Unit 4

TIMBER
CONTENT
Timber – Market Forms – Industrial Timber – Plywood –
Veneer – Thermacole – Panels Of Laminates – Steel –
Aluminium And Other Metallic Materials – Composition –
Aluminium Composite Panel – Uses – Market Forms –
Mechanical Treatment – Paints – Varnishes – Distempers –
Bitumens.
Timber
Definition:

Timber denotes wood which is suitable for

building or carpentry and for various engineering
and other purposes.

WOOD:

The organic matter obtained from trees

is called wood.
Classification of trees

Trees

Exogenous Endogenous

Conifers Deciduous
TYPES OF TREES:
Trees are classified into two groups .
1. Endogenous trees:
The trees which grow end wards in longitudinal fibrous mass are called
endogenous trees.
Eg: palm, bamboo
2. Exogenous tress :
The trees which grow in out wards across horizontal section of stem are
called exogenous trees. These trees are only fit for engineering
construction.
Exogenous trees are again subdivided in to two types.

Conifers or Evergreen:
•They give soft wood.
•They have pointed leaves.
Examples: Deodar,Pine,Chir,Kail,etc.,

Deciduous or Broad leaf Trees:

•These have hard wood.
•These have broad leaves.
Examples: Teak,Sal,Shisham, etc .
Comparison of softwood and hard wood

S.No. Item Soft woods Hard woods

1. Annual Rings Distinct Indistinct

2. Color Light Dark

3. Density Low High
4. Fire resistance Poor More

5. Weight Light Heavy

6. Strength strong for strong for resisting
direct pull & tension, compression
weak for equal & shear
resisting thrust
Structure of tree:
From the visibility aspect, the structure of a tree can be divided into two categories

1. Macro structure
2. Micro structure

1. Macro structure:

The structure of wood visible to the naked eye or at a small magnification is called
macro structure. The following figure shows the macro structure of exogenous tree.
(a) Pith or medulla: The innermost central portion or core of the tree.

(b) Heart wood: The inner annual rings surrounding the pith is
known as heart wood.

(c) Sap wood: The outer annual rings between heart wood and
cambium layer.

(d) Cambium layer: Thin layer of sap between sap wood and inner
bark.

(e)Inner bark: The inner skin or layer covering the cambium layer

(f) Outer Bark: The outer skin or cover of the tree

(g) Medullary rays: The thin radial fibers extending from pith to
cambium layer.
2. Micro structure:

The structure of wood apparent only at great magnifications is called

micro structure.

•Conductive cells
•Mechanical cells
•Storage cells
 Characteristics of good timbers
Appearance: A freshly cut surface of timber should
exhibit hard and of shining appearance.

Color: A color should preferably be dark

Defects: A good timber should be free from series defects

such as knots, flaws, shakes etc

Durability: A good timber should be durable and capable

of resisting the action of fungi, insects, chemicals, physical
agencies, and mechanical agencies.

Elasticity: The timber returns to its original shape when

load causing its deformation is removed.
Fire resistance: A dense wood offers good resistance to fire.

Hardness: A good timber should be hard.

Mechanical wear: A good timber should not deteriorate easily due to

mechanical wear or abrasion.

Shape: A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during

conversion or seasoning

Smell: A good timber should have sweet smell. Unpleasant smell

indicates decayed timber

Sound: A good timber should give a clear ringing sound when struck

Strength: A good timber should be sufficiently strong for working as

structural member such as joist, beam, rafter etc.
Structure: The structure should be uniform.

Toughness: A good timber should be tough (i.e.) capable of offering

resistance to shocks due to vibration.

Water permeability: A good timber should have low water

permeability, which is measured by the quantity of water filtered
through unit surface area of specimen of wood.

Weight: The timber with heavy weight is considered to be sound and

strong.

Working conditions: Timber should be easily workable. It should

not clog the teeth of saw.
PROCESSING OF TIMBER
1. Felling of trees

2. Seasoning of timber

3. Conversion of timber

4. Preservation of timber
SEASONING OF TIMBER:
As fresh timber which is obtained from trees contains about 30 to 40 %
sap or moisture. This sap is very harmful for the life of a timber.
Therefore, it is necessary to remove that sap by applying some special
methods. All those methods which are used for removing the sap from
timber are collectively termed as seasoning of timber.
Seasoning is the process of reducing the moisture
content(drying) of timber inorder to prevent the timber from
possible fermentation and making it suitable for use.
It can also be defined as the process of drying the wood to a moisture
content approximately equal to the average humidity of the
surroundings, where it is to be permanently fixed.
Objects of seasoning wood
1. Reduce the shrinkage and warping after placement in
structure.
2. Increase strength, durability and workability
3. Reduce its tendency to split and decay.
4. Make it suitable for painting.
5. Reduce its weight.
Types of Timber Seasoning:
The main types of timber seasoning are as under.

(1)Natural or Air Seasoning

(2)Artificial Seasoning
a) Water Seasoning
b) Boiling
c) Kiln Seasoning,
d) Chemical Seasoning
e) Electric Seasoning
Natural Seasoning:
In the air seasoning or natural
seasoning or natural drying, seasoning
of timber, timber is dried by direct
action of air, wind and sun.
In this method, the timber logs are
arranged one over the other, keeping
some space or distance between them
for air circulation of fresh air.
Generally this type of seasoning
requires few months to over a year, this
is very slow process.
Air seasoning reduces moisture
content of the wood to 12-15%.
It is used very extensively in drying
ties and the large size structural
timbers.
a) The timber in log form is not usually fit for the process of
seasoning. Hence it is cut and sawn into suitable sections of
planks or scantlings.
b) The timber pieces can either be stacked horizontally of
vertically, the former arrangement being very common.
c) The ground where stack is to be constructed, is cleared and it is
levelled for good drainage.
d) The platform of stack is made slightly higher, about 300mm, tan
the ground level. For this purpose, the rows of brick or concrete
pillars are constructed. The pillars may also be made of
creosoted wood or wood coated with coal tar. The tops of pillars
should be in the same horizontal plane.
e) The timber pieces are sorted out according to lengths and
thicknesses. They are then arranged in layers, one above the
other. The care should be taken to see that all members in a
particular layer are of the same thickness. If this precaution is
not taken, there are chances for timber to become warped or
cracked.
f) Each layer is separated by spacers of sound dry wood. The usual
dimensions of spacers vary from 35mm x 25mm to 50 x 35mm, the
larger dimension being the width. The spacers are to be carefully
placed in correct vertical alignment.
g) The distance between spacers depends on the sizes of timber
members to be seasoned. It is less for thin sections and more for
thick sections. It usually varies from 450 to 600mm.
h) The length of stack is equal to length of timber pieces. The width
and height of stack are restricted to about 1500mm and 3000mm
respectively. A distance of about 25 mm is kept between adjacent
layers.
i) The stack is to be protected from fast blowing wind, rain and
extreme heat of sun. Hence the should preferable covered by a roof
of suitable material.
j) Similar stacks may be constructed. The minimum distance between
adjacent stacks should be at least 600 mm.
 Advantages of Natural
Seasoning
Depending upon the climatic conditions, the
moisture content of wood can be brought down to
about 10 to 20 %
It does not require skilled supervision
It is uneconomical to provide artificial seasoning to
timber sections thicker than 100mm, as such
sections dry very slowly. Hence, such thicker timber
sections are usually seasoned by the process of air
seasoning.
This method of seasoning timber is cheap and
simple.
 Disadvantages of natural
seasoning
As the process depends on the natural air, it sometimes becomes
difficult to control it.
The drying of different surfaces may not be even and uniform.
If ends of thick sections of timber are not protected by suitable
moisture proof coating, there are chances for end splitting because
the ends of such timbers dry rapidly in comparison to the central
portions.
The moisture content of wood may not be brought down to the
desired level.
The space required for this process will be more as timber will
have to stacked or stored for a sufficiently long time.
The process of seasoning is very slow and it usually take about 2 to
4 years to make timber fit for the work of carpenter
Reasons for adopting artificial
seasoning to the natural seasoning
1. The defects such as shrinkage, cracking and warping are
minimized
2. The drying is controlled and there are practically no
chances for the attack of fungi and insects.
3. The drying of different surfaces is even and uniform
4. It considerably reduces the period of seasoning.
5. There is better control of circulation of air, humidity and
temperature.
6. The wood becomes more suitable for painting, gluing etc.,
7. The wood with desired moisture content may be obtained by
the artificial seasoning.
Artificial seasoning:
1. Water seasoning:
The logs of wood are kept completely immersed in
running stream of water, with their larger ends pointing
upstream.
Consequently the sap, sugar and gum are leached out
and are replaced by water.
The logs are then kept out in air to dry.
It is a quick process but the elastic properties and
strength of the wood are reduced.
The time required for this type of seasoning is 2 to 4
weeks.
 2. Boiling
In this method of artificial seasoning, the timber is
immersed in water and water is then boiled.
This is a very quick method.
The timber is thus boiled with water for about three to
four hours.
It is then dried very slowly under a shed.
The periods of seasoning and shrinkage are reduced by
this method, but it affects the elasticity and strength of
wood.
In place of boiling water, the timber may be exposed to
the action of hot steam.
This method of seasoning proves to be costly.
3. Kiln seasoning:
 It is adopted for rapid seasoning of timber on large
scale to any moisture content.

 The scantlings are arranged for free circulation of

heated air with some moisture or super heated steam.

 The circulating air takes up moisture required from

wood and seasons it.

 Two types of kilns, the progressive and the

compartment are in use.
 For most successful kiln-seasoning the timber
should be brought to as high a temperature as it
will stand without injury before drying is begun;
otherwise the moisture in the hot outer fibres of the
wood will tend to flow towards the cooler interior.

 With kiln drying there is a little loss of strength of

timber, usually less than 10%.

 The time required for this seasoning is 3 to 12 days.

This is quick process.

 Also the wood is more thoroughly and evenly dried,

thus reducing the hygroscopicity of the wood.
Kiln Seasoning:
4. Chemical Seasoning: - Salt Seasoning

• An aqueous solution of certain chemicals have lower

vapour pressure than that of pure water.
• If the outer layers of timber are treated with such
chemicals, the vapour pressure will reduce and a
vapour pressure gradient is set up.
• The interior of timber containing no salts, retains its
original vapour pressure and therefore, tends to dry as
rapidly as if there had been no treatment.
• The results is to flatten the moisture gradient curves,
to reduce the slope of the curves, and the consequently
to reduce the internal stresses induced during drying.
• Since it is these stresses which are responsible for
defects such as checks, etc. a chemically treated
timber will exhibit fewer defects.
• Common salt or urea are generally used. The latter
is preferred as the corrosive action of common salt
is a drawback.
• In chemical seasoning, carbon dioxide, ammonium
carbonate or urea are used as agents for seasoning,
those are applied in dry state, the inter surface of
timber dries first than outer side. This ensures
uniform seasoning.
• The time required for this seasoning is 30 to 40
days.
5. Electric Seasoning:

• In this method electric current is passed through the

timber logs.
• The logs are placed in such a way that their ends touch
the electrodes. Electric current is passed through the
setup, being a bad conductor, wood resists the flow of
current generating heat in the process which results in
its drying.
• The drawback is that the wood may split.
• The time required for this seasoning is 05 to 08 hours.
Comparison between natural and
kiln seasoning
No Item Natural seasoning Kiln seasoning
1 Moisture It is difficult to reduce The moisture content can
content the moisture content be reduced to any desired
below 15 to 18% level.
2 Nature It is simple and It is expensive and quite
economical technical
3 Quality The air seasoned The kiln seasoned timber is
of timber timber is more liable to less liable to the attacks of
the attacks of insects insects and fungi
and fungi
4 Space It requires more space It requires less space for
for stacking stacking
5 Speed It is a slow process It is a quick process
6 Strength It gives stronger It gives a little weaker
timber timber
Defects in timber
1. Defects due to 2. Defects due to
conversion fungi
a. Chip mark a. Blue stain
b. Diagonal grain b. Brown rot
c. Torn grain c. Dry rot
d. Wane d. Heart rot
e. Sap strain
f. Wet rot
g. White rot
3. Defects due to 4. Defects due to
insects natural forces
a. Burls
a. Beetles b. Callus
b. Marine borers c. Chemical stain
c. Termites d. Coarse grain
e. Dead wood
f. Druxiness
g. Foxiness
h. Knots
i. Ring galls
j. Shakes
k. Twisted fibres
l. Upsets
m. Water stain
n. Wind cracks
5. Defects due to seasoning
a. Bow
b. Case-hardening
c. Check
d. Collapse
e. Cup
f. Honey-combing
g. Radial shakes
h. Split
i. Twist
j. Warp
 Defects due to conversion
1. Chip mark – This defect is indicated by the marks
or sign placed by chips on the finished surface of
timber. They may also be formed by the parts of a
planing machine.
2. Diagonal grain – This defect is formed due to
improper sawing of timber. It is indicated by
diagonal mark on straight grained surface of timber.
3. Torn grain – This defect is caused when a small
depression is formed on the finished surface of
timber by falling of a tool or so.
4. Wane – This defect is denoted by the presence of
original rounded surface on the manufactured piece
of timber.
Defects due to fungi
The fungi are minute microscopic plant organism. They
attack timber only when the following two conditions
are satisfied simultaneously.
1. The moisture content of timber is above 20 per cent.
2. There is presence of air and warmth for the growth
of fungi.
If any of the above condition is absent, the decay of
wood due to fungi would not occur. Hence the dry wood
having moisture content less than 20% will remain
sound for centuries. Similarly the wood submerged in
water will not be attacked by fungi because of absence
of air.
1. Blue stain – The sap of wood is stained to bluish
colour by the action of certain type of fungi.

2. Brown rot – The term rot is used to indicate decay

or disease of timber. The fungi of certain types
remove cellulose compounds from wood and hence
the wood assumes the brown colour. This is known as
brown rot.

3. Dry rot – The fungi of certain type feed on wood and

during feeding, they attack on wood and convert it
into dry powder form. This is known as dry rot.
4. Heart rot - This is formed when a branch has come
out of a tree. In such a case, the heart wood is exposed
to the attack of atmospheric agents. Ultimately the tree
becomes weak and it gives out a hollow sound when
struck with a hammer.

5. Sap stain – The fungi of certain types do not bring

about the complex decay of timber. But they feed on
cell contents of sap wood. In doing so, the sap wood
loses its colour. This is known as the sap stain and is
generally occurs when moisture content goes beyond
25 percent or so.
6. Wet rot – Some varieties of fungi cause chemical
decomposition of wood of timber and in doing so,
they convert timber into greyish brown powder.
This is known as wet rot.

7. White rot – This defect is just the opposite of

brown rot. In this case, certain types of fungi attack
lignin of wood and the wood assumes the
appearance of a white mass consisting of cellulose
compounds.
 Defects due to insects:
1. Beetles
These are small insects and they cause rapid decay of
timber.
They form pin-holes of size about 2 mm diameter in
wood.
They attack sap wood of hard woods.
The tunnels are formed in all directions in sap wood by
the larvae of these beetles.
The timber is converted into fine flour like powder.
They usually do not disturb the outer shell or cover.
Hence, the timber piece attacked by beetles may look
sound till it completely fails.
 Marine borers
These are generally found in the salty water.
The most of the varieties of marine borers do not feed
on wood. But they make holes or bore tunnels in wood
for taking shelter.
The diameter and length of these holes may go as
high as 25mm and 60mm respectively.
The wood attacked by marine borers loses colour and
strength.
It may be noted that no timber is completely immune
from the attack of marine borers.
 Termites
These are popularly known as the white ants and they are
found in abundance in tropical and sub-tropical countries.
These insects live in a colony and they are very fast in
eating away the wood from the core of the cross-section.
They make tunnel inside the timber in different directions
and usually do not disturb the outer shell or cover.
Hence, the timber piece attacked by termites may look
sound till it completely fails.
Very few good timbers such as teak, sal, etc, can resist the
attack of white ants. Such timbers have certain chemicals
in their composition and the smell of these chemicals is not
favourable for the termites.
Defects due to natural forces
1. Burls 8. Knots
2. Callus 9. Rind galls
3. Chemical stain 10.Shakes
4. Coarse grain 11.Twisted fibres
5. Dead wood 12.Upsets
6. Druxiness 13.Water stains
7. Foxiness 14.Wind cracks
 Burls :
They are particularly formed
when a tree receives shock or
injury in its young age.
Due to its injury, the growth
of tree is completely upset and
irregular projections appear on
the body of timber.
These are also known as
excrescences.
Callus :
It indicates soft tissue or skin
which covers the wound of a tree
 Chemical stain :
The wood is sometimes
discolored by the chemical
action caused by some
external agency.
Coarse grain :
If the tree grows rapidly, the annual rings are
widened.
 It is known as the coarsed grain timber such timber
possesses less strength
 Dead wood:
The timber which is
obtained from dead
standing trees contains
deadwood.

It is indicated by light
weight and reddish
colour.
Druxiness:
This defect is indicated by
white decayed spots which
are concealed by healthy
wood they are probably
formed by access of fungi.
 Foxiness:
This defect is indicated by
red or yellow tinge in wood
or reddish brown stains or
spots round the pith of tree
discoloring the timber
It is caused either due to
poor ventilation during
storage or by timber .
 Knots :
These are the bases of branches or
limbs which are broken or cut off from
the tree.
The portion from which the branch is
removed receives nourishment from
the stem for a pretty long time .
And it ultimately results in
formation of dark hard rings which
are known as knots.
As continuity of wood fibers are
broken by knots, they form a source of
weakness.
CLASSIFICATION OF KNOTS BASED ON
SIZES :

PIN KNOT diameter up to 6.50mm

SMALL KNOT diameter up to 6.5 and 20mm
MEDIUM KNOT diameter between 20 and 40mm
LARGE KNOT diameter greater than 40mm
Classification of knots on basis of form
and quality
DEAD KNOT:-Knot which is separated from body of wood. It is not safe
to use wood with such a knot for engineering purposes.
DECAYED KNOT:-Popularly known as unsound knot and form by
action of fungi on wood.
LIVE KNOT:-it is thoroughly fixed in wood and cannot separated out
from body of Wood. It is free from cracks and decay. Wood containing
this knot can be used for engineering purposes.
LOOSE KNOT:-It is preliminary stage of dead knot.
ROUND KNOT:-The cross-section of this type of knot is either round or
oval
TIGHT KNOT:-It is preliminary stage of live knot. The fibers of knot
are firmly held in surrounding wood.
 Rind galls :
The rind means bark and gall
indicates abnormal growth.
Hence peculiar curved swelling found
on the body of tree are known as rind
gall.
They develop at points from where
branches are improperly cut off or
removed.
They are rarely found in a tree and
the timber in this part is very weak
and not durable.
Shakes :
Cup shakes
Ring shakes
Heart shakes
Star shakes
Radial shakes
Twisted fibres:
These are known as wandering hearts
and caused by twisting of young trees
by fast blowing wind.
The timbers with twisted fibres is
unsuitable for sawing

Upsets:-
These indicate wood fibres which are
injured by crushing or compression.
The upsets are mainly due to improper
felling of tree and exposure of tree in
its young age to fast blowing wind
Water stain :
The wood is sometimes dis-
coloured when it comes into
contact with water .
This defect is usually found in
converted timber

Wind cracks :
If wind is exposed to atmospheric
agencies, its exterior surface
shrinks. Such shrinkage result
into cracks.
Defects due to seasoning
Bow – This defect is indicated by the curvature formed
in the direction of length of the timber
Case-hardening – The exposed surface of timber dries
very rapidly. It therefore shrinks and is under
compression. The interior surface which has not
completely dried is under tension. This defect is known
as case-hardening and it usually occurs in timbers which
are placed at the bottom during seasoning.
Check – A check is a crack which separates fibres of
wood. It does not extend from one end to the other.
Collapse –Due to uneven shrinkage, the wood
sometimes flattens during drying. This is known as
collapse.
Cup- This defect is indicated by the curvature formed in
the transverse direction of timber.
Honey combing - Due to stresses developed during
drying, the various radial and circular cracks develop in
the interior portion of timber. The timber thus assumes
the honey comb texture and the defects as developed is
known as the honey-combing.
Radial shakes
Split – when a crack extends from one end to the other,
it is known as split.
Twist – when a piece of timber has spirally distorted
along its length, it is known as a twist.
Warp – when a piece of timber has twisted out of shape,
it is said to have warped.
Classification of timber (IS 399)
On the basis of its position
Standing timber – living tree
Rough timber - forms a part of the felled tree
Converted timber or Lumber - logs of timber
sawn into planks, posts, etc.,
On the basis of grading
Structural or stress grading
Commercial or utility grading
Grade A
Grade B
Grade C
Grade D
On the basis of Modulus of Elasticity
Group A – below 12.5 kN/mm2
Group B –above 9.8kN/mm2 & below 12.5
kN/mm2
Group C – above 5.6 kN/mm2 & below 9.8
kN/mm2
On the basis of availability
X – Most common, 1415m3 or more per year
Y – common, 355m3 to 1415m3 per year
Z – Less common, below 355m3 per year
On the basis of durability
High durability – average life of 120
months and over
Moderate durability – average life of less
than 120 months but of 60 months or more.
Low durability – average life of less than
60 months.
On the basis of seasoning characteristics
Timbers are classified depending upon their
behaviour to cracking and splitting during
normal air-seasoning practice under three
categories.

Highly refractory (class A) are slow and difficult

to season-free from defects.
Moderately refractory (class B) may be seasoned
free from surface defects, if some protection is
given against rapid drying.
Non-refractory(class C) can be rapidly seasoned
free from defects.
On the basis of treatability

This classification is based upon the resistance

offered by the heartwood of a species to
preservatives under a working pressure of 1.05
N/mm2 as
 Easily treatable
 Treatable but complete preservation not easily
obtained.
 Only partially treatable
 Refractory to treatment
 Very refractory to treatment, penetration of
preservative being practically nil from the sides and
ends.
Preservation of timber
Objects of Preservation of
Timber
1. To increase the life of timber structures
2. To make the timber structure durable
3. To protect the timber structures from the attack
of destroying agencies such as fungi, insects, etc.,
Requirements of a good
preservative
1. It should allow decorative treatment on timber after
being applied over timber surface.
2. It should be capable of covering a large area with small
quantity.
3. It should be cheap and easily available.
4. It should be durable and should not be affected by light,
heat, etc.,
5. It should be free from unpleasant smell.
6. It should be non-inflammable.
7. It should be quite efficient in killing fungi, insects, etc.,
8. It should be safe and harmless for persons and animals
9. It should give pleasant appearance to the timber after
being applied over it
10.It should not affect the strength characteristics of timber
11.It should not be easily washed away by water.
12.It should not corrode the metals with which it comes into
contact
13.It should offer high resistance to the moisture and
dampness.
14.Its penetration power into wood fibres should be high. It
is necessary for the preservative to be effective to
penetrate at least for a depth of 6mm to 25 mm.
Preservation of Timber
It means protecting from fungi and insects attack so that
its life is increased. The following are the widely used:

1. Coal Tar

2. Oil Paints

3. Chemical salts

4. Creosote Oil

5. ASCU treatment

6. Solignum Paints
1. Tar Treatment:
• Hot coal tar is applied to timber with brush.
• The coal tar becomes workable when heated. This
process is called as tarring.
• The coating of tar protects the timber from the attack
of fungi and insects.
• It is a cheapest way of protecting timber.
• It is adopted for frames of doors and windows, rough
timber work etc. And it is found to be most useful for
parts embedded in ground because of its cheapness
and effective resistance.
• The coal tar is fire resistant.

Disadvantages
• Tar has unpleasant smell and appearance.
2. Paints Treatment:

• Two to three coats of oil paints are applied on clean

surface of wood. The paint protects the timber from
moisture.

• The paint is to be applied from time to time.

• Paint improves the appearance of the timber.

• Solignum paint is a special paint which protects the

timber.
3. Chemical salt Treatment:
• These are the water-borne preservatives made by
dissolving salts in water.
• The salts used are copper sulphate, mercury
chloride, zinc chloride and sodium fluoride.
• The solutions are prepared from these salts and they are
applied on the timber surface.
• These preservatives are odorless and non-inflammable.
The treated surface can be painted or varnished after
drying.
• These preservative have good penetration and the
timber treated with these preservative show an
immediate increase in weight of 2400 to 4800 N per m3.
• After drying, the net increase in weight will come down
to about 50 to 300 N per m3.
4. Creosote oil treatment:

• In this case, the timber surface is coated with creosote oil.

The process is known as creosoting or Bethel’s method of
preservation of timber.

• Creosote oil is obtained by distillation of coal tar.

• The seasoned timber is kept in an air tight chamber and

air is exhausted.

• Then creosote oil is pumped into the chamber at a

pressure of 0.7 to 1.0 N/mm2 at a temperature of 50°C.

• After 1 to 2 hours timber is taken out of the chamber.

• The creosote oil is one of the best antiseptic i.e.,
substance poisonous for wood-attacking fungi.

• It is a black or brown liquid, weakly affected by

water, neither volatile nor hygroscopic, harmless to
wood or metal, inflammable, with an unpleasant
odour and having low wood-penetrating ability to
the extent of 1 mm to 2 mm only.

• The creosoting practically double the life of timber

and it is generally adopted for piles, poles, railway
sleepers etc.,
• Depending upon the net retention and type of
timber, the creosote treated timber will normally
increase in weight by 800 to 3200 N per m3.

• The creosote oil is highly toxic in nature and gives

out highly unpleasant smell.

• The process of creosoting proves to be costly.

• The creosote oil should be used for interior surfaces

of dwelling houses, food stuff-storage premises, in
underground installations.
5. ASCO Treatment:

• This preservative is developed by the Forest Research

Institute, Dehradun.
• It consists of 1 part by weight of hydrated arsenic
pent-oxide (As2O5, 2 H2O), 3 parts by weight of
copper sulphate(CuSO4⋅5 H2O) and 4 parts by weight
of potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) or sodium
dichromate (Na2Cr2O7⋅2 H2O).
• This preservative is available in powder form.
• By mixing six parts of this powder with 100 parts of
water, the solution is prepared.
• The solution is then sprayed over the surface of timber.
This treatment prevents attack from termites. This
solution is odourless.
• The surface may be painted to get desired appearance.
 Method of Preservation of Timber

Brushing: Preservatives are applied to timber surface

using brushes. This is the simplest method and adopted for
seasoned timber. Several coating may be given for better
protection.

Charring: The surface to be charred is kept wet for about

half an hour and is burnt over wood fire for a depth of
15mm. The charred portion is cooled with water.

Spraying: Preservatives sprayed with pressure over timber

surface. It is superior to brushing and is quite effective.
Brushing Spraying

Charring
Dipping & Steeping: Timber is dipped in preservatives
for short duration. Better penetration than spraying&
brushing. Steeping done for a few hours to days or weeks.

Injecting under pressure: In this method preservatives

are injected to timber under pressure. Effective method of
preservation.

Hot and Cold open tank treatment: Timber is

submerged in a tank with preservative solution heated to
850 C & 950 C for few hours. then allowed to cool the tank,
while the timber is submerged in the tank.
Dipping and steeping

Hot and cold open tank treatment

 Market Forms of Timber
Log – It is the trunk of tree obtained after removal of
branches.
Batten – breadth and thickness do not exceed 50 mm.
Plank – It is the timber piece with parallel sides. Its
thickness is less than 50mm and its width exceeds
50mm.
Baulk- It is a roughly squared piece and it is obtained
by removing bark and sap wood. One of the cross-
sectional dimension exceeds 50mm, while the other
exceeds 200mm
Board – it is a plank i.e., a timber piece with parallel sides.
Its thickness is less than 50mm and width exceeds 150mm.
Deal – It is a piece of soft wood with parallel sides. Its
thickness varies from 50 to 100mm and its width does not
exceed 230mm.
End – This is a short piece of batten, deal, scantling, etc.,
Pole – It is a sound long log of wood. Its diameter does not
exceed 200mm. It is also known as a spar.
Quartering – It is a square piece of timber, the length of
side being 50mm to 150mm.
Scantling – This is a timber piece whose breadth and
thickness exceed 50mm, but are less than 200mm in length.
These are the pieces of miscellaneous sizes of timber sawn out
of log.
Industrial timber
1. Veneers
2. Plywoods
3. Fibreboards
4. Impreg timbers
5. Compreg timbers
6. Block board and lamin board
7. Glulam
8. Flush door shutters
9. Particle board or chip board.
10. Hardboard
 Veneer
Thin slice or sheet of wood of superior quality.
Glued onto core panels typically wood
Thickness varies from 0.4mm to 6mm.
They are obtained by rotating a log of wood against a
sharp knife of rotary cutter or saw.
Types:
◦ Natural
◦ Dyed
◦ Recon / Artificial
A Veneer sheet
i. The edges of veneers are joined and sheets of decorative
designs are prepared.
ii. The Indian timbers which are suitable for veneers are
mahogany, oak, rosewood, sissoo, teak, etc.,
iii. The process of preparing a sheet of veneers is known as
the veneering.
iv. The veneers may be used to produce plywoods, batten
boards and lamin boards.
v. The veneers may be fixed on corners or bent portions. It
creates an impression that the whole piece is made of
expensive timber.
vi. The veneers may be glued with suitable adhesives on
the surface of inferior wood. The appearance of inferior
wood is then considerable improved.
Types of veneers
1. Raw veneer
2. Paper backed veneer
3. Phenolic backed veneer
4. Laid up veneer
5. Reconstituted veneer
6. Wood on wood
 Plywood
Ply means thin. Plywood is a board obtained by adding
thin layers of wood or veneers on one above each other.
The joining of successive layers is done by suitable
adhesives.
The layers are glued and pressed with some pressure
either in hot or cold condition.
In hot conditions 150 to 200oC temperature is marinated
and hydraulic press is used to press the layers.
In cold conditions, room temperature is maintained and
0.7 to 1.4 N/mm2 pressure is applied.
 The plywoods are used for various purposes such
as ceilings, doors, furniture, partitions, panelling
walls, packing cases, railway coaches, formwork for
concrete.
 Plywoods are not suitable in situations subjected to
direct shocks or impacts.
 Thickness varies from 2.5mm, 4mm, 6mm to
19mm, 25mm
 The plywoods are available in different commercial
forms such as battenboard, laminboard, metal
faced plywood, multiply, three-ply,veneered
plywood.
 The batten board is solid block with core of sawn thin
wood. The thickness of core is about 20mm to 25mm
and total thickness of board is about 50mm. The
direction of the grains of core battens is at right angles
to that of the adjacent outer plysheets. These boards are
light and strong. They do not crack or split easily. They
are widely used for making partition walls packing
cases, furniture pieces, ceilings, shutters of doors and
windows, etc.,
 The laminboard is similar to the batten board except
that the core is made of multiply veneers.
 The thickness of each veneer does not exceed 6mm and
total thickness of board is about 50mm. The external
piles are of thick veneers and they are firmly glued with
core to form a solid block. The grains of core veneers are
at right agles to those of outer plies. These boards have
the same uses as those of batten boards.
GRADES OF PLYWOOD
According to CPWD specifications, plywood for general
purposes are of following 3 grades:
1. Boiling water proof (BWR)
2. Warm water proof (WWR)
3. Cold water proof (CWR)
 Advantages of plywood
i. As plies are placed at right angles to each other, the
expansion and shrinkage are comparatively very low.
ii. They are available in a variety of decorative appearance.
iii. They are available in large sizes. The commercial sizes
have widths upto 1.5m and length upto 3m.
iv. They are elastic and hence they are not liable to split or
crack due to changes in atmosphere.
v. They are light in weight.
vi. They are not easily affected by moisture.
vii. They are stronger than solid boards. For instance, a
three-ply board is nearly three times stronger than
the solid board of the same thickness.
viii.They are very easy to work and they can be made to
suit any design.
ix. They do not split in an axial direction.
x. They do not split when nailed near edges because of
their cross grained nature.
xi. They make use of rare and valuable timber in a
quite economical way.
xii. They possess uniform tensile strength in all
directions
Fiber Board
Known as pressed wood or reconstructed wood
Types:
Low Density Fiber Board (LDF)

Medium Density Fiber Board (MDF)

High Density Fiber Board (HDF)

Fiber boards are made of wood fibers, vegetable fibers
etc. They are rigid boards and called as reconstructed
wood.
The thickness varies from 3mm to 12 mm.
They are available in lengths varying in 3m to 4.5 and
widths varying from 1.2mm to 1.8mm.
The weight of fibreboards depends on the pressure
applied during manufacture.
The maximum and minimum limits of weight are 9600
N/m3 and 500 to 600 N/m3
Fiber boards are used for several purposes in
construction industry such as for wall paneling, ceilings,
partitions, flush doors, flooring material etc. They are
also used as sound insulating material.
 Procedure adopted in the
manufacture of fiberwood
i. The pieces of wood, cane or other vegetable fibres and
chippings are collected and they are heated and boiled in a
hot water boiler.
ii. The wood fibers separated by heat are put in a vessel.
iii. The steam under pressure is admitted in the vessel.
iv. The pressure of steam is then suddenly increased to 7
N/mm2. This increased pressure is maintained for few
seconds only.
v. The valve located at the bottom of vessel is opened and the
steam is allowed to expand.
vi. The sudden release of pressure makes the wood
fibres to explode and in doing so, the natural
adhesive contained in the wood fibres is separated
out.
vii. The wood fibres are then allowed to flow out.
viii.These fibres are cleaned of all superfluous or extra
gums.
ix. Such cleaned fibres are spread on wire screens in
the form of loose sheets or blankets of required
thickness.
x. Such loose sheets of wood fibres are prepared
between steel plates and ultimately, the fibreboards
are obtained.
Uses of fibre wood
For internal finish of rooms such as wall panelling,
suspended ceilings, etc.,
To construct formwork for cement concrete i.e. to
retain cement concrete in position when it is wet
To construct partitions
To prepare flush doors, tops of tables, etc.,
To provide an insulating material of heat and sound.
To work as paving or flooring material.
 Impreg Timbers
Impreg timber is a timber covered fully or partly
with resin.
Thin layers of wood or veneers are taken and
dipped in resin solution. Generally used resin is
phenol formaldehyde.
The resin solution fills up the voids in the wood
and consolidated mass occurs. Then it is heated
at 150 to 160oC and finally impreg timber
develops.
This is available in market with different names
such as sungloss, sunmica, Formica etc.
•Impreg timber has good resistance against
moisture, weathering, acids and electricity.

•It is strong, durable and provides beautiful

appearance.

•It is used form making wood molds,

furniture, decorative products etc.
 Advantages of impreg timbers
1. It is not affected by moisture and weather
conditions
2. It is strong and durable.
3. It possesses more electrical insulation
4. It presents a decent appearance
5. It resists the acidic effects
6. The contraction and expansion of impreg
timbers are about 25 to 40 percent less than
ordinary timber.
Compreg Timbers
It is similar to impreg timber but in this
case, the timber is cured under pressure
conditions.
So, it is more strengthened than impreg
timber. Its specific gravity lies from 1.30 to
1.35.
Block Board
Block board is a board containing core made of wood
strips. The wood strips are generally obtained from
the leftovers from solid timber conversion etc. These
strips are glued and made into solid form.
Veneers are used as faces to cover this solid core.
The width of core should not exceed 25mm. If the
width of core is less than 7mm then it is called as
lamin board.
Block boards are generally used for partitions,
paneling, marine and river crafts, railway carriages
etc
ADVANTAGES
◦ Lighter in weight (use of
softwood)
◦ Good dimensional stability
◦ Lesser tendency to sag or
bend
◦ Costs Less
◦ Better than Particle Board
and even MDF

DISADVANTAGES
◦ Not as strong as plywood or
good quality solid wood
◦ The nails may sometimes
enter the gaps
Laminates
Manufacturing process:
◦ made of brown base paper and
decorative paper
◦ use of resins make the paper hard and
brittle
◦ the two papers are hard pressed
together
Types of laminates:
◦ HPL : High pressure laminates
◦ commonly fixed by carpenters over plywood
while making the furniture
◦ LPL : Low pressure laminates
◦ directly bonded to Particle Boards or Fiber
Boards
Types based on
thickness
◦ Regular laminate sheets
◦ Thickness ranges from 0.6-1.5mm
◦ Glued using fevicol or other
adhesives
◦ Compact Laminates
◦ Thickness ranging from 3 mm to 30
mm
◦ These are self-supporting and hence
do not need to be glued

Types based on usage

◦ Decorative use
◦ Importance is given to Look and feel
◦ Industrial use
◦ Importance is given to high strength
, durability, and resistance to
scratches ,wear and tear
Glulam
Glulam means glued and laminated wood. Solid
wood veneers are glued to form sheets and then
laminated with suitable resins.
This type of sheet is very much suitable in the
construction of chemical factories, long span roofs in
sports stadium, indoor swimming pools etc. Curved
wood structures can also be constructed using
glulam sheets.
 Particle Boards
Make
◦ made from very small particles
of wood (sawdust and small
wood flakes)
◦ wood particles are mixed with
glue (Urea
formaldehyde resin).
◦ mixture is firmly pressed
together using a hot-press
machine
Uses
◦ Used to make ready-made
furniture, kitchen cabinets,
false ceiling, wall panels, and
partitions
Classification:
◦ OSL: One sided lamination.
◦ Only one side of the (the top surface or show surface)
is laminated,
◦ BSL: Both sided lamination.
◦ Both the top and bottom surfaces are laminated .
◦ BSL is costlier than OSL.
Properties
◦ Age usually not more than 5yrs
◦ Very sensitive to water and even moisture
◦ Very light weight
◦ Eco-friendly as it is made up to waste wood particles
◦ The Indian Standards quality specification: IS:3087
and IS:12823
Flush Door Shutters
Flush door shutters made in factories are widely
using nowadays.
They are generally available with 25mm, 30mm or
35mm thicknesses.
Factory made flush board shutters are of different
types such as cellular core, hollow core, block board
core etc
 Hard Boards
Hard board is usually 3 mm thick and made from
wood pulp. Wood pulp is compressed with some
pressure and made into solid boards. The top surface
of board is smooth and hard while the bottom
surface is rough.
Hard boards are generally classified as three types
as follows:
Types Density (kg/m3) Available thickness (mm)

Medium 480 – 800 6,8,10,12

Normal 800-1200 3.4.5.6.9.12

Tempered >1200 3,4,5,6,9,12

USES OF TIMEBR:
Timber is used in:
1. Building construction,
2. Construction of house posts,
3. Construction of beams,
4. Construction of rafters,
5. Construction of bridges,
6. Construction of piles, poles and railway sleepers,
7. For furniture making.
8. For light packing cases,
9. For high packing cases (for machinery and similar
stores),
10. For manufacturing of agricultural implements,
11. For making toys, etc,
12. For manufacturing of veneers and ply woods.