to be compared.
The conductors are placed in series, and with connexions as
perfectly conducting as possible, in a battery circuit of small resist-
ance. A wire SVT is made 8 and T,
to touch the conductors at
and StV'T is snother wire touching them at 8^ and T,
The galvanometer wire connects the points Tend of these wires. V
The wires SVT and S^V'T are of resistance so great that the
resistance due to imperfect connexion at 8, 8* may he wT
neglected in comparison with the resistance of the wire^ and IT
are taken so that the resistance in the branches of either wire
two conductors are nearly in the ratio of the resist-
leading to the
two conductors.
ances of the
Calling iând Fthe resistances of the condnctors 8S^ and TT^
A and C those of the branches iSFand / 7'.
„ P and R those of the branches V and V'T,

„ Q that of the connecting piece S'T.
„ B that of the l)attery and its connexions.
„ G that of the galvanometer and its connexions.
The symmetry of the system may be understood from the
skeleton diagram. Fig. 33.
The condition tliat B the battery and Q the galvanometer may

be conjugate conductors is, in this case,
iîyui^cu Uy Google
406 MSASUBKHBliT OF BBBI8TANCB.
Now tbe resistanoe of the oonneetor Q is small as we oaii

make it. If it were zero tbie equation would be xednoed to
F H
and the ratio of the renstanoes of tbe eondnctors to be compared
would be that of C to as in Wheatstone's Bridge in tbe ordinaiy
form.
Tn the present case the value of Q is small compared with P
or with 7i, so that if we assume the points F, V so that the ratio
of 7? to C is nearly equal to that of P to A, the last tenn of the
equation will vanish, and we shall have
F: //:: C : A.
The method depends in some degree on the per-
success of this
fection of the contact between the wires and the tested conductors
at SS\ T
and T. In the following method, employed by Messrs.
Matthieesen and Hookin this condition is dispensed with.
Fig. as.
852.] The conductors to be tested are arranged in the manner

already described, with the connexions as well made as possible,
and it is required to compare the resistance between the marim
88^ on the first conductor with tbe resistance between the marks
r^Ton the second.
Two conducting points or sharp edges are fixed in a piece of
insulating material so that the distance between them can be
accurately measured. This apparatus is laid on the conductor to
be tested, and the points of contact with the conductor are then
at a known distance SS\ Each of these contact pieces is connected
'
* Xaioralory. MiiltiuaiMii And Hookm on Alloys.
iîyuiûd by Google
353.] MATTHII8SBV AHD HOCKIN's XEfHOD. i07
with a mercuTy cup, into wbicb ona electrode of the galYUiometer

may be planged.
The Test of the aspjpBnUu is arranged, as in Wheatstone's Bridge^
with resistance coils or boxes A and C, and a wire PB with a
sliding contact piece Q, to which the otber electrode of the galya-
nometer is connected.
Now let the galvanometer be connected to S and Q, and let
Ai and Q be so arraDged, and the position of Q so determined^ that

there is no current in the galvanometer wire.
Then we know that
x» _ +
where X8, PQ, &c. stand for the resistances in these condoctors.
From this we get
xs _ A^+pq^
XY " A^-^(\-^PR'
Now let the electrode of the galvanometer be connected to 8\
and let resistance be transferred from C io A (by carrying resistance
coils from one side to the other) till cleetric equilibrium of the
g'alvanometer wire can be obtainetl by ])laeing Q at some point
of the wire, say Q.^. Let the values of C and A be now and Ag,
and let
^+ + = + Q + Pi2 = R.
Tlien we have^ as before,
XY R
Wbenoe g = 4j=4 + «L^.
In the same way, placing the apparatus on the second conductor
at TT* and again transferring resistance, we get, when the electrode
isinr,
XT" R '
and when it is in
XT A, + PQ,
JT^'—R
Whence ^^6^Z^M.K
We can now deduce the ratio of the resistances SS' and 2" J, for
iîyuiûd by Google
40d MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE. [35J-
When great accuracy is not required we may diapenae with tlie

resistance coils A and C, and we then find
The readings of the position of Q on a wire of a metre in leug^h

cannot be depended on to less than a tenth of a millimetre, and the
resistance of the wire may vary considerably in different parts
owing" to inefpiality of temperature, friction, &c. Hence, when
great accuracy is required, coils of considerable resistance are intro-
duced at A and and the ratios of the resistances of these coils
can be determined more accurately than the ratio of the resistances
of the parts into which the wire is divided at Q.
It will be observed that in this method the nccnracy of the
determination depends in no degree on the perfection of the con-
tacts at 88' or Tr.
This method may he called the differential method of osiii^
Wheatstone's Bridge, since it depends on the comparison of ob-
senrations seporstely made.
An essential condition of accuracy in this method is that the
resistance of the connexions should continue the same during the
course of the four observntaons required to complete the determ-
ination. Hence the series of observations ought always to be
repeated in order to detect any change in the resistances.
On the Comparison of Oreai RetUianeea,
353.] Wlien the resistances to be measured are very great, the

comparison of the potentials at <liiierent points of the system nr,\y
be made by means of a delicate electrometer, such as the Quadrant
Electrometer described in Art. 219.
If the conductors wliose resistance is to be measureil are placed
in series, and the same current passed through them by means of a
battery of great electromotive force, the difference of the potentials
at the extremities of each conductor will be proportional to the
resistance of that conductôr. Hence, by connecting the electrodes
of the electrometer with the extremities, first of one conductor
and then of the other, the ratio of their resistances may be de-
termined.
This is the most direct method of determining resistances. It
involves the use of an electrometer whose readings may be depended
on, and we must also have some guarantee that the current remains
constant during the experiment.
355-] OBBAT BBSISTANCE8, 409
Eonr condooton of great raastance may also be amnged as in

Wheatstone's Bridge, and the bridge itself may eonsist of the
electrodes of an electrometer instead of those of a galvanometer.
The advantage of this method is that no permanent current is
leqnired to produce the deviation of the electrometer, whereas the
galvanometer cannot be deflected unless a current passes through
the wire.
354.~1 When the resistance of a conductor is so great that the
current which can he sent tlirouerh it ))V anv available ckctromotivo
force is too small to he directly measured i)y a ppalvanoraeter, a
condenser may be used in order to accumulate the electricity for
a certain time, and then, hy discharging the condenser through a
galvanometer, the (juantity accumulated may he estimated. This
is Messrs. Bright and Clark's method of testing the joints of
submarine cables.
855.] But the simplest method of measuring the resistance of

such a conductor is to charge a condenser of great capacity and to
connect its two surfaces with the electrodes of an electrometer
and also with the extremities of the conductor. If £ is the dif*
ference of potentials asshewn by the electrometer, S the capacity
of the condenser, and Q the charge on either surface, E the resist-
ance of the conductor and the conent in it, then^ by the theory
of condensers,
q
By Ohm's Law, £s JRdr,
and by the definition of a current,
* —W
Hence QÎts'^.
and Q=Qor«*,
where is the charge at first when ^ ss 0.
Similarly i?=J5o*'**
where Eq is the original reading of the electrometer^ and E the
same after a time /. From this we find
which gives Ji in absolute measure. In this expression a knowledge

of the value of the unit of the electrometer sode is not required.
410 MSASU&BMSNT OP BB8ISTANCB. [356
If 8, the capacity of the condenser, ia giTcn in eleetrostattc
meaaure aa a certain namber of rnetna, then is also given in B
electrostatic measure aa the reciprocal of a velocity.
If i9 is given in eleotromagnetio measore its dimensions are
-_- , and JObu velocity.

Since the condenser itself is not a jierfect insulator it is iiecesiâry
t« make two ex})eriincnts. In the iirst we determine the resistance

of the condenser itself, 7?o, and in the second, that of the condenser
wlien the eonthictor is made to connect its surfaces. Let this \)e T?'.
Then the resistance, Jif of tlie conductor is given by the equation

I _ 1
_ 1_
This method has been employed by MM. Siemens.
TAomsons * Met/ml for the JJtlerm'niadon of the Resistance of

the Galvanometer.
356.] An arranpêment similar to Wheatstone's Bridsre has been

employed with advantage by Sir W. Thomson in determining the
Fig. 36.
resistance of the galvanomet^^r when in actual use. It was sngf-

gestcd to Sir W. Thomson by Mance's Method. See Art. 357.
Let the battery be placed, as before, between B and C in the
figure of Article 347, but let the galvanometer be placed in CA
instead of in OA, If hfi—ey is zero, then the conductor OA is
conjugate to BC, and, as there is no current produced in OA by the
batteiy in BC, the strength of the current in any other conductor
• Proe. R. 8^ Jan. 19. 1871.*
iîyuiûd by Google
>UNC£'S M£TUOD. 411
is independent of the resistance in OA. Ilonee, if the "["alvano-

metcr is placed in CA its deHexion will remain the same whether
the resistance of OA is small or p^reat. We therefore observe
whether the deflexion of the n^^lvanometer remains the same when
0 and A are joined by a conductor of small resistance, as when
this connexion is broken, and if, by properly adjusting the re-
fiistances of the conductors, we obtain this tesolt, we know that
the resistance of the galvanometer is
where c, y, and are resistanoe ooils of known resistance.

It will be observed that though this is not a null method, in the
sense of there being no current in the galvanometer, it is so in
the sense of the fact obeerved being the negative one, that the
deflexion of the galvanometer is not changed when a certain con-
tact is made. An observation of this kind is of greater value
than an observation of the equality of two diflbrent deflexions of
the same îlvanometer, for in the latter case there is time for
alteration in the strcns^th of the battery or the sensitiveness of
the galvanometer, whereas wlun the deflexion remains constant,
in spite of certain changes which we can repeat at pleasure, we are
sure that the current is quite independent of tliese changes.
The determination of the resistance of the coil of a galvanometer
can easily be cflected in the ordinary way of using WTieatstone's
Bridge by placing another galvanometer in OA. "Ry the method
DOW described the galvanometer itself is employed to measure its
ovm resistance.
Mauces* Method of determining the Resistance of the Bafferj/.

The measurement of the resistance of a battery when in
357.]
action is of a much higher order of difficulty, since the resistance
of the battery is found to change considerably for some time after
the strength of the current through it is changed. In many of the
methods commonly used to measure the resistance of a batteiy snch
through it occur in the
alterations of the strength of the current
course of the operations, and therefore the results are rendered
doubtful.
In Mance's method, which is free from this objection, the battery
is placed in BC
and the galvanometer in CA, The connexion
between 0 and B
is then alternately made and broken.
• Proe. R. a., Jan. 19, 1871.
iîyuiûd by Google
412 IIBASUREHENT OF BSSISTAKCB. L357
If the deflexion of tbe galTanometer remaiiis mialtered, we know
tliAt OB 18 conjugate to CA^ whence ey = ao, and a, the Teostaiioe
of the battery, is obtained in terms of known resistances e, y, a.
When the condition s aa is fiilfilled, then the corrent throngh
the galvanometer is
£a
and this is independent of the resistance /3 between 0 and B. To

test the sensibility of the method let ns suppose that the condition
eyâa is nearly, bnt not accnrately, fulfilled^ and that is the
current through the galTanometer when 0 and B are connected

by a condoctor of no sensible resistance, and ^r, the corrent when
.0 and B are completely disooiinected.
To find these yalnes we most make /3 equal to 0 and to oo in the
geoend formnU for and compare the results.
In this way we find
2/0" y _q cy—aa
y y (<? + a)(a+y)'
where and are supposed to be so nearly equal that we may,
when their difFerenre is not in question, put either of them equal
to ^, the value of the current when the jidjustment is ])erfect.
The resistance, of the conductor AB should be equal to a,

that of the battery, a and y, should be equal and as small as
possible, and 6 should be equal to a + y.
Since a galvanometer is most sensitive when its deflexion is
small^ we should brings the needle nearly to zero by means of fixed
magnete before making contact between 0 and B»
hk this metihod of measuring the resistance of the battery, the
current in the battery is not in any way interfered with during the
operation, so that we may ascertain its resistance for any given
iîyuiûd by Google
3S80 OOMPABISON or SLBCTBOMOTIYE FORCES. 413
treogth of cnrrent, eo as to deteniuiie how the strength of current

effects the resistanoe.
If ^ is the current in the galvanometer, the actual current

through the hatteiy is fl^ with the key down and «| with the
key up, where
h \ /, ^ ac
a?i = y(l + - +
s.
),
^ ^ a + y^
the veeistance of the hattefy is
a = ey
and the electromotive foroe of the battery is
E^y(b-\-C+-{b-{-y)y
The method of Art. 356 for finding the resistance of the galva-
nometer differe fipom this only in making and breaking contact
between O and A instead of between 0 and and by eschangiDg
o and /9 we obtain for this ease
$ y («+/3)(^-hy)
On ike Compariion of Bleeiramtke Fonea,

858.] The following method of comparing* the electromotive forces
of voltaic and thermoelectric arrang-ements, when no current passes
through them^ requires only a set of resistance coils and a constant
battery.
Let the electromotive force E of the battery be greater than that
of either of the electromotors to be oomparedj then, if a sufficient
I I
Fig. 88.
resistance, li^, be interposed between the points A^j J?, of the

primary circuit MJiiAÊ^ the electromotive force from Bi to Ai
414 mABURimMT OF RBSUTAKCB. ISS^'
may be made equal to that of the electromotor J^. If the eleo*

trodei of this electromotor are now conneeted with the points
Agt JBi no eonent will flow through the electromotor. By placing
a galvanometer Oi in the oirenit of the electromotor JSi, and
adjnsting the resiitance between Ai and till the galvanometer
Gi indicates no current, we obtain the equation
where is the resistance between and jBi, and C is the strength

of the current in the primary circuit.
In the same way, by taking a second electromotor £\ and pla<.'ing
its electrodes at and JS^, so that no current is indicated by the

galvanometer 0^,
where J?, is the resistance between A^ and B^. If the observationa

of the galvanometers ^% simultaneous, the value of Q
the current in the primary circuit, is the same in both equations^
and we find
: ^ : : i?, : J?,.
In this way tlie electromotive force of two elect roinotoi-s may W

compared. The absolute electromotive force of an electromotor
mav be measured either electrostaticallv bv means of the electro-
meter^ or electromagnetically by means of an absolute galvano-
meter.
This method, in which, at the time of the comparison, there
is no current throug-h either of the electromotors, is a moditication
of Poggendorfi's method, and is due to Mr. Latimer Clark, who
has deduced the following values of electromotive forces
Concentrated
Volts.
olution of
iTonwII I. AuMlgMuated Zinc HSO,+ 4ftq. Cu S(l, Copper -1.079
II. Cu 80, (.'oj»i)er -0.978
111. HS0«+12a<i. CuNO, Copper -1.00
Bmim I. HNO, CWbon -1.964
n. p. g. 1.88 OMfaoa slJ88
HSO«-i- 4m. HNO, Fla*iBam«l.»5«
A VoU ii «m dedrmoHm force cjnol to 100»000,000 tmiu of tU tmUmtirt gramwn
iîyuiûd by Googl
CHAPTER XII
ON TUB ELECTUIC £ES1STANC£ OF SUBSTANCES.
859.] Thsrb are three eloaeoB in whieh we may ])lace difibrent
sabetanoee in relation to the passage of eleotrieity throagh them.

The contains idl the metals and their alloys, somd
first class
and other compounds containing metals, to which we

solphttrets,
must add carbon in the form of gas-coke, and selenium in the
crystalline form.
In all these substances conduction takes place without any
decomposition, or alteration of the chemical nature of the substance,
either in its interior or where the current enters and leaves the
body. In all of them the resistance increases as the temperature
rises.
The second class consists of substances which are called electro-

lytes, because the current is associated with a decomposition of
the substance into two components which appear at the electrodes.
As a rule a sabstanoe is an electrolyte only when in the liquid
form, though certain colloid substances, such as glass at lOO^^C^
which are apparently solid, are electrolytes. It would appear from
the experiments of Sir B. C. Brodie that certain gases are capable
of eleotrolysb by a powerM electromotive force.
In aQ substances which conduct by electrolysis the resistance
diminishes as the temperature rises.
The third ebss consists of substances the resistance 6f which itf
so great that it is only by the most refined methods that the

passage of electricity through them can be detected. These are
called Dielectrics. To this class belong a considerable number
of solid bodies, many of which are electrolytes when melted, some
liquids, such as turpentine, naphtha, melted pa ratlin, &c., and all
gases and vapours. Carbon in the form of diamond, and selenium
in the amorphous form, behnig to this class.
The resistance of this class of bodies is enormous compared with
that of the metals. It diminishes as the temperature rises. It
iîyuiûd by Google
416 RBSISTANCB. [360.
is difficult, on account of the great resistance of these sabfitanees^

to determine whether the feeble current which we can force through
them is or is not associated with electrolysis.
On the Eleeirie Metitianee of MeiaU,

860.] no part of dectrioal research in which more
There is
numerons or more accurate experiments have been made than in

the determination of the resistance of metals. It is of the utmost
importance in the electric telegraph that the metal of whidi the
wires are made should haye the smallest attainable resistance.
Measurements of resistatice must therefore be made before selecting-
the materials. When any fault occurs in the line, its position is
at once ascertained by measurements of resistance, and these mea-
surements, in which so many persons are now employed, require
the use of resistance coils, made of metal the electrical properties
of which have been carefully tested.
The electrical proi)erties of metals and their alloys have been
studied with great care by MM. Matthiessen, Vogt, and Hockin,
and bv MM. Siemens, who have done
so much to introduce exact
electricalmeasurements into practical work.
It appears from the researches of Dr. Matthiessen, that the effect
of temperature on the resistance is nearly the same for a considerable
Iinmber of the pure metals, the reaistanoe at lOO^'C being to that
at 0*^0 in the ratio of 1.414 to 1, or of 1 to 70.7. For pure iron
the ratio is 1.646, and for pure thallium 1.468.
The resistance of metals has been observed by Dr. C.W, Siemens*
through a much wider range of temperature^ extending firam the
freezing point to 360^, and in certain cases to 1000^ He finds
that the resistance increases as the temperature rises, but that the
rate of increase diminishes as the temperature rises. The formula,
which he finds to agree very closely both witii the resistances
observed at low temperatures by Dr. Matthiessen and wiUi his
own observations through a range of 1000°C, is
where T is the absolute temperature reckoned from — 273*'C, and

a« j9, y are constants. Thus, for
Platinum r s 0.039369T*-f 0.002164077—0.2418,
r= 0.026677 J**+0.0031443?'— 0.22761,
Iron r = 0.072545^* + 0.00381332'— 1.23971.
Fne. R, 8^ April 27, 1871.
iîyuiûd by GoogI
361.] OF METALS. 417
From data of this kind the temperature of a furnace may be

determined by means of an observatioii of the renstance of a
pktinmn me
placed in the fbmace.
Br. Matthiessen found that when two metate are combined to
form an aUoj, the.renstanee of the aHoy is in meet oaeea greater
than that calcakted from the resistance of the component metals
and their proportions. In the case of alloys of gold and silver, the
resistance of the alloy is greater than that of either pnre gold or
pnre silver, and> within certain limiting proportions of the con-
very little with a slight attention of the pro-
stitoents, it varies
portions. For this reason Br. Matthiessen recommended an alloy
of two parts by weight of gold and one of silver as a material
for reproducing the unit of resistance.
The effect of change of temperature on electric resistance is
generally less in alloys than in pure metals.

Hence ordinary resistance coils are made of German silver, on
account of its great resistance and its small variation with tem-
perature.
An alloy of silver and platinum is also used for standard coils.
86I.3 The electric resistance of some metals changes when the
metal is annealed; and until a wire has been tested by being
repeatedly raised to a high temperature witiiont permanently
altering its resistance, it cannot be relied on as a measure c€
resistance. Some wires alter in resistance in ooniae of time without

having been exposed to changes of tempsratnre. Hence it is
important to ascertain the specific resistanoe of meiteary, a metal
which being flnid has always the same molecular strueture, and
which can be easily purified by distillation and treatment with
nitric acid. Great care has been bestowed in determining the
resistance of this metal by W. and C. F. Siemens^ who introduced
it as a standard. Their researches have been supplemented by
those of Matthiessen and Hockin.
The specific resistance of mercury was deduced from the observed
resistance of a tuhe of length I containing a weight v of mercury,
in the following manner.
No glass tube is of exactly equal bore throughout, but if a small
quantity of mercur}^ is introduced into the tube and occupies a
length A of the tube, the middle point of which is distant so from
one end of the tube, then the area « of the section near this point
Q
s—
will be « , where C is some constant.
VOL* I. BO
418 il£SISTAMC£. [362.
The weight of mercury which iills the whole tube is
where n is the number of points, at equal distances along* the

tu))e, where A has been meusuied, and p is the mass of unit of
•volunie.
The resistance of the whole tube is
where r is the specific resiBtaiioe per unit of volume.
Hence vi2 = rp2(A)2
and •=—72 r
S(X)2(i)
gives the specific resistance of unit of volume.

To find the resistance of unit of length and unit of mass we most
multiply this by the density.
It appears from the experiments of Matthiessen and Hockin that
the lesistanoe of a tiniform column of mercoiy of one metre in
length, and weighing one giamme at O'C, is 13.071 Ohms^ whence
it follows that if the spedfie giavity of mercury is 13.595, the
Tesistance of a column of one metre in length and one square
millimetre in section is 0.96146 Ohms.
862.3 In the following table B is the resistance in Ohms of a
colunn one metre long and one gramme weight at 0"C, and r is
the resistance in centimetres per second of a cube of one centi-
metre, according to the experiments of Matthiessen *,
Percentage
increment of
Specific resiatance for
gravity n r 1"C at 2XfC.
Silver 10.50 hard drawn 0.1689 1609 0.377

8.95 hard drawn 0.HG9 1642 0.388
Gold . . ...... 19.27 hard drawn 0.4150 2151 0.365
11.391 pressed 2.257 19847 0.387
Mercury 13.595 liquid 13.071 96146 0.072
Gold 2, Silver 1 . 15.218 hard or annealed 1.068 10988 0.065
Selenium at 100°C Crj'Htailiue form 6 X 10" 1.00
• PhU, Mag., Umy, 1866.
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364.] OF ELECTSOLTTES. 419
0» ike Eleeffie Se$Utanee qf Eledrofyies.
868.] The measurement of the electric resistance of electrolytee
is rendered difficult on account of the polarization of the electrodes,

which causes the ohserved difference of potentials of the metallic
electrodes to be greater than the electromotire force which actually
produces the enrrent.
This difficulty can be oYercome in Turions ways. In certain
cases we can get rid of polarization by using electrodes of proper
material, as, for instance, zinc electrodes in a solution of sulphate
of zmc By malung the scirfiK» of the electrodes very large com-
pared with the section of the part of the electrolyte whose resist-
ance is to be measured, and by using only currents of short duration
in opposite directions alternately, we can make the measurements
before any considerable intensity of polarization has been excited
by the passage of the current.
Finally, by making two different experiments, in one of which
the path of the current through the electrolyte is much longer than
in the other, and so adjustins" the electromotive force that the
actual current, and the time during which it flows, are nearly the
same in each case, we can eliminate the effect of polarization
altogether.
364.] In the experiments of Dr. Paalzow * the electrodes were
in the form of large disks placed in separate flat vessels filled with
the electrolyte, and the connexion was made by means of a long
siphon filled with the electrolyte and dipping into both Teesels.
Two Buch siphons of different lengths were used.
The observed resistances of the electrolyte in these siphons
being Bi and iZ,, the siphons were next filled with mercury^ and
their resistances when filled with mercury were found to be
and i^'.
The ratio of the resistance of the electrolyte to that of a mass
of mercory at 0°C of the same form was then found firom the
formula
R^—R^
To deduce firom the values of p the resistance of a centimetre in

length having a section of a square centimetre^ we must multiply
them by the valne of r for mercury at 0*C. See Art. 361..
• Berlin MonMeHdd, July, 1898.

xe a
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420 [365
The results given by Paalzow are as follow
Muotumt of SvX^glmna And and Water,

Banstftnce compared
Tiemp.
vithuMtniy.
H,60« .... 16X1 96950
H.SO4+ 14BK) .... W'C 14157
H,SO«+ 18HH> .... 22'C 13310
B,SO«+499H*0 .... 2^ 184773
Sutpkatt Zinc amd WoX/tr,
Zb80«4- 83 .... 23'*C 194400

ZnS04+ 24HH> .... 23%3 191000
ZnSO« + 105 BK) .... 23''C 354000
SvH^phaU ofCoppst and Waier,
CuSO, -f 45H-0 22°C 202410

CuSO, +10oii-O .... 22"C 339341
Sulphate €f Magneamm and Water.
MgSO, + 34HÔ .... 22*0 199180

Mg bO^+ 107 K'O .... 324600
Hydrochloric Acid and Water.
HCI -I- 15H'0 .... 23°C 13626

HCl -fSOOHH) 23'*G 36679
865.] MM. F. Kohltauflch and W. A. Nippoldt* have de-

termined the resistance of mixtores of sulphuric acid and water.
They used alternating mag-neto-electric currents, the electromotive
force of which varied from ^ to of that of a Grove's cell, and
lyy motaiB of a thermoelectric copper-iron pair they reduced the
electromotiTe force to n-Aw ^ * Grove's cdL Thej found
that Ohm'e law was applicable to this deetrolyte thronghoat the
range of these electromotive forces.
The reeistaiice is a minimum in a mixtuw containing about one-
third of salphmie add.
The resistance of eleotrolytes diminishes as the temperatiue
increases. The percentage increment of conductivity for a rise of
1°C is given in the following table.
* Fogg., Ann, cxxxviii. p. 286, Oct. 1869.
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366.] OP BLVCTBOLTTKS. 421
RtsUtance of Mixtures of Sulphuric Acid and Water at 22°C tn terms

qfMtrewry at O^C. MM. Kohlrauach and Nippoldt
Percentage
ReHiMtance
Perron tage increment of
C
»t 22
of HgSOf conduotivlty
(Hg-1) form
0.9985 0.0 746300 0.47
1.00 a2 465100 0.47
1.0504 8.3 34530 0.653
1.0989 14.2 18946 0.646
1.1481 20.2 14990 0.799
1.2045 28.0 13133 1.317
1.2631 35.2 13132 1.259
1.3163 41.5 14286 1.410
1.3547 46.0 15762 1.674
1.3994 50.4 17726 1.582
•
1.4482 55.2 20796 1.417
1.5026 60.3 25574 1.794
On the Electrical liesisiauce of Dielectrics.
866.3 ^ groat number of determinations of the resistance of

^tta-percba, and other materials used as insulating media, in the
manqfaoture of telegraphic cables, have been made in order to
aioertain the value of these materials as inmlators.
The teste are generally applied to the material after it has been
used to ooyot the conducting wire, the wire bdng nsed ae one
electrode, and the water of a tank^ in which the cable is plunged,
as the other. Thus the current is made to pass through a cjlin-
dricsl coating of the insulator of great area and small thickness.
It is found thai when the deotromotivc force begins to aet^ the
corrent, as indicated by the galTanometer, is by no means constant.
The first effbct is of course a transient current of considerable
intensity, the total quantity of electricity being that required to
charfê the surfaces of the insulator with the superficial distribution
of electricity corresponding to the electromotive force. This first
current therefore is u measure not of the conductivity^ but of the

capacity of tlie insulating layer.
But even after this current has been allowed to subside the
residual current is not constant, and does not indicate the true
conductivity of the substance. It is found that the current con-
tinues to decrease for at least half an hour^ so that a determination
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422 BESISTAMCB.
of ihe renstanoe deduced from the ciinent will give a g^reater value
if a oeitain time is allowed to elapse than if taken immediately after
applying the hattery.
Thus, with Hooper's insnlating material the apparent resistance
at the end of ten minntes was four tamesj and at the end of
nineteen hoars twenty-three times that observed at the end of
one minate. When the direction of the electromotive force is
reversed, the resistance falls as low or lower than at first and then
gra<3ually rises.
Tlicse phenomena seem to l)e due to a condition of the cûtta-
percha, which, for want of u better name, we may call polarization,
and which we may compare on the one hand with that of a series
of Leyden jars charged by cascade^ and, on the other, with jElitter s
secondary pih', Art. 271.
number of Leyden jars of great capacity are connected in
If a
series by means of conductors of great resistance (such as wet
cotton threads in the experiments of M. Gaugain)^ then an electro-

motive force acting on the series will produce a current, as indicated
by a galvanometer, which will gradually diminish till the jars are
fiiUy chaiged.
The apparent a series will increase, and if the
resistance of such
dielectric of the jars is a perfect insulator it will increase without
limit. If the electromotive force be removed and connexion made
between the ends of the series, a reverse current will be observed,
the total quantity of which, in the case of perfect insulation, wfll be
the same as that of the direct currents Similar effects are observed
in the case of the secondary pile, with the difoence that the final
insulation is not so good, and that tiie capacity per unit of surfiuse
is immensely greater.
In the case of the cable covered with gutta-percha, &c., it is found
that after applying the battery for half an huur_, and then con-
necting the wire with the external electrode, a reverse current tîkes
]>1aoe, which goes on for some time, and gradually reduces the
bybtem to its original state.
These i)henomena are of the same kind with those indicated
by the M-esidual discharge' of the Leyden jar, except that the
amount of the polarization is much greater in gutta-percha^ &c
than in glass.
This state of polarization seems to be a directed property of the

material, which requires for its production not only electromotive
force, but the passage, by displacement or otherwise, of a eon-
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368.] . OF DIELECTRICS. 423
si(leral)le quantity of electricity, and this passag-e requires a eon-

siderable time. When the polarized state has been set np, there
is an internal electromotive force actin*^ in the substance in the
reverse direction, which will continue till it has either produced
a reversed current ecjual in total quantity to the first, or till the
state of polarization has quietlj subsided by means of true con-
duction through the substance.
The whole theory of what has been called residual discharge,
abflorption of electricity, electrification, or polarization, deserves
a careful investigation, and will probably lead to important dis-
coveries relatiDg to the internal stmcture of bodies,
867.] The resisfcance of the greater number of dielectrics di-
minishes as the temperature rises.
Thus the resistance of gutta-percha is about twenty times as great

at 0*C as at 24^0. Messrs. Bright and C9ark have found that the
following formula gives results agreeing with their experiments.
If r is the resistance of gutta-percha at temperature T centigrade,
then the resistance at temperature 7+ i will be
R =ir X 0.8878',
the number varies between 0.8878 and 0.9.

Mr. Ilockin has verified the curious fact that it is not until some
hours after the gutta-percha has taken its temperature that the
resistance reaches its corresponding value.
The effect of temperature on the resistance of india-rubber is not
so great as on that of gutta-percha.
The resistance of gutta-percha increases considerably on the
application of pressure.
The resistance, in Ohms, of a cubic metre of various specimens of
gutta-percha used in diflferent cables is as follows*.
NMMofCablA.
Red Sea 267 x 10" to .362 x 10"
Malta-Alexandria 1.23x10"
Persian Gulf 1.80x10"
Second Atlantic 3.42 x 10^'
Hooper's Persian Gulf Core... 7 4. 7 x 10^'
Gutta-percha at 24''C 3.53 x 10^*
368.] The following tablCi calculated from the experiments of
* Jenkin'b Vantur Lcdures,
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424 BISISTANCB. [369.
M. Buff, described in Art 271, shews the fesistaiioe of a oobie

metre of glass in Ohms at di£brent temperatures.
Temperature. BedBtanoe.
200°C 227000
250* 13900
SOO** 1480
350" 1035
400' 736
869.] Mr. G. F. Yarlejr * has reoentty invefitigated the conditions

of the onrrent through rarefied gases, and finds that the eleetro-
motive force B is equal to a constant £q together with a part
depending on the cnrrent according to Ohm^s Law, thus
S~ ^Q-h RC.
For instance, the electromotive force requircnl to cause the
current to begin in a certain tube was that of 323 DanieU*s cells,
but an electromotiTe force of 304 cells was jnst snflBcient to
maintain the corrent. The intensity of the current, as measured
by the galvanometer, was proportional to the number of cells above
804. Thus for 306 cells the deflexion was 2, for 306 it was 4,
for 307 it was 6, and so on up to 380, or 804 + 76 for which the
deflexion was 160, or 76 x 1.97.
Fiom these experiments it appears that there is a kind of
polarization of the electrodes, the electromotive force of which
is equal to that of 304 Danidl's cells, and that up to this electro-
motive force the battery is occnped in establiBhing this stats of

polarization. When the maximum polarization ia esfablisbed, the
excess of electromotive force above that of 804 cells is devoted to
maintaining' the current according to Ohm's Law.
The law of the current in a rarefied gas is therefore very similar
to the law of the current through an electrolyte in which we have
to take account of the polarization of the electrodes.
In connexion with this subject we should study Tliomson's results,
described in Art. 57, in which the electromotive force required
to produce a spark in air was found to be proportional not to the
distance, but to the distance together with a constant quantity.
The electromotive force corresponding to this constant quantity
may be regarded as the intensity of polarization of the electrodes.
870.] MM. Wiedemann and Aiihlmann have recently f invttati-
• Proe. H. Jna. 12, 1871.

t B€rkkl€ fier Khtif^ Btu-h: O^Mmskeifi, Oot. 20. 1871.
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OF DIELKCT&ICS. 425
gated ihe pas»igc of electricity through g-ases. The electric current

was produced by Holtz's machine, and the discharge took place
between spherical electrodes within a metallic vessel containing^
rarefied gas. The discharge was in general disoontiniiotis, and the
interval of time between sacoessive dischaiges was measured bjr
means of a mirror revolving along with the axis of Holta*s machine.
The images of the series of discharges were observed by means of
a heliometer with a divided object-glass, which was adjusted till
one image of each disohaige coincided with the other image of
the next discharge. By this method very consistent results were
obtained. It was found that the quantity of electricity in each
discharge is independent of the strength of the current and of
the material of the electrodes, and that it depends on the nature
and density of the gas^ and on the distance and form of the
electrodes.
Tliese researches conHrm tlie statement of Faraday* tliat the
electric tension (sec Art, 48) rcHjuired to cause a (lisruj)tive discharg-e
to begin at the electrified surface of a conductor is a little less
when the electrification is negative than when it is positive, but

that when a discharge does take place, much more electricity passes
at each discharge when it begins at a positive surface. They also
tend to support the hypothesis stated in Art. 57, that the stratum
of gas condensed on the surface of the electrode plays an important
part in the phenomenon, and they indicate that this condensation
is greatest at the positive electrode.
• Ejcp. Res., 1501.
VOU I. Ff
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t^'i Mjj^^'*'1- t'cîncily. Vol /.
FIG. 1 .
Art. U8.
Lmes of/drag €md 2ûi^faien£ial StaiSues,
ZO B ^ J . J*, Arnt o/\6:fuiU6ruun . AP «^ AB.
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Câf^Miur^gl&sSUctnciiy. Vol/.
Fro. n.
Art.
lanes cf ii^roe etnd J^w^foienliaC SurtSums
Am. to Ji= -3 r. Jhint ,>r J-iqiaiiJtruLm,. AF = 2 AJi

Q, SpkerieeU- Jtsertbae cfZero/inlBniuU^.
JIf, /hint of MmtunumJirtt edaiy iks €ucu.
71k dhOedlmeigAf ling €/:Sn»r.~OJt' thus
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Art. 120.
Ixnes a^ /o/ne arid Jiîaôoientialt Sitjâeea
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y^rh" Afjumreii's £Ucinr;iy. Vol I.
Fro. IV
Art. 121.
Lines forese and j^Jûyfotenlia/^ Szcr/iicos
A "16. £"-12. C'*20.

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Fig. V
Art 143.
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Jffxjr»altk lUciTtaiy. Vol/.
FIG. VI .
Art. 143.
Spherical JJcLr/ziomc o/ i/ic ikinoL dsêe.
J . S » J .
Jor the I^tdeû^ ofih» Clarendon Jress

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Tuy. vn.
Art 143.
tôAgnoal MarmorUe ikt tkttrL decree.
Fo^lkeDelspaleso/'tUaaJVidmîetts ,^,^1 by Googl

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FIG ATIl.
Art. 143.
^pheriad Harmimie of ike /iuHk- dy/i
i ^ S 9»z .
for t/ie Iêlâte^ of lAsr Clarendon êss

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riG. iX .
Art. 14^.
tAeJJelsâiBS o/lAe dewencionJfess

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IIG. X.
Are. 1d2.
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Fiu. XI.
Alt. 193.
Lines ij^ jR?rce nftar tkgt' eiê o/'a /f^t^ .
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Ari. 202.
For ik^DdBâiss ofih» Clarmdim Hress

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Lines of farce near tt, (hxUtr^.
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OC 518 .M46
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36105 030 410 844
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A TREATISE

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

MACMILLAN AND 00.

PUBLISHBJta TO THB UNIVMR8ITT OF

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

JAHES CLERK MAXWELIi, H.A.

AT TU£ CLARENDON PRESS

mena chiefly with a view to their measurement* de-

place to deduce the most general conclusions from the

The internal relations of the different branches of

phenomena have been to a great extent satis&ctorily

duction of electromagnetism to a dynamical science,

contradictory to the supposition that it depends on

has rather opened up that field, by pointing out sub-

It is hardly necessary to enlarge upon the beneficial

But the labours of those who have endeavoured to

and he not only added greatly to our knowledge of

those who are engaged in the measurement of any

science, but they lie concealed in tiie bulky Trans-

The general complexion of the treatise diflfers con-

works^ published, most of them, in Germany, and it

may appear that scant justice is done to the specu-

from either party being wrong. I was first convinced

also found that these methods were capable of being

For instance, Faraday, in his mind's eye, saw lines

saw a medium where they saw nothing but distance:

actions going on in the jnedium, they were satisfied

that they had found it in a power of action at a

* I take this opportunity of acknowledging my obligations to Sir

in which we hegin with the whole and arrive at the

I also found that several of the roost fertile methods

tance from a given point Hence many of the mathe-

founded on the theory of action at a distance, but

tional weight to their theoretical speculations, so that

would probahlj imhibe, along with their mathematical

methods^ their physical hypotheBe&

alien from the way of looking at things which I

explain the phenomena, and which, though in some

exceedingly important that two methods sliould be

method than attempted to give an impartial description

I have not attempted an exhaustive account of elec-

trical phenomena, experiments^ and apparatus. The

contemporary historical account of some of the greatest

It is of great advantage to the student of any

communicate to others the same delight which I have

found in the earlier chapters of each of the four Parts

OK THE MKASUREMEXT OF QUANTITIEa.

2. Dinieusiuus of derived units 1

3-5. The three fundamental units —Length, Time and Mass 2, 3

44. Electric field ^ ^ ^ 4i

ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICAL THEOKY OF ELECTRICITY.

()3. Defiiiitiou of electricity as u inatliematical (juantity 66

68. Resultant force at a point 69

82. Lines of electric, indurtion 84

terms of the cbar^j^es of the different conductors of the system

95. Two opposite methods of treatinpf electrical qucstioDs .. .. 98

MKCHANIf!AI. ACTION BF.TWEKN ELECTRIFIED nODIK8.

106. The kind of Btress required to account for the phenomenon ..

POINTS AND LINKS OF EQUILIBRIUM.