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Recent dissertations on kaolin based geopolymer materials

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Recent
Rev. Adv.
dissertations
Mater. Sci. 42
on(2015)
kaolin based
83-91 geopolymer materials 83

RECENT DISSERTATIONS ON KAOLIN BASED

GEOPOLYMER MATERIALS

Shamala Ramasamy1,2, Kamarudin Hussin1,2, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah1,2,3,

Che Mohd Ruzaidi Ghazali1,2, Andrei Victor Sandu4, Mohammed Binhussain5
and Noor Fifinatasha Shahedan1
1
Center of Excellence Geopolymer and Green Technology, School of Materials Engineering,
Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), 01007, P.O Box 77, D/A Pejabat Pos Besar, Kangar, Perlis, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), P.O. Box 77, D/A Pejabat Pos Besar,
Kangar, Perlis 01000, Malaysia
3
Faculty of Technology, Universitas UbudiyahIndonesia (UUI), Jln Alue Naga Desa Tibang,
Banda Aceh, Indonesia
4
Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of lasi, Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering,
Blvd. D. Mangeron 71, 700050, lasi, Romania
5
King Abdul Aziz City Science & Technology (KACST), P.O. Box Riyadh 11442, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Received: April 21, 2015

Abstract. Geopolymerisation also known as alkali activation of aluminosilicate occurs when

mineral sources with high Al and Si content such as kaolin, blast furnace slag or fly ash are
exposed to high alkaline environments, thus producing two to three dimensional Si-O-Al struc-
ture which exhibits both zeolitic and ceramic properties which is not typically present in traditional
cement materials such as ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). Kaolin based geopolymers, inor-
ganic polymers that are also alumino-silicate materials with impressive mechanical properties
such as excellent coating materialfor fire resistant, poor electric conductor, chemically unreactive
over a wide range of pH, non-abrasive, low energy consumption, poor permeability and emits
less CO2 which makes earth a better place. This paper is to review the progress made in kaolin
based geopolymers that are currently in growing demand of researchers to replace existing eco-
unfriendly materials.

1. INTRODUCTION solution, diffusion of dissolved Al and Si ions to an

inter-particle space, formation of agulated structure
The demanding need of cement and concrete appli-
and lastly hardening of gel phase. Combination of
cations seeks ordinary Portland cement (OPC) al-
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium silicate
ternate with greener final product which requires less
(Na2SiO3) are the most generally used alkaline so-
energy and resource consumption. Geopolymers
lution for geopolymerisation process [5-9]. Sodium
c_[ _g cr[ Y Sd Y
fd UT e]Y_cY YSd Ucs
silicate acts as alkali activator, binder, plasticizer
rXiTb_SUb]Y Scsr[ Y Sd Y
fd UTSU]U d sr[ Y
or dispersant while sodium hydroxide helps the dis-
R_e TUTS Ub]Y Scs Tr Y_bW Y S _i ]Ub c sb Ud XU
solution of aluminosilicates sources. There are cer-
key solution to current issue [1-4]. Materials rich in
tain factors that influence the properties of
Al2O3 and SiO2 are aluminosilicate sources which is
geopolymers such as composition, type and rela-
required for the exothermic geopolymerization re-
tive amount of alkali activator, specific surface com-
action. Core Step of geopolymerization consist of
position of source materials, and condition during
three which are dissolution of Al and Si in alkaline
the initial period of the geopolymerization process.
Corresponding author: R. Shamala, e-mail: shamala_ramasamy@yahoo.com

m) (,5Tf SUTFd
eTi7U d
Ub7_%
@dT%
84 Sh. Ramasamy, K.Hussin, M.M. Al Bakri Abdullah, C.M.R. Ghazal, A.V.Sandu, M. Binhussain et al.

Focus had been on the solid to liquid ratio (S/L ra- Secondary kaolins that are fine had been used as
tio) and the alkaline activator ratio (Na2SiO3-to-NaOH gloss materials due to their smaller particle size.
ratio) which have major impact on mechanical prop- Whereas platy kaolin particles, provides excellent
erties of geoplymers [10-16]. These crucial param- coating opacity and printability [26]. Kaolin is also
eters strike the workability of geopolymer slurry. soft, non-abrasive, poor heat and electric conduc-
Previous work on fly ash geopolymer suggests that tor.
formulation ratio of raw source materials to alkaline Particular applications of kaolin require very dis-
activator by mass must be approximately 3 for tinct specifications such as particle color, size, vis-
geopolymerization process to occur [17]. cosity, and brightness whereas other uses requires
Geopolymer is a new family of cementitious none. These properties are important in paper coat-
materials that is way more environmental friendly ing industry, while in cement technology where the
due to its less emission of CO2 and energy con- chemical composition is most crucial requirement.
sumption [1,18-20]. Geopolymer materials are gen- Kaolinite consists of silica tetrahedral sheets
erally low density due to the existences of micro stacked alternately with alumina octahedral sheets
sized and nano sized pores within the final prod- and has the theoretical formula (OH)8Si4Al4O10 and
ucts. Advantages of geopolymers as compared to the theoretical composition 46.54% SiO2, 39.5%
ordinary portland cement (OPC) are high early Al2O3, 13.96% H2O [27]. However usages of kaolin
strength, low permeability, less shrinkage, excel- in terms of its suitability for ceramic based sub-
lent durability, good fire and acid resistance. Com- strates, coating applications, cement and concrete
mercial establishment and industrial application of industry is lacking.
geopolymer materials are still underrated due to lack Countable works have been done in the past,
of scientific literature availability [21].Thus, it can using calcined kaolin as coating materials for fire
be said that geopolymers are produced from the resistant applications [28-31]. These previous works
reaction of solid aluminosilicate precursors with al- explained and concluded that kaolin based
kaline solution at room or elevated temperature. geopolymer can withstand fire at high temperature,
This predecessors may be of one type of min- provided chemical compositions in the reaction sys-
eral source or a combination of clays (usually ka- tem are altered accordingly.
olin, either raw or calcined kaolin), pozzolanics and Kaolin composes of kaolinite as its core mineral
various industrial by-products, such as slag and fly component with handful of secondary minerals, in-
ash. Among these aluminosilicate sources, cluding anatase, quartz, dickite, halloysite and
metakaolin or calcined kaolin has higher reactivity nacrite. In strong alkaline environments, dissolution
and relatively purer composition as compared to rate and behaviour of quartz and kaolin differs as
other materials [1,17].Frequently used aluminosili- quartz has lower reactivity that kaolin. Structural
cate sources are of kaolinite, fly ash, callcined ka- characteristic of dehydrated halloysite, dickite, and
olin, and chemically synthesized kaolin. nacrite differ while having similar chemical compo-
Geopolymers are synthesized by polycondensation sition as kaolinite. Kaolinite has a sheet structure
below 100 l C at ambient pressure in an alkaline while halloysite has a tubular structure. In terms of
solution. In terms of past literatures, effects of cal- hydroxyl groups, kaolinite has two out of the three
cined kaolin at high temperatures (800-900 l C) to- hydroxyl groups contribute to the bond while, bond-
wards properties of post obtained geopolymer have ing between layers of dickite involves the collabora-
not been elaborately discussed [22]. The nature and tion of all inner-surface hydroxyl groups. It has been
changes in geopolymer paste and the hardened fi- studied that various hydroxyl groups result in vary-
nal product are not fully explored, thus providing room ing dehydroxylation behavior, which may impact the
for future works to meet the raising need of current reactivity of kaolin. Thus, it can be concluded that
various application as replacement of the typical these secondary minerals present in kaolin will af-
cement binders. Not much attention was received fect the reaction process and final properties of
by initial researchers that studied on how mineral geopolymer. Initial research on how secondary min-
composition and nature of kaolin and metakaolin erals content in kaolin affects the geopolymers
effects the behaviour of paste and properties of hard- should be investigated due to the various types and
ened products [1, 23-25]. quantity of mineral composition in kaolin. This is
Kaolin, most versatile white mineral that pos- important especially for the possible applications of
sess outstanding properties such as chemically geopolymers in future, which will involve huge amount
unreactive over a wide range of pH and good cover- of kaolin from multiple types of clay deposits. High
ing powder when used as a pigment or extender. bonding strength, low permeability and excellent
Recent dissertations on kaolin based geopolymer materials 85

Table 1. Chemical composition of kaolin from various sources.

Chemical Kaolin de Associated Suzhou South Pacific

Composition Beauvior, Kaolin of Jiangsu, Industries,
of Kaolin France Industries, China Malaysia
Malaysia
[32] [33] [34] [35]

SiO2 48.1 54.1 44.11 54

Al2O3 36.9 33 37.21 31.7
Fe2O3 0.26 4.41 0.55 4.89
TiO2 <0.25 1.34 0.31 1.41
CaO <0.20 - 0.26 -
MgO 0.17 - 0.21 -
K2O 1.9 5.67 0.58 6.05
Na2O <0.20 - 0.1 -
Li2O 0.27 - - -
ZrO2 - 0.09 - 0.1
SO3 - - - -
P2O5 - - - -
MnO2 - 0.11 - 0.11
Loss on ignition - 1.28 15.5 1.74

thermal stability are some of the outstanding prop- 3. METHOD

erties of kaolin-based geopolymers [1]. Thick gel is
a) For the previous study on mechanical activation
formed instantaneously upon mixing source mate-
of kaolin based geopolymers, 8M NaOH solution
rial and the alkaline activator solution [17].
was mixed with sodium silicate with ratio of 0.25
(sodium silicate/ NaOH solution) and left for 24 hours
2. MATERIALS to obtain the alkaline solution for activation step.
Main raw material that was being studied is kaolin. NaOH pellets was dissolved in deionized water and
Previous researches had obtained kaolin from vari- left to cool down to room temperature to obtain the
ous sources. NaOH solution. Kaolin undergoes dry milling at the
a) Raw commercial kaolin used was provided by speed of 250 rpm for various durations to be me-
kaolins de Beauvoir, France. This was the alumino- chanically activated. Amount of kaolin used was 80
silicate source used for geopolymerization. Main grams. After that, the kaolin powder was mixed into
composition of this raw kaolin was 81.5 wt.% of the activation alkaline solution with a mass ration of
kaolinite, 3.5 wt.% of quartz, and 10 wt.% of mica- 0.26 (powder/solution) for 5 min at 125 rpm. A ho-
ceous minerals. The chemical composition of the mogeneous paste was obtained. These was pow-
raw kaolin is presented in Table 1 [32]. dered and compacted at 125 MPa into a 20 mm
b) Fine particle with 40% of particle size less than 2 steel mold. The as-obtained specimens were sub-
m was purchased from Associated Kaolin Indus- mitted to different curing conditions such as curing
tries Sdn. Bhd, Malaysia. Raw kaolin was calicined temperatures at 40 l C, 70 lC, and 100 l C, while the
at 800 l C for 2 hours. Table 1 tabulated the chemi- curing times were 24 hrs, 48 hrs, and 72 hrs.Each
cal composition of calcined kaolin [33]. samples were analysed according to their ageing
c) Very fine kaolin from Suzhou of Jiangsu Prov- time which was (2, 7, 14, or 28 days) at room tem-
ince, China underwent thermal treatment at 600 l C, perature [32].
700 l C, 800 l C, 900 lC, and 1000 l C for 6 hours. X- b) As for the S/L ratio study, NaOH solution also
ray Fluorescence (XRF) was used to reveal the with 8M was prepared at left at room
chemical compositions as tabulated in Table 1 [34]. temperature.Whereas, the alkaline solution was
d) South Pacific Industries Sdn Bhd, Malaysia sup- prepared by mixing sodium silicate and NaOH with
plied kaolin which was in powder form. The general a mass ration between 0.12 and 0.28 until transpar-
chemical composition is tabulated in Table 1 which ent solution was obtained. This preparation was done
obtained from X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis [35]. 24 hours prior to use. Mechanical stirrer was used
86 Sh. Ramasamy, K.Hussin, M.M. Al Bakri Abdullah, C.M.R. Ghazal, A.V.Sandu, M. Binhussain et al.

Fig. 1. Compressive strength of the different geopolymers versus ageing for the various curing temperature
for 72 hours. b
Ub YdUTgY d
X Ub ]Y ccY_V b_] 8%<% 5iY % @%@US_]d UB %8Z kdkY TD%6 SX b d&
&
7_ c d
b eS%6eYT%Ad Ub %42(2013)105, (c) 2013 Elsevier.

to mix thermally treated kaolin with alkaline solu- other study. For this work, 8 M NaOH solution was
tion at a S/L ratio of 0.40-1.20 for couple of minutes prepared in volumetric flask and left to cool down at
to produce homogeneous slurry.Next, slurry was room temperature. Na2SiO3 solution with Na2SiO3/
poured into a steel mold (50 mm x50 mm x50 mm), NaOH ratio ranged from 0.16 to 0.36 was mixed
compacted according to ASTM C109 and sealed in with NaOH solution to prepare alkali activator solu-
films to prevent moisture loss. These samples were tion 24 hours before use. The S/L ratio used to mix
heated undisturbed in an oven for 3 hours at 80 l C. the kaolin and activation alkaline solution was from
the solid geopolymers samples were then crushed the range of 0.60 to 1.20. Mechanical stirrer was
using mortar and pestle, sive through sive mesh used to stir the mixture for couple of mins. Well
b _TeSYWWU_ _i ]Ub YS _gTUbgY dXTUcY bUT p mixed slurry was poured into 50 x 50 x 50 mm steel
315 m particle size. Geopolymer paste was ob- molds and compacted for about one half depth of
tained by adding powder with 22% of water. The mold and tampered in each cube compartment at
geopolymer paste was used for various testing. each layer as shown in ASTM C109. Next, samples
Instron machine series 5569 Mechanical Tester was were left undisturbed in oven for 80 l C to be cured.
used to measure the compressive strength accord- Samples were sealed with plastic films during cur-
ing to ASTM C 109/C 109M-08. Minimun three speci- ing period [35].
mens were tested to evaluate compressive strength
upon 7 days [33]. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
c) Role of water in Kaolin based geopolymers were
also investigated by a previous researcher. Sodium As per recent study on kaolin, mechanical activa-
hydroxide were mixed with sodium silicate and dis- tion of kaolin which is done by milling process influ-
tilled water to prepare liquid activator, 24 hours prior ences the mechanical properties of kaolin based
to use. The modulus of sodium silicate used was geopolymers. The results of compressive strength
3.33, Na2O=9.98%, SiO2=27.10%). A constant S/L of raw kaolin and milled (mechanically activated)
ratio was used throughout when calcined kaolin was kaolin based geopolymers analysed after 72 hours
mixed with alkaline activator, in order to study the of various curing temperatures are presented in Fig.
effect of residual water on activity of calcined prod- 1.
ucts. The obtained geopolymeric slurry was casted Based on observation, in all cases mechanically
into cylinder plastic moulds to prepare specimens activated kaolin based geopolymers exhibits (MG)
_Vo),t .% ,]]%I b Y
_ecSeb YWS_ TY dY
_ cceSX higher compressive strengths, comparatively to the
as in sealed bag, in air, in room temperature, hu- raw kaolin based geopolymers (G). For curing time
midity controlled room and elevated temperature _V.)X_eb c YSb U cU_Vd U] Ubd ebUe d _( l 7
were used in this work [34]. enhances the mechanical properties of the milled
d) Influences of alkaline activator and S/L ratio on kaolin based geopolymers (MG100) and unmilled ka-
kaolin based geopolymers were investigated in an- olin based geopolymers (G100) after 28 days of age-
Recent dissertations on kaolin based geopolymer materials 87

ing, all geopolymers, except the one based on raw

kaolin cured at 100 l C, exhibit an increase in the
compressive strength in comparison of that obtained
after 2 days of ageing. Therefore, both mechanical
activation and curing at 100 l C improves the me-
chanical properties of kaolin based geopolymers.at
higher temperature the mechanically activated ka-
olin shows greater mechanical properties as com-
pared to the less sensitive raw kaolin geopolymers
[32].
Geopolymer pastes with various S/L ratio (0.4,
0.6, 0.8, 1.0, and 1.2) were studied in a current re-
Fig. 2. Compressive strength at 7th day of resulted
cent work. Compressive strength of geopolymer
geopolymer pastes at various solids to-liquid ratio
pastes with varying S/L ratios at 7th day are shown
(constant Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio of 0.24). reprinted with
in Fig. 2.
permission from Y.M. Liew, H. Kamarudin, A.M.
As observed, compressive strength peaked at
Mustafa Al Bakri, M. Bnhussain, M. Luqman,
S/L ratio of 0.80 but as the ratio was increased, it
I. Khairul Nizar, C.M. Ruzaidi, and C.Y. Heah //
dropped gradually. For S/L ratio of 0.40 and 1.20,
Construc. Build. Mater 37(2012) 440, (c) 2012
no proper compressive strength values were re-
Elsevier.
corded because the mixes were extremely low vis-
cous to allow for molding and were highly viscous
ing. Mechanical activation of kaolin enhances the
for good compaction, respectively. The S/L ratio of
compressive strength to 51% for a curing tempera-
0.80 provided optimum workability and thus led to
ture of 40 l C, and of 86% for a curing temperature of
homogeneous slurry and optimal strength. The out-
100 l C, in comparison with the behavior of the raw
standing compressive strength makes geopolymer
kaolin based geopolymers after 28 days. In over-
paste with S/L ratio of 0.80 with the optimum acti-
view, the change of compressive strength with age-
vator content that allows for dissolution of raw ma-
ing time for a given curing temperature appears to
terials while not retarding the polycondensation rate
be complex. In particular, a decrease of the com-
during the geopolymer synthesis. Therefore, when
pressive strength is observed at intermediate cur-
water was added to the geopolymeric powder to
ing time at 7 or 14 days. It is noted that, after 7
produce resulted paste, the water content acceler-
days at low curing temperature (40 l C) and 14 days
ates the polycondensation process due to the con-
at relatively high curing temperature (100 l C), there
tinual dissolution of residual raw materials and hy-
is a significant decrease of the compressive strength
drolysis of generated Al3+ and Si4+. Hence, it is ob-
for the milled and the unmilled raw based
served that kaolin geopolymer paste with S/L ration
geopolymers, which increased subsequently after
of 0.80 provides the optimum compressive strength
28 days of curing. In addition, after 28 days of age-

Fig. 3. Compressive strength development of different calcined kaolin based geopolymer. reprinted with
permission from Z. Zuhua, Y. Xiao, Z. Huajun, and C. Yu // Appl. Clay. Sci. 43  
) 0)(/ m) /9cUf Y
Ub%
88 Sh. Ramasamy, K.Hussin, M.M. Al Bakri Abdullah, C.M.R. Ghazal, A.V.Sandu, M. Binhussain et al.

Fig. 4. Compressive strength development of geopolymers under different curing conditions such as air
cured (AC), cured in high humidity (SC), in sealed bags (BC), immerged in room temperature (RWC) and
immerged at elevated temperature (EWC). reprinted with permission from Z. Zuhua, Y. Xiao, Z. Huajun, and
C. Yu // Appl. Clay. Sci. 43  
) 0)(/ m) /9cUf Y
Ub%

when Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio is kept constant at 0.24 The compressive strength of geopolymers un-
[33]. der different curing conditions are represented in Fig.
Fig. 3 shows the relationship between calcina- 4. Those geopolymers that were immerged in water
tion temperature and the compressive strength of (SC and EWC) accelerates the geopolymerisation
different calcined kaolin based geopolymers. It is during the first 24 hours. At early stage, compres-
observed that compressive strength significantly sive strength of AC and BC geopolymers has in-
increases to a maximum at 900 l C and drops dras- creased largely when cured at 20 l C but after 7 days
tically at 1000 l C. curing AC ones even reach 59 MPa with a little be-
The compressive strength of generated yond that of 80 l C. Due to low temperature and ex-
geopolymers are dramatically different upon ageing cess water, geopolymers immerged in room tem-
for those cured in air (AC) and those cured in high perature (RWC) showed lower compressive strength
humidity(SC). This is because the content of re- than that under the other four conditions. Excess
sidual excess water in calcined kaolin differs. By water around the hydrolysis species, retards the
thermogravimetry (TG) test (curve not shown), the polycondensation process. Also, when cured in
mass fall at 700 l C, 800 l C, and 900 lC was 0.9%, water, reagent tend to leach out from surfaces of
1.9%, and 2.3% compared to that at 600 l C, re- geopolymers, which contributes to the slow com-
spectively. Thus, proving that change in mass is pressive strength development [34].
due to evaporation of structure water. With that, it When a set of samples were cured in an oven at
can be assumed that activity of raw kaolin source 80 l C, many visible cracks on these geopolymer
material is affected by the residual water content. surfaces (Fig. 5), which is due to dry shrinkage.
Excess water in source material that exist in form Similar observation was obtained by another re-
of hydroxyl is known to hinder workability of kaolin searcher on metakaolinite besed geopolymers [38].
R cUTWU_ _i ]Ub c%=ds
cTY VVYSedV
_bcdbeSdebUg d Ub Thus, it can be assumed that crack-free geopolymer
to be lost completely even at temperature higher requires sufficient humidity during curing [34].
dX 0, l 7N-O %G d Uc dc _cX_gcd Xd ]c cV c The effects of Na2SiO3/ NaOH ratio on mechani-
at 1000 l C by 2.7% compared to 600 l C, meaning cal properties of kaolin based geopolymers were
the activity should have increased. Tho residual water investigated. Figure 6 shows the compressive
reduces at 1000 l C (Fig. 3), compressive strength strength of kaolin geopolymers with various Na2SiO3/
is observed to have decreased rapidly. This may be NaOH ratios such as 0.16 (Mix 5), 0.20 (Mix 6),
because at elevated temperature, more stable 0.24 (Mix 3), 0.28 (Mix 7), 0.32 (Mix 8), and 0.36
phases such as as mullite and cristobalite are (Mix 9) at constant S/L ratio of 1.00. Sinusoidal fluc-
formed [37]. Hither to, making residual water very tuated curve was obtained after 180 days. The com-
important and crucial but not the only factor indicat- pressive strength results fluctuated from day 1 to
ing the activity of calcined kaolin. day 3 due to the various reaction rate and formation
Recent dissertations on kaolin based geopolymer materials 89

NaOH ratio. This waterglass liquid was required for

the geopolymerization process and acted as binder,
alkali activator and dispersant or plasticizer [2].
Nevertheless, at Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio higher than
0.32, it is assumed that high amount of waterglass
liquid hinders the geopolymerization process. Low
reactivity of raw kaolin leads to slow dissolution of
Al and Si ions into the system. Therefore, inadequate
Al and Si ions were to be taken into reaction to form
a rigid network of geopolymers. Geopolymer slurry
was observed to become very sticky as the Na2SiO3/
NaOH ratio was increased thus providing high con-
tent of waterglass liquid. This stickiness was caused
Fig. 5. Visible cracks on geopolymer surface after by the viscous nature of the waterglass liquid. These
80 lC curing for 1 day in an oven. reprinted with even worsen the condition where the the low reac-
tivity kaolin with less dissolved Al and Si ions were
permission from Z. Zuhua, Y. Xiao, Z. Huajun, and
C. Yu // Appl. Clay. Sci. 43   ) 0)(/ m ) / unable to contact to each other. Thus, 0.32 was
Elsevier. chosen as the best Na2SiO3/ NaOH ratio for kaolin
geopolymers.

of the structure within the tested ratio as kaolinite 5. CONCLUSIONS

has comparatively lower reactivity that requires suf-
ficient time for interactions to occur. Content of Si a) Mechanical activation of kaolin by dry ball miling
and Al contributes to the reaction rate of gel [39]. improves the mechanical properties of kaolin based
Compressive strength can also help determine mea- geopolymers at high curing temperatures.
sured reactivity of kaolin. b) Solid to liquid ratio of geopolymer paste also plays
Almost stable parabolic curve observed upon day an important roles in its compressive strength
7. In general, compressive strength increased as whereby S/L ratio 0.80 showed the optimum
the Na2SiO3/ NaOH ratio was increased until 0.32 strength when Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio is kept constant
(Mix 8). Ratio of Na2SiO3/ NaOH at 0.32 (Mix 8) at 0.24.
appear to be the steadiest and have highest com- c) Residual water in the form of hydroxyl is retards
pressive strength increment rate as compared to the activity of air cured kaolin based geopolymers
other ratios. Sodium silicate, also known as to a significant temperature range. (until reaches
waterglass liquid increases with increasing Na2SiO3/ ( Eq 7%

Fig. 6. Compressive strength of geopolymer samples with various Na2SiO3/NaOH ratios (at constant S/L
ratio of 1.00). reprinted with permission from C.Y. Heah, H. Kamarudin, A.M. Mustafa Al Bakri, M. Bnhussain,
M. Luqman, I. Khairul Nizar, C.M. Ruzaidi, Y.M. Liew // Construc. Build. Mater. 35  ) () 0()%m ) ()
Elsevier.
90 Sh. Ramasamy, K.Hussin, M.M. Al Bakri Abdullah, C.M.R. Ghazal, A.V.Sandu, M. Binhussain et al.

d) Sufficient humidity and water plays an important [16] T.H. Ueng, S.J. Lyu, H.W. Chu, H.H. Lee and
role in curing process of a crack free kaolin based T.T. Wang // Constr. Build Mater. 35 (2012)
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e) Kaolin based geopolymers that are cured under [17] Y.M. Liew, H. Kamarudin, A.M. Mustafa Al
low temperature and excessive water will lower the Bakria, M. Binhussainb, M. Luqman,
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densation would be hindered and reagent will leach // Phys. Proc. 22 (2011) 312.
out from surfaces of geopolymers when cured in [18] N. Xie, L. J. Bell and M. Gordon // J. Am.
excess water. Ceram. Soc. 93 (2010) 2644.
f) It is believed that the Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio chosen [19] H. Peigang, J. Dechang and W. Shengjin //
depended strongly on the workability of the mixes. J. Euro. Ceram. Soc. 33 (2013) 689.
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